LIBRARY OF CONGRESS.
§ipt^, drqningl^i !fjj,
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
M:A.]SrUA.L
OF
OBJECT-TEAOHINa
WITH
ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS IN METHODS
AND
THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION
i .BY
W. A. CALKINS
AUTHOR OP "primary OBJECT LESSONS" " PHONIC CHARTS*'
AND "school and FAMILY CHARTS"
/-'^
"f/ie art of teaching is no shallow affair, hut one of the deepest mysteries of Nature "
C0MEMU3
(( DEC g,f-^M
NEW Y0RK^^S^4ir'"'''^
HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE
18 8 2 , / i> ...
'J>-
,9>t%
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1881, by
HARPER & BROTHERS,
la the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.
All rights reserved.
TO
TUE TEACHERS OF NEW YORK CITY,
WHOSE INTEREST IN METHODS AND PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION — MANIFESTED BY
THEIR ATTENDANCE AT MY SATURDAY LECTURES DURING SUCCESSIVE
YEARS, BY THEIR USE OF INSTRUCTION GIVEN, AND BY THEIR
■WORDS OF APPRECIATIVE COMMENDATION — FURNISHED
MUCH ENCOURAGEMENT FOR EFFORTS IN THEIR
BEHALF, AND IN BEHALF OF THE BETTER
EDUCATION OF CHILDREN,
THIS NEW VOLUME OX TEACHERS' WORK IS
tiespectfuUn PcIiicatcD.
PREFACE.
Knowestg that wliich is needful to be learned is a great
attainment. Knowing what should be taught, and how to
teach it, is a high art. To secure this necessary attain-
ment is the first duty of every teacher. To master the
high art is like unto the first duty in its imjDortance ; it
enhances the value of the attainment in knowledge, and
insures success in the great work of education.
It is strangely curious that the doing of the same thing
may be both easy and difficult — easy when done in the
right way, difficult when done in the wrong way. Suc-
cess attends tlie doing in the right way ; failure is cer-
tain to follow the doing in the wrong way. This is em-
inently true of teaching. Therefore, to determine what
is the proper way becomes a question of great moment
to every earnest teacher ; for on the correctness of this
decision depends the results of the teaching and the
welfare of the pupils.
A person may compare the results of one period of
his work with those of another period, and thus note
his own growth and progress in that work ; but no per-
son can measure himself by himself, alone, and thus de-
termine his actual ability. No teacher can measure his
own work by itself, and thus determine its true quality.
To obtain accurate results of any kind of work, and ar-
6 PREFACE.
rive at just conclusions as to its cliaracter, comparisons
must be made under many conditions, and extended to
a multitude of cases. So the teacher must compare his
own methods of teaching with those that have been prov-
en to be good by a long series of practical experiments —
made under a great variety of conditions, and tested by
the principles of education — before he can know with
certainty that he has a standard of high value to guide
him in the work of instruction.
Those teachers whose methods agree with the princi-
ples of education, and are confirmed by intelligent ex-
perience, stand upon a plane far above that occupied by
the untrained and unskilled school-keeper, or that of one
who remains an undecided experimenter in this impor-
tant field ; and the intelligent work, approved by such
reliable authority, becomes certain in the character of its
results, and positive in its value.
To know how to teach, so as to secure the best results
of education, is the most common need in teachers. One
of the chief purposes of this work is to furnish teachers
with available means whereby they may ascertain what
is the nature of the being to be taught, the true character
of the work to be done in teaching, and how the impor-
tant results aimed at may be attained with a good degree
of certainty under all ordinary circumstances. Toward
the accomplishment of this object, a variety of methods
are described for teaching many subjects, thus endeavor-
ing to point out those fitted for the differing conditions
of the largest number of teachers.
There are many subjects concerning which teachers
must seek information almost daily — infonnation which
they cannot be expected to have always at their tongue's
end, as they do the multiplication table. To have the
PREFACE. 7
means necessary for obtaining this, easily accessible at
all times, is a great boon to the teacher. To supply this
means, in part, and to point out other sources where the
desired information may be found, are among the pur-
poses of this work. Toward the accomplishment of this,
facts upon several appropriate subjects have been gath-
ered and arranged for the special convenience of teach-
ers, thus saving much time that otherwise might be spent
on encyclopasdias, and other works of reference, even by
those who have access to such books. It is not claimed
that these collections of facts, concerning different sub-
jects, are complete in relation to each topic, yet it is be-
lieved that teachers will find them specially useful in
their work.
Permanent and uniform success in teaching must come
through the use of those methods which are in accordance
with the principles of education ; therefore an intelligent
understanding of those principles is necessary to the
securing of desired results. From these statements the
importance of attention to the science of education — of
knowing what are the several powers of the mind, and
the means for their development and proper cultivation
— become readily apparent. By a careful study of this
department of education, teachers may ascertain M'hether.
or not the means which they are using will accomplish
the end in view in the acquisition of knowledge, and the
proper training of mental power. Indeed, it is the duty
of every teacher to hioio how to do his work, and also to
know why he does it in one way rather than in another.
An important purpose of this volume is to aid the teach-
er in learning the how and the lohy, in teaching, and thus
help him onward in the better work of instruction, while
it awakens, at the same time, a deeper interest in the
8 PREFACE.
philosophy of education, and leads to a more thorough
understanding of the important Avork to be accomplished.
The introduction of a series of questions for use in the
examination of teachers on matters pertaining to object-
teaching, to school management, to methods, and to gen-
eral principles of education, is believed to be an impor-
tant feature of this work ; and one that will lead teachers,
who carefully consider them, to a more intelligent under-
standing of the chief purposes of instruction, and enable
them to accomplish better results in the training of those
under their care.
It has not been one of the purposes here to present
all the topics necessary to a complete course of instruc-
tion, even for a primary school; but rather, by means of
methods illustrated with several objects, and by the prin-
ciples of education, to set forth the chief results that
should be secured through teaching; and to point out
means within the reach of every teacher by which these
desirable ends may be attained ; and also to prepare them
to devise and use equally good methods in teaching ev-
ery subject.
It is one of the purposes in this book to increase the
value of the work of instruction, and at the same time to
lessen the amount of the teacher's labor, by showing how
to train pupils to teach themselves. All real teaching is
self -teaching. It is also an aim to render the work of
learning more attractive to the pupils, and practical in
its results, by the use of modes in harmony with natural
methods of getting knowledge, thereby saving time, and
making the work both of the learner and the teacher
more easy of accomplishment.
Twenty years ago my work entitled "Primary Object
Lessons" was published. The facts that it has now reach-
PREFACE. y
ed its fortieth edition, and also been republished in Span-
ish, thereby enabling those engaged in the work of edu-
cation in both divisions of the Western hemisphere to
become familiar with its plans of instruction, are indica-
tions that the methods for elementary training which it
sets forth have been favorably received and widely intro-
duced.
The new volume now presented to the public embraces
the same general plan of instruction as did the former
one ; and it also extends over a broader field, including
subjects for more advanced teaching, and introduces a
greater variety of available means for developing the
powers of pupils. This volume is further intended to
supplement my first work on Object Lessons, thus pre-
senting the subject in greater completeness by means of
both books. It also specially aims to lead teachers to
consider the principles of education by which true teach-
ing is guided to valuable results.
It is earnestly hoped that this volume on the teacher's
work will be found valuable for the variety of infor-
mation whicli it supplies for the use of teachers — for
the instruction it gives relative to methods of teaching,
and the development of the mental, moral, and physical
powers of pupils — for its statements pertaining to the
science of education and the art of teaching ; also that
it may become an inspiration, unfolding to teachers a
more thorough knowledge of their noble calling, and im-
buing them with an enthusiasm that shall enkindle an
ardent love of learning in all their pupils.
N. A. Calkins.
New York, Aitgusf, 1881.
CONTENTS.
DESIGN OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Paoi?
Stages of Objcct-teacliing 17, 18, 19
Object Lessons and Object-teaching 21
How the Child obtains Elements of Knowledge 22
Importance of Attention to Methods of Teacliing 25
Other Means than Common Studies needed for Training 27
Means of Developing Language 27
AVhat is 01>ject-teaching ? 29
The Range of Object-teaching 31
PLACE, DIRECTION, AND DISTANCE.
To DEVELOP Ideas of Place 34
To DEVELOP Ideas of Direction 38
To develop Ideas of Distanx'e 42
To develop Ideas of Bocndakies and Maps 44
GEOGRAPHY.
First Lessons in Elementary Geography 51
Where to begin 51
How to proceed 51-56
To develop Ideas of the Earth's Shape and Size 57
Repkesentations of the Earth's Scrface on Globes and Maps 59
How Locations of Countries may be learned 60
Map Drawing as a Means of Teaching Geography C2
How to commence Map Drawing C3
WEIGHT.
Exercises to develop Ideas of Weight 68
The Necessity of Standard Weight 70
Facts about ^V'■EIGIIT, for the Teacher 70
Tables of Weights 70-72
Weight of Objects — Comp^vrative 72
Metric Measure 74
12 CONTENTS.
FORM.
PaOR
Additional Methods for Elementary Lessons 77
Reviewing Form Lessons 81
Advanced Lessons on Form 84
COLOR.
Additional Suggestions for Teaching Color 93
Results of Mixture of Colors 97
Statements about Color, for the Teacher 103
Harmony in Colors 106
Color-blindness 110
Nature of Color-bliudness Ill
Tests for Color-blindness 112
Colors as Signals 114
Colors as Emblems 115
Effects of Color on Complexion 116
Advanced Lessons on Color 117
Lessons in Harmony of Colors 120
PROPERTIES OF OBJECTS.
Lessons to develop the Idea of Substances 126
Substances — Materials for Advanced Lessons on Objects 136
Suggestions for Lessons 137
Notes of Lessons 157
Subjects for Lessons 166
NATURAL HISTORY.
Lessons on Animals — First Stage 177
Lessons on Animals — Second Stage 181
Lessons on Animals — Third Stage 202
Notes for Lessons in Natural History 219
Classification of Animals 229
PLANTS.
Hints for Manner of giving Lessons on Plants 250
Facts for Teachers — about Plants 252
Sliapcs of Leaves 252
Shapes of Flowers 255
Shapes of Roots 256
Families of Plants 258
Poisonous Plants 2G4
CONTENTS. 13
MINERALS.
Paqe
Prepare Pupils to observe Minerals 274
CUEMISTRY ; OR, ELEMENTS OF SUBSTANCES 278
Mineral-letters 279
OCCUPATIONS AND TRADES.
Lessons on Occupations and Trades 285-288
PHYSICAL TRAINING.
Physical Exercises 301
Movements illustrated 301-308
Teaching the Movements 309
Sets of Exercises 310
Exercise-drill 312
MORAL TRAINING, AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE.
Facts to be remembered by the Teacher 320
SCIENCE OF C0:MM0N THINGS.
Atmosphere 331
Mechanical Powers 337
SCIENCE OF EDUCATION.
Definitions of Educational Terms 343
Principles of Education 317
Directions for Teachers 319
How Nature Teaches a Child S.").")
Elements of Mental Activity 359
MAN'S NATURE AND POWERS.
The Mind 364
The Senses 364
Organs of Sense 367-373
Classification of Knowledge gained by the Senses 374
Developing the Powers of Mind 375
Cultivating Perceptiveness 375
Powers of Mental Acquisition 379
Observation 380
14 CONTEXTS.
POWERS OF MENTAL REPRODUCTION.
Page
Language 384
Culture ia the Use of Language 386
Memory 392
Culture of Memory 396
Three Periods of Memory 39Y-400
Attention 402
Culture of Attention 403
Lmagination 408
Culture of Imagination 411
POWERS OF HUMAN REASON.
Comparison 416
Culture of Comparison 417
Analogy 420
Judgment 421
Reason 423
Cultivation of Keason 426
POWERS OF MORAL ACTION.
The Feelings, Sentiments, and Emotions 430
Training the Moral Powers 431
Means of Moral Culture 441
POWER OF AVILLTNG.
The Will 413
Influence of Will on Character 4-15
Freedom of Will 446
Training the Will 446
Will a Power in School Government 449
QUESTION FOR EX.VMINATION OF TEACHERS 455
INDEX 465
MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
DESIGN OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
The term ohject-teachlng has been so frequently applied
to modes of giving lessons widely differing in matter,
■manner, and aim, that its real import is often misappre-
hended. It seems to be necessary, therefore, to explain
Avhat constitutes ohject-teaching, that the reader may be
prepared to understand the design of the succeeding
lessons.
Object-teaching has for its purpose a thorough develop-
ment of all the child's faculties, and their proper employ-
ment in the acquisition of knowledge. It is not a plan
of fixed, unchangeable methods, but a system of training
based upon and controlled by the fact that the beginning
of real knowledge must come through the appropriate
exercise of the senses. Its purpose is not the attainment
of facts, nor the cultivation of language as an end, but the
development, to vigorous and healthy action, of the child's
powers of getting and using knowledge by the means
both of obtaining and of using it. It furnishes exercises
to produce the ability to learn, and methods to aid in
learning. It does not signify the things about which
something is taught, nor that which is taught about them,
so much as it means the principles by which the teaching
is performed, and the purpose and manner of the teaching.
16 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
It deals with things, and it considers subjects also. It at-
tends to realities and their relations, rather than to ideals
and their representations. It furnishes a means of attain-
ing clear ideas of distant objects and events through those
that are near and known.
Object-teaching prepares the learner's mind, by devel-
opment begun thi'ough sense-perceptions, and continued
by observation and reflection, to clearly understand the
important facts concerning things and acts, and their re-
lations to spoken and written language. It does not pro-
pose that the child shall gain all its knowledge from the
process by which the human race was led through the
wilderness of personal experiences to the attainment of
the present sciences, but it does propose to lead the in-
experienced learner into the midst of objects and influ-
ences that will awaken the several senses to activity, and
thus increase his progress in knowledge. It proposes to
guide the young learner till his enlarged experiences pre-
pare him to extend his acquisitions through others' expe-
riences as furnished by books, and also to confirm the
facts thus gained by his own observations.
Once more, object-teaching implies.
First. The use of sj'stematic exercises with objects, for
the development of the power of gaining knowledge ;
Second. A training in habits of getting knowledge from
objects, models, pictures, and diagrams by careful obser-
vation — both of these ends being reached through the
guided personal experiences of the learner;
Third. The teaching of pupils to avail themselves of
facts discovered by others and recorded in books, and
training them to verify those facts, so far as practicable,
by personal examination.
For further explanation of the design of object-teach-
ing I will describe the stages into which the work may
be divided, and the purposes of each.
STAGES OF OBJEOT-TEACniXG. 17
First stage of Object-teaching. — The first stage of
object-teaching has for its chief aim the development of
the child's perceptive powers through proper exercise of
the several senses. At this period it does not propose
the teaching of objects nor of subjects, but rather a sys-
tematic plan of using objects as a means for developing
the senses to that facility of activity which will enable
the child to form habits of gaining knowledge by careful
observation.
This stage of object-teaching should be commenced by
the mother before the child is old enough to enter school;
and during the first year or two the chief efforts should
be directed to the supplying of suitable materials to in-
duce the exercise of each of the senses, and, when neces-
sary, stimulating the child to use these materials in such
a way as to become familiar with their easily perceived
properties and qualities — as colors, shapes, hardness, soft-
ness, sweetness, sourness, heaviness, lightness, etc. — devot-
ing less attention to teaching the names of these proper-
ties than to training the pupils to receive them readily.
The want of knowledge which the child expresses by
those familiar and oft-repeated questions, "What is it?"
" What is it for ?" " Why does it do so ?" should be care-
fully heeded, and the child led to find answers to his own
questions, as far as possible, through his personal experi-
ences. The exercise of liis powers which the child gains
by that which he sees and does with the objects teaches
him the most useful lessons during this stage — lessons
which are more valuable than the words which he learns
to say about them. It is through such lessons that the
3'oung learner develops his perceptive powers by the con-
tact of his senses with the objects about him, and gains a
real knowledge of them.
Kindergarten training belongs to this stage of object-
teaching. And where children enter school without liav-
18 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
ing received any S3'stematic training for the development
of their senses, either through lionie training or by kin-
dergarten instrnction, this introductory stage of object-
teaching should be employed during the lirst term of
school attendance in the lowest primary class, as a means
for preparing the young pupils for subsequent instruc-
tion.
The efforts toward teaching language during this stage
should be limited chiefly to the names of objects and
acts, and to the obvious properties which the pupils dis-
tinguish.
Second Stage of Object-teaching. — This stage prop-
erly belongs to the first years of the child's school-life,
and its chief aim is to prepare the young pupils for re-
ceiving instruction in the elementary steps of those sub-
jects which are included in the course for the first two
years at school. Ohjeds may now he employed hoth as a
means of develojyment and as subjects of instruction , hut
the development and the instruction must he hased upon
the pnqnl '5 personal experiences.
Tiie iirst duty of tiie teacher, in the second stage of
object-teaching, is to supply materials suitable for the ex-
ercise of the child's powers, and then to stimulate and
guide in the proper exercise of those powers. The ma-
terials first provided for instruction at this time should
consist of objects chiefly. Pictures may be used profita-
bly during later exercises. The teacher must co-operate
with and direct the pupil's own activity in the use of
the materials for the cliild's development, but should do
nothing to supersede the personal activity of the pupil.
The child's education comes from that which he does
himself. The teacher should endeavor to secure disci-
pline of the pupil's mind through the formation of
habits of ready and accurate observation.
STAGES OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 19
When an object is the subject of a lesson, the pupils
should be led to observe those obvious qualities and prop-
erties in wliicli it resembles similar objects ; also those by
which it is chiefly distinguished from other objects, or
which add most to its usefulness. The teacher should
cause the instruction about the object to be intimately
associated with the facts already learned by the pupils
through their own observations.
When a snhject or tojyic is the matter of the lesson, the
pupils should be prepared for the instruction by rirst di-
recting their attention to kindred facts already known,
and their knowledge of these used to teach the unknown
of the new subject.
During this stage attention should be given to teach-
ing the children the use of simple language that will en-
able them to express the knowledge which they acquire
concerning the objects or the subject-matters that consti-
tute the lessons.
Third Stage of Object-teaching. — The acquisition
of knowledge by means of objects, and the use of facts
previously learned to aid in gaining knowledge of new
subjects, become prominent aims of this system of in-
struction during the third stage of object-teaching. The
number and kinds of objects, and the range of appropri-
ate subjects, are now greatly increased. The principles
which give shape to the plans of teaching during the flrst
two stages now may be extended to a greater variety of
subjects; and objects, pictures, diagrams, etc., be used to
aid the pupils in obtaining clear and correct ideas per-
taining to these different subjects.
In lessons upon objects, the pupils should be led to
distinguish those qualities and properties which give spe-
cial value to the object, and which chiefly render it suita-
ble to those uses for which it is commonly employed.
20 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
If the lessons be on animals, the children may be led to
observe the prominent peculiarities of some familiar ani-
mal — as a cat ; such as the shape of its head, teeth, claws,
feet, ears, eyes, nose ; then these and its habits may be
compared with others of the same family — as the lion,
tiger, leopard, lynx, and panther in a menagerie, or by
means of pictures, and the pupils thus taught their obvi-
ous family likenesses and characteristics.
If the subject be geography, the teacher may com-
mence with the school-room — its shape, boundary, its lo-
cation, and direction from familiar places in the vicinity ;
then direct attention to streams, ponds, islands, hills, val-
leys, and occupations that are known to the children, and
from their knowledge of these teach them to understand
lessons about similar objects and occupations in countries
which they have not seen.
If tlie subject be arithmetic, counting, adding, and oth-
er operations with objects may be employed to give cor-
rect ideas before processes, definitions, or rules are taught.
Thus the plan of instruction in this stage also places the
knowledge of things before. words in the order of teach-
ing, and in the order of importance. It illustrates by
objects, pictures, drawings, and examples, before present-
ing descriptions, definitions, or rules. It trains children
in the manner best suited to the gaining of ideas from
objects or from subjects, and gives them the proper lan-
guage for expressing those ideas. It leads also to a clas-
sification and association of kindred ideas and facts. And
during succeeding lessons special care is taken to associ-
ate the new facts with the knowledge previously learned
concerning the same subject ; also to extend and attach
all knowledge, as far as practicable, to the affairs of
daily life; and tlms cause the school- lessons to become
instruction on real things.
STAGES OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 21
Object Lessons and Object-teaching. — Tliosc proc-
esses of instruction which embrace tlie aims ah'eady de-
scribed, and conform to the principles herein presented,
and secure the results thus contemplated, may be called
object-teaching. This sj'stem of using objects, and of
treating subjects by its methods of teaching, develops the
mental powers through a proper exercise of the appropri-
ate senses, and leads to correct habits of gaining knowl-
edge; therefore, it will be seen that it is chiefly the man-
ner and 2>'iir2>ose of using objects, as a means of develop-
ment and instruction, which determines whether the plan
of proceeding may be called object-teaching, or not.
An object lesson has for its matter an object, or some
quality or property of an object, which is made the means
of gaining ideas and developing certain perceptive pow-
ers. An object lesson is an individual or single lesson
upon an object, given in a proper manner, for a definite
purpose.
Object -teaching may have as the subject-matter of a
lesson an object, or a topic, or subject of any branch of
knowledge. It is a systematic plan for successive lessons,
so conducted that knowledge is derived from and associ-
ated with objects and the learner's jiersonal experiences
to the greatest extent practicable. It may embrace a
course of instruction including many topics, with each
lesson founded upon the pupil's previous knowledge,
wdiile it prepares him for succeeding lessons. It employs
objects and facts previously known as the means of illus-
trating the new lesson. It is a process for combined de-
velopment and instruction in accordance with correct
principles of education.
True object -teaching implies knowledge obtained by
and through the j^t/pH^s jy^^^'sonal experiences luider com-
petent guidance. The teacher guides the learner to the
knowledge, but requires the pupil to gain it by his own
22 ILiNCAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
exertions. The teacher arranges the materials for the
lesson, and brings the mind of the pupil into such contact
■with the materials that the activity of the learner's mind
secures the desired knowledge.
How the Child Obtains Elements of Knowledge.
— For the purpose of securing a clearer understanding
of the basis of object-teaching, and its adaptation to the
attainment of the important ends in education already
mentioned, the reader's attention is here invited to the
following consideration of the manner by which children
gain ideas and acquire their earliest knowledge.
It is a well-known fact that the mind is endowed with
power of acquiring ideas ; that this power is early mani-
fested through the several organs of sense ; and that by
this means the elements of our knowledge are obtained.
Even the consciousness which we have of our own minds,
and of the mind's power, becomes more complete and
vivid as the knowledge of things around us becomes
more definite and thorough. The amount of information
which the mind may acquire, from all sources, depends
to a greater or less extent upon the clearness of the ideas
derived through the senses. It is, therefore, evident that
material objects and sensible events should comprise a
large part of the exercises for intellectual training during
childhood.
It has been well said that " the knowledge which a
child acquires by the exercise of its own senses penetrates
the intellect more deeply and pervades it more complete-
ly than any other, for it is the impression which nature
herself makes upon the mind by direct contact ; while all
other media of instruction are but representatives of nat-
ure, more or less imperfect."*
* 3Iaiiual of Human CuUure, by Garvcy.
STAGES OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 23
The natural development of mind begins with its ac-
tivity through the organs of sense, and corresponds in its
progress to tlie facility which it attains in acquiring ideas
through the influence of external objects. If these chief
gate-ways of knowledge be but partially opened, the ele-
ments of ideas must pass through them with difhculty,
and often become distorted by the passage. But with
these doors and windows to the mind wide open, the ob-
stacles to learning are easily overcome, and the pupil's
progress made rapid, as clearness of perception leads to
completeness of knowledge.
The earliest exercises of the child's senses excite in its
mind a desire to hioiv something about what it sees,
hears, feels, tastes, smells, etc. This desire for informa-
tion, or curiosity, increases with the delight experienced
by new accessions of knowledge, and induces a contin-
ual mental activity and restlessness during the child's
waking hours.
It is also a provision of nature that, as soon as the in-
fant mind has taken in such knowledge of an object as
its limited capacity can readily receive without aid, the
child no longer manifests any interest in or curiosity to-
ward the object ; and unless a skilful instructor assists
him in gaining still further knowledge, and thus continu-
ing the interest, the child soon turns to seek information
from something new. But, even when thus aided, the
amount of information which the undeveloped mind has
power to grasp, or capacity to receive at one time from
the same object, is very limited, to say nothing of the
fatigue which might be experienced by efforts to attend
to the same subject for a long time ; hence the child
must of necessity change his attention frequently from
one subject or class of objects to another.
Nevertheless, after an interval during which the mind
has been occupied with other things, the same object
24 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
will afford fresh interest by a repetition of the informa-
tion given before, thus recalling the pleasure experienced
during its first reception. These facts account for that
fondness for variety, or love of novelty, or curiosity, as
this trait is variously called, which is so prominent in
children, and which may be made a valuable means of
aiding the teacher in both the instruction and the man-
agement of the class.
The same principles apply to the mind in youth and
in maturity, the results differing in quantity or degree.
As the mind attains degrees of development M-hich enable
it to gain more knowledge from an object, and acquires
habits of attention which give it the power of observing
the same subject for a longer time, there is less necessity
for frequent changes.
Some objects naturally secure the attention and inter-
est of children longer than others, because of the variety
of the information which may be received from them, and
the greater number of senses and faculties which they ex-
cite to action. Objects that move, and those which the
children can themselves cause to move, and to assume va-
rious positions and shapes, and those exercises in which
the children have something to do, belong especially to
this class. Now it is of great importance for parents and
teachers to remember these facts during the early train-
ing of children.
In conformity with these provisions of nature, and their
relation to the capacit}'^ of the infant mind, the first les-
sons of instruction should he short and frequently alter-
nate. But as the mind becomes stronger from repeated
exercises, the habits of continuous attention become fixed,
and its capacity enlarged by development, the lessons may
be increased in length, and the same subjects continued
longer under investigation.
Habits are formed by repetitions of the same acts.
STAGES' OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 25
The pupil's habits of learning are cliieflj formed by the
modes of instruction employed by the teacher. To attain
correct habits, the foundation must be laid in childliood.
If a child be early trained in habits of accurate obser-
vation of the various properties of tlie common objects
around him, he will have a permanent guarantee for the
successful acquisition of knowledge during after-years.
We cannot add a neio poicer or faculty to the mind
by any method of teaching, nor change the natural mode
of its development; but we can surround it with influ-
ences adapted to awaken its slumbering energies, and thus
increase its power of action.
Importance of Attention to Methods of Teaching.
— It is a well-known fact that proper exercise develops
and strengthens our limbs. The mind is subject to the
same laws of development, and requires suitable exercise
to give it the power of vigorous action. The manner of
learning^ as well as the facts acquired, develops the mind,
and disciplines its powers in habits that influence all its
subsequent attainments in knowledge. It becomes, tliere-
fore, a matter of great moment what methods of instruc-
tion shall be employed in the processes of early educa-
tion, since upon these must depend, to a great extent, the
habits of learning that will influence all the future career
of the pupil. Systematic object -teaching gives special
attention to the manner of learning with a view to the
formation of the best habits.
The principles of object-teaching require that children
shall first he trained to nse their several senses with facili-
ty, and to observe with accuracy j that they shall he taught
to compare objects, and classify like things and facts, and
to describe intelligently what they observe around them.
These principles also require that children shall be taught
tlie rudiments of each subject presented to them, during
26 MAlfUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
the early stages of education, in accordance with the nat-
ural mode of gaining knowledge, before books relating
to the subjects are placed in their hands; also that these
elementary steps of instruction shall prepare the way for,
and lead to an intelligent use of text-books. During the
third stage of object-teaching the pupils should be en-
couraged to seek knowledge from books as well as from
objects, and thus form correct habits of learning from
this important source of knowledge.
Object-teaching takes heed of the jyroTninetit character-
istics of childhood — the desire to use the respective senses
in seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, etc., and their limbs
in doing. It leads children to ^lse their 2^owers for jper-
ceiving, trains them to hnow froin ohsei'ving, and to ac-
cumulate knowledge hj classifying like objects, facts, and
experiences^ and associating them with the things to which
they chiefly relate.
Children generally make great progress in tlie use of
their senses, in the develojiment of their faculties, in ac-
quiring facts from surrounding objects, and in strength-
ening their physical powers, before they enter school.
Object-teaching requires that due cognizance shall bo
taken of these facts, by ascertaining the extent of this
progress, and then employing the appropriate means for
continuing the })upirs advancement in knowledge in ac-
cordance with the same laws of nature Avhich controlled
the process of learning before the child came under the
influence of school. For the accomplishment of these
aims, suitable exercises are provided whereby the unde-
veloped powers of the pupils — their defects of hearing,
seeing, speech, etc. — are as far removed as the nature of
the case will allow. Thus it is the design of object-teach-
ing, during all the stages of instruction, to consider first
the real state of the nnnd's development, as a means of
determining Avhat steps should be taken in the methods
DEVELOPING LANGUAGE. 27
of teaching, and then to proceed in accordance witii the
needs of the case and the laws of mental growth.
Other Means than Common Studies needed for
Training. — The common studies — reading, spelling, arith-
metic, granmiar, geography, and writing — do not supply
all the needed opportunities for fixing the attention and
continuing the interest of pupils; nor do these furnish
the varied exercises for training the several senses of
children in a manner that will lead to a complete devel-
opment of the different faculties of the mind. Indeed,
these subjects, as too commonly taught, do not lie within
the range of the usual experiences of children ; therefore
they do not furnish the best materials for the first steps
of instruction. For these reasons lessons on the shape,
color, and qualities of objects, the prominent characteris-
tics of animals and plants, and various other objects, are
needed both to precede and supplement the means for-
merly used in elementary instruction. It is only when
the conditions for instruction are favorable that pupils
may be easily led to form those good habits of learning
which will secure a proper mental development, and the
power resulting from right discipline of mind. A cor-
rect hahit of lemming is chief among the imjportant ends
to he secured hy ohject-teaching.
Means of Developing Language. — Object-teaching
supplies the very best means for developing the language
of children. The child first learns to use the names of
things, then the names of actions, and afterward names
of kinds and qualities of things, and words that tell
when, where, and how actions take place.
His lessons on objects, of whatever kind, continually
add to his vocabulary of words representing names ; of
words telling the qualities, properties, shapes, colors, and
28 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHmG.
uses of objects ; of words representing various actions, and
the manner and time of those actions. Besides, by true
object-teaching he is led to see, to think about what he
sees, and then to talk about it, or describe it to others.
He is taught which are the best words to use, and how to
employ them, both in spoken and written language. He
is tlius supplied with all the materials necessary for a full
development and ready use of our language.
The matter of developing the language of the pupils,
and training them to use it correctly and fluently, should
constitute one of the aims of object-teaching throughout
all the subjects of instruction, even though not mentioned
in connection with each group of lessons.
To this end the mistakes made by the pupils should be
noticed, and correct expressions taught them. Languarje
is hest learned hj its ])roper use, not hy rules.
Wherever the characteristics of childliood are care-
fully studied and clearly understood, the utility and im-
portance of object-teaching, in the processes of elemen-
tary education, can no more be questioned than can
the necessity and usefulness of the gardener's labor in
preparing tlie soil for his plants, or that of the farmer
in getting his fields ready for the various seeds which
he hopes will spring up and produce the ripened grains
and delicious fruits both as the result and the reward of
his labors.
Whoever studiously observes the means by which the
minds of children are naturally developed, and the man-
ner of acquiring that which is most lasting in its sub-
stance, most enduring in its influence, and most practical
in its usefulness, of all their educational attainments, can-
not fail to acknowledge the important agency of object-
teaching, when directed by a skilful teacher, in laying tlie
best possible foundation and supplying the best condi-
tions of success in elemcntarv education.
WHAT IS OBJECT-TEACHING? 29
Object-teaching. — What object-teacliing is has been
described so exceedingly well by Professor S. S. Geeene,
of Brown University, tliat I take the liberty of repeating
his language in this connection.'-^
"Object-teaching is that which takes into account the whole
realm of nature and art, so far as the child has examined it, and
assumes as known only what the child knows — not what the
teacher knows — and works from the well known to the obscurely
known, and so onward and upward till the learner can enter the
fields of science or of abstract thought. It is that which devel-
ops the abstract from the concrete, which develops the idea, then
gives the term. It is that which appeals to the intelligence of
the child through the senses until clear and vivid conceptions are
formed, and then uses these conceptions as something real and
vital. It is that which follows Natiu'e's order — the thing, the
conception, the word ; so that when this order is reversed — the
word, the conception, the thing — the chain of connection shall
not be broken ; the word shall instantly occasion the conception,
and the conception shall be accompanied with the firm convic-
tion of a corresponding reality. It is that which insists upon
something besides mere empty, verbal expressions in every school
exercise ; in other words, it insists upon expression and thought
in place of expression and no thought. It is that which culti-
vates expression as an answer to an inward pressing want, rather
than by a fanciful collection of pretty phrases culled from differ-
ent authors. It is that which makes the school a place where
the child comes in contact with realities, just such as appeal to
his common" sense when he roams at pleasure in the fields. It is
that which relieves the child's school task by making it intellir/i-
ble and possible. It bids him examine for himself, discriminate
for himself, and express for himself ; while the teacher stands by
to give hints and suggestions, not to relieve the labor. In short,
it is that which addresses itself directly to the eye, external or
* From "A Report on Object-teaching^^ made before the National Teachers'
Association, 1805.
30 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
internal ; which summons to its aid things present or things ab-
sent, things past or things to come, and bids them yield the les-
sons which they infold ; which deals with actual existence, and
not with empty dreams."
Its Effects. — " It should be introduced in some way every-
where. It will aid any teacher in correcting dogmatic tenden-
cies, by enlivening his lessons, and giving zest to his instructions.
He will draw from the heavens above, and from the earth be-
neath, or from the waters under the earth, from the world w'ith-
out, and from the world within. He will not measure the in-
struction by pages, nor the progress by fluency of utterance.
He will dwell in living thought, surrounded by living thinkers.
Thoughtful himself, he will be thought-stirring in all his teach-
ing. In fact, his very presence, with his thought-inspiring meth-
ods, gives tone to his whole school. * * * Object-teaching has a
direct influence upon the teacher himself. It cannot be pursued,
even tolerably well, without making it manifest to any one that
the great object of teaching is to deal with ideas rather than to
crowd the memory with words. He who can give an object les-
son well is capable of giving any lesson well, because he has
learned that it is the reality, and not the expression of it, that is
the chief object to be gained. He who makes it his first, second,
and last aim to teach realities will soon discover two essential
conditions : he must know the present capacity and attainments
of the child, and then what realities are suited to them.
" If it were not for one fact, our primary schools would Lave
cabinets of natural objects as varied as those that fill the halls of
our highest institutions, and that is the simple fact that children
can remember words, as words, without associating them with any
idea tvhatever. They can use words which mean much, while to
them they mean nothing. They can repeat them fluently, and use
them as though they really meant something to themselves, by
imitation of the teacher's voice. They can see that the teacher
accepts them as though all was right. Here is a double evil:
the teacher is a stranger to the child's real condition, and the
child supposes he is actually learning something.
"One reason why many oppose object -teaching is the fact
THE RANGE OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 31
that they cannot readily free themselves from the impression that
their knowledge of the subjects to be taught is somehow neces-
sarily connected with the language of the text-book. They have
never tried to disengage it from the particular forms into which
some author has moulded it. They use technical terras, and often
the worst of technical terms, because they know no other. There
is an almost servile dependence upon the use of certain terms;
and if the whole truth were known, it might appear that the idea
is not sufficiently mastered to disengage it from the term. IIow
can such a teacher do otherwise than cling to his authority ?
*' The very essence of teaching lies in a living apprehension of
the subject itself; such an apprehension as will enable the teacher
to adapt his instruction to the child's real wants ; which is just
■what a text-book cannot do. Teach realities is the true teach-
er's motto. To this he commits himself; nay, crosses the river
and burns the bridge. He is ashamed of his teaching if it is
anything short of this. Hence his ingenuity, his aptness, his ver-
satility, liis varied resorts in an emergency. He can teach with a
text-book or without it. A text-book in his hand becomes alive.''^*
The Range of Object-teaching, — "It draws its mate-
rials from all branches of knowledge, dealing with things which
can interest the child or exercise his mind. Thus it is Natural
History for children ; for it directs their attention to animals of
all classes, domestic and others, their qualities, habits, uses, — to
trees, and plants, and flowers, — to the metals, and other minerals,
which are in constant use.
" It is Physical Science for children ; for it leads them to ob-
serve the phenomena of nature, the sun, moon, and stars, and
the seasons, with the light and heat which mark the changes of
weather, with clouds, rain, dew, snow, and the properties of tlie
bodies which form the mass of matter around us.
" It is Domestic Economy for children ; for it exhibits to them
the things and processes daily used in their homes, and the way
to use them rightly.
" It is Industrial and Social economy for children ; for it leads
* Greene.
32 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
them to observe the various trades, and processes in different art-
occupations, and the arrangements as to the division of hibor
whicli society has sanctioned for carrying these on in harmony
and mutual dependence.
" It is Physiology for children ; for it causes them to learn
from their own bodies the uses of the various members for phys-
ical and mental ends, and tells the way to use them best to avoid
their abuse.
" It is the Science of Common Things for children ; for it dis-
regards nothing whicli can come under their notice in their con-
tact with the world around them, and in their intercourse with
their fellows or their superiors."*
" Object Lessons should be extended to a range of things far
wider than now. They should include those of the fields and
the hedges, the quarry and the sea-shore. They should not cease
with early childhood, but should be so kept up during youth as
insensibly to merge into the investigations of the naturalist and
the man of science.
" Having gained due familiarity with the simpler properties
of inorganic objects, the child should by the same process be led
on to a like exhaustive examination of the things it picks up in
its daily walks — the less complex facts they present being alone
noticed at first. In plants, the color, number, and forms of the
petals, and shapes of the stalks and leaves. In insects, the num-
ber of the wings, legs, antennse, and their colors. As these be-
come fully appreciated and invariably observed, further facts may
be successively introduced. Here we have but to follow Nature's
leadings. Where can be seen an intenser delight than that of
children picking up new flowers, and watching new insects, or
hoarding pebbles and shells ?
" The consistent follower of Bacon, the ' servant and interpreter
of Nature,' will see that we ought modestly to adopt the course
of culture thus indicated."!
* James Currie, Principal of the Church of Scotland Trainiug College.
+ Herbert Spcuccr, iu his Education.
LESSONS OX PLACE, DIRECTION, AND DISTANCE.
PLACE, DIEECTION, AND DISTANCE.
INTRODUCTORY TO GEOGRAPHY.
Ideas of location and direction are necessary to an un-
derstanding of even the most elementary lessons in Ge-
ography. Before children can. comprehend the relative
location of comitries in different parts of the world, they
must have observed the position of objects around them,
and the direction of the same from each other and from
themselves. Some ideas of such things are usually ac-
quired by children, even when left to their own experi-
ence ; but their knowledge of location and direction will
remain too indefinite to be of much utility in learning
geography without special training on this matter in the
school -room. It, is for this reason that the following
lessons on Place and Direction have been introduced,
with a view to leading children to notice carefully the
objects and scenery around the school and home, and
insure the necessary preparation for elementary steps in
Geography.
These preparatory lessons will differ as widely as the
locations of the schools and the homes and the objects
and scenery surrounding them differ, and therefore they
must always be given orally. Not only must they be
given without text-books, but they must be made up from
actual observations and experience of the pupils.
The folloioing lessons are intended only to explain the
manner of conducting this oral training, and not as some-
thing to be taught to the pupils.
2*
34: MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF PLACE.
FIRST SERIES OP EXERCISES.
First Exercise. — Teach the children to distinguish the
right and left hands; right and left arms, elbows, shoulders, ears,
eyes, cheeks, feet, and various objects to the right and to the left
of the pupils. Li doing this the teacher may ask :
Which is your right hand ? Which is your Uft hand ? Hold
your book in your right liand. Take your book in your left hand.
Who sits at your right side ? Who sits at your left side ? What
things can you see on the left side of the room? What things can
you see on the right side of the room ? Stand on your right foot.
Rest on your left foot.
When the children can readily distinguish right and left posi-
tions, they may be led to understand the terms front, back, rear,
before, behind, above, over, below, under, by the side of, etc. This
can be accomplished by holding a book or other object above
the table, below it, bg the side of it, to the left of it, before it,
etc., and requesting the pupils to tell, in each instance, tohere the
object is held.
Second Exercise. — Place three objects on a table in front
of the class — one on each end, and one in the middle of the ta-
ble; as a cup, a book, and a slate. Then require the pupils to
observe and tell where each object is located, thus :
The cup is in the middle of the table. The book is on the right-
hand end. The slate is on the left-hand end of the table.
When several of the pupils have described the position of
the objects, each may be changed to another place, and the pu-
pils requested to describe the new location. Afterward all the
objects may be removed, and different pupils called upon to place
ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— PLACE. 35
them in their former positions. Then they may be required to
place them as directed, thus :
Place the cup on the nearest right-hand corner. Place the book
on the farthest left-hand corner, etc.
Third Exercise. — Place four objects on the table, and re-
quest different pupils to describe the position of each, as in the
last exercise.
Remove the objects, and then let the pupils place them in the
positions -which they occupied when described.
Afterward let pupils go to the table, singly as called upon, and
each place an object in a position as described by the teacher.
Continue these exercises, as before, with five objects.
During the preceding exercises the several pupils should be al-
lowed to take an active part in each until they have become suf-
ficiently familiar with position, ov place, to be able to distinguish
the position of several objects, and to replace them after they
have been removed.
Representing Position. — ^Yhen the pupils are able to
describe the position of objects, and to place them in position
from descriptions, and to replace them from memory, they may
be taught to reiyresent their positions on the blackboard and on
slates.
Having placed three objects on the table so that one stands in
the centre, one in the front right-hand corner, one in the back
left-hand corner — the teacher may show the pupils how to repre-
sent the surface of the table on the blackboard, and the position
of each object on it, somewhat in the following manner :
I wish to draw lines on the blackboard to represent the sides
and ends of this table or its 'boundaries, so that you will see there
the shape of its surface ; also to place marks to show the positron
of each object on the table. I wish to represent the position of tlic
table and these objects, just as they would appear to you were I to
take up the top of the table and place it against the blackboard, as
I now take up this slate and jDlace it against the blackboard.
Teacher. Now please tell me where I shall draw the line to rep-
resent the back edge of the table.
Pupils. Across the blackboard, above the middle.
36 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Teacher. Where shall I draw the line to represent the front edge
of the table ?
Pupils. Across the blackboard, below the middle.
T. Where shall I draw the line to represent the left end of the table ?
P. From the up^^er to the lower line, near the left side of the
blackboard.
T. Where shall I draw the line to represent the right end of the
table ?
P. From the upper to the lower line, near the right side of the
blackboard.
T. Now we have the shape of the surface of the table represent-
ed, who can tell me where to make marks to show the position of
tlie book on the table ?
P. Make them at the right side, near the lower corner.
T. Where shall I make marks to show the position of this cube
on the table ?
P. Make a small square iu the centre of the drawing on the
blackboard.
T. Where shall I make marks to show the position of the bell on
the table ?
P. Make a circle at the left side, near the upper comer.
The teacher will please notice that in each case the
pupils are called to observe and describe, and thus direct
what the teacher shall do. The teacher must see that the
pupils do their own part of the observing, thinking, and
describing, while he represents what thej describe, and
also requires them to determine whether or not the rep-
resentation is correct.
After two or three representations of the surface of
the table, with the position of three or more objects upon
it, have thus been drawn on the blackboard, the pupils
may make a copy of the representation upon their slates.
They may also be called to locate the objects in the draw-
ing upon the blackboard, and to represent their positions
on the table.
These exercises will prepare the pupils for understand-
ing the use of maps when instruction in elementary ge-
ography is commenced.
ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— PLACE. 37
SECOND SERIES OF EXERCISES.
First Exercise. — Lead the pupils to describe the location
of several objects in the school-room, somewhat after this manner :
The door is in the left-hand corner of the room.
The windows are on the right-liand side of the room.
The stove is in tlie centre of the room.
The teaclier's desk is in the front part of the room.
The cliair is back of the teacher's desk.
The closet is at the right of the desk.
The teacher may also ask questions similar to the following :
Where is the ceiling of this room ? Where is the blackboard ?
What room is nearest this ? AVhat room on the left of this ? What
room back of this ? How many class-rooms are there on this floor ?
Eepresent the shape of this room on the blackboard, and the
position of the prominent objects in the room that occupy space
on the floor. Let pupils copy the representation on their slates.
Second Exercise. — Request the pupils to draw on their
slates the boundaries of the class-room, and represent the posi-
tion of the objects in it from their own observation.
Third Exercise. — Let the pupils draw the outline shape
of one floor of the school building, and represent the location of
the several rooms on the floor.
Other Exercises. — Talk with the pupils about the differ-
ent kinds of rooms at home, and encourage them to make draw-
ings of single rooms, also of several rooms of a house, as kitchen,
dining-room, pantry, hall, parlor, bedroom, etc.
Encourage the pupils to represent the location of objects about
the school-house, as streets, yards, etc.
38 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF DIRECTION.
First Exercise — Simple Direction. — The first lesson
may be a simple one of direction alone. Request the children to
point toward objects in the school-room ; then toward the streets
near, as eacli is named by the teacher; also toward the nearest
house, store, church, railroad, river, pond, canal, mountain, hill,
village, etc.
Of course the location of the school, and the objects surround-
ing it, must determine what the teacher will ask the pupils to
point at.
Second Exercise — To Show the Necessity of
Fixed. Points of Direction. — For the accomplishment of
this purpose the teacher might say to the pupils: ""When I
asked you about the position of different objects in this room,
you said that one of them was located at your right hand, an-
other one at your left hand, and so on. Now observe where I
stand, and tell me whicli way I must walk to go to the door."
" You must go toward the right."
After turning half-way around, the teacher says, " Now must I
go to the right to find the door?"
" No, the door is behind you."
Turning half around again, the teacher asks, " ^lust I go to the
right, now, to find the door ?"
" No, the door is in front of you."
"Thus you see that you must know where and how the per-
son stands before you can direct him, by the use of the terms
right or left, which way he must go to find any given object.
Suppose a person should inquire the way to the post-office, could
you inform him by saying ' Go toward the right,' if you did not
ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— DIRECTIOX. 39
see ^v'hethcr his right hand was on the side toward the post-
ofiicc ?
" You perceive that it would be very difficult to direct people
where distant objects and places may be found without having
some fixed points of direction which all understand. There are
such fixed points commonly known, and these I propose to teach
you in the next lesson."
Third Exercise— Points of Compass.— You may point
in the direction in which you see the sun at noon. Ycry well. At
noon the sun is in the south. Now point toward the south.
Point in the direction in which you see the sun in the morning.
"We say the sun rises in the morning, and sets in the evening. Now
point to the place where the sun rises. Now point to the place
wliere the sun sets.
The place where the sun rises is called the east. You may point
toward the east.
Tlie place where the sun sets is called the tcest. You may point
toward the west.
What can you see in this room that is east of you?
What can you see that is icest of you?
John, you may walk in this room toward the east.
James, you may walk toward the west.
My bedroom has windows on one side of it. In tlie morning,
when the sun rises, it shines in at my windows. On which side of
the house is my bedroom ? On wliich side of my room are the
windows ?
Does the sun shine into your bedroom in the morning ?
Through wliich window in the school-room will the sun shine in
the morning ? Through which in the afternoon ?
As I was walking the other day, I saw the sun before me, appear-
ing like a very large red ball, sinking behind the hills. In what
direction must I have been walking ?
At the close of the lesson the children may repeat :
The place where the sun rises is called the east. The place where the
sun sets is called the West. The place where we see the sun at noon is
called south.
Fourth Exercise — Points of Compass.— You may
point toward the east. Point toward tlie west. You may now
point in the direction in which you see the sun at noon. What
40 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
is the place called where the sun is seen at noon? You may
point toward the south.
The class may stand with backs toward the south, and right
hands toward the east. Now the direction in front of you is called
the north. You may point toward the north.
Point toward the west with your left hand.
Turn your face toward the south. Now point toward the east
with your left hand, and toward the west with your right hand.
Once more stand with your right hand toward the east and your
left hand toward the west. The point before you is called ,*
and the point behind you is called the .* The point at your
right hand is .* The point at your left hand is .*
Four pupils may now be called uj^on to walk, in the school-room,
in the direction of the four points of compass. Let each pupil be
required to tell, before returning to his seat, in what direction he
walked, also in what direction he must go to return to his seat.
The class may stand facing the north. Now point in the direc-
tion between north and east. The point between north and east is
called north-east.
Now point in the direction between 7iorth and west. The point
between north and west is called north-west.
The class may face toward the south. Now point in the direction
between south and east. The point between south and east is called
south-east. Point toward the south-east.
Point in the direction between south and west. The point be-
tween south and west is called south-west. Point toward the south-
west.
The class may now point as I name the direction : — south; south-
west ; south - east ; east ; north ; north - cast ; north - west ; west ;
south-west ; north-east ; south-east ; north ; south ; etc.
When the members of the entire class are thus called to point
simultaneously, it is necessary to train them to be self-reliant, and
to point without waiting to see how their class-mates do. To
secure this independent action of each pupil let the teacher point
at the same time in a different direction from the one given to
the class, thus :
Teacher says, " Point to the east ;" but at the same time the
teacher points toward the south. Teacher says, " Point toward the
* Let the children supply the ellipsis.
ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— DIRECTION. 41
north," but points toward the west. Teacher says, " Point toward
the south-east," but points toward the south-west.
By this means the children soon learn to point toward the
direction named, regardless of the way in which others point.
This plan will materially aid in training the pupils to knoiv all
the points of the compass with certainty, and also is suitable for
rapidly reviewing large classes in this subject.
"Boxing the Compass." — Beside the eight points of
compass, already named, there are eight others, making sixteen
altogether. All of these are used by sailors. A sailor is said to
be able to "Box the Compass" when he can name these sixteen
points in their order, thus :
North, north-north-east, north-east, east-north-east, east, east-south-
east, south-east, south -south -east, south, south- south -w'est, south-
west, west-south-west, west, west-north-west, north-west, north-north-
west.
Fifth Exercise. — ^lien the pupils have learned to point
out and. name each of the eight directions commonly known as
" the points of compass," let them be required to apply this
knowledge in stating the directions of objects in the vicinity of
the school.
Let them tell what direction different members of the class
must take in coming to school, also what directions must be
taken by them in going home.
Suppose you were walking toward the north in the morning, over
whicli shoulder would you look for the sun ? Which way would
you look for the sun if walking north in the afternoon ? Sujjpose
you were walking toward the sun at noon, in what direction would
you be going ?
Does a street cross the one which passes by the school -room ?
In what direction does it run ? Which way from us is that street ?
Do any of you live on it? If you were going home, in what direc-
tions would you go ?
42 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF DISTANCE.
In the natural modes of learning, children take notice of dis-
tance as well as of direction. This, therefore, becomes an im-
portant item in the elementary steps of instruction preparatory
to lessons in geography. Inasmuch as the subjects of " Size,"
"Length," "Measure," "Distance," etc., have been presented in
"Primary Object Lessons" [on pages 261-281], the teacher will
do well to examine what is said there relative to the more ele-
mentary steps in the presentation of these subjects, and espe-
cially the suggestions pertaining to "Distance" [on page 275].
In addition to the lessons there presented, it is also desirable
that the teacher should give a few exercises which will cause the
pupils to associate ideas of direction and distance as their at-
tention is given to familiar objects, places, etc., in the vicinity
of the school-house, during these lessons introductory to geog-
raphy.
First Exercise — Naming Relative Distances. — Re-
quest the pupils to name two streets running the same way, and
tell which is more distant. Let them name the pupils that live
nearest to the school in the same direction from it, also those
that live most distant. Let them name streams, hills, ponds,
orchards, fields, etc., that are near, and those that are distant.
Let them also name objects, buildings, or places that arc in dif-
ferent directions from the school, and tell which arc nearer and
which more distant. Let them mention places that are about
half a mile distant, also those that are a mile distant, etc.
Representing Relative Distances. — The teacher may
now represent on the blackboard the direction and relative dis-
tances of several of the objects, places, etc., named, and then re-
quest the pupils to copy these on their slates. Afterward the
ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— DISTANCE. 43
pupils may be requested to represent on tlicir slates the direc-
tion and relative distances of other places, as the teacher names
them.
The pupils may represent tlie location of the school-room near
the centre of their slates ; then draw lines to represent the streets
that pass the school.
Direct the pupils to write North at the top of the slate, South at
the bottom, East at the right-hand side, West at the left-hand side.
Then request them to represent the objects, places, etc., that are
north of the school, in their relative positions toward the toj) of the
slate ; then the places that are south of the school toward the bot-
tom of the slate; and those east of the school toward the right-hand
side ; and those icest of the school toward the left-hand side.
Similar exercises may be continued, as the condition and prog-
ress of the class seem to demand. These will be interesting from
the fact that they furnish the children with something to do, and
will aid in preparing them to understand the representations by
maps.
Such lessons may be extended so as to embrace all prominent
objects and places within the 2^ersonal observation of the piqnls ;
as churches, school-liouses, villages, railroad, depot, river, manu-
factory, lake, mountain, mine, etc., even though several miles
may be included in the distances.
44 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF BOUNDARIES AND MAPS.
Teaclier. I will now try to make a drawinj]^ or map of this room
on the blackboard, and I wish you to tell me where to place lines
to represent the different parts of it. First I will tell you some im-
portant facts which must be remembered when drawing a map of
any place :
The marks representing the north part, side, or end of the object
must be placed at the top of the blackboard or slate, and those rep-
resenting the south part at the bottom of the board ; those repre-
senting the east at the right-hand side ; those representing the west
at the left-hand side.
I will write the words NbrtJi, South, East^West, on the top, bottom,
and sides of the blackboard to help you in remembering what I
have just told you.
Now where shall I draw a line to represent the north end of this
room ?
Pupils. Near the top of the blackboard. [The teacher then draws
a horizontal hue near the top of the blackboard.]
2'. Where must I make a line to represent the south end of this
room ?
P. Near the bottom of the blackboard. [The teacher draws a
line in the proper position.]
T. Point toward the east side of the room. "Where shall I draw
a line to represent that side ?
P. On the right-hand side of the blackboard. [The teacher
draws a vertical line on the right-hand side, so as to connect the
two horizontal lines previously made.]
r. Point toward tlie west side of this room. "Where shall I draw
a line to represent that side ?
P. On the left-hand side of the blackboard. [The teacher makes
the line in its proper position.]
T. What shape do these four lines form ?
P. An oblong, or parallelogram.
T. Now observe and tell me in which direction this room is
longer. Does the drawing on the blackboard represent tlie room
longer from north to south than from east to west? Now take your
slates and copy the drawing, which I made to represent this room,
ou your slates.
ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— BOUNDARIES AND MARS. 45
Where did you make the line to represent the north end of the
room ? On what part of j-our shite did you draw the line to repre-
sent the east side of the room ?
Now tell me what part of the room these four lines represent.
Have we drawn anything to show where the door and windows
are ? Look at the door and then tell me in which part of the room
it is.
Pupils. The door is in the north end of the room, near the w-est
side.
Teacher. Then where shall I make marks to show the position of
the door ?
Look at the windows and tell me where they are. Where shall I
make marks to show the position of the windows in this room ?
We now have a drawing of the walls of this I'oom, and the places
for the door and windows marked. Now you may place marks
in the drawings on your slates to show where the door and win-
dows are.
Next we will make marks to show where my desk stands; then
some for the stove ; then some to represent the places for your scats.
Thus proceed until the drawing on the blackboard represents
the positions of the principal objects in the room, and then re-
quire the pupils to copy the same on their slates.
It might be well to draw an outline of the school-room on the
floor with chalk, then to select objects to represent the different
articles of furniture, and request the pupils to place them in their
relative positions within this drawing.
Boundaries. — Tmdicr. What parts of the room do the lines
which I drew on the blackboard to show the shape of this room
represent ?
Pujnls. The walls of the room.
T. How many walls has this room ? Then this room has a wall
on each of its four sides. These walls are the boundaries of the
room ; they fix its size. How many walls bound this room ? How
did I represent these walls, or boundaries, on the blackboard ?
P. By four lines.
T. You say that the walls bound a room; now if you should see a
yard with a fence on each of its sides, what would you say bounds
the yard ? i
P. The fence.
T. Yes, the fences around yards, or the fences or stone walls
4G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
around fields bound the yards or fields. In the city a square, or
block, is bounded by streets. So if you wish to make a map or
drawing of a field, you must draw lines to represent its fences; if
you w'ish to make a map of a block or square in the city, you must
draw lines to represent the streets that surround it.
Play-grounds. — For the next lesson the teacher may show
the pupils, as before, how to draw a plan or map of the play-
grounds, or school-yard. The teacher may talk with the pupils,
and question them somewhat as follows, but of course adapting
the conversation to the circumstances, objects, etc., which sur-
round the school :
You have learned about the school-room, and how to make a
drawing of it on your slates; now we will make a drawing of the
play-ground and of the street. Which way from the school-room is
the play-ground? Which way is the street? Where shall I draw
the line to represent the north end of the play-ground ? Where the
line for the south end ?
Proceed in a similar manner with all the lines for the boundaries;
then locate the objects of the play-ground, as the swing, the place
for ball-playing, etc.
Where is the street? "In front of the school-room." In what
direction does it extend? " North and south," or " east and west,"
as the case may be. Do any of you live on this street ? Which way
js your home from the school-room ? Which one of you, who does
not live on this street, goes along it on his way home from school ?
Now let us draw this street on the board. You said this street
was in front of the school-room ; now will you tell me which way
the front is ? " West." Then the street passes along tlie west side
of the school-room. In what directions did you tell me it extended ?
If it extends north and south, how must I place the lines on the
board to represent it ? " You must draw them from the top to the
bottom." Now draw them on your slates.
Does any street cross tlie one which passes by the school-room?
In what direction does that run ? Which way from us is that street ?
Do any of you live on it ? If you were going home, in what direc-
tion would you go ? How shall I represent it on the board ?
Similar questions may be asked about all the principal streets
in the vicinity, and each one drawn ; and while doing this, the
children should be led to observe " relative distances."
ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— BOUNDARIES AND MAPS. 47
When tlie pupils become able to make good representations
of the school-room and play-grounds, as already described, they
may be taught to represent in a similar manner the streets, build-
ings, etc., situated near the school ; or, if the school be in the
country, the pupils may repi'oscnt the boundaries of the fields in
the vicinity.
Scale of a Map. — To give the pupils some idea of a
*' scale of maps," the teacher may draw two maps of the school-
room on the blackboard — one quite small, and the other about
four times longer and wider ; then request the pupils to observe
and tell how they differ. Care should be taken to have the
pupils notice that the two drawings are alike in shape, and that
they differ in size only.
One pupil may take a foot-rule and measure the blackboard,
to find its length and its width. One pupil may measure one
side of this class-room, and another one may measure one end
of it.
" The blackboard is six feet long and three feet wide."
" This room is twenty-four feet long."
" It is eighteen feet wide."
Draw Class-room by Scale. — Very well; now we will make a
drawing of this room on the blackboard. Let us make the length
of it twenty-four inches, and the width eighteen inches; then each
inch of the drawing will represent one foot of the room.
"Which cud of tlie room did you measure? "The north end."
How many feet is it? "Eighteen feet." How many inches long
must I draw the line to represent this end ? " Eighteen inches
long."
Where must I place the line to represent the north boundary of
any object? "At tlie top of the board."
Which side did you measure? "The east side." Then where
must I draw the line on the board to represent the boundary on the
east side ? " At the right side of the board, from the end of the
line that represents the north end, downward."
Where must I draw a line to represent the boundary of the west
side of the room ? " At the left side of the board, from the end of
the line that represents the north end."
How long is the south end of this room ? " Eighteen feet."
48 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
How long and where must I draw . for pouncJ.
4 " " one C|uarter of a pound.
100 pounds make one hundred-weight. " cwt. for 100 pounds.
20 hundred-weight make one ton.
2000 pounds make one ton.
FACTS ABOUT WEIGHT. 71
For pupils who are advanced beyond the simple rules of arith-
metic, the following tables are given :
MISCELLANEOUS COMMON WEIGHT.
7000 grains make one pound. Sign : lb. for pound.
60 pounds one bushel of wheat. " hmh. for busliel.
196 " " barrel of flour. " hbl. for barrel.
200 " " " " beef or pork.
280 " " " " salt.
2240 " " old ton, or gross -weight ton.
100 " " quintal of lish.
144 " avoirdupois equal lYS lis. troy.
192 ounces " " lYu oz. "
1 ounce " " 4o7i grains.
1 " troy " 480'
1 grain " " 1 grain avoirdupois.
1 pound " " 5760 grains.
TROY WEIGHT.
Explain the use of this Aveight. Compare the grains, ounces,
and pounds with those of common weight. Let the pupils see
that the common pound is heavier than the troy pound, by 1240
grains; and that the ounce of troy is heavier than the ounce in
common, or avoirdupois weight, by 42 J grains.
24 grains make one pennyweight. Sign : diet, for pennyweight.
20 pennyweights make one ounce. " oz. for ounce.
12 ounces make one pound. " /^. for pound.
5760 grains " " "
480 " " " ounce.
APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT.
Explain its use for mixing medicines. Lead the pupils to
notice that the pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in troy
weight ; that the only difference between the troy and apothe-
caries' weight consists in the subdivisions of the ounce into
drachms and scruples.
20 grains make one scruple. Sign : 9.
;$ scruples " " drachm. " 5.
8 drachms " " ounce. " 5.
12 ounces " " pound.
480 grains " " ounci-.
5760 " " '• pound.
72 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
DIAMOND WEIGHT.
In this weight the grain is equal to ^ of a troy grain ; and the
diamond grain is divided into sixteen parts :
16 parts make one grain.
4 grains " " carat.
1 carat equals 3^ grains troy.
Some idea of the rate at which the value of diamonds in-
creases as the weight increases may be understood from the fol-
lowing statement : If a rough diamond weighing one carat is
worth $9, a cut diamond weighing one carat is worth $36 ; and
a cut diamond weighing two carats would be worth four times
$36, or $144 ; one Aveighing three carats, nine times $36, or $324.
To get an idea of the relative value of diamonds of equal purity
and different weight, multiply the jrrice of one carat by the square
of the iveiyltt in carats.
An Assay Carat means one-twenty-fourth part ; 20-carat gold
contains 20 parts of pure gold and 4 parts alloy; 18-carat gold
contains 18 parts of pure gold and 6 parts alloy.
WEIGHT OF OBJECTS.
The teacher may give interesting exercises by showing the
pupils what objects are lighter than water, which are heavier than
water, and how many times heavier; and thus develop more fully
ideas as to heavy and light objects.
Fill a glass jar with water, and place it on a table before the
class. Put in the water a cork cut in the shape of a cube, also
pieces of poplar, pine, maple, and oak wood cut in the same shape
and size. Let the pupils notice whicli sink lowest in the water.
Try a piece of ice in the same way, and they will see that about
y'tj- of it will remain above the water. Also, place in tlie water
objects that are heavier than water, and let the pupils observe
that some sink slowly, that others sink quickly.
WEIGHT OF OBJECTS.
73
The following tables will furnisli facts that will aid the teacher
in making experiments, whicli will lead the pupils to gain much
useful information about the weight of objects :
COMPAEATIVE WEIGHTS.
Steam is lighter than gas.
Gas
i( 1
' air.
Air
It t
' cork.
Cork
(( (
' poplar wood
Poplar
H 1
' pine wood.
Pine
(1 <
' ice.
lee
" '
' fresh water.
Fresh w
ater " '
' salt water.
Oil
«t t
' water.
LIGUTER THAN WATER.
Steam is about xa^mx ^^ heavy as water.
Air '
Cork
Woo
Poplar '
Pine '
' 1
Maple '
Oak
< 2 vithin these lines
is the surface. Has the surface length ? Has the surface breadth ?
Has the surface thickness?
A surface has length and 'breadth. It has no thichiess. A surface is
a magnitude of two dimensions.
Figure. — A form that is represented l^y a plane surface is called
a figure. The size and shape of a figure are determined by lines.
Boundary. — How many straight lines form the sides of this
square ? How many straight lines has the triangle ? How many
lines has the circle ?
The lines that form the sides of plane fgures are the BOUNDARIES
of those figures.
The boundaries of a triangle, a square, or rhomb are called its
sides. The boundary of a circle is its circumference.
How many boundaries has a triangle? How many has a square ?
How many has a rhomb ? How many has a pentagon ? How many
has an octagon ?
Linear Figures. — Figures that are bounded by lines are
called linear fgures. What is the least number of lines that will
bound a linear figure ? What kind of line must be used ?
What is the least number of straight lines that will bound a linear
figure ?
What linear figures are bounded by two lines? (Semicircle, seg-
ment, crescent.) Ilepresent a figure bounded by two lines.
Make three diff'erent figures, each I)ounded by one line, and write
the name of each figure in it. {Circle., oval, ellipse.)
Make a figure bounded by two curved lines, and write its name.
Quadrilateral. — Figures that have four sides or Ijoundaries are
called quadriluteruls; as square, rhomboid, trapezium, trapezoid, etc.*
Parallelogram. — Figures that have their opposite sides paral-
lel are axWedi parallelograms; as, squares, oblongs, rhombs, rhomboids.
Polygon. — Figures that have more than four sides are called
p>ohigons.^ Eegular polygons have equal sides, and equal angles.
Make six kinds of quadrilaterals, and write the name of each.
•-• See Primai-y Object Le.isons, pp. 97, 99, 101, 103. t Ibid. , pp. 103, 104, 105.
8G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
Make four kinds of parallelograms, and write the name of each.
Make sis difiering figures each bounded by three lines, and write
their names.
AYhen may we call a plane figure with two equal acute, and two
equal obtuse angles a rhomb ?
What form may be produced from a rhomb by so changing its
angles as to make them all equal ?
How many squares can you draw around a single square, so that
one side of each shall be bounded by one of the sides of the single
square ? Try it.
How many squares can you place around one square, so that it
shall be touched by each square ?
Diagram. — "When a plane form is spoken of with regard to its
sha]ic,it is called a figure. "When several lines are arranged so as to
represent two or more combined figures for the purpose of illustra-
tion, it is called a diagram.
Draw a figure on your slate.
Draw a diagram on your slate.
Circle and its Parts.*— Direct the pupils to draw six cir-
cles on their slates with a string and pencil. "Write above them the
name of the figures ; and write around the first circle the name of
the houndnry, and in the circle the name of the 2}oint in the middle.
Divide the second circle into two equal parts, and write the name
of the i^arts on one of them.
Divide the third circle into four equal jjarts, and write the name
of the parts on two of them.
Draw a line on the fourth circle to represent the greatest distance
across it, and write the name of it on tlie line ; also,
draw another line half the distance across the circle,
and write its name on it.
Draw lines in the fifth circle to represent a sedoril)
and a segment{2), and write the name in each.
Draw lines on the sixth circle to represent a chord{^) and an rt?-c(4),
and write the name by each. Lead the i)upils to notice
the differences between a sector and a segment; also be-
tween a chord and an arc, and to point out each.
Request the pupils to state what is represented in
each circle. Lead them to notice that all the diame-
ters of the same circle are equal; that all the radii of tlie same cir-
* See rrimary Object Lessons, pp. 100, 108, 111-114.
ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORil. 87
cle are equal ; and that the radius is always half of the ^ \
diameter. /i\^l/'^\
Lead them also to notice that the chord of the arc of Ij/'T^-^
a sextant of any circle equals the radius of tliat circle. V. l^-:>/
The dotted lines represent the cliord of the arc, in tliis
cut. Let the pupils prove tliis equality -with a pair of coniprisses.
Sextant. — Draw a circle and divide it into six equal parts, or
sectors. Each of these parts may be called a sextant.
If a circle be divided into eight equal parts or sectors, each part
may be called au octant.
Tangent. — Draw a circle; then draw a straight
line so that it will pass the circle, just touching its cir-
cumference. This line is called a tangent. The radius
of the circle forms a right angle with the tangent.
Degrees. — Every circle contains 360 degrees.
When a circle is divided into four equal parts, what is each part
called ?
How many degrees has the curved side of each quadrant?
ITow many degrees has each right angle ?
"Which contains more degrees, a right angle or an obtuse angle ?
That which any angle lacks of being a right angle, /. e., that which
it lacks of 90 degrees, is the complement of the angle.
What part of a circle is 90 degrees? What part is 45 degrees?
What part is 180 degrees?
How many degrees would an object elevated 75 degrees lack of
being vertical ?
The sum of three angles of a triangle is 180 degrees.
Eacli of the angles of au equilateral triangle is one-third of 180
degrees, or 60 degrees.
Concentric Circles.— When one or more cir-
cles having the same centre are drawn within a circle,
they are called concentric circles.
Make two concentric circles. Draw four concentric
circles. Are any two of the circles in the same con-
centric circles of the same size ? Do two of the circles have the
same centre ?
Eccentric Circles. — When two circles, one
within the other, have not the same centre, ihcy are call-
ed eccentric circles. ]\Iake eccentric circles.
88
MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
About Angles.— The length of the lines that form an angle
can in no way atiect the size of the angle. The size of an angle
is determined by the size of the opening between the lines, or the
difference in the direction of the two lines. Illustrate this with a
pair of scissors and by lines on the blackboard.
Two right angles are equal to each other. Draw two, and let the
jiupils compare them.
All the angles formed on the same side of a straight line, by other
lines meeting at the same point, are equal to two right angles. Show
this fact by drawing a straight line, and, from a point near the centre,
extend lines so as to form angles of different sizes, and let the pupils
see that all the angles thus made occupy the same space as two right
angles — that they are equal to only two right angles.
If one straight line meet another straight line, the sum of the two
adjacent or joining angles equals two right angles. Lead the pupils
to see this fact by drawing such lines and angles on their slates.
Triangles. — The three angles of a triangle equal two right
angles.
How many equilateral triangles can be placed together so that a
point of each shall touch a point of all the others ? Cut equilateral
triangles from thick paper, and let the pupils find an answer to this
question ; and observe svhat form will be thus produced.
The largest triangle that can be drawn within a circle is an equi^
lateral triangle. Let the pupils try to draw it on tlieir slates.
Tiie area of a circle inscribed in an equilateral triangle is one-
fourth of the area of a circle circumscribed about the same triangle.
The area of an equilateral triangle inscribed in a circle is one-
fourth of the area of an equilateral triangle circumscribed about the
same circle.
Squares.
^^ ''^
^ ^
^ "^
/ ■^
/ 1 \
1 \
/■ 1 ^
•^ "^
/ N
^ ■^
/ ^
X 1 N
/
«> - —
\
/
\
^/
\
/
\
/
\
\
In
/
1. A square drawn on the diagonal of another square
is just twice as large as the first square,
llepresent this foct by drawing two such
squares; and let tlie pupils learn it by
drawing squares on the diagonals of
other squares.
2. A square drawn within another
square, so that its corners shall touch tlie
middle of the sides of the outer one, will
be just half as large as the outer square.
Illustrate this fact by folding a paper
square as represented by the dotted lines
ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORM.
89
in this figure, so that the corners of the outside squ.are shall meet in
the centre of the small one.
3. A square drawn outside of a circle, so that the centre of each
side of tlie square shall touch the circle at four opj^o-
site points, will be just twice as large as another square
drawn within the same circle so that its comers shall
touch four points of the circle.
Illustrate this by drawing a circle circumscril)ed liy
a square ; and another circle of equal size, with an enclosed square.
4. The size of a square drawn on the
hvpotheuuse of a right-angled triangle
equals the size of the squares drawn on
the other two sides of the triangle.
Illustrate this by drawing squares on the
sides of a right-angled triangle ; and let
the pupils make the illustration on their
slates, and count the squares of the base
and perpendicular together ; then count
those of the hypothenuse.
How to Find Areas. — A square Avhose side measures one
inch is called a square inch. The c(rca of such a square is a square
inch. The area, of a square whose side is two inches is four square
inches.
The area, in square inches, of any rectangular form may be found
by multiplying the number of inches in its length by the number in
its breadth.
Find the area of a figure whose sides ai'e 5 inches and 9 inches.
What is the area of a square which measures twelve inches on
each side ?
144 square inches make one square foot. /S/w?r,by a diagram, how
many square inches there are in three square feet. ^
Show how many square feet there are in one square yard.
Which is larger, a piece of paper containing cigid square inches, or
a piece of paper eight inches square? Represent the diflerence on the
blackboard.
Is one square foot larger than one foot square ?
Which is larger, four square feet, or four feet square ?
Let ijupils represent the diftereuce between them by making dia-
grams on their slates.
To find the area of a triangle, multiply tlie length of its base
by one-half of its height.
90 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Measuring Circles, etc. — Take a hoop, measure its diame-
ter with a string, phice this string on the outside of the lioop and
see liow many times its lengtli will be n^quired to go around it.
Three times its lengtli will not reach quite around. Nol)ody
knows or can find out exactly liow many times further it is around a
circle than across it; but the proportion between the circumttTeucc
and diameter is about 22 to 7, so that about 31 times the diameter
will equal the circumference. But if you wish to be more exact,
observe the following rule :
To find the circumference of a circle, multiply its diameter by
3.1416.
If you know the circumference of a circle and want to find its
diameter, use the following rule :
To find the diameter of a circle, multiply its circumference by 7,
ami divide the product by 22.
Give the pupils examples to apply these rules. Let them find the
circumference of a plate whose diameter is seven inches ; of a wheel
whose diameter is nine feet. Let them find the diameter of a wheel
whose circumference is twenty-two feet; of a log whose circumference
is sixteen feet.
To find the area of a circle, multiply the circumference by one-
half of the radius.
Let the pupils try this with a circle whose radius is five feet ; with
one whose diameter is eight feet.
Find the area of a circle by multiplying the diameter by itself,
then multiplying this product by l of ^^, or \^.
Let the pupils prove these two rules by finding the area of a circle
wliose diameter is six feet.
Which pie would be larger, one of six inches in diameter, or one
of sixteen inches in circumference ?
HO'W to Dra'W an Ellipse. — Drive two pins into a board
about three inches apart ; fasten the ends of a string about six
inches long to these i^ins, then put a pencil inside the string, stretch
it out and move it around, marking a line with the pencil ; or make
a loop six inches long, place it around the two pins, put the pencil
inside of the loop, stretch it out and move it around tlie pins, mark-
ing as it moves. In a room of the shape of an ellipse, a person
standing in one focus — a point corresponding to one of the pins —
could hear distinctly the whisper of a person at the other focus.
ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORM. 91
Foci. — Tlie points where the pins are placed
are ihc foci ol'the elli})se. When the foci are near
each other, tlie ellipse is nearly a circle. The orljit
or path of the earth around the sun is of the form
of an ellipse, and one of the foci represents the
position of the sun within the orbit. Planets have similar orbits.
Axis. — A line drawn lengthwise of the ellipse,
througia the foci, is called the major axis. A line
drawn crosswise of the ellipse through its centre, per-
pendicular to the major axis, is called the minor axis.
To find the area of an ellipse, multiply one-half of the two axes
together, and that product by 3.141G.
A Cycloid is the path of a point in the circumference of a
wheel rolling on a level surface. Take a large spool, stick a pin
in one end near the edge, roll the spool slowly on
the table and the path of the pin will be in the form
of a cycloid.
Now, if you could turn the ci/cloid upside down,
the inside of the curve would represent the line of
swiftest descent. If a Iiill was hollowed out in tliis
shape, sleds would slide down it faster than they
could down a hill of any otlier shape of the same height. This is
the line which the eagle makes in his swiftest descent.
Catenary. — Suspend a small chain between two posts, and the
curve it forms is called a catcnavy. A loosely hung clothes-line, and
the curve in the jumping-rope as it is swung, rejiresent the catenary.
If a chain made in the form of the one inside of a watch, and sus-
pended at each end so as to form the catenary, the curve might be
turned upside down, and it would stand without falling in. This
curve represents the shape of the strongest possible arch for a
bridge.
Solids. — Look at the cube. IIow many faces has it? Height
or thickness is the distance l>etween the top and bottom. Breadth
is the distance between the loft and the right side. Lengtii is the
distance between the front and the back. lias the cube thickness or
height? Has the culje breadth ? lias the cube length ? The cube
is a solid.
A solid has thiclnrss or lieight, hreadth aiul length. A solid is a mag-
nitude of three dimensions.
92 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG.
Solid Angle. — How many surfaces has this cube? Point to
three surfaces that meet in a corner. A corner wiiere three surfaces
meet is a solid angle. How many solid angles has a cube ? How
many solid angles has a square prism ? How many solid angles has
a triangular prism ?
Other Facts. — Many interesting facts may be brought before
the pupils in these lessons on Form, which will awaken a taste for
the study o^ geometry, ivad prej^are them for understanding it. The
teacher should watch for favorable opportunities for Ijringing these
facts to their attention, so that they may be presented in answer to,
or explanation of, questions asked by the pupils. Sometimes this
opportunity may be found by the teacher making statements or ask-
ing questions, somewhat like the following :
A man had a window a yard square, which let in too much light ;
he covered up one-half of it, and still had a square window a yard
high and a yard wide. How did he do it ? [See Squares, P^ige 88.]
Can you place nine trees in ten rows, with three trees in each row ?
Can you show by cutting a turnijj which is greater, two inches solid,
or tiDo solid inclies?
Draw a figure of luilf afoot square, and another of half a square
foot, and see which is larger.
Show how many cubes can be made to touch one point.
Show how many liexagons you can place around another hexagon,
so that each shall touch the central one.
Can the figure formed by these three squares l)e
divided into four equal jiarts of the same shape ?
If you had two balls to be covered, one two inclies
in diameter, the other six inches in diameter, how
much more leather would it take to cover one than
to cover the other ?
[Notice how many times the diameter of one is contained in that
of the other. The square of this number will show how many times
as much it will take to cover the large ball as it will to cover the
small one. The diameter of one is three times that of the other; the
square of three is nine. It will take nine times as much.]
Axiom. — A truth that is self-evident, needing no proof; as two
lines may be drawn of the same length.
Postulate.— A truth too plain to need proof. A thing so sim-
ple tliat no douljt appears that it can be done; hence we are asked
to take it for granted that it can be done.
j —
1
i
SUGGESTIONS FOK TEACHING COLOR. 93
COLOR.
ADDITIONAL SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING COLOR.
The great progress made during the past twenty years
in matters pertaining to the nature and relations of colors,
and the results of experience with color as a matter of
school instruction, show the great importance of giving
careful attention to the following points concerning this
subject :
First. Training children to distinguish, match, and
name colors, as the means of developing the iKrception of
colors.
Second. Ascc7'tai7iing, hy means of this training^ lohich
2)upils,if any, are color-Wind in regard to either red, green,
or purple.
Third. Teaching children, as adva7iced lessons, to un-
derstand harmony of colors, and to determine what colors
appear %oell when plcLced together.
In view of the great importance of giving the lessons
on color so that they may not fail to secure the results
aimed at ; and believing that variety in good modes of
presenting any subject tends to increase the interest of
pupils and perfect their understanding of it, I deem it
important for teachers that other methods for instruction
on color be given in addition to those indicated in my
Primary Ohject Lessons; and furthermore, I trust that
the additional information also pi ""sented in this book
Oi MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
will be found interesting and instrnctive to teachers.
Many teachers find it difficult to so combine individual
and class-teaching as to secure the best results in the least
time. A few hints about giving lessons to large classes
will assist in overcoming this difficulty. It is for these
reasons, and others stated under the head of Form^ that
the following lessons and statements are given.
Train Pupils to Compare and Name Colors. — Pro-
vide pieces of colored papers, or cards, Avliich represent the most
prominent colors, as rcd^ yellow, hlue^ green, 'purple^ vcc\^ proceed
somewhat as follows :
First. Distribute red, yellow, and blue papers, giving each pu-
pil one color. Then the teacher may hold up one of these colors,
and request all the pupils to compare the color shown by the
teacher with the one held by themselves, and those who have the
same color to hold it up. When all liands are again down, the
teacher may hold up another color and require the pupils to pro-
ceed in the same way. Continue this exercise until the three
colors have been thus compared several times.
Then change the manner by which the pupils show that tlie
color held is like the one held by the teacher, by requesting each
pupil who has a like color to stand, holding the color in front of
the breast.
Should any pupil stand who has a color differing from the one
shown by the teacher, ask that pupil to come in front of the class
and compare his color with the one held by the teacher; and let
that pupil, also the class, decide whether the two are alike. Pro-
ceed in a similar manner with each of the other colors. Should
it be discovered that the pupil cannot distinguish each color, tests
for color-blindness should be made. [See " Color-Bliudness," for
methods of testing.]
Second. Distribute in like manner paper or other material of
oranye, yrcen, and purple colors, and proceed as in the previous
exercises.
TO COMPARE AND NAME COLORS. "95
Third. Distribute tlic papers as in previous lessons, and ask
each pupil to notice what color he has, so that he can remember
it when he sees another paper of the same coloi-. Then direct all
to put their colors out of siG;ht by folding their arms over them,
and the teacher may now hold up a color and request those who
have a color like it to stand and show it. Should any one stand
who has a different color, call him in front of the class, and let
him compare the color that he has with the colors which the
teacher holds, and both himself and the class decide, as before,
whether the colors are alike. Proceed in a similar manner with
the other colors. When the same mistake is repeated by a pupil,
test for "color-blindness."''
Fourth. When the children know the names of the common
colors, the teacher may request all who have a blue color to show
it; then those who have a red color may hold it up, and so on.
In each instance let the class correct the mistakes made in show-
ing the Avrong color. Lessons may be given in the same manner
with each of the common colors.
At the close of each of these exercises call upon pupils to col-
lect the papers — one the red, another the blue, another the yclloio
ones. Should any mistake be made in collecting the proper color,
let the class coi'rect it. These exercises will teach the children to
compare colors while seeing them, to compare them by remem-
bering them, and to learn their names.
To distribute these colored papers quickly and in an orderly
way, they may be placed upon slates, and one slate passed to each
row of seats ; or they may be put into envelopes made of stout
paper, and as these are passed from pupil to pupil, each one may
take out a paper and pass on the envelope. In a similar maimer
the collections of these papers might be made at the close of the
lesson.
Such lessons as have been described here may be given to chil-
dren during their first year at school. Each lesson should be
brief, occupying from ten to fifteen minutes at one tinie. The
first lessons, which especially ought to be short, should embody
illustrations by the teacher, calculated to attract the attention of
96 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
the pupils. Subsequent lessons, which require more activity on
the part of the pupils, may be longer.
Order of Presenting the Lesson. — The order of giving
these lessons may be stated briefly, as follows :
First. Showing colors by the teacher; observing, comparing,
and matching colors by the pupils.
Second. Pointing out, naming, and otherwise indicating colors,
by the pupils, so as to show whether or not they can distinguish
them.
Changes in the methods of representing the different colors in-
crease the interest of the children in tlie lesson ; and changes in
the modes by which the pupils represent what they know of col-
or, also add interest to these exercises. Avoid, therefore, the use
of stereotyped forms of giving the lessons, as these lead to me-
chanical routine.
Other Methods. — 1. Place the chart of colors before the
class; call out two pupds ; let one take a pointer, the other a
color-card, and show it first to the one holding the pointer, then
to the class, while the one with the pointer tries to point to the
same color on the chart — the class saying "right" when he suc-
ceeds. As these two pupils return to their seats, two others may
be called on to proceed in a like manner with other colors.
2. This form of giving the lessons may be changed by calling
out three pupils at a time ; one to use the pointer, another to
select the card of the color named by the teacher, and the third
to take a colored crayon resembling the color of the selected card ;
and, while the pupil with the pointer and the one with the card
proceed as before, the one with the crayon makes a mark on the
blackboard to show the class what color he has selected.
3. For another exercise, let a pupil stand by the table on which
a variety of colored objects are placed, and, as one member of the
class after another names a color, he is to try to find it and hold
it before the class; Avhen "right" or "wrong" will be said by
the pupils, as the case may be. When this pupil fails to select
the color named promptly, the one who named it may go and
find the color, and then take the place at the table, while the first
MIXTURE OF COLORS. 97
pupil returns to his scat. Daring tins exercise, the aim of the
chiss will be to name the color which the pupil does not know-
well enough to select promptly, and thus send him to his seat,
that another may take his place at the table.
4. When the pupils have become familiar with the colors,
fresh interest may be added to the lessons by calling out different
pupils to act the part of the teacher in conducting the exercise.
These different modes of conducting the lessons on
color may be changed once in two or three weeks, as the
frequency of the lesson and the interest of the pupils
seem to require. By these changes the pupils will not
become weary of the lessons before learning all that is
aimed to be taught by them.
The children should also be encouraged to observe the
colors of flowers and other objects at home, and at school
to tell the name of the colors thus observed. With young
children these color lessons may be given daily, or every
otlier day; while with more advanced primary pupils one
lesson each week will sufiice. In each case, both the
length of the lessons and their frequency should be adapt-
ed to the other school exercises.
RESULTS OF ]\IIXTURE OF COLORS.
For the purpose of illustrating the results of the mixt-
ure of colors, with a view to explaining why some colors
are called primary^ and others secondary^ procure pig-
ments, in oil-colors or in water -colors. Select carmine
for the red^chrome for the yellow, and a light or medium
ultranianne for the hlue. Provide, also, a small palette,
and two palette-knives. Of course, these pigments do not
perfectly represent the red, yellow, and blue as seen in
the solar spectrum ; yet they furnish good illustrations of
those colors.
98 MANUAL OF OB JECT-TE ACHING.
Since it is of great importance tliat the methods of
giving lessons should be such as to awaken and secure an
interested attention on the part of the pupils, care should
be taken to give them an opportunity of seeing all that
you do to illustrate the lesson. You may commence by
placing on the palette a little of the hhie and of the yel-
low pigments. Spread these out, side by side, with the
palette-knives, then request the children to name each of
these colors. Next proceed to mix these two colors to-
gether within view of the class, and ask the pupils, to tell
what you are doing. When you have produced the green,
by mixing the yellow and the Jjlue^ ask the pupils :
" What color do you see now on the palette ?"
" What colors did I mix together?"
" What color have I made by mixing the yellow and the hlue V
Then you may write on the blackboard the following :
Mixing yellow and hlue lyigments ivill make a (jreen.
Require the class to read this two or three times.
Before illustrating to the pupils how another secondary color
may be produced, require them to show that they observed and
understood what you did to produce the green color. Children
become acquainted with colors by seeing them, by comparing
them, and by making experiments with them. Therefore, in
teaching color to your pupils, it is necessary that you should pro-
vide the means for enabling them to learn colors by personal ex-
perience with colored substances. You may provide such means
by the use of pigments, colored papers, colored crayons, etc. Va-
rious exercises may be used for this purpose. Some of these I
will describe as illustrative lessons.
Illustrative Exercises. — First. Call a pupil to point
out, on a chart of colors, the two colors tliat were mixed, and
require the class to name each as it is pointed out; and at the
same time let one pupil select the same colors from colored cards,
ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISES IN MIXING COLORS. 99
or colored papers, and show them to the class ; and tell another
pupil to select a colored card to represent the color produced by
mixing the yellow and blue, and show it to the class ; at the
same time the pupil with the pointer may point to the green on
the chart of colors. Continue this exercise with different pupils
until all appear to know the fact that green may be made by
mixing yellow and blue pigments.
Second. For your second illustration of secondary colors, place
on the palette, side by side, red and yellow. After the pupils
have observed and given the names of these colors, proceed to
mix them together, as before, at the same time asking the class
to tell what you are doing. When you have produced a good
orange, ask the pupils to tell what color you made by mixing red
and yellow. Now write on the blackboard :
Mixing red and yelloiv pigments will make an orange color.
Require the pupils to read it two or three times. Next call
out pupils, as before, one to point to the red and yellow on the
chart, one to select those two colors from the color-cards, and one
to select a card to represent the color that was produced by mix-
ing red and yellow. Continue this exercise as with the one for
green.
Third. For a third lesson on mixing colors, take red and blue,
place them on a palette, and proceed as in the previous lessons,
sho\\«ing that these two colors will produce a purple.
Fourth. For a fourth lesson on mixing colors, write on the
blackboard the result of the illustrations in the three previous
lessons :
Mixing red and yellow loill make orange.
Mixing red and blue will make purple.
Mixing blue and yelloiv will make green.
Then call upon tliree pupils each to select from color-cards,
or other colored objects (without telling them the names of the
colors), two colors that will produce another; also call upon
100 Mi\^"UAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG.
three other pupils to select colors that would be produced by
mixing each of the two colors held by the first three pupils.
Other Methods. — You can also illustrate the fact that sec-
ondary colors may be produced by mixing two primary colors
with good colored crayons. You may find it difficult, if not im-
possible, to get a good red crayon, but you can obtain good ydloxo
and hlue crayons.
Take a piece of old white muslin, place it on a slate, or on a
piece of smooth board ; make a broad line on it, at least half an
inch wide, with a yelloiu crayon ; then make a broad line with the
hlue crayon across the yellow. By mixing these colors a little
where they cross each other, a green will appear. By making
similar lines, crossing each other, with red and yellow crayons, an
orange color may be made. By using red and blue crayons, a
purple may be made. Similar results may be shown on the
blackboard by using colored crayons, but the colors will be less
distinct.
A good exercise may be had for ascertaining how well the pu-
pils remember the several facts that have been illustrated with the
mixing of colors, by calling upon a pupil to take a red crayon
and make two lines on the blackboard ; then ask another pupil
to take another colored crayon and draw across one of the red
lines a color that should be mixed with red to make orange. Ask
another pupil to take a crayon and draw a line across the other
red one, to show what color should be mixed with red to make
'purple. Let other pupils make yellow lines, and show how green
and orange are produced. Blue lines may also be made, and the
other colors drawn across them to show the formation of green
and purple.
Take care to continue each mode of illustration until all the
pupils understand it; but also take care to change the form of
your illustrations of each fact before the pupils tire of it.
Exercise for a Large Class. — The following method
Avill bo found a simple, inexpensive, and efficient means of fur-
nishinu' additiunal exercises for illustralinu' the forn)ation of sec-
EXERCISE FOR A LARGE CLASS. 101
ondary colors. This mode is tlic more valuable because it o-jvcs
each pupil an opportunity of representing the fact simultaneously :
Procure pieces of colored tissue-paper or some common colored
motto-papers, each about three by four inches. Select the best
specimens of red, yellow, and blue. Distribute these papers among
the pupils, giving to each two different colors. The teacher may
now take pieces of yellow and of blue tissue-paper, place one npon
the other, and hold them up toward the window, so that light
may be seen through them. Then ask the children who have
yellow and blue papers to do the same, and to tell what color
they see through the yellow and blue papers. Request the pupils
that saw the green color to stand and tell what colors were placed
together to make the green.
Proceed in a similar Avay with red and yellow ; afterward, with
red and blue. Call upon each pupil to look through his colored
papers, and to tell what color he sees, also to name the two colors
which were placed together to be looked through. Then call
upon all w"ho have suitable papers to show how orange is made ;
then call upon others to show how green is made ; and others,
how imrple is made.
Vary this exercise by asking pupils to show the two colors that
will make green ; then orange ; then purple.
Make Lessons of Your Own. — If you will receive
these as illustrative lessons rather than methods to be
invariably followed, and — after becoming familiar with
their spirit and aim — will then devise other similar ex-
ercises having the same end in view, and endeavor to bet-
ter adapt the lessons to the wants of your own pupils, and
especially if your methods of conducting the lessons shall
furnish the pupils abundant opportunities for showing
that they understand the subject, success will attend your
instruction.
102 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
REVIEW OF LESSONS ON COLOR.
Naming Colors in Groups.— Write the names of three
reds; of three yelloics ; of three blues; of three greens; of three
orange colors ; of three purples.
Dark Colors. — Write the names of two dark reds on your slate ;
the names of two darlc yellows; of two darlc Hues; of a dark orange;
of a dark green; of a dark j)iirple.
Show pieces of paper, ribbon, and worsted of each of these colors,
and require the pupils to name the color shown.
Light Colors. — Write on your slates the names of two ligM
reds; of two llglit Hues; of two light yellows; of two light greens;
of two light 2mrp)les. Require the jjupils to name each of these colors
as it is shown.
Standard Colors. — Write the name of the color that Lest
represents each of the standard colors — red, yellow, blue, orange,
green, purple. Require the pupils to select each of these standard
colors from a group of colors.
Shades of Colors. — Write the name of a sJiade of each of the
following colors — 7-ed, yellow, orange, green, Hue, pwple. Let the pu-
pils select a shade of each color named.
Tints of Colors. — Write the name of a tint of each of the fol-
lowing colors — red, yellow, orange, blue, green, purple, and require
the pupils to select each tint from worsteds.
What pigment will produce orange when mixed with yellow ?
What i^igment will produce green when mixed with yellow ?
What i^igment will produce purj^le when mixed with Uue?
What pigment must be mixed with Uue to produce green ?
What pigment must be mixed with red to produce purple?
What pigment must be mixed with red to produce orange ?
Write the names of each of these groups on your slate, so as to
represent the two colors which must be mixed to produce the third
color, thus :
'Purple. fiZr:::^Orange.
TelloW'
MIXTURE OF COLORS. 103
STATEMENTS ABOUT COLOR.
FOR THE TEACHER.
Mixture of Colors, — Experiments made with the mixture
of pigments of different colors led Sir David Brewster and otlicrs
to believe that all colors may be divided into two groups — those
that cannot be produced by mixing colors, and those that can be
produced by the mixture of two or more colors. It was found
that an orange color could be produced by mixing together red
and yellow pigments ; green, by mixing yellow and blue pigments ;
purjile, by mixing red and blue pigments ; also, that no mixture
of pigments could be made that would produce either red, yellow,
or blue. In consequence of these results from the mixture of
pigments, the three colors which could not be produced by mix-
ing — red, yellow, blue — were called inhnary colors; and the three
colors that could be produced by mixing two of the primary col-
ors were called secondary colors.
Newton having shown that the white light of the sun ma}^ be
separated into the seven prismatic colors — red, orange, yellow,
green, blue, indigo, purple — it was assumed that sunlight may be
resolved into the three primary colors, and that tlie mixture of
colored rays of light would produce the same results as the mixt-
ure of pigments. But more recent experiments have shown that
the mixture of colored rays of light does not, in all cases, produce
the same colors that arc obtained when pigments of corresponding
colors are mixed. This fact may be easily illustrated by placing
a blue veil upon a yelloiu surface ; or a yclloiv veil upon a blue
surface, when it will be seen that the color produced is grayish,
and not a green, as when blue and yclloiv pigments arc mixed.
This fact may also be illustrated by drawing a group of fine lines
of blue upon yelloiv ground, which will also produce a grayish
color. If fine red lines be drawn in a like manner upon a blue
ground, the surface will appear purple at a little distance. If red
lines be drawn upon a yellow surface, an orange color will appear.
104: MANUAL OF OB JECT-TE ACHING.
In explanation of the foregoing facts, the scientists say that
colors are not mixed by tlie mixture of pigments ; and that in
the case of ingmcnts the mixing takes i^lace upon the 2)alette, whWe
ivith colors of light, as with the colored veils and the colored
lines, the mixture takes place in the eye. In many cases, however,
the mixture of pigments and the mixture of colors of light lead
to results which are nearly identical, as that of red and yellow, in
producing orange ; and that of red and blue, in producing purple.
It is a common occurrence for manufacturers to produce mixed
colors by twisting together differently colored threads, and weav-
ing the yarn thus formed into the fabric, so as to make it, at the
distance at which it will usually be seen, appear of the color
desired.
Colors are also mixed in the eye by the 'persistence of impres-
sions. You may understand the meaning of this term by recall-
ing the fact that a stick with a coal of fire at one end may bo
swung around so rapidly as to produce the appearance of a circle
of fire. This may be illustrated, also, by painting a red spot upon
a black disk, and revolving it rapidly, when a faint red ring will
appear. This shows that the impressions' of light and color, made
upon the retina of the eye, do not cease instantly after the object
that produces the impression is removed. It is owing to this fact
that the rotating color, and the coal of fire, produce the circular
appearance.
Tlie mixture of colors hy persistence of impressions may be illus-
trated by means of rotating disks, and also by color-tops.
Procure circular disks, each about six inches in diameter, made
of very thin boards. Let each disk be fastened on one end of an
axle, or shaft, which is fitted in two upright standards, so that the
disk can be made to revolve rapidly. On one disk paint red and
yellow, in the form of sectors of nearly equal size, and so arranged
that each color alternates with the other. Now, by pulling the
cord, which is wound around the shaft, the disk is made to revolve
rapidly, and the two colors are so blended by the motion that you
can distinguish neither the red nor yellow, but in the place of
these you will see orange, which is a secondary color.
On another disk paint, in sectors, red and blue, with the blue
MIXTUllE OF COLORS. 105
sectors covering about two-thirds of the disk, and the red one-
third. By revolving this disk rapidly, these two colors, red and
blue, blend together, and you will see in their place one color, a
purple, which is another secondary. In both of these cases the
mixture of the colors takes place in the eye.
On a third disk paint sectors of yellow and blue, in the propor-
tion of two blue sectors to one yellow one. Now, from what you
have already observed, as the disks revolved which contained other
colors, you naturally will expect to see green when this disk re-
volves. Please observe the result : You will see on this revolving
disk neither blue, nor yellow, nor green, but a grayish color, sim-
ilar to that produced with the blue and yellow veils, or with the
blue lines upon a yellow surface.
Varied and numerous experiments have been made in attempts
to produce green by the mixture of colors in the eye, or by the
mixture of colored rays of light, but without success; therefore,
scientists tell us that green may be classed with the primary colors.
In reality, all the colors into which sunlight can be resolved by
the spectrum may be called primary colors. And white light
may be called a mixed color.
As far as pertains to the common experiences of artists, paint-
ers, and those who use colors in pigments, or paints, red, yellow,
and blue may be regarded as primary colors, and orange, green,
and purple as secondary colors. Artists sometimes divide colors
into three groups — primary, secondary, and tertiary ; the second-
ary colors being those formed by the mixture of two of the j^^i-
maries ; while a tertiary color is one produced by the mixture of
two of the secondary colors. And, inasmuch as these groups or
classes furnish interesting exercises for making the pupils familiar
with the different colors, they may be appropriately used in giving
color lessons ; yet, these classes cannot be regarded as of much
importance in matters pertaining to colored rays of light.
5*
106
MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
HARMONY IN COLORS.
Purple.
Orange.
Purple.
Orange.
Green. <^>-een.
1. 2.
BIAGEAMS OP HAnMONlZINQ COLORS.
Citrino.
The above diagrams will aid in understanding and remember-
ing the harmonizing colors, and the laws that govern them. It
will be seen in the first of these diagrams that the name of the
secondary, produced by the combination of two primary colors, is
placed at the angle between the two colors that produce it, and
at the angle of the hexagon opposite the primary color with which
it harmonizes.
The same plan of arrangement may be seen in the second dia-
gram, showing the two secondaries that produce a tertiary color,
and the secondary at the opposite angle, which harmonizes with it.
It may be seen by the preceding diagrams that primary colors
liarmonize with secondary colors, also that secondary colors har-
monize witli tertiary colors. It may be added that the shades
and tints of these colors harmonize also. But in this connection
it should be remembered that as one of the primary colors loses
its purity by the mixture of a little of either of the other colors,
its complementary must also contain some of the remaining pri-
mary. Thus, if the red contains a little yellow, tending toward a
scarlet or vermilion, the green, to be truly complementary, should
contain more blue, or be a bluish green. If, on the other hand,
the red contains blue and tends toward a crimson, the green
should contain more yellow, or be a yellowish green.
EFFECTS BY CONTRAST OF COLORS. 107
There is also a principle of contrast existing between colors
wliicli harmonize. Thus yellow, which is of all colors the nearest
to light, harmonizes with purple, the darkest of the three regular
secondary hues. Red, the most positive and exciting of colors,
harmonizes with green, which is the most soothing and grateful
to the eye. Again, blue is the coldest and most retiring of col-
ors; it harmonizes with orange, Avhich is the warmest and most
advancing.
The secondary color which harmonizes with a given primary
is sometimes called the complementary , or accidental, or the con-
trasting color of that primary. The tertiary colors stand in the
same relation to the secondaries that the secondaries do to the
primary colors ; and they are also called complementary colors
when they harmonize with the secondary colors.
We have already seen that the combination of those colors
"which are the constituents of white light are always harmonious,
beautiful, and refreshing ; and, on the contrary, that those colors
■which contain only a part of the constituents of white light, as
red and yellow, red and blue, or yellow and blue, when placed by
the side of each other, arc most decidedly inharmonious, and are
held as offensive to taste and unrcfreshing to the eye. However,
this discord may be partially relieved by bringing in a third color
which is a harmonic to either of the other two ; thus, red and
yellow are disharmonic, but they may be harmonized by the in-
troduction of green. These three colors are often seen harmoni-
ously blended in the variegated foliage with which autumn clothes
our forests.
Effects by Contrast of Colors. — When two harmoniz-
ing colors arc placed side by side, each color not only reflects its
oivn proper hue, but also some of its oivn complementary rays, thus
mutually enriching each other. When two colors which are in-
harmonious arc placed side. by side, the juxtaposition renders them
still more inharmonious from the same law of contrast. If a blue
is placed by the side of a purple, the blue is apparently darkened
in shade, and becomes greenish from the effects of the comple-
mentary yellow rays given out by the purple ; while the purple is
108 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
injured by tlie reflection of the complementary orange rays from
the surface of the blue adjoining' it, Avliicli inclines the purple
toward a russet hue. But these effects are greatly modified by
dividing the colors from each other by white.
A color is enriched by contrasting it with a white ground ; and
weakened by contrasting it with a black ground.
Grays increase the brilliancy of the primary colors when placed
in juxtaposition with them. Arrangements of the primaries with
black are agreeable.
"When two tints of the same color are placed together, the light
tint will ajjpear still lighter, and the dark tint still darker.
Phenomena of "Vision. — Simple experiments may be
made with colored wafers, or with small pieces of colored paper
or ribbon, illustrating the curious relations of those colors which
are complementary to each other.
If a red wafer be placed on a sheet of white paper, and the
eyes be steadily directed to it, by-and-by it will appear to be en-
circled with a fringe of green ; now, if the wafer be suddenly
removed, there will appear in its place, for a short time, a green
spectrum of the form of the wafer. This ocular sjjectrum grad-
ually fades away as the nerves of the eye, which had become fa-
tigued with looking at the color of the wafer, recover their tone.
If the wafer be green, the spectrum will appear red ; if the wafer
be yellow, the spectrum will be purple. Whatever the color of
the object, the ocular spectrum will have its harmonic or com-
plementary color.
In a like manner, if we look at the sun when low in the hori-
zon and red, on turning the eyes away there will float before
the vision an ocular spectrum of the form of the sun, but of a
greenish color.
The reason of these curious effects of color may be explained
by the supposition that the part of the retina on which the col-
ored image fell had become fatigued by looking intently at one
color, and thereby rendered insensible to it, or unable to receive
more rays of that color, so that, when it is removed, the other
colors necessary to produce white light, with the color under ob-
TBEXOMENA OF VISION. 109
servation, iminodintcly unite with it, forming the complementary
color seen in tlie ocular spectrum, thus effecting the restoration
of the exhausted portion of the retina to its normal condition.
There is another familiar phenomenon connected with the laws
of vision on which the harmony of colors is based. When we
examine, for a length of time, a minute object lying on a differ-
ent colored surface, as a small dark spot on white paper or in a
distant field, the' object will suddenly disappear. The same re-
sult ensues when we strain the eye to perceive a distant object
of a small size. After looking at it steadily for some time, the
more intently we try to observe it the more sure is it to elude
our vision. The sportsman, in endeavoring to follow his game
and mark the spot where it alights, is almost certain to be baiSed
by this physiological law of sight.
Let it be remembered that the point of our best vision is
directly in the centre of the retina, and extends over but a small
space; that the perception oi form diminishes rapidly from the
centre of the pupil outward in all directions ; that around the
best point of vision we perceive red, green, and purple; that out-
side of this circle or belt we perceive only green and purple, and
that beyond this belt we perceive only blue or violet; and then
consider these facts in connection with the laws of harmony of
colors, and the phenomena of vision may be more easily under-
stood.
These peculiarities of vision might have proved very embar-
rassing to us had it not been provided that for clear and distinct
sight the eye need not rest long upon the object. A searching
motion of the eye, with only a brief dwelling upon the object,
gives clearest vision.
110 M^VNUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG.
COLOR-BLINDNESS.
Color-blindness is a subject about which little was
known before the beginning of the present century ; and
more facts have been discovered in relation to its nature,
extent, and dangers within the past thirty years than were
previously known concerning it. During the past five
years it has assumed great importance in connection with
the management of raih'oads, marine service, manufacto-
ries, etc. Both in Europe and in the United States spe-
cial attention has been given to the detection of color-
blindness among railroad employes, with a view to protect
travellers from danger and companies from loss by acci-
dents. Kot only have railway companies instituted exam-
inations of their engineers, conductors, brakemen, switch-
men, flagmen, etc., but several of the State Legislatures
have passed laws requiring the railroad companies to
make the tests necessary to determine whether or not
their employes are defective in distinguishing the colors
used as signals ; and fines have been fixed for employing
any person found to be thus defective in visual power.
This matter has also received special attention from
some of the members of the medical profession, who have
made extensive examinations to determine the nature and
extent of color-blindness. Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, of Boston,
has examined instructors and students in colleges and art-
schools, and boys in high and grammar schools, during
the past two or three years, to the number of more than
ten thousand persons. In this number he found nearly
three hundred who were red-hJlnd., seventy-five who were
green -Mind., and over four hundred totally color -hlind.
Dr. Jeffries also examined about eight thousand female
NATURE OF COLOR-BLINDXESS. Ill
teachers, students, and pnpils in normal schools, higli-
schools, and grammar-scliools, and among these he found
one who was red-blind, one who was green-hlind, and four
who were totally color-lllnd. Examinations made of fe-
males in Europe show also that the proportion of color-
blind females is very small, as compared with that of
males. It is probable tliat the early exercise of the sense
of color by girls, and their extensive practice in atten-
tion to colors during the experiences of life, develop the
color-perception so completely in them as to overcome
those deficiencies that are not of a physical nature ; while
in the case of boj's, who naturally give but little attention
to color, the color-perception remains but partially devel-
oped, and feeble.
Dr. Favre, of France, examined about six thousand per-
sons who were candidates for railroad work, and found
more than sixty red-blind. He also examined seven hun-
dred and seventy-five ofiicers and sailors, among Avhom he
found seventy-five color-blind ; and nineteen of these con-
founded red with green. Similar results have been found
by examinations made by other persons, in England,
Holland, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Italy, and
Switzerland.
As a means of lessening the danger from mistakes in
distinguishing colored signals, several railroads, among
them the elevated roads of New York city, have adopted
a system of combined Signals of Color and Signals of
Form, so that one signal shall verify the other.
Nature of Color-blindness. — The sense of seeing
appears to possess two distinct powers of perception :
these may be aoWed. form-percej^tion, or the power to per-
ceive different forms ; and color-xierception, or the power
to perceive different colors. In some persons the power
to perceive colors is absolutely wanting. To such indi-
112 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
viduals all colors appear only as different degrees of dark-
ness and lightness. This condition is called total color-
hlindness. In some persons the power to perceive one
color — either a red, green, or violet — is wanting. Tliis is
known ^'s>2KiHial color-hlindriess, and is divided into three
kinds, viz. :
Red-blindness — or inability to perceive red, mistaking it
for green' and the seeing of all red colors 7mic/i darker
than they are j- 2X^0 confounding reds with grays.
Green-blindness — or inability to perceive green, mistak-
ing it for red; and the seeing of all green colors 'iuuch
lighter than they are; also confounding greens with grays.
Violet-blindness — or inability to perceive motet, or bluish
purple, mistaking red and orange for purple. This kind
is seldom found.
Tests for Color-blindness. — The method of testing for
color-blindness now most commonly used, because of its sim-
plicity and certainty, was devised by Professor Holmgren, of
Sweden. Tlie materials used are chiefly Berlin worsteds. Col-
ored silks, papers, and other materials may be used ; but the wors-
teds are best, because these can be procured in all possible colors
and tones or degrees of color.
The Colors used for this purpose should include excellent
samples of red^ orange, yellow, yelloiv-grcen, -pure-green, hlue-green,
blue, violet, jmrple, ^;/m/1-, broion, gray, with at least five gradations
of each color, from very light to very dark. Greens and grays,
and the pale-gray browns, yellows, reds, and jnnks, must be well
represented.
Method of Testing. — Place the worsteds on a white cotton
cloth upon a table in a good light. Lay a skein of the color
desired for the test far enough aside not to be confounded with
the other worsteds, and require the person to be examined to
select other skeins that resemble that, and place them by the side
of it. The one examined may be told to select a color like the
TESTS FOR COLOR-BLINDNESS. 113
test-color, also two or three lighter and one or two darker ones.
The individuars ability to perceive color is determined by the
manner in which this task is performed.
The prin«iple of the test is to require the selection of one color
from many colors, and to select it by its resemblance, and not by
its name. It is better not to name the colors during the test.
The individual examined should depend entirely upon his ability
to perceive and distinguish resemblances and differences in colors.
Speak of the color laid aside as the test-color ; the other worsteds
may be called the " colors of confusion,^'' or simply the bunch of
worsteds.
First Test. — In testing for color-blindness use the green test-
color first. Select a ^^wre green, one that is about midway be-
tween the lightest and darkest grades of the greens. Emerald-
green, or the color of Paris-green, will give an idea of the ap-
propriate color for this purpose. Do not select a yellowish green.
The person examined should be told to find all the colors that
resemble the test-color, including those that are darker and those
that are lighter than the test-Qolor, and to place them by the side
of it. Carefully observe what colors are chosen, and the mistakes
made, in order to determine whether or not color-blindness exists.
If the person chooses the pale colors, as light grays, with a buff,
pink, yellow, brownish, or greenish tint to match the green test-
color, or if he chooses a reddish purple or a gray for the same
purpose, he may be considered color-blind.
Second Test. — As a second test for color-blindness use a light
jmrple as a test-color — one that is midway between the lightest
and darkest blue-purple, and inclining toward a violet, or bluish
purple. If the colors selected to match this by the one who ap-
peared to be color-blind by the first test are all purple, including
lighter and darker grades, he is not fully color-blind.
Red-blind. — If the person selects a dark blue or a violet to
match the 2^^i^2^l<^ test-color, he is red-blind. If he selects dark
green, brown, or gray to match a red test-color, he is red-blind.
Take the color known as vermilion as the red test-color.
Should the person select blue, yellow, or other light colors to
114 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
rnatch red, it is evidence of stupidity, or want of developed
knowlcdg-e of color, and not of red-blindness. The red- blind
never select the colors chosen by the green-blind.
Green-blind. — If the person selects a bluish green or a pur-
plish gray to match the liurple test-color, he is green-hUnd. The
green-blind often place a bright violet or a blue with the green
test-color. If he selects lighter greens or browns to match a red
test-color, he is green-blind. The green-blind never select the col-
ors taken by the red-blind.
Importance of this Subject.* — The great importance
of attention to this subject of color-blindness will be apparent
when it is remembered that red, green, and white are the colors
used on railroads as signals of danger, caution, and safety ; and
also when it is remembered that success in many of the avoca-
tions of life depends upon a normal condition of the perception
of color, and the ability to distinguish colors which comes from
the exercise of this visual power. By means of proper instruc-
tion in school, which shall comprise more experience /in matching
colors than in learning their names, the great majority of cases of
defective visual power to perceive colors would be detected and
pointed out to the pupils, and warning given as to the impro-
priety of engaging in any avocation for life in which the ability
to perceive and distinguish colors formed a part of the needed
qualifications for success.
Colors as Signals. — Colored flags and colored lights are
universally used as signals. The colors most commonly employed
for this purpose, and the signification of each, are given below :
Red — a danger-signal. A red Jlag by day or a red light by
night is a signal of danger. On a railroad, a red flag or a red
light swung or waved over the track signifies, " Danger — stop."
If a red flag or a red light is stuck up by the side of a railroad
it signifies, " Danger on the track ahead." If a red flag is car-
ried unfurled on an engine it signifies, "Another engine on its
* Those ■who desire more extended information relative to color-hlindness,
metliods of testing for it, etc., are referred to Color -lUudness: its Danr/eis
and its Detection, by Dr. B. Joy JeiTries (Houj;htou, Osgood & Co., Boston).
COLORS AS SIGNALS AND AS EMBLEMS. 115
way, following." "When a red flag is hoisted at a railway-station
it signifies, " Stop at this station."
The Signal Service — weather bureau — displays a red flag %vith
a black centre by day, or a red light by night, as the signal that
dangerous weather or a storm is approaching.
Green — a caution-signal. A green flag by day or green light
by night is a signal of caution. On a railway, green signifies,
" Travel slowly." It is more a signal of safety than of danger.
White — a safetg-signal. A white flag by day or a white light
by night is a signal of safety. To an engineer or conductor of a
railway -train it means, "All right — go ahead."
The white flag is a token of peace. In war it signifies a desire
to stop hostilities, and a request for a conference. It is called a
flag of truce.
Black. — A black flag on a ship denotes liiracy. In war it
is sometimes hoisted to signify that no quarter will be given or
taken ; it denotes death to all.
Yellow. — A yelloio flag in a harbor denotes quarantine — a
hospital. It indicates the surgeon's head-quarters in the army.
Marine Signals. — By a general law of nations lights must
be carried from sunset to sunrise, to indicate the jjosition and
course of a ship at night. For this purpose the colors chosen are
a bright white light carried at the head of the foremast, a green
light suspended on the starboard (right) side, and a red light on
the port (left) side. These lights are so placed that when all of
them can be seen the vessel is directly ahead, and its direction
can be determined by observing on which side the red and green
lights appear.
Colors as Emblems. — Every passion and emotion of the
mind has its appropriate tint in colors. Color influences anger,
deepens sadness, warms love, and brightens joy.
Black is an emblem of sorroio and mourning.
White is an emblem of innocence, peace, purity.
Red signifies defiance. It is an emblem of war. It stimulates
IIG M.VXUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
courage, anger, fierceness. It excites tLc anger of the turkey,
and provokes tlie madness of the bull.
Blue is an emblem of faith. The tlue sky above reminds of
the realms beyond, and enkindles faith in God's promises.
Yellow is symbolic of joy. The sensible effects of yellow are
gay and enlivening. The yellow harvest crowns the year, and
gives joy to the husbandman.
Orange is symbolic of richness.
Green is symbolic of i/outh and vif/07: It is an emblem of hojoe.
Purple is an emblem of royaltij. The sensible effects of pur-
ple arc those of grandeur, statelincss, dignity.
Brown in its effects is sedate, stable.
Gray indicates humility.
Effects of Color on Complexion. — If the complexion
is that of a blonde, sky-blue, the complement of a pale orange,
enriches it.
Green tends to add a ruddy tint to a light complexion ; but
it changes the orange hue of a brunette to a brick-red color.
Yellow and Orange produce a pleasing effect on the brunette
complexion.
"White has a good effect upon light complexions ; but dark
complexions appear worse by its strong contrast.
Black makes the complexion appear lighter.
The prevailing color of the complexion may be either height-
ened or lowered by the dress worn. It is heiyhtened by white
drapery, and lowered by black drapery. Green drapery heightens
a rosy complexion, and adds more red to the orange complexion.
A light-blue drapery heightens a pale orange or blonde com-
plexion.
A deep-red drapery lowers the tint of a rosy complexion ; and
a deep oranye lowers the tint of an orange complexion.-
A delicate gi-een is favorable to all fair complexions that are
deficient in rose.
ADVANCED LESSONS ON COLOR. 117
ADVANCED LESSONS ON COLOR.
By carefully observing the effects produced upon the eyes,
wliile looking steadily at different colors, it will be noticed that
the sensation becomes unpleasant when the eyes are directed to
a single color for a long time ; also that relief is experienced
when another color is placed before them. It will be found that
white light is more agreeable to the eye, in its normal condition,
than any colored light. And in order to afford agreeable sensa-
tions, there must be white light (which contains all the colors of
the spectrum mixed together), or there must be present two col-
ors which would produce white if mixed together.
Complementary Colors are those hoo colors u'kich, tmited, con-
tain the three 2^1'imarij colors; or which, ivhen mixed, xoould pro-
duce a whitish color.
When pigments arc used in the mixing of colors, the following
pairs of colors are the complements of each other: red and green;
yelloio and i^ur-ple; blue and orange.
It will be observed that in each pair one of the colors named
contains the two primary colors which, united with the other
color of the pair, furnish the three primary colors necessary to
produce white.
It has been ascertained by numerous experiments in mixing
coloi'cd rays of light, colored lines, and other means by which
the colors arc mixed in the eye, that each color in the following
list complenients the one opposite in the other column :
Red complements .... Bluish green.
Orange " .... Turquoise blue.
Yelloio " .... Ultramarine blue.
Green " .... Purplish red.
Violet " .... Yelloivish green.
Similar modifications, frou! dark to light, and i>ale, may be
118 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
made in tbc colors of eacli of these pairs, and still tliey "will com-
plement each other. If the red be chatiged from a carmine to a
scarlet, the complementary green will contain more blue. Even
a slight change in the hue of one color renders it necessary that
a considerable change be made in the hue of its complementary
color.
How to find Complementary Colors. — Experiments made
with blue lines upon a yellow surface, with a blue veil on a yel-
low surface, also with colors on revolving disks, and by mixing
pigments, will indicate, by the production of a grayish white col-
or, colors that complement each other. But the following are
more simple experiments that may be easily made for the pur-
pose of determining what color is a complement of any given
color. Take colored wafers, or pieces of colored paper, silk, or
some other material, place a single one upon a black surface in
a strong light, and look at it steadily for a few seconds, then
suddenly push away the colored object, keeping the eye fixed
upon the spot, and the complement of the color thus looked at
will appear in its place. If the object looked at be red, the after-
image will be bluish green ; if orange, the image will be blue ; if
yelloio, the image will be dai-k blue or indigo ; if green, the image
will be ^?M?7;/?s/i red ; if violet, the image will be 7/elloivish green.
Colors which are complements of each other will harmonize
when placed together. In order to determine whether a color
will harmonize, or appear well if placed with another, we may
ascertain whether it is a complement of that color by a process
similar to that described above; or we must decide whether the
two colors contain those that produce Avhite.
Harmony of Colors. — From what has been said concern-
ing complementary colors, it will be readily seen how we may
ascertain which are harmonic colors, as these are governed by the
same laws as the complementary colors. It will also appear that
a true harmony of colors is based upon something more certain
and permanent than the caprice of fashion, or that which is com-
monly called " taste," with its liability to become perverted.
The laws of harnionv of colors ever remain the same, yet the
MATERIALS FOR LESSONS OX COLOR. 119
indefinite modifications of colors allow a corresponding variety in
their harmonious arrangements.*
Harmony of colors may be properly classed with useful knowl-
edge, since it enters into works of art, manufactures, decorations
of dwellings, the selection and arrangement of materials of dress,
and into various matters of daily life. It is also both useful and
interesting as a matter of instruction. But to be most practically
useful, the instruction should consist chiefly of exercises for train-
ing the pupils to discriminate lohen the given colors harmonize,
rather than of those requiring the mere memory of facts as to
which colors do appear well together. These lessons will be more
generally useful to girls than to boys ; and girls will doubtless
take the most interest in them.
It now remains to describe how lessons in harmony of colors
may be given.
Materials for Lessons. — For illustrating harmony of col-
ors, procure a variety of Colored papers, pieces of silk, worsteds,
etc., of different shades and hues, as dark red, purplish red, light
red, vermilion, orange, yellow, yellowish green, green, bluish green,
blue, turquoise blue, ultramarine, purple, light purple, violet, light
violet, brown, russet, citrine, olive, gray, black, white, etc.
The 'colored papers may be cut in squares of two sizes — two
inches and one inch. Place a one-inch red square on a two-inch
green one, and a one-inch green square on a two-inch red one.
Attach the smaller square to the centre of the larger one with
gum, so as to allow the color of the larger square to show around
the smaller one. Arrange other pairs of complementary colors
in the same way. Also, arrange pairs of colors that are not com-
plementary in a similar manner.
* Those who desire to obtain further information upon this subject, and
upon the Seienee of Colors as applied to arts and raanufaetures, may find
rceent authority in Tlie Theory of Color, by Dr. Von Bezold, translated by S.
R. Kochler, Avitli illustrations (L. Prang & Co., Boston).
120 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
LESSONS IN nARMONY OF COLORS.
The following lessons are given as illustrations of methods
that may be used, but not to be copied, or literally followed by
the teacher :
I.
Object. — To lead the pupil to simple perceptions of
Iianiiony and of discord in colors.
Place before the pupils, or, better still, in the hands of each
one, a pair of complementary colors, prepared as before described,
and request them to notice whether the two colors thus repre-
sented look well together.
Then let the pupils select the same colors from the worsteds
or pieces of silk, place them together, and notice their appear-
ance.
Change the pair of colors, so that each pupil shall hold a dif-
ferent pair. Let them select like colors, place them together, and
observe the effect.
When the pupils have thus observed pairs of red and green,
blue and orange, yellow and purple, place before them pairs of
colors that are not harmonic, as red and orange, yellow and or-
ange, blue and green, yellow and green, and lead them to notice
whether the colors of these pairs look well.
Next let the pupils take one of the colors of the non-harmonic
pairs, and try to find another color that will look w^cll with it.
Talk about colors for a dress. Ask whether blue ribbon would
look well on a green dress ; whether yellow would look well on a
pink dress ; Avhether red would look well on a green dress, etc.
Continue exercises in arranging colors that look well together
until the pupils understand that some colors please the eye, while
others offend it.
If it be found that false notions as to which colors may be
grouped together are entertained by the pupils, these should be
corrected.
LESSONS IN HARMONY OF COLORS. 121
IL
Object. — To fiirnisli additional exercise in the harmony
of colors.
Place before the pupils colored papers, silks, worsteds, etc., and
request each to form pairs of colors that look well. Should a
pupil violate the law of harmony in the arrangement of these
pairs, call her attention to it ; and if she cannot correct it, let the
class tell what is wrong, and what color to substitute for one of
them.
Let pupils select colors that please them best, and the class
decide whether the colors are harmonic.
Place before the pupils pairs of non-harmonic colors, and re-
quest the pupils to tell what changes must be made to produce a
pair of harmonic colors.
Request the pupils to arrange flowers in a bouquet so that the
principal colors shall be harmonic. Place complementary colors
side by side, as blue >yith orange, yellow with purple, red with
green leaves ; and use white to separate colors which do not
harmonize. Add a variety of similar exercises, until the" pupils
appear to understand when colors are harmonic, and why some
colors do not please the sense of sight.
After lessons for observing colors that look well together, ar-
range other pairs of colored squares, as follows : red and orange ;
yelloiv and orange ; blue and green; yellow and ^reen ; blue and
purple; red and jmrj^le. Show these groups of colors to the
pupils, and ask them to decide whether these look as well as
those of the other groups. Then place squares of red and green,
and of red and orange, before tlie pupils, and let them tell which
pair appears better. Make similar comparisons with other colors,
so as to afford abundant exercise in discriminating colors that
harmonize from those that do not.
Care should be taken to so conduct all of these lessons on
harmony of colors that the 2Jupils tvill be required to observe
the effect of each pair of colors, and to decide for themselves
whether the colors a[>pear well together.
6
122 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
III.
Object. — To teacli the names of prominent colors that
harmonize.
Request the pupils to name colors that harmonize in the pairs of
harmonic colors shown them. Request them also to arrange colors
iu harmonic pairs, and to tell what colors they thus place together.
Request them to point out and name, from the chart, two col-
ors that harmonize.
The teacher may name a color, and a pupil name one to har-
monize with it.
One pupil may name a color, the next pupil one to harmonize
with it, and so on around the class.
The teacher may name five colors for pupils to write on their
slates, and require the pupils to write with each color the name
of one that will harmonize with it-
Let pupils select colors, and others match them Avith harmonic
colors, and name each color.
Give lessons in which special attention is directed to ascertain-
ing what color harmonizes with a given color. The method
already mentioned under the head of "Complementary Colors" —
that of placing the given color upon a black surface in a strong
light, etc. — may be used.
IV.
Object. — To lead the pupils to notice harmony between
secondary and tertiary colors.
Place before the pupils various objects, cards, etc., represent-
ing purple, orange, green, russet-, citrine, olive, etc., and request
the pupils to select pairs of colors that harmonize. The names
of these pairs may be written on the blackboard as they are
selected by the pupils, thus —
Purple, • Green, Orange,
Citrine. liusset. Olive.
Request one pupil to select and name a secondary color, an-
other one to select its harmonic color, and name it.
LESSONS IN HARMONY OF COLORS. 123
Object. — To lead pupils to observe tlie principles of
harmony of colors in dress and decorations of rooms, etc.
Provide articles — as shawls, capes, etc. — of different colors.
These may be made of colored paper if the desired colors can-
not be found in garments at liand.
Select a child with a pink dress, and place a blue cape on it,
and request the pupils to notice the effect.
Place a green cape on the same child, and let the pupils tell
which looks better.
Make similar experiments with dresses of other colors, until the
pupils readily understand what colors may be used together in
articles of dress.
Lead them to notice colors of carpets, and to tell what colors
would look well for furniture -covering, wall-paper, etc., in the
same room, with the given color.
VL
Object. — To lead pupils to observe the effect of black
and white grounds upon colors, etc.
Interesting experiments may be made which will lead the pu-
pils to observe how colors arc affected by white, black, or other
colors. Place red, blue, green, purple, orange, yellow, etc., sep-
arately upon white paper, and upon a black surface, and upon
surfaces of other colors, and let the pupils notice the differences
in their brightness and fulness when seen in these different posi-
tions.
Call out two girls, each with dark hair and dark complexion.
Place on one child a light-blue cape or shawl, on the other a red
or pink one. Request the pupils to tell which color is most be-
coming to these girls. Place other colors upon these girls, and
let the cliildren tell whether they look well or not.
Call out girls with light hair and light complexion, and pro-
ceed in a similar manner, leading the children to determine which
colors appear best on them.
124 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
During all the lessons on harmony of color, as well as in the
previous lessons, you should bear in mind that your chief pur-
pose is to train the pupils to distinguish the differences, resem-
blances, and relations of color, and that you can succeed in doing
this only by exercises that will cause the pupils to use their own
powers of observation.
In conclusion, let me add that during every lesson on color
great care should be taken to give the pupils abundant experience
toith colors ; and in all your efforts to teach them the important
facts in relation to this subject, let your chief reliance for success
be placed upon that which you induce the child to perceive and
do for itself.
, „ , Name of Pigment or Paiut
Name of Color. ^j^^^ ^,i„ p^.^^^^^ j^^
Red Carmine, madder lake, Chinese vermilion.
Orange Red-lead, cadmium yellow.
Yellow Chrome yellow, gamboge.
Green Paris green, emerald green.
Blue Turquoise blue, Prussian blue.
Dark blue Ultramarine, indigo.
•^. , , < Mix Cliinese vermilion, turquoise blue, and
( white, using most of the blue.
p , S Mix carmine and ultramarine, using most
^ ( of the red.
Each color may be made lighter by mixing pure tuhitc with it.
Imperfect representations of some of the primary and second-
ary colors may be produced by a solution of chemicals, — inter-
esting experiments with such solutions may be shown by any
^Iruggist, — but the mixture of two primary colors, thus produced,
will not form a corresponding secondary color, as with the mixt-
ure of paints.
PROPERTIES OF OBJECTS. 125
PKOPERTIES OF OBJECTS.
[Supplementary to Lessons on Qualities in Primary Object Lessons.]
The lessons on Qualities in Primary Object Lessons
[pages 3i5-364] liavc for their cliief purpose the devel-
opment of the several senses of young pupils, by train-
ing them to discover given qualities in different objects,
and thereby teaching them habits of careful observation.
Those lessons on qualities were also intended to prepare
the pupils for the succeeding Lessons on Objects [pages
365-406], through which they learn to discover what qual-
ities belong to given objects, and which of those qual-
ities make the objects most useful. The lessons on ob-
jects were designed further to teach that objects are adapt-
ed to their respective uses because they possess certain
qualities, and also to show how those qualities lit the ob-
ject for the purpose for wliich it is commonly used.
It is intended by these lessons on the Properties of Ob-
jects to teach the pupils to distinguish those other quali-
ties which, though less palpable, enable us to determine
what substances compose the different objects, and there-
by guide the learner to a more comprehensive and practi-
cal knowledge of objects and their uses. It is understood
that the pupils will have become familiar with the com-
mon qualities of objects, by means of previous lessons,
before the following lessons are given ; therefore, the
teacher may use the knowledge thereby gained to teach
the pupils additional facts about objects.
12G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF SUBSTANCES.
Teacher's Introduction.— To-day I shall try to teach you
something new about objects. You know that some objects are
brittle, others tough, elastic, combustible, transparent, absorbent,
fusible, soluble, ductile, etc., and that the objects are used to make
different things because they possess some of these qualities. You
also know that some things are made of wood, as chairs, tables,
doors, and various parts of houses ; you know that some things
are made of iron, lead, silver, steel, as stoves, nails, shovels, liam-
mers, pipe, spoons, forks, knives, and other tools; that some things
are made of leather, as shoes, boots, harnesses, saddles, trunks ;
other things are made of stone and -brick, as slates, houses, walls,
walks, bridges. Now, if you will think about these objects, you
will remember that wood, iron, leather, and stone differ from each
other very much. Some of them are combustible, while others
are not ; some are fusible, while others are not ; but these are not
the differences which I wish you to learn now.
Each of these objects of which things are made — as wood, iron,
lead, stone, leather — is called a substance. I will write the word
on the blackboard, and you may name each letter as I make it :
s ti b s t a n c e .
"What did I call this word?
Pupils. Substance.
T. William may spell the word, and name some substance.
Some substances are hard, like stone, iron, silver ; some are soft,
like cotton, silk, fur ; some are heavy, like lead, silver, stone; some
are light, like feathers, sponge, cork. Thus you see that sub-
stances have many different qualities; that qualities do not make
substances, but that substances possess qualities. Qualities be-
long to substances. A substance is a thing which can be per-
ceived, or used, or made into something to be used. It is the
CLASSES AND KINDS OF SUBSTANCES. 127
material of which anything is made. Now you may tell me what
a substance is.
Pupils. A substance is that of which anything can he made.
A substance is something that ive can j^crceive by a sense.
Teacher. You may name the substances that you can think of,
and I will write the names on the blackboard.
P. Wood, coal, ashes, sand, stone, bark, clay, brick, slate, iron,
lead, silver, gold, water, cork, cotton, wool, silk, fur, leather, bone,
ivory, wheat, corn, turnip, apple, peach, glass, ice, milk, etc.
T. Now, if you will look at the names of these substances, and
think about them, you will notice that they are not all alike. I
will try in our next lesson to teach yoa to distinguish different
kinds of substances, and to arrange them in groups or classes.
CLASSES AND KINDS OF SUBSTANCES.
Second Lesson. — T. You have already learned that all
substances are not alike ; now I will try to teach yoa about
the kinds and classes of substances, and how to distinguish each
class. First, I will give you another word which means about
the same as substance ; that word is matter. "When I use the
■word matter^ you may know that I mean cither all kinds of sub-
stances, or that of which anything is composed. Thus, all animals
are matter; all flowers, plants, and trees are matter; all sand, stone,
iron, silver, and gold are matter. By observing these various sub-
stances you will discover that all matter is not alike; it may be
divided into classes and kinds.
One class of matter, such as we see in animals, is arranged into
parts for specific uses, as eyes, teeth, nails, hair, feathers, skin,
flesh, blood, bones, etc. Another class of matter, such as we see
in plants, is also arranged into different parts for other uses, as
roots, bark, leaves, sap, wood, fruit, flowers, etc.
Another kind of matter has no parts for a specific use, as stone,
sand, clay, iron, lead, ice, water, etc.
Now, we call all matter that is arranged into pai'ts for specific
uses — as parts of animals and plants — organized matter ; and we
call all matter that has no part of it arranged or fitted for any
128 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
particular use, iinorganized matter. To show me whether you
understand wliat these terms mean, you may name things that
belong to the organized matter.
Pupils. Wool, feathers, hair, teeth, eyes, skin, wood, sap, bark,
leaves, fruit, etc.
Teacher. Now you may name things that belong to the un-
organized matter.
P. Rocks, clay, slate, sand, ice, iron, lead, tin, silver, water, etc.
Animals. — T. Very good. Now you can easily learn to dis-
tinguish the different classes of substances. You know that some
things have life nud feeling, and breathe, and take food, and move
about by their own power. Such things we call Animals. Wlio
will tell me what animals have ?
P. Animals have life and feeling.
T. What can animals do?
P. Animals can breathe, take food, and move.
T. I will write it on the blackboard, and you may copy it :
An animal has life and feeling ; it takes food, and can move
itself.
Animal Substances. — Sometimes we see parts of an animal —
something that once belonged to an animal — such as horn, hair,
fur, feathers, skin, glue, tallow, bone, wool, etc. ; these things are
called animal substances. An animal substance is something that
once formed a part of an animal.
I will now write some words on the blackboard, and you may
tell me which are names of animals, and which are names of ani-
mal substances. [Teacher writes three columns ; two of animals,
and one of animal substances.]
1. 2. 3.
Cat,
Fur,
Eagle,
Dog,
Hair,
Fish,
Cow,
Wool,
Fly,
Sheep,
Horn,
Ant,
Ilcn,
Bone,
Bug,
Duck.
Feathers.
Snake.
ANIlLi.L SUBSTANCES. 129
Teacher. Now, which words are names of animals ?
Pupils. Those in the first and third columns.
T. What do the words in the second column represent ?
P. Animal substances.
T. Now let us examine these words, and see if each of those
in the first and third columns represents something that has life
and feeling.
P. I think all of them do represent something having life and
feeling.
T. Well, does each word represent something that takes food
or eats?
P. Yes.
T. Does each word represent something that can move itself?
P. Yes.
T. Then all of those words represent animals. Now let us
examine the words in the second column. Here is a piece of
feather ; did this ever form a part of an animal ?
P. Yes ; a part of a bird.
T. Can you say that fur, hair, wool, horn, and bone once
formed parts of animals ?
P. Yes.
T. Then you are correct. All the words in the second column
are names of animal substances. Now you may take your slates
and write the names of ten animals, and the names of ten animal
substances.
Third Lesson. — T. Some things, I told you, have life and
feeling. There arc other things that have another kind of life,
but which have no feeling. Some things, you know, have the
power of motion. There are other things which have no power
of motion. We will now talk about those things which have
life, but not the power of motion.
Plants. — Here, in this pot of earth, is a flower ; it is also
called a plant. It grows, sends out leaves, buds, and blossoms.
But if you should remove it from the earth, or neglect for a long
time to water it, the plant would die. If a plant can live and
die, it must possess life. It has what we call plant-life.
6*
130 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. .
Now, if you should pinch a plant with your fingers, or cut !t
with a knife, do you think the plajit would feel pain ?
Pupils. No. Plants have no feeling.
Teaxher. Certainly they have not such feeling as you and other
animals liave, although they may be killed.
The plant takes food from the moist earth by means of its fine
thread-like roots. Water, by remaining in the soil, dissolves some
of its nourishment, and this moisture is taken up by the fine
roots of the plant or tree, and carried through the little pores
to the stem, and branches, and leaves, and blossoms. The water
thus taken up is what constitutes the juice or sap of the tree.
This sap flows through all parts of the plant very much as the
blood flows through all parts of our bodies. The plant also takes
food from the air by means of its leaves, which are filled with
thousands of very little holes, called pores. It seems to breathe
through the pores in its leaves, and by means of these it also
takes food frorii tlie air.
Thus you see ilmi plants live, take food, and breathe; but^^Zrtn^s
have no feeling, nor the power of moving from 2)lace to p)lace.
Their life is not the saipe as that of animals ; they do not take
food in the same way as animals do ; they do not breathe as ani-
mals breathe.
All trees, shrubs, flowers, grasses, vines, and mosses arc plants.
They are also sometimes called vegetables. Vegetables have life ;
they take food ; they grow in or from the earth; but they have
no feeling, and no poioer of moving themselves.
Now listen while I read to you something which I found about
vegetables and animals in a very interesting book :*
" Only observe the air and food which a tree requires to keep it
alive. Its roots suck up the juices which they find in the earth ;
and by some wonderful power which the great Creator has put in a
tree, these juices are made to run up the stem. They run up partly
under the bark, but mostly through tiie cells or holes in the fresh
wood that was made during the former year; and these juices run
up the stem, something in the way that water runs up the sides of a
piece of sugar; only in tlie trees these juices do not stop, but go on
* The Observing Eye.
ox VEGETABLES AND ANIMALS. 131
till they reach the leaves. Now every leaf is full of innumerable
little holes, through which air rushes in and mixes with the druwn-
up juices ; and as every leaf is made up of a top skin and of an
under skin, with fine fibres running between them, the fresh sap
runs along the top part of the leaf, and then passes to the under-
side of the leaf During this passage through the leaf, the air
changes the quality of the pumped-up juices.
" Sometimes the air prepares the sap to become sweet, sometimes
sour or bitter ; sometimes it prepares it to turn to a clear gum, some-
times to a thick juice like tar, just according to the laws which the
wise Creator has seen it good to establish. As soon as the air has
made this change, the saj) flows back into the tree, and going down
under the bark, it forms a band of new wood, and likewise uourishes
the woody fibre of the great trunk.
"Animals have no roots by which to gather up the nourishment
they require. Their food is received by a mouth, and passes down
into a cavity called the stomacli, where it is melted or dissolved.
The juices drawn out of the received food are then carried all over
the animal by innumerable little tubes, called arteries and veins.
Yet air must always mix with these juices, or the animal will die.
Some creatures draw the air into their blood through little holes in
their sides — flics do tliis ; others draw the air in by gills — such as
fishes; others draw air down into the chest by breathing. In the
chest the air meets with the new juices, and turns them to a bright
red. This bright-red blood keeps the bodies of all back-boned ani-
mals warm, and makes them grow.
" So far we have seen that both vegetables and animals want two
things : they want food and air. What, then, is the diflereuce be-
tween a plant and an animal ? The great difference is that vegeta-
bles always absorb, or take up their food l)y the roots, or outside
of their bodies; while animals always absorb or take up the juices
of their food from cavities in the inside of their bodies. And these
two modes of support make an important ditference in vegetable
and animal life. Vegetables become fastened down in one place,
that tlieir roots may absorb the moisture around them ; while ani-
mals carrying their food with them are generally left at liberty to
move about. Then, again, vegetables have no feeling and no wills ;
while animals feel pain, and not only move about from place to
place, but have strong wills."
Teacher. Now wlio will tell mc what a plant or vegetable is?
Pupils. A plant or vegetable is something that has life, takes
food, but has no feeling, and cannot move itself.
132
MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Vegetable Substances. — Thin2:s that once formed a part of a
tree or vegetable are called vegetable substances — as wood, bark,
nuts, fruit, flax, cotton, tea, coffee, sugar, grains, straw, flowers, etc.
Fourth Lesson. — Review. The teacher may now men-
tion various articles — as corn, wheat, sheep, hens, flowers, vines,
pigeons, hawks, flour, wool, feathers, starch, tea, sugar, hair, cows,
etc. — and request the children, as each is named, to tell whether
it is an animal or vegetable, an animal substance or a vegetable
substance.
Afterward the children should be requested to mention several
animals, while the teacher writes their names upon the black-
board ; then several vegetables, in the same manner ; also to men-
tion animal substances and vegetable substances in a- similar man-
ner, and the teacher to write the names upon the blackboard.
The teacher may extend this subject, when the age and attain-
ments of the pupils make it appropriate, to some classifications of
vegetable and animal substances. This may be commenced by re-
questing the pupils to mention substances for each column, while
the teacher writes the Avords in their proper places, after head-lines
have been written on the blackboard as follows, viz. :
VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES USED
For Food. For Clothing. For Other Purposes.
Corn, beans. Cotton, Cotton, flax, hemp, and straw
Pease, wheat, Flax, for 'paper.
Potatoes, Hemp, AVood for houses, furniture,
Beets, India-rubber, carriages, fuel, uteiisi Is, ate.
Onions, Palm-leaves, Indigo, logwood, madder, saf-
Cabbage, turnips, Straw. fron, and various barks, for
Apples, peaches, ' coloring.
Oranges, grapes, Camphor and other gums.
Berries, nuts, castor and other oils, for
Suo'ar. medicine.
The same plan may be pursued with animal substances, writing
on the blackboard as follows, viz. :
SUBSTANCES : MINERAL, VEGETABLE, ANIMAL.
133
ANIMAL SUBSTANCES USED
For Food.
For Clothing.
For Other Purposes.
Beef, pork,
Wool,
Leather for harnesses, shoes,
Mutton, fish,
Fur,
bookbinding, trunks.
Veal, lamb,
Silk, •
Horn for buttons, knife-han-
Tiirkc}^, chicken,
Leather,
dles, combs.
Eggs, butter.
Uair.
Bone for buttons, handles.
Cheese, milk.
Ivory for keys ofjiianos.
Fifth Lesson. — Mineral Substances. Teacher. We have
been talking about things that have life, and those that once
formed a part of something that had life. Now, can any of the
children tell me whether they ever saw anything that has no life,
and that is not a part of any animal or vegetable ?
Pupils. Yes ; a stone, a piece of iron, salt, silver, glass, gold,
sand, slate-pencil, copper, chalk, coal, etc.
T. Now let us see how many ki7ids of substances \yQ have found:
those that have life and feeling and self-motion, as animals ; those
that have life, but no feeling nor self-motion, as vegetables; and
those that have neither life, nor feeling, nor motion ; these arc
called minerals. Now write on your slates what I tell you about
these three classes of substances.
Mineral. — A mineral has no life, no feeling, no self-motion, and
does not take food. A mineral is obtained from the earth, and is
a part of the earth, A mineral has no parts arranged for any
particular purpose, as roots, sap, leaves, feet, hands, etc. It has
no organs. A mineral is not an organized substance.
Vegetable. — A vegetable has life ; it grows in or from the
earth ; it takes food from the earth. Its food is unorganized
matter, or a mineral substance. A vegetable has roots, trunk,
branches, leaves, bark, sap, each designed for a special purpose.
These arc its organs. It is called an organized substance.
Animal. — An animal has life ; it moves about tlie earth ; it
takes for food organized matter, either vegetable or animal sub-
stances.
134 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
An animal has organs for seeing, for breathing, for eating, for
hearing, for feeling, and for moving about. It is called an organ-
ized being.
Now tell me what both the vegetable and animal have. Toll
me what both the vegetable and animal do. Tell me what the
animal does that the vegetable and mineral cannot do.
The teacher may now write on the blackboard the following
head-lines, also the names of substances, as the pupils tell in which
column the names mentioned should be written :
Mineral. Vegetable. Animal.
Stone, iron. Grass, flowers, Cat, horse,
Lead, water. Coffee, tea, Fly, bird.
Ice, brick. Sugar, starch. Cow, moth.
Salt, coal, Wheat, potatoes. Snail, fish.
Slate, chalk. Apples, nuts. Ant, boy.
Teacher. You have already learned that there are three kinds
of substances : minerals, vegetables, and animals ; that animals
and vegetables have life, and that minerals have no life. Now
can you tell me what animals do to sustain life ?
Piqnls. They take food.
T. Which do they eat — animals, vegetables, or minerals ?
P. Some animals cat other animals, and some eat vegetables.
T. Can you tell what animals cat other animals, and what ani-
mals eat vegetables.
P. The cat eats mice and birds ; the dog will eat the flesh of
other animals; the lion, tiger, hawk, and eagle cat other animals.
The cow, horse, sheep, goat, hen, goose, and many birds cat vege-
table substances.
T. Can you name any animal that takes minerals for its food ?
P. I cannot.
T. Animals cannot live on mineral substances alone. Some
animals must take vegetable food, and thus produce animal food
of their own flesh. Some animals eat the flesh of other animals;
but animals could not live without vegetables to change mineral
substances into conditions suitable for food. Thus you see that
animals depend on vegetable life for their food, and vegetables
depend on minerals for tlieir food.
SUBSTANCES : MINERAL, VEGETABLE, ANIMAL. 135
The rain, sunlight, heat, and frosts soften the rocks, and cause
them to crumble into fine earth, or soil. The moisture, warmth,
air, and sunlight cause the plants to grow. By some wonderful
process they obtain food from the fine soil at their roots, and ivom
the air around their leaves, and thus change their food into a new
substance that we call vegetable. This new substance, in turn, be-
comes food for animals, and it is again changed into other sub-
stances that form the flesh and bones of the animal. Thus you
may see how each kind of substance depends upon each of the
other kinds. The plants take the mineral substances of the earth
and air, and change them into vegetable substances ; the animals
take the vegetable substances, and change them into animal sub-
stances.
Minerals are inorganic matter ; vegetables and animals are or-
ganic matter. Minerals furnish the materials for vegetables ; veg-
etables furnish the materials for animals. Animal life depends
vj)on vegetable life for supj)ort ; vegetable life depends iqyon min-
erals for siipjiort. Plants j)roduce ; animals consume. Without
plants, animals would 2>erish.
136 MANUAL or OBJECT-TEACHING.
SUBSTANCES.
MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LESSONS ON OBJECTS.
Model lessons arc apt to become formal ; do not try,
therefore, to commence all lessons in the same manner.
Sometimes begin bj telling the pupils something about
the subject ; sometimes by requesting tliein to tell some-
thing about it ; sometimes by questions. Surprises are
frequently more effective in arresting attention than the
best of prepared introductions. Try to make the lessons
real and life-like to the children. At times let them tell
what they see in the object, or what they know about it ;
at other appropriate times tell them new facts, when they
most need them. Never tell them facts. for the sake of
the telHng, but to meet a pressing want on the part of
the pupils, which they cannot themselves supply by ordi-
nary efforts.
The aim in these pages is to supply a sufficient amount
of information on a variety of subjects, with notes of les-
sons and suggestive exercises, to furnish teachers with
abundant materials for interesting and profitable object-
lessons.
Where lessons arc written out they are intended chief-
ly to illustrate the general manner of giving them. The
notes of lessons are furnished to point out tlie important
facts, and to indicate an orderly presentation of them ;
while the information /"o^' lessons on other subjects is de-
signed to furnish accessible matter necessary for arrang-
ing new lessons.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 137
No one must suppose fur a moment that the range of
subjects and lessons here presented exhausts tlie treasures
of this interesting fickl ; they are barely first steps into
regions almost boundless in the extent and variety of ma-
terials suitable for object-teaching; and they aim to point
the way in which teachers may lead their pupils to a prac-
tical study of the world around them.
In conducting lessons on objects with these substances,
the pupils should be led to give sj^ecial attention to tJiose
qualities and ]) rope Hies lokich constitute their chief value,
and which cause them to be used for their respective pur-
poses. Teachers should prepare for giving the lesson by
selecting the subject and deciding which are the impor-
tant facts to be taught. The substance about which in-
struction is to be given, and other materials for illus-
trating the lesson, should be provided beforehand. On
going before the class the teacher should first ascertain
what the pupils already know concerning the subject, and
thus determine where the proper place is to begin the les-
son. And the teacher should be able at once to present
any fact which the condition of the pupils may indicate as
needed.
SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS.
CLOVES.
Before commencing this lesson the teacher should procure a
few cloves for the pupils to examine, and suspend maps of the
hemispheres, that the location of the places named may be pointed
out before the class.
Teacher. IIow many of you can tell me what I hold in my
hand ? IIow many have tasted cloves ?
Pungent. — IIow do they make the mouth feel ? Can you tell
me of other things that have a hot, biting taste? What do we
call this taste ?
138 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Aromatic. — Did you ever smell of cloves? Is tlie odor so
pleasant that you would like to sineil it again ? When anything
has a strong, pleasant, spicy odor, like that of cloves, we say it is
aromatic. Can you tell me of any other thing that is aromatic?
Fragrant. — There is another word which we use in speaking of
an odor that is pleasant to the smell, but not spicy; it \?, fragrant.
Some things are fragrant that are not aromatic. A rose is fra-
grant; cloves are fragrant and aromatic.
Please notice the shape of these cloves. Did you ever see any-
thing that resembled this shape ?
Pupils. Yes ; it has a head, body, or shank, and point, some-
what like a nail.
T. This is called a clove because of its shape. Tlie name clove
comes from clou, a French word for nail, because the clove resem-
bles a French nail in its shape.
Its Country. — Now let us find on the map the places where
cloves grow. The clove is a native production of the Molucca
Islands, north of Australia. Who will point out these islands?
The clove was originally produced chiefly on the island of Am-
boyna. The French introduced the clove-tree into the islands of
Mauritius and Bourbon, east of Madagascar. Who can show us
where these islands are ?
The clove-tree was afterward taken to French Guiana, in South
America, and from thence to the AVest India Islands. Who will
point out these places ?
The clove-tree somewhat resembles a cherry-tree. It grows
from fifteen to twenty feet in height, and lives from seventy-five
to one hundred years. It commences to produce cloves when
eight or nine years old. The trunk of this tree is slender, bark
smooth, and the leaves remain on the tree during the greater part
of the year.
The blossoms grow in clusters — from nine to eighteen in a
bunch — and bear a slight resemblance to those of the honey-
suckle. Their color changes from yellow to red. A single tree
will produce several hundred thousand flowers in a year, and yield
from five to ten pounds of cloves. The culture of the clove is
SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 139
easy, as the trees require no more attention than cherry -trees.
The harvest takes place from October to December,
Cloves are the unexpanded flower -buds, gathered before tlie
flowers open, and then dried. The calyx tube forms the long
part of the clove ; the corolla, enclosing the stamens, forms the
ball in the centre, around which are four pointed leaflets. The
bunches of flower-buds are gathered by hand, or by means of a
crooked stick, and dried by a hot sun.
Oil of cloves is obtained from the juice of the flov/er-stalks.
Cloves are used for domestic and medicinal purposes, because
they are pungent and aromatic.
Now write on your slates answers to the following questions :
What kind of a substance is a clove ? What are cloves ? Where
arc they obtained ? What are their qualities ? What are their uses ?
PEPPER.
Its Country. — The pepper-plant is a native of the East Indies.
It is a climbing vine, with stems from eight to twelve feet in
length. The leaves are dark green, thick and leathery ; broad at
the base, and pointed at the apex, and resemble the ivy. The
flowers, which grow in close spikes, are green and insignificant.
These are succeeded by a compact cluster of round green berries,
which change to a bright red. The berries are gathered as soon
as they redden. If allowed to ripen on the vine, they lose their
pungency, and fall off.
The plant is propagated by cuttings, and is supported by poles,
or by trees planted for the purpose, upon which it is trained. The
vine begins to bear fruit when three or four years old. The best
crops are produced when the plant is from five to eight years old.
The vine becomes useless after twenty years.
The berries are gathered twice a year, and placed on mats to
dry in the sun, when they become wrinkled and black.
"White Pepper is produced by soaking the dried berries of
the black pepper in water until the wrinkled skin becomes soft,
and then rubbing it off. This process destroys some of the pun-
gency.
140 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Uses. — Pepper is used as a condiment for food, and as a pow-
erful stimulant and tonic in medicine. Its value depends upon its
pungent quality.
Cayenne Pepper. — Cayenne pepper is cultivated in large
quantities in Guiana, South America, and shipped from the port
of Cayenne. This plant is commonly cultivated in the United
States, picked while green, and used for pickling. When allowed
to remain on the stalk until ripe, it becomes bright red. After
the ripe pods of the Cayenne pepper are picked and dried, they
are ground, and thus form the red, or Cayenne pepper, used on
our tables.
Take your slates and write all you can remember about 'pepper
— where it grows ; how it grows ; how it is gathered ; where the
plants arc raised ; the kinds of pepper ; its qualities ; its uses, etc.
Let the several pupils read what they have written. Call atten-
tion to faulty statements, and make such suggestions as will tend
to improve the arrangement of the facts, the manner of presenting
them, and aid the pupils in the use of good language.
ALLSPICE, JAMAICA PEPPER, OR PIMENTO.
"Where it Growa — The pimento-tree, which produces the ber-
ries commonly known as " allspice," grows abundantly in Jamaica
and other West India Islands. It attains the height of about thir-
ty feet. The trunk is gray and shining, and contains numerous
branches, covered with dark green leaves; and when bruised they
emit a fine aromatic odor. The blossoms are white and numer-
ous. A grove of pimento-trees in blossom presents a most beau-
tiful appearance ; and during the months of July and August it
perfumes the air with a most fragrant odor.
When the tree has attained its seventh year the harvesting of
its berries is commenced. In a favorable season a single tree
sometimes yields a hundred pounds of dried berries.
Soon after the flowers disappear the berries are ready for pick-
ing, for they must be gathered before they ripen, or the berry
becomes valueless. The berry is nearly twice the size of the
SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 141
common black pepper, and contains two small seeds, closely pack-
ed in a shell.
The harvest commences in September, when the green berries
are gathered by hand. One person on the tree gathers the small
branches, while children pick up the berries that fall on the ground.
These berries are spread on floors made for the purpose, and ex-
posed to the sun for about a week. During this time they are
frequently turned and winnowed. Daring this drying process
they change from a green to a brown color. They are then put
into bags, ready for market.
This spice is sometimes called by the name of the tree that pro-
duces it — ^J?/Me«'(iffi)iC-
How Tallow -candles are Made. — Tallow -candles are some-
times made by dipping the wicks into melted tallow many times,
allowing the tallow to harden after each dip. These are known
as dlp2)ed candles. They are also made by pouring melted tallow
into moulds in which the wicks have been fastened, and allowing
it to cool. These are known as mould candles. Candles com-
posed of other substances than tallow or wax are generally made
in moulds.
Wax -candles are made by suspending the wicks over the
melted wax, and pouring tlie wax repeatedly over the wicks until
they attain the desired size.
Spermaceti is a white, semi-transparent substance found in the
head of the sperm-whale.
Wax, the substance made by bees from which the comb is
7*
154 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
formed. This is melted and strained to form wax for candles.
Wax-candles are the most expensive of all kinds of light.
Stearine, or Stearic Acid, is one of the solid substances ob-
tained when fats are decomposed by a chemical process. It does
not feel greasy, is firm, dry, and makes an excellent candle.
ParafBne is a white, waxy, inodorous, tasteless substance, ob-
tained from distillation of resinous or bituminous materials. It
is obtained from oil of tar. It readily combines with wax, sper-
maceti, or stearine; and when used for making candles, it is mixed
with one of these substances to render it easier to melt by the
heat of the burning candle.
The illuminating power of gas is estimated by the number of
burning candles that its light equals. The gas-light of one burn-
er generally equals the light of fifteen or twenty candles.
Now write what you can remember about candles — of the ma-
terials from which they are made ; how candles are formed ; the
kinds of candles used ; about" gas-light as compared with candle-
light ; and any other facts.
PUTTY.
Can you tell me what holds the glass in a window ? Who
uses putty ? Is it used for other purposes than to hold glass in
windows ?
Qualities. — Its color is a dull white, somewhat like dough. It
feels soft and greasy. It can be pressed into any shape.
It is adhesive — sticks to glass, wood, or any substance.
It hardens in air — the older the putty, the harder it becomes.
It is impervious to ivater, and thus keeps the rain from coming
through windows at the edges of the glass.
How Made. — It is made of whiting (a finely-ground chalk)
and boiled linseed-oil, kneaded into a doughy mass and beaten
with a mallet.
CAMPHOR.
Take this vial, smell the liquid in it, and tell its name. Now
take this semi-transparent gum; notice its soft feeling and its
SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 155
odor, and tell mc wbetlier it smells like the liquid in the vial.
What is it ?
The liquid camphor which you see used at home is made by
dissolving- cainphor-gum, like this piece shown you, in alcohol.
Where Found. — The camphor-gum is obtained from the cam-
phor-tree, which grows most abundantly on the islands of Su-
matra, Borneo, and Formosa. This tree often attains the height
of one hundred feet, and is from six to ten feet in diameter. The
camphor-gum is found in masses, and is obtained by splitting the
trunk in pieces and picking out the lumps with a pointed instru-
ment. Some lumps have been found as large as a man's arm ;
and some trees yield twenty pounds of gum ; but commonly not
more than half of this amount is found in one tree. Camphor
is also obtained by distilling the chipped wood, and then collect-
ing the gum from the liquid.
Camphor-gum is soft, friable, and tough ; very volatile, inflam-
mable, fragrant, with a strong odor, and is soluble in alcohol.
When taken in large doses, it is fatally poisonous. It is also
destructive to insects.
The wood of the camphor-tree is valuable for making boxes
and trunks, which will protect clothing kept in them from insects.
Write a description of camphor — its qualities, uses, where ob-
tained, etc.
WHALEBONE.
Teacher. What have I in my hand ? What can I do with this
piece of whalebone ? Can you name any of the qualities that
make whalebone useful ?
Pujiils. It is tough, fibrous, flexible, light, and clastic.
T. [Show^s the pupils a piece of a cow's horn, a piece of bone
and of whalebone. They examine each, after which the teacher
asks :] Which of these two substances, the horn or the bone, does
the whalebone most resemble ?
P. The horn.
T. That which Ave call whalebone is not a true bone ; it is not
a part of the common bones in the body of the whale. It is
150 MANUAL OP OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
found in the mouth of the Greenland whale. It is a horny sub-
stance, composed of many layers of fibrous plates, which form
a compact mass where they are attached to the upper jaw ; but
as they extend downward from six to twelve feet, they become
divided into coarse, loose fibres, forming a fringe-like enclosure
along the sides of the mouth. This fringe does not extend across
the front of the mouth. There arc about three hundred of these
blades on each side of the mouth, each of which is from eight to
twelve inches wide at its root, and from one to two inches thick.
About one ton of Avhalcbonc is sometimes obtained from the
mouth of a single whale. It varies in quantity and length ac-
cording to the size of the animal.
Its Use to the Whale. — The food of this whale consists of
small shrimps, crabs, fishes, mollusks, and other soft-bodied animals
which congregate in shoals of millions in the waiters frequented
by the Greenland and other whales of this kind. The whale feeds
by swimming through shoals of these minute animals with its
capacious mouth open, allowing the sea-water, swarming with its
food, to pass in and flow out 'hrough the back and sides of the
mouth ; but the multitudes of small animals are retained in the
mouth by the great fringe strainer of whalebone ; thus the whale
is enabled to capture its prey by means of the great whalebone
fringes which line its mouth.
Its Uses to Us. — AVhalebone may be softened by boiling it,
and then it can be cut easily into such shapes as are needed for
its various uses. On cooling, it becomes harder, and of a darker
color than before boiling. It is used for stretchers of umbrellas
and parasols ; it is split into fibres and used for brushes, in place
of coarse bristles; for framework of bonnets; for stiffening stays
and waists of dresses ; for whip-handles, and various other pur-
poses in which elasticity is a needed property.
Since the capturing of whales for their oil has diminished so
greatly, whalebone has become scarce and dearer.
Write all yon can about whalebone; what it is; where it is ob-
tained ; its use to the whale ; its value and uses to us ; its quali-
ties, etc.
NOTES OF LESSONS. 157
NOTES OF LESSONS.
COTTON.
Its Uses. — For thread ; for various kinds of cloth — as sheet-
ing-, drilling, jean, cotton or Canton flannel, gingham, calico, chintz,
muslin, tarlatan, lace, hosiery, paper.
What is Cotton? — A soft, downy substance resembling very
fine wool, which grows in pods of the cotton-plant in warm coun-
tries.
How it is Obtained. — The seeds of the cotton-plants are sown
in rows, four or five feet apart, late in March or in April. The
plants generally grow from four to six feet high. The blossoms
are of a pale yellow or a faint purplish color. The pods contain-
ing the cotton fibre ripen and burst open in August and Septem-
ber, after which the cotton is picked from the plant.
The cotton seeds adhere to the cotton fibre when it is picked,
and the first step toward manufacture consists in separating the
seeds from the fibre. This is done by a machine called a cotton-
gin. After this process the cotton is packed in bales of several
hundred pounds each, and sent to market, from whence it is taken
to manufactories to be spun into yarn, and woven into different
kinds of cotton goods. Where is the cotton raised in the United
States taken to be manufactured ?
Qualities that make Cotton Useful. — Its fine, long, and strong
fibres. The long and strong fibres make the thread and cloth
strong. Its fine, strong fibres make excellent thread. Its fibre
is not as strong as that of flax.
"Wliere Cotton is Raised. — In the warm portions of the United
States, West Indies, South America, Africa, India, and China. It
is most extensively raised in the United States.
Require the pupils to write out a statement of all the important
facts presented in this lesson, and to read the statements before
the class. Proceed in the same manner with each of the -succeed-
ing lessons.
158 MAisUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
FLAX.
What is Flax ? — The strong fibre of an annual plant, with a
slender stalk, whicli grows from two to three feet high, covered
with a strong, fibrous bark. The seed of the flax-plant is sown
in the spring ; the plant bears small, blue blossoms in June and
July, and is ready for gathering in August — which is done by
pulling it up by the roots and tying it in small bundles.
How Flax is Obtained. — The small bundles of the plant are
placed on wet meadows, or under water, where the gluten is soak-
ed out, and the woody stem becomes brittle by partially rotting.
The plant is afterward dried, then the woody stems are broken by
a machine and beaten out. The fibre is then combed by draw-
ing it over an instrument with long iron teeth, or spikes, set in
a board, which forms a sort of comb, called a hatchel or hackle.
By this combing process the coarser fibres are separated from the
fine and soft ones, and the flax is made i-eady for spinning.
Uses of Flax. — It is used for strong thread for sewing cloth,
carpets, and leather, for flsh-lines, cords, and for linen goods.
Names of Goods made from Flax. — Linen thread, tape, dam-
ask, white linen, brown linen, cambric, lawn, towels, handkerchiefs.
Qualities that make Flax Useful. — Its fibre is very long, strong,
and durable.
Where it is Raised. — It is grown most extensively in Ireland,
but is also raised in Scotland, England, Holland, France, Belgium,
Russia, and other portions of Europe ; also in the United States.
HEMP.
What is Hemp ? — The hemp-plant is native of Asia, but is ex-
tensively cultivated in Russia, and is grown also in other parts of
Europe and in the United States. The plant is an annual, which
grows to the height of five or six feet. Hemp is the fibre of this
plant. It is coarser and stronger than that of flax. If carefully
examined, it will be seen that each coarse fibre is composed of
several minute ones twisted spirally.
NOTES OF LESSONS. 159
How it is Procured. — Tho hemp is obtained by rotting the
woody stem of the pLint, breaking it, and then beating it out,
much in the same manner as is done with flax.
What is Made of it ? — Cords, ropes, and cables ; sacking, and
various kinds of coarse, strong cloth.
WOOL.
What is Made of Wool. — Yarns, worsteds, flannels, blankets,
shawls, broadcloth, tweed, and other kinds of cloth ; merino, car-
pets, rugs, mats, drugget, baize, hosiery, felt, and many other arti-
cles of woollen goods.
What is Wool ? — By tho term wool is commonly meant the
fleecy covering of sheep, which is sheared from them early in
summer. This name is also given to the covering of some kinds
of goats, as the Cashmere and Angora goat, of Asia ; and to the
Llama and Guanaco of South America. Tift Cashmere goat has
a double covering — one of long, coarse hair, and underneath this
one of fine, soft wool, from which expensive shawls are made.
The wool of the Alpaca Llama is fine, silky, and long. It is used
for alpaca goods and other materials.
Wool is raised in nearly all countries. The most extensive
manufactories of cloths and other woollen goods are in England,
France, Germany, and the United States.
What kind of a substance is wool ?
SILK.
Its Uses. — Tt is used for sewing-silk, ribbons, liandkerchiefs,
dress-silk, satin, velvet, curtains, furniture-covering, hosiery, gloves,
gauze, crape.
What is Silk? — Silk is the fine glossy web of the silk-worm.
It is stronger than the web of the spider. The silk-worm spins
this web around itself, in the form of a hollow case called a co-
coon, before changing into a moth. The cocoons are about one
inch long, and two-thirds of an inch thick. What kind of a sub-
stance is silk ?
ICO MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
About the Silk-worm. — Tlie silk-worm is an insect in the
form of a caterpillar. It is hatched, by the warmth of the sun,
from an egg about the size of a pin-head ; and it attains tlie full
size — two to three inches long — in about eight weeks. During
this time it changes its skin four or five times. As the old skin
becomes too small, it bursts near the head, and the caterpillar
crawls out with a new dress. At each change of its skin the size
increases.
The silk-worm feeds on mulberry-leaves while it is growing.
After eating and growing for about eight weeks, the worm stops
eating and begins to spin, and continues spinning for about five
days. While spinning, it moves its head from side to side, as if
winding the fine silk about ; and the worm grows shorter as it
spins, and winds itself inside of the cocoon.
It next changes into a chrysalis, in a dark-brown case, within
the cocoon. In this condition it remains torpid for two or three
weeks ; then it changes into a moth, makes a hole in the cocoon
by softening the threads with a fluid, comes out, lays eggs, and
soon dies.
How Silk is Obtained. — In about ten days after the cocoons
are finished, the insect must 'be killed, to prevent it from making
a hole in the cocoon, and coming out in the form of a moth. To
do this they are placed in a heated oven before the time for the
chrysalis to change to the moth, and thus the insect is killed.
The cocoons are next put in hot water, which dissolves the gum
and loosens the thread. The whole is now- stirred with a bunch
of twigs, which catch the loose ends of the threads. Several of
these are taken together, to make them strong enough to handle
and wind upon a reel. The silk is taken from the reel, and tied
up into hanks ready for the manufacturer. In this state it is
called rail) silk. These hanks of raw silk are placed on a six-sided
reel, or swift, and wound on bobbins. The silk is now sorted ac-
cording to its fineness and quality, and then is ready for spinning
or twisting.
This raw silk is sent to a mill, where two or more threads are
twisted together, and prepared for Avoaving and other purposes.
Manufacturers usually purchase silk in the raw state.
NOTES OF LESSONS. IGl
Before the silk is ready for weaving it must be cleansed by
boiling it in soapy water. The color is now yellow. To make
silk white, it must be bleached; to give it other colors, it must
be dyed.
The web of a single cocoon is from three to five hundred yards
in length. About one pound of good raw silk is obtained from
twelve pounds of cocoons.
"Where Silk is Raised. — Silk is raised in China, Japan, and
some other places in Asia; in Italy, France, and other countries
of Europe ; in South America, and in many parts of the United
States. Silk goods are most extensively manufactured in France.
Articles Made of Silk. — Silk for sewing; twist for button-
holes ; ribbons ; silks, plain, figured, etc. ; satin, crape, velvet,
gauze, handkerchiefs, shawls, stockings, gloves, poplins, etc.
LEATHER.
Its Uses. — Leather, in different forms, is used for inaking boots,
shoes, gloves, mittens, harnesses, trunks, valises, book-binding, cush-
ions ; seats for chairs, cars, and carriages ; covers for carriages ;
cases, belts for machinery, washers, hose for fire-engines ; parch-
ment, on which valuable documents were formerly written.
Kinds of Leather. — Calf-skin, kip, cow-hide, morocco, patent-
leather, kid, Russia-leather, harness-leather, sole-leather, sheep-skin,
buck-skin, seal-skin, dog-skin, vellum, parchment.
Prom what the Kinds of Leather are Made. — ■' Calf- skin is
made from the skins of calves not more than six months old ;
kip leather, from the skins of young cattle, older than calves;
coio-hide, from the skins of young cows; sole -leather, from the
skins of the ox, also of the old cow ; morocco, from the skins of
goats ; kid, from the skins of kids that are killed wlien too young
to cat grass ; ji'^'^tcnt-leatheK, a kind of leather covered with a japan
that gives it a smooth surface and a permanent polish ; Russia-
leather is made from the skins of calves, cows, goats, sheep, etc.,
by a special process of tanning, in which are used willow-bark,
red sandal-wood, and an oil, prepared from birch-bark, that im-
parts to this leather its peculiar odor, and renders it repulsive to
162 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
insects ; sheejy-skin, made from the skin of the sheep ; buck-skin,
from the skin of the deer ; dog-shin, from the skin of tlic doc^ ;
seal-skin, from the skin of the seal ; harness-leather, from thick
o.\-hidc ; ^ra?r/ime?i/, from the skins of sheep and goats ; vellum,
from the skin of young calves, tanned in nearly the same manner
as parchment.
Hovir Common Leather ia Tanned. — The process of tanning
implies saturating the skins of animals with an astringent vegeta-
ble substance, called tannin, so thoroughly that it becomes insolu-
ble, and incapable of putrefaction.
Skins are prepared for tanning by first soaking them in lime-
water, to loosen the hair and the outer membrane ; then they are
scraped, to remove the hair and the hard cuticle ; then soaked in
an alkali, to remove the lime ; next they are soaked in a weak so-
lution of sulphuric acid, which opens the pores of the skin and
prepares it to receive the tannin more rapidly. At this stage of
the process the skins, which arc now called peZ^s, are placed in
pits, or tan-vats, with layers of ground tan-bark between them,
and the vat is filled with water. The skins are allowed to soak
in this manner for several months. Sometimes the vats arc emp-
tied, and the hides placed in the vat again with fresh tan-bark.
The best leather is prepared by allowing the hides to soak thus
for about two years. Slow tanning makes the leather soft.
By means of the astringent property in the liquid in which the
skins are soaked, they become thicker and firmer, and the pores so
closed that water does not easily affect the leather. Scraping the
leather makes it of uniform thickness; rubbing and oiling it makes
it pliable and soft.
How the Tamiin is Obtained. — The astringent property in
which the skins are soaked — the tannin — is obtained chiefly from
oak-bark and hemlock-bark. Hemlock-bark is more commonly
used in this country, and oak-bark in Europe. Ilenilock-tanned
sole-leather is of a darker color than the oak-tanned.
A cord of hemlock-bark will tan about five hides ; and it takes
the bark of two or more trees to make a cord. The acorn cup
and ball of the burr oak of the United States, if collected annu-
NOTES OF LESSONS.. 103
ally, would supply tannin for all the liidcs in this conntry, and
save the great destruction of trees to procure bark for this
purpose.
What qualities make leather useful for shoes?
What kind of a substance is leather ?
INDIA-RUBBER.
Its Uses. — For making overshoes, boots, soles of boots, sus-
penders, tape, cord, braces, bands, rings, air cushions and pillows,
life-preservers, beds, springs for doors, bearers for springs on rail-
road cars, bands, balls, tubes.
It is dissolved and spread on cloth for water-proof garments.
It is mixed with pitch, sulphur, etc., and made into a hard sub-
stance, from which combs, knife-handles, cups, and other articles
are made.
Used for erasing or rubbing out marks of the black-lead pencil ;
and this use gives it the name " rubber."
Properties of India-rubber. — Children should be led to dis-
cover that India-rubber is soft, flexible, very elastic, tough, durable,
difficult to cut ; that it is inflammable ; that its elasticity is in-
creased by warmth, and diminished by cold ; that it is soluble in
naphtha, spirits of turpentine, and ether; that it is insoluble in
water, alcohol, and acids ; that it is non-absorbent of water, im-
pervious to water — hence is water-proof; that it melts by heat,
and remains sticky and glutinous.
What is India-rubber ? — It is the juice of trees which grow
in South America .and in Asia. In India these trees sometimes
grow to the height of one hundred feet, and twenty feet in di-
ameter. The best India-rubber, and that principally used in the
United States, comes from South America. This tree grows
abundantly in Brazil, along the Amazon.
How it is Obtained. — During the rainy or cool season of the
year, deep incisions are made in the bark of the India-rubber (or
caoutchouc) tree {Jatropha elastica), when a thick, creamy juice,
of a yellowish white color, flows out. This may be collected in
bottles, and, if closely corked, can be kept in a fluid state for a
1G4 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
long time. It soon dries and hardens in the sun, by which proc-
ess it loses about one-half of its quantity. The drying is hastened
by placing the juice over a wood fire, and at the same time the
color is changed from a yellowish white to a color neai'ly black.
Clay moulds of various shapes, as of bottles and shoes, are made
by the natives, and the juice is spread over these in successive
layers, and dried, after which the clay mould is broken up and
removed.
In conclusion, require the pupils to state which qualities render
India-rubber most useful. To which class of substances does In-
dia-rubber belong ?
GLASS.
Its Uses. — It is used for windows, pictures, mirrors, bottles,
tumblers, goblets, decanters, vases and other ornaments, chande-
liers, lanterns, spectacles, telescopes, watch-glasses.
What is Glass ? — A transparent, hard, insoluble, brittle sub-
stance, made by melting together sand and soda.
Kinds of Glass. — Crown-glass, sheet-glass (or broad-glass, or
cylinder-glass), plate-glass, flint-glass, bottle-glass, window-glass,
stained-glass.
How Glass is Made. — The materials of which glass is com-
posed — silicates of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, and lead,
the proportions varying in different kinds of glass — arc incited
together by great heat in clay pots. The melted glass is manu-
factured into an immense variety of articles by the use of a hol-
low tube, or blowing-pipe, and a few other simple tools. The
tube is dipped into the melted glass, and a quantity collected on
the end sufficient for the desired article. The mouth of the work-
man is then applied to the other end of the tube, and the glass is
blown into a hollow form, rolled, pressed, twisted, cut, or pressed
in a mould, to make it assume the desired shape. Melted glass
is exceedingly ductile^ tcnacmis, and 2)i<^(stic. After the articles
are made in the desired shape, they are placed in heated ovens to
cool slowly.
Crown-glass. — The melted glass is taken from the pot on the
blowing -pipe, is blown, whirled, and pressed until it becomes
NOTES OF LESSONS. 105
globular, with one side flattened. Then an iron rod, called pontil,
is dipped into the molten glass, and attached to the centre of the
flattened part, after which the blowing-pipe is removed, leaving
an opening. This globular glass is now exposed to heat, twirled
around with gradually increasing rapidity, which causes the open-
ing to expand, until the glass finally flattens out into a plane sur-
face four or five feet in diameter. The pontil is then removed,
and the disk is put in the annealing arch to gradually cool.
Some windoio-glass is made in this manner, and subsequently
cut up into panes of the desired sizes. Another mode of making
window-glass is by a process in which the glass is first formed
into a cylinder, and then cut open lengthwise and flattened. Glass
made in this way is known as cylinder-glass, broud-glass, sheet-
glass, and German glass.
Sheet-glass. — To make sheet-glass, or cylinder-glass, the work-
man collects a mass of molten glass around the end of his blow-
ing-tube ; then, by blowing and rolling, and blowing and swinging
it in a vertical circle, and heating and repeating the blowing and
swinging, the end opposite the blowing-tube bursts open : this end
is trimmed, and the glass has the form of a cylinder. Then the
blowing-tube is removed from tlie other end, leaving a hole, which
is expanded to the size of the opposite end of the cylinder. The
cylinder is then split open, flattened, and placed in the annealing
oven.
Plate-glass. — This glass is made by pouring melted glass upon
a heated iron table of the size required, and with raised edges to
regulate the thickness. A copper roller is passed over the melted
glass to make it smooth and even. This plate is then cooled in
the oven. After this it is ground smooth by rubbing two plates
together with sand or finely powdered flint between them, and
finally polished with emery. This glass is used for mirrors and
for large windows in stores.
Flint-glass. — This glass is made of white sand, carbonate of
potash, oxide of lead, and alumina. It melts more easily than
either crown, plate, or window glass ; is softer, therefore is more
easily cut and engraved. It is used in the manufacture of table-
IGG MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACUING.
ware, bottles, decorative articles, lamps, globes, drops, bells, chirn-
neys, etc. It is made into the various articles for which it is
used chiefly by means of the blowing-tube, moulds, etc.
Bottle-glass. — This is made from coarse or common materials,
and manufactured by blowing and moulding.
In making glass bottles, where a uniform size and shape is re-
quired — and especially where letters are to be made in the glass
— the bottles are shaped by means of a mould which can be closed
around the unfinished, blown form.
What qualities render glass suitable for the piuyoses for which
it is commonly used ?
To which class of substances docs glass belong?
SUBJECTS FOR LESSONS.
The following list of subjects will suggest topics for
suitable lessons from which teachers may select those that
are adapted to tlieir pupils. The information concerning
many of these subjects will be familiar to teachers. The
facts needed for lessons on many other subjects can be ob-
tained from books to which teachers usually have access.
Lessons upon several of these subjects may be given to a
class before those of the preceding pages are presented.
In giving these lessons, the attention of the pupils
should b^ directed to such points as will lead them to
observe those characteristics which chiefly distinguish the
objects and render them useful. For lessons on fruits,
nuts, grains, and other vegetable productions, lead the pu-
pils to consider as mati}'- of tlie following points as may
be appropriate to the object under consideration :
1. Is it a fruit, nut, grain, gum, juice, root? 2. Where
does it grow ? 3. How is it obtained ? 4. What docs it
SUBJECTS FOR LESSONS. 167
most nearly resemble ? 5. What is its principal quality ?
6. What is its chief use ?
If the lesson be on a mineral or metal, let attention be
directed to the following points :
1. In what form or condition is it found ? 2. What is
done with it to make it useful ? 3. What are its princi-
pal qualities ? 4. What are its chief uses ?
If the lessons be on manufactured articles, let the at-
tention of the pupils be directed to the following points :
1. Of what substances is it made ? 2. Why w' ere these
substances used ? 3. Could any other substance be used ?
4. State processes of the making. 5. For what purpose
was it made ? G. Where was it made ?
In all of these lessons obtain facts from the pupils, as
far as possible. When the object is such that they can
easily gain the desired information about it at home or
elsewhere, postpone further consideration of it until an-
other day, and request the pupils to gain all the facts pos-
sible before the lesson is taken up again.
Dew. — When seen, Low formed? [Moisture of the atmos-
phere condenses on cool objects, just as the water collects from
the moisture in the air on the outside of a pitcher of ice-water.]
Frozen dew, called //'os^
Vapor. — Moisture in the atmosphere, too thinly diffused to be
seen ; or moisture rising and condensing into a very thin, cloud-
like condition, somewhat as steam condenses, so as to be visible.
Clouds. — A collection of visible vapors in the sky. "Wlicn the
clouds are condensed by cooler currents of air, so as to form drops,
these descend as rain.
Hail and snow are produced by these drops freezing, under dif-
ferent conditions.
Raiubcws arc formed by the reflection of the sunlight in drops
1G8 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
of falling water. To see the rainbow, you must look in a direc-
tion opposite to the sun.
Fog. — Cloud-like vapor filling the atmosphere near the ground.
Sometimes this vapor becomes so dense that a person can see but
a few feet from himself.
SEEDS OF GRAIN-BEARING PLANTS.
Interesting lessons may be given on the seeds of plants used
for food. Samples of each might be collected, and kept in small
bottles, with the name of the seed on each. In giving these les-
sons, the following facts will be found useful, to be told the pu-
pils after they have stated all they know concerning that which
is the subject of the lesson :
Cereals. — The common grain-bearing plants — loheut, rye, bar-
ley, Indian-corn, rice, oats, also broom-corn and millet — are called
cereals, from Ceres, who was the fabled goddess of corn and ag-
riculture, and who is generally represented as crowned with ears
of wheat. All of these grain-bearing plants belong to the yrass
family.
Barley. — The seed of a grass-like plant. It is said to liavc
been the first grain used for human food. It is cultivated in a
northern climate, and used for food as bread, soups, and malt
drinks.
Oats. — The seed of a grass-like plant. Each grain grows on a
separate branch of the stalk. Oats are used in various forms as
food for both man and beast. Oats and barley will grow in colder
and less fertile regions than other grain-bearing grasses. When
ground, it is called oat-mcal.
Rye. — Tbe seed of a grass-like plant which resembles wheat in
its growth. This grain may be cultivated where the climate is
too cold for wheat to flourish. Rye is made into flour, and used
for bread, etc.
Buckwheat. — The triangular-shaped seed of a plant cultivated
chiefly in a northern cliuiate. The grain is ground into flour,
and used for food in the form of ii'riddle-cakes. The name buck-
SUBJECTS FOR LESSONS. 169
wheat was probably given to this grain from the fact that its
shape is like that of the nut of the beech-tvcc.
"Wheat. — The seed of a common grass-like plant cultivated in
the temperate zones. It is the most valuable of the grains used
for food. It is used in a great variety of forms. How many of
these can you mention ?
Rice. — The seed of a grass-like plant cultivated for food. It
is chiefly raised in the torrid zone, and in the warmest portions
of the temperate zones. Although rice is much less nutritious
than wheat, rye, or barley, yet it forms the food of a greater
number of the human race than any other grain. What food
have you eaten made of rice ?
Indian-corn, or Maize. — The seed of a large plant of the grass-
family. It was originally found in North America, but is now
cultivated in many parts of the world. The seeds grow around
a central stem called a cob. It is used for food for man and beast.
When ground, it is called Indian-meal.
Broom-corn. — The top of this well-known plant is extensively
used for making brooms. The seed forms a portion of the food
of the people in Arabia and India. In the West Indies the seed
is called negro-corn, as it is much used for food by the negroes.
MUlet. — The seeds of this grass-like plant are the smallest of
the grains used for food. The Italians make a coarse, dark-col-
ored bread from the flour of this grain. In this country it is
chiefly raised for feeding poultry.
Quinoa. — The seed of a weed-like plant which grows in ele-
vated regions in Chili and Peru, South America, 10,000 or
12,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is ground into flour,
and resembles oatmeal in many of its qualities. The seeds are
small and roundish.
SEEDS OF POD-BEARING PLANTS.
Beans. — The seeds of well-known pod-bearing plants. They
are very nutritious. In what form are beans used for food ?
8
170 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACUIXG.
Pease. — The seeds of well-known pod-bearing vines. Like
beans, they are nutritious, and wholesome as food. How are
pease prepared for food ?
Lentils. — The seeds of a pod-bearing plant well-known in Eu-
rope. It is used for food.
FRUITS, NUTS, GRAINS, ETC.
The following classes and names of substances will suggest
topics for several lessons similar to preceding ones :
Fruits. — Orange, lemon, fig, date, prune, pineapple, raisin, bread-
fruit, banana, peach, plum, apricot, apple, pear, cherry, currant,
grape, berries, etc.
Nuts. — Almond, Brazil-nut, chestnut, beechnut, hickory -nut,
walnut, filbert, cocoa-nut, peanut, vegetable-ivory, pecan-nut, hazel-
nut, butternut.
Grains. — Wheat, rye, corn, oats, barley, rice, buckwheat, bean,
pea.
Roots, Bulbs, etc. — Potato, sweet-potato, turnip, beet, carrot,
radish, yam, horseradish, onion, lily, tuberose, tulip, crocus, ginger,
sweet-flag, etc.
Juices. — Cider, vinegar, turpentine, tar, rosin, liquorice, gum-
arabic.
Drinks. — Tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa, broma, alkathrepta, milk.
Metals. — Iron, steel, copper, silver, gold, lead, tin, pewter, brass,
zinc, nickel, shot.
Minerals. — Coal (hard and soft), charcoal, coke, lime, marble,
graphite or black-lead, mortar, chalk, alum, borax, pumice-stone.
Miscellaneous Articles. — Brick, glue, matches, gunpov/der,
gun-cotton, paper, calico, oil-cloth, butter, cheese, rattan, vanilla,
earthen-ware, mustard, olive-oil, honey, molasses, arrowroot, Ice-
land moss.
NATURAL HISTORY. 171
NATUEAL HISTORY.
" Nature h man's best teacher. She unfolds
Her treasures to his search, unseals his ej-e,
Illumes his mind, and purilles liis heart, —
An influence breathes from all tlic sights and sounds
Of her existence ; she is Wisdom's self."
Alfred B. Street.
Living, moving forms possess the greatest attractions
for children. The life and motions exhibited in the ani-
mal world, corresponding to the activity of childhood,
place animals among the earliest and most interesting ob-
jects that awaken the curiosity of the young ; hence they
furnish materials admirably adapted to cultivating their
perceptive faculties, and forming habits of attentive ob-
servation.
" Those who have watched the faint dawnings of intellect and
the gradual brightening that heralds the day will have observed
that children very early become acquainted with certain objects,
and indicate, when only eight or ten months old, their instantane-
ous detection of changes in those things to which they are accus-
tomed. Such observers will testify that, next to the familiar faces
of the members of their own family, there are no objects which
attract their attention sooner or more powerfully than our do-
mestic quadrupeds. The dog, the cat, the horse, the cow, and the
sheep are to them wonders. Not only do they become acquainted
with the figure, color, and movements of these animals, but Avith
their various cries ; so that long before the infant lips are capable
of articulating the name of the dog or of the cow, the bark of the
one and the lowing of the other will be attempted, and will be so
associated with the animal as to serve instead of a name. Thus
172 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
the imitative or natural language of the child precedes the arti-
ficial. And ideas relating to a class of natural history objects are
among the earliest mental acquirements of children.
"As it is a beneficent law of our nature that the legitimate ex-
ercise of every organ and faculty is in itself a source of pleasure,
we may feel assured that the use of the observaut powers is a
source of gratification to the child, and a stimulus which leads to
a desire to see more. The object — whether animal or plant — that
the child thus sees may be described in a hundred books, and
have been familiar for ages to men of science, yet these facts do
not detract from the delight of the child. It is new to him ; and
his pleasure is akin to that of the naturalist, who detects an un-
recorded species, and gives it a name, and places it for the first
time on the rolls of science."*
Children always find delight in watching the move-
ments and noticing the intelligence of animals, and in lis-
tening to stories about them. No department of nature
is more attractive to them, or supplies so great an abun-
dance of suitable objects for developing their habits of
gaining knowledge from the M'orld around them ; yet
when left entirely to themselves in this matter of obser-
vation, they neglect to see many of the things that are
most important to correct knowledge ; and they also fail
to associate in proper groups the facts which they thus
learn. The guiding influence of the competent instructor
becomes, therefore, especially beneficial to the young ob-
server, even with such an abundance of attractive mate-
rials, by leading him to notice tliose significant features
and characteristics that belong to the different kinds of
animals.
Young children need to be guided to that which is best
for them to see much of, as M'ell as to what is best for
them to eat much of. "With all their fondness for watch-
ing the movements of animals, they need to be led to see
* Robert Patterson, in Natural Hhtonj in Home Education.
NATURAL HISTORY. 173
for a special purpose, and to see things that rcLate to that
purpose. But they may also be allowed to see as much
more as they please, if their attention be properly given
to those objects which are under investigation.
One of the great mistakes in the plans of education lies
in the neglect to provide for a proper use of the valuable
materials which nature furnishes so abundantly in the an-
imal world as a means for the early development of the
powers of gaining knowledge. The domestic animals,
and such others, including insects, as come within the
range of frequent observation, engage the attention of
children long before they are old enough to commence
their lirst lessons in books. Nature does not weary the
young learner, as books do. These facts should be remem-
bered in the arrangement of courses of primary instruc-
tion. That which is familiar and interesting to children
should be among the subjects of the earliest lessons. Nat-
ure should be studied first; then books and nature togeth-
er, each helping the student to understand the other.
Give children correct ideas of the leading groups of
animals, teach them to distinguish their characteristics by
personal observation, and to arrange them in classes by
such means, and not only will the real interest of children
in this subject be secured, but the usefulness of text-books
will be largely increased. Children thus taught become
real and practical students. By becoming accustomed to
observe carefully, to arrange in classes by common resem-
blances, habits of order are formed which prove valuable
at a later period in life, in whatever situation the person
so trained may be placed — whether in the office of the
lawyer, in the counting-room of the merchant, in the lab-
oratory of the chemist, in the workshop of the mechanic,
or in the fields of the farmer.
Among the attractive materials of the animal world ap-
propriate for the early exercises of the perceptive powers
174 MAA^UAL or OBJECT-TEACHING.
are those animals with whoso appearance children are to
some extent familiar — as the cat, dog, cow, horse, hen,
goose, duck, sheep, pig, mouse ; and birds of all kinds.
The toad and the snail snpply interesting materials for
these lessons in nature, because children do not usually
expect to find anything instructive in things so common
and unattractive.
The peculiar structure and uses of the cat's eye, her
cushion -like feet, and retractile nails; instances of the
fidelity and sagacity of the dog ; the docility of the horse ;
the gentleness of the cow ; the playfulness of the lamb
and the kitten ; the different movements of birds — as walk-
ing, hopping, swimming, flying, their nest -building and
migratory habits ; the form, movement, and habits of fish-
es, reptiles, and insects, with the wonderful adaptation of
structure to their several modes of life. Also the differ-
ent voices of animals: as the bark, the whine, and growl
of the dog; the mew and purr of the cat; the neigh and
whinny of the horse ; the bleats of the sheep, goat, lamb,
and kid ; the cluck and cackle of the hen ; the gabble and
hiss of the goose ; the quack of the duck ; the caw of the
crow ; the whistle of the quail ; the songs of the thrush,
robin, bluebird, and canary, all furnish materials and sub-
jects adapted to interest and instruct children.
Attention may be also directed to those animals which
serve us by their strength, swiftness, and sagacity ; and to
those that supply so many of our w^ants by their milk,
flesh, honey, wool, hair, fur, skins, horns, bones, tusks,
feathers, etc.
The lessons during the early stages of instruction should
De short. Give an idea of some one thing, or of the ac-
tion of some one animal ; then stop, let the young learn-
ers go away and think and talk about it, and look to see
if the thing be really so. Then they will return to the
next lesson desirous of knowing more.
NATURAL HISTORY. 175
The natural fondness of cliildrcn for animals renders
tliese objects especially appropriate for lessons to develop
their liuniane feelings, sympathy, kindness, and benevo-
lence.
Plants, as ^vell as animals, supply useful materials for
the child's development by their beautiful flowers of many
shapes and colors; their variety of delicious fruits; their
fragrance and flavor ; the many forms of their leaves and
stems; by the wonders of their growth, and their uses for
food, medicine, clothing, building, furniture, fuel, etc. Al-
though these lack the attractive feature of motion which
renders the animal world so full of interest to the young,
very interesting and profitable lessons may be given on
these subjects, which will gladden the footsteps of many
weary pilgrims along the road to the temple of knowl-
edge, and enrich them with lasting treasures.
Minerals form an important part of the common ob-
jects and implements which the child sees and handles
daily. Although not endowed with the power of motion
like animals, or of growth like plants, yet they arc also
calculated to awaken the curiosity of children, and there-
by furnish appropriate means for their mental develop-
ment.
The transparency of glass ; the elasticity of steel springs ;
the flexibility of copper wire ; the fusibility of lead ; the
attraction of the magnet ; the usefulness of iron, and its
softening by heat; the astringency of alum; and the ap-
pearances, qualities, and uses of other metals, minerals,
rocks, and soils, add to' the great variety of materials
which nature abundantly supplies for the development
and instruction of the child.
These three grand divisions of nature — animals, vcge-
tahleSf and minerals — comprise the materials which God
17G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
employs in exercising the senses, stimulating the percep-
tive powers, awakening intelligence, and cultivating the
human mind throughout its stages of intellectual devel-
opment. And these things are especially adapted to the
purposes of elementary education, since the aim at this
time is not so much the giving of a certain amount of
knowledge as it is the awakening of the faculties, and
training the pupil to use his own mind.
The introductory lessons on natural history should be
graded, and presented in successive steps, corresponding
to the different stages of the child's development. The
age and capacity of the child should determine as to the
extent and minuteness of the observations required, and
the amount of information to be gained.
LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 177
LESSOXS OX AXIMALS.
FIRST STAGE.
{Intended for children at home, and during the first year in school.'i
When children have become sufficiently familiar with
their own bodies to be able to point out and name the
principal parts, and to tell the use of each organ of sense,
they will be ready for the lessons on animals, and pre-
pared to observe the different parts of animals, to compare
them with parts of their own bodies, and notice resem-
blances and differences in the structure and uses of these
parts.
The first lessons should not be formal in character, but
rather consist of familiar conversations, with abundant op-
portunities for personal observation by the child. As far
as practicable, let the pupil see the object first, and then
hear about it. The spontaneous questions by the child
that follow his seeing — what is it? what is it for? why
does it do so ? will it hurt me ? — furnish abundant oppor-
tunities for instruction, and guide the parent or teacher as
to the kind of information that is most appropriate for the
young learner during his first lessons.
When the child enters school he has already acquired
some knowledge concerning domestic animals, and other
familiar ones, through home experiences. The teacher's
first aim must be to ascertain the character and extent of
this information, and then to follow with appropriate les-
sons connected with and based upon this knowledge. The
following series of exercises will suggest some of the meth-
ods which teachers may pursue during successive steps in
these early lessons.
8*
178 MAls'UAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
First Series of Exercises, — To ascertain what animals
the children are most familiar with, request them to tell what an-
imals they have seen. When several names have been given, se-
lect one animal named, and ask a child, Where did you see it ?
Then ask another where he saw it ; repeating the question to sev-
eral members of the class.
What can it do? is another question that may invite answers
from several pupils. This may be followed by other questions;
as. How does it move? What does it eat? Where does it live?
What is it good for? The same or similar questions may be
asked about different familiar animals. The pupils should be en-
couraged to make new observations of each animal that forms a
subject of this exercise, and to talk about them at a subsequent
lesson.
To further stimulate them in observation, tell the children some
simple story about the animal ; or, if the exercise be about a cat,
ask the children to look at the opening in the cat's eyes when the
sun «hines, and to look at it at night, or when there is not much
light in the room, and to tell their teacher the next day what they
saw. They may be requested also to look at the feet of a duck
or goose, and the feet of a hen, and afterward tell how they dif'
fer. Lead them to tell what the cat does when it is happy ; what
it docs when it is mad. Thus in various ways the teacher may
stimulate and lead the children to find out many interesting and
useful facts about animals.
Do not tell the pupils that which tlieij can discover. The
teacher may choose the object, lead the pupils to it, then leave
them to sec it, handle it, and learn from it by the exercise of
their own senses.
These exercises may be made a part of the lessons in reading
and spelling, by teaching the pupils the names of the animals
talked about ; and to read some of the simple statements as to
what they can do, how move, what they cat, etc.
Second Series of Exercises. — Place before the pupils
pictures of several of the animals about Avhich conversations have
already been held ; as cat, dog, cow, sheep, goat, horse, etc. Let
LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 179
the pupils name these animals as the teacher points at the pict-
ures. Let the pupils, singly, point out and name these animals.
Let them point out and name the principal parts of each ; as,
head, neck, body, legs, feet, tail, back, ears, eyes, nose, mouth, etc.
Select a single picture — as that of a cat. Let the pupils point
out and name the principal parts ; as, head, neck, body, tail, legs,
feet, claws, ears, eyes, teeth, feelers, tongue.
Select the picture of a familiar bird — as hen, duck, turkey,
robin — and let the pupils point out and name the principal parts ;
as head, neck, body, tail, legs, wings, beak, eyes, feet, etc. Pro-
ceed in the same way with pictures of the dog, the horse, the
cow, sheep, goat, pig, etc.
Third Series of Exercises. — Place the pictures of fa-
miliar animals — as cow, horse, and sheep — before the pupils, and
request them to tell what each is good for. One pupil might
say the cow gives us milk ; another, the sheep gives us wool ;
another, the horse can draw us in a wagon, etc.
Then a single picture may be selected, and the pupils requested
to tell all they can about that. If it be the picture of a cow, the
pupils might Siiy, "We get milk from the cow ; we make butter
from the milk ; we can make cheese from the milk. Leather
for shoes and boots is made from the skin of a cow. The flesh
of the cow is called beef. We eat beef." Do not try to make
the pupils tell things which they cannot learn by observation, nor
such as they would not be likely to have learned by talking about
the subject.
Proceed in a similar manner with other familiar animals, and
thus lead the pupils to consider their uses — i. e., to answer one
of their own questions — "Wliat is it for? In this way they may
become able to mention, somewhat as follows, many
USES OF ANIMALS.
The Horse is useftil for riding, for drawing loads, carts, wagons,
sleighs, carriages, cars, ploughing, etc.
The Sheep is useful in supplying wool for clothing, flesh for food,
and skin for soft leather.
The Goat is useful in supplying milk for food, and skin for leather.
180 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
The Dog is useful to guard the house and barn, to hunt, to kill
rats, etc.
Hens and Turkeys sui)2)ly eggs and flesh for food.
Ducks and Geese suiDply eggs and flesh for food, and feathers
for liillows, beds, etc.
Fourth Series of Exercises. — Lead the pupils to talk
about the movements of animals.
First — they may tell what they have noticed concerning tlie
movements of the animals named for the lesson.
Second — then lead them to observe the different movements of
animals more carefully.
In conducting this exercise, the teacher should not tell the piqnls
what the movements are, but request them to find out, if they do
not already know, and to tell about them during tlie next day's
lesson, which should include a review of the lesson on the pre-
vious day.
As suggestions to the teacher relative to the facts which the
pupils might notice and mention concerning these movements,
the following list of appropriate animals, with their movements,
is given :
The Cat can walk, run, jump, and cHmb.
The Dog can walk, trot, run, leap, and jump.
The Horse can walk, trot, run, canter or gallop, and pace.
The Hen can walk, run, and flJ^
The Goose can walk, run, fly, and swim.
The Sparrow can hop and fly.
The Robin can run, walk, and fly.
The Turkey can walk, run, and fly.
The Fish can swim.
The Bee can creep and fly.
The Toad can walk and leap.
The Mouse can walk, run, and climl).
The Squirrel can walk, run, climb, and jump.
The Monkey can walk,jumi), climb, and swing.
Use these exercises as reading-lessons from the blackboard;
also as lessons in spelling and writing on slates.
LESSONS ON ANIMALS. ISl
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.
SECOND STAGE.
ITntended for children from eight to ten years ofage.1
When the cliildren have acquired a good variety of
facts by their own observation of familiar animals, and
the ability to give sufficient attention to a single object
to consider more than one of its characteristics at the same
lesson, they will be prepared for a second series of lessons,
during which they may be led to observe more minutely
the peculiarities of each object.
During this second stage lessons may be given that will
afford exercise for the child's imagination, and thus give
pleasure through a faculty that is very active in early
life. In giving this series of lessons, the teacher should
use a few interesting facts about each animal in such a
manner as to lead the pupils to observe and learn other
facts about it.
Some lessons may be commenced by first requiring the
pupils to tell all they know about the animal ; then the
teacher may ask a few questions about special habits of
the animal that will stimulate the pupils to try to find
answers by their own observations ; as, What does it do ?
How does it get its food ? What does it eat ? How does
it move ? Would it like to have you pat it ? etc.
Sometimes the lesson may be commenced by comparing
the habits of animals with some appropriate occupation ;
adding a few interesting facts about them, and telling the
children how they may see the same things, and many
others equally interesting.
Throughout all the lessons in this stage the constant aim
182 MANUxiL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
of the teacher should he to cause the pupils to see carefulhj,
observe jpatiently ^ and learn for themselves.
This series may include lessons on a few animals that
the children see only in museums, menageries, zoological
gardens, or become somewhat acfjuainted with by means
of pictures.
Some simple classification of animals in groups, by their
similar habits, modes of life, etc., may be made in this
stage, to give children an idea of kinds or classes of ani-
mals.
The following lessons are not intended to be copied by
the teacher, and taught to the children ; but they are de-
signed to furnish sufiicient information for bringing the
lessons before the class, and to suggest methods for con-
ducting them. Each teacher should endeavor to make
the lessons her own, and to adapt them to the pupils in
her class. Concerning some of the animals only the
most important facts and characteristics are given, and
the teacher is expected to arrange these in an appropriate
form for a lesson, with such additional information as she
can supply.
After a lesson has been given and reviewed, the pupils
should be required to write on their slates, or on paper,
the most important facts contained in the lesson. By
proper management on the part of the teacher, the pu-
pils may be led to the writing of compositions in a way
that will be interesting to them.
THE CAT.
The teacher may introduce the lesson in a way that will gain
the attention of the pupils; and this can be secured by furnishing
them a little exercise for their imagination, somewliat as follows :
Children, I am going to talk with you about a small animal
^vhich all of you have seen. It is fond of staying in the kitchen,
and of lying in a warm place. It likes to he noticed, and even
LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 183
caressed by those ■\vlio are kind to it. I tliink some of j'ou have
taken this animal in your arms, and felt of its soft fur.
Having thus prepared the class for the lesson, the teacher may
proceed somewhat as follows :
Teacher. All who think they can tell the name of this animal may
raise a hand ? Wliat is its name ?
Children. A cat.
T. Very good. Here is the picture of a cat. What do you think
it is doing ? What do you see on each side of its mouth ?
C. Whiskers.
T. That which you call the cat's whiskers are its feehrs. When
the cat puts its head in a hole it can tell by these feelers whether
the hole is large enougli to allow its body to go through.
The cat docs not like to lie down in a dirty place. It is more
care-ful about keeping out of the dirt than some children are when
they are at play. The cat does not like to have her face dirty. How
does she keej) her fiice clean ?
C. She washes it with her paws. She licks her paws, makes them
clean, then rul)s them on Iier face, then licks them again.
T. Puss carries a brush, and smooths her fur with it. I think
some of you have seen her use it. Do you know what this brush is ?
C. I think it is her tongue, for I have seen her lick her fur; and
her tongue is rough, something like a brush.
T. You arc right; the top of her tongue is covered with homy
points, which slant backward toward her throat. With this rough
tongue she can make her hair smooth.
Did you know that cats can see in the dark ? They have curtains
in their eyes of a yellowish-green color. When the sun shines very
briglitly they draw these curtains together, so as to leave only a nar-
row opening between them, and let in a little light. When too much
light goes into the eye it has a blinding cfl'ect, and prevents the cat
from seeing well. At niglit this curtain is pulled back to make a
wide opening, to let in enough light to enable tlie cat to see. By
this means the cat can see to hunt its prey at night.
Did yoii ever look in a cat's eyes when the , , ij,,
sun sliines brightly on her, and notice how the <^ m'^l^^s^/^^
curtains are drawn nearly together, leaving w..'"
only a narrow opening? I will try to make
a picture on the blackboard to show how tlie ,, . ,
cat's ej'c looks when these curtains are drawn '" ''"
together. eye in suNLicnT.
184 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
Did you ever look at a cat's eye at night,
W'lien the curtaius were pulled so far back that
tlie oj^euing in the pupil of the eye w.as like a
large round spot, or circle ? The opening be-
"^z^^^^^^^^^**^ " tween the curtains of the cat's eye is the pupil.
' The cat sees throu
Marten,
Seal,
Squirrc
'1,
ChincLilla.
9-=
5-
202 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACIIIXG.
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.
THIRD STAGE.
[Appropriate for children during their fourth, fifth , aivl sixth years in school.]
When the pupils have liad a year or two of such expe-
riences in observing the habits of different kinds of ani-
mals as is contemplated by the lessons of the second stage^
they MuU be fnlly prepared to compare the habits and
structure of similar animals, and thus become familiar
with their leading family characteristics.
The first lessons should commence with animals that
the pupils can examine personally; as the duck, the hen,
the cat, the cow, etc. In cases where several animals of
the same kind cannot be examined personally by the pu-
pils, pictures may be used as a substitute in making the
comparisons as to their form and structure.
The outline of a few lessons is here given, to indicate
the general plan of conducting the exercises in natural
liistory for the tJt'ird stage. Following these lessons are
the names of several other animals, with brief statements
of facts concerning them, which the teacher may use as
materials in preparing lessons. In giving these lessons,
it will be well for the teacher to direct special attention
of the pupils to one or more of the following points in
relation to each animal. That point in relation to any
one which is most familiar to the pupils will indicate
where the lesson on that animal may commence :
The hahits of the animal, or what it usually does.
Where it is found; its mode of living.
IIoio it moves; kind of food eaten hy it.
Its structure; whether that of a hird, quadruped, fish,
reptile, insect, etc.
LESSONS ON AXIilALS. 203
Its shape and size.
Its covering and color.
Its uses.
How its structure adapts it to its mode of life, to its
habits, food, uses, etc.
THE DUCK.
If the duck be selected as the subject for the first lesson, let
the pupils be required, as an introductory exercise, to tell what
they know already about the shape of the duck's body, head,
neck, beak, and feet. Let them describe some of the habits of
the duck — tell Avhat it docs, its uses, color, where found, etc.
Request the pupils to make further observations, that they may
ascertain and report at the next lesson how many toes ducks
have; what is between their toes; how they use their feet; the
position of the legs on the body; whether the legs are short or
long; whether their feathers hang loosely, or lap upon each' other
closely ; what is under their feathers ; about the oiling of their
feathers; the use of their long necks; their broad bills, with the
comb-like edges; and what is their food.
After full observations have been made by the pupils, and re-
ported in class exercises, request them to name other birds which
have similar bodies, feet, necks, and bills. Then let the pupils
make observations to see how these characteristics resemble and
how they differ from those of the duck, and report concerning
these also to the class.
To facilitate this work of observation and comparison, the
teacher may place before the class a large 2)icture of a duck, and
let the pupils point out each characteristic that may be seen in
the picture. Then pictures representing other swimming birds
may be shown the pupils, that they may compare the character-
istics of the birds thus represented with those of the duck.
If the exercises on this subject be properly conducted, the pu-
pils will learn that the general forms of swimming birds are —
boat -shaped bodies, short logs, webbed feet, and long necks; and
tliat all ducks, geese, swans, gulls, and many other birds, belong
to this group.
204 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Before leaving this group of Lirds, request the pupils to state
ill writing their principal characteristics, habits, uses, etc., and to
give the names of all they can remember as belonging to the or-
der of sioimming birds.
THE HEN.
When the hen is made the subject of a lesson, require the pu-
pils first to tell all they know about her general shape, size, struct-
ure, habits, etc. ; then place before them the large picture of a
turkey, and let them point out parts similar to those of the hen.
When they have observed that the hen and the turkey have
heavy bodies, small heads, short wings, strong but not very long
legs, toes nearly straight, with short, blunt nails — three front toes
longest, hind toe short and higher than the others ; that their
beaks are short and stout — tails large; that the hen finds her
food by scratching the ground; that both spend most of the
time on the ground ; that their food consists of grain, seeds, and
insects ; that they usually select some elevated position — as a
branch of a tree — for a roosting-place at night ; that their young
are hatched from eggs; — when the pupils have given attention
to these characteristics, other pictures of this group of birds
(scratching birds) may be placed before them, that they may
observe similar forms and characteristics in the birds represented
by the pictures. The teacher may now tell the pupils a few
facts about each of the birds in this group : why they are called
scratchers ; their general habits ; where found ; uses, etc.
When the exercises on this group of birds are finished, the
pupils will know that all hens, turkeys, peacocks. Guinea-fowls,
pheasants, prairie-chickens, quails, partridges, and grouse belong
to the group of scratchers ; and that pigeons, doves, etc., resemble
those of this group in many respects.
THE QUAIL.
Did you ever hear a bird say, with a whistling voice, "Bob White
—Bob White ?" or " More wet— more wet !" several times in succes-
sion ? Some persons think he says, " Buckwheat — buckwheat !"
LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 205
Did you ever see this brownish bird, witli head aud feet of the
shape of those of a hen, and body about the size of a chicken when
its feathers begin to grow out? This bird has several names; it is
called Boh Whitepox a qiiail^'iw the New England and Middle States,
and Virginia partridge in the Southern States. It belongs to the
gallinaceous^ or scratching birds, and the grouse family.
The body, from the tip of the beak to the end of the tail, is about
nine inches ; wings, extended, from fourteen to fifteen inches ; beak
short and blunt ; head small ; legs bare ; the front toes rest on the
ground; hind one short and slender. It lives in fields aud mead-
ows ; feeds on grain, seeds, and insects ; makes its nest on the
ground ; lays from eight to ten white eggs. The young quails
look like young chickens. The flesh of the quail is much prized
for food.
Did you ever read the story of a man who caught two young
quails and tamed tliem ? Did the old quail find them after they
became tame ? Can you tell that story ?
THE PRAIRIE-HEN.
This bird also belongs to the order of scratchei's — to the grouse
fjimily — and is known as the pinnated grouse ; also as the p)rairie-
hen. It may be easily tamed.
It is found in flocks on tlie Western prairies ; length of body,
from tip of beak to end of tail, sixteen to eighteen inches; wings,
when extended, are twenty-four to twenty-eight inches ; legs cov-
ered with feathers; the hind toe higher up on the leg than the
front toes. It feeds on grains, seeds, and insects. The flesh is highly
prized for food. It may be seen for sale in markets during autumn
aud winter.
The prairie-hen can produce sounds, which may be heard half a
mile or more, by inflating tlie air sacs under the tuft of feathers at
the sides of its neck. Did you ever see a prairie-hen ?
Now request the pupils to write out the chief characteristics as
to structure, habits, uses, etc., of this group of birds, and to give
a list of those that belong to it.
THE CAT.
After the children have stated all the facts which they have
discovered by personally observing the cat, place before them a
large picture of this animal, and request different pupils to point
20G M.iNUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
out each characteristic part wliicli has been noticed in their ex-
amination of the cat.
\yhen they have thus shown that their attention has been
given to the following particularities of this animal — as, round
bead; short ears; great changes in eyes in light and in dark-
ness ; sharp teeth ; rough tongue ; feelers ; soft feet ; sharp, hid-
den nails; difference in number of toes on front and hind feet —
the teacher may tell the pupils the use of each of these peculiar-
ities of structure, and add other interesting facts about the cat's
habits, etc.
At a subsequent exercise place other pictures of tlie cat family
before the class, that they may compare each picture with that
of the cat, and notice prominent resemblances and differences.
Facts about each member of the cat family thus shown to the
pupils may be stated to them. Suitable information on this sub-
ject will be found in Prang''s Natural History Series for Chil-
dren (Cat Family), and in other books of natural history.
Before the lessons on this family are finished, the pupils should
become familiar with the leading characteristics of the cat, and
of other members of the family — as, the Manx cat, Angora cat,
wild-cat, lynx, panther, cheetah, jaguar, tiger, leopard, lion, etc. —
and able to recognize them all as flesh-eating animals with many
similar habits.
Facts about the cat of interest to children may be found in
Lessons on Animals for Second Stage. [See page 181.] Request
pupils to write descriptions of members of the cat family.
THE LION.
After the preceding lesson on the cat family, it would be ap-
propriate to give a lesson about the lion in a different manner
from the preceding ones — the teacher giving most of the infor-
mation, somewhat as follows:
A few days ago you had a lesson on the cat family, in which it
was shown that the lion — sometimes called "king of beasts" — be-
longed to that family. You may call him the great-uncle of the cat.
I will tell you something about this wonderful animal. His na-
tive place is in Africa ; also in some parts of Asia. lie likes to
LESSONS OX ANIMALS. 207
roam over stony plains, dotted here and tliere witli thickets of
bushes, in which he can hide and uatch for his prey to come near.
The home of the lion is ilir from the liome of man. People seldom
visit the places where lions live, except as they go there to hunt
wild animals.
Lions live in i)airs. They are usually from six to eight feet long,
and from three and a half to four feet high. The weight of one
is from four to five hundred pounds. Their color is usually a
tawny yellow. A mane of long hair covers the neck of the male
lion. The lion has thirty teeth, which are sharp and pointed like
those of the cat.
The feet and claws are also like those of the cat in form, but very
much larger and stronger; and, like the cat, the lion can walk al-
most noiselessly. Like the cat, tiie lion has a rough tongue ; but tiie
rough points are much longer and harder than those of the cat.
Tliese points slant Ijackward, or toward the mouth, and are so strong
that flesh may be scraped from bones by tliis rough tongue.
Thus it may be seen that the structure of the lion indicates an an-
imal of great strength and power in overcoming other animals. It
is said that the lion can carry a young ox or a sheep in his mouth
with as much ease as a cat can carry a rat. He cannot run as fast
as a deer or a zebra, and could not get a good living by chasing his
game. In the country where the lions live there arc not many springs
or streams of water ; often the animals must go a long distance to
quench their thirst. The lion finds those places where the animals
which he likes for food go to get drink. Near these places he lies
concealed in a thicket, watching for his prey to come along, just as
tlie cat watches for tlie mouse to come from its hiding-place. Cat-
like, the lion springs with a bound, and seizes its prey with his mouth
and fore -paws. Sometimes it will spring twenty feet at a single
bound.
When the lion seizes his prey he usually utters a tcml)le roar,
which almost paralyzes the victim with fear; but his loudest roar-
ing is made during the night ; and in those secluded regions it
must produce great fear among otiier animals. His roar consists
of a deep-toned, moaning sound, repeated five or six times in quick
succession, each time increasing in loudness ; ending witii an audi-
ble sigh. Sometimes several lions may be heard roaring at the same
time. What a concert exercise !
Like the cat, the lion can see well at night; and during this time
he goes about, while during the day he sleeps most of the time in
his /«//•, which is usually in a thicket, or by the side of a rock. He
is commonly seen moving about at sunset, or just before sunrise.
208 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
The liou lias a long tail, ■with a tuft of hair at the eiul, like a tas-
sel. When angry, he lashes his sides with his tail, just as a cat does
when it is displeased. It possesses sufficient strength in its tail to
knock a man down at a single blow.
Let the pupils write what they can remember concerning the lion.
THE DOG.
When the pupils have told what they know about dogs — their
habits, food, structure, uses, and the different kinds — place large
pictures of dogs before the class, and let the pupils point out and
name the different kinds, their parts, etc.
Direct attention to the attachment of dogs to their masters —
to their swiftness in running; their keen scent; pointed nose;
smooth tongue; flesh-tearing teeth; fore feet five-toed; hind
ones four-toed; thin legs; tails curved upward; and to the fact
that they are found in all parts of the world.
Compare their nails, feet, and eyes Avith those of a cat. Dogs
chase prey ; cats wait for it to come near, then suddenly spring
upon it. Dogs hunt by day ; cats hunt at night. All the senses
of the dog arc well developed, especially those of smell and hear-
ing.* Dog not strictly a carnivorous animal ; when domesti-
cated, will cat all kinds of food.
Tell stories about dogs. Let the children read stories about
them and write about them.
THE WOLF.
The tiiolf is a kind of cousin to the dog. He belongs to the
flesh-eating quadrupeds, and to the dog family. In general ap-
pearance he is much like the dog, and his hair is longer, but he
lets his tail hang, instead of curving it upward like the dog.
The wolf growls and howls, but does not bark like a dog. Al-
though he is cunning and ferocious, he has not the dog's noble
courage. He lives in forests, hunts at night, and usually in packs.
Wolves are very destructive to sheep.
Tell a story about wolves, and request the pupils to read about
them at home ; also to write about them.
* See Lesson on the Bog for Second Stage, p. 185.
LESSONS ON ANIMALS.
209
Foxes, like wolves, belong to the dog family. They have heads,
teeth, and ears much like some dogs. Foxes hunt at night, but
singly.
THE COW.
By requiring the pupils to state what they have observed in re-
lation to the cow's food, her peculiar manner of eating, her feet,
horns, teeth, and the several uses of the cow ; by stimulating
them to make further and more careful observations of cows,
sheep, goats, deer, etc. ; by the use of pictures, and by awakening a
desire to read books of natural history — seek to make the pupils
acquainted with the chief peculiarities of the cud-chewinr/ animals.
Direct their attention to the following facts concerning the
group embracing the cow, ox, bison, sheep, goat, yak, zebu, ante-
lope, etc. — that these have hollow horns ; feed on grass, etc. ;
that they chew their food twice ; that they are generally timid
animals, and seek safety in flight ; that they have parted, or cloven
hoofs. [The teacher should sketch the hoof on the blackboard.]
OLOVEN-IIOOF.
6KUI.L OF A COW.
The pupils may also be led to notice from a sketch on the black-
board — also from observing the mouth of a goat, sheep, or cow
— that they have no front teeth on the upper jaw ; and also
to notice that they get up on their hind feet first ; that these
animals are of great service to man ; that they supply us with
numerous articles for food, clothing, and other purposes, which
contribute much to our comfort.
Lead the pupils to write all the facts they know about the cow
and the ox at the close of the lesson.
210 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
THE SHEEP.
The sheep is so familiar to children that they will be able to
state many facts which can be used by the teacher as the basis
of lessons about this animal. They can tell something about their
uses — their wool for clothing, their flesh for food, their skins for
leather, their tallow, etc. They may also know the names and
distinguishing cbaracteristics of the Merino, with its large horns,
small body, and very fine, soft wool ; or of the Soiithdowns, with
their dark faces, long necks, coarse wool, large bodies — without
horns — and the excellent mutton from their flesh ; or of the
Leicester, without horns, with straight, round bodies, broad backs,
and very long avooI.
Direct attention of the pupils to their cloven hoofs ; cud-chew-
ing ; feeding upon grass, grain, and vegetables; no front teeth on
upper jaw ; long, slender head ; horns much curved, and rough,
like ridges.
Call attention to the fact that sheep follow a leader, and that,
like some children, they do as their leader does, without thinking
for themselves. Did you ever hear any children say what the
others do, without thinking whether it is right? The common
sheep is called a stnpid animal, because if one of the flock should
jump into a deep ditch, the others would follow, apparently with-
out looking to see where they are going.
The sheep belongs to the branch vertebrates ; c\a?,%, mammalia ;
ovdcr, rnminants ; iamWy, ox, sheep, etc. \ genus, oi'/s. They get
up on their hind feet first; live in flocks; their young are very
playful. Did you ever see lambs play ?
THE CAMEL.
Introduction by the Teacher. — Far away, across the wide ocean,
in the countries called Africa and Asia, tliere are many large deserts
of sand. In these deserts there are no trees, no soft, green grasses, no
rains, no rivers, no roads, no houses, and no people living there. The
sand is so fine and dry that tlie winds cany it about in great clouds.
It is so soft that even a child would sink into it over its shoes when
walking. Horses cannot travel there, because their feet would sink
so deeply into the sand; besides, tliey would die of thirst and huu-
LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 211
ger before they could rcficli a place where food and water might be
obtained. Yet the people who live near these pathless deserts often
want to cross them, and to carry goods on tlicse dreary journeys.
God has created an animal which is titted to live in just such a
country. It is so formed that it can travel in soft sand, and live a
long time without food or water. Now I will show you a picture
of that wonderful animal, and we will talk about its structure and
habits. [Showing a picture of a camel.] Here is the picture. Can
you tell the name of this animal ?
Its Feet. — Now look at its feet. Are they like the feet of a
liorsc ? The feet of the camel arc long and broad, and soft and
tough. They are broad and soft, and become so much spread out
under the weight of the animal that they sink but little in the sand;
they are so tough that the sand does not hurt them. Tiie small,
hard foot of a horse would sink so far in the sand that the horse
would soon become exhausted; tiie cushion-shaped feet of the camel
prevent its sinking, and thus enable it to travel a long distance with-
out fatigue. Its feet would become sore on stony roads, and they are
not fitted for travelling in wet places. The camel was made for a
dry and sandy country.
Its Legs. — Do you see the h gs of the camel ? What can you say
of them? They are long and slender, and fit the camel for rapid
travelling.
Its Neck. — What sort of a neck has the camel ? It has a very
long, curved, and slender neck. This is to allow its head to reach
the ground easily for food and water.
Its Head and Ears. — Can you see its ears ? lias it a large, round
head? No; its head is long and slender, and its ears are (piite
small.
Its Nostrils. — The nostrils of the camel are so formed that it can
close them at will. This enables it to keep out the drifting sand,
and prevents a great deal of pain and injury to the animal. Its
sense of smell is very acute; it can smell water at a great distance,
and by this means it sometimes saves the life of its master.
Its Size and Shape. — The body of the camel is about the size
of a horse, but its back resembles an arch instead of being nearly
straight, like that of the cow or horse. It is generally taller than
a horse, being from five to seven feet high.
Its Hump. — Is the back of the camel like the back of a horse or
a cow? No; it has a liump on its back. This hump is a mass of
fat. When the camel is fat, the hump is very large; but when tlie
212 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
animal is lean, the hump h sniall. When the camel, on its long
journey across the desert, is obliged to subsist on a very small al-
lowance of food, or even to go without food, the fat of the hump
supi)lies nutriment. Its substance is absorbed and taken into the
general circulation, and thus supports the animal to the end of its
journey, or until it sinks under privations which no other animal
could have borne for half the time.
Its Food. — What did I say about the deserts across which tlie
camel travels ? They contain no trees, and no green grass. In some
places, however, there may be found prickly shrubs and a dry, coarse
grass, but only in small sjiots. No horse or donkey would eat such
food ; yet the camel seems quite contented if, when it stops to rest
for the night, it can find even such coarse food as thorny shrubs and
dry, coarse grass. Its master, however, usually takes along with him
dates and beans, aud a few of these seem to satisfy its hunger when
a regular meal cannot be had. The camel chews its cud, like the
cow, the sheep, aud the goat.
Its Driiik. — You remember I told you that there were no rains
and no rivers in the desert. Frequently it is necessary to travel ten
or twelve days without finding a spring or a well of water. During
all this time the camel must go without drinking. Here we see the
beneficence of the Creator in the formation of an animal so well
adapted to meet the wants of man. The camel has four stomachs ;
one of these is provided with a great number of water-cells ; and
before setting out on a journey he drinks a great quantity of water,
filling all of these cells. The water thus stored up in its stomach
lasts for a long time; and whenever it desires to do so, the camel
can make use of a little of this water tb moisten its food and refresh
itself. By this means it can travel a long distance without suffering
from thirst.
Its Habits aiid Uses. — When kindly treated, the camel is gentle,
patient, aud easily taught. It kneels down to receive its load, and
kneels down again to have it removed at night; also to let its mas-
ter mount and dismount. At night it lies down by its master's tent.
In the morning it comes at his call to receive its load.
The camel furnishes milk for its master's family. It carries them
on its back during the day, and often its side serves them as a pil-
low at night. Its body is a shelter against the Avhirlwinds of sand,
and in battle an intrenclunent behind which the family and their
property are protected. The hair of the camel supplies materials
for clothes and tents; of its skin are made sandals for the feet, sad-
dles upon which to ride, buckets for water, and large bottles for car-
LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 213
rying M'Htcr to supply tlio traveller on his long journeys across the
desert. Its flesh is used for food.
The camel may be regarded as one of the most useful of animals.
The Arabs consider it as a "gift of Heaven," a sacred animal, with-
out whose assistance they could neither travel, traffic, nor subsist.
They call it the " Ship of the Desert," for it bears them sftfely over
the pathless wastes of Arabia and Northern Africa, under privations
wliich no other animal could endure.
The usual load of a camel is from six to eight hundred pounds ;
and with this weight on his back he will travel from forty to fifty
miles in a day. But the camel that is trained for speed will bear
its master and his food on its back, and travel from seventy to one
hundred miles in twenty-four hours, and continue at this speed for
several days in succession. It sometimes jierforms a journey of seven
hundred miles.
Training the Young Camel. — When the Arab desires a camel for
speed, he takes it when quite young, folds its limbs under its body,
and while in this situation on the ground he loads its back. This
weight is removed only to be replaced by a heavier one. Instead of
allowing it to feed at pleasure and drink Avhen thirsty, he regulates
its meals and drink, and gradually trains it to travel long journeys,
and diminishes at the same time the quantity of its food. When it
has thus acquired strength and endurance, it is trained to move with
speed. In this manner it becomes robust and fleet, and capable of
great endurance.
Review the Lesson. — When tlie preceding- facts relative to
the camel have all been given, the teacher should require the pu-
pils to tell all they can remember about this animal. At first,
any pupil that can think of anything to say may raise a hand,
and the teacher proceed to call upon them, one at a time, to say
what they remember, care being taken to have as little as possible
repeated. Subsequently the pupils may be called upon in turn,
and more system be required in the order of stating the facts.
Afterward they should be directed to write all they can re-
member about the camel, and state what group of animals it be-
longs to.
In this connection the attention of the pupils may be directed
to the form and habits of the Giraffe, also to those cud-chewing
animals found in South America — the Llama and the Guanaco —
which belong to the liornlcss ruminants.
21-i MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACUING.
THE DRAGON-FLY.
Introduction by the Teacher. — JMost children are very much
frightened when they see a hirge insect living about which they call
a " darning-needle," or the " devil's darning-needle." They think it
can sting or bite them, or get in their ears. Some older persons
have a dread of it ; so that it has many enemies, and but few friends.
Now, before looking at this insect or its picture, and before talking
about its habits and life, let me assure you that there is no cause
either of fear or dislike for this harmless creature, which is really
very useful to us in destroying mosquitoes and flies. It cannot bite,
or sting, or poison, or do any injury to any person. It is just as
harmless as a butterfly. When you have learned more about tliis
insect, you will understand iiow useless are the fears which children
have of it; and I hope you will learn also to welcome its restless,
rapid movements in pursuit of mosquitoes and flies, through gar-
dens, over ponds, and even in the house, rather than scream and run
away from it. Now let us examine this dragon-jiy — that is the real
name of this insect. What can you say about it?
Children. It has four wings. It has a long, slender body. The
shape of the body is cylindrical. It has a large head. Its wings are
oblong. They are very thin, and almost transparent. The wings
look something like net-work. It has ten rings around its body.
It has six legs. It has two large eyes. It has two feelers.
Teacher. Very well said. See its great head, large eyes, short neck,
its hunch-back, and long, slender body, its gauze-like wings, and its
l)eautii'ul colors ! I told you that it is useful to us in destroying-
mosquitoes. It catches them with its feet while flying, and devours
them. If a few dragon-flies were shut up in a room for a short time,
tliey would elfectually rid it of all moscjuitoes and flics.
Eggs of the Dragon fly. — Tiic dragon-fly alights upon stems of
rushes or other water-])lants, and deposits its eggs below the surface
of the water, frequently attaching them in a bunch to a stem or leaf.
These eggs are hatched during the warm weather of summer by the
heat of the sun.
The Larva or Grub. — At first the larva or grub of the dragon-fly
resembles a bug, with large eyes and six long legs. In this state it
is very active, walking over the bottom of the pond of water it in-
habits, or swimming in search of the larva of mosquitoes and other
insects, of which it devours great numbers. It tlius aids in dimin-
ishing and removing from ponds and swamjis, and also from our
fields, gardens, and houses even, swarms of hlood-suc^king insects.
LESSONS OX ANIMALS. 2'
The Pupa. — When the larva has outgrown its skin, tins spli.
open at the back, and the insect crawls out, thus changing from
the larva to the pupa state. It still continues to live in the water,
remaining there in all some ten or twelve mouths. As before, its
food is chiefly the larva of mosquitoes.
The Dragon-fly. — When the pupa has grown too large for its
skin, and is about to change into the full -formed dragon -fl}% it
climbs up the stem of some plant near the surface of the water.
AVhile it remains there, its skin again splits oj^en at the back, and
the dragon-fly emerges slowly. For an hour or two it remains quiet,
with its soft wings motionless. Soon the surface of the Ijody dries
and hardens, and at lengtli the full-formed dragon-fly exjwnds its
wings and rises into the air, henceforth to live in a new world, al-
though its existence in this state lasts but a few weeks. It is by far
the most powerfid flier among insects. It can fly in all directions
with equal facility, forward and backward, and sidewise, to the right
or left.
While it was an inhabitant of water, it devoured the young of
mosquitoes ; now it pursues the full-grown mosquito on the wing
with relentless energy. From the moment of its birtii to the hour
of its deafli it riots upon baneful insects ; thus its Avliole life is a
continued good to man. It seems to have been sent into the world
by a kind Providence to prevent too great an increase of those in-
sects which arc most annoying to man.
Teacher. Now I will write on the blackboard the names of the
parts of tlie dragon-fly, and of the shape of each ; also some other
facts. Then I want you to describe the dragon-fly, telling all yon
can remember about it.
THE DRAGON-FLY.
Its Parts. Shape. Facts.
Body Cvlindrical 1 t,. r i • -i. t xt-
-rrr. ^v , Its lood IS mosouitocs and flies.
Wmgs Oblong t. • •.• ^ ^ i r n
T ^. , T It IS usctul to man, and i)erlectly
Legs Crooked i , i i j
TT 1 r., 1 y harmless.
Head Oblong I t, i i + *i • * ^ -i
_ r> I belongs to the msect tribe.
-C , ,, ' "" Its body is divided into three parts.
Feelers Carved J "' ^
Now request the pupils to write an account of the dracfon-fly.
Ask them to watch tlie movements as it flics about ponds, gar-
dens, and other phices, in pursuit of food. Tell tlicm also to
catch a dra2nng-S2}arrow, field-sparroxv, English
sparrow, rose -breasted grosbeak, indigo -bird, cardinal
red-bird, canary-bird.
XVIII. IcTERiD^E. — American Starlings, as bobolink, or reed-bird,
or rice-bird (tlic same bird has these different names),
coio-bird, yelloio -headed blackbird, red-winged blackbird,
field-lark, Baltimore oriole or hang-nest, purple grackle.
XIX. CoRviD.«. — Crows, jays, etc., as raven, crow, magpie, blue-
XX. Tyrannid^. — Flycatchers, as kingbird, crested-fiy catch-
er, peivee or pha^be, 2Vood-pewee, green-crested flycatcher,
least flycatcher.
PLANTS. 247
PLANTS.
Plants are living things ; thej feed, grow, and perform
various kinds of work. Their forms, colors, uses, habits,
and other characteristics place them among objects espe-
cially adapted to the cultivation of careful observation.
Indeed, the study of plants may be called the science of
observation.
Each part of the plant performs its own peculiar part
of the work. The root liolds it to the ground, and absorbs
nourishment from the soil. The leaves absorb light and
air, and aid in changing the fluids and nourishment that
are taken up by the roots into materials for building up
the plant. The hucls hold and protect the blossoms until
the time of their flowering. The Uossom produces the
fruit. The harli, of exogens protects the tender new wood
which is formed each year outside of the old wood.
How Plants Take Food. — The food of plants is al-
ways liquid and gaseous, never solid. The roots absorb
water, in which mineral matters, such as nitrogen, phos-
phorus, sulphur, potash, and iron are dissolved ; and this
fluid ascends through the stem, and branches to the cells
of the leaves. The leaves absorb carbonic acid gas from
the air, which also enters the leaf cells, where the sunlight
causes chemical changes to take place, by which the car-
bon is separated and retained by the jilant, and oxygen
given back to the air. The carbon unites with the fluid
in the cells, and forms starch in a liquid state. This sap
is conveyed to all parts of the plant where growth takes
248 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
place, and supplies the materials for the nonrisliment and
growth of the plant, somewhat as the blood in animals
supplies the nourishment for their growth. Thus we see
that plants must have w\ater, air, and sunlight to enable
them to take food and grow. [See pages 130, 131.]
How Seeds Grow. — Place seeds of plants, as peas,
beans, corn, wheat, oats, mustard, etc., in the earth, where
they will have warmth, moisture, and air, and each will
develop a root to absorb nourishment from the ground,
and a stem to reach above the ground for light and air.
The stem becomes the support of leaves, buds, and flowers.
Buds form on trees m autumn, and remain dormant
till spring; thej are covered with scales that protect them
from wet and cold. The warmth of the sun in spring,
together with air and moisture, causes the buds to expand
into leaves and blossoms, the sap or juice to flow from
the roots through the trunk, limbs, and leaves, and the
process of growth to take place throughout the ti'ee or
plant.
Annual Plants are those which grow from seed, blos-
som, and die each year, as C07ii, wheats oats, tiiiistard,
leans, inommg-glory , etc.
Biennial Plants. — Some plants grow during the first
year after the seed is planted, live through the winter,
blossom and produce seed the second year, then die.
These are called hiennials. To this class belong the tur-
nij), carrot, ljeet,jparsni^, radish, etc.
Perennial Plants. — Some plants live on year after
year, as trees, shruhs, and other plants wath w^oody stems,
as rose-l)Ush, cjTape-mne,^]! ', also plants \\\i\\ soft stems
that die to their roots each year, among which are those
called herlis, as sweet -flag, iris, lily, peppermint, and
grasses ; also the dahlia, peony, pinic, and other flowering
PLANTS. 249
plants. Shi'uhs seldom grow to a height twice that of a
man.
Habits of Plants. — Plants not only grow, blossom,
and produce fruit, but many of them have very interest-
ing habits, among which are those of cUnibing by creeping
and by twining, sleeping and awaking, catching insects,
etc.
The English ivy, the poison ivy, and the trumpet-creep-
er climb by creeping. They creep up the face of walls
and the trunks of trees by fastening little flat rootlets,
which the plant sends out along the stem against the
supporting objects.
The hop, some kinds of beans, morning-glory, honey-
suckles, and other plants climb by twining spirally around
some supporting object. But these do not all twine in
the same direction. The hop and some JiuneysucMes
twine around with the sun — from right toward the left.
The hean, morning-glory, and nearly all the other twining
plants turn around against the sun — from left toward the
right.
The pea, grape-vine, Virginia creeper, and passion-flow-
er climb by tendrils. The clematis climbs by the foot-
stalk of the leaf, which coils like a tendril.
Sleeping and Waking. — Some plants have regular habits
as to the time of closing and opening their blossoms and
leaves. Tiie locust and wood-sorrel turn down their leaf-
lets at night, and turn them up again in the morning.
The honey-locust raises its leaves upright at night, and
turns them down ao;ain in the morninor.
The morning-glory opens its blossoms about two o'clock
in the morning, and closes them about ten o'clock in the
forenoon. The vegetable oyster opens at four o'clock in
the morning, and closes about noon. Tlie four- o'clock
opens about four o'clock p.m. The "evening primrose
11*
250 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
opens about six o'clock p.m. The Cereus grandiflora
blooms about eight o'(
lasts but a few Lours.
blooms about eight o'clock in the evening, and the flower
Plants have Family Relatives. — Some plants have
a great many family relatives. The Rose Family is very
large, and also a very important one. All of our delicious
berries and fruits belong to this useful family. The onion,
the garlic, and asparagus are family relatives of the lily-
of-the-valley. The Plnh Family is a large one, but is
chiefly noted for its pretty flowers. It does not supply
us with food or medicine.
Hints for Manner of G-iving Lessons on Plants. —
Such facts as the foregoing, and many similar ones, may
be so presented to children as to gratify their desire to
know about these things which they see daily ; and les-
sons on plants may be conducted in a manner to awaken
in the pupils a deep interest for the study of plants, while
they are acquiring excellent habits of careful observation
that will be valuable to them in any position in life.
Care should be taken that the flrst lessons do not be-
come too formal and technical by attempting to follow
the lessons in the text-book on botany ; also that they be
sufiiciently general in their character to permit that prop-
er range of observation which children can make under
a guidance Avhicli allows the greatest freedom consistent
with the accumulation of facts for association and subse-
quent classiflcation. As the interest and knowledge of
the pupils increase, and the facts learned become some-
what numerous, more and more system may be introduced
into the lessons. In the beginning of the lessons seek
rather to' follow Nature than to lead her. Let the chil-
dren see whole things first, and afterward lead them to
notice parts of them and single facts. Gradually lead
the pupils to notice as many facts as possible that are pe-
PLANTS. 251
culiar to any particular plant. Tell theni some facts, not
easily discovered, to arouse their curiosity, but request
them to look for themselves and verify that which you
tell them, that it may be more vividly and firmly fixed
in their minds. Point out, also, the way by which pupils
can discover new facts for themselves. Let the teacliefs
constant aim he, during all these lessons, to lead the pupils
to stand face to face with nature, and learn to iise their
own senses in gaining knowledge.
Leaves. — For some lessons let cliildren collect leaves and com-
pare their shapes, and learn names for their shapes.
Roots. — For some lessons let the pupils notice the different
shapes of roots, and learn their names.
Shapes of Flowers. — For other lessons let them notice those
flowers that I'eserable common objects, as hell - shaped, fxmnd-
shaped, butter fly-shaped, etc.
Family of Plants. — Teaching children to distinguish those
traits of resemblance by which plants are grouped into famiUcs
will supply many interesting lessons. Here good text-books on
botany may be used to aid both teacher and pupils.
During those lessons on plants in which the chief pur-
pose is to awaken a desire to know more about nature,
and to form habits of investigation as a means of devel-
oping the mental powers of your pupils, and of leading
them to accumulate practical knowledge by their own
experiences, remember that you must not make these les-
sons a formal study of botany.
252 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
FACTS FOR TEACHERS.
ABOUT PLANTS.
Teachers need to have -vvithia easy access a variety of facts
about each subject of instruction as a means of ready reference,
and as an aid in the preparation of lessons for their pupils. With
the view of meeting this need, in part, on the subject of Plants,
the following statements and descriptions arc given. These are
not to be used as lessons for the pupils to learn, but to suggest
to teachers some of the important facts relating to plants which
they may lead their pupils to observe.
Lessons for systematic instruction upon any subject ought to
commence with objects, belonging to that subject, which are al-
ready familiar to children by common notice ; therefore leaves,
flowers, and roots are among suitable subjects for early lessons
upon plants.
Furthermore, it should be borne in mind by the teacher that
the habits of careful observation, comparison, and classification
which the pupils acquire by proper attention to this subject is of
at least as much value to them as all the facts which they may
learn concerning the subject. Hence, in conducting the lessons
on plants, the teacher should give more attention to the forma-
tion of proper habits of learning than to the mere acquisition of
facts by memory.
SHAPES OF LEAVES.
Needle-shaped. — [Acerose.l Long, slender leaves, of equal size
througliout, usually growing in clusters, as the leaves of the Pine.
Tlic White Pine \rA'sJive leaves in a cluster, each from three to four
inches long. The Pitch Pine has three leaves in a cluster, each from
four to five inches long. The Red Pine has two leaves in a cluster,
each from five to six inches long. Some other varieties of Pino
have the same number of leaves in a cluster as each of the above,
but their leaves differ in size and length.
PLANTS. 253
SwoED-snAPED. — {Ensiform. Linear.'] Linear loaves arc very
narrow, and several times louger than their width, witli parallel
edges or margins, as the leaves of Orass. Ensiform leaves are also
linear, but the form of the leaves resembles the English sword, or
the cut-and-thrust sv»'ord, while the grass Z^f?/ resembles the rainer, a
straight sword. The Lris, or Flag-leaf, is ensiform.
Lance-shaped. — [Lanceolate.'] Leaf several times louger than its
width, narrow, and gradually tapering to a slender point, as the
Peach leaf and the Willow leaf.
Arrow-shaped. — {Sagittate.] Long, narrow, and tapering to a
point, with pointed lobes at the base, extending backward like an
arrow-head, as the leaf of tiie Calla, Scratch-grass, and Arrow-liead.
Spear-shaped. — [Hastate.] Leaves generally broader than the
arrow-shaped, tapering more abruptly to a point, and having the
pointed lobes at the base extending outward, as the leaves of com-
mon Sorrel, Bind-iceed, Sage.
Shield-shaped. — [Peltate.] A circular leaf, with the stem attach-
ed near the centre of the lower surface, as iu the Nasturtium, Man-
drake, White Water-lily.
Ear-shaped. — [Aurindate.] This name pertains only to the lase
of the leaf, and is applied to those leaves having small, rounded
lobes, or ear-like projections on each side of the stem, like the lobes
of the ears, as the base of the leaf of the Ear-leaf Magnolia.
Egg-shaped. — [Ovate.] An ovate leaf has a broad, curved base
and a narrower curved apex, with the entire form like that of a
common egg, as a Hose leaf.
Heart-shaped. — [ Cordate.] When an egg-shaped leaf has a notch
at tlie base, or when the leaf has the shape in which a heart is usual-
ly represented, it is called heart-shaped, as the leaf of the Morning-
glory and the Lilac.
Kidney-shaped. — [Reniform.] A kidney-shaped leaf is broader
than it is long; it is a short, rounded leaf, having a base somewhat
like the heart-shaped leaf, but with the base lobes more distant from
the stem than in the latter, as the Wild Ginger leaf.
Hand-shaped. — [Palmate.] A leaf that is divided into five lo1)es,
or 2)arts, without these parts being separated to the base or stem, as
the Sweet-gum leaf and some Maple leaves.
Leaves that are divided into separate parts, or fingers, are' called
Digitate or Fingered leaves, as the Virginia Creeper, the Buckeye.
254 MANUAL 'of OBJECT-TEACHING.
Wedge-shaped. — [Cvneate.] A leaf that is broad at the top, aud
tapers with nearly straight edges to the stem, like a wedge, as the
leaf of the CocTcspur-thorn.
Oblong Leaf. — A leaf that is at least two and a half or three
times as long as it is broad, and of nearly the same breadth through-
out its length ; it is narrowly elliptical in shape, as the Rose-hay,
Primrose.
Oval Leaf. — A leaf that is broadly elliptical in form; usually the
ends are more sharply rounded tlian in the oNong leaf, with the
breadth not quite half as great as the length. When the breadth
is twice the length, or a little more, with the outline of an ellipse,
the shape is called elliptical. The oval leaf is represented in the
Beaver-tree, or small Magnolia.
Orbicular Leaf. — [ Circular, Rotund.'] A leaf that has a resem-
blance to a circular shape, with the stem attached nearer the base
than in the 2idtate leaf, as Round-leaved Sundew, Marsh-marigold.
FEATHER-snAPED. — [^Pinnate.'] A compound leaf in which the
leaflets arc arranged on the sides of a main leaf-stalk, as the Locust,
Ash. Sometimes the leaflets are themselves divided and arranged
on the sides of branches of the main leaf- stalk, as in the Iloney-
locust. Such leaves are said to be feathered, or donhly -pinnate, or
twice-pinnate, or hi-pinnate.
KouND-LOBED, Sharp-lobed. — {Lolate.] When the sides of a
leaf are cut into an equal number of parts, with the incisions extend-
ing from one-fourth to one-half of tlie distance from the edge to the
mid-vein, it is said to be lobed. If these parts or lobes are rounded,
the leaf is said to be round-hied, as in the White Oal: If the lobes
are sharp or pointed, the leaf is said to be sharp-lobed, as in the Red
Oah.
Perforated Leaf. — [Perfoliate.'] When the stem grows through
the leaf near one end, it is called a perfoliate leaf, or perforated leaf,
as the Bellwort and the Honeysuckle.
Lyre-shaped. — \Lyrate.] A leaf with the lower part lobed and
the upper part somewhat circular, or broad and rounded, as the
Radish leaf. Turnip leaf.
Deeply-cut, w Gashed Leaf. — {Laciniate?^ A leaf that ajipears
as if torn, or cut in deep and irregular gashes, having the parts long
and narrow, as MonluS-head.
Foot-shaped. — [Pedate.] A leaf with several deep clefts sepa-
rating .it into long, narrow parts, resembling the toes of a bird's foot,
as the Passion-flower, Christmas-rose.
TLANTS. 255
■"Whorled Leaves. — [ Verticillate.] Three or more leaves growiug
around the stem of a plant, in a circle, as in the Red-lily, 2'rumpet-
iceed.
Bundled, or Clustered Leaves. — [Fascicled.] A bunch of many
short, needle-shaped leaves growing in a cluster, on a short, bud-like
branch, as the leaves of the Larch, Tamaraclc.
SHAPES OF FLOWERS.
FuiSTNEL- SHAPED. — [Infumlibuliform.'] A tubular flower whicli
gradually enlarges from its base, and rapidly sjDreads out at the up-
per part into a wide, circular border. So called from its resem-
blance to a common funnel. Examples : Morning-glory, Stravionium,
Tobacco.
TRUMPET-snAPED, or Tubular. — A. flower having a long, narrow
tube, widening at the end, and resembling a trumpet, or horn. Ex-
amples : Trumpet-honeysuclde, Fuchsias.
Bell-shaped. — [Camjmmdate.'] A flower having a shape like a
common bell. Examples : Harebell, Bell-flower, Canterbury-bell.
Salver-shaped. — [Hypocrateriform.'] A tubular flower, the uj^per
end of which spreads out abruptly into a flat border, like an ancient
tray, or salver. Examples : Phlox, Heliotrope, Lilac.
Lip-shaped. — {Labiate.] A flower with a tubular base, having
the upper part open so as to resemble lips, or a mouth. Examples :
Sage, Hyssop, Skull-cap.
Cross-shaped. — [Cncciform.] A flower with four s^jreadiug pet-
als standing at right angles, so as to resemble a Maltese cross. Ex-
amples : Mustard, Wallflower, Water-cress.
Wheel-shaped. — [liotate.] Sometimes called Star-shap)ed. A
flower without a tube, or with a very short one, which seems to
spread out into five distinct divisions, somewhat like a wheel with
five spokes. Examples : Potato-blossom, Tomato, Mullein, Bitter-sweet.
Butterfly-shaped. — [Papilionaceous.] A flower consisting of
five dissimilar petals, so arranged as to resemble a butterfly. The
large petal at the top is called the " banner ;" the two side petals
are called " wings ;" and tlie two central, lower petals, whicli aj)pear
to be joined, are called the "keel," from the resemblance to the
prow of an ancient boat. Examples: Sweet -pea, Locust, Wistaria,
Bean, Clover.
256 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Helmet-shaped. — [Galeated.] A flower having its upper part in
the form of a hood, or helmet. Example : Moiik' s-hood.
Stuai'-siiaped. — \_Ligulnte.'] This form is seen in plants with
compound flowers, as China -aster, Daisy, Coreopsis, Suniioioer, etc.
Each strap-shaped Jfoicer, vfhich appears so much like a single flat
petal of an ordinary flower, is a distinct floicer. Its edges are rolled
together at tlie base, so as to form a short, tubular jiortion. Great
numbers of these single flowers grow together, forming what is com-
monly called compound flowers.
Pink-shaped. — [Ca7'7/02)hiIh.ceous.] A flower with five broad pet-
als, each witli a long claw extending down into a tubular cup, or
calyx. Examples : PinJc, Bouncing-bet.
Lily-shaped. — [Lilijiceous.] A flower, somewhat bell-shaped, with
six petals of uniform size and color, and six stamens. The petals
turn back at the mouth of the flower, so as to separate widely at
their outer ends. Examples : Tiger-lily, White-lily, Japan-lily.
SHAPES OF ROOTS.
CoNic.\L Root. — A solid root which tapers regularly from the
upper end to its lower extremity, as the Carrot, Parsnij), and some
Beets.
Spindle-shaped Root. — [Fusifo7'm.] A solid root which increases
in size from the top toward the centre, and tapers regularly from
the centre to the lower extremity. It tapers from near the middle
toward each end, as the Radish, Oinseng, and some Beets.
Turnip-shaped. — [Napiform.} A short, solid root which abrupt-
ly swells out at its upper part, and abruptly diminishes in size, so
that the diameter of its body is equal to or greater than its length ;
and it has a small tapering root extending from its bottom, as the
common Turnip and some Radishes.
Tuberous Roots. — Several fleshy roots growing in a buncli, each
usually having a few fibres, as the roots of the Dahlia, Orchis, Peony,
Sweet-piotato.
Tubers. — In some plants the ends of the root-like branches of the
stems which grow underground become greatly enlarged and thick-
ened into flesliy knobs, each of which contains several buds, or eyes;
these knobs are called tubers, as in the common Potato and Articholce.
PLANTS. 257
Btjlb. — A fleshy l)ud ccrowing in tlie ground, usually of the shape
of a flattened spheroid, having flbrous roots attached at the bottom.
Bulbs are usually formed of thick, tleshy scales, or layers, as the
Onion, Lily.
CoRM. — A solid lulb^ or fleshy stem, growing underground, having
a sliape somewhat like a flattened spheroid, as the solid bulbs, or
corms, of the Crocus, Gladiolus, Indian-turnip.
Branching Roots. — Woody roots with numerous branches, re-
sembling the branches of a tree, as the roots of trees, and also of
shrubs.
Fibrous Roots. — A cluster of slender, thread-like roots, nearly
uniform in size, growing directly from the base of the plant stem, as
Grass Roots, Grain Boots, and the roots of many of the annual plants.
Btindled Roots. — {Fascicled.} Roots that grow in a cluster,
somewhat like fibrous roots, but which are much larger and more
fleshy, as Crowfoot, Buttercup.
Runner, or Creeper. — A prostrate stem that creeps along the
surface of the ground, and sends roots downward at each joint, and
puts forth stems and leaves above them, thus forming new plants,
as the Straicherry-pl(t?it.
Root Stock. — [Bhizoina.] A fleshy, horizontal stem, or branch,
growing underground, with joints and branches, as Siceet-Jlug, Ginger,
Solomon' s-seal. Blood-root.
Note. — For further information relative to names that may be applied to
modified forms of tlic sliapes of Icavex, Jloirers, and roots described in the pre-
ceding pages, see a good text-boolc on Botany. For colored illustrations
of these, see Prang^s Natural Iliatorg Scries, representing the three groups
here described.
258 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
FAMILIES OF PLANTS.
The examination and comparison of plants belonging to the
same family, and possessing many similar characteristics, furnish
excellent means for training children to acquire habits of careful
observation and discrimination, and the ability to distinguish
those peculiarities which indicate relationship in the vegetable
world. To accomplish this important attainment the pupils must
themselves handle, examine, and compare the plants and flowers
until they become familiar with the leading characteristics of the
family. Suitable pictures will aid the pupils in this work, but
the plants and their flowers must become familiar by actual ex-
amination before a real knowledge of them can be gained.
The following descriptions are given here to assist the teacher
in directing the attention of pupils to those characteristics of
plants by which family relations may be determined. To give
a complete list of the members of the following families has not
been attempted here. Such members of each family have been
selected as best represent leading traits of the family. For a de-
scription of other members of these and of different families, the
reader is referred to good text-books on botany.
The teacher will please bear in mind that these descriptions
are not to be taught the pupils as lessons to be recited, yet they
may be used to assist in discovering the family traits.
The Lily Family. — [LiUacece.] It is generally known by its
regular, symmetrical, and richly colored flowers, with su petah, sim-
ilarly colored, and six stamens and one 2nstil. The flower is never
enclosed in a sheath, except in the onion group. The stamens are
usually inserted in or near the base of the petals.
The seed-vessel, or ovary, is three-celled, with the seeds packed
one upon another. The roots of lilies, which are usually bulbous
(sometimes tuberous, or fibrous), live from year to year. The leaves
arc iJarallel-veiued, and generally narrow.
PLANTS. 259
The members of this fomily are chiefly natives of temperate cli-
mates. Some of them are used for food, as the onion, garlic, aud as-
2Mragus, and others for medicine. A medicinal substance obtained
from the bulb of a lily found in the south of Europe is known as
squills. There are 1200 species of lilies.
Superb Lily, ?• Turk's Cap. — [Liliiwi sujierliim.'] Grows in the
IVIiddle and Western States, in jirairies and meadows, also gultivated
in gardens. Flowers of a bright orange color, with purple sjiots.
White Lilt. — [Lilliim candidum.] Native of Persia ; cultivated
here in gardens. Has a thick stem, four feet high, supporting a clus-
ter of large, snow-white, bell-shaped flowers.
Yellow Lily. — [Lilium Canadense.'] Native of Canada and
United States. Stem from two to four feet high, often containing
seven or more nodding flowers of a yellow or orange color, spotted
with purple inside.
Tiger Lily. — [Lilium tigrimim.] Native of China ; cultivated in
gardens. Stem four or five feet high, containing several orange-red
flowers, thickly spotted with black.
Japan Lily. — [Lilium Japonicum.'] From Jajian ; cultivated here.
Stem two feet high, usually bearing a single, large, white, nodding
flower. The petals are compressed into a narrow tube at the base,
but widely sejjarated at the outer ends.
Philadelphia Lily. — [Lilium Pliiladdpliicum.'] Common in tlie
Northern States. Flowers bell-shaped ; petals narrow, and separated
down to the base, of reddish orange color, and sj)otted inside with
dark puqjle.
Tulip. — [Tulipa Gesncrinna.'] Native of Persia; cultivated here.
Stem about one foot high ; flower erect, and bell-shaped, with short
stamens. Colors variegated. There are several hundred varieties.
Crown Imperial. — [Fritillaria imperialist^ Native of Persia;
cultivated. Stem thick, about three feet high, bearing at the top a
cluster of large red, or yellow, nodding flowers, beneath a crown of
narrow, green leaves.
Lily-of-the-y ALLEY. — [ Convallaria mnjalis.] Native of Europe ;
also of mountains from Virginia to Georgia. Usually has two leaves
enclosing a stem about six inches long, from the upper side of whicli
hang little white bells, six parted ou the edge. These flowers arc
very fragrant.
260 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Hyacinth. — [EyacintJms orientalis.] Native of Asia Minor; com-
mon, as early house i)lants. Flower stems are twice as long as tlie
leaves, and bear a dense cluster of small flowers, fragrant, and of
various colors.
Star of BETin.EnEjr. — [ Orn Wiogalum ninlellatum.] From Europe ;
also growing wild in the United States. Leaves grass-shaped; flow-
er-stalk aJ)out one foot high, and branching. Flowers in a group,
white within, and marked with a stripe of green on the outside of
the petals.
Water-lily Family. Water-lily. — [ISfpnphcea odorata.]
It will be readily observed that this flower has not the form of a
true lily. Indeed, it does not even belong to the family, but to the
"Water-lily Family, or J^ri/mpliceacece. It is a water-plant, growing in
lakes and ponds, with the leaves and flowers floating on the surface
of the water.
The flowers of the water-lily are commonly white, sometimes pink-
ish, or yellowish. The petals are numerous, and grow in regular
rows. The stems, which are very long, grow^ from a root-stock in-
stead of a bulb. This and the following species were placed in this
group to show the pupils that the common pond-lily, though called
a " lily," ditfers widely from the true lilies ; and to impress upon
them the fact that it belongs to a widely diflereut family.
Victoria Regia. — This great water-lily of South America belongs
to the same family as our pond-lily. Its leaves grow from four to
six feet in diameter. The flowers are sometimes one foot in diameter.
The Nile Lotus also belongs to the same family.*
The Pink Family. — The pink plant has narrow, bluish-green
leaves, attached to the stem ojjposite to each other. The stem is
slender and branching, and has swollen joints. The flower-cup, or
calyx, is cylindrical, and divided into five parts at the to2), and lias
two or more pairs of opposite bracts, or short, pointed leaves at the
base. The flower has live broad petals with notched edges. Each
petal has a long, slender claw extending down into the calyx.
The pink has usually ten stamens and two pistils, which are
curved outward.
* For a complete list of the members of tlie Lily Fauiily, and of otlicr
ftimilies, also for descriptions of tliem, see Grai/s School and Fidd Book of
Botany, or TFood's Class-look of Botany.
PLANTS. 2G1
The. seed-vessel is one-celled, contaiuing many seeds.
The Pink Family [CaryopJujllacm] lias many beautiful members,
but none of them are useful either as food or medicine.
China Pink. — {Diantlms Chinensis.] The flower has large petals,
toothed, and of various colors. Native of China ; common here in
gardens.
Sweet-william, or Bunch Pink. — [^Diantlius harhatus.] Tlie
flowers grow in a flat-topped cluster. They are red, or whitish, and
sometimes variegated.
Carnation, ar Clove-plnk. — [Dianthus ccu^yophyllus.'] This spe-
cies is supposed to be tlie parent of all the beautiful varieties of car-
nation pinks. Tlieir flowers are white, red, crimson, scarlet, purple,
yellow, and variegated. Flowers are solitary.
IMuLLEiN Pink. — [Lychnis coronaria.] Native of Euroj^e; culti-
vated here. The plant is covered with a cottony substance, which
the ancients used for lamp-wicks. It has ten stamens and five pis-
tils. Flowers crimson, or purple. It has some resemblance to Corn-
cocTcle, a plant found in wheat-fields.
Ragged Robin. — [Lychnis Flos - cuczdi.] Sometimes called the
" Cuckoo-lychnis."' The flowers are of a light pink color ; the petals
are cleft into long, sharp teeth ; calyx brown.
Sc.\ELET Lychnis. — [Lychnis Chalcedonica.] Common flower in
country gardens. It grows in a flat-topped cluster ; flowers small
and bright scarlet. Petals are indented. Native of Russia.
• Virginia Catchfly. — [Silene Virginica.] The name of " Catch-
fly " was given from the sticky, downy substance which covers it,
and by which small insects are often caught. This species has long,
slender petals, cleft at tlie ends, and of a crimson color. Found in
the open woods of the West and Soutli.
Garden Catchfly. — [Silene Armo'ia.] A garden flower, some-
times called "Sweet-william." Stem about one foot high, branch-
ing, and bearing bunches of bright pink, or purplish flowers. Pet-
als notched.
Royal Catchfly. — [Selene regin.] A large flower, of beautiful
scarlet color, when cultivated. Found an prairies from Ohio south.
Grows three feet high.
BoTJNCiNG Bet. — [Saponaria officinalis.] Sometimes called " Soap-
wort," from the fact that the juice of its root and stem will form a
soap-like lather. Flower of jialc pink color, usually double ; petals
notched. Often found wild by the roadside.
262 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
CniCKWEED. — [Stellaria media.] Sometimes called " Starwort."
The well-kuown gurdeu weed "which is given to Canary birds. It
has a small, white flower. Leaves egg-shaped.
Spurrey. — [Spergida arvensis.] Leaves grass-like, growing in a
circle around the stem. Has an open cluster of small, M'hite flowers.
Found in grain-fields. Sometimes cultivated in Europe for feeding
sheep.
The Rose Family [Itosame] contains our most beautiful
flower, the i^^«<', of which there are several hundred varieties; also,
our most delicious fruits, as the a]>ple, 2Jear, quince, peach, 2dum, cher-
ry, africot, nectarine, draicherry, Mackberry, rasplerry, almond. The
jjlauts belonging to this order embrace trees, shrubs, and herbs.
The Roue Family contains three great divisions or groups, viz..
The Rose Group, The Plum Group, The Pear Group.
The Rose Group comprises shrubby, prickly bushes, with leaves
of the feathered or pinnate form, each composed of from three to nine
egg-shaped or ovate leaflets. Its blossoms, in a wild state, have five
petals, many stamens, and several pistils. When cultivated, the num-
ber of petals becomes numerous, the flowers beautiful, and of various
tints, from white to a rich crimson.
The raspberry, blackberry, and strawberry belong to the Rose
grouji. It will be seen that the form of their flowers, their parts,
etc., resemble the corresponding parts of the "Wild Kose.
Damask-rose. — [Rosa Damaacena.] This beautiful rose is a native
of the countries about the jMediterranean Sea. It has many petals,
with colors varying from a delicate roseate hue to a rich rose-red.
It is very fragrant, and its petals are used for making '■'■attar of
roses.'''' Tlie bush grows from three to five feet high. It is culti-
vated in our gardens. The low monthly rose is a variety of this
kind.
Wild Rose. — [Rosa lucida.] This rose is sometimes called the
" Dwarf Wild Rose." It grows on a bush from one to three feet
high, in fields and in woods. The flowers are small, of a jjale, red
color, and grow in clusters of two or three. The leaves have a shin-
ing appearance, and grow with five to nine on a stem.
SwEETBRiER. — [Rosa rtiMginosa.] This is sometimes called "Eg-
lantine." The sweetbrier is a stout, prickly shrub, from four to six
feet high, growing in fields and by roadsides. The flowers are usu-
ally solitary, with five rounded petals, of a light rose-color, and fra-
PLANTS. 263
grant. The leaves are small, and usually have sacs or glands on the
under side, containing an aromatic fragrance, which gives a delight-
ful iJerfume when the leaves are rubbed.
French Rose. — [liosa Gallica.] Tliis is the common red-rose of
gardens, from which have originated some three hundred varieties :
among these are the " Carmine," " Carnation," " Velvet," " Nosegay,"
"York and Lancaster," etc. The numerous inner petals of the rose
are develoj^ed from the stamens by cultivation. The dried petals
of this rose are sometimes used in medicine. The pure tincture of
rose, used for flavors in cooking, is made from the petals of this rose.
Black Raspberry. — [Riiius occidental is.] This is sometimes
called " Thimbleberry." The black raspberry bush grows along the
borders of fields, and consists of a group of curved, slender stems,
from four to six feet high. The leaves are egg-shaped, growing in
clusters of three. Flowers white, with five petals. Fruit purplish
black, of hemispherical shape, and when picked has a dee}), hollow
place where it was attached to the fruit stem.
Bl.\ckberry. — [liiihus villosus.'] This well-known bush grows
from one to six feet high, consisting of slender stems, covered with
strong prickles. Leaves egg-shaped, from three to five in a group.
Flowers, with Live white petals, often growing in a cluster. Fruit
black, globular, or slightly conical.
Strawberry. — {Fragaria vesca.^ This well-known plant has
wliite flowers, with five jietals. The seeds grow on the surface of
the fruit.
Pear Group. — The Pear group includes the pear, ai)ple, quince,
cliokeberry, mountain-ash. TIic blossoms have five roundish petals,
of a white or pink color, and grow in clusters.
Pear. — [Pi/riis communis.] This delicious fruit is a native of Eu-
rope ; but in its wild state the fruit is small and unpalatable. Flow-
ers scentless, five white petals, with purjile anthers. Fruit tapers
toward the stem.
Apple. — [Pi/nis mains.] The common apple was originally
brought from Europe. The tree grows from twenty to thirty feet
high. Leaves long, egg-shaped. Flower -buds iDinkish ; tlie five
wide-spread petals are partly wliite, with tints of pink and light
purple, and fragrant. There are also several native, wild species of
apple in this country.
Quince. — [ Cyclonia vulgaris.] This is a small tree, so named from
a city of Crete, from whence it was obtained. The oval leaves have
264 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
a cottony surface beneath. The fruit lias a similar surface. It is
hard, pear-shaped, of a yellowish color, and is used for preserves.
The flowers have live petals, yellowish white, or very pale rose-color.
The quince is supposed to be the " Golden Apple," celebrated in
ancient fable.
Plum Group. — The Plum group includes the plum, peach, nectar-
ine, apricot, cherry, and almond. Tlie blossoms are white, or rose-
colored, and consist of five petals, and from fifteen to thirty stamens.
The fruit is fleshy, and contains a stone, or nut. The kernel of
some of this group, as the jjcach and almond, contains pnissic acid,
a deadly poison.
Plum. — [Pnm7(S domesiica.] Said to be a native of Italy. Tree
about fifteen feet high. Leaves dark green. Flowers solitary, with
five whitish petals, twenty to tiiirty stamens, with yellowish anthers.
Friiit has a smooth skin of various colors, a fleshy pulp covering
a small, flattened stone, with sharp edges. Prunes, as used on the
table, are large plums dried.
Peach. — [Persiai vulgaris.] This well-known tree was named
from its native country, Persia. Its leaves are lance-shaped. Tiie
flowers appear before the leaves, with five spreading, rose-colored
petals. The skin of the fruit has a woolly coating. Tlie fruit con-
tains a rough " stone," or nut, which encloses the seed. There are
many varieties.
Cherry. — [Prumis cerasits.] This is named from Cerasus, an an-
cient town in Turkey, from whence tiie garden-cherry is supposed
to have originated. Flowers large, with five petals, white, tinged
faintly with purple. The leaves and flowers appear about the same
time. Fruit round and reddish, has a fleshy i)ulp covering a round
stone, or " pit."
POISONOUS PLANTS.
Crowfoot Taimly.—lBanujiculficew.] This family contains many
dangerous plants. All the members possess an acrid or bitter juice,
which is watery or colorless, and more or less narcotic; while some
of them are absolutely poisonous. In some of these plants their
poisonous properties may be dissipated by a boiling heat, or by dry-
ing in the sun.
Their leaves are usually palmately or ternately lobed, and without
stipules. ]\[any pUuits cultivated for ornament l^elong to this fam-
FLAM'S. 265
ily, as Anemone, Larkspur, Buttercup, Christmas -rose, Columbine,
Monk's-bood, Clematis, etc. Owing to the poisonous character of
some, and the susjiicious properties of others, it would be well to be
cautious in relation to all the plants of this family.
Crowfoot. — [Ranunculus sceleratus.] This plant grows in wet
places, from Georgia to Canada. It grows about fifteen inclies high,
and blossoms in June and July. It bears a small, bright yellow
flower, with live petals growing singly on a slender stem. The seed-
vessels form an erect, rounded cone. Leaves are three-parted. The
juice, when fresh ., is very acrid, and will raise blisters upon tiie skin.
It is a poison when taken internally. Cattle avoid this plant when it
is fresh.
Monk's-hood. — [Aconitum Napellus.] This plant is common in old
gardens and waste places. It grows from three to four feet high,
bearing a cluster of blue, helmet-shaped flowers. Tlie name Monk's-
hood was given from the sliape of the upper portion of the flower.
The leaves are deeply-cut, and several times divided, after the man-
ner of those of the common larkspur. The seed-vessel consists of
three lobes. The root is very poisonous, tuberous, or shaped some-
what like that of the horse-radish, fiu' which it is sometimes mis-
taken in the early spring, before the leaves appear. It should not
even be touched by the tongue. This plant is also called Wol/^s-
bane, because in Europe it is used for poisoning wolves.
Baxeberuy. — [Actea apicata.] Tiiis plant is found in rich woods;
grows about two feet high ; leaflets ovate and sharply cleft ; blos-
soms in May and June ; berries red or purplish, and about the size
of currants ; seeds smooth and flattened. Berries poisonous.
Black Hellebore (CnRisxiiAS-ROSE). — [Hellchorus niger.'] This
plant received the name of Christmas-rose because in the warmer
parts of England it blossoms in the winter and early spring. It has
large single white flowers, which turn pinkish, then green. In form
the blossom somewhat resembles that of the strawberry. Tlie leaves
are pedate, and of a shining green. It is cultivated in gardens,
though not very common in this country. Its injurious properties
should be known, that its serious effects may be avoided.
Parsley Family. — Poison -jiemlock. — [Conium mnculatum.]
Found in the Northern and Middle States by roadsides, in waste
ground, and swampy i)lacos. Grows from three to six feet high ;
lias very smooth stems, with purplish spots ; leaves are lance-shaped
and coarsely-toothed, sometimes pointed ; flowers white and small,
12
266 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
growing in close clusters at the ends of the stems, like the water-
he mloclc ; blossoms in July and August; fruit somewhat egg-shaped
and ribbed. Root a deadhj jtoison.
The entire plant emits a very offensive odor when bruised. Sup-
posed to be the plant which the ancient Greeks used to destroy the
statesmen of whom they were tired. This plant was introduced
into this country from Europe.
Water-hemlock. — [Cicuta vmcidata.] Tliis plant is a native of
our country, and is found in swamps and wet jjluces ; even within
the limits of villages and cities it is far too common for safety. It
is a tall, rank herb, growing from four to six feet high. Its stems
are hollow, l)ranching, smooth, and streaked with purple and brown ;
the flowers are white, growing in clusters, which sjjrcad out like
an umbrella. The veins of the compound leaves terminate in the
notches; it blossoms in July and August. Fruit or seeds nearly
round, with ribs, the channels between which are of a reddish-brown
color, and filled with oily matter.
Children often mistake it for sweet-cicely, which belongs to the
same family. Its herl:>age is dangerous to cattle. 'TJie Jleahy root is
fatally jMisonous. It is said that a drachm of the fresh root has
killed a boy in less -than two hours after eating it.
Fool's-parsley. — [^thtisa Cynapium.] This plant was originally
introduced from Europe. It is sometimes found about cultivated
grounds, but usually in waste places. Grows from one to two feet
high, having a hollow stem, and dark-green, lance-shaped leaves.
The flowers are white, growing much like those of tlie hemlock and
wild i)arsnip ; blossoms in July and August. Fruit or seed near!}'-
as broad as long, with prominent, straight ribs. This jilant is not
only poisonous, but has a fetid odor. Leaves, seeds, and roots poisonous.
Wild Parsnip. — [Pastinaca Satlva.] Grows wild in fields, by
fences, roadsides, etc. Has a tall, grooved, l)ranching stem; leaves
pinnate and deeply cut. Flowers, which appear in July, are yellow
and small, growing in fine clusters, at the ends of seven or eight
spreading umbels. Fruit flat, oval, with a broad, single-winged mar-
gin, llie root is spindle-shaped, and well known in its cultivated
state as a sweet-flavored esculent ; but in its wild state the root be-
comes smaller in size, hard, acrid, and j>oisonous.
Lobelia Family. ^ — Lohelia (Indian Tobacco). — [Lohclia inflata.']
This plant is found in dry, open pastures, and by roadsides. It
grows from ten to fifteen inches high. Leaves elliptical, hairy.
Flowers small, pale blue, and growing in leafy spikes. Blossoms
PLANTS. 267
I'roiii July to September. Leaves and flowers grow from the same
axil. Juice milky and acrid. This plant is used as a medicine, but
its jDoisonous qualities render it very dangerous.
Figwort Family. — Foxglove. — [^Digitalis purpurea.^ Cultivated
in gardens for its showy flowers; also by the Shakers and others for
its leaves, which are dried and used as medicine ; but, owing to its
poisonous properties, this plant should be used only by those having
a clear knowledge of it. The jilant grows from three to four feet
high ; flowers from two to two and a half inches long, rather hairy
within, and beautifully spotted with deep purple dots, surrounded
by white rings. The common name — "Foxglove" — is said to have
been derived from an old Saxon word, Folks-glove. It is a native of
Europe and Asia.
Pine Family. — Yew. — Ground Hemlock. \^2'axus Canadensis.]
American Yew. [IVuiis iaccata.] English Yew. The American
Yew is a small evergreen shrub, from two to four feet in length,
growing as a straggling, prostrate bush, never forming an ascending
trunk. It is found in thin, rocky soil on hill-sides, near streams,
and along moist banks, particularly in the shade of evergreen-trees.
Leaves nearly an inch long, arranged in two opposite rows on each
side of the branchlets. The blossoms are like scaly buds, and ap-
pear in May. Fruit is of a coral red, and displays a black seed at
the top.
The leaves of this plant and iJie black seeds of the berries contain
jwison. Tlie pulp of the berries is not considered unwholesome,
but it is dangerous to swallow the black seeds.
Mezereum Family. — Mezereum. — [Daphne mezercuvi.] This
shrub belongs to the same iamily as the common " Moosewood,"
or " Leatherwood," and is also noted for its fibrous, tough bark.
It is cultivated for ornament; grows from two to three feet high;
leaves of a delicate green ; flowers of a purjilish rose-color, growing
around the stems. These are succeeded by scarlet berries which are
j)oiso?ious. The root and bark are acrid and caustic. Blooms early
in spring. A native of Euroi^e.
Smnac Family. — Poison-ivy. — {Rhus to.ricodendron.'] (Some-
times k;u)wn as "Poison-oak," and occasionally as "Poison-vine.")
A plant common in low grounds, climljing on fences, over rocks,
and ascending trees. The variety which ascends trees, from twenty
to forty feet in height, is usually designated as Rhus radicans. Its
leaves are generally nearly entire. The stem of this variety some-
times attains the size of one or two inches in thickness. It is cov-
268 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
ered with a grayish, scaly bark, and fastens itself to the object upon
■svliich it climbs by numerous bunches of rootlets thrown out along
the stem.
The leaves of the poison -ivy are of a shining green color, and
change in autumn to a bright yellow, or orange, or a mahogany ;
they always groio in groitps of three ; are ovate, with margins vari-
ously shaped, from nearly entire to undulate, dentate, and cut-lobed,
and are downy underneath. Flowers are small, greenish yellow,
and grow in long, loose clusters. Blooms in May and June.
The juice of this plant is rery j)oiso?ioiis to the touch. It causes an
eruption of the skin, accompanied by an intolerable itching and
burning sensation.
The poison-ivy is sometimes mistaken for the Virginia creeper,
a harmless plant which often is cultivated and known as " wood-
bine." Attention to the following distinguishing characteristics of
each vine will prevent these mistakes.
Virginia Creeper — leaver grow in groups of five ; are large, oblong,
and pointed, margins sharply dentate ; color, dark green, changing
in autumn to a bright crimson ; berries dark blue, smaller than
jDease ; stem fostens, in climbing, by tendrils.
Poison-ivy — leaves groio in groups of three ; are ovate, with margins
variously shaped ; color, shining green, changing in autumn to a
bright yellow or orange ; berries vary from a dull white to a pale,
shining brown ; are aljout the size of small pease ; stem clings by
bunches of small rootlets. Poison -ivy is found from Georgia to
Canada.
Poison Scm.\c. — [Rhus venenata.] (Sometimes called " Poison
Dogwood.") A shrub or small tree, common in swamps, growing
from six to eighteen feet high ; bark gray, and generally smootli.
Each leaf-stem has seven, nine, eleven, or thirteen green leaflets, ar-
ranged in pairs on opposite sides of the red stem, with a single one
at the end. The leaflets are smooth, oblong, abruptly pointed, mar-
gins entire, from two to three inches long and about half as wide.
The color of the leaves changes in autumn from green through a
bright yellow to crimson and scarlet; but the leaf-stem, or mid-vein,
remains an intense red during all these changes. The flowers are
small and greenish, growing in alternate clusters on a long stem.
The fruit is of a greenish yellow, dry, smooth, and shining, and
aljout the size of small pease. Blossoms appear in June; berries
ripen in September.
The entire 2>lnnt is very poisonous to the touch or taste, n\\(\. even
taints the air around it, so that some persons become poisoned by
PLANTS. 269
simply passing near it when in a state of perspiration. The poison
produces painful swelling, inflammation, and intense itching.
The j\fount'(iii iSumac, a small shrub, growing in dry, rocky places ;
bearing a dark-green leaf, shining on tlie upper surface; greenish
red flowers, in dense clusters, on a long stem ; fruit seed-like, red
and hairy ; is not poisonous.
Nettle Family. — Stinging Nettle. — [Urtica dioica.] Common
in waste places and by roadsides; grows from two to three feet
high ; stem four-sided ; leaves from two to three inches long and
about one-half as wide, and downy underneath ; have short stems
attached to opposite sides of the stalk ; margins deeply serrate.
Blossoms from June to August. The entire plant is covered with
stifi", tubular liairs, wliich transmit a venomous fluid when pressed,
causing a stinging and itching sensation.
JSTightshade Family. — Thorn-apple, or Stuamonium. — James-
town weed. [Datura stramonium.'] A common plant, having a rank
odor, growing in waste places, among rubbish, etc. The stem is
about three feet high, smootli, hollow, and branching. The general
form of tlie leaves is ovate, but the margins are cut in sharp angles,
with gashes rounded at tlieir bases. The blossom is of a cream-
white color, funnel-shaped, witli a long tube, somewhat plaited, and
a border fine-tootlied. Tlie general form of the flower resembles
that of the morning-glory. The seed-vessel, or pod, is about the
size of a small apple, somewliat egg-shaped, and covered with
spikes. It contains numerous flat seeds. Every 2}art of the i^lant
is 2)oisonous.
Common Nightshade —Black Nightshade. — [Solam/m nigrum.]
An ugly, weed-like plant, growing about rubbish, in shaded places,
with angular branches and smooth stems, which commonly rest on
the ground. Leaves usually ap2)ear as if i)art]y eaten by insects.
Flowers white, with a yellow conical centre, five-parted, grown in
small, ojien clusters, on long stems. Blossoms during July and Au-
gust. Berries are bluish black, round, and vary in size from large
cherries to small ijcase. These are iMisonous. The plant has a dis-
agreeable odor.
Deadly Nightshade. — [Atrojia lelladonna.] A plant wliich
grows about five feet high, branching near the ground; the stem
and large leaves have a purplish tinge ; leaves narrow, oval, and
pointed, growing in i)airs from opposite sides of the stem, witli a
second pair of small leaves growing at the base of the lov.-er large
leaves. Blossoms are somewhat bell-shaped, of a pale purple, grow-
270 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
ing singly, also in pairs, from the stem at the foot of the leaves, and
nodding. Berries are about the size of cherries, and cliange from a
green color to a glossy black; are filled with a purple juice. Tiiese
are exceedingly poisonous. The entire plant is dangerous. It is
sometimes cultivated in gardens, and may occasionally be found
growing in other places. It is a native of Europe; is used as a
medicine.
Henbane. — [Hi/oscyamus nigo'.] A tall weed growing about rub-
bish of old houses, roadsides, and sometimes in old gardens. Stem
round, branching, and about two feet high. Leaves large, oblong,
l^ointed, and cut into sharp lobes, or deeply toothed. Blossoms of
a dull yellow color, strongly veined with purple; they grow in one-
sided spikes at the ends of the stems, from the foot of the leaves.
The flower-cup is urn-shaped. The plant is hair}', sticky, of a sea-
green hue, and emits an oflensive odor. The entire plant is poisonous.
Bittersweet. — [Solamim dulcamara.'] A shrubby climber; stem
branching several feet in length ; found on moist banks, near low
ground, and around dwellings. Tlie lower leaves are entire, the
upper ones halberd-shaped. Blossoms bluish purple, drooping, with
tive pointed petals surrounding an orange-colored, conical centre.
Each division or segment of the flower has two green spots at its
base. Blossoms from June to September. Berries are oval, bright
red, and poisonous.
Poppy Family. — Celandine. — [Chclidonium majus.] This plant
grows by roadsides, fences, etc., about two feet high ; stem is branch-
ing, and very brittle. Blossoms have four petals, are yellow, some-
what resemble the buttercup. Leaves consist of two to four pairs
of leaflets, with an odd one at the end. Seed-pods an inch long.
When broken, the plant exudes a yellow, strong-smelling juice, which
is poisonous. It is sometimes applied to warts, to destroy them.
Arum Family. — Jack-in-the-pulpit — Indian-turnip. — [A7-isce-
ma tripJiyllum.] A common plant in rich, low grounds in woods.
The fleshy stem of tliis plant divides into two parts near the
ground; each branch bearing three oval, pointed leaflets at its end.
Between the branches grow the blossom and the fruit. The fleshy
si:)ike, around which the berries grow, is enclosed in a sheatii-like
leaf, green without, but within variegated with stripes of dark pur-
ple alternating with pale green. The form of this sheath is some-
what like that of a Calla lily, but with the point of the sheath bend-
ing over the cup containing the spadix or spike. Wlien ripening,
the berries, growing around the fleshy sjiike in an oblong cluster,
PLANTS. 271
change from a greeu color to a bright scarlet. Blooms iu ]May.
Fruit ripens iu August and September.
This plant has a bulbous or corm-like stem in the ground some-
what of a turnip shape, from the upper part of which there grow
numerous fibre-like roots. The fleshy portion of the plant, when in
a green state, is exceedingly acrid. Neither the bulbous root nor
the berries should be tasted.
Heath Family. — Sheep Laurel. — [Kalinia angusfi/olia.] Sheep-
poison, Lamb-kill, are names sometimes applied to it. This shrubby
j^lant grows from two to three feet high, iu damp grounds; leaves
narrow, oblong, from one to two inches long, margin entire, surface
smooth, color pale green. Flowers purplish crimson ; corolla short,
five-toothed, slightly bell-shaped ; grow in clusters ; blossoms from
May to July. Leaves believed to be poisonous to sheep.
Mushroom Family. — Fly Mushroom. — [Agaricus mnsmrius.]
The mushrooms spring up wherever there is suflicient heat and
dampness, iu rich soil or heaps of decayed vegetable rubbish. First
there appears a little knob, within which the stalk is gradually
formed. By-and-by the outer skin bursts, and leaves a fleshy stem
supporting a fleshy cap, which, gradually enlarging, tears the lower
skin which united it to the column, and oi^ens like au umbrella.
The Fly Mushroom., with its crimson cap dotted with white, is
beautiful but dangerous, for it is very poisonous. It is said that
when steeped in milk it will kill flics.
Some varieties of mushroom are used for food; these are usually
distinguished by their j^/hZ; gills, and by a peculiar odor. It is,
liowever, quite unsafe for any person not perfectly familiar with the
appearance and odor of the edible mushroom to venture tasting any
of this tribe.
Need of Illustrations. — Those who do not know the ap-
pearance and noxious qualities of poisonous plants arc liable to
serious accidents from tasting or handling them. Ignorance in
relation to this matter is especially dangerous to children. These
plants cannot be easily recognized by those who possess no ac-
quaintance with botany, from descriptions alone. It is therefore
exceedingly important that the young should be made sufficiently
familiar with their appearance, by means of carefully-drawn pict-
ures, to be able to distinguish such plants from harmless ones,
and thus prevent liabilities to those accidents which occur from
272 MANUAL OF CBJECT-TEACHING.
handling and tasting these noxious members of the vegetable
kingdom.
It is believed that a proper use of illustrations of poisonous
plants, and of these descriptions, will enable any person to attain
the necessary acquaintance to protect himself from the dangerous
eifects of such plants.
A series of twenty-four illustrations of the poisonous plants*
described here has been carefully prepared, to represent both their
shapes and colors. p]ach illustration is on a card of the size of
common album photographs, and may be procured by mail.
Illustrations* of all the /raws, y?02tws, roo/s, etc., described in
the preceding pages, have also been published on cards of the
same size.
* Published by L. Prang & Co., Boston, Mass.
MINERALS. 273
MINEEALS.
" Tongues in trees— books in the running brooks —
Sermons in stones — and good in everything."
Special attention is directed to minerals, and a few
simple facts given here concerning them, for the ])urpose
of pointing ont still another field in which children may
be led to extend their observations with pleasure and
profit, and to increase both their powers of learning and
their knowledge of the world in which they live. The
chief aim now is to show how teachers may lead their
pupils to take such notice of the common objects which
may be found wherever they go, as to make them desire
to know what the different stones have to tell about them-
selves, and about that part of the world where they are
found.
Children may be easily induced to notice differences
between the smooth, rounded pebbles by the brook-side,
or on the shore of the lake or sea, and the rough, irregu-
lar stones that are found near a ledge of rocks. "When
they ask what made the stones so smooth, tell them how
the swift-running water of the stream or the rolling waves
of the sea rub the stones against each other, rolling them
over and over, and thus wear off the corners and make
them smooth. Tell them that their toy-marbles are made
by breaking stones into small blocks, then placing a large
number of them together, and by means of machinery
rolling them against each other, round and round, while
they are kept wet with water, and thus are worn smooth
12*
27tt MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
and to the shape of marbles. Ever after tliese children
■will understand why some stones are smooth, and they
Avill take more interest in looking at them.
Prepare Pupils to Observe Minerals. — Before send-
ing your pupils 'out to look at stones and rocks, give them
one or two lessons to teach them how to distinguish dif-
ferences in them. Give the pupils good specimens of
quartz, of mica, oi feldsjpar, and of granite, to examine.
Quartz. — Lead them to notice the very hard, clear, glassy
qualities of the quartz; that it cannot be scratched with
a knife or a file ; that it will scratch glass ; that it breaks
into irregular pieces — then let them try to find quartz
in a piece of granite.
Mica. — Let the pupils notice the bright, glistening,
tough, elastic, and almost transparent substance — mica;
that it may be easily split into leaves thinner than paper;
that it may be easily scratched with a knife — then let
them find this substance in a piece of granite.
Feldspar. — Lead the pupils to notice the white or flesh-
colored &wh^i^wQ,C:—feldsj)ar — which bi'eaks with a bright,
even surface, and in two directions; that it is not quite
so hard as quartz, yet too hard to be scratched with a
knife; that it may be scratched by the quartz^ — then let
them find the feldspar in a piece of granite.
Now the pupils will be prepared to go into the fields
and along the roadside to look for each of these minerals
— quartz, mica, feldspar — and for the rock called granite,
which is composed of these three. When they have gath-
ered their specimens, the teacher may assist them in cor-
recting any mistakes jiiade in distinguishing either of the
minerals.
Sandstone. — At a subsequent lesson tell the pupils that
quartz, when pulverized or made fine, forms sand. Let
MINERALS. 275
them examine coarse sand, and notice the fine grains of
quartz in it. Show them a specimen of sandstone, and
let them see that it is made np of small grains of sand ;
that by scraping the sandstone witli a knife the small
grains can be separated ; that these grains are not all of
the same size, nor all composed of the same glass-like
substance ; that some of them are softer than others, and
seem like a kind of hard cement which fastens all these
grains into a solid stone. Now let the pupils examine
tlie sand and gravel in a brook, or on the shore of a lake,
or the beach of the ocean, and be told that sand and
gravel are formed by the motion of the water, which
causes stones, pebbles, gravel, and sand to move about,
and thus keep the pieces continually rubbing against each
other, and grinding them smaller and finer.
The pupils ma}' now be told that sandstone is formed
by layers of fine sand deposited in deep water, and then
pressed together by the weight of the sand and water
more and more firmly from year to year; and that after
a very long period of years these layers of sand become
solid rocks.
Calcite. — A common form of crystallized calcite is
called dog- tooth -sjKir. Calcite, in a rock form, is lime-
stone. When burnt, it is carhonate of lime (the material
that is slacked in water and used for making mortar).
Calcite is easily distinguished from feldspar and other
minerals by its effervescence with acid ; by its being
easily scratched with a knife ; by its infusibility in the
hottest fire ; and by its cleavage in three directions, and
with rhombic faces.
Dolomite. — When limestone contains magnesia mixed
with the lime, it is called magnesian limestone, or dolomite.
Dolomite and calcite a]ipear much alike ; but dolomite
does not effervesce freely with acid unless the acid be hot.
2 TO MANXAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Chalk is limestone. Maible is limestone ; bnt some-
times it is of tlie magnesian kind. Calcareous rocks are
kinds of limestone. Limestone, in its various forms, has
dull colors, from white — through gray, yellow, red, and
brown — to black. It is very abundant in this country,
except in the form of chalk. Chalk is found in large
quantities in England and France.
Show your pupils specimens of calclte in the forms of
limestone, marble, carbonate of lime, and crystals. Lead
them to experiment with these, and observe the several
characteristics by which this mineral may be distinguished
from feldspar and other minerals. They will then be
prepared to collect specimens of rocks, to examine them,
experiment with them, and determine whether they be-
long to either of the classes of minerals or rocks already
named — quartz^ inica^ feldspar^ sandstone, calclte, etc.*
These and similar lessons on minerals may be extended
so as to include those to be found within the regions that
may be visited by your pupils. Indeed, these and other
lessons intended to introduce children to nature, and in-
duce them to become interested in studying the charm-
ing pages illustrated with real minerals and rocks, plants,
blossoms, and fruits, and all the varieties of animal form
and life, should begin at the home of the young learner,
and with things within his easy observation.
That you may do this intelligently, make yourself ac-
quainted with the character of the rocks and minerals in
the vicinity of your school ; then teach your pupils how
to distinguish or know the different kinds, and tell them
where each may be found. By such means many boys
have been led away from idleness and bad associations.
* Teachers and older pupils who desire to learn more about minerals
and rocks will find the following books very useful : IIookcr''s 3ll>teralogy
and Geohgy ; The Geoloijical Story Brkfly Told, by Dana; Science Primers, on
Geoloffi/, and on Fki/sical Geography.
MINERALS. 277
and the foundations laid for observing and studious Jiab-
its, and lives of great usefulness.
Try what virtue there is in developing a love for min-
erals, plants, and animals, and in after years many will
bless you in remembrance of valued instruction, and the
numerous sources of happiness unfolded to them.
278 ■ MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
CHEMISTRY ; Oil, ELEMENTS OF SUBSTANCES.
From the lessons under tlie head of "Properties of Objects"
you learned to distinguish three classes of substances — Animal,
Vegetable, Mineral. The succeeding lessons on animals and on
plants furnished you additional facts concerning the first two of
these groups. I now propose to direct your attention still fur-
ther to the class called Minerals, and, while guiding your obser-
vations upon this group, to point out some new facts which will
give you a better knowledge of all kinds of substances.
You have learned that a mineral has no life, no feeling, no mo-
tion, and does not take food ; and yet the mineral supplies food
to the vegetable world, and the vegetable world furnishes the
food for the animal world. Thus, while this substance has no
life of its own, it supplies the materials for life to the other two
classes.
IIow can this be true, when minerals are snch things as stones,
sand, clay, iron, lead, silver, etc. ? you may inquire. I will try to
explain this matter.
All the words that you know and can read or write, and all
the words in the books, are made up of Icttei-s. "When you learn
to write a word, you know what letters make the word, and how
they arc arranged. In our language there are only twenty-six
letters, and these enable us to make up more than one hundred
thousand words. These letters are the elements of our written
language.
Minerals, like wiitten words, are made up of elements. All
the matter that constitutes all the rocks, stones, iron, gold, silver,
lead, cla}', ice, and water in the world is made up of elementary
substances, which are the letters of nature. There are about six-
ty-three of these mineral-letters. As the letters of our language,
by different combinations, form different words, so these mineral
elements, by different combinations, form different substances.
MINERALS.
279
Some of these mineral-letters cannot be seen -when alone, or
not united with one or more other letters. This gfoup of min-
eral-letters we call gases. Some of these letters can be seen, felt,
and tasted; these are called liquids and solids. Some of the sol-
ids we call metals, and some we call minerals.
I will write the names of a few of these mineral -letters in
groups, and thus show you what some of them are called, and to
which group they belong :
MINERAL-LETTERS.
6ase.s. Solids. Minerals.
Oxygen, Carbon, Iron,
Nitrogen, SuljyhKr, Silver,
Hydrogen, Phosphorus, Potassium,
Chlorine, Silicon, Sodium,
Fluorine. Iodine. Calcium.
These mineral -letters are commonly called Elementary Sub-
stances. All the matter that constitutes the rocks, land, water,
trees, grain, and animals of the whole earth is made up of these
letters of nature. The names of only fifteen of them are given
above, yet these elementary substances constitute more than one-
half of all tlie matter in the world, including animals, vegetables,
and minerals. One of these elements — oxygen — is the most
abundant one in nature. It comprises one -fifth of the air we
breathe, eight-ninths (by weight) of the water we drint, more
than two-fifths of the land we walk on, and a large part of the
food we eat, as vi-ell as of the clothing we wear, of the houses we
live in, and of the tools we use.
In our written language the letters form words, the words are
combined into sentences, and the sentences into language as a
whole. Ill nature the mineral-letters, or simple substances, form
the mineral-words of nature ; and these words of nature are com-
bined into tlie three great sentences of nature — minerals, vegeta-
bles, animals ; and these three groups, or books, of nature com-
prise the whole world of matter. A knowledge of these elements,
and of their laws of combination, is called Chemistry. By a care-
280 MANUAL OF OB JECT-TE ACHING.
ful study of this science you may loarn tlie composition and nat-
ure of all the materials of which the world is made up.
As in our language some words contain only one letter, or ele-
ment, while some words contain two letters, others three, four,
five, or more letters, so it is in these words of nature, some sub-
stances contain only one letter, or element, some contain two ele-
ments, some three, four, five, or more elements. As each word
in our written language is complete in itself, and has a definite
meaning, so each of these words of nature is complete of itself,
and is known as a definite substance, with its own distinct prop-
erties.
I will now give you the names of a few of the words of nature,
and tell you what letters or elements form them :
Substances with one Element. — Silver, iron, sulphur,
carbon, or charcoal, are each words containing only one letter, and
the name of the letter in each case is the name of the substance,
just as the names of the letters A, I, and are the names of the
three words wdiich they constitute.
Substances with two Elements. — Air, loater, sand, and
salt are each words containing only two different letters, or ele-
ments. The name of eacli element in these substances is as fol-
lows: Air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen; "Water is com-
posed of oxygen and hydrogen ; Saiid is made up of oxygen and
silicon ; Salt is made up of sodium and chlorine.
Substances with three Elements. — The following sub-
stances contain each three elements, or letters, as follows : Sugar
contains oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon ; Starch contains oxygen,
hydrogen, and carbon ; Glycerine contains oxygen, hydrogen, and
carbon ; Vinegar contains oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon.
It will be noticed that each one of these substances contains
the same elements. In some written words the same letters are
repeated, so in some substances the same elements arc repeated
several times. Sugar contains more than twice as much oxygen
and carbon as starch does. Glycerine contains less of each oxy-
gen, hydrogen, and carbon than either sugar or starch, but more
of each of these elements than vinco:ar.
MINERALS. 281
Substances with four Elements. — Eacli of the follow-
itiGf substances contains /o«r elements, as follows: Gun-cotton is
composed of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon ; Cream of
Tcirtar is composed of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon^ and 2^otash ;
Bronze is composed of copjjcr, tin, zinc, and lead.
Substances with five Elements.^Eacb of the follow-
ing substances contains five elements, as follows : Gunpowder is
composed of oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, carbon, and potassium ;
Alum is composed of oxygen, hydrogen, aluminum, p)otassium, and
sulphur.
As in our written language you must know how the several
letters arc combined, and how many times any or each of those
letters are repeated in the same word, so in these words of nature
you must learn how these simple substances are combined, and
how many times each is used in the same substance before you
can understand how these combinations of the same elements can
produce such different substances. All of these facts about the
combinations of elementary substances to form all things that we
can see, smell, taste, or feel, you may learn by the study of chem-
istry.'''
A knowledge of this science is useful in all the occupations of
life, and is indispensable to the chemist, the physician, and to suc-
cess in many kinds of manufacturing. It is valuable to the farm-
er, to the merchant, to the miner, and the house-keeper.
* Teachers and students will find the following books useful for elemen-
tary instrnetion on this subject: Hooker'' n First Book of C/iemUtrij ; also
Hooker's Second Book of C/ieini.stnj, or Hcience for itie Hchool and Family;
and the Science Frimer of Chemistry.
282 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
OCCUPATIONS AXD TEADES.
All wlio are to become actors, and not mere lookers-
on in the world, should be so instructed that thej may
understand the nature and purpose of the most important
things and occupations around them. Children like to
learn additional facts about things, places, and occupations
of which they have seen and know but little ; but to so
learn that their knowledge shall become of practical value,
they need to be guided by parents and teachers. Among
the most useful lessons learned are those which the real
teacher prepares the pupils to understand, and stimulates
them to learn by their own observation and experience
outside of the school-room.
Children mIio have had their attention thus directed to
different occupations will thereby gain knowledge that
will prove nseful to them in many ways in later yeai's.
When the boy comes to decide upon the business for his
life, he will have something to aid him in determining
what he would like to do.
The boy whose attention has been specially directed to
the work performed, and to the articles produced by the
different occupations, will learn readily the duties of his
position. He will be able to perform them with such in-
telligence as to command better wages than one whose
education has not been thus practical.
It is hoped that the following lessons, facts, and sugges-
tions to teachers will aid in accomplishing a work of great
value to their pupils. Tlie successful teacher aims to con-
nect the lessons of the school-room Avith the children's ex-
OCCUPATIONS AND TRADES. 2S3
periences of ont-of-school life, tlnis making the instruction
interesting, practical, and most effective. The lessons
about what people do furnish excellent opportunities for
accomplishing this purpose.
Play Exercises. — Simple exercises might be commenced
with quite young ])upils, and made the means of training them
in the use of language. They could be introduced under some
such titles as the following: "Plays at Ilousedceeping," "Plays
at Store-keeping," " Plays at House-building ;" and thus, in aid
of instruction, advantage may be taken of that characteristic of
childliood which leads the young to want to play in imitation of
■what they see older people do.
Suppose the girls play " Set a Supper-table." One might say,
"I will put on the table-cloth;" another, "I will put on the
plates;" others, "I will put on the knives and forks;" "I will
get the cups and saucers;" "I will make the tea;" "I will get
the bread, and cut it;" "I will bring the butter;" "I will bring
the cake, and cut it ;" " I will put on the cheese ;" " I will get the
teaspoons;" "I will put on the preserves;" "I will put the nap-
kins by the plates;" "I will place the chairs around the table;"
" Let me bring the cream and sugar for the tea ;" " I will bring
the water and the tumblers."
Each pupil, in another exercise, might say what she would like
for supper, or breakfast, or dinner, according to the meal that
was being represented. The exercise might be varied by each
telling what to put on the table (appropriate to the given meal),
as if directing a servant to do it.
When the setting of the table has been completed, the teacher
might preside, and request each pupil at the play-dinner to tell
what kind of meat, vegetables, etc., she would like. By this
means many useful lessons in table-manners may be taught. The
exercise of good judgment and tact by the teacher will render
such exercises exceedingly interesting and profitable to children.
The boys might play "Keeping Grocery." Let one pupil rep-
resent a customer, the next one the grocer, the next a customer,
the next the grocer, etc., somewhat as follows : " Have you nice
284 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
eating-apples?" "Yes; would you like sonic?" "I will take
two quarts."
" Please give me two pounds of your Lest tea." *' Here is
your tea; the price is one dollar and a half for the two pounds."
"What is the price of your best butter?" "Twenty -five
cents." "I will take two pounds."
" How much do you ask for good potatoes ?" " Twenty cents
a peck." " You may send me one peck."
" Please give me three and a half pounds of powdered sugar,"
" I would like a pound of crackers."
" I wish half a pound of cheese," etc., etc.
During these exercises the pupils are supposed to speak in
turn, or by permission of the teacher, after expressing their read-
iness by holding up a hand.
The range of appropriate topics may be increased as the pupils
become familiar Avitli the plan of proceeding. These exercises
may be made a means both of recreation and useful instruction
at the same time, and may be introduced from time to time, say
once a week, in some form, until the pupils are able to take up
lessons of a more advanced character, in which a wider range of
observation will be developed.
Older pupils should have more advanced lessons, which might
be conducted somewhat in the following manner :
"What People Do. — To-day we will talk about what people
do to earn a living. You know that some people keep stores,
and sell things ; some have shops, and make things ; some print
books ; some bind books ; some sell books ; some make clothes ;
some make furniture ; some make wagons ; some make bread and
cake ; some teach school ; some preach ; some go to see people
when they are sick; some make and sell medicines; some supply
us with meat; some build houses; some raise wheat, corn, and
other things for our food ; and many people do other kinds of
work for a living. We call that which people do for a living
their business, or occupation.
The Names of Occupations shall be our lesson for to-ntton. Button-hole,
Cloak.
locket. Skirt.
OCCUPATIONS. 287
Exercises •yvitli these lists might be repeated two or three times,
until the pupils become familiar with the spelling of each word.
The lesson might be extended by requesting the pupils to
give the names of the kinds of cloth used by the tailor, as heaver,
cassimere, doeskin, broadcloth, satinet, melton, tweed, flannel, velvet,
corduroy, duck, satin, scrr/e, silk, silesia, hair-cloth.
Subsequently the pupils might answer the following questions,
orally or in writing : What do tailors measure ? Whi/ do they
measure ? What do they cut ? When do they baste ? What do
they press ? Wht/ do they press ? etc. Whei-e do tailors obtain
their cloth ? What do they produce ? IIow do they procure
their food ?
At another time the trade of a slioomakcr may be chosen as
the subject of the lesson, and then the blackboard might contain
something like the following :
SHOEMAKER.
"What he uses. "What he does.
Cowhide, calf-skin, Measures, cuts, pastes, lasts,
Morocco, sole-leather, Pegs, tacks, sews, stitches,
Knife, awl. Fits, trims, foots, taps,
Float, tacks. Mends, caps, half-soles.
Wax, shoe-thread, Pounds leather.
Pincers, pegs, nails. Soaks leather,
Last, strap, hammer. Blacks, trims, polishes.
Parts of a shoe. Parts of a boot.
Toe, heel, sole. Leg, front, or vamp,
Shank, quarters. Heel, toe, instep, shank.
Tongue, lining, insole. Counter, seam, straps.
Kinds of Boots, Shoes, etc. — Heavy boots, riding-boots,
fine, calf, patent-leather, Congress gaiters, Oxford ties, shoes, slip-
pers.
TF/mi do shoemakers measure ? cut? paste? peg? sew?
Why do they measure? paste? peg? sew?
288 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Whi/ do they sew instead of peg?
Why do they hammer leather ?
Wht/ do they use wax ?
Where do they obtain leather?
What is leather made from ?
Who makes the leather?
What do shoemakers produce?
How do they procure food and clothing?
It is important that the teacher shall so conduct these lessons
as to make them profitable exercises in spelling and in the use
of lano-uao-e.
OTHER LESSONS ON OCCUPATIONS.
For tlie purpose of aiding teachers in preparing other
lessons on trades and occupations, the following lists of
inatei'ials and implements used, hinds of icork done, and
articles ])roduced, are given under appropriate heads, with
suggestions as to methods of giving the lessons. It is ex-
pected that these lists, etc., will be arranged by each teach-
er so as to adapt the work to each special class of pupils.
liCt the teacher take the materials, profit by the sugges-
tions, but make each lesson for his own class.
Allow me to add in this connection that these lessons
will become much more interesting to the pupils, as well
as more profitable, if the trade or occupation is illustrated
by suitable pictures. Excellent illustrations have been
prepared for purposes of teaching, which represent tools
used, persons at work with them, and articles produced by
each of the following trades and occupations :'^
* Pravg' a Aida for Object-teaching — Trades and Occupations, illustrated in
colors ; each i)icture 23 by 14 inches ; with a Manual of Directions, by N. A.
Calkins.
OCCUPATIONS.
281
Carpenter,
Tailor,
Prin
\ter.
Blacksmith,
Baker,
Lithographer,
Shoemaker,
Gardening,
The
Farm-yard,
Tinsmith,
The Kitchen,
FARMER.
Hay
-making.
What he uses.
What he does.
What he raisei
Axe,
Chops, splits.
Wheat,
Plough,
Turns up soil,
Corn,
Harrow,
Makes soil fine.
Oats,
Hoe,
Plants,
Barley,
Spade,
Digs holes.
Rye,
Shovel,
Moves earth and grair
h
Pease, Beans,
Crowbar,
Lifts stones, etc..
Buckwheat,
Oxen,
Draw, cart, and ploug
\
Hay,
Scythe,
Cuts grass,
Potatoes,
Cradle,
Cuts grain.
Turnips,
Rake,
Collects grass and grain.
Pumpkins,
Pitchfork,
Lifts hay and grain,
Fruits,
Fanning-mill,
Cleans grain.
Sheep,
Bags,
Holds grain,
Cattle,
Baskets,
Carries fruit.
Hogs,
Ladder,
Climbs,
Hens, geese.
Horses,
Ride, plough, draw wagon.
Turkeys,
Wagon,
Carries loads.
Wool,
Chain.
Fastens.
Flax.
AVhat docs the farmer produce? How does he obtain his
clothing and implements for work? Why does the farmer
plough, sow, plant, moiv, thresh ?
The teacher should ask the several questions attached to each
occupation, and talk with the pupils concerning them, that they
may obtain correct ideas as to the importance of each kind of
work.
13
290 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
CARPENTER.
Tools used for Cutting. — Axe, adze, chisels, gouges, shaving-
knife, spoke-shave, hatchet, saw, broad-axe.
Tools used for Boring. — Augers, gimlets, bits-and-brace, biaJ-
awl.
Tools used for Pounding. — Hammer, mallet, beetle, sledge-
hammer.
Tools used for Measuring and Marking. — Rule, square, bevel,
gauge, compasses, level, plumb-line, scratch-awl, chalk-line.
Tools used for Smoothing. — Planes, scraper, rasp, file, sand-
paper.
Materials used. — Timber for sills, posts, beams, plates, rafters,
girders, joists, braces, studs, scaifold. Lumber : plank, boards,
siding, or clapboards, lath, shingles.
Parts of a Building. — Sides, ends, walls, partitions, roof, eaves,
windows, doors, shutters, window-sill, door -sill, base, balcony,
floors, ceiling, cornice, frieze, panel, moulding, stairs, etc.
Tools. Their Uses.
Rule For measuring.
Square To form right angles.
Gauge To make parallel lines.
Level To find horizontal position.
Screw-driver For driving screws.
Brad-awl For making small holes.
Kinds of Work done. — Hewing, sawing, mortising, bevelling,
mitering, scarfing, sheathing, siding, scribing, furring, framing,
shingling, pinning.
What is meant by hewing? sawing? mortising? bevelling?
mitering? scarfing? sheathing? scribing ? furring ?^ (^ic.
What do carpenters produce ?
How do they procure food and clothing?
OCCUPATIONS. 291
BLACKSMITH.
"What he uses. Why he uses it.
Forge Place to work with iron.
Coal To heat the iron.
Bellows To raake th^ fire very hot.
Tongs For holding hot iron.
Anvil To lay the hot iron on.
Hammer For pounding the hot iron.
Punch For making holes in hot iron.
Vise For holding iron firmly while shaping or filing it.
Easp Coarse file.
Drill For boring holes in cold iron.
Chisel For cutting iron.
p . , ,. (A chisel-like instrument, with a bent shank and
( long handle, for paring hoofs of horses.
■r, 1 j Table-like shelf at the side of the shop for small
( tools. The vise is fastened to it.
Kinds of "Work Done. — Blowing, striking, welding, cutting,
drilling, tempering, shoeing, setting tire, ironing wagons, etc.
Articles Made. — Horseshoes, nails, bolts, nuts, screws, braces,
hammers, hooks, chains, hoes, axes, tires, etc.
Blacksmiths blow, heat, strike, weld, temper.
What do ihoy bloiv ? heat? strike? tveld ? tcm2'>cr?
Why do they blow? heat? strike? weld? temper?
What does the blacksmith produce ?
How does ha procure food and clothing?
TINSMITH.
Tools Used. — Shears, pincers, pliers, nippers, vise, hammer,
mallet, soldcring-furnace, soldering-iron.
Materials Used. — Tin, wire, sheet-iron, solder, rosin, charcoal,
copper, brass, zinc.
Articles Made. — Pails, pans, cups, dippers, measures, teapots,
292 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
coffee-pots, teakettles, dishpans, saucepans, cans, boilers, coal-scut-
tles, tin roofs, etc.
Tin-ware is made from thin sheets of iron covered with tin
by dipping the sheets of iron into melted tin three or four times.
While the tin metal remains on the iron it protects the iron
from rust. Tin metal is harder than lead, but softer than silver.
What does the tinsmith produce ?
How does he obtain his food and clothing?
PAINTER.
What he uses.
For White Paint. — W^hite-lcad, zinc-white, Spanish-white.
For Yellow Paint. — Yellow-ochre, Naples-yellow, chrome-yel-
low, gamboge.
For Blue Paint — Ultramarine, cobalt -blue, Antwerp -blue,
Prussian-blue, indigo, Berlin-blue.
For Red Paint. — Red-lead, red-ochre, madder, cochineal, ver-
milion.
For Green Paint. — Chrome -green, emerald -green, Scheele's-
green, verdigris.
For Brown Paint — Umber, Terra di Sienna, bistre, Vandyke-
brown, Spanish-brown.
For Black Paint. — Lamp-black, ivory -black.
For Mixing Paint. — Linseed-oil, spirits of turpentine. Some-
times the oil is boiled before mixing with paint ; sometimes it is
used in a raw state.
To make the paint dry quickly, a little litharge, or sugar of
lead, or Japan varnish is mixed with it.
Implements and Materials Used. — Paint-stone, paint-mill for
grinding paint, pots, cans, brushes, putty, putty -knife, pumice-
stone, sand-paper, brushes, varnish, ladder, etc.
Blinds ofWork Done. — Puttying holes over nail-heads, smooth-
ing with sand-paper, " killing knots" with shellac, priming, paint-
OCCUPATIONS. 293
inf^, graining, marbling, stippling, sizing, varnishing, frescoing,
kalsomining, lettering, oiling, etc.
The painter 2)rese7-ves and ornaments. Ue does not construct
anything nor produce anything.
What has the painter to sell ?
How does he obtain food and clothing ?
PRINTER.
Materials and Instruments, and their Uses.
Type. — For printing letters, words, and figures.
Type- cases. — Shallow drawers, with small compartments or
boxes for separating the different letters and figures.
Composing-stick. — A narrow, oblong frame, made of iron or
steel, for holding type as the compositor sets the letters in words
and sentences.
GaUey. — An oblong, shallow tray, usually with a thin brass
bottom, and sides of wood. When the compositor has set his
stick full, he places the lines on the galley.
Imposing-stone. — A smooth stone slab, on which the type from
the (jalley is placed, to be made up into pages and forms, ready
for printing. When books are stereotyped, the pages are made
up on a galley, then placed in a form and sent to the foundry,
where a mould is taken of the face of the pages, and thin plates
of type-metal are cast, from which the book is printed.
Chase. — An iron frame, which is placed around type on the
imposing - stone, and into which the type or matter is firmly
wedged with furniture (narrow strips of wood), and quoins or
wedges.
Planer. — A smooth, oblong block of hard wood, which is
placed upon the face of the type on the imposing -stone, and
gently pounded, to make the surface even.
Shooting-stick. — The piece of wood or iron used in driving
294 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
the quoins or wedges -when locTcing tip the form. One end is
placed against the wedge, and the other is struck with the mallet.
Leads. — Thin strips of type-metal placed between the lines
of type to separate them, so that the print may be read more
easily than when the lines are solid.
PrintLng-press. — The machine on which the form of type is
placed, and by means of which paper is pressed upon the inked
type and printed.
Platen. — The part of the printing-press on which the type
rests.
Tympan. — Part of the printing-press ; a wooden frame, cov-
ered, with two folds of cloth, between which is stretched, a wool-
len blanket. The tymimn carries the sheet of paper to be
printed, and forms a soft surface over the paper, to equalize the
pressure upon the type.
Roller. — The part of the press that places the ink on the face
of the type.
Frisket. — A slender frame to hold the sheet of paper in its
proper place on the tympan while it is moved over the type to be
printed.
Fly. — The frame of narrow, thin bars at the back of the press,
which places the printed sheets upon each other in a pile.
Trough. — The box of water in which the pressman dampens
the paper to prepare it for printing.
Kinds of "Work done by the Printer. — Composing —
setting type ; cUstrihnting — placing the letters in their proper
boxes, after they liave been used ; justification — increasing or
diminishing the spaces uniformly between the words, until the
lines agree with each other in length ; making-up — adjusting the
matter into pages after it has been set up by the compositor;
im2)osing — placing the matter on the imposing-stone, after it has
been made into pages, and enclosing it in a chase ; locking-np> —
wedging the type firmly in the chase ; taking proof — inking the
type, and pressing upon it a sheet of damp paper; reading proof
— having the manuscript, or copy from which the compositor
OCCUPATIONS AND TRADES. 295
set liis type, road, so as to compare it Avith the words in the
proof-sheet ; correcting proof — unlocking the matter, and chang-
ing all the words which were not set up correctly. This work
is done by the compositor. Revising the form — comparing the
type in the form with the proof, after the compositor has cor-
rected his errors in setting, to see that all the corrections have
been made. This is sometimes done by 9. foreman^ the man who
supervises the other workmen.
Terms used by Printers. — Solid matter : type set up
without leads between the lines. Leaded matter : type that has
leads placed between the lines. Live matter: type that has been
set, but not yet used for printing that for which it was set. L>ead
matter : type that has been used in printing, and is ready to be
distributed in the cases again. Ems : the square of the body of
a letter m of each size of type is the measure for estimating
the amount of matter that has been set of that size. The mat-
ter is measured to see how many square spaces of the em size
the entire amount of type set up covers. Compositors are paid
for setting type at a fixed sum for each thousand ems. Proof-
sheet — the impression taken from the type after it is locked up.
Names of Sizes and Kinds of Type.
This is Great Primer type.
This line is English type.
This line is Pica type.
This line is Small Pica type.
This line is Long Primer type.
This line is Bourgeois type.
This line is Brevier type.
This line is Minion tj"pe.
This line is Nonpareil type.
This line is Agate type.
This line is Pearl type.
Tbifl Udo is Diamond tjp«.
TM« lino U BrilliADl Ijp*.
(iiljis is ©III (!:ngli0l) (J^jipc.
29G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
"Wliat is writing ? "What is printing ? Why do people write ?
When do they write instead of print ? Wliy is printing used in-
stead of writing?
IIow does the printer obtain food and clothing?
Each trade, or occupation, may be made tlie subject of
two or three lessons. These should be given at such times
as will afford the pupils abundant opportunities, between
the time of the first and tlie last lesson, to gain infor-
mation by personal observation. The development and
training that results from the experience of the pupils in
seeking facts relating to a subject, when the facts are
sought from a desire to linow, rather than for a lesson
to be recited, comprise the most valuable part of these
lessons.
These and similar lessons may be multiplied by the
teacher as the needs of the pupils and time will permit.
It is not recommended that an attempt be made to give
lessons upon all the trades and occupations that can be
named, but rather that each teacher shall select a few —
those most suitable for the particular class — and give
these, from time to time, in alternation with lessons on
animals, or some other subject, as a means of connecting
home experiences and the daily observations of the pupils
with school lessons, thus tending to make school instruc-
tion real education.
PHYSICAL TRAINING. 297
PHYSICAL TKAmmG.
The great means of improving any power, physical or
mental, is exercise. In all cases, the exercise is subject to
the same laws and conditions, and produces the same re-
sults. The first effect of exercise on a muscle is to occa-
sion the destruction of a portion of the material that com-
poses it, and this leads to an increased flow of nutritious
material to restore that part. In this way the repeated
exercise of a muscle enlarges its size, and gives it in-
creased strength and power.
In like manner, the exercise of any of our mental pow-
ers, while causing the destruction of a portion of the
nerve material of the brain, causes also an additional flow
of nutritious material to that part, and thus the mind is
improved and strengthened by the increased volume and
strength imparted to the organ of the mind — the brain.
The result of a proper exercise, whether physical or
mental, is to increase the activity of all parts of the sys-
tem. Thus, in a rapid walk the mental powers are af-
fected, and ideas flow more readily. At flrst an increased
flow of blood is imparted to all parts of the system ; and
it is when the waste in one particular part becomes
greater than the natural supply can restore, that an addi-
tional supply is drawn from other parts, thus depriving
those parts of their due share of nutrition, that a feeling
of fatigue is produced. Any bodily exercise, long con-
tinued, tends to produce mental fatigue ; and long-con-
tinued mental exercise occasions bodily fatigue. Hence
13*
298 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
people who have much physical labor feel a dislike to
great mental exercise, and those who perform great men-
tal labor are naturally disinclined to engage in active
physical exercise.
We may learn from a study of physical training how
to proceed in the training of our mental powers, and also
how to strengthen tlie moral powers. Leading children
to observe and quietly practice wliat is right will have
much better effect than the mere telling of the right and
warning of the wrong.
The material upon which our mental manifestations
depend is the same as that which supplies our physical
frame, and is subject to the sanie laws, and is nourished
in the same way. The same arterial blood nourishes all
parts of the system, and is dependent upon the digestive,
respiratory, and other functions of the body. Hence it
is til at a sound hody is necessary to a sound mind, and
soundness of mind is necessary to health of body.
There are more than five hundred muscles in the hu-
man body, and the great majority of these are under the
control of the will power ; yet from the want of proper
training a double force is required to accomplish their
work, because they are allowed to act in an irregular,
slovenly, and awkward manner. By training the muscles
to act promptly nnder tlie will power, the action itself
becomes mtfre easy, and the demand upon the nerve pow-
er is correspondingly less.
The effect of proper physical training is to enable the
several bodily organs to perform the greatest amount
of exercise with the greatest ease or the least fatigue.
Physical education has for its true object the training
of the various physical organs so that they will render a
ready and efficient service to the mind.
"An important result of physical exercise is that it
imparts hcaltli and vigor to all parts of the system. It
PHYSICAL TRAINING. 209
accelerates the circulation of the blood, strengthens the
vessels, increases the cutaneous exhalations, and preserves
the fluids in a healthy state. It improves the appetite,
quickens the digestive operations, and increases the heat
of the body. The body is thus rendered capable of re-
sisting colds, and fortified against the attack of numerous
diseases." Even in the cure of many diseases, physical
exercise is an important agent.
Attention to physical training for developing and
strengthening the body forms an important part in the
requirements for a complete plan of education. Both the
body and the mind may be educated by means of such
exercises as will impart vigor and tone to their respective
powers of action. Indeed, health of body increases the
vigor of the mind ; and the physical well-being of the
body cannot be neglected without impairing the powers
of mind. Foremost among the needs to secure a healthy
body are pure air and an abundance of pleasure-giving
exercise. And foremost among the important duties of
parents, in relation to their children, is attention to the
securing of the necessary conditions for the growth of
healthy bodies; then the development of a sound mind
may be made to follow by proper training.
Were suitable physical exercises made an essential and
indispensable part of education for both sexes, many dis-
eases which are the consequences of neglected bodily de-
velopment, or the result of constitutional debility, might
be prevented, and, at the same time, the mental faculties
be more fully developed.
Were parents generally aware of the great extent to
which the seeds of disease are sown in crowded school-
rooms, and the common neglect by school officers and
teachers of those matters which pertain to the pln'sical
welfare of children in school, they Avould not submit to
such negligence in the adaptation of school-rooms to the
300 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
purposes for which they are used ; for not only is the
ventilation generally poor, but the means for proper ex-
ercise of the body are not provided.
It is true that in schools children do practise singing,
marching, and various evolutions, such as clapping hands,
folding arms, standing and sitting alternately, etc. ; yet
these exercises, although found to be of great utility, do
not bring sufficiently into action the various parts of the
body to answer the ends of more distinct physical exer-
cises. Nevertheless they indicate, to some extent, the im-
portance of proper attention to the physical education of
children ; also, that this matter would be better attended
to by teachers were they provided with more specific di-
rections as to how they may introduce suitable exercises
into school without tlie expense and trouble of procuring
apparatus.
It is hoped that the descriptions and illustrations of
movements presented herewith, for exercising the differ-
ent portions of the body, and the directions supplied for
their use in school, will induce many teachers to give this
matter more attention than they have hitherto devoted
to it. And in the use of the following physical exercises
it should be remembered that each kind of exercise has
its appropriate conditions. It ought not to be continued
too long, nor cease too soon ; nor be made too slow, nor
too fast.
rnYSICAL EXERCISES. 301
f
PHYSICAL EXERCISES.
Kinds of Movements, and their Effects. — For conven-
ience in describing the several kinds of movements, and for facil-
ity in directing the pupils while practising the different exercises
embraced in each, the movements are divided into seven classes,
the name of the chiss indicating the portion of the body which
is to be exercised by it ; and the class is divided into groups, to
show the kinds of motions to be made. Several of the motions
of each group are illustrated by cuts, to represent the mode of
making them.
ARM MOVEMENTS.
First Group-— Arms-stretching.
Arms forward — Fig. 1.
backward — Fig. 2.
Motions. — ^ " upward — Fig. 3.
downward — Fig. 4.
sidewise — Fig. 5.
Arms Forward-stretching. — Move each arm forward and back,
alternately, four times. Move both arms forward and back, with
force, four times. See Fig. 1.
Arms Back-ward- stretching. — Move each arm backward, al-
ternately, four times. Move both arms backward, with force,
four times. See Fig. 2.
Arms TJp-ward-stretching. — Move each arm upward, alternate-
ly, four times. Move both arms upward, with force, four times.
See Fig. 3. As the arms are brought downward, the hands may
strike the breast near the shoulder.
Arms Down-vT-ard-stretching. — Move each arm downward, al-
ternately, four times. Move both arras downward, with force,
four times. See Fig. 4.
302
MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Arms Sidewise - stretching. — Move each arm sidewisc, out-
ward, alternately, four times. Move both arms outward, side-
wise, four times, with force. See Fig. 5.
Fij,'.l.
Pi''. 2.
FiK. 4.
Fig. 5.
Arms-Stretching Combined. — Move both arms forward twice,
backward twice, iqnvard twice, downward twice, sidewise twice.
Seoond Group.— Arms-swinging.
' Arms apart — Fig. 6.
" together — Fig. 7.
Motions. — \ " sidewise — Fig. 8.
" forward
" backward
Fig. 9.
Arms S-winging Apart — Place the arms together, horizontally,
in front, and swing them apart, backward, four times. See Fig. G.
ZlO
Arms Swinging Together. — Carry the arms, horizontally, from
in front slowly outward, and bring them forward with force, strik-
ing tlie palms of the hands together. Eepeat this four times.
See Fig. 7.
PHYSICAL EXERCISES.
303
Arms Swinging Sidewise. — Hold the arms parallel and hori-
zontally, and swing them from side to side, four times, each way.
See FiiT. 8.
-~^Q
Arms Swinging Forward and Backward. — Place the arms in
a horizontal position in front, then swing them backward and for-
ward, four times each way, without bending the elbows. As the
arms are swung backward, the shoulders should incline forward,
as in the cut. See Fio-. 9.
Third Group.— Arms-raising ; Arms-twisting.
Arms Sidewise - raising. — Carry the arras, without bending
them, from the sides slowly to a perpendicular position over the
shoulders, and down again slowly, four times. This exercise
greatly aids respiration. See Fig. 10.
Fig. 10.
Fi-'.n.
Arms -twisting. — Extend tlie arms horizontally, hold them
straight, and twist them forward and backward four times each
way. See Fig. 11.
304
MANUiVL OF OBJECT-TEACHLXG.
The arm movements facilitate the circulation of the blood,
Q'ive free action to the joints of the arms, promote expansion of
the chest, and aid respiration.
Motions.-
HAND MOVEMENTS.
Finger exercises — Fig. 12.
Wrist exercises — Fig. 13.
Palm exercises — Fia:. 14.
Finger Exercises. — Open and shut the hands, with force, eight
times. Spread the fingers as the hand opens. See Fig. 12.
"Wrist Exercises. — Extend the arms in a horizontal position,
keep them straight, and describe figure oo s with the hands closed,
and with the hands open, four times in each position. See Fig.
13.
A good exercise for the wrists and muscles of the arms.
FiK.12.
Fi?.13.
Fiff.l4.
Palm-nibbing. — Extend the arms in front, press the palms of
the hands together, and, without bending the elbows, draw each
hand alternately over the entire length of the other four times.
See Fig. 14.
An excellent exercise for the muscles of the arms and shoul-
ders.
Modifications of the arm movements and of the hand move-
ments may be introduced by the teacher that will add to the va-
riety of the exercises and extend their good results. Care should
be taken to keep up the interest of the pupils in all the move-
ments.
PUYSICAL EXERCISES.
305
Motions. —
HEAD MOVEMENTS.
Head-rotating.
Head-turning — Fig. 15.
Ilead-bending — Fig. 1 6.
Head-rotating. — Place hands on the hips, and turn the head
from right to left, and from left to right, four
times each, bending the neck as the head ro-
i^ki """•
\^=\:./ Head-turning. — Place hands on the hips,
and turn the head sidewise, without bending
the neck, four times each way. See Fig. 15.
Head-bending. — Place hands on hips, and
bend the head forward and backward, fo-ur
times each way. See Fig. 16.
The pupils should stand during these movements with heels
together, and toes turned outward. The head movements should
be made slowly. They ai'e useful as a remedy for tendency to
vertigo, giddiness, headache, etc.
Fig. 15.
Motions. —
KNEE MOVEMENTS.
( Knee forward-bending — Fig. 17.
( Courtesying — Fig. 18.
Knee Forward-bending. — Place hands on hips, put one foot
a long step forward, as in pacing, then bend the for-
ward knee, keeping the other knee straight, and thus
lower and raise the body four times. Change
position, and repeat the same with the other
knee four times. See Fig. 17.
Courtesying, or Knee-bending. — Place heels
together, toes turned outward, hands on hips,
and let the body sink down slowly, as low as
possible, while the trunk maintains an upright position ;
then rise on the tiptoes to the utmost height, four times
each. See Fig. IS. These knee movements arc excellent
for the lower extremities, making the joints and muscles stronger.
Fig. 17.
30G
MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
Motions. —
SHOULDER MOVEMENTS.
Slioulder-raLsing — Fig. 19.
Shoulder-bending.
Shoulder -raising. — Raise right shoulder as higli as
possible four times, then left shoulder in same manner
four times ; then raise both shoulders together as high
as possible four times. In making these motions, lower
the shoulders gently, to prevent jarring of the head.
See Fig. 19.
If any pupil has one shoulder lower than the other,
the shoulder-raising should be performed with the de-
fective shoulder onhj.
Shoulders Forward and Backward Bending. — Stand erect,
place arms at sides, and bend shoulders forward and backward
four times each way.
Motions,
(H
CHEST MOVEMENTS.
Chest expansion.
Half -chest exercise — Ficr. 20.
Chest Expansion. — Place hands on hips, take full and deep
inspirations, and allow the air to pass out slowly, through the
nostrils, four times.
Second Exercise. — Inflate the lungs, and beat the chest, while
holding the breath, four times with each hand alternately,
ceed gently at first.
Half-chest Exercise. — Place one hand under the arm,
pressing tightly against the ribs, and put the other hand
on the head ; then bend the body sidewise as far as pos-
sible toward the hand against the side, and take four
deep breaths.
Change the hands, and repeat the same with the other
side four times. Let the breathing be as deep and com-
plete as possible, but gentle and regular.
Pro-
PHYSICAL EXERCISES.
307
TRUNK MOVEMENTS.
First Group.— Trunk-twisting.
( Twist to the left— Fig. 21.
Motions.— -j Twist to the right.
' Twist left and right.
Make these motions with hands on hips, also with
hands on head.
Trunk - twisting. — Stand with heels together, toes
turned outward, and shoulders back ; place hands on
hips, and turn as far as possible without moving the
feet, to the left two times, to the right two times, and
to the left and right two times each way. See Fig. 21.
Repeat these motions with the hands on the head. Fig. 21.
Second Group.— Trunk-bending.
( Bending sidewise — Fig. 22.
Motions. — -j Forward and backward— Fig. 23.
' Backward-bending — Fig. 24.
Trunk Sidewise - bending. — Stand with heels together, toes
outward ; place hands on hips, and bend the trunk two times to
the right and two times to the left ; then two times each way to
the right and left. See Fig. 22.
The same motions may be repeated with hands clasped over
the head.
Fig. 23.
riK.24.
Trunk Forward and Backward Bending. — Stand as before,
with hands on hips; keep the trunk straight while bending for-
308
MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
ward and backward, as if the hips were the hinges, slowly four
times. See Fig. 23.
Trunk Backward-bendiug. — Stand as before, plaoc the hands
firmly at the small of the back, and bend backward slowly, as far
as possible, four times. See Fig. 24.
These trunk-bending movements tend to strengthen the mus-
cles of the back and abdomen, and to relieve constipation.
Motions.
Third Group.— Trunk-rotating.
Turn body toward right — Fig. 25.
Turn body toward left.
Trunk - rotating. — Stand with heels together,
toes turned outward ; place hands on hips, bend the
body toward the right, round backward, left, and
forward, slowly, four times ; then bend body to-
ward the left, round backward, right, and forward,
four times. See Fia-. 25.
Fis. 25.
Motions.-
Fourth Group.— Trunk-stretching.
Stretch on both feet — Fig. 26.
Stretch on one foot.
Trunk - stretching. — Stand with feet apart, extend
the arms above the head, rise slowly upon the toes,
and stretch upward as far as possible four times. In-
flate the lungs while rising, and expel the air while set-
tling down upon the heels. See Fig. 26.
Stretch on one Foot. — Stand on one foot, rest light-
ly on the toe of the other, and stretch upward four
times, inflating the lungs, and expelling the air as be-
fore. Change ; rest on the other foot, and stretch up-
ward as before.
Fig. 20.
TEACHING THE MOVEMENTS. 309
TEACHING THE MOVEMENTS.
In arranging the foregoing list of physical exercises, the
aim has been to give a variety of motions which can be
introduced into any school-room without apparatus, and,
at the same time, such as will bring into action all parts
of the body, but most thoroughly the trunk, arms, and
upper portions of it. Owing to the fact that out of
school children usually exercise their legs more tiian any
other part of the body, in these school movements more
exercise has been provided for the trunk, arms, and chest
than for the legs.
It will be observed that several of the movements de-
scribed act upon the same organs of the body, although
in a somewhat different manner. All of these motions
may be taught, yet during the daily drills the pupils
should not go through with the entire list of exercises.
Farther on, sets of movements will be given to indicate
what would be appropriate for a single drill.
"While teaching these exercises to the pupils, those of
onegrou]) of movements o»/y should be taught at the same
lesson ; but those previously learned may be reviewed
with each new group taught, until the pupils are familiar
with all the classes of movements, and with the exercises
of each class.
In giving instruction in the movements, the teacher
should stand in front of the pupils, at such a distance that
all the motions can be distinctly seen, and the directions
clearly understood. First, require every pupil to observe
the teacher: this attention must be secured, or the exer-
cises cannot be successfully introduced.
310 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Care should be taken to secure prompt and uniform
action by all the pupils, for this precision will add greatly
to the interest of the exercises, and also to their beneficial
effects upon the system. Indeed, promptness and deci-
sion alone will keep up interest in the movements for a
long time, when all other means have failed.
After the pupils have become familiar with the exer-
cises of several of the classes of movements, sets of exer-
cises may be arranged for purpose of daily drill. In se-
lecting the movements for these sets, care should be had
to include those which act upon as wide a range of organs
as practicable.
It is hoped that the following sets will sufficiently il-
lustrate this point to enable teachers to arrange other sets
of exercises with special reference to the needs of their
own pupils.
SETS OF PHYSICAL EXERCISES. "^
I.
Arm Movements. — Arms-stretching.
Head Movements. — Head-turning.
Knee Movements. — Knee forward-bending.
Chest Movements. — Cliest expansion.
Trunk Movements. — Trunk-twisting.
II.
Arm Movements. — Arms-swinging.
Hand Movements. — Finger exercises.
Head Movements. — Ilcad-bending.
Knee Movements. — Courtesy ing.
Chest Movements. — Ilalf-chest exercises.
Trunk Movements. — Trunk-bending.
TEACUING THE MOVEMENTS. 311
III.
Arm Movements. — Arms-twisting, arms-raising.
Haiid Movements. — Wrist exercises.
Head Movements. — Ilead-rotating.
Knee Movements. — Knee forward-bending.
Trunk Movements. — Trunk-stretching.
IV.
Arm Movements. — Arms-stretching.
Hand Movements. — Palm exercise.
Shoulder Movements. — Shoulder-raising.
Chest Movements. — Chest expansion.
Trunk Movements. — Trunk-rotating.
v.
Knee Movements. — Knee forward-bending.
Hand Movements. — Finger exercises, wrist exercises.
Shoulder Movements. — Shoulder-bending.
Trunk Movements. — Trunk-bending.
Chest Movements. — Half-chest exercise.
312 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHma
EXERCISE-DRILL.
Having described the movements, and given a few
"sets" suitable for daily exercises, it now remains to
point out a way in which these exercise -drills may be
used in school for the promotion of good health, and im-
proving the physical condition of the pupils.
These movements are best for a large class when ac-
companied with music by the piano ; but, where this is
not obtainable, vocal exercises may be substituted, such
as counting one, two, three, four ; oi*, making the vowel
sounds, as a, a, a, a. Either a musical instrument or vocal
exercises are important for securing that attention to time
which gives precision and interest to the movements.
The teacher may direct the movements by announcing
the grouj) and motions somewhat as follows, viz. :
"First Position!" [Standing erect, resting upon both feet,
heels together, toes turned outward about forty-five degrees, arms
hanging at sides, eyes toward the teacher. This position is to be
maintained until changed to execute the movement announced.]
"Arms-stretching: forward — one, two, three, four ; backward
— one, two, three, four; upward — one, two, three, four; down-
ward — one, two, three, fom*; sidewise — one, two, three, four;
rest." Pupils resume the first position.
"Head-turning [Pupils place hands on hips at this announce-
ment] : right — one, two, three, four ; loft — one, two, three, four ;
rest."
"Knee Forward - bending : riglit — one, two, three, four;
change ; left — one, two, three, four ; rest."
EXERCISE-DRILL. 313
"Chest expansion [slowly, with lungs inflated]: one, two,
three, four ; inflate lungs — one, two, tliree> four ; rest."
"Trunk-twisting: left — one, two, three, four; right — one, two,
three, four ; left and right — one, two, three, four ; rest."
The announcement of the kind of movement slionld be
the signal to the pupils that they are at once to assume
the necessary position to commence the movement' with
the count one. Where a piano is used, signals may be
arranged so that the pupils will be guided by the piano,
after the kind of movement has been announced ; indeed,
a M'hole set of exercises could be contl acted by signals on
the piano alone. After a little careful experience tlie
teacher will be able to devise modes of directing these
exercise-drills in an appropriate manner. This experience
will become successful by observing a few important facts,
viz. : The exercise should be done slowly at first. A few
thoroughly - mastered movements, well made, are more
useful than many exercises half learned and poorly per-
formed. Promptness in executing the movements, witli
a spirited, cheerful manner, add much to their useful-
ness.
During these exercises there should be an active cheer-
fulness; and, if amusement can be combined with them,
their beneficial results will be more apparent. Some of
the ex.ercises require slow movements ; others may be in-
creased in rapidit}^ so as to be more enlivening, after the
children have become accustomed to them.
It may be asked. How often should these physical ex-
ercises be given in school ?
This question must be answered by one M'ho is famil-
iar with the arrangement of the school — the priiicipal, or
chief teacher. But in giving the answer it sliould be re-
membered that sufficient bodily exercise is just as impor-
tant to the welfare of the child as is the mental exer-
14
314 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
(,'ise, or study — indeed, tlic mental exercise cannot be most
beneficial without due attention to the physical training.
With the younger pupils brief exercises should be had
every half-hour, occupying the time of one group of move-
ments. Sometimes the needed relief may be afforded the
young pupils by standing and sitting two or three times
alternately, and a brief exercise with hands and arms. In
class<5s of older pupils the exercises may be used less fre-
quently ; but the teacher should notice those indications
of the need of exercise, of fresh air, etc., which the pupils
give by restlessness, listlessness, and general relaxation of
interest and attention, and the necessary relief should be
afforded at once, without waiting for a fixed time for phys-
ical exercises. This can usually be given by spending a
few moments in some simple exercise that will promote a
freer circulation of the blood.
But aside from these impromptu exercises, there should
be at least fifteen minutes spent each half-day in such ex-
ercise-drills as will improve the general physical condition
of the pupils.
Physical training should not be confined to the school-
room. To train children properly, amusing games ought
to be devised for play-ground exercises, and such as will
cultivate kindly affections. Games of skill and dexter-
ity should be encouraged, both at home and at school.
Allowing children plenty of hearty, innocent fun on
proper occasions will promote their happiness and in-
crease their mental and physical development. Seek to
guide children in suitable amusements rather than de-
prive them of such needed recreation. The confidence,
love, and obedience of children may be won by such a
course.
The primary school especially should be a light, cheer-
ful place. The hours of school attendance should not
be long; from four to five hours a day, for the younger
EXERCISE DRILL. 315
pupils of a primaiy school, is better than six, even for
mental proficiency. A primary school that has even five
hours of session per day should have an hour or more of
interval at mid-day. Besides, there should be also one or
two recesses during each session for the younger children.
The exercises of the school should be so arranged as to
give a change of position and of subject as often as every
twenty or thirty minutes. Children will rarely give suf-
ficient attention to derive much benefit from a lesson that
is continued for a longer time.
Whenever possible, lessons that require the exercise of
different senses should follow each other, with young pu-
pils, as these changes afford relief to the mind, and con-
tinue the interest of the children in the lessons without
fatigue.
Singing is a physical exercise of wonderful power in
relieving the more serious work of the school. It exerts
a calming and cheering influence. Singing is indispensa-
ble to the successful management of a primary school ;
it is a great moral power. Exercise songs, in which va-
rious physical actions are represented or performed by
the pupils, are very appropriate for primary schools ; but
when an attempt is made to teach geography, arithmetic,
or any other similar study by means of singing, an other-
wise good exercise is employed for an improper purpose.
The province of singing is not to train the intellectual
powers, but to cultivate the feelings and the heart, and it
should be used in its proper sphere.
The means suitable to be used for physical culture arc
various. A skilful teacher will select those best adapted
for the peculiar circumstances of the school. All things
that tend to cleanliness and personal neatness, proper
modes of sitting, standing, walking, holding books, slates,
sitting at desk and holding pen while writing, marching
with a military step on leaving the school-room, arc use-
310 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
fill means in physical training, and tliese matters should
receive the careful attention of all teachers.
Training the voice by phonetics, or the elementary
sounds of the language, in distinctness of articulation, in
reading and speaking, is an important means of physical
culture. In short, pure air, thorough ventilation, and reg-
ular physical exercise arc indispensable to health of body
and mental progress.
MUIUL TKAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 317
MOEAL TRAINIXG" AND SCHOOL
DISCIPLINE,
"O'er -wayward childhood wouUVst thou hold firm rule,
And sun thee in the light of happy faces,
Love, Hope, and Patience, these must be thy <2;races,
And in thine own heart let them first keep school."
COLEllIDGE.
If the intellectual powers of mind may be called the
machinery of intelligence, the moral powers may be des-
ignated as the forces that set this machinery in motion,
and direct the course of its action toward good or evil,
luippiness or misery. The right development of these
forces, therefore, is of greater importance to the welfare
of the child than the education of the intellectual powers.
Moral development is based upon the emotions. The
emotions spring originally from those impulses which
urge each individual to preserve his own life, to seek his
own welfare, and which invite him throngh pleasures ex-
perienced to tliose things which are beneficial, and warn
him by pains endured to shrink from that which is inju-
rious. But emotions require the guidance of intelligence
and reason to attain the best good for the individual and
for society.
We cannot create an emotion, but we can incite it to
action by presenting the appropriate stimulus. The law
* Please read under head of Science of Education what is said about the
" PoAvers of Moral Action," page 430; and the "Power of Willing," page
443.
318 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
of emotion is, " Like begets like." Kindness in ns begets
kindness in others ; selfishness in ourselves awakens self-
ishness in those around us. The emotions become active,
just as sensations arise in response to the natural excitants
of their several organs. We can no more help loving
that which seems to us amiable, and which awakens in
us corresponding emotions, than we can help seeing light
and hearing sound. The same may be said in regard to
hating that wliich appears to us odious.
There are several kinds of impressions, which affect the
emotions with differing results, as with satisfaction^ with
2)leasiir€, with disgust, \x\\\\ jxiin. The two kinds of im-
pressions which strengthen the mind are those of satisfac-
tion and pleasure ; those which weaken, or in some way
affect the mind injuriously, are disgust [iudj>ain. These
impressions are often produced by impatience, injustice,
and constant fault-finding by those who have the training
of children, and may result in great injury to their moral
and intellectual life. Above all things, then, let such per-
sons strive to be patient, gentle, and persevering in all
their dealings with the young.
Emotions are the attractions and repulsions Mdiich tend
to keep us in our proper relations to the world around.
The emotions that we entertain return to us again and
again, until they finally remain permanently, influencing
all our conduct. Every action that m'c perform, every
thought that crosses the -mind, every emotion that we feel,
is the beginning of M'hat may become a habit, and a part
of our character, ^o person is competent to say that he
will do a wrong act only once, because the doing of that
very act deprives him of a portion of his power to resist
the temptation to do it again. So, on the other hand,
each single, manly resistance of an inducement, or inclina-
tion, to do a wrong act increases the power of resistance,
and weakens the temptation or desire to do it.
MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. ' 319
It has been well said that " a thought is an embryo
action ; give it time, and it will mature itself ; entertain
it, and it will return again and again, until at last nothing
but a determined effort of the will can prev^ent it from
acting itself out." Herein lies the real source of much
of the wrong-doing in the world. AVrong thoughts are
entertained until, unconsciously, they gain the power to
escape in actions, and society is astounded by what seems
to be a sudden loss of integrity. But the thoughts that
led to the dishonest act had been entertained until its
accumulated strength overcame the resistance of a weak-
ened will.
To impress those under your instruction with habits
of entertaining only good thoughts, and of acting from
right motives, is your highest duty as a teacher. Success
in this is the greatest triumph a teacher can attain.
Training in good habits of thinking and acting is of
more value to your ])upils than the learning of all that
the best text-books contain concerning the whole circle
of the sciences.
IIow can these important ends in education be attained?
AVhat may Primary teachers do toward securing so great
a boon ft)r their pupils? These inquiries deserve more
serious attention by each teacher than the matter of how
to teach reading, spelling, arithmetic, geography, gram-
mar, writing, or all of these studies combined.
Perhaps you are now in imagiiKition before your class,
and wishing to know how you can change the wayward
actions of your pupils by moral training. IIow can tiie
incidents of school be seized so as to drive out wrong ac-
tions by bringing in good actions ? may be your inquiry.
I shall not undertake to tell you how you may accom-
plish this result in each individual class, but I will try
to bring before you incidents to explain the nature of
this work, and such as I trust will give you practical
320 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
hints that Avill enable you to proceed so as to attain a
good degree of success.
Whatever the means you select to aid in the moral
training, in order to be effectual, must be so long con-
tinued as to gain power through the intiuence of habit.
Facts to be Remembered. — The following important
facts should be remembered in connection with methods
that may be employed in moral training and discipline:
First — From thirty to fifty active observers are receiving im-
pressions from your manner of moving^ from your tones of voice,
from the disposition and temper which you exhibit before them,
from your kindness or tlic want of it, from your earnestness of
purpose, from your justice and firmness, from your efforts to make
the school-room pleasant. These impressions, according to their
nature, will help or hinder your work of moral instruction and
discipline.
Second. — Cheerfulness of disposition, 2)Ieasant tones, tvords of
encouragement, kindly spoken and properly bestowed, evenness of
manner, and uniform justness, will inspire the confidence of your
pupils, and such a degree of respect as will remove the chief bur-
den in governing your class.
Third. — Study carefully the disposition, taste, and habits of
your p)U2nls. Find out what most readily interests them, and
what they like to do. Awaken in them a desire to do something
to please some one else, and from this lead them to do things to
please you. "When you find that a boy can do one thing well,
you h.ive a key to his character, and an indication as to its prop-
er management. AVhat a boy does out of the pure impulse of
his own nature, he does better than when he acts under any other
motive.
Fourth. — Remember that activity is a law of childhood. Your
success as a teacher will depend much upon the manner in which
you guide that activity. Shape your methods of teaching so that
your pupils shall have opportunity to be active in body as well
MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 321
as in mind. They take the deepest interest in those exercises
which afford activity for their limbs.
Remember that if yoa do not furnish occupation for your pu-
pils, and malvc the lesson interesting to them, they will soon learn
to find such occupation as pleases themselves, and become so ea-
ger in seeking it as to pay but little heed to your efforts for pre-
venting them from acting in accordance with their bad choice.
The best order does not consist in maintaining any fixed posi-
tion, nor in absolute quietness, but rather in that interested atten-
tion to the lessons which so occupies the minds of the pupils as
to leave no inclination for disorder.
Fifth. — To praise a child for meritorious conduct is as much
the duty of a teacher as to reprove for faults. Praise, whenever
you can do so judiciously. Censure sparingly. Seldom find
fault. Do not scold. Never threaten.
Believing that a boy has some good in him, and letting him
know that you believe it, is one of the best means of putting it
there. Such treatment will develop self-respect in children.
Sixth. — Encourage your 2iUl^ils hy showing interest in their
progress, and by your kindness of manner. Let them feel sorrow
at displeasing you, but not fear at seeing you. The following
incidents will illustrate this point :
One day a poor boy, about eight years of age, was admitted
into school. His chief characteristic appeared to be a stolid in-
difference to everything. Ho seldom smiled, scarcely ever laugh-
ed, and no other emotion changed his face. Ilis teacher regarded
him as a case of hopeless stupidity, yet did not tell the boy so.
In the play-ground there was a circular swing. One day the
teacher saw this boy take hold of a rope with one hand onl\%
and swing himself around with body nearly as straight as an ar-
row. There must be nerve and will-power in that boy, thought
the teacher, who praised his swinging, and noticed the first real
ray of light in his eyes. From that day the teacher had hope for
the boy, and the boy had regard for his teacher, and tried to do
things to please him. He began to learn, and soon made such
improvement that he seemed as one just awakening to a new life.
14"
322 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
In another school a teacher noticed that one of her pupils, •who
had never taken much interest in her studies, and who made little
progress in learning, couhl sing quite well. She asked the little
girl to sing the exercise alone. She sung it well, and was com-
mended for it. Then other pupils were asked to try to sing it
as well as Jane did. Afterward Jane was called to sing other
exercises alone, and made rapid improvement in singing.
Iler teacher after a few weeks noticed that Jane was also tak-
ing more interest in her other lessons ; that she was making much
improvement ; and commended her for it. One day, after com-
mending Jane for advancement in her studies, the teacher asked
what made her take so much more interest in lier lessons than
she formerly did. Her answer, " I feel more encouraged than I
did," points to encourarjement as one of the means of success in
your work as a teacher.
Seventh. — Treat your pupils with kindness in the correction
of their fdu Its, and thus gain their confidence and respect. Let
them feel that you sympathize with them in those unfortunate
deeds which result from accidents, without any wrong intention.
The case of the boy who broke a pane of glass accidentally will
suggest a temper of mind for dealing with similar incidents.
During the recess one day, a little boy threw a piece of coal,
without thinking of the window toward which be sent it. It
struck a pane of glass and broke it. The teacher chanced to see
the act. When the boys returned to their scats, the teacher con-
cluded to wait awhile before alhiding to the accident. The ex-
ercises were resumed as usual. After a while the boy who threw
the piece of coal was requested, very kindly, to show the teacher
his example in arithmetic. He felt the kindness of the teacher
while standing by her, and took courage to say, in a quiet tone of
voice, "A boy broke a window." The teacher took him gently
by the hand, and he added, " He broke it with a piece of coal ;
but he did not mean to do it." The teacher said, " I am very
sorry," but showed no signs of harshness ; and the boy took
courage to say, " I broke it ; I am very sorry." The teacher
kissed the little boy, and commended him for telling her about
it, then added words of admonition.
MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 323
That incident proved more efiectual in guarding that boy
against similar carelessness, and was more lasfing in its influence
toward right actions, than would have been sharp reproof before
the class, or any infliction of corporal punishment.
Eighth. — Do not attemjjt to govern your class by naming indi-
vidual ji^pilsi and charging them ivith faults. Such a course
seldom secures the desired end. Scolding for every petty offence
does not make pupils moi*e careful to comply with your wishes,
or to obey your commands. Remember that your pupils do not
love continual fault-finding, or scolding, more than you did when
you were a pupil. Try to imagine yourself the pupil, and to
think what course would be most likely to secure your own. at-
tention and cheerful obedience under similar circumstances, and
let your decision guide in the treatment of your pupils.
Ninth. — Develop a right jyublic opinion in your school. In-
stead of giving your attention to individual pupils and single
misdeeds, trying to correct each in detail, endeavor to deal with
faults in such a manner as to exert an influence upon the entire
class which will lead to right thoughts and better actions. Aim
thus to develop the public opinion of your class in favor of the
right, so that you may govern individual pupils through the in-
fluence of your class.
Suppose you have a class of young pupils, among whom are
many careless or restless children, and you notice that they make
a great deal of noise in taking slates from the desks, or in placing
slates on the desks; — to tell them to make less noise, or to
remind John, Charles, and William that they are too noisy, or
to take their slates away from them, will not secure habits of
handling slates quietly. But if you tell the class that some of
the boys are always quiet in handling their slates, and that it
would be so pleasant if all the boys would try to be quiet, then
ask, how many -would like to try to put down and take up their
slates quietly? The unanimous response would commit the class
in favor of less noise. Then, by dividing your class into three or
more sections, by their seats, and asking one section to take slates,
and put away slates, while the others observe how quietly it is
324: MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
done, you would direct attention to the matter, so as to make it
easy to induce each section to try to excel the otliers in lian-
dling slates quietly. Commend the section that does best, and
encourage each other section to excel it.
By such or a similar plan of directing the attention of the class
favorably to that which you desire to secure, and by appealing to
tlie self-respect and satisfaction which accompany success through
praiseworthy efforts, good liabits may be formed that will relieve
the teacher of very many annoyances that usually arise in disci-
pline. And if such plans be wisely carried out in all matters of
discipline, the moral training pi-odnced thereby will ultimately
place the teacher in the position of director, or leader, in matters
of school government, and the pupils as his willing allies. The
exceptional cases that need special attention will be few and ea-
sily managed.
Tenth. — Do not repeatedly tell ■pupils of their oivn faults.
Instead of directly telling pupils of their faults and bad conduct,
lead them to see their own misdeeds in their true light, through
the public opinion of the class. The following incidents will il-
lustrate this point :
One morning in summer a little boy went to his teacher, and
said, in substance, "Henry and I found a bird's -nest yesterday,
on our way home from school ; it had little birds in it. Ilcnrv
took away the nest, and left the young birds on the ground."
The teacher expressed sorrow at the cruel act, and told the boy
to go to his seat.
The teacher began to think what could be done with this inci-
dent to benefit the school and correct Henry's cruel disposition.
Henry was a boy in whom kindness had never been developed by
his home treatment. Domestic bliss did not abide with his par-
ents. Henry was accustomed to the whip for every trivial of-
fence as regularly as to his meals and sleep. One evening, after
being put to bed, he was heard to tell his mother, in response
to her repeated command to ''go to sleep," " I can't go to sleep ;
you have not whipped me yet."
Henry attended school quite regularly, but made very little
MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 325
progress in anything except miscliief. On the occasion of his
cruelty to the young birds, the teacher decided to use this act so
as to awaken in all the younger pupils feelings of kindness to-
Avavd hirds. Accordingly, -when a class composed of children
but little older than Henry, yet much farther advanced in their
reading, -was called to read, the teacher selected a lesson about
boys robbing a bird's-nest. "Without intimating why this lesson
was chosen, Henry was requested to stand by the teacher, and
listen to what the class read. He did not know that the teacher
had heard of his cruel act toward the young birds.
Henry listened to the story of robbing a bird's-nest with an
interest unusual to him, and it soon became evident that the read-
ing lesson was a moral mirror, in which he saw himself reflected;
for, before the lesson was finished, he looked up to his teacher,
and said, "I did not kill the birds." His teacher asked, "Did
you find a bird's-nest ?" " Yes, but I did not kill the little birds,"
said Henry ; " I only threw the nest away, and left the birds on
the ground."
In reply to a few questions, Henry told the story about the
finding of the bird's-nest, and his treatment of it the night be-
fore, substantially as the little boy had told the teacher that morn-
ing. . Then, Avithout directly reproving Henry for Avhat he did,
an appeal was made to the class to decide whether the conduct
of the boys, as described in the lesson read, was right or not ;
then the class was asked if it would be right for one of them to
do as the boy in the lesson did ; then, if it was cruel to throw
away the nest of young birds, and leave the little ones on the
cold ground. While the public opinion of the class was so strong
for the right, supposed cases were presented for the opinion of
the class as to what would be right, and all the probaTile cases
Avere decided in favor of kindness to birds, and against cruelty.
This single lesson proved ^effective ; neither Henry nor any
other boy in school was known to treat birds with cruelty during
the remainder of that term; and doubtless the feelings of kind-
ness toward birds, which were awakened by that incident, exerted
an influence that extended through many years. This incident
occurred more than thirty years ago, yet that teacher remembers
326 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
to-day the intense and earnest feeling manifested by that class;
and such scenes do not easily fade from childhood memory.
Similar methods may be used to correct some of the bad habits
in your class.
Some of the cases of bad conduct in school can be dealt Avitli
effectively only by moral means, and these can usually be em-
ployed best through the public opinion of the class. Instances
of disrespectfulncss toward a teacher, or toward other persons,
belong to this class of cases.
One day a boy gave the principal of his school an insolent re-
ply. All who heard it were greatly astonished; but the princi-
pal did not exhibit anger by scolding, or threatening the boy
with punishment. lie quickly determined to improve that op-
portunity by teaching a valuable lesson to the entire school.
The very calmness of his manner made a deep impression on the
school ; and, while the pupils wondered how the disrespectful
boy would be punished, they felt certain that such conduct would
not be allowed to pass unnoticed.
The hour for closing came, and school was dismissed without
any allusion to the conduct of the boy. That night the principal
made bis plans, to be carried out on the following day. After
the customary opening exercises on the morning of the next day,
the principal addressed the school substantially as follows :
" Boys, if, while you were at play in the street before school
opened, a gentleman who was passing the school should inquire
the direction to the railroad station, would you tell him the way
in a respectful manner ?"
"Yes, sir," was the unanimous response.
, " Suppose a common laborer, whose occupation soiled his gar-
ments, should come along, and ask the way to Street, would
you tell him as well as you could, or would you treat him rudely,
telling him to go about his business?"
" We would tell him the right way," said the boys.
" Very good," said the principal ; " I am pleased to know that
you have too much respect for yourselves and for others to be-
have rudely under such circumstances. Now, suppose a man,
very poorly clad, who was seeking work that he might earn food
MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 327
for his wife and children, or even one who was begging his daily
food, should ask you a civil question, how would you treat him?
Would you give him a civil answer?"
" Yes, sir," responded the school.
" That is right, boys ; I am happy to know that you believe
it to be right to treat all persons civilly, and to answer all proper
questions respectfully, without regard to the external appearance
of the one who asks the question."
Thus the principal prepared the school for the lesson he had
planned to give. After a pause, looking carefully over the school,
until all eyes were fixed upon liim, even those of the boy wdio
gave him a disrespectful answer the day before, he said, in a de-
liberate manner, with a kind but sad tone of voice, " Yesterday
afternoon I asked a question of one of the boys of this school.
It was a proper question for me to ask a pupil ; it was a ques-
tion which was justly entitled to a respectful reply ; and yet I
am very sorry to know that even one boy in this school so far
forgot that respect which is due to his parents, which is due to
liis teacher, and due to his school-mates, as to give liis principal
a less civil reply than should have been given to a beggar in the
street. I hope no boy in this school will ever again forget, under
any circumstances, to be respectful."
No amount of personal reproof administered to the guilty boy
could have produced such beneficial results upon him as did that
lesson, which also elevated the moral tone of the entire school.
Eleventh. — Punishmenis should he adapted to offences. If a
boy persists in annoying his companions during recesses, do not
allow him to take a recess with the other boys ; if he abuses any
liberty allowed him, deprive him of that liberty until he learns to
prize it as he ought. I^ever assign a lesson as a jnmishment for
anything except neglect to learn the lesson. Ordinary school woi-k
should not be prescribed as a punishment for the common of-
fences of school. School lessons should have pleasant associa-
tions. To punish all offences in the same way will confound the
sense of justice in children. Timid pupils require tender treat-
ment.
32S .MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Twelfth. — Do not tempt your piqnls to tell a falsehood. Much
tact should be used by the tciicher in discovering which pupils
are guilty of wrong conduct. Do not question children in such
a manner as to tempt them to tell a falsehood through fear of
punishment. If you are uncertain who is in fault, do not direct-
ly accuse any one personally. Don't say, "John, I believe you
did that," unless you know that he did. If you feel it your duty
to make a personal accusation against a pupil, let it be done pri-
vately with that pupil.
Many young children possess very indefinite ideas of truth and
falsehood. Fear often leads such children to say that which
they know to be false. Endeavor to overcome this tendency to
tell a lie by treating all confessions of wrong with gentleness and
kindness, as in the case of the boy who broke the pane of glass,
and confessed it to his teacher. Remove all temptations to false-
liood. Lead not your jyujiUs into temptation, hut seek to deliver
them from their evil tendencies.
Govern your school without making the government so promi-
nent that it is burdensome to good children. Make your govern-
ment light by teaching the pupils to govern themselves.
Thirteenth. — Develop the feeling of self-respect in your pupils.
To do this most effectively, treat them with respect at all times.
Let them feel that their good conduct is respected by yon, and
that they can make themselves worthy of respect from all who
know them.
If a boy be suspected, if his feelings, tastes, and acts are treated
Avith contempt or ridicule, he will lose respect for you, for others,
and for himself. A boy who is continually told that he is bad
will come to believe it, and act accordingly.
AVhen praising a child, do it for his good actions and right mo-
tives. Praise honest efforts, not mere ability. Praise every child
"who strives diligently to make good use of his abilities. Take
care that you do not develop a love of approbation into a love of
mere flattery by giving praise when it is not deserved.
Censure should be just, and free from bitterness. Avoid ridi-
cule. Conceit and vanity may sometimes need to be lowered
MORAL TRAINING AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. 329
by good-luimorcd ridicule ; but this is a dangerous remedy, and
should be seldom employed.
Fourteenth. — Lead pup/Is to overcome idleness b// jyointbuj to
its evils. Check idleness by appropriate privations that result
from it. Let children understand that idle habits clothe men and
women in rags.
Fifteenth. — Mischief may be checked by causing ji^^P^ls to feel
its effects vpon tlicinselvcs. When injury to property is the re-
sult of mischief, require complete restoration by the doer of the
mischief.
There are many difficulties which the teacher will meet in the
management of his pupils. One of the most troublesome to re-
move is that of sulkiiiess. One mode of overcoming this unfort-
unate habit is to allow the pupil's sullenness to subside by tiring
him of his own unhappiness. By awakening bright and cheerful
thoughts in the minds of your pupils, harmony of the feelings
may be restored, and sulkiness overcome. Lead the reason of
the pupils to gain control of their feelings, and thus influence the
will to direct them in the right way. In attempting to do this,
you must jnaJce haste slowly.
Love of knowledye — that natural desire of the child to know
something about everything that he sees — is one of the means of
good discipline, and the teacher should aim to present instruction
so as to gratify this desire.
Ascertaining what motives may be properly used for securing
attention, and leading children to right conduct, constitutes an
important part of good school discipline. »
The exam2)le of the teacher has a most powerful influence on
the discipline of the school. The tones of voice, the language
used, the manner of treating the pupils, the disposition, orderly
habits, and neatness — all exert a powerful influence upon pupils.
Children try to imitate justice, kindness, truthfulness, dignity,
neatness, and refinement, as they see it in the daily acts of their
teacher.
The little girl who said, " Mother, I try to love my teacher,
but she is so cross, and scolds so much, I cannot love her," is
330 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
a sad criticism on too many ■svlio fail to find pleasure in their
work.
" I love to go to school now ; my new teacher is so kind to
us ; I mean to do all I can to please her," is a commendation that
all teachers should try to deserve from the children under their
care. "Zore, Hope, and Patience'''' will enable you to enjoy the
sunlight of happy faces.
" The main object of moral training is to give a right direc-
tion to the action of the moral powers, to encourage virtuous
inclinations, sentiments, and passions, and to repress those that
are evil. It is to cultivate habits of truthfulness, obedience, in-
dustry, temperance, prudence, and respect for the rights of
others, with a view to the formation of good character.
" The great object in moral training, like that of physical and
intellectual education, is to develop force, with a view to the
pupil's self-action. Unless this point is gained, little is gained.
The pupil's character is not to be one merely for holiday show,
but for the daily duties of life ; a character which will not be the
sport of every wind of doctrine, but one in wliich virtue — moral
strength — is firmly embodied. Such a character can only be
formed by making the child himself a co-operator in the process
of its formation."*
* Lecture on the Theory or Science of Education, by Joseph Payne.
SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. 331
SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS.
Attention" to common things, and to the principles
employed in the construction and operations of playthings
for children, is a most valuable means for leading them
to form habits of intelligent observation, and cultivate
their common-sense. The knowledge acquired by making
observations and experiments upon common things is the
beginning of the development of common-sense, and of
scientific knowledge. Science is common-sense perfected.
When a child observes the nature of a new toy, and
makes experiments to see what can be done with it, his
method of procedure is the same in character as that by
which great results in science are obtained. The way to
science is tln'ongh a knowledge of common things.
Tlic purpose of introducing the subject of common
things distinct from those relating specially to animals,
plants, minerals, etc., is that thereby the attention of
teachers may be directed to a source of very valuable
materials which are admirably adapted for the training of
children to gain scientific knowledge, and to understand
facts and laws in nature that belong to the department of
science known as physics, or natural philosophy. Toward
the accomplishment of this purpose, the following sug-
gestive hints are given.
The atmosphere is tlie air surrounding tlie earth.
We breathe it, and move about in it, but cannot see it; it
is invisihle and trans])arent ; it has weight; it ])resses in
332 MANUAL OF OBJECT- TEACHING.
all directions, upward as M'ell as downward ; it is com-
])ressible and clastic ; it exjxinds hy heat, and contracts hy
cold; it acquires foi'ce hy heat, and also hy compression;
it conveys sound ; things lighter than air vnll rise iq)-
ward in it, as a cork rises upward through water, after
being forced beneath it.
Tliese facts can be readily ilhistrated by simple experi-
ments with familiar things, as may be seen from the fol-
lowing suggestions :
Air is Invisihle and Transj)arent. — These facts will be
understood by reminding the pupils that they see through
air, hid cannot see it.
Air has Weight. — The atmosphere is attracted by the
earth with sufficient power to cause it to have weight
equal to fifteen j^ounds on each square inch. This weight
is observed by the force of its pressure on a surface.
TheBoiJs Suclter. — The pressure may be illustrated by
the boy's sucker, which is made of a circular piece of sole-
leather, with a string fastened to its centre. When this
piece of leather is moistened and pressed upon a smooth
stone, so as to force all the air from between the leather
and the stone, and the string is pulled, a vacuum is formed
under the centre of the leather, but the pressure of the
atmosphere causes the surrounding portions of the leather
to adhere to the stone with considerable force.
How Flies Wcdk on the Ceiling. — The feet of flies have
a contrivance which acts somewhat like the boy's sucker ;
and this enables them to walk on the ceiling.
Hoio the Pump liaises Water. — It is owing to the fact
that the atmosphere presses water into the space from
which air has been exhausted that the common pump
raises water from the well. As the air is drawn from the
tube by the valves attached to the piston-rod, the water
flows up to fill the i)lace.
SCIENCE OF COMMON THINGS. 333
The Syphon. — The pressure of the atmosphere causes a
fluid to flow through a syphon, while the end of the long
branch of the syplion is lower than the end of the short
branch.
The upward jpressure of the atmosphere may be illus-
trated by tilling a small tumbler with water, covering the
top M-ith a card, placing the hand on the card and turning
the whole upside down, then removing the hand gently.
The card will remain firmly pressed against the tumbler
by the atmosphere, and keep the water from flowing out.
The external pressure of the atmosphere prevents a
liquid from running out of a barrel which has no vent-
liole, or place for the air to enter above the liquid. Some-
times tea will not pour out of the teapot because the air
cannot enter above the tea. Water will remain in a straw
or long tube when the upper end is closed, because of the
atmospheric pressure from below.
The hoif s pop-gun will illustrate that air is compressi-
ble and elastic. When the cork or wad is pushed in by
the piston the air within is compressed into a smaller
space, nntil the force which the air accumulates by the
pressure becomes so great that it drives out the cork or
wad at the opposite end with a popping noise. The noise
is produced by the sudden expansion of the air as it leaves
the tube.
Other illustrations of the compressibility of air ^ and its
power of resistance, may be made as follows: Invert an
empty tumbler or a glass jar, placing its mouth on the
surface of water, then let a pupil press down upon the
jar, and try to force it into the water so that the M-a-
ter shall fill it, and observe that the water rises a little
higher in the glass as the pressure upon it is increased,
and that the water inside the glass cannot be made to rise
as hiirh as the water on the outside. This is owinir to
334 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
the presence of the air in the glass, which cannot be com-
pressed so as to allow the water to fill the glass.
The toy -halloon, or a bladder nearly filled vnth air,
when exposed to heat, will illustrate the expansion of aii-,
and the force produced by the expansion. Bv removing
the heated toj-ball(jt>n or bladder to a cold place, it will
be observ^ed that the air contracts by cold. If a bladder
be blown full of air, then exposed to heat for a short time,
the force produced by the expansion of the air within it
will cause the bladder to explode with a loud report.
Air Conveys Sound. — Where there is no air sound is
not heard. Sound is produced by the vibrations of sub-
stances. It moves through the air at the rate of about
1100 feet in a second. It moves through water about
four times as fast as through the air, and through a
wall about three and one-half times as fast; through gold
Tihowi five times as fast; through silver about seven and
threefourth times as fast; through copper about niiie and
tuio-third times as fast; through wood, lengthwise, about
ten times as fast ; through iron nhowt fifteen times as fast
as through the air.
Light moves about 190,000 miles while sound moves
1100 feet, so that practically from any object on the earth,
within the range of vision, light would pass to our eyes
instantly. The following incidents will aid in illustrating
that sound moves much slower than light :
Flash and Report of a Gun. — When a gun is fired at
a distance from the observer, the flash will be seen several
seconds before the report is heard. When the steam-
whistle of a distant locomotive is blown, the steam will
be seen issuing from the wdiistle some seconds before the
sound is heard by the distant observer.
Lightning and Thunder. — By observing the number of
seconds that intervene between the flash of liii-htninii; and
SCIEXCE OF COMMON TIIIXGS. 335
the thunder — which may be ascertained by counting slow-
ly — the distance of the thunder-cloud may be estimated
by reckonini^ one-fifth of-a mile for each second of time.
AVliile four or five seconds of time intervene between the
lightning and the thunder, the cloud is too far away to
produce any harm in the vicinity of the observer,
Sound Conveyed by Solids. — If you place your ear at
the end of a long timber, while some one scratches with a
pin the other end, you can hear the scratching distinctly.
If you place your ear against a long solid wall of brick, at
one end of it, and let some one strike the other end of the
wall, you will hear two reports, the first one through the
wall, and a second one through the air. The earth also
convej's sound. Indians understand this, and by placing
their ears on the ground ascertain the approach of an en-
eni}', or of a herd of buffaloes.
These sounds are conveyed by the vibratory motions of
the particles of the solids ; yet the solid as a whole does
not move. The vibrations of the particles take place with-
in sucli minute spaces that their movements are not per-
ceptible as motion.
A Poller and a Boiling Kettle. — If you wish to ascer-
tain whether or not a teakettle is boiling, place one end
of an iron poker on the lid, and the otlier end to your ear,
and if the water in the teakettle be boiling, the kind of
sound conducted by this iron rod will inform you.
An echo is sound reflected. Sometimes the same sound
is reflected two or three times, and thus produces two or
three separate echoes.
Ya])or arising from wet clothing is cool; for this rea-
son pupils should not be required to sit in wet clothing at
school, but should be allowed to move about while the
clothing is drying. ^
The direction of a gentle toind may be ascertained by
336 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
wetting one side of the hand, holding it np and turning
it slowly until the wet side feels cool. The moisture
evaporates faster on the side o^ the wind, and causes that
side to feel cooler.
A wet towel wrapped around an ice-pitcher, or a bottle
containing any fluid, will keep it cooler than a dry towel,
because evaporation keeps the wet towel cool.
Water Contracts and Expands. — When hot water cools
it contracts until it reaches a temperature of about 39°.
As it growls colder from this point it expands. At 32° it
freezes, and in the solid state it expands much more rap-
idly, and with sueli force as to burst the pipe or vessel
that contains it.
Heat and Cold change the Yolume, hut not the Weujht. —
Water changes in volume by heat and by cold, but does
not change in weight by heat or by cold. A cubic inch
of water weighs about 252 grains. When this amount
of water is changed into steam, its volume is 1700 cubic
inches, but its weight remains as before, 252 grains.
When the cubic inch of M'ater is changed into ice, its
volume is one and one -eleventh cubic inches, but its
weight remains as before, 252 grains. It appears, there-
fore, that neither the heat nor the cold which produce
these changes can possess weight.
Heat is caused by the vibratory movements of the par-
ticles of matter. Each vibration is very rapid, backward
and forward, within a very short space. These vibrations
are so minute that they are scarcely perceptible as motion.
The boy knows by experience that a metal button can be
made hot by rubbing it on any substance; that two sticks
can be made hot by rubbing them against each other brisk-
ly, lie may learn by experience that two pieces of ice can
be melted by the heat produced by rubbing them together.
Air in Water. — The presence of air in water may be
WATER. 337
noticed by leaving water in a glass or pitcher until it be-
comes warm, when numerous small bubbles appear around
the sides, as the warmth expands the air.
The rapid expansion of the air by heat, and its rising in
bubbles to the surface, produces boiling.
Salt-water requires more Heat to cause it to Boil than
Fresh-water. — For this reason a little salt put into water
used for cooking potatoes will make them cook sooner,
after the water boils, because of the greater degree of
heat required to cause salt-water to boil.
Water Communicates Pressure i?i all Directions. — A
small column of water, thirty feet in height, will press
with great force upon a conjined body of water at the
bottom of the column. If the pressure of the small col-
umn be equal to 1000 pounds, and the body of water at
the base be ten times the size of that in the column, tl;e
pressure on the conlined body of water at the base will
be 10,000 pounds in each direction. The pressure of a
body of level water is only downward and sidewise.
Specific Gravity. — If a substance be of tlie same weight
as water, bulk fur bulk, it will neither sink nor swim, but
move about in the water as if it had no weight. If a
body weiglis ten ounces in the air, and only nine ounces
in water, it is found that tlie bulk of water equal in size
to the body weiglis only one ounce, and that the body is
ten times as heavy as water ; therefore, its specific gravity
is said to he ten. If any body is just twice as heavy as
the same bulk of water, it has a specific gravity of two.
The Mechanical Poioers. — The lever and its uses may
be illustrated with a ruler, or even a pen-holder. The
wedge may be illustrated by the blade of a knife, or by a
piece of wood cut into the shape of the wedge. An in-
clined plane may be illustrated by the use of a slate, or
a book, or a piece of board; a p>ulley,hy ribbon-blocks;
15
338 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
the wheel and axle, by spools ; the screw, by a part of an
anger or of a wooden screw.
The simpler the objects for the illustrations, the greater
will be the probability that the pupils will try to make
experiments to illustrate the same fact at home, and thus
gain a practical knowledge of the lesson.
A 2yci'ir of stilts ; a seesaio' the halancing of a j^ole on
one end, in the hand; the balancing of a ruler across the
linger; the suspension of a common card by a string —
each furnish practical illustrations of the importance of
giving attention to the centre of gravity.
Let these lessons relating to the Science of Common
Things be conducted in a manner that Mali require the
pupils to take jDart in the experiments and illustrations,
and let the character be such that the pupils can make
the same experiments at home, and the instruction will
be thorough and practical.
The minds of children are hungry for this sort of
knowledge; and the teacher who fails to point out the
way to it, and neglects to supply the opportunity for
gratifying it, leaves undone a most important part of his
work.
Facts relating to philosophy and science should be pre-
sented to children first through experiments. When the
range of possibilities in school-room work has been reach-
ed in this direction, other important facts, to supply fur-
ther knowledge of the subject as a whole, may be taught
empirical!}', especially where the pupil's lack of knowl-
edge in other kindred departments of science prevents
his knowing these important and needed facts through
other means.
KB. — For further information relative to tlic Science of Common
Tliinc;*, tlie teaclier is referred to Hookcr''s Xatural Philosophij, ijublished
by Harper & Brotliers ; also to the Scleuce Priiners — "Introductory" and
"Physics" — published by D. Appleton & Co.
SCIENCE OF EDUCATION.
SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. 341
SCIENCE OF EDUCATION.
INTRODUCTION.
The laws of human development — the order in which
the faculties of children unfold, the subjects and processes
most suitable to educe mental activity and development,
and the modes by which the mind gains knowledge — are
among the most important things to be regarded in the
building up of a SGience of Education. By means of a
knowledge of such a science, the methods for education
will not be left to mere chance as to their fitness, and the
teacher need not grope in the dark to find his true work.
On this science the art of teaching may be founded, with
a series of training exercises for the proper development
of the human faculties in the several stages of progress
from infancy to maturity, the use of which will render
success in the work of education certain.
Successful culture of the .mind requires a thorough
knowledge of its powers, of their tendencies, and of the
manner in which these are affected by external agencies.
To attain this knowledge, we must observe the manner
of the child's development by the aid of the sciences of
physiology and psychology ; but our chief investigations
must be made through psj^chology.
Methods of education can be true only so far as they
harmonize with the modes and conditions under which
the mind attains knowledge. Accuracy in observing the
modes and conditions of mental development^ and skill in
selecting and using the appropriate means of education,
are essential to the complete success of a teacher. But
342 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
tlie attainment of sncli accuracy and skill requires a long
period of time, and many years of observation and exper-
iment on tlio part of each teacher, when left to acquire
them without aid from the experience of others ; and dur-
ing this time a multitude of mistakes may be made, each
of which, sad as it might be for the teacher, would be of
far greater injury to the pupils; hence it becomes a mat-
ter of the greatest importance that steps be taken toward
guiding the inexperienced teacher in the way to success-
ful instruction, and teaching him how to determine M-hetli-
er a method be a true or a false one — whether it will pro-
duce the desired result in education, or lead the learner
to hnal disappointment.
To aid the teacher in determining the true character of
the work to be performed, and to point out the way to
success in the art of teaching, is my aim in presenting
that which follows, under the title of the Science of Edu-
cation. For the attainment of this purpose I have availed
myself of materials from various sources of acknowledged
authority, and woven these into such form as seemed best
fitted to accomplish the end in view.
In attempting to set forth such principles as underlie
all true educational processes, it will be necessary first to
describe some of the powers of the human mind, and to
explain terms used in speaking of the various modes of
m.ental activity. In endeavoring to do this, I shall not
attempt to present a treatise on mental philosojDhy, nor
to explain all the activities of the mind, but shall try
rather to describe the most important forms of mental ac-
tion, and the modes and means by which these develop
the poVv'ers of mind, so that teachers may ohtain clearer
ideas — Of the toorh in lohich they are engaged;
Ofths nature of the materials with which they deal',
Of the nneans and modes hy which their aims may he
more completely attained.
DEFIXITIOXS OF EDUCATIONAL TERMS. 343
DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TERMS.
Before proceeding to consider the powers of tlie mind,
I will define some of the terms commonl}^ nsed in relation
to education, and thus endeavor to make them less vague
and uncertain in meaning and use. I will also add the
most important iwinciples of education^ and give a few
suggestions concerning their application to methods of
teaching.
Education comprehends all the influences which oper-
ate on the human being, stimulating his faculties to action,
forming his habits, moulding his character, and making
him what he is.*
Whatever helps to shape the human being, to make the
individual what he is, or hinder him from being what he
is not, is part of his education.f
The general object of education is to form the man, not
the lawyer — the man, not the physician — the man, not the
merchant, nor the mechanic, but the true man, including
that which is noblest and best in him.
The Science of Education consists in a knowledge of
those principles of psychology which account for the proc-
esses by which the mind gains knowledge. Its founda-
tion extends down to the laws of our being and growth.
It embraces the principles of physical, mental, and moral
actions, and all suitable means for the proper development
of the human being. It is a standard hi/ ivhlc/i methods
of education may he tested. Science tells us what a thing
* Joseph Payne. + J. S. Mill.
344 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
is, and wliy it is wliat it is. It treats of the nature of tlie
thing, of its relations to otlier things, and of the laws of
its being.
Pedagogy, or Pedagogics, are names frequently ap-
plied to the science of education.
A Principle of Education is a general truth gained
by an analytical investigation into the nature of the child
as a thinking being. It is a law of the mind, and a rule
of its action.
Tlie following established fact, or law, constitutes one
of the important principles of education : Proper exercise
of any hodily organ, or any power of the mind, increases
its strength.
Teaching is one of the most important means for car-
rying forward the work of education. It implies the
proper guidance of the learner to the sources of knowl-
edge, and training him in getting and properly using that
knowledge.
Training, in education, implies exercises of the pow-
ers of mind in connection with things observed and facts
taught. Its purpose is to give such facility and habits of
action as will increase quickness in perceiving, readiness
in remembering, accuracy in reasoning, and skill in doing.
The Art of Teaching is the application of the laws of
the science of education. It implies skill in teaching each
subject by the use of proper methods, and in accordance
with the principles of education. It is founded on the
science of education, and the science of education is
founded on the science of the mind. Art in teacliing
takes the laws which are established in science and ap-
plies them in the accomplishment of the purposes of edu-
cation. Art is Man's work added to Nature's work.
DEFINITIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TERMS. 3^5
A Mode of Teaching signifies the way in wliich a
thing or subject is taught. It relates more directly to
single actions and to single topics. It means less than
the term "method." A mode of teaching may be ex-
cellent, or it may be in violation of all principles of
education. ^
Manner of Teaching implies individual action. It is
the usual M-ay in which any particular teacher does the
work. It does not relate so much to a mode of teachino;
as to the way of using a mode or a method.
A Method of Teaching implies an orderly use of
modes of teaching. It is an arrangement for reaching a
gfven point in the work by a series of acts or steps which
it is expected will lead to that point. A method may be
good or bad. When not founded on coi-rect principles
of education, it may lead to results widely different frotn
those intended by the teacher.
A Plan of Teaching implies more than a method. It
is an arrangement which may include the use of different
methods for teaching one or more subjects — the methods
being so connected as to form a chain of mutual depen-
dencies. A plan of teaching may be limited to a single
class, or extended to all the classes of a school.
A System of Education implies more than a plan of
teaching, and more than methods. It includes plans for
providing the means of education in several subjects for
many schools. A system of education may be good, or
bad, or incomplete. The kind, must be determined by its
degree of conformity to the principles of the science of
education.
Development implies a gradual unfolding of that
which is hidden or unknown ; and it also relates to ex-
15*
9
34G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
pansion and growth. Developinent worh, in teacliing, sig-
nilies a laying open of the subject by degrees, so that the
pupil shall discover the idea, the fact, or the principle to
be learned. The development, expansion, or growth takes
place with the idea, the thought, and the powers of the
mind, not with the thijigs, nor the words. Ideas may be
developed : words must be given ; they cannot be devel-
oped. The rneamny of words can be developed by ex-
panding the ideas which they may represent.
Illustration signiiies a making clear, easy to jierceive
or apprehend. In teaching, it relates to the use of things,
pictures, and representations for exhibiting the idea, or
fact, in a clear light, so that it may be readily understood.
It belongs especially to the period of elementary education,
yet it is also appropriate and valuable for advanced M'ork
of instruction.
Explanation signifies a making level, clearing the way,
removing obstructions. In teaching, it relates more to
the use of language, as a means of instruction, than to
things and representations ; hence it is more appropriate
as a means of teaching pupils who have acquired a pretty
full vocabulary of words that clearly symbolize to them
a great number and variety of ideas. It is not a suitable
means of instruction for young pupils.
Rote-teaching signifies causing pupils to commit to
memory, by rote, words that represent no definite ideas
to the mind ; learning words as the parrot learns them
■ — by sound — M'ithout their sense. liote-teaching is usual-
ly accomi^anied with concei;t repetitions.
PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIOX. 347
PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION.
I. The development of tlie mind begins with the re-
ception of sensations ; and is carried forward by percep-
tions, and the formation of ideas.
IL The action and reaction between the external stim-
ulants — material objects — and the mind's inherent pow-
ers constitutes the process of natural education. The in-
fluence of things upon mind, and of mind upon things,
educates.
III. The intellectual action and exercise in which the
learner's education essentially consists are performed by
himself. It is what he does for himself — his personal ex-
periences — not that which is done for him, that educates
him.
IV. Ideas gained by personal experience are subjected
by the mind to certain processes of elaboration, as classifi-
cation, association, abstraction, generalization, judgment,
and reasoning. Thus, ideas are incorporated with the or-
ganic life of the learner's mind.
V. Words are the conventional signs, the objective
representations of ideas. Their value to the learner de-
pends on his previous possession of the ideas they rep-
resent. Words, without ideas, are not knowledge. There-
fore obtain ideas first, then words to represent them.
VI. Memory is the result of attention ; and attention
is the concentration of all the powers of the mind on the
matter to be learned. Tiic art of memory is the art of
Inlying attention. Exact and concise language increases
the power of remembering.
348 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIKG.
YII. The mind, in gaining knowledge for itself, at-
tends first to the whole, then subdivides that into its
parts, and from particular facts infers general truths. It
discovers facts b}^ anal)'sis, but transmits them to others
bj synthesis. The teacher should follow this natural
order, leading the pupil to the fact by analysis, but re-
quiring him to sliov\r by synthesis that he has gained it.
VIII. Education is the cultivation of all the native pow-
ers of the child by exercising them in accordance with the
laws of his being, with a view to development and growth.
Kepeated exercises of bodily organs give ease of action,
and produce habits. Proper exercise of the mental j30w-
ers give clearness of perception and certainty of knowl-
edge. Proper exercise of any bodily organ, or mental or
moral power, increases its strength.
IX. Pight methods of education make the pupil an ac-
tive doer, not a passive receiver ; make him learn directly
from things and acts, and become his own teacher.
X. The proper function of the teacher is that of a
stimulator and guide of the learner'' s %oorl\ in a systematic
building of knowledge into the mind, with a definite ob-
ject, lie should first discover the need of the child,
awaken in him a desire to satisfy it, then lead him to the
source of supply, and teach him to help himself.
XL The teacher's true work, in the process of instruc-
tion, starts from that which is known to the learner, and
proceeds to the kindred unknown which constitutes the
matter to be learned. It causes that which is newly
learned to become intimately associated with the pre-
viously known.
XII. Unknown objects and Avords can be illustrated
and explained only by well-known objects and words.
Teach unfamiliar things by the help of familiar things.
DIKECTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 349
DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHERS.
By means of careful attention to proper directions and
suggestions, relative to methods and principles of educa-
tion, inexperienced teachers may secure vahiable guides
for leading themselves —
To use correct methods of instruction.
To acquire skill in the art of teaching.
Complete Fitness for Teaching implies the combi-
nation of knowledge and experience indicated by the fol-
lowing qualifications :
1. A 'knowledge of the suhjects of instruction.
2. A knoidedge of the nature of the heing to he taught.
3. A knoidedge of the jprinci/ples of education.
4. Skill in the use of the hest methods of teaching.
5. Tact in the management of 2}npils.
Mode of Procedure. — Tlie work of true teaching in-
cludes in its processes the following important matters,
and attention to each in its proper time and order.
The teacher must —
First. — Discover the condition of the pvpiVs mind, and
its needs, as related to both its mental development and
the subject-matter to be taught. Then aioaken inthejpu-
2?il a desire to know that which he needs, and guide him
in the way to gratify this desire ; and, while attending to
these, teach him how to gain wliat is thus sought concern-
ing the subject-matter of the lesson.
Second. — Ascertain hoxo the different minds gain knowl-
edge of the given subject, — which senses are chiefly used
350 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
for the purpose, — and then conduct the exercises of in-
struction so as to employ two or more se?ises, whenever
possible, in order to secure the best attention and com-
pleteness of knowledge.
Third. — Begin the lesson with things^ or pictures, and
facts — not with definitions or rules. Bring the object,
or subject-matter, with suitable illustrations, into such re-
lations with the pupil's mind that each may act on the
other so as effectively to cause the proper exercise of
those powers by which knowledge is gained.
Fourth. — ]]y means of illustrations and questions lead
the child to grasp the new idea or truth ; and, as soon as
that is perceived, teach the word to express it, and in a
manner that will thoroughly associate the word with the
thought.
Fifth. — Present the sidject-matter of the lesson in the
p>roper order, proceeding from that which is already
known by the learner to the most nearly related un-
known, and lead the pupil to associate each newly-learned
fact with what was previously known. Be careful to dis-
tinguish between facts which are new to the pupil and
those that are already familiar to him.
Sixth. — Unknown things and words can he illustrated
and explained only hj hnown things and loords. Do not
attempt, therefore, to illustrate by the use of things not
familiar to the pupils; nor to teach the meaning of words
by the use of those not already well-known to them.
Never try to illustrate that which is familiar by some-
thing unfamiliar.
Seventh. — Ideas must he formed in the learner'' s mind,
and words given to represent them, before they can be
expressed or communicated to others. Tiie child learns
by observation, examples, and practice, not by precepts,
DIRECTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 351
rules, or theory. Precepts, rules, and theory aid him in
remembering that which he learns by observation and
practice. Provide your pupils with abundant means of
learning by these modes, and see that sufficient attention
is given to each.
Eighth. — When ideas of a given suhject cannot readily
he obtained directly through the senses, the subject-matter
to be taught may be compared to some object or fact al-
ready familiar to the learner by his own experience. In
using comparisons as a means of illustrating ideas, there
should exist a true parallelism between the matter to be
explained and the object, fact, or incident used for the il-
lustration ; and its application to the case in point should
be made clearly apparent to the pupil. Do not allow
your illustration to cover %ip the suhject, and hide the fact
to be taught, by making the comparison or illustration too
elaborate.
Ninth. — Follow the dictates of nature, and proceed from
the whole to its j^^^'^ts. Lead the child to understand
through analysis, and to show that he knows by synthe-
sis. Divide the difhculties of the subject into proper
steps, and thus enable your pupils to surmount them.
Direct attention to one thing at a time, and to each thing
in its appropriate order. Do not attempt to keep atten-
tion too long upon one thing or fact.
Tenth. — litinember that activity is a characteristic of
childhood, and that the child likes to try to do what it
sees others do. Provide, therefore, examples of doing
which may be imitated by the learner. In every lesson,
where it is practicable, give the pupils something to do
with their hands, and require them to say something about
that which is done. Furnishing occupation that interests
the pupils is the best means for maintaining order.
352 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
Eleventh. — The attention of young children should l)e
attracted, not forced, to the lesson i and tlie attention to
a given subject shonld not become burdensome to the
learner. Activity on the part of the teacher is one of the
means of securing attention ; and constant employment
of the pupils is another means. Partial attention of pu-
pils implies partial teaching.
Twelfth. — Proj)er Tepetitions deepen impressions. Both
the facts and the language used to represent them are made
secure in the memory hj giving repeated attention to each.
Changes in the manner of directing the attention of pu-
pils to the facts, and in the language used for describing
them, may be made with profit to the learner; but in all
cases let accuracy and conciseness of language aid the
memory. Thoroughly knowing a thing is the surest
way of remembering it.
Thirteenth. — Do not use formal questions. Put your
questions on each lesson in several different forms, yet
make them definite. Avoid leading questions, such as can
be answered by yes, or no. Shape each succeeding ques-
tion with reference to the ansicers pjrevioushj given, and
the point to he gained. Do not try to draw from a pupil,
by questions, whaU-Jie has never taken in ; yet suitable
questions may be used to lead him to discover that which
he does not know. A lesson may be reviewed with much
profit by requiring pupils to ask each other questions
concerning it.
Fourteenth. — Language is developed and cultivated hy
using it. To use a language is to receive and express
ideas through it. Children should be trained to hear and
understand, and to give proof that they understand by
expressing their thoughts in clear and accurate language.
If you would teach much, talk but little.
DIKECTIONS FOR TEACHERS. 353
Fifteenth. — Train your pupih to do exactly v^hat you re-
quest them to do — no more, and no less. It will cultivate
habits of attention; of quick and accurate understanding;
of following directions correctly, and obeying orders full}'.
To accomplish this important result, let attention be given
to secure it during the exercises of reading, spelling, arith->
metic, writing, passing books, using slates, marching, stand-
ing, sitting, etc., until the habit of doing thus is formed
in all the movements of the school. Such a habit is the
corner-stone of excellent discipline. It is the key to suc-
cess in maintaining good order.
Sixteenth. — A summary, or short review, shoidd end the
lesson. During this review all illustrations and aids to
perception should be removed, and the pupil led to look
within his own mind for the new fact or truth taught by
the lesson. This is an important stex3 in the development
of mental power.
Seventeenth. — Knoioing lohcd to teach, and Jiiiowing how
to teach, are two very different things. Knowing what to
teach is an attainment of hiowledge. Knowing how to
teach is an attainment of art. Attend, therefore, both to
the knowledge and to the art as the best means of success
in teaching.
Eighteenth. — Let your own life and loorJc he worthy of
imitation hy your jmjyils. Be truthful in acts as well as
in words. Promptness, neatness, painstaking, politeness,
and kindness may be effectively inculcated by your deeds,
even though your words he few. With children, thinss
seen are mightier than things heard, and example is more
powerful than precept.
For more extended and explicit statements relating to
the nature of the tilings to he taught, for a fuller exposition
of the j^rinci])les of education, and further directions for
35tl: MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
teacJicrs, in matters pertaining to the science and art of
education, the reader is now invited to a careful consider-
ation of "How Nature Teaches a Child," "Elements of
Mental Activit}"," the M'ni^d, and its " Powers of Mental
Acquisition," its "PoAvers of Mental Reproduction," its
"Powers of Human Reason," its "Powers of Moral Ac-
tion," and its "Power of Willing," as treated in the fol-
lowing pages. Proper attention to these subjects will
lead to a clearer understanding of the true relations
which should exist between the learner and the teacher,
to the use of better methods of instruction, to skill in
the art of teaching, and to more satisfactory results in
education.
HOW NATURE TEACHES A CHILD. 355
HOW NATURE TEACHES A CHILD.
"For some time duving- the early years of cliildhood Nature
is the cbief, if not the only, teacher ; and the contrast between
her success at that time and the success of the teacher who suc-
ceeds her is very remarkable, and deserving of consideration.
When we examine this process in the case of infants, we see
Nature acting without interference, and with undeviating success.
AVithin a few months after the child has attained some degree
of consciousness, we find that Nature, under every disadvantage
of body and mind, has succeeded in communicating to the infant
mind an amount of knowledge which, when examined in detail,
appears truly wonderful. The child has been taught to know his
relatives and friends ; he has acquired the ability to use his limbs,
and muscles, and organs of sense. He has become sufficiently
familiar with the form, the color, the texture, and the names of
a hundred articles of dress, of furniture, of food, and of amuse-
ments, to be able readily to distinguish each ; and all of this has
been acquired without fatigue, and with pure delight. He com-
pares objects, as may be seen in bis choosing those things which
please him, and rejecting those which he dislikes. And, above
all, along with this substantial knowledge of things the child has
been taught to understand a language and to speak it. The fact
that all of this has been accomplished by a child of only three
or four years of age is so common, that the mysterious principles
which it involves are generally overlooked. We thoughtlessly
allow them to escape observation, as if they were matters of in-
stinct, and to be ranked with the spider's catching its prey, or
the bird's building its nest.
" The benefits accruing to education from successfully imitat-
ing Nature in this department of her training process would be
incalculable, not only in adding to the amount of knowledge com-
35G MA^^UAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
municated, but in the ease and delight wliicb tlie young would
experience in acquiring it. The rapidity of acquisition in gaining
knowledge, and the pleasure attending it, are greatest during the
time that Nature is the teacher. Both the rapidity and the pleas-
ure are generally checked by the mismanagement of those who
supersede Nature with the processes of school instruction. The
proof of this is found in the fact that, although a child is much
less capable of acquiring knowledge between one and five years
of age than he is between eight and twelve, yet the amount of
knowledge generally derived from school exercises during the
four latter years bears no proportion to those of the former when
Nature alone Avas the teacher. In the one case his intellectual
attainments were acquired with little or no fatigue, and the acqui-
sition was a continued source of pleasure, while in the other quite
the reverse is usually the condition."*
l!^ow, if we could only cause the knowledge sought to
be imparted in the school-room to glide as sweetly and
clearly into the mind as that of Nature's teaching, we
should not only greatly aid natural education, but get rid
of much of the dreary endurance of school-hours, of that
stolid lending of the ears witliout hearing, that objectless
looking without seeing, and those repetitions of words
without the acquisition of knowledge.
The amusements of early cliildhood furnish instructive
liints as to suitable means for the education of young
children. When the child has acquired the power of
using its hands in holding and moving objects, he soon
makes a variety of experiments by moving those M'ithin
his reach. If he notices a new effect by moving an ob-
ject, he is eager to repeat it. Wlien he throws a spoon
on the floor, and hears the jingling noise, if another spoon
is given him he is sure to throw it down, expecting to
hear the same noise. If a piece of wood be given liim,
he soon finds that the same noise does not occur wlien it
* The Philosophy of Education, by James Gall, of Edinburgh.
now NATURE TEACHES A CHILD. 357
is thrown down, and lie loses the desire to repeat the ex-
periment. But, so long as the noise that pleased him is
repeated, he takes pleasure in throwing down the object.
If two objects be given him, only one of which will
jiroduce a noise when thrown down, he soon finds out the
difference, and wants only the one which produces the
noise. This is the inductive method by which Nature
teaches her scholars. She makes their plays their most
instructive lessons.
"Nature furnisbes knowledge by object-lessons, and she trains
the active powers by making them act. She has given capabiUty
of action, and she develops this capabihty by presenting occasions
for its exercise. She makes her pupil learn to do by doing.
She gives liim no grammar of seeing, hearing, and feeling; she
gives no compendiums of abstract principles. Action — action is
her maxim of training ; and things — things are the objects of licr
lessons. She adopts much repetition in her teaching, in order that
the difficulty may become easy, and ' use become second nature.'
In physical training, ' use legs and have legs ' is one of her max-
ims, and she acts analogously in regard to mental and moral
training. Slie teaches quictl}'. Sbe docs not continually inter-
rupt her pupil, even when he blunders, by outcries and objurga-
tions. She bides her time ; and, by prompting him to continued
action, and inducing him to think about what he is doing, and
correct his errors himself, makes his very blunders fruitful in in-
struction. She does not anxiously intervene to prevent the con-
sequences of his actions ; she allows him to experience them, that
he may learn prudence; sometimes even letting him burn his
fingers, that he may gain at once a significant lesson in physics,
and also the moral lesson involved in the ministry of pain. * * *
" Nature makes her pupil teach himself. She does not explain
the difference between liard and soft objects — she says. Feel
them ; between this fact and that sbe says. Place them side by
side and mark the difference yourself ; and generally she says to
her pupil, Don't ask me to tell you anything that you can find
out for yourself. * * *
358 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
" She mingles lessons in physics, langna2;c, morality all together.
Her main business seems to be the training of faculty; and she
subordinates to this the orderly acquisition of knowledge by her
pupils."*
The first step of Xature's process, in the cultivation of
tlic infant niind, is the voluntary exercise of the powers
of mental acquisition. A child may be surrounded with
a thousand objects, and these may act on the organs of
sense, but xmtil the mind voluntarily occupies itself loith
one or more of these sensations there can he no mental ac-
quisition or culture. Education, then, does not depend
upon the number of objects, or the multitude of subjects
which may be employed by the teacher, but upon those
only which tlie mind really looks at, observes, and thinks
about. The voluntary exercise of the mind lies at the he-
ginning of all mental development and acguisition. Im-
pressions may be received, and these may be blended into
ideas, but these ideas must also be symbolized with words,
and associations formed, and the ideas repeated or thought
over, by means of the words representing them, in order
to produce development and growth in knowledge.
It is the exercise of the pupiTs own mind that consti-
tutes his acts of learning. Learning is self-teaching. Tlie
mental acts by which knowledge is gained are acts of the
pupil. The teacher cannot think for the pupil any more
than he can sleep or eat for him. He can only induce,
stimulate, and awaken thoughts and desires that will lead
the pupil to acquire knowledge.
* lectures on the Science and Art of Education^ \>y Joseph Payne, lute Pro-
fessor in the College of Preceptors, London.
ELEMENTS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY. 359
ELEMENTS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY.
The external world acts upon, and stimnlates the mind
to act tlironglijthe nervons system. Mind and matter act,
and each are acted upon by the other. The action of
mind and matter produces changes. Action and change
constitute motion. Heat, light, color, and sound are pro-
duced by motion. Touch and feeling, taste and smell,
are also dependent upon motion. The different varieties
of motion which produce these various phenomena expe-
rienced by our minds exist in the form of changes, or vi-
brations, among the atoms of matter. These several varie-
ties of vibrations, it is believed, are transmitted to the dif-
ferent senses in the form of waves, or inidulations.
The vibrations which produce sound are communicated
to the sense of hearing by undulations of the atmosjyhere.
Vibrations produce heat ; and light and color are trans-
mitted to the senses of feeling and seeing by undulations
of ether — a medium believed to pervade all space, includ-
ing the interior of all substances. The difference between
sounds is caused by the difference in the rapidity of the vi-
brations and the length of the air-waves. The differences
in heat, light, and colors depend upon the rapidity of the
\dbration8 that produce them, and, with light and colors,
on the length of tlie ethereal undulations also.
The sense of hearing can be acted upon only within a
certain range of air- vibrations. If these are less rapid
than sixteen in a second, the sound will be too low for
the human ear to perceive it. If the vibrations are more
rapid than about 40,000 per second, the sound becomes
360 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
too liigli for perception by liiiman ears. It is possible,
liowever, that some animals may possess powers of per-
ceiving lower sounds than any which man hears; while
it is probable that there are others with such acute senses
that they can hear sounds so high that we have no knowl-
edge of their existence.
The vibrations which produce red light are slower, and
the ethereal undulations are larger, than those which pro-
duce ^;?/?;/^/(?. In red light 39,000 waves occ^ipy but one
inch of space, while the number of vibrations is at least
475,000,000,000,000 per second. In ;purple light 57,500
waves occupy one inch of space, and the number of vibra-
tions per second is 700,000,000,000,000.
Sound travels through the atmosphere at the rate of
W{s^ feet per second. Light travels at the rate of 192,000
miles per second, or more than 900,000 times faster than
sound. Thus, it may readily be seen that the two promi-
nent modifying conditions in motion, which produce the
several sensations manifested to the human mind, are
time and space. Both of these are generated by motion.
Time is the internal measure of motion, and space is the
measure of motion externally.
It has already been shown that two classes of sensations
— those which act through the senses of hearing and see-
ing — are the result of motion. Turning now to chemical
effects, we find that motion of the jparticles of matter
produces the results observed by the senses of taste and
smell. Thus we perceive that motion is the common
ground on which tnind and the material world can meet.
It is the universal medium of their communion.
How Ideas are Formed. — The material world is
known to sense simply by virtue of, and in relation to,
the motion of its particles. These motions are continued
from the organs of sense, by the nervous system, to the
ELEMENTS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY. 301
mind, wliicli in its turn reacts upon the material world,
tlirougli the nerves of motion, to ascertain the cause of
the sensations, and thus come perceptions ; while througli
and by the aid of perceptions concepts are formed. These
are the mental 7'esiduaf'' which are produced in the mind,
through the activities of the different senses, from ob-
jects that comes before it. These residua spontaneously
blend together, forming an idea of the object. This is
the beginning of intelligence.
When an ordinary object is placed before us, the lead-
ing features that first arrest the attention of the mind are
those of which impressions may be taken in through the
sense of sight, as color, shape, size, materials, etc., because
this sense is tiie most intellectual, and through experience
attains the ability of receiving a greater amount and
variety of information from an object than either of the
other senses. Tlie sense of touch gives us impressions
of hardness and smoothness, while impressions of sound,
scent, and taste are each convej^ed through their respective
organs. The mind may receive sensations and informa-
tion from several senses at the same time.
Suppose the object before the mind to be an orange :
all the concepts derived from its shape, color, size, smooth-
ness, and its qualities of scent, taste, etc., or the various
mental residua of this object, which are left in the mind
by means of each separate sense, would unite, unconscious-
ly, in forming the idea of an orange. It is by this process
of blending impressions that ideas are formed out of sim-
ple concepts, or mental impressions.
* The term "residua" is not used Jiere in any materialistic sense, nor as
a representative of any system of mental i)liilosopli}% but simply as a stjin-
bol for accumulated "concepts," or thounlits, or the simplest elements of
knowledge which the mind receives through the senses, or of that mental
operation, by wliatever term it may be known, or whatever may be its modes
of action, which is recognized :xs the accumulation of that which becomes
our knowledge of the external world — tliat which i.v, or becomes, or pro-
duces thoughts.
16
362 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
Generalization, — These same laws, bj wliicli various
impressions blend together in forming ideas, also govern
the union of similar ideas in the formation of general
ones. We may trace this blending process from a very
early period of childhood, and observe the combinations
becoming larger and larger in proportion as the mind
grows up toward maturity. Here, then, is the beginning
of that mental process and that operation of the mind
which may be called generalization. It is through these
natural classifications, based upon the likeness and unWke-
ness of things, that knowledge grows from the concrete
to the abstract. Thus, the law of similarity not only lies
at the basis of those processes by which the mental resid-
ua are blended into ideas, but also of those simple classifi-
cations by which ideas are moulded into masses, and gen-
eralizations established. By extending the classitication
of ideas, by likeness and unlikeness, to the formation of
groups of ideas, and establishing a connection between
them by associating these groups together, we have the
origin of that kind of knowledge which is called e.qje-
rience.
As the child becomes older, the range of its experience
enlarges, the elements of perception are more readily
formed into simple ideas, and these simple ideas tend
more and more to merge into general ones. Even words,
which are symbols of our generalized ideas, represent to
the child a simpler combination of ideas than the same
words do to one of wider experience. Suppose the word
river be heard. To the child it might convey only an
idea of a single stream which he had seen ; but to the
adult of large experience it would convey an indefinite
number of riner-ideas, which liad formed in his mind out
of the past observations made by himself and others, all
of which now have blended into a more comprehensive
or general form, under the single word river.
ELEMENTS OF MENTAL ACTIVITY. 363
Not only are our ideas of material objects formed by
the blending of impressions obtained through several
senses, but ideas of abstract terms, as love, hatred, pity,
anger, virtue, etc., are formed in the same way ; they take
their origin primarily from certain manifestations which
we see in others, or are conscious of in ourselves. Al-
tliough these manifestations are various, yet in the course
of our experience the impressions which they leave blend
together, so as to form combinations that represent to the
mind the ideas expressed by the terms love, hate, pity,
anger, virtue, etc. Since the impressions which unite in
the formation of these several ideas differ according to
the mental experiences of each individual, it must not be
supposed that the words which stand as symbols for these
ideas will convey them with exactly the same force and
clearness to each mind.
The fulness, clearness, and accuracy of the ideas re-
ceived from words by each person depend upon the
number of " concepts," or the amount of mental residua
which those words symbolize to each. "Words signify
much or little to each one of us, as our mental accumu-
lations associated with those words are many or few.
3G4 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
MAINE'S NATURE AND POWERS.
Man possesses two widely different natures : one is
physical, the other sjnritual. As a physical being, he is
composed of ho7ies, or a frame ; of muscles, or organs of
motion; of nerves and (janglia, or organs of sensation.
As a spiritual being, man is composed of a mind, which
acts through specific bodily organs in all its intercourse
with the material world.
The action of the physical nature may be called animal
power; the action of the spiritual nature may be called
mental power. We are conscious of the operations of both
of these powers, and may control, or iniinence, their ac-
tion by our will. But there is a third power, which be-
longs chiefly to our physical nature, that is wholly beyond
both our consciousness and our control. This is the Vital
Power, or that force by which the physical system is built
up and kept in repair, and the processes of animal life
carried on. This power is common also to the entire
animal and vegetable world.
THE MIND.
The onind is that Mfludi feels, and t/dnls, and hioios.
Its organs are the hrain and nerves. The mind is spirit-
ual ; the brain and nerves are material. The mind is said
to possess various faculties; but these denote only the
different modes in which its power is manifested.
The Senses. — The senses are those powers by which
the mind holds communication with the external world.
MAN'S NATURE AND POWERS. 3G5
Their various modes of manifestation are called taste^
smell, a/'f/ht, hearing, feeling, and the muscular sense.
Their special hodily organs are the tongue, the nose, the
eye, the ear, the sVin, and the muscles. The means of
connection and communication between these external
organs of sense and the mind are the nerves.
Nerves. — Each organ of sense has its peculiar nerve
connecting it with the brain, the chief organ of the mind.
To the anatomist these nerves all appear alike, when sep-
arated from the body. But each is affected in its own pe-
culiar -way : one by light, another by sound, another by
smell, another by touch, another by taste. Neither of
them is affected by that which produces sensation in the
other. Sound does not affect the nerve of sight; light
does not affect the nerve of hearing ; taste does not affect
the nerve of smell, and so on. But precisely Jww the
mind acts througli the brain and nerves, and the various
organs of sensation, no man can fully explain. However,
that the mind possesses native tendencies to act through
its several organs of sense, is as evident as that the life-
principle of seeds contains the natural tendency to devel-
op into a plant after its own hind. But both the mind
and the life -principle need the appropriate conditions,
which can be supplied by the influences of external ob-
jects, to bring forth their development.
Sensations. — Sensations arc those brief influences, or
iuipressions, which external objects produce upon the
mind through its special bodily organs oi sense. A sen-
sation lasts only during the time that its cause acts \\\^o\\
the organ of sense. It is a fundamental element of
knowledge.
Perception and Perceptiveness. — By means of the
nerves such a communication exists between the outward
organs of sense and the mind that notice is taken of the
oGG MiVNUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG.
sensations. This notice, or attention, is ca\\cQ\ po'ception.
It is a manifestation oi percejytlveness.
Perceptiveness is that power, or natural tendency of tlie
mind, to act in perceivins^ whenever the occasion for ac-
tion occurs. Percejytion is the action of j!;(^^'ceptive facidties, or
by some other name, is i\\e primary hiowledge-gatherer of
the mind. It collects elements of knowledge that aid in
other mental operations. It furnishes the means of rec-
* Sec note on page 361.
MAN'S NATURE AND POWERS. 3G7
og-nizing the same objects wlien tliey come again under
notice.
*' We arc foUowin;^ the plainest dictates of consciousness, we
avoid a thousand difficulties, and we get a solid ground on wliich
to rest and build, wlien we maintain that the mind in its first ex-
ercises acquires knowledge ; not, indeed, scientific, or arranged ;
not of qualities of objects and classes of objects, but still knowl-
edge — the knowledge of things presenting themselves, and as
they present themselves ; which knowledge, individual and con-
crete, is the foundation of all other knowledge — abstract, general,
and deductive. In particular, the mind is so constituted as to at-
tain a knowledge of body or of material objects. It is through
the bodily organism that the intelligence of man attains its
knowledge of all material objects beyond. This is true of the
infant mind; it is true also of the mature mind."*
ORGANS OF SENSE.
The several organs of sense are the means by which
the mind gains the elements of knowledge from various
objects. It is proper, therefore, to inquire what are the
original elements of knowledge wliich the mind receives
through each of these organs of sense, that the manner of
the mind's activity may be so well understood as to ena-
ble teachers readily to devise suitable exercises for in-
creasing its facilities of action through each of these
organs.
Seeing. — Througli tlie organs of sight objects are per-
ceived chiefly by means of their form and color; but it
is experience, or the combined elements of knowledge
derived througli the senses of sight, touch, and the mus-
cular sense, and sometimes of licaring also, which enables
the mind to attain definite knowledge of the form, size,
and distance of objects. An infant has perfect eyes, yet
* Intuitions of the Mind, by Dr. McCosh.
368 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
it will try to reach distant objects as well as those near
it, apparently liaving no idea that all objects are not equal-
ly near until it has learned to the contrary by its own ex-
perience. Neither does it distinguish one form or color
from another until it has learned to do so through expe-
rience.
Children are born with all the senses, hut facility in the
iise of each inust Ije acquired. During infancy the earliest
attainments in knowledge are the results of experience ;
so, also, does the mind add to its stock of knowledge by
its experience during all subsequent stages of learning.
It is exercise, practice, experience that develops mental
powers as well as the physical powers. Whatever exer-
cises give to the mind greater facility of action through
its several organs of sense will increase its power and
extend its knowledge. Hence the importance of giving
special attention, during early steps of education, to appro-
priate means for extending the experience of the mental
powers by supplying suitable exercises for these organs
of sense.
The sense of sight may be cultivated by observing the
physical properties of objects, such as form, color, num-
ber, surface, size, position, distance, motion, rest, and solid-
ity, and their various combinations and uses. Among the
objects appropriate for this purpose are the utensils and
tools for the house, farm, or shop, furniture, machinery,
pictures, models, trees, leaves, flowers, birds, quadrupeds,
insects, shells, pebbles, and occupations, and the various
objects of nature and art. Although somewhat familiar
to children, by casually seeing them, these several objects
may be so employed by the teacher as to arrest their vol-
atile attention, and win them to habits of close and minute
observation^ and lead them to acquire the power of ready
and accurate description.
The eye is par excellence the intellectual sense. Light is
MAN'S NATURE AND FOWLERS. 3G9
the symbol by whicli we most naturally represent knowl-
edge, and to see a thing is used as an equivalent for nn-
derstanding it. Sight is of far greater iuiportance in in-
tellectual education than hearing, yet the latter is com-
monly made the principal medium of school instruction,
notwithstanding it is comparatively of much less value
than the former.
Hearing. — The mind, throngh its organ of hearing,
perceives sounds. At first, to the young child, those
sonnds appear to exist within the organ affected — the ear.
At length experience teaches that it proceeds from a body
without, and further experience teaches the sources of
the different sounds ; and by this means the child learns
to know certain objects by their sounds. Subsequent ob-
servation enables him to recognize the various character-
istics of sound, and thus to feel similar emotions upon the
recurrence of the same sounds.
Hearing is cultivated by distinguishing sounds of va-
rious kinds, as those produced by bells and other sonorous
objects, or by different animals, or by the human voice in
conversation, elocution, and music. Training children in
liabits of correct enunciation of words, and in the distinct
utterance of the elementary sounds of language, singly
and in combinations, will aid materially in the cultivation
of the sense of hearing.
While sight is naturally associated with the intellect,
hearing is more nearly allied to the feelings. Tones of
voice betoken emotions which no words can express.
AVords are but sounds as they strike the ear, yet what
power they possess in moulding, recalling, and stimulating
our ideas ! The sweetest delights of music, the richest
charms of society, the various tones of the human voice
in expressions of love, joy, sorrow, anger, remorse, and
fear — all indicate developments of the mind through the
370 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
sense of hecmlng. All of these conditions and experiences
become possible by means of the air that surrounds us,
and the susceptibility of cultivated organs of hearing.
And, notwithstanding all this, the exercises of the school-
room too seldom have any definite reference to training
this sense of hearing in habits of accuracy, acuteness, and
delicacy of perception. Some success is attained in cul-
tivating the singing voice in smoothness and sweetness,
but too little is done toward cultivating sweetness and
richness of the spealdng voice, as used in conversation,
reading, etc.
As illustrations of the great degree of cultivation to
which the organs of hearing may be brought, and the wide
range for training both the ear and tlie human voice,
through the development of this sense, we present the
following statements :
Probably the lowest sound which the human ear can perceive
is produced by about sixteen vibrations per second. The lowest
note by the open organ-pipe, thirty-two feet long, is formed by
tldrtij-two vibrations of ah" in a second. The highest jmisicul
note which Ccan be produced is supposed to be formed by about
5000 vibrations per second.
In the common seven-octave piano the lowest note of the bass
(A) contains about twenty-seven vibrations per second, and the
highest note of the treble about 3500 vibrations in a second. The
musical ear is able to discriminate innumerable varieties and com-
binations of vibrations lying between these extremes. But what
may be said of the extent and acuteness of those cultivated organs
of hearing which enables the leader of a large orchestra, where the
number and variety of the vibrations are such as to entirely baf-
fle their computation by arithmetic, to detect a single note or
part of a vibration out of tune or time, and even to point out the
offender !
The range of human hcarinr/, between the lowest sound that
is perceived by the car, or even the lowest note of the organ, and
MAN'S NATURE AND POWERS. 371
the highest known cry of itisects, which is supposed to be formed
by about 40,000 vibrations per second, includes about ten oc-
taves. The compass of the human voice, from the lowest note of
the bass or male voice, which is produced by about sixti/ vibra-
tions per second, to the highest note of the soprano, which is
composed of about 1044 vibrations per second, is within four
octaves. The compass of good, common voices is within two oc-
taves ; very few extend so far as three. Madame Catalani's voice,
it is said, embraced three and a half octaves.
" Every musical instrument, every animal, every object in nat-
ure has its peculiar quality of voice. Where the sound is pro-
duced by a living agent, it is again further modified by the cir-
cumstances of skill in the performer, and by the sentiment under
which the tones are produced. By this variety in note and qual-
ity the practised ear is enabled not only to distinguish the origi-
nating cause of a sound, but to determine the sentiment which
called it forth."
Knowing that such results are possible from developing
the sense of hearing, also that mncli depends npon its
power in learning to read with clearness and beauty of
expression, and that it contributes largely to the cultiva-
tion and richness of the human voice, thus adding to the
charms of conversation, the importance of giving special
attention to training this sense in habits of acuteness of
hearing, accuracy in distinguishing tones, atid to training
the voice in producing the tones with facility, becomes so
apparent that it can hardly receive too much attention in
the exercises of school.
Feeling or Touch. — " The organ of touch consists of
the fine extremities of the nerves distributed over the
whole surface of the body, and protected by the epider-
mis, or outer skin." The skin is, therefore, commonly
called the organ of touch. Its greatest power is centred
in the tips of the fingers. The sensation of feeling is
chiefly dependent upon temperature.
372 MANUAL OF OliJECT-TEACHING.
At first thought it may seem of little importance to
cultivate the sense of touch ; but if we consider tlie many
arts and professions which require delicate sensitiveness
and accuracy of touch, we sliall find that its culture is a
matter worthy of much attention.
This sense may be cultivated by perceiving such prop-
erties of bodies as hardness, softness, smoothness, rough-
ness, heat, cold, and all those minute sensations which
come to us through the tips of the fingers.
Muscular Sense. — That which is known as the mus-
cular sense is intimately connected with feeling, and is
the peculiar manifestation of the sense of touch which
takes cognizance of resistance, and enables the mind to
obtain ideas of size, distance, position, form, and weight.
The cultivation of the muscular sense is important, not
only because this is the organ of force, but because it is
also necessary to bring the muscles nnder the complete
control of the mind, so that their movements may be made
with facility and precision, and thus contribute to skill of
workmanship and manual execution in any trade, art, or
occupation. It may be cultivated by observing those sen-
sations which arise from resistance and j!>?'(?6'6'?«v, such as
weight, strength, toughness, and elasticity, or from a push,
a prick, or a blow.
Smelling. — Through the organs of smell odors are per-
ceived; but at first the knowledge of the odor does nut
extend outside of the part affected — the nostrils. Expe-
rience teaches the child that there is an object beyond
the nose from which the smell proceeds. Further obser-
vations teach the child to connect particular odors with
particular objects, so that at length the mind comes to
recognize objects by their odors through the sense of
smell alone.
M^VX'S NATURE AND POWERS. 373
The sense of smell ni;i_y be so edncated as to become
an important aid in the preservation of life and health.
Dr. South wood Smith says : " If the poisonous exhalations
in the atmosphere could be seen rising in snakish spirals
from sewers, crawling along damp alleys, and entering
our dwellings, we should fear to walk along our streets."
The sense of smell may be so trained as to distin-
guish between smells that are simply disagreeable and
those that indicate miasma and disease. Such a cultiva-
tion of this sense would become an excellent means of
security against many forms of disease.
Tasting. — The power to distinguish the qualities of
sweetness, sourness, bitterness, and saltness we call the
sense of taste. The tongue is the principal organ of this
sense ; taste is its function ; savor is the general sensation
produced. Taste is the most easily changed of all our
senses. It will accommodate itself to almost anything;
therefore it requires, more than any other sense, the con-
stant guidance of reason. This fact should be impressed
upon the minds of the young, and they should be led to
cultivate a desire for those kinds of foods and drinks
which are known to be conducive to health, and to in-
crease a dislike for those things which, notwithstanding
they may become ]ileasant to the taste, are nevertheless
known to be injurious to health.
The senses of smell and of taste contribute a far less
amount of materials toward intellectual education than
those of seeing, hearing, and feeling. The cause of this
exists in the fact that only the faintest impressions of
odors and tastes can be recalled by the mind, when the
objects are absent to which these qualities belong.
"It is not quite certain that we can think of even tlic most
pungent tastes and smells entirely abstracted from the visible ac-
374
MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
companiments of these sensations. Cayenne pepper affects the
tongue much more vividly than its bright color does the eye; but
in attempting to think of this acrid condiment, its visible appear-
ance prevails entirely over the feeble traces left upon the mind by
the taste, so that one can mentally see it much sooner than men-
tally taste it."*
Those impressions tliat come to us throngli the senses
wliich are most nearly allied to our physical being can
be but imperfectly recalled in the absence of the objects
which produce them ; while those of a more intellectnal
character remain in the mind, and may be recalled, with-
out the presence of their several objects, with a vividness
almost equalling reality.
CLASSIFICATION OF KNOWLEDGE GAINED BY THE
SENSES.
The following tabular classification will show at a glance the
several bodily organs of sense, their respective sensations, and the
chief kinds of knowledge that are obtained through the instru-
mentality of each sense :f
Organs of Sense.
Names of Sensations.
Kinds of Knowledge Gained tlirou(;h each of the Senses.
Eye
Eur
Skin )
Fingers.. )
Muscles
Nose
Tongue
Seeing —
Hearing. .
Touch...
Feeling ..
Muscular.
Smelling.
Tasting . .
■1
(
"I
J
Light, color, lustre, form, numljer, size, sur-
face, solidity, position, distance, motion,
rest.
Sound and its qualities, speech, music, di-
rection, distance.
Softness, hardness, smoothness, roughness,
heat, cold.
Resistance, pressure, weight, toughness,
elasticity, force, size, position, distance,
direction.
Odor, fragrance, etc.
Sweetness, bitterness, saltness, savoriness,
acidity, astriugency, pungency, flavors,
etc.
* Ifofiie Education, by Isaac Tayloi-.
t See statements concerning the orfjanx of sense — seeing, hearing, feeling or
tov^hf muscular sense, smelling, tasting — iu the preceding pages.
DEVELOPING THE POWERS OF ML\D. 375
DEVELOriNG THE POWERS OF MIND.
Cultivating Perceptiveness. — This faculty, or mental
power, depends for its development and strength npon the
activity and acuteness of the several senses. Whatever
will render the perceptions througli the eye more clear,
keen, and certain, and those througli the ear more acute
and quick, Avill greatly increase the intellectual strength
of the faculty of perceptiveness. As a clear, strong, and
ileal thy sensation is indispensable to a dL\&\\x\Q,t 2)erce2)tion,
so are clear, forcible, and true jpercejjtions necessary to
accuracy and clearness of concej)tions and the successful
acquisition of correct knowledge.
A child, M'liile watching the different objects around
it, observing their forms, colors, number, and sounds, and
examining their structures, is emploj-ed in a work in
which it should be encouraged as much as possible, since
it is by such means that the powers of perception and
conception are cultivated, and valuable materials of knowl-
edge added to the mind. Therefore, to cultivate this
power oi percepti^eiiess in a right manner, means should
be devised for just such exercises as will attract the at-
tention of the perceptive powers, and lead to careful ob-
servation of properties and qualities of objects. This
may be accouiplished by placing before children objects
that interest them and excite their curiosity, and by lead-
ing them to observe more carefully, and minutely, and
systematically the shape, color, size, qualities, and uses
of common objects.
Since the elements of our knowledge of the exter-
nal world are acquired, in the first instance, through the
37G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
organs of sense, it becomes highly important tliat mncli
attention shonld be given to their training during the el-
ementary steps of education. Yet this important -work,
\vhich lies at the very threshold of all sound education, is
commonly neglected in the plans of school instruction, or
left in the hands of unskilful and inexperienced teachers.
"The organs of sense are the very gate-ways by which knowl-
edge must enter the mind ; but if tliese gate-ways are only par-
tially opened, or encumbered and blocked up, knowledge must
come through them with difficulty, and often with an aspect dis-
toi'tcd by the passage.
" I would recommend tliat the organs of sense should be care-
fully tested, during the preliminary steps of education, to ascer-
tain whether they severally discharge their functions perfectly.
Organic defects are more common than many suppose; and they
often remain undetected, even by mothers, until the period of ac-
quisitiveness has passed away. The child, at this early age, has
no means of discovering its own organic deficiency; it has alwavs
seen things in a haze, or heard sounds confusedly, and it takes
these sensations as the natural and regular effects of their several
causes ; it has no dilferent standard of comparison, for reason is
not yet sufficiently developed to effect that subtle comparison
with the sensations and perceptions of other children which
miglit lead to a consciousness of inferior perceptions and con-
ceptions.
" Many children are deemed stupid when they are simply shut
in from" the true comprehension of things. There may be a pow-
erful intellect behind a defective organization. If a child be a
little deaf, so that the words of the teacher reach the mind in
truncated and scarcely articulate sounds, there is nothing more
natural than that a child should mistake their meaning, and give
a wrong answer. The mischief in too many cases is that this
misapprehension is attributed to dulness or obstinacy, and that
the child is punished in some manner for what no intellectual
brightness or industry can remedy. Now, a child slightly deaf
can hardly profit by the instruction of the teacher without spe-
DEYELOPIXG THE TOWERS OF MIND. 377
•
cial attention, and it is, therefore, frequently regarded as dull and
sulky. It mistakes his orders, and is punished for disobedience;
it hears nothing of his affectionate tones, does not therefore re-
spond, and is set down as sullen and unlovable. In like manner
a near-sighted child or a long-sighted child is frequently reproved
for inattention, although the mind may be struggling to force its
Avay through the obstructed channels of vision. Even where the
teacher pities the child's deficiency, and forbears to punish it, it
is too frequently allowed to pass out of view as a natural defect
of the mind, and therefore irremediable. The evils that result
from compelling the mind to work without attention to these
imperfect instruments can hardly be exaggerated.
" AYherc defects are discovered they may be partly overcome,
if not entirely removed, by strengthening the association between
the defective senses and those that are not defective. The or-
gans may be trained, by judicious exercise, to a far higher degree
of accuracy and power than they possess in the uncultured state.
If all disturbing and vitiating causes be removed from the clian-
nels through which knowledge is derived, it must flow in upon
the mind in a fuller and purer stream when the source that sup-
plies it is abundant.
" Material objects and sensible events should constitute the
chief lessons of childhood. The knowledge a child acquires by
the exercise of his own senses penetrates the intellect more deep-
ly and pervades it more completely than any other; for it is the
impression which Xature herself makes upon the mind by direct
contact, wdiilst all other media of instruction are but representa-
tions, more or less imperfect, of nature. The originals and types
of all erudition must be thus stored up by direct perception, for
■without it words could have no significance.
"A fine exercise for perceptiveness, and for making distinct
perception a habit, is to take pupils to parks, gardens, groves,
workshops, manufactories, etc., and afterward to get them to
write out descriptions of all they saw and heard that came to
their knowledge through each or all the oi-gans of sense."*
* Arranged from Human Culture, by M. A. Garvey.
378 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
•
In exercises of this kind the younger pupils might be
requested to mention the names of the objects which
they saw ; to describe their form, color, size, position, and
uses ; to state what sounds were heard ; whether the at-
mosphere was fresh or unpleasant; what refreshments,
fruits, etc., were eaten ; whether the weather was warm
or cold ; whether the distance was long or short, etc. Of
course these descriptions would be very imperfect at first,
but practice would soon give the pupils such powers of
observation and description as would lead to the very
best kind of education.
POWERS OF MENTAL ACQUISITION. 379
POWERS OF MENTAL ACQUISITION.
Their Cultivation. — The various mental powers by
which the elements of knowledge are gained and ideas
formed are often called the Perceptive Faculties. The
term Powers of Mental Acquisition is here nsed to desig-
nate that class of faculties, or powers, which causes those
active operations that take place at tlie several gate-ways
of knowledge, and transmit information to the mind from
the outward world; and tliose also which aid to combine,
arrange, classify, and retain this information, so that it
may become permanent knowledge. These powers are
manifested in the mind's ability to gain a knowledge of
form, color, number, size, position, distance, order, weight,
sound, time, etc., and in the ability to compare, combine,
construct, classify, and arrange.
Phrenolo(jists use terms indicating the kinds of ideas
obtained from the principal qualities of objects to desig-
nate these several mental powers; and each of these
powers is called by them an organ of the mind, and is
assigned a definite position on the head.
Our powers of mental acquisition may be cultivated
by attentively observing likeness and unlikeness, or re-
semblances and differences, in whatever comes within
the range of the senses. It is by such an exercise of the
senses as will impart to them activity, aciiteness, accuracy,
facility, and strength that the desired cultivation must be
accomplished. Appropriate exercises of the organs of
sense will add these qualities to the several powers of the
mind ; and this addition of more activity and strength to
the mind by experience constitutes that which is under-
stood, by the terms development^ cultivation^ education.
380 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG.
As the eleineiits of thought are multiplied by observation
ideas are more and more I'eadily formed ; and thus the
more Ave learn correctly, the more easily can we acquire
additional knowledge.
OBSERVATION.
This is not a faculty of the mind, but rather a common
term used to express the results of the action of several
mental powers, prominent among which are those of per-
ceptiveness, conception, and attention. Inasmuch as in
the practical exercises of education the combined action
of these powers of mental acquisition is chiefly consid-
ered, rather than their individual qualities, I shall here
treat of them in this united capacity, under the name of
Ohservation.
The act of observing springs from the natural desire to
know. This act, in turn, reacts on that desire, stimulat-
ing it and increasing the power of observation. A child,
whose powers of mental acquisition have been properly
exercised, will acquire the hahit of ohservation, and thus
increase his ability to gain knowledge.
To observe is not merely to see, and hear, and feel, but
to see,, and hear, and feel ^vith such attention as to perceive
clearly and accurately. The more the obsef'vation is thus
employed, tlie more will be brought into the view of the
mind by sensations and perceptions.
Observation should first be employed upon those qual-
ities whicli act directly upon tlie senses; since tlie more
these are noticed, and the more ideas of them are asso-
ciated together, the better will be laid the foundation for
future knowledge. In the works of nature there is much
more to excite the observation of children, as well as
nmch more tliat can be made the subjects of pleasing in-
struction, than in the works of art; but the judicious in-
structor will not be at a loss to find numerous objects
POWERS OF MENTAL ACQUISITIOX. 381
■witliin doors, as well as without, to thus aid in the proc-
ess of mental culture, especially such as will stimulate the
mind to a careful observation of nature.
The habit of observation depends, in part, upon the
general culture of the mind, especially upon the asso-
ciated thoughts and feelings connected with external ob-
jects. The farmer's boy, with all the advantages that the
country and his employment afford him for the excite-
ment of his observation, where no attention has been
given to this kind of education, sometimes will be found
extremely deficient in the habit of careful observation.
His perceptions are dull from lack of exercise, and his
mind is scarcely awakened. Sensations often repeated,
without being perceived, cease to excite the notice of
the mind, and its noble powers lie dormant from want
of exercise.
Those who have been engaged in the business of edu-
cation well know the different degrees of accuracy and
quickness of observation that are found in children, and
also how important it is, for progress in intellectual cult-
ure, that this iiabit should be early formed. Childhood
is the period of observation, and it should then be made
a primary object in training. Observation is of essential
value in every branch of education, and in every depart-
ment of life. The successful acquisition of every science
depending upon experiment — indeed, the acquisition of
knowledge of every kind which depends upon the exer-
cise of the perceptive faculties, the cultivation of taste,
information relating to the common concerns of life, and
even the civilities of society — require a constant exercise
of this habit.
So long as the observation of a child does not rest
merely with the immediate objects of perception, but con-
tinues to connect them with that information which the
instructor communicates, or which has been derived from
382 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHL\G.
past observation, it is very usefully employed. Whatever
method is found to invigorate and render the powers of
observation more accurate sliould be frequently employed.
Till the understanding has made considerable progress,
this should be a leading object in intellectual culture;
and in every period of it the habit should be frequently
brought into use. By a proper exercise of it the mem-
ory and judgment are directly cultivated; and, while it
strengtliens and rouses the energy of the mind, it fur-
nishes it with some of the most serviceable materials for
the understanding.*
Exercises for the culture of observation in young chil-
dren should be limited to a few minutes at one time ; but
these may be gradually lengthened as the children acquire
greater command over their attention, and manifest a
greater desire for information. Many objects should, at
Urst, be oliered successively to their notice, because the
immaturity of their minds does not ])erinit a 'minute in-
vestigation of each I and attention can then be kept up
only by variety and novelty. As their powers of obser-
vation increase by exercise, the subjects for consideration
ma}'' be gradually diminished, until one may suffice for a
single lesson. When advancement has been made, they
may be required to attend more closely to a single object
for a greater length of time, and thus attain more thor-
oughness of information. But let it never be forgotten
that long confinement and protracted application to one
subject should be carefully avoided with young children.
There should be no gloom, no misery, associated with the
first intellectual exertions. Happiness is the privilege of
childhood.
It has already been shown that external objects exert
an influence upon the mind by means of the senses, and
* Principles of Education, hj Rev. L. Carpenter, LL.D., contains many of
the ideas presented in the foregoing statements.
POWERS OF MENTAL ACQUISITION. 383
tliat the influences wliieh are thus produced remain with
the mind as impressions or mental residua. " These re-
sidua manifest themselves as so many tendencies to recur-
rence^ and the larger the accumuhition of them in any
given form, the stronger that tendency becomes. Hence
it is that men who are passionately devoted to any given
brancli of knowledge iind food for observation every-
where. The botanist has an eye for a tliousand minute
plants wliicli wholly escape the observation of the ordi-
nary beholder; the entomologist has the same for insects;
the geologist for the appearance of the soil, the rocks, and
the mountains. Wherever long observation has accumu-
lated vast stores of residua, the least stimulus will cause
them to recur, and every fresh object will add something
to the entire mass of our knowledge."*
In subsequent remarks on the Culture of Lanr/uage several
suggestions will be presented which are also exceedingly appro-
priate for exercising observation.
* Morell's Mental Philosophy.
384 MAJy^UAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
POWEES OF MENTAL EEPEODUCTIOK
LANGUAGE.
In considering the operations df the mind through the
PeTceptive Faculties, the necessity for the use of hinguage
does not become apparent. Sensations, perceptions, and
conceptions may exist, impressions may be taken into the
mind, and tliese may blend into ideas of objects, all with-
out the aid of language. But we now come to a point, in
the development of the human mind, where a new ele-
ment is required ; one which will enable the mind to
embody its ideas in signs external to ourselves, so that it
can safely store them away with the certainty of finding
them again wdien wanted ; and also of making them known
to others. This element is supplied by language.
When the mind has blended its residua into simple
ideas, and tliese simple ones have in turn combined into
generalized forms, language comes in with its symbols,
bringing order and fixity to our tlioughts, and adding the
power of using them at will. A single word may sum up
the result of a vast series of individual impressions in
a generalized form. Language aids in condensing and
abbreviating our ideas. It thus acts in relation to our
thoughts the part which algebraic symbols perform in
higher mathematical calculations. As it would be impos-
sible to keep all the parts of a complicated calculation in
the mind without such symbols, so would it be beyond
the possibility of mental power to retain and use our in-
dividual ideas without beimr overwhelmed with their in-
POWERS OF MENTAL EEPRODUCTIOX. 3 85
finite multiplicity, could, we not sum them up in symbols,
and use those symbols as representatives of certain men-
tal equivalents.
Although v;q perceive the world by means of the senses,
it is iu and throu2:h the forms of lancjuao'e that we com-
lyrclieiid it. We are also brought into the general cur-
rent of human thoughts through the agency of language ;
and by means of it we are enabled to remember and com-
bine our ideas to an unlimited extent. Just as the sym-
bols of numbers in algebra give us the power of calculat-
ing the most comprehensive and distant results, so the
symbols of ideas in language enable us to combine our
thoughts and work out our reasonings to an extent other-
wise wholly unattainable.
The origin of language has long been a vexed question ;
but whether it sprung from the Divine Mind, and was
communicated to Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden ; or
whether, after the Creator had furnished man with all the
necessary organs, aiid conferred on him the physical pow-
ers of speech, it developed itself in sounds as natural sym-
bols of the mind's ideas of objects, which gradually took
the form of icords by common usage in representing the
same tilings, and tlius ultimately grew up from necessity
into a means of communication between man and man, or
not, this fact, at least, may be asserted of it — living lan-
guage is in the process of daily creation. It is neither
complete nor stationary. A dead language is a record of
some past development of a race ; a living language is tlie
record of the present thoughts and mental progress of
the nation, and of the individuals which use it.
Language furnishes the symbols of our ideas ; hence it
must change with the ideas of the people; and the ex-
tent of these changes is such that some words now sym-
bolize ideas directly opposite iu meaning to those which
they once re})rcsented.
38G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
"Man's expressive power seems to Lave consummated itself in
the phenomena of language. In this form his ■whole nature, ani-
mal, intellectual, and moral, finds effectual utterance ; and by this
instrumentality does he become pre-eminently a progressive be-
ing. Language is the channel in which the ceaseless stream of
mental action flows onward to its great results. Without this
outlet, his soul, imprisoned within itself, would stagnate, and its
wondrous powers perish from inaction.
"As the medium of communication between mind and mind,
language renders education practicable, and brings to the aid of
the individual the accumulated thoughts of all time and of all
men. Language is the peculiar and chosen province of education.
Every process of human culture is conducted through its agency ;
every result attained in liuman progress is recorded in its terms;
and in every civilized and cultivated community language is just-
ly taken as the measure of individual and social attainment."*
The importance of langnagc will be further considered
M'hen treating of Memory.
Culture in the Use of Language. — It lias already
been seen that onr ideas are symbolized by means of
words, and that langnage enables the mind to nse its
thonghts at will. It is now proper to present a few sng-
gestions indicating how facility in the use of this simplest
form of langnage may be acquired.
It is well known to those who observe infants during
their early efforts at learning words that they lirst acquire
the names of things, afterward names of acts, and of
qualities. Since their commencement with language con-
sists in learning words which are the names of external
objects, great care should be taken to secure a correct un-
derstanding of these words, and a thorough syndjolization
of ideas by them,
* From Intellectual Education, by Win. Russell, A.M., in Barnard's Journal
uf Education.
rOWERS OF MENTAL REPRODUCTION. 387
Tlie processes for aiding young children in learning
this class of words is very plain. Either the things them-
selves may be shown them, and the words properly asso-
ciated, or pictures can be employed to represent to the
mind what cannot be directly made the subject of obser-
vation.
The following extracts are from Language as a Means
of Mental Culture, by C. Marcel :
" From tlie moment that a child articulates distinctly, various
faraihar objects should be offered to his notice, and their use ex-
plained ; their names being, at the same time, clearly uttered for
him, he slioiild be made to repeat them slowly and aloud. But
he must not be forced into premature efforts to speak, lest he
should acquire habits of indistinct and defective utterance. Pre-
mature walking is not more injurious to the organs of motion
than is premature speaking to the vocal organs. In order also to
guard against fatiguing bun by a dry repetition of words, the
instructor should enliven the exercise by making, in plain lan-
guage and in a playful manner, some simple observations on the
nature and use of tlie things which he is called upon to name.
"This exercise should at first be limited to a few objects at
one time, and the same things should be repeatedly presented
to him, associated with their names, until he perfectly knows
these words. Ills vocabulary should be gradually extended by
the introduction of new objects, wliich he is made to observe
and name, such as articles of dress, food, furniture — everything
which he can hold in his hand, or which may be seen either
from the window or out-of-doors. This mode of proceeding
will soon put a young child in possession of a large number of
useful nouns.
" As the child's intellect opens and becomes capable of exam-
ining objects minutely, of distinguishing their resemblances and
differences, of noticing iha'w parts, their matter, their color, their
form, and their number, his attention should be successively di-
rected to all these poitits. Thus will his mind be early brought
388 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
in contact with the external world, and be duly exercised by as-
cribing to every object of sense its qualities and peculiar condi-
tion. He will also easily remember the words, when the ideas
they signify are once clearly apprehended. A correct acquaint-
ance with the meaning and application of words must not be
deemed a matter of little moment in the first years of life. If
we consider the disastrous results to which ignorance on these
points has led, and the inconvenience which often arises to the
best educated among us from this single source, we shall find
that time well employed which is devoted to securing a knowl-
edge of the meaning of words.
"The instructor should employ every means in his power to
guard his pupils against using obscure terms, or words without
definite ideas attached to them. To this effect objects and facts
must not be brought under their notice in very rapid succession.
The introduction of a new expression should be preceded by
the perception of the thing signified, or the illustration of the
fact which it serves to designate. They should, as it were, be
made to feel the want of the word or expression. Then it will
serve, as it ought, both to retain the impression and to recall it
as occasion requires. By this means, also, their knowledge of
words will keep pace with their ideas. Some people have more
words than ideas ; others have more ideas than words. Of these
two evils, the second is the smaller ; for we only find it an incon-
venience not to be able adequately to express all our tliouglits;
but we render ourselves ridiculous by misapplying words for
want of knowing their corresponding ideas.
" Children should be encouraged to state not only what they
know, but what they can discover ; they should indirectly be
made to feel a wish for any information they require ; they
should be allowed frequent o[)portunities of asking questions and
unfolding their own ideas ; they should be desired to account-for
facts, to state the causes of the effects which they witness."
When the minds of children have become stimnlated
to sncli a degree as to le.ad tlicm to be eager for informa-
tion, do not repress this desire for knowledge by refusing
TOWERS OF MENTAL RErRODUCTION. 389
to answer, nor allow tliem to ask all the questions them-
selves. Frequently ply them with questions which will
lead them to tell what they know of the objects that they
see, and the sounds which they hear; and cause them also
to gain ability to answer, by observing carefully those
things about which the questions relate.
Request them to lind resemblances and differences be-
tween two or more objects, and to name things which
possess in common any given property,^nd others which
have peculiar and distinct properties. Teach them to
judge by their senses alone of distances in length, in
height, or in depth ; also of the dimensions, weights, and
capacities of things. These trials of skill may be made
objects of playful competition between children.
"As one of the chief objects of these lessons is to acquire a
command of words, young inople should not he allowed to answer
in inonGsyllahles ; or, rather, questions should be put to them, so
as to require more than a mere word of assent or dissent. A
single yes, or no, often proceeds from a want of due considera-
tion of the subject. Let them be encouraged to express their
doubts freely on every subject, and the little discussions arising
therefrom will be profitable, provided the confidence and vivacity
with which they are carried on be tempered by modesty and
courtesy. They will remove that awkward diffidence which,
when not early counteracted, often proves an obstacle to success
in after-life.
" These conversations are admirably calculated for inuring the
young to mental labor, and preparing them for future exertion
in every walk of science and literature. There is not a subject
which could not, by easy transition, be entered upon, no infor-
mation which could not be introduced. Things the most famil-
iar, circumstances the most trivial, may give rise to instructive
and interesting observations, and to the highest contemplations.
Any object in the house, in the street, or in the fields, a toy —
anything which is within reach, or within view — all that nature
390 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
has produced, or art Las modified, can be made a subject of ob-
servation. The humblest as well as the noblest objects in crea-
tion may furnish inexhaustible topics of conversation, and lead,
by a contemplation of the works of the Creator, to the manifes-
tation of his infinite power, wisdom, and goodness.
" The abundance of matter in these lessons always affords the
means of makinq; instruction interesting to young people. Every
new object which is submitted to their examination becomes val-
uable, not only because it exercises the mind and gives positive
information, but also because the facts to which it leads are nec-
essarily connected in their minds with similar facts previously as-
certained. The more numerous the facts which children collect,
the more will their judgment be rectified and invigorated, and
the more clear and extensive will be their knowledge of words. .
"These lessons cultivate in young people the talent of rational
conversation, which, in ordinary education, is entirely left to
chance, althougli it is the most useful, the most social, and the
most intellectual of all talents. They impart the free, excursive
acquaintance with various learning which makes the pleasing
and instructive companion ; and if they were generally adopted,
they would not fail, in the course of time, to raise the tone of
conversation in society. The powers of language of the learners
being constantly called forth in proposing and answering ques-
tions, in stating the results of their observations, and in making
verbal or written summaries of the subjects on which they have
conversed, they will necessarily acquire great facility of expres-
sion in connection with great clearness of thought. And if they
excel in conversation, they have every prospect of success in pub-
lic speaking and writing.
" The variety of sensations and the pleasing action of the men-
tal faculties throughout these animated lessons will, by arousing
the creative powers of imagination, produce fertility of thought
and aptitude for extempore speaking. Under the influence of
the agreeable emotions arising from the contemplation of nature
and the admiration of its wonders, the power of association in
the young will retain that vividness and that freshness which are
the life-springs of eloquence. The most beautiful images of ora-
POWERS OF MENTAL KEPRODUCTION. 391
tory arc those Avhicli it borrows from the material realities of
nature. The more diversified the instruction, the greater will be
the number of ascertained facts, and the more extensive the com-
mand of language. Expressions and facts thus treasured up by
the mind will remain ready for future use."
392 MAIsUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
MEMORY.
Those mental operations by wliicli ideas are produced
have already been considered. Intimately connected with,
and following these, appear a new class of mental mani-
festations — tiiose exliibited in retaining and recalling ideas
that have been previously acquired. The powers of the
mind manifested by tliese processes are called Memory.
Although we speak of memory as a faculty of the mind,
we by no means regard it as a single mental power, but
rather as a combination of several powers, the idea of
which is represented by the term memory. The impor-
tance of this faculty is probably more generally appre-
ciated than that of any other power belonging to the
mind ; yet how we remember, and what definite plans of
instruction should be pursued to render memory the most
serviceable to as, is very imperfectly understood.
The power of memory depends upon attention, and the
order and system which we give to the arrangement of
our ideas b}'' classification and association through the aid
of language.
"No one witli any amount of attention could retain a perfect
mental representation of the stars and groups of stars in the sky,
were there no further mental activity exercised upon them than
their mere perception. But let some principle of order and ar-
rangement be brought in ; let the groups be classified, and let
the relative positions be marked by association ; let the vvliole
finnamcnt be thus mapped out upon some intelligible principle,
and there is a clew given by which the whole can be retained in
the memorj', and the separate portions at any time be recalled.
And what is true here is equally true, according to its measure,
MEMORY. 393
in every other case. Notldng tliat we see, hear, or think of ex-
ists alone. Everything stands in the midst of a system of ideas
of which it forms a part, and with which it has numberless con-
nections ; and it is by surrounding a fact with a net-work of such
ideas, all duly ordered and arranged, that we are enabled to go
back to the exact point in the system wliere we shall be able to
recover it, and bring it forth to our consciousness."*
Suppose we wish to remember a certain flower. By
means of the perceptive faculties we examine it carefully,
and locate the facts obtained in due order in some well-
arranged system of botany. Then, in subsequent efforts,
to recall those facts, as the mind passes along from the
class to the /'a??iz7y, and the genus and species, its, charac-
teristics readily recur to the memory.
It does not matter, so far as the principle of memory is
concerned, whether the links which connect our ideas in
a systematic arrangement be logical or practical, whether
natural or artificial ; the important feature is order and
system in Mending, classifying, and associating our ideas.
However, it is very desirable, in cultivating the memory,
to acquire habits of forming naturcd connections in asso-
ciating ideas, since the links thus forged are stronger and
of a w'ider use to the mind than those produced by artifi-
cial associations. Nevertheless, it is often necessary to
create artificial links between our ideas, where very few
natural ones exist. This is especially the case in the mat-
ter of dates and numbers. The whole principle of every
system of mnemonics is based npon the plan of creating
a connected series of artificial links to aid the memory,
so that, when any one part of the series is given, the mind
can pass by regular steps to any other, and thus drop
down npon any particular number or date that may be
required.
* Morcll's Mental P/nlosophi/.
17^-
394 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
"The power of memory may be represented under the figure
of a spider's web, which sends out its tlireads in all directions,
establishing connection with every part, and with the central
point of the whole. When the mind has woven such a web
around any object, it can pass along any of the threads at pleas-
ure, and reach any given point in the system. Thus, it only de-
pends on volition to keep the clew to every idea we may desire
to recall in our minds, and to bring it at any moment back into
the light of consciousness."*
This view of memory gives an idea of the great im-
portance of giving proper attention to its hiws in metliods
of instruction. It shows us that if we would fix impor-
tant truths and princi])les indelibly in the mind of a pu-
pil, so that he can recall them at will, we must establish
connections between them and other ideas already exist-
ing in his mind. First, a system of natural links should
be established, since this process develops the most im-
portant power of memory. This may be accomplished
through the blending of similar ideas into generalized
forms, and then classifying and connecting these with
kindred combinations of thought. Other connections
may be made by means of practical associations ; and still
others by logical, and even by artificial, links, so that it
^vill be impossible for the idea or truth to remain isolated
in the mind. In this way the bridges will become so nu-
merous that the mind can easily return to the truth thus
lodged there at any future period.
Instead of this thorough discipline of the powers of
memory in the school-room, and the development of these
several aids to learning, the pupil is too commonly left to
struo^gle on in vain efforts at the accumulation of knowl-
edge by merely trj^ing to "commit to memory" words
which barely represent to him so many isolated ideas.
* Morell's Metdal Fhilosophij.
MEMORY. 395
It is no wonder that neither the words nor the ideas whicli
they symbolize are forth-coming when an examination is
made to ascertain what the pupil has learned.
Importance of Language. — Notwithstanding the
memory is so generally abused by committing mere
words, it must not be inferred tliat words are of but little
importance, and may therefore be slighted. Just the re-
verse is true. Voluntary memory is based upon language.
Were our ideas not symbolized by words, or signs, we
could not recall them at will. By means of language we
can hold our ideas before us as something existing apart
from ourselves, and combine, or separate, or place them in
any relationship that we may choose. This is the high-
est order of memory. But, in cultivating the memory
through the aid of language, care must be taken to secure
the ideas wliich tlie words symbolize by means of classifi-
cation, also by associating them witli the words, and the
words with the things represented. By these processes
the mind may gain such a power as will render the mem-
ory both accurate and I'eady.
Association of ideas alone produces hut an involuntary
memory. Its peculiarity consists in the recalling of an
idea by the presence of that with which it is associated,
without the influence of the loill. The sight of an object,
a sound, an odor, a taste, or a feeling, may each recall
ideas which have been previously associated witli them ;
but the mind has not the power to recall at will, unaided
by the presence of the associated object or quality, ideas
that have not been symbolized with words or signs.
Human and Brute Memory. — Probably here is the
dividing line between human memory and hrtite memory.
The human memory deals with ideas, words, symbols,
and even abstract ideas ; and forms natural, artificial, and
logical associations with these ; and is sid)ject to the loill.
39G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
The lirute memory deals witli simple ideas and things
only, and makes none but natural associations ; and the
ideas are recalled hy the presence of the associated object,
without the iiijluence of the will. Human memory is vol-
xmtary ^ brute memory is involuntary.
Tlic animal that learns to perform a certain act on
hearing a given sound remembers the act by associating
it with the sound. A horse that has travelled a road
only once, when it again passes the same way recollects
by association the places where it stopped, and even inci-
dents that occurred. A dog that has been whipped for
some act, associates the whipping with the act dune, and
thus is prevented from repeating it through this associa-
tion.*
Man also uses this same process of memory — that of
simple association ; and, although it is a low order of de-
velopment of this faculty, yet it is of great importance
when properly exercised, and aided witli ideas symbolized
by words, and these M'ords associated with objects. By
this means, however, it becomes a very different process
from that of direct association alone, and a most valuable
aid in giving facility to memory.
Culture of Memory. — The powers of memory depend,
to a great degree, upon the cultivation of those faculties
by which knowledge is acquired. If the perceptive fac-
ulties be clear and active, the observation quick and accu-
rate, the power of attention steady and strong, and habits
of classifying and associating ideas carefully foriucd, tile
memory will iirmly hold and readily reproduce the ideas
and words which have been duly acquired. Therefore,
by cultivating the powers of mental acquisition, the foun-
dation for a retentive and ready memory will be laid.
* An interesting chapter on the "Difference between Man and the Infe-
rior Animals" may be found in Dr. Iloolicr's Unman Physiology, p. 347.
MEMORY. 397
Three Periods of Memory. — The memory assumes
somewhat different aspects during the several periods of
mental development. Because of these various condi-
tions or tendencies of memory, it is especially important
that the processes for its cultivation should correspond in
character to its several stages of mental development.
First Period. — In infancy the memory is chiefly occu-
pied with the simple materials furnished by the powers
of mental acquisition — ideas, and their symbols. This pe-
riod usually embraces about t\iQ Jirst eight or ten years of
the child's life. Since those powers of the mind which
acquire ideas are earliest developed, and most active dur-
ing the lirst period, children should then be chiefly train-
ed in the attainment and memory of ideas and facts, and
the words which represent them. But the v.'ords should
always receive an immediately subsequent consideration,
since their oflice is that of symbolizing the ideas so that
they may be readily acted upon by the memory. During
this period of acquisition the order should he, first the
idea, then the word as its sign.
Young children should not be required to memorize
words without having an idea of their meanino-. It is
true that their ideas must necessarily be less complete
than those of adults, but they should be correct as far as
they go, and such as the child's mind can grasp.
The exercise of the verbal memory merely is one of
the great errors in the methods of school-room instruc-
tion, yet no method is more common than this in those
primary schools where concert repetition is generally
employed. The mere memorizing of words is allowed
too prominent a place in the ordinar}' routine of schools,
in comparison with its small educational value. Tiie rep-
etition of words is erroneously supposed to aid in cultivat-
ing the memory ; whereas it may produce an opposite ef-
398 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
feet. Words continuously repeated, -without associatinf^
them with ideas, may become so familiar to the ear, that,
like the ticking of a clock in our room, they rarely atti'act
the attention of the mind. "When sucli is the condition,
the repetition of words becomes not only a loss of time
but a positive mental injur}-. If the habit of remember-
ing words without understanding them be once formed, it
will ever afterward prove a great obstacle to the success-
ful acquisition of knowledge.
Some teachers make the great mistake, in school exer-
cises, of treating this mental power as if it were the chief
or only instrument by which knowledge is acquired and
the mind cultivated. Acting upon this erroneous suppo-
sition, they require their pupils to "commit to memory"
delinitions, rules, formulas, problems, and demonstrations
in grammar, arithmetic, and geometry, and pages, of geog-
raphy, and chapters of history, without understanding
them, as if the repetition of these alone could work out
the development of the mind by some mysterious trans-
mutation. Memory is not afaGuUy of inental acquisition,
but rather one of preserving and reproducing the knowl-
edge which is accumulated through other faculties.
The suggestions given under the head of " Culture in
Language " in the preceding pages will afford many use-
ful hints relative to the cultivation of memory during
this first period, as language and memory are intimately
connected.
Second Period. — Dui'ing the second period, whicli ex-
tends f j'oni the age of ciyht or ten to about Jifteen, the
memory is occupied more extensively with language, as
the representative of ideas embodied in connected thoughts.
Hence, this is the period especially adapted to the acqui-
sition of the habit of "connnitting to memory" language
that expresses thoughts accurately and beautifully.
MEMORY. 399
The recollection of ideas is at all times of the greatest
importance, but the memory should he especially exercised
on words and language during the second period of mental
development. AVliile the ideas should still receive due
attention, yet greater efforts may now be made toward
forming habits of ready and accurate recollection of lan-
guage. The importance of such a habit must be apparent
to every one, when it is remembered how much more de-
sirable it is to be able to repeat the exact statements of
others instead of giving what we think were tlieir ideas.
If their words are given, every one may judge for him-
self wdiat they mean ; but if our own ideas of their mean-
ing are given instead of their words, serious misunder-
standings may be the result. Many instances have occur-
red in which grievous consecpiences have resulted from
persons relating their own apprehensions of the meaning
of others, instead of what they actually said.
During this period the work of instruction should be
so conducted as to establish habits of readily committing
to memory the thoughts of others ; uot only because at
this time the mind is especially adapted to this exercise,
but because, if neglected until the mind has attained that
maturity and fixity of habits which are acquired during
the third period, tliis habit of readiness and accuracy in
the recollection of language probably will not be acquired
at all.
Frequent "oral repetitions" aid the memory through
the sense of hearing, by the associations of successive
sounds, and may profitably be employed for this purpose
after the ideas and language both have been taught to
the children. While this is one of the processes which
may be employed in committing to memory, yd it is the
least intellectual of all, and should be used only to aid
other and more intellectual modes.
Again, the importance of learning to remember Ian-
400 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHn>:G.
guage will be understood, wlien it is considered that ideas
fade from the memory much sooner when they are not
associated with words. But it must not be inferred that
the mere memory of words, without associating them
with their ideas, will be of any educational service
whatever.
By the practice of stating clearly in words what we
wish to remember, the memory will obtain great pow-
er over our ideas. Without some such expression of
thoughts in language, our ideas flow into each other so
that they present no clearly-defined lines of thought by
M'liich we can recall them. This shows the importance
of requiring pupils to express, partly at least, in their
own words facts which we desire them to remember.
Dnring this period special attention should be given to
learning geography, history, biography ; committing to
memory declamations, poetry, quotations, and sentiments,
as a means of storing the mind with gems of thougiit
which are clothed in beautiful language, and also for con-
tributing to a ready use of good language.
Third Period. — During the third period, commencing at
about the age of fifteen, the memory begins to come more
directly under the influence of the judgment, and to deal
with reasons, principles, and laws — cause and effect. Yet
neither ideas nor w^ords should be neglected even then.
In this stage of development a few words may be em-
ployed to represent many thoughts, and a short combina-
tion of words to imply trains of reasoning.
The habit of classifying ideas, and referring particular
ones to general principles, will be found to greatly aid the
memory during this period. Indeed, the power of mem-
ory depends for its strength and facility upon properly
classifying and associating our ideas, and connecting them
with other thoughts and facts previously acquired.
MEMORY. 401
Employ as many of the senses in the acquisition of
Icnowledge as possible, for each one will convey its peculiar
form of impressions to the mind, and the blending of these
together into ideas, the symbolizing of the ideas with
words, and the classification and association of the words,
furnish a great number of links by which the knowledge
may be connected and recalled at will. If an object be
examined by sight, then by touch, and the ideas which
are thus gained of it be clearly stated in words, the mind
will receiv'e a third and new impression through the sense
of hearing. Here, then, Mall be three distinct classes of
impressions, derived by means of the senses of seeing, feel-
ing, and hearing, to unite in forming a complete idea of
the object, and also at the same time furnishing three
classes of links by wdiich it may be remembered.
In conclusion, let it be again impressed on the mind of
teachers that the processes of instruction to be pursued
should always be such that each subject and fact shall
reach the mind through the greatest number of senses
practicable ; and especially let the sense of sight he em-
ployed, toheii possible, in some form, to aid in securing
clear conceptions; and. let a statement of the facts be
clearly given in words, and associations be made with
kindred facts previously acquired ; then memory will be
strong and read}', and progress in knowledge rapid and
permanent.
402 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniNG.
ATTENTION.
Attention is a mental phenomenon indicating a most
important power of the mind. It does not, however, be-
long to that dass of powers which are usually called
faculties. Instead of acting by itself directly upon the
M'orld without through the s,enscs, its mode of influence
is by and through the other faculties. In its simplest
state it appears to be merely the notice which the mind
takes of its sensations j and frequently this attention
seems to be involuntary. This is especially the case in
very young children, when various objects are employed
to attract the notice of the mind. Lut by degrees the
mind exerts a greater and greater controlling influence
over it, until attention finally becomes a voluntary act.
In this capacity it is capable of being greatly strengthened
by cultivation.
Of itself " it originates nothing, it teaches nothing, it
puts us in possession of no new truth;" j'et it is so inti-
mately connected with the other mental powers that they
would be of little avail without it. Thus we see that its
importance can hardly be over-estimated, since the several
faculties would become so deficient in the ability of con-
tinued action without it, that even natural acuteness could
accomplish but little, and we should be destitute of those
mental characteristics and steady habits which contribute
so largely to success in life.
" The force of attention is simply the pcrceptivcness of the
mind adjusting itself perfectly to the objects it contemplates, so
that they may produce tlicir full effect upon it. Until this ad-
justment is effected, the impression of the objects must necessari-
ATTENTION. 403
ly be confused and imperfect; as, in a camera-obscura, the lens
must be placed in a proper position to receive all the light thai
comes from the landscape, or the picture will be blurred and in-
distinct. The mind cannot give its perceptive force to a multi-
tude of objects at the same time ; it can take up only one thing
■with effect at one instant."*
Attention is a bending of the mind to, or a stretcliing
of it toward, an object. It enables the mind to arrest and
detain the thoughts upon a particnlar object of interest,
excluding for the time being other mental operations.
It may become, for the moment, the sole occupation of
the mind, as when m'C have heard a sound that greatly
excites our interest, and listen for its repetition.
In order to make progress in intellectual culture, habits
of attention must he gained. It is exceedingly important
that these be acquired very early, because the utmost effi-
ciency will be given to all the other operations of the
mind by these habits, and especially to the acquisition of
clear, impressive, and serviceable ideas. Attention should
be associated with volition as early as possible; for wdien
this power has become subject to the v)ill the foundation
is laid for every degree of mental culture which circum-
stances will permit.
Culture of Attention. — The habit of attention is an
essential part of observation ; therefore it must be ac-
quired before progress in intellectual culture can be made.
If we observe a child whose attention is absorbed with
anything, w'e shall discover that sometimes it is curiosity
that leads him to notice so carefully M'hatever may then be
occupying the thoughts. At other times, or in different
children, the simple love of activity, or desire to be con-
stantly doing something, seems to be the leading motive.
Again, we may notice that the child does not appear to
* Human Culture, by Garvc}-.
404 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
be affected by either of the preceding influences, but
by sympathy. Beside these, there is another power still
which acts in producing attention ; and although it may
operate in conjunction with and tlu'ough the influence of
either of the motives already mentioned, it nevertheless
is capable of controlling all the other influences ; that
power is the loill — the executive force of the mind. Thus
may we discover what the appropriate means to be era-
ployed in cultivating- this important habit are, by observing
the various influences acting upon the minds of children
in producing attention.
Curiosity exists in every child, and it may be strongly
excited by directing the attention to proper subjects, and
imparting information in a manner suited to the child's
capacity. The teacher who adapts instruction to the in-
telligence of his pupils, and interests their feelings, and
changes the mode of presenting the object or the subject-
matter, as the interest and the ability of the children to
attend seem to indicate, will have no difficulty in securing
their attention.
Love of Activity is another motive which sustains the
attention, because activity affords pleasure to children.
Physical activity is no more natural to the child than
mental activity. That pliysical strength will not be ac-
quired by a passive condition of the bodily organs is no
more certain than that the mind can be strengthened only
by its own activity. Physical and mental action should
be combined in efforts to strengthen the attention. Va-
rious modes of doing this will be devised by the skilful
teacher. As one mode of continuing the attention upon
a given subject, the teacher might require the pupils to
represent their ideas of it by actions, or by drawings, or
in writing, and also to express them in language.
ATTENTION. 405
Sympathy is anotlier strong incentive to attention ; but
it depends for its power upon the personal influence which
the teacher has attained over the pupils throngli the exer-
cise of the moral feelings. "Where this personal ascen-
dency exists, and the children see that the teacher is in-
terested in the subject or work before them, they will
make efforts not only to imitate her, but, from the happi-
ness whicli is afforded them through sympathy, even to
anticipate her desires and actions.
"There is nothing so Hkely to excite in children with whom
we associate tastes for and attention to any subject as the exhi-
bition of those tastes and habits in ourselves. AVhere the power
of sympathy has been established, the idea that w^e are constantly
occupied about them may excite the gratitude of children, but it
will not determine the direction of their inclinations. Yet if
they see that our interest is awakened and our curiosity excited
by making some new observations, or by ascertaining some new
fact, they will soon try to anticipate our discoveries. If they ob-
serve us interested in the cultivation of flowers, in watching the
labors of the bee, or the metamorphoses of insects, or in admiring
the beauties of a butterfly, or even manifesting a livehj interest in
the exercises of the school, they will soon be delighted with the
same occupations. Example, emulation, curiosity, and sympathy
— the most natural stimulants at this age, when pleasure is so
vividly enjoyed, and the idea of utility so indistinct — act in uni-
son in leading children to habits of attention."*
How immensely important, then, it becomes that every
teacher should possess and manifest a genuine, hearty in-
terest in the work of instruction !
We cannot secure tliat quality of attention wliich is
necessary to success in education by mere outward com-
pulsion. Hence the importance of understanding the
several motives which have been previonsly described,
and their influence in the formation of habits of atten-
* Progressive Education, by Madame Nuckcr tie Saussurc.
406 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
tion ; for whenever any constraint is necessary it should
be exerted in conjunction with some one, at least, of these
other influences.
It should be the aim of the teacher to bring the pupil's
attention under the control of his will as early as possible.
As this object is to be accomplished in connection with
the habit of attention, time must be allowed for establish-
ing it.
"The first efforts exacted from the child should be gentle;
one point only should be presented at a time, that be may not be
bewildered by multiplicity. The strain on his attention should
not be long-continued; be should be relieved befoi'e be is com-
pelled to desist from fatigue. One success will make a subse-
quent one easier of attainment ; failure will make the next at-
tempt more arduous.
"All children are not drawn alike to the same subject; some
attend more readily to one, some to another. The teacher will
find it advantageous to avail himself of these mental affinities in
establishing the habit of attention in bis pupils. The child should
first be appealed to on those subjects, or on those aspects of a
subject, to which lie may incline. When be has learned atten-
tion to these, it will be less diflicult to gain it for other subjects.
The same progress in this habit must not be looked for from all
pupils, and least of all within a given time. One who is of slow
mental action may reach the mark much in arrear of bis neigh-
bor, who is of a more active temper of mind. Individual differ-
ences must be allowed for in the mental discipline of school."*
Among the obstacles to be overcome in the cultivation
of habits of attention in a class of pupils are slowness of
mental ciction, sluggis/mess of temperament^ timidity^ and
undue vivacity or volatility. Slowness of mental action
requires arousing by the stimulus of curiosity. But tliis
may not prove sufficiently powerful for the sluggish tcm-
* Principles and Practice of Common - School Ud7icatio7i, hy James Currie,
A.M., Principal of the Church of Scotland Traininj,' College, Edinbur^li.
ATTENTION. 407
pcramciit, which is in clanger of slumbering on through
all the lessons of school. Fortunately, however, it is very-
rare to lin J a child that is sluggish in everything ; and if
he sJioics interest in even one thing more than in another^
through that one avenue his mind may he reached, his sen-
siMllties awah'ened, and his attention aroused to activity.
If inattention arise from timidity, encouragement and
gentleness are the proper means to be employed in stim-
ulating the attention. The child that is inattentive from
undue vivacity, restlessness, or volatility should receive
sufficient individual attention to secure fixity of mind
upon one subject for which he shows some fondness, by
directing his attention to it again and again, and, if pos-
sible, by presenting a new feature of the subject on each
successive occasion. The pupil should also be encour-
aged to perseverance and close application fur a specified
length of time, M-hich, though quite short at first, may be
gradually increased in length as the habits of attention
become stronger.
The teacher with ready observation and good judgment
will soon discover the leading mental qualities of his pu-
pils, and for what things their preferences are shown ;
and he will seize upon those incentives whicli awaken the
greatest activity of mind as the links which shall at length
become united in fastening their attention upon other
subjects. The success of efforts for cultivating attention
may be read in the pupil's countenance, and this must be
the index to guide the teacher in his labors.
408 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING,
IMAGINATION.
Among the different phenomena of the mind's activity
we observe that it has the power of taking the elements
of tlionght, which have been gathered bj the conceptive
faculty — i. e., the concepts, or simj)le ideas — and recombin-
ing them into new images ; also of separating or individ-
nalizing ideas of objects, already in its possession, into
their distinctive peculiarities of form, color, size, taste,
etc., so that each of these may form a distinct represen-
tation of its individualized feature. These distinctive
peculiarities may be readily recorabined with analogous
features separated from other ideas, thus producing new
mental creations.
The great mass of our ideas, in the keeping of the
memory, are made up of many impressions or concep-
tions from objects ; hence, are complex in their character.
The mind has the power, not only of separating these
complex ideas into their simple elements, but of recom-
bining at will parts of the simple elements of many ideas
into new images of the mind's own ideal creation. These
powers of simple analysis and synthesis are called im-
agination.
It is a law of mind that the imagination can deal only
loith ideas of sensihle ohjectsj with concepts derived from
something seen, or heard, or felt, or tasted, or smelled. It
has nothing to do laith alstract ideas and truths, or with
feelings wholly separated from sensihle forms. "What-
ever the imagination deals with it represents in such con-
ditions, and clothes in such forms and colors, as come with-
in the cotrnizance of the senses. Ideas derived from sen-
IMAGINATION. 409
siblc objects, therefore, constitute the groundwork of its
operations.*
The imagination not only manifests itself in several
forms, but in various degrees of power, in different indi-
viduals. Tlie earliest form in which it exhibits itself is
in children playing with their toys and dolls. The little
boy builds houses, castles, bridges, and forts with his
blocks. A stick becomes his horse ; a bit of board, a boat
or a carriage. The girl arrays her doll in all the finery
and colors that her fancy can suggest ; she converses with
it, puts it asleep, feeds it, and administers imaginary' med-
icines to relieve it of fancied pains. Indeed, the simplest
objects, by trifling changes of shape and position, are
made to represent various scenes in real life, by means of
this faculty, thus throwing a sunlight of joy over child-
hood. The more the imagination of the child is brouglit
into healthful exercise, the more pleasure he will derive
from his plays.
But this active power of the mind, which is the source
of so much pleasure to the child, may also become, through
its abuse, the means of painful fears and mental suffering.
It is through the excitability of this faculty that stories
of monsters, ferocious animals, and phantoms, which are
foolishly and cruelly told to children, fill their minds Avith
terrors, and people darkness with imaginary dangers that
cause unhappiness through their whole lives.
In childhood imagination exhibits most completely its
objective form, and the ideal creations are commonly
associated with objects that are present, as may be seen
in the numerous little inventions of children ; while in
adults its operations are carried on chiefly with concepts
and words, and it is manifested in the beautiful thoughts
and ideal creations of the orator, the poet, and the artist ;
* Iliivcii's 3f:n(iil riiilosophy.
18
410 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
"wliile in its higher or philosophic forms it aids in chissify-
ing facts, and also deals with supposition, theorj", and in-
vention. It is exercised not only in the discoveries of
science, but in the plans and projects of everj^-day life.
hi the ])vocess of reasoning imagination goes heyond the
known, and forms conceptions of something in the iin-
Jcjioion, to tohich reason extends its powers of rigid ex-
amination.
Memory is the mincVs mirror, reflecting in its proper
shape and color whatever has been before it. Imagina-
tion is the mind\s kaleidoscope ; it reflects what has been
before it in a great A'ariety of new forms and combina-
tions.
Not only is the cultivation of the imagination almost
totally neglected in the usual processes of education, but
the power and facility which it gives the teacher, when
properly used in imparting instruction, is singularly over-
looked. Indeed, many consider this faculty as one which
chiefly acts in the realms of fancy and Action, and there-
fore regard it with suspicion. Such persons sometimes
remark that " our children had better be occupied with
something useful, instead of building air-castles." Pray,
what is that which is useful to children ? Activity, hab-
its of attention, a love of knowledge, a mind stored with
rich and sunny images which shall flit across it in after
years, with all their pleasant associations. All these things
are nseful to children, and the province of a cultivated
imagination is to aid in attaining them.
If we do not cultivate the imagination in such a man-
ner that the child may delight itself in forming natural
combinations and nseful mental creations, the mind will
run riot in folly and idle musings on scenes which can
never be realized.
A story is related of Palonius, the celebrated Athenian
painter, which illustrates the power of imagination. It is
BLVGINATION. 411
said that Palonins once portrayed so vividly a group of
sea-sick persons in the painting called the "Sea-sick
Family," that landsmen could not look at it without ex-
periencing nausea.
CultTire of Imagination. — That language and pictorial
illustrations are the two most available instruments in
the culture of imagination may be known from the fact
that children so readily become deeply interested in both.
When language is employed in descrij)tions of absent ob-
jects and scenes so as to form word-2nctures, it becomes
a most attractive mode of instruction, because it furnishes
opportunities for a lively exercise of the children's imag-
inations.
Simple lessons in geography afford excellent facilities
for the use of language in the cultivation of this faculty,
through descriptions of productions, occupations, climate,
scenery, and animals of different countries. Children like
to be transported in imagination to the cold scenes of the
13«elar regions, or to the land of gorgeous flowers and lux-
uriant fruits, and to have thus pictured to them the occu-
pations, manners, and costumes of the inhabitants of those
foreign countries. And when these objects are associated
with the countries to which they belong, the lesson be-
comes not only more interesting, but the instruction more
vivid and lasting, because the associations will be such
that it may be readily recalled. Biography and history
furnish materials for similar exercises,
"The pleasure which young children derive from a narration
of the simplest history is due to the liveliness of the pictures in
their minds. The images which are conjured up within them
are, perhaps, more brilliant and highly-wrought than real objects
would be. Tlierc is no need of putting your invention to the
rack in order to divert them. Take a child for the principal per-
sonage; join to it a cat, a dog, or horse — any combination, in
412 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
sliort, that makes an image ; tlicn relate your story ■with anima-
tion, and your infant auditor Avill so eagerly listen that the in-
terest you excite will amount to a passion. Every time be meets
you he will make you repeat your narrative. But beware of
changing anything; for he wishes to see the same scene again,
and the least circumstance omitted or added dissipates the illu-
sion which pleased him."*
In the use of word-pictnres in the processes of instruc-
tion the teacher should first present to the pupil a graph-
ic outline of the most striking features of the scene, or
object, before giving the minute characteristics. If the
details be presented first, the mind is apt to become con-
fused in the arrangement of these into the picture as a
whole.
In illustration of one method of using word-pictures,
let us suppose a person about to read the first twenty-
three verses of the thirteenth chapter of Matthew. He
might introduce the reading by saying :
"At the time when Jesus spake the words wliich I am
about to read, he sat in a boat by the shore of the beau-
tiful lake of Galilee, with its beach of fine white sand,
and its cool and transparent water. On the narrow, fer-
tile i^lain which rose gently above the lake were unfenced
yet cultivated fields, across M'hicli lay foot-paths and the
harder beaten road. Bej'ond were the hills lifting up
their vine-clad sides, whose tops were crowned with olive-
gardens, orange - groves, and citron and date trees. As
Jesus sat in the boat, so near the shore that he could
address the multitude standing there, he could also look
upon the beautiful scene beyond, and he may liave beheld
a farmer sowing his seed on the newly-furrowed ground.
Now listen to what Jesus said on that occasion :
"'Behold, a sower went forth to sow; and when he sowed,
* Progressive Educaimi, by Madame Necker de Saiissure.
IMAGIXATION. 413
some seeds fell by the way side, and the fowls came and devour-
ed tliem up : some fell upon stony places, where they had not
much earth : and forthwith they sprung up, because they had no
deepness of earth : and when the sun was up, they were scorch-
ed ; and because they had no root, they withered away. And
some fell among thorns ; and the thorns sprung up, and choked
them : but other fell into good ground, and brought forth fruit,
some a hundredfold, some sixtyfold, some thirtyfold.' "
Let teachers accustom themselves to drawing truthful
word-pictures, and the impressions made on the minds of
their pupils will be life-long.
As a practical mode of using pictorial illustrations in
the culture of imagination, take some appropriate picture
and describe it while holding its back toward the pupils ;
then show it to them, and invite them to poini out all
the features that were mentioned in the description. Af-
terward request them to point out the prominent feat-
ures, and describe the picture while looking at it. Sub-
sequently require them to describe the same picture
from memory.
Playthings of tlie child's own arrangement or invention
afFord him more amusement than the most costly to\'s.
No better playthings can be given to a boy from two to
four years of age tlian a box of inch cubes, or one of
brick-shaped blocks, each about four inches long, two
wide, and one inch in thickness. AVith these cubes, or
the brick-blocks, he can exercise his imagination, and ac-
quire much useful skill, by arranging them in a great va-
riety of forms and positions to represent his own ideal
creations.
It is the exercise of the faculty of imagination, cliiefly,
which causes children to be so fond of playing with wa-
ter, mud, or sand, because with these substances they can
construct representations of such objects as are used by
men and women in the avocations of life.
41 -i MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
" The entire existence of little children is dramatic. Their life
is a pleasing dream, prolonged and supported by design. Inces-
santly inventing, adorning, and acting scenes, their days pass away
in fiction ; and, but for their puerility, they would be poets. In
truth, all that poets have sung, all that mythology has consecrated,
all that superstition has fancied of the life which is spread through-
out Nature's works, is found in lively traits — sometimes burlesque,
indeed — in early childhood."*
When the imagination has become excited through
fears awakened by cruel suggestions and bugbear sto-
ries, the most careful management is necessary to re-
move the evil. It is of little nse to combat dii'ectly the
cliimeras of the imagination. Keasoning will prove of lit-
tle utility in removing these imaginary fears ; for although
we may succeed in convincing the child that there is no
real danger, yet tlie imagination is so strong that the vi-
sion of the snpposed danger will still retain its influence.
Better plans for removing such fear are to leave the pre-
dominant thought to be forgotten, to expel the sensation
by a stronger one, to divert the attention, to interest and
cultivate the moral and physical nature. A most direct
remedy is to substitute, by the presence of the real object
in the child's mind, the image of the formidable object
in place of the imaginary creation. What we really see,
although it be repulsive or disagreeable, produces a tran-
quillizing effect upon the senses, and thus removes fears.
When this course is expedient, it is very efficacious ; but
it should be pursued with judgment.
Tables, riddles, conundrums, pnzzles, etc., furnish means
for exercising this faculty. What child does not like to
listen to good fables over and over again, such as " The
Fox and the Grapes," " The Dog and his Shadow," " Tlie
Dog and the Manger," "The Shepherd-boy and the
Wolf," or " The Fox and the Crow ?" Such fables and
* Progressive Bducaiion, by Madame Neckcr de Saiissurc.
IMAGINATION. 415
tales as contain instruction, and impart moral truths,
should be selected and related to children in whom we
desire to cultivate imagination. This will be found a
favorable mode of imparting to children practical wis-
dom when other means fail.
The exercise of tliis faculty in its higher forms is intimately
connected with taste^ and with that philosophical process of the
mind's operations which leads to conceptions of general truths,
and with generalizations. In the department of taste imagina-
tion is cultivated by "the study of the ideal creations of others,
especially of those highly gifted minds which have adorned and
enriched their age with productions of rarest value — poetry, paint-
ing, sculpture, or architecture — which bear the stamp and seal of
immortality. With these, in whatever department of letters or
art — in poetry, oratory, music, painting, sculpture, architecture —
Avhatcver is grand and lofty, and full of inspiration, whatever is
beautiful and pleasing, whatever is of choicest worth and excel-
lence in its own proper sphere ; with these, I repeat, let him be-
come familiar who seeks to cultivate the faculty of the ideal.
Every work of the imagination appeals to the imagination of the
observer, and thus develops the faculty which it calls into exer-
cise. No one can be familiar with the creations of Shakspeare
and Milton, of Mozart and Beethoven, of Raphael and Michael
Angelo, and not catch something of their inspiration."*
Tlie study of Nature in her various moods of sublimity,
grandeur, and beaut}^ is the most successful mode of
developing the highest powers of this faculty. The sci-
ence of astronomy furnishes an excellent means of exer-
cising the imagination in a manner tliat will strengthen
the intellectual and moral powers, and prevent the devel-
opment of those fictitious fancies which, while they can
never be realized, tend to weaken these powers, and to
create a disli4ce for science and the realities of life.
* Haven's Mental Philosophy.
416 MA^^UAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
POWEES OF HUMAN EEASON".
COMPAKISON.
"There is a law of mind, operating from tlie very earliest period of our
conscious being, by virtue of wliicli identical and similar residua blend to-
gether, so that one single mental image is formed out of the whole."*
In observing a number of objects of the same class we
at once become Conscious of general similcwitles which
run through the whole ; and we also observe, at the same
time, a great variety of dissimilarities between one indi-
vidual and another. Now, each individual object leaves
its own special mental residuum in the mind, so that we
unconsciously accumulate a large number of impressions
which have a family likeness. All these residua, ^c*/*;??'
as they i^eseinhle each other, blend together ; while the re-
maining elements in tlie residua, which are unlike, are
left free to combine with any other impressions with
which they may have any special affinity. Thus, in the
development of concepts there is a latent process of clas-
sification always going on.
In observing the operations of this law it is found that,
in proportion to the greater similarity of the objects,
the tendency in the corresponding residua to blend to-
gether will be greater. It is because of the existence of
this mental law tljat we find it so difficult to count any
number of precisely similar objects, as a flock of sheep, a
number of marbles, or a row of fence-pickets. Tlie per-
ception of each individual thing is clear enoftgh, but the
* Morell's Mental Philosophy.
POV,'ERS OF nUMAX REASON. 417
residuum it leaves in the mind so instantl}'' blends with
tlie residuum of the others that we cannot keep them
apart ; lience confusion in our reckoning is the result.
Xow, not only do like residua blend together in the
formation of concepts, or simple ideas, but simple ideas
also combine into generalized ideas, as has already been
described in treating of the formation of ideas.'"
In these earliest processes of the mind's operations we
observe the development of its recognition of likeness and
^inllkeness of tilings, and the law by which classification
and generalization exist. From the continued exercise
of these processes of classification there at length grows
np the habit of a more general comparison of objects, and
of ideas, for the discovery of their resemblances and dif-
ferences. Here, then, we see the mode of development,
and the nature of that mental operation wdiich is com-
monly known as Comparison. In its operations during
infancy^ comparison considers the resemblances of only two
ohjects,l)oth of which are present; subsequently it consid-
ers the present with the remembered absent. It is the
child's first step toward judgment, and forms a part of
the process of reasoning. Comi^arison deals with two
opposite qualities — resemblance and difference. The
mind first takes cognizance of resemblances, then of dif-
ferences ; therefore in the processes of early education
this order should be observed.
Culture of Comparison. — AVe have already seen that
the law of similarity^ on which comparison is fomided,
exists in the mind before any educational processes can
be applied to shape it ; yet habits of ready and accurate
discrimination of resemblances and differences are to a
great extent the result of education. These habits of
comparison may be acquired by means of appropriate ex-
* See pajje 3G0, " How Ideas are Formed."
IS*
418 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
erciscs. In supplying the necessary means for this pur-
pose the familiar objects of nature should first claim our
attention, and their physical parts and properties be con-
sidered earlier than their abstract qualities.
" The child's earliest perceptions being those of color,
form, size, and motion, given him by sight, he should be
led to notice the resemblance of one object to another,
whole to whole, in respect to tliese perceptions." Thus,
the dog is set beside the cat, the sheep beside the goat,
the horse beside the ox, the cat with the lion, the hen
with the turkey, the duck vj'iili the goose, the apple with
the orange, the rose with the pink, the grape with the
plum ; while comparisons are made in respect to form,
color, size, manner of motion, etc. The covering of the
sheep may be compared with that of the dog, the over-
lapping feathers of birds with the shingles or tiles on a
roof.
Subsequently this process of comparison may be ex-
tended to objects of which one is absent and inaccessible;
thus, it becomes the means of enabling the imagination
to form conceptions of things beyond the range of our
senses. In this manner the formation of the claw of the
tiger may be understood from comparison with that of
the cat ; the contour and characteristics of a wolf from
those of a dog ; and, by resemblances and differences com-
bined, the beak and claws of the hawk or eagle may be
conceived from those of the hen or the canary ; the cover-
ing of the Brazil-nut from the common walnut. Indeed,
the field is boundless, and the subjects are numberless,
for the exercise of comparison and the acquisition of
knowledge through its aid.
" Somewhat later, more abstruse conceptions of the qualities
of bodies revealed by sight, and those ■which touch makes known,
become the subjects of comparison, as when tlie transparency of
POWEKS OF HUJIAN REASON. 419
glass suggests tlie transparency of the atmosphere or of water ;
or the porosity of a sponge is exhibited in different degrees, as
in sugar and wood ; or the elasticity of a steel-spring is found to
exist in india-rubber and in air. These resemblances, being such
as would never occur to the child himself, require to be verified
by observation, and the more unexpected they are to him, the
more valuable are they as a process of education, because more
stimulating to the senses.
" Besides natural objects, and their parts and qualities, there is
another department of the child's instruction very fertile in ma-
terials for the exercise of comparison, viz., form. Thus the line,
singly and in its various combinations, may be made to figure in
his mind as the pencil, pen, cross, star, arrow, letters of the al-
phabet ; the rectilineal figures, as table, box, window-frame, door,
book, or slate ; the curved figures, as plate, hoop, bell, egg, or cup ;
and the geometrical solids which the teacher submits to his ob-
servation become common things in his eyes, when exemplified,
as orange, turnip, beet, ball, brick, pillar, arch, turret, church-
spire, or box.
"The idea of likeness involves that of its opposite, unlikeness.
Comparison is equally cultivated by being directed to both.
Wherever we can institute comparison between objects of any
kind, we can institute contrast, and the teacher Avill often find
contrast the more impressive, and the more effective for carrying
out the educational maxim — ' Teach the unknoivn by the knoivn.''
But to render this maxim valuable the mode of procedure must
be the child's, and not merely that of the teacher. It is for the
teacher so to present the objects of comparison that the resem-
blance or contrast which he aims at eliciting shall spring up in
the child's mind in response to his hints, suggestions, and ques-
tions."*
" When the child's perceptive faculties have been exercised on
the most apparent properties of things, and when he has learned
to confine and prolong Lis attention, he should be required to ex-
amine objects more minutely, to compare them under different
* Currie's Principles ayid Practice of Education.
420 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
points of view, and to state in what particular two or more re-
semble or differ. These exercises would prove highly interesting
to young people, who delight in discovering differences in simi-
lar things, and resemblances between different things. He who
is best able to compare will know best how to analyze, to ab-
stract, to generalize, to classify, to judge — in one word, to reason.
"As young persons collect facts, they must be frequently exer-
cised in classifying them with reference to their resemblance or
difference. If any number of objects is considered with regard
to one or several points of resemblance, the collection constitutes
a class named genus ; subdivisions of these into classes of objects
having properties in common and distinct from the rest, form as
many species; finally, when, on a closer examination, single ob-
jects are considered in reference to properties which are peculiar
to them, they are denominated individuals. The pupil should be
shown that the terms f/enus and species are relative. For exam-
ple, bird is a genus; eagle is a species. Affection is a genus, while
filial love is a species. The distinction of generic and specific
terms applies to a very extensive range of mental conceptions.
" The complex op)eration of classify ing things according to their
p)oints of resemblance, and of distinguishing them hy their points
of dissimilarity, is one of the highest exercises of our reason and
the most admirable effect of analysis. It will develop in a child
the powers of observation, abstraction, and generalization, and
will prepare him for the study of the natural and experimental
sciences, by giving him habits of inductive reasoning — a principle
on which these sciences rest. Com2xtrison and classification are
the complements of observation, and the groundwork of inductive
philoso2)hy, and of all scientific investigation.''^*
Analogy. — By extending comparison to the consider-
ation of resemblances in relations it assumes a form com-
monly known as analogy. It now involves four terms in
its comparisons, and its exercise belongs to a later devel-
opment of the mind than simple comparison of objects
and qualities, in which only two terms are considered.
* Marcel's Langiiaye and 3Ieiital Culture.
POWERS OF HUMAN REASOX. 421
In analogy the relation of the trunk to the tree is com-
pared witli the relation of the body to the man ; the cir-
cnhition of the sap in the tree, to the circulation of blood
in the animal ; the sting of a bee and the prickles of the
hedge-hog, as a means of defence.
In combination with language and imagination, compar-
ison leads to the formation of similies, emblems, parables,
proverbs, and figurative terms. Some of these will be
readily recognized in the "laughing brook," the "blush-
ing morn," the " whisper of the breeze," and similar
phrases.
Judgment. — During the exercises of comparison and
classification the mind is constantly forming decisions as
to the likeness and unlikeness, resemblances and differ-
ences of objects and qualities ; and these decisions are
called judgments. They are the simple results of com,'
2?arison^ and constitute an important part of the process,
of classification. These simple judgments, accumulating
by means of observation and comparison, combine to
make up our certain and valuable knowledge of things.
By this exercise of considering various things with ref-
erence to each otlier there is laid a foundation for accura-
cy in discrimination and soundness of judgment, which
forms that character of mind known as a good under-
standing. The power of comparison, distinguishing and
judging between two or more things, is generally implied
by the term " understanding." To understand a thing
is to know its proper connections in nature and art, and
to see it in combination with everything else of a cognate
character. It will, therefore, readily be perceived that
accuracy of judgment must depend upon habits of correct
observation. Here we see again the great importance of
thoroughly training the Powers of Mental Acquisition ;
for, unless these be properly cultivated, much of the labor
422 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
bestowed upon the other powers of the mind will be in
vain, and it will be impossible to attain accuracy in rea-
soning.
There is, however, that higher form of mental activity,
which determines the result of reasoning, that is called
judgment. This term is also applied to the final decis-
ions of the mind, attained through the process of reason-
ing. The mental activity, known as judgment and its
processes, is so intimately connected with the operations
of other mental powers, and their special educational in-
fluences are so inseparable, that it will not be profitable
to dwell longer on the separate consideration of judgment
in this connection.
REASOX. 423
REASON".
The exercise of comparison and judgment^ in the dis-
criminating processes of classification, gives definiteness
and exactness to tlie liabits of observation, and thus tends
to produce certainty in our knowledge. But there ap-
pears to be a still higher mental power, -which enables
the mind to search deeply and scrutinize closglj even tlie
obscure and uncertain or doubtful in our mental accumu-
lations, till everything is brought into light, the false sep-
arated from the true, and our conscious knowledge ren-
dered positive. This highest mental power is called rea-
son. This power of the mind differs from all others in
its capacity for dealing with a multiplicity of objects and
ideas at once, and drawing general results out of a whole.
Reasoning is a mental process by which unknown truths
are determined, or learned, by means of those that are
known. We see some things to be true in consequence
of having seen some other things to be true. This mode
of seeing is called reasoning. If we observe what the
mind does — what its successive acts are when it sees a
thing to be true because it has previously seen another
thing to be true — we shall observe the process of reason-
ing.*
For an illustration : suppose I hear a piano in a house
as 1 pass along the street. I hear its sounds. I remem-
ber that I have heard similar sounds, and that they were
caused by a piano. I infer immediately that there is a
piano in the house. The sounds, and the remembrance
* Aldcn's Elements of Intellectual Philosophy.
421 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
of similar sounds and their causes, are the hiown truths;
that there is a piano in the house which I am passing is
the unknown truth which I determine to be true from
the known.
Again, suppose I observe dihipidated walls and the
charred remains of timber. I infer that a building lias
been destroyed by fire. The facts perceived and I'noion
are the crumbling walls and charred remains, and the rec-
ollection of the effects of fires previously known. From
these facts I infer that the present ruins were caused by
fire — thus determining the unknown from the known.
•
Mathematical reasoning is a process by which the mind
determines unknown mathematical truths by means of
those that are known. Mathematical reasoning places
no reliance on testimony ; all the terms are exactly de-
fined and limited. There is no possible ground of mis-
apprehension. Each truth is proved beyond all possible
question, or it is not proved at all. No possible room ex-
ists for a doubt in the final result, which is as certain as
the first. If the operation be accurate, the result of a
problem requiring a million of figures is as certain as
that of one requiring but two.
Moral reasoning deals with things in the concrete. It
l^laces reliance upon testimony. Its proofs have respect
to matters and events as they actually are or have been.
To be a good reasoner a person must possess an accu-
rate ^erceiAion of the relations of ihbujs ; also a habit of
fixed and patient attention, and a mind well stored loith
]v7ioioledge.
In exercising our reason we hold many threads of ideas,
and bring them all into one centre, so as to determine the
true result. Reason draws every mental and bodily pow-
er into its service in directinir the course of human action.
REASON. 425
It governs the motives and thoughts and actions of man,
and prompts him to provide for his own sustenance and
happiness.
Reason gives rise to hiw, government, jurisprudence,
and social science, when applied to the necessities and
wants of society, in determining and adjusting the rela-
tions of property and the actions of men in reference to
each other. In science we see the human reason in its
more mature form investigating nature, prying into its
elements, interpreting its laws, and then making all sub-
servient to the wants of maid-zind.
"We are not only surrounded by elements of nature, wliich
we adapt to our personal wants and conveniences, but by forms
of infinite beauty, by a universe which displays the most elaborate
care and design, by a world, too, of human action ; and to these
objective facts and realities the mind has respondent thoughts,
emotions, sympathies, and desires. Reason, then, has once more
to resume its task, and show us liow to adapt our life — the higher
life of the soul — to this environment of Divine beneficence and
human brothwliood. Morality and religion are essential to the
full bloom of the human mind and the highest form of society ;
and it is the reason which again in this highest sense helps to
adjust the relations between the actions and habits of man, and
the moral universe in the midst of which he is placed."*
The extent to which reason is developed in any given
case is measured by the number and the remoteness of tlie
relations which can be grasped at one single view, or the
number of ideas that can be dealt with at once, in deter-
mining a result. The savage can show great acuteness
and cunning in dealing Avith a few simple relations, but
beyond this capability he becomes completely baffled.
The Indian can plan a secret attack upon his enemy; but
the attempt to grasp the strategical relations of a modern
* Morell's Mental Philosophrj.
42G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG.
battle lies entirely beyond his reach. Thus it is in every
case, the remoteness of the means toward securing any
given end is an almost perfect measure of the power of
the reason which grasps and applies them.
Reason may justly be called the truth-organ^ of the
human mind, the guide and director of human activity.
Truth is but a just apprehension of the relations of things
in this universe to which we belong. It is by this facul-
ty that these relations, in all their complexity, can be
known or apprehended, and the great law of intelligence
exhibited in its highest form.
The ordinary investigator is satisfied when he can find
an answer to the question, What is it f lie is contented
when told that it is so and so. But it is different Avith
the philosopher. Wheii this question is answered, he has
another to put : How is it so and so? He is not satisfied
with knowing the what, he must also know the how.
That power of the mind which furnishes the answer to
the question. How is it ? is called reason. It is the most
far-ranging and the loftiest of all our intellectual powers.
It enables us, from visible effects, to go back to the causes
of these effects, into a distant past ; and from causes now
in operation to anticipate the effects of these causes in a
distant future.f
Cultivation of Reason. — As soon as the child begins
to observe and to think, his first steps toward reasoning
are taken. But in this early stage the process of the
mind is that of observing resemblances, and dealing only
Avith present objects and present acts. The reaso7iing
of children consists chiefly in making simple deductions
or inferences from jpalpahle facts, or from the comparison
of two objects, one or both being present.
In this concrete form reason is exercised by children
* Morcll. t McCosh's Typical Forms.
REASOX. 427
ivovcijive to ten years of age. Tliey will make their in-
ferences from sounds, language, and actions, as well as
from objects. Tliej can readily perceive the resem-
blances between two or three objects, but their minds
can hardly grasp anything beyond the simplest relations,
at this period. Hence care should he taken hy the teacher'
not to overwhelm the young pupils, while giving object-
lessons, ivith numerous comparisons and soientijic classifi-
cations, lest the terms or words employed remain but lit-
tle more than unmeaning sounds to their minds. During
the period preceding the age of ten years, the exercises
for the cultivation of the child's mind must deal with
realities, objects, actions, qualities, and simple relations ;
not with the abstract, or those thoughts that require ma-
ture judgment and the higher powers of reason to com-
prehend. The methods of teaching should employ chiefly
the perceptive and observing powers of the mind.
Remarks under the head of Comparison will furnish
suggestions for developing these simple powers of reason
during childhood.
Reasoning in its higher forms investigates the relations
of abstract ideas, dealing with facts established by experi-
ence and observation. The reflective faculties are chiefly
active in its operations. The period from twelve to fif-
teen years of age usually is the appropriate time for he-
ginning to train the power of reason in its higher forms.
Then the formation of habits of methodic thinking and
systematic comparisons should be commenced. What-
ever will add clearness, directness, conciseness, and a
natural order to the habits of thinking and speaking, of
readily perceiving and inferring all the relations of a
subject, and deriving therefrom the proper conclusions,
M'iil strengthen the power of reasoning. One cannot get
skill in reasoning by studying rules which pretend to
teach it.
428 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
" Men Icara to reason by reasoning, and not by the study of
treatises on logic. '^' '^' * Logic, as taught in the schools, does not
profess to teach one how to reason. It professes to teach him
how to cast an argument into a syllogistic form, in order that its
soundness or unsoundness may appear from the form of the syl-
logism, though the argument were not understood. * * * If rea-
soning consists in perceiving certain relations existing between
ti'uths, the power of cognizing relations should be exercised in
preference to the practice of formal rules.
" We learn to reason by reasoning, just as we learn to remem-
ber by remembering. Let the student select the best specimens
of reasoning to be found in the language. Let him make those
specimens the subject of a careful study. Let him note how
such men as Marshall and AVebstcr and other great reasoners
reasoned, and let him go and do likewise.
" The study of mathematics may form liabits favorable to
moral reasoning, but cannot make a moral reasoner; that is, can-
not make one skilful in reasoning on subjects that are not mathe-
matical. The exclusive devotion of the mind for a long time
to mathematical reasonmg has a tendency to unfit one for moral
reasoning. The mind forms the habit of demanding certainty at
every step, and acquires no skill in weighing probabilities, and
evolving the truth from conflicting evidences. To estimate prob-
abilities, and to reconcile apparent contradictions, and to detect
tendencies, are processes which the reasoner on practical matters
has occasion to perform daily; and lie who acquires skill in these
processes is better fitted for practical life than he who has skill in
the use of the calculus."*
Matliematics liave too generally been considered tlic
most important branch of instruction for cultivating the
reasoning power of tlie mind. On this subject Sir AVil-
liani Hamilton says that —
" Mathematics are not adapted to produce the effect so com-
monly ascribed to them, since they treat of nothing but quantity;
* Aldcn's Elements of Intellectual Philosophy.
REASON. 429
wlicreas, in tlie other sciences, and in the affairs of life, wo are re-
quired to deal with the relations- of facts in connection with phi-
losophy, natural history, and language."
The following, from " Notes to Locke's Conduct of the
Understanding^'' by Thomas Fowler, of Oxford Univer-
sity, is important testimony in relation to the matter of
the cultivation of reason :
" To cultivate habits of precise reasoning, and to train the mind
to deal with abstract ideas and principles, no discipline can be
better than that of mathematics. But a mind trained exclusively
on mathematics would be ill-equipped to deal with the various
and complicated problems of life and science. An early training
in mathematical reasoning should always be supplemented, as ed-
ucation proceeds, by forming a habit of analyzing and estimating
the value of evidence in subjects which admit not only of certain,
but of more or less probable, conclusions, such as language, law,
the moral and physical sciences, history, and the affairs of ordi-
nary life."
430 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniNG.
POWEES OF MOKAL ACTIOK
THE FEELINGS, SENTIMENTS, AND EMOTIONS.
Among the numerous acts performed by the human
mind, of which every one is conscious, are those which
are known by the terms j>erceiviug, re/noribo'ing, ima(/in-
ing, and reasoning. These operations of the mind all be-
long to the intellectual jwwers. There is also another
class of actions by the human mind, equally apparent to
the consciousness of ev^ery one, which are known as the
feelmgs, and include the sentiments of benevolence, venera-
tion, justice, self -esteem I also the emotions of love, affection,
hojpe,fear, sorrow, hajypiness, desire, anger, etc. It is just
as much the nature of the human mind to exercise the
feelings as it is to exercise the intellectual powers.
The mind has power to perceive right and wrong, love,
hatred, desire, hope, sorrow, and justice, as well as form,
number, size, weight, color, sound, odors, and flavors. The
mind's acts in the former sphere are called its moral
2)0wers', its acts in the latter sphere are known as its in-
tellectual jpoioers. When the mind attends to the knowl-
edge of things and truths in physical science, its intel-
lectual powers are exercised ; when it attends to the
knowledge of the actions of men, perceiving the right
and wrong in them — truth and error — its moral powers
are exercised.
Conscience is the name generally applied to the
mind's power of distinguishing good from evil, right
POWERS OF MORAL ACTION. 431
from ■wrong, in linman actions. But this idea is not en-
tirely satisfactory, as it appears to give too much of an
intellectual character to this power, instead of placing it
as a moral light that leads iis to see our motives of moral
action^ and tell us whether these motives are right or
lorong.
Conscience is to the moral sphere what consciousness
is to the intellectual sphere. One cognizes truth in the
moral Avorld, the other truth in the physical world. Con-
science, however, is not so much a distinct faculty as it is
the condition of all the moral powers.
It is through the exercise of the moral powers that
man recognizes his relation and duties to God — love, rev-
erence, and obedience — and accepts the Divine command,
" Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart,
and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all
thy strength."
It is through the exercise of these powers that man
recognizes his relation and duties to his neighbor — benev-
olence, justice, and sincerity — and the great principles for
moral action taught in " Thou shalt love thy neighbor as
thyself," and " Whatsoever ye would that men should do
to you, do ye even so to them."
Language is largely composed of words which symbol-
ize ideas that belono; to the feelino*s and emotions. It is
the business of moral education to strengthen the powers
of perceiving truths and duties. Moral education is that
training which leads to the permanent possession of right
feelings, and to the performance of right actions.
TRAINING THE MORAL POWERS.
" Train up a child in the way he should go," is a com-
mand of supreme authority. In obeying this, both parent
and teacher will cultivate the moral powers of children
that come under their instruction. This work should be
432 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
commenced very early, because the emotions are active
and tender in childhood. The fii'st six years embrace the
most critical and important period in moral training; and
the moral impressions received during the first ten years
usually detei-inine the future moral character. The dis-
position and character may not be completely formed dur-
ing this period, but its inclinations and tendencies will have
become so strong that it would require more than four-
fold the power to change them that it took to form them.
Means of Training the Feelings. — " The chief means of train-
ing the feelings consists in drawing them out into action; we may
say, the only means. A feeling apart from its corresponding ac-
tivity is a mere sentiment; a thing of which onr neighbors are
not conscious, which docs nothing, and which practically is noth-
ing. Activity is natural to the cliild in its moral character, just
as wc have seen it to be in its ph3'sical and mental. A child, in
the presence of kindness and affection, exhibits a sympathy with
it, or a return of it by something which it does. In the presence
of pain, it tries its little to relieve it. We must therefore provide
him with the means of acting out right feelings; and we must
weaken by non-activity those of an opposite character.
" If we would cultivate kindness in a child let us show kind-
ness in our deeds, and he will return kind deeds ; if reverence, let
us liabitually show the example of reverence, and he will conform ;
if justice, honesty, truthfulness, we must arrange the little society
of the child so that in the daily intercourse he will have opportu-
nities of seeing and of exemplifying them.
" If kindness, reverence, justice, honesty, and truthfulness be
nerve acted before the child, then, however mucli these may be
spoken about, he will have no sense of their obligation. It is
only as acts that tlie child can know them ; in themselves they
are abstract terms of which he can form no conception. So, if
we wish to root out improper feelings, or to prevent their growth,
such as vanity or the love of praise, rivalry or the love of supe-
riority, we must withhold the praise which ministers to these
feelings. The law of exercise is of universal application in
POWERS OF MORAL ACTION. 433
education ; and it needs to be specially insisted on in moral
traininj^.
" In view of this law the school offers a very wide field for
moral training. There is great room for activity of all sorts.
The children are in constant contact with their superiors in the
person of the teacher; with their equals in the persons of their
comrades ; they are under direct superintendence in the school-
room, and allowed greater freedom on the play-ground. In the
different occupations and the separate interests of the little socie-
ty, all the feelings which relate to their neighbors have room to
show themselves; while the feelings that relate to things — hon-
esty, order, cleanliness, and diligence — are also exercised.
" Provided the law of exercise be observed, provided the chil-
dren be accustomed to associate immediate action with the feel-
ings called np by the scenes which occur daily amongst them-
selves, the teacher may avail herself of the power which imagina-
tion gives her of multiplying indefinitely, both in number and in
character, these scenes of represented feeling. The moral use of
the imagination is to enable us to enter into the feelings of oth-
ers by drawing a mental picture of their circumstances. At a
scene of virtue or heroism a child will feel pleasure, and manifest
approval ; at a scene of suffering or wickedness he will feel pain,
aiid manifest disapproval. His moral instruction goes on in
great part through the medium of this exercise of imagination ;
for it leaves him images of good which recur to him, and with
which he may compare himself. At the same time wc must be-
ware of making this pass for the whole of his moral training.
Moral action must not be superseded by this.
" Moral training must be viewed as a positive, not as a negative
process. A system of j)7-ohibitio7is tvill not insjni'e one good im-
jmlse. This manner of educating, though very common, because
very easy, is in every way deficient. In the first place, we have
not the means of repressing faults in the child so easily as of en-
couraging good dispofiitions. These prohibitions arc an insuffi-
cient barrier in the hour of trial ; too often they are swept away
at the approach of evil. They can never meet the exigencies of
the case. Wc may have prohibitions for nvaiay wrong actions,
19
434 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
but wc cannot for all. But a positive principle is far-rcaclung
in its influence. 07ie good disjiosition imbibed will strangle ten
forms of vice. A child may annoy bis companion in many ways;
be may strike him, or call bira names, or keep otbers from asso-
ciating with bim, or tell talcs of bim, or ridicule bim. The pos-
session of a controlling feeling of kindness, of a permanent desire
of doing to others as you would have otbers do to you, would
banish all of these annoyances. We must exhibit what is right
for imitation, rather than what is wrong for warning. Vice
should be checked ; but it is best done on its actual occurrence.
The frequent portraying of it has a bad effect on the tone of the
feelings, often suggesting the consciousness of vices to which the
mind has hitherto been a stranger.
" Before asking children to show generosity we should have
previously associated pleasure in their minds with this manner
of acting, in which case their desires will correspond with our
wish. Great care should be taken neither to 23lace nor leave temp-
tations in the loay of children, as is sometimes done in the course
of instruction, by putting questions in such a way that the child
must admit itself guilty of a fault, or of some negligence, or
utter an untruth. Few can withstand this kind of temptation."
TiTithfulness. — " Of the duties that flow from our social rela-
tions, truthfulness claims to be first mentioned ; that sincerity by
which men know that what we profess to think, say, or do, is
what we really think, say, or do. Truthfulness, as a steadtj i^Tin-
cijfle, does 7iot seem to be of spontaneous growth in the child. He
docs not of himself sec the necessity of giving exact representa-
tions of the past and future for their own sakes. Living in the
present, he sees nothing in the facts which come before him that
should prevent him from coloring them after his own fancy.
" Truthfulness is the virtue of widest application ; fortunately,
it is also that for the cultivation of which there is the most con-
stant opportunity, as the child comes in contact with his own
comrades, his teacher, and parents. To train a child in habits of
truthfulness, be truthful toith him; say nothing that is not liter-
ally true ; make no exaggerations ; leave no promises unfulfilled;
TOWERS OF MORAL ACTIOX. 435
remember all tbe expectations that you may have led him to en-
tertain ; remember that even a single instance of untruth in your-
self may unsettle bis perception of tbe obligation of truthfulness.
Enforce the performance of every promise ; reward his confes-
sions, as far as you may, with forgiveness.
"Treat all with confidence till you have detected one deceiving
you, and then restore not that one to your confidence till in the
eyes of all of bis associates he has deserved it. Show the pain
and surprise felt at a breach of trust. Treat all the little ones
habitually with kindness and frankness, and thus banish fear, the
2)arent of many lies. Lead them not into temptation. In speak-
ing of honesty, do not ask a child before a class whether be has
ever taken anything from bis father or mother, or brother or sis-
ter, without their approval or consent. In treating of kindness, do
not ask him to tell whether he has always been obedient and kind
to his mother, and agreeable and kind to bis sister. Such ques-
tions are snares for tbe conscience, and offer temptations to un-
truthfulness that can hardly be resisted."
Kindness. — "Next to truthfulness may be mentioned benevo-
lence or kindness ; that feeling, the opposite of selfishness, which
leads us to think of and sympathize with the feelings of others.
A great deal of unkindness amongst children arises not so much
from deliberate intention, as from thoughtlessness. The crown-
ing test of kindness of feeling is the display of self-denial to
oblige our neighbor.
"This is illustrated in the case of a little boy that came to
school one day without his lunch ; and when tbe rest were eating
theirs at play-time, he had none. The teacher divided her lunch,
and called one of the pupils to deliver a part of it to the fast-
ing one, which he did gladly, as it called for no sacrifice. He
felt satisfaction at seeing tbe want of bis comrade relieved. This
satisfaction was heightened by the pleasure felt and expressed
by the teacher. Not long after, the same pupil was observed
quietly performing a similar act of generosity to another com-
panion, at his own expense. The teacher saw the deed, and
highly approved of it. Had the teacher prematurely taken a
430 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
part of the Inncli from a pupil and given it to tlic one ■without,
he would not have perceived the justice of such a proceeding, he
would even have felt oppressed ; and, so far from a strong im-
pulse to generous action having been lodged in his breast, the
selfish principle would have been stimulated by being thrown on
the defensive. Where kindness is, a number of common school-
faults are banished, such as rudeness of manner, calling names,
and the like."
Honesty. — " Honesty, or a due regard to what belongs to an-
other, is one of the virtues that must be implanted in the child
from without, as there is no natural instinct which leads him to
observe it. Ills desire of possessing is at first indiscriminate and
unreasoning, so that it needs to be regulated Avith much pru-
dence. It is not uncommon to prevail upon a child to restore
Avhat is not liis own under promise of receiving something else.
This is attempting to thrust out one vice by means of another.
Neither will simple command or force, though perhaps a legitimate
means of influence in the circumstances, inspire the right feeling,
though it may put the property into the hands of its owner,
"Some children have a stronger tendency to dishonesty than
others; and this is commonly found stronger in those who arc
subjected to bad influences at home. Sometimes it seems almost
like an instinct in such children. Perhaps the best way to lead
children to see the right way is to seize the moment for inculcat-
ing truthfulness and honesty when the child has himself been the
sufferer; not when he has been the aggressor. Then he will feel
the justice of your proceedings, and be in a mood to fully assent
to them. He cannot say a word in self-palliation, should he af-
terward become the aggressor.
"The teacher should show a punctilious regard to the right
of property himself. All things that are found must be scrupu-
lously returned to their owners, for whom search should be made ;
so that importance shall be seen to be attached even to the small-
est thing. Those who deliver up property which they find must
be commended ; those who are detected in concealing it should
be disirraced."
POWERS OF MORAL ACTIOX. 437
Admirable examples may be witnessed in some of tlio
public schools of Kew York City for teaching children
to observe the golden ride in the matter of things found
by the pupils. It is customary for the children to take
whatever article is found, in or about the school, directly
to the principal, who advertises it before the assembled
school several mornings ; then, if the owner does not
claim it, the article is publicly presented to the pupil who
found it. The frequent delivery of articles to the right-
ful owners, also of the return of others to the finder, have
furnished numerous incidents of exceeding interest to the
children, and of great satisfaction to teachers and parents.
These practical moral lessons have a lasting influence.
" "While right action is the natural result of right feeling, the
habit of action has, no doubt, a reflex influence on the feelings.
It is, on this account, well to encourage in the intercourse of chil-
dren acts which are but bits of ceremony, as greeting each other
with 'good-morning' on meeting, or bidding 'good-night' or
'good-bye' on separating, and of always thanking another for
even tlie least favor.
" Love is the earhcst emotion of which the child is conscious ;
love to its parents, who supply its wants. This emotion should
be elevated by parents and teacher toward God, as our heavenly
Father, the common source of all good to both parents and child.
"With love there should he inculcated reverence for God. This
feeling may early bo inspired in children, or rather drawn out of
them, for it is natural to infancy. 'Thou, God, seest me,' finds
a ready access to the child's heart. Reverence and love should
grow up together."*
Habits. — "The sentiments which we desire to impress on the
child must be cultivated till they pass into habits. In the power
of habit lies the power of education. By means of habit alone
* For the principal statements under the head of "Means of Training
the Feelini;s," in the preceding pages, credit is due chiclly to Principles and
Fractice of Earl ij School Education.
438 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
we can fit any one for a spliere of life different from tliat •whicli
he occupies ; and by the means of it we can fit him for any sub-
sequent sphere of which the constitution of liis being renders him
capable. We can accustom him to any direction of activity, and
mould his character and temper to any standard. It is in virtue
of two features of this power of habit that we are entitled to
look to the efforts of education as having a rational certainty of
success. The one is the indefinitely great influence which this
power may acquire, under tlie effectual agency of proper train-
ing. Strong as the instincts of our nature may be, we liave in
habit a weapon with which we may overpower any one of them ;
and that not by violence, but by quiet and almost imperceptible
measures ; hence the saying that ' habit is second nature.' The
other is, that as we are born, not with formed habits, but only
with the cxqxicltij of habit, it is left to us to begin our habits our-
selves. Character, therefore, is within the power of those who
control the years of infancy and childhood.
" The moral habits which education should foster are habits of
ri[/ht action. There is no test of virtue except its exhibition in
action ; we cannot otherwise be certain of its existence. A right
feeling should have its issue in a corresponding action ; but it de-
pends altogether on education whether the natural connection be
established between them. When feeling is cut off from action
it is a mere sentiment. In the general case the feeling perishes
in the sentiment; for the oftener we speak of right, as a matter
of sentiment alone, the wider becomes the gap between the feel-
ing and the act, and the weaker does the feeling become, as in the
case of pity. There is no education to morality apart from the
practice of morality. Children, who are ready to act in obedience
to every impulse, should therefore see enacted before them the
virtues they are to learn. Example is vastly stronger than pre-
cept. The society of which they are members should be so con-
stituted and ruled as to give them the opportunity, as far as pos-
sible, of carrying out into action the good feelings to which they
show a tendency. On the other hand, just as right feelings are
strengthened by right acts, feelings of the lower sort must be
weakened by removing all stimulants and opportunities to act.
rOWERS OF MOR.VL ACTION. 439
" Habit is a power which cannot be left at our option to bo
called into existence or not; it is given ns to use or abuse, but
we cannot prevent its working. Children, with their infinitely
varied impulses, and with all their experience to acquire, have an
irresistible determination to activity. They cannot be subdued
to quiescence and immobility, for we cannot suspend their natural
growth, neither can we exclude them from forming habits of
action. Whether we are conscious of it or not, we directly
stimulate them to form certain habits, if we have intercourse
with them at all ; for they hear what we say, and they see what
we do, and their imitation follows inevitably.
" The first moment at which there is capacity for action is the
moment when we should begin the cultivation of habit ; the child
is then eager and pliant. With advancing years the disposition
becomes more rigid, the sense of doubt and the anticipation of
difficulties become stronger, and the whole force of habits which
have been allowed to form themselves has to be encountered, so
that the task becomes incalculably more arduous. Early habits
are at once the most easily formed and the strongest. The hab-
its which are acquired in mature years never attain the same sta-
bility as those formed in childhood.
"The influence of habit invests single actions with an impor-
tance far beyond what at first seems due to them. If we were at
liberty to view actions by themselves, out of connection with the
past and the future, many which require the gravest remonstrance
would appear trifling and unworthy of serious notice. But the
tendency to repetition is so strong, and in many circumstances
so overpowering, that all who are charged with the education of
youth fail in their duty, unless they are extremely vigilant in ob-
serving even the smallest exhibitions of moral activity. Hence
it is that the lie in jest, the thoughtless waste of some little thing
which seems of no further use, the unpunctuality of a minute,
always demand attention, lest they become the threshold over
which the child may pass to confirmed habits of untruthfulness,
prodigality, or irregularity.
" The small and almost unobserved act of sympathy toward a
neighbor or playmate, attention in removing a spot or other in-
440 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHLN^G.
jury from llic dress or property of another, and tlie great care
taken to be exact in punctuality, deserve a coniniendatory notice,
for these may possibly be the turning-points in the child's char-
acter for benevolence, frugality, or regularity. We can never tell
the effects of single actions ; it is only prudent, therefore, to
treat them as important. Everything should be encouraged of
whose salutary tendency we are convinced ; nothing should be
permitted of whose evil tendency we have the slightest suspicion.
" We are not to expect great results in education in a short
time; sudden leaps in character are not according to the law of
our constitution, and are therefore to be suspected. Again, since
the implanting of any habit is so great a work, we should not
attempt to instil too many habits at once. If we have several
in view to inculcate, let us first select one to establish the power
of habit in general ; when we have succeeded with that, we shall
have given to the child a degree of self-control which will greatly
facilitate his acquisition of the others. Again, there is but one
way of correcting any bad habit which the child may have ac-
quired, or of undoing any wrong association he may have formed.
As it has not been formed in a day, so it is not to be overthrown
in a day.
" But implanting of habits alone does not constitute training
to morality. Habit, without intelligence and conscious motive,
is the characteristic, not of a rational being, but of a machine.
Acts performed under its influence have no moral character,
whether their results are in accordance with morality or not.
A habit of seeming morality cannot be permanent and sufficient
as a moral power. The routine conduct to which it leads may
go on for a while, as long as the child is kept out of circumstances
which might interfere with his obedience to it; but it will never
stand against the rush of personal prejudices and interests when
these clamor for a hearing. There is wanted inieUir/ence to give
such acts a moral character that will I'emain secure against all
opposing tendencies. Intelligence must be at hand to prevent
'good intentions' from leading us astray."*
* Extracts from PrincipJes and Practice of Commoti School Education, \)y
James Currie, A.M., Principal of tlic Cliurch of Scotluud Training College.
rOWEUS OF MORAL ACTION. 441
Means for Moral Culture. — Experience has shown
tliat the true means for moral culture are the same in
character as those for ijliysical and intellectual culture,
namely, exercise. But this exercise, to produce the desired
results, and become of permanent benefit, must be had in
conformity to correct princij^les, and be continued until
habits are formed.
There is no good reason why one habit should not be
established as easily as another. Dnring childhood the
season, the soil, the seed, and the implements are all in
our hands, and we may choose what we will plant. Let,
then, the companions, the precepts and examples, and all
the surrounding influences, be such as shall furnish abun-
dant exercise in truthfulness, justice, kindness, respectful
obedience to parents, reverence and love for God, during
the season of childhood, and habits of rigid feeling and
correct action will be fixed that will gladden the hearts of
parents, teachers, and friends with joyful anticipations.
Virtue can influence, as well as vice infect; but the in-
fluence of exan)ple in the practice of virtue is tenfold
more powerful than good precepts alone. Therefore to
teach trutlifulness, honesty, kindness, or any other virtue
successfully, the children must see these qualities practised
in the daily conduct of those around them. The maxim
that "like begets like" is nowhere so fully exemplified
as it is in our moral natures. The exhibition of love,
kindness, gentleness, benevolence, sincerity, and truth be-
gets like virtues in others. Children 'know hut little of
virtue ill the abstract ; they comprehend it as it is em-
hodied in the actions of those around them. Children
who have never been deceived look upon promises as
deeds, and a thread may lead them. Deceive them but
once, and chains may be too weak to confine them.
"Thou, God, secst me," if properly remembered, will
impart strength and activity to the conscience, and aid
19-^-
4J:2 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
in establishing habits of truthfuhiess, justice, purity of
tliought, humility, and kindness.
" Our Father who art in lieaven " may be made tlie
guiding sentiment in cultivating love, veneration, obedi-
ence, and hope.
" All things whatsoever jg would that men should do
to you, do ye even so to them," is an injunction broad
enough to furnish ample opportunities for the exercise of
patience, kindness, and all the virtues which should gov-
ern our intercourse with each other.
Occasions for developing the moral natures of children,
and means for exercises appropriate to this end, may be
found in the occurrences of their daily lives. The famil-
iar incidents so common to children furnish opportuni-
ties of the greatest value for their moral culture. Words
alone cannot develop the physical powers, nor strengthen
the intellectual faculties ; neither will they produce mor-
al character, nor develop those habits and virtues which
contribute so largely to the happiness of ourselves and
those around us. Moral character does not consist in
words orprqfessio7is, but in actions.
POWER OF WILLIXG. 443
POWEE OF WILLING.
THE WILL.
"What the Will is. — The ^oill is a power of the mind
which is manifested through the acts of the mind. Eve-
ry choice and every rejection is a manifestation of the
will. The will is the power of the mind to direct its own
actions. It is mind acting upon the powers of mind.
It is a motive-force of the mind. Its seat appears to be
with the moral j)owers, but its influence extends over
the intellectual powers also. Its immediate incentives to
action are the desires.
A Desire is an inclination of the mind for some object,
or to do some act. It is a simple feeling which cannot
be analyzed, although it is clearly known to our con-
sciousness.
"Willing cannot be defined ; but that which takes place
in the mind, immediately in connection with the act of
w^illing, and within the range of our consciousness, may
be described. First, the mind experiences, feels, or is in-
fluenced by a desire for some object, or to do some act,
or to exercise some of its powers. Then the mind
chooses, or decides, how it will act in relation to that
desire. This constitutes the iwocess of loilling.
When memory is spoken of as a faculty or power of
the mind, it is readily understood what is meant, for ev-
ery one is conscious of the acts of memory. With equal
propriety may the will be spoken of as a faculty or power
444 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
of the mind, jet what is meant by toill may not be under-
stood readily by every one, for its acts are not so clearly
conscious to the minds of all as are those of memorj'-.
The powers of memory and will differ in their modes
and spheres of manifesting themselves to our conscious-
ness. Memory is the power of the mind for remember-
ing. Will is the power of the mind for willing. Mem-
ory deals with ideas that come from things which are ex-
ternal to the mind. Will deals with the powers of the
mind itself, directing their acts; and through them it
controls the acts of the bodily organs. We are conscious
of directing and fixing the attention upon any subject at
our pleasure. That power of the mind which enables us
to do this is the will. Care should be taken to guard
against the impression that the will is some controlling
agent separate from the mind, instead of a power of the
mind itself.
" A lad whose education lias been tolerably well conducted,
whose trains of ideas have been formed in accordance with the
realities of life, knows that he mnst be guided by knowledge, and
that the produce of his labor must be husbanded with care and
enjoyed with discretion. Sensible of all this, he toills to avail
himself of the assistance of his instructor to acquire knowledge,
and to form habits of application and self-restraint. And every
successful effort of volition encourages him to persevere in the
same track.
"In that complex state of feeling which gives rise to volition
there is felt a desire to do what others are doing around us. The
acts of others in whose society we habitually live seem to exer-
cise a kind of contagious influence over our wills. We first de-
sire, then ioill to imitate them. This tendency is peculiarly ob-
servable among the young. The old proverb, 'Evil communica-
tion corrupts good morals,' or its counterpart, which is much
to be preferred, ' Good communications correct bad and confirm
good morals,' seems to be partly founded on this oft-observed
POWER OF WILLING. 445
tendency to imitation which prevail: among mankind. It may
be doubted, however, whether the potency of this readiness to
imitate lias been yet half acknowledged, or half turned to account
in the grand business of education."*
Influence of "Will on Character. — " The will is the im-
mediate spring of all our actions. The understanding may per-
ceive what our duty is ; the feelings may present us with motives
to do it; but it is this third power which determines whether
it is to be done or not. We cannot wonder, then, that in the
business of life it is commonly viewed as the most important
of our faculties, as that, indeed, which gives its complexion to the
whole character. ' Character,' it has been said, ' is a completely
fashioned will.' "f
An aptitude for making a deliberate choice, and Lold-
iiig steadily to that choice, indicates strength of will.
Constancy and perseverance indicate sucli strength. Bnt
obstinacy, or stubbornness of temper without reason, do
not indicate this power. Obstinacy and stubbornness are
perverted actions of tlie will. Powers of intellect may
make a man an object of admiration, but without strength
of will he can have but little influence over others. Even
the accomplishments of education will become little else
than so much ornamental fringe-work in life, without the
influence of this power. A man's love of right and his
desire to benefit society may not protect him from being
made a dupe, or even being led to commit wrong acts, if
his power of will is weak.
Will gives decision of character. It enables its posses-
sor to achieve great results. It gives power over others,
and thus makes a man great in the estimation of his fel-
lows. Men are obeyed or resisted, respected or despised,
in proportion to their power of will and the manner of
exercising it,
* Ontlinea of the Formation of the Umlc):sta)uJinrj,hj William Ellis, London.
t Prmciples and Fracticcs of Early School Education, by James Carrie, A.M.
446 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniNG.
Freedom of Will. — It is not intended here to enter
into a discussion of this subject, about wliich so much has
been said and so many vohimes written. A few simple
statements concerning the freedom of will must answer
the requirements of the present work. Tlie mind has
freedom in observing, in remembering, in imagining, in
comparing, and in reasoning. Each of these is an act
of the mind. AVilling is an act of the mind. The mind
is free to observe, to remember, to imagine, to compare,
and to reason ; and it is equally free to will. No material
restraint is laid upon it. No mental restraint is laid upon
it. The mind itself is conscious, when it wills, that it ex-
ercises freedom. Freedom of will, then, is the mind's
])Owev of vnlling freely.
Training the "Will. — We have seen that some desire
always precedes the act of willing ; also that man wills as
he pleases — that is, as he desires. He chooses or rejects
at pleasure. Why does the mind, in willing, follow one
desire rather than another? Why does the mind some-
times will to do right, and at other times to do wrong?
Proper exercise increases strength of the body, of the
mind, and of its several powers. Remembering imparts
strength to the memory ; reasoning adds strength to the
reason; willing gives strength to the loill ; right willing
develops good character.
It is of the greatest importance that all who have any-
thing to do with training the young should aim to so guide
this power of the mind that it shall acquire hahits of right
willing, and thereby attain that strength of will which
gives steadiness of purpose, and enables its possessor to
choose carefully and hold lirmly. The proper training of
the will requires the most careful watchfulness on the
part of parents and teacher. The foundation of right
willing must be laid in early childhood.
POWER OF WILLING. 417
The two most important defects to be overcome in
training the will are weakness and wilfulness. The first
is seen in lack of decision, irresolution, inconstancy,
ebangeableness of mind, hick of a purpose. The second
is a vice arising from lack of direction or from misdirec-
tion. Wilfulness is a state of temper in which the will
acts in obedience to the nearest motive, without regard to
the character of the motive. It implies strength of will,
which, if rightly directed^ would lead to a character of
excellence and great influence. Children manifesting
the first defect — wealcness — need exercises to lead them
to form habits of stronger wills ; while those exhibiting
the second defect require processes of training that will
give them habits of controlling and properly directing
their wills.
" The causes of these defects lie on the very surface of the
children's daily life. Let a child be brought up so that by the
over-watchful anxiety of its parents or guardians all its wants are
anticipated, its gestures, and even its looks, scrutinized with the
view of divining its desires, all situations in which it would feel
the need of doing something for itself carefully excluded, and it
will certainly follow that the nerves of exertion will be cut ; inde-
cision and helplessness will exhale from the stagnant waters; it will
be miserable wdien alone, and show only a sort of insipid, mean-
ingless satisfaction wdien it does receive attention. Such a child
is destined to be trodden down or pushed aside in the race of life.
" Let a child be placed in circumstances where its nature is not
understood or sympathized with, having none to appreciate its mo-
tives, to encourage it to exertion, to caution it when the tempter
leads it astray, or to approve it when it has triumphed ; let a
harsh, unfeeling discipline drag it over the wilderness of fear,
anxious only for submission, and the xoill will be crushed, the
power and desire of activity will wither, while sullenness, gloom,
dark suspicion, and cunning Avill supplant the nobler qualities of
openness and decision.
448 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING
" Let a cliild be bronglit up under no fixed discipline, its guar-
dian not being aware of tlic importance of this, or not capable of
carr3-ing it out, or, perhaps, not being much with the child, thus
ruling it only at intervals, while at other times it is left to itself,
and the unsteadiness and violent contrast to which it is subjected
must unsettle its dispositions ; its own whims, or the suggestions
of chance, will appear as binding on it as the commands it re-
ceives. Such a child will grow up unsubdued and unreasoning.
"Again, let the activity of a child be confined within the nar-
row groove of formality and routine ; let it be surrounded by
laws which prescribe for its conduct down to the minutest trifles;
let directions be given whenever there is danger of its erring ; let
the smallest deviation from the accustomed path and pace call
forth a senseless expression of affected wonder and dislike, and
its -will will be swamped. "When it docs right it is never from
its own choice ; it becomes timid and fearful of responsibility.
" Once more, let us put the case in which the affections of its
guardians, exercised without prudence, systematically allow the
child perfect freedom from restraint, letting it choose for itself
before it has liyht to guide its choice, viewing its desires as. law,
or, perhaps, weakly purchasing ease by the gratification of them ;
this makes emphatically the spoiled or u'ilful child. The will is
deliberately thrown, bound hand and foot, among its rebellious
subjects — the passions — who strip it of its dignity, and reign in
its place — a miserable anarchy. This child's path is being set
with thorns. AVe see such pictures in the family circle ; and it
is certain that wc often see them still more deeply colored in the
school.
"The will acts in obedience to motives. The uneducated will
obey those which are nearest at the time, though they may be
the lowest of all motives — the animal propensities. 27ie object
of moral education is to inspire the higher motives as an indwelling
2)otver, and to accustom the will to that suspense u'hich is the first
step toward obeying them. By cultivating the moral feelings we
are at the same time educating the will, inasmuch as we are pro-
viding right motives to influence it.
"Children will be occasionally rebellious, from their volatil-
I'OWER OF WILLING. 4J:9
ity ; but obstinacy need not be feared, unless there be great mis-
management, for they cannot ultimately resist ; and when they
arc made to do a thing over and over, they come to think it
natural ; moreover, it is an instinct In them to look up to their
parents and guardians. If an obstinate child is introduced into
school, it is not by any single stroke of energy that he is to be
subdued : kindness and patience are the only means that will be
completely successful.
" The authority of the teacher should not be founded on his
personal superiority. The selfish tendency is strong in child-
hood, and will surely be incited to resistance; and, if we taunt
a child afterward with his submission, we only harden him to dis-
obey us at the next opportunity. The manifestation of strong
passion, or bitterness of humor, tends to place authority on this
insecure personal basis ; whereas calmness with firmness tend to
elevate it above all personal considerations,"*
Will a Power in School Government. — The secret
of success ill school govern nient lies in the strength of
ivill possessed hy the teacher, and the power of lecLd'ing
the pujnls to desire and to will to do those things tohich
are right. The means to be employed by the teacher
for accomplishing this purpose should be of such a char-
acter as will ultimately lead the pupils to a loilling obe-
dience. The following- incident will illustrate what
means are appropriate for the attainment of this end :
A teacher was one day collecting the caps from a class
of young children, to put them away in the closet where
they were usually kept. One little fellow kept liis cap
back, and threw it at the teacher as she was going to put
the others away. He was quietly ordered to pick up his
cap, go to liis scat again, and then deliver it in the right
way. He took it from the floor and again threw it, but
more gently than before. Again he was calmly ordered
to pick it up and deliver it propcrlj'. This time, feeling
* Fnnciples and Practice of Early School Education, by James Currie, A.M.
450 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
the power of the teacher's will through the cahnly spoken
words of firmness, he obeyed the command. Without
exhibiting any temper or severity, the teacher made a few
remarks to the class upon the importance of obedience,
and the pleasure resulting from it. The next time that
the pupils entered the school-room, and the teacher began
to collect the caps, this boy was among the first to obey;
and so willing was the obedience that he said to his teach-
er, " I have done right this time." Had anger or bitter-
ness been exhibited by the teacher in this case, although
obedience might have been forced, it would not have pre-
pared the way for willing obedience in the future.
Authority, to be thoroughly established, so that it shall
encompass the child beyond the teacher's personal pres-
ence, must be founded on kindness and justice, and then
it will command respect. Its reality M-ill be manifested
in its own dignity and power. Its propriety will not need
to be made a matter of demonstration. Its own utterances
will be its sanction.
An authority which leans on anything else than its own
expressions, that needs to have its supremacy proven, has
no substance. The shadowy images of impending terror,
the indefinite hints about something to come, the loud
threatenings by which some seek to maintain their au-
thority with children, are really signs of distress — signals
by which those who are conscious that they do not possess
the authority which they ought to have, proclaim their
own weakness.
A proper training of the will requires that a just pro-
portion should be maintained between obedience and
freedom throughout the entire period of the educational
course.
" He that has found a way to keep np a child's spirit — easy,
active, and free — and yet at the same time to restrain him from
POWER OF WILLLVG. 451
many things he has a mind to, and to draw him to things that
are not easy to him — he, I say, that knows how to reconcile these
seeming contradictions, has, in my opinion, got the true secret of
education."*
"Direct authority is not a power to be exercised indiscrimi-
nately, but only where it is needed. It must supplement and
strengthen motives, not supersede them."f
The perfection of discipline lies in adapting obedience
and freedom to the several periods of the child's devel-
opment. Infancy is the period in which obedience should
he learned. Before the child can choose lohat is good for
him freedom is hurtful. Obedience is the first step in the
chilcVs education to freedom. The sphere of the child's
freedom is very narrow at first, embracing his animal or
natural activity. It gradually widens as the child acquires
habits of obedience and the ability to choose ; and when
he comes to be conscious of resjjonsibility, he should be
led to take res23onsibility, taking care that it be a fair re-
sponsibility to lay upon him, and one in which the con-
sequences of a mistake would not be detrimental to his
own moral character, or to the best interests of his asso-
ciates. As soon as good motives are found to exist in
the child's mind, we should allow him to be stimulated
to action by them, while we keep our authority in the
background.
" Whenever we can explain the reasons for any of our requests
we should attempt it; but whenever these cannot be fully ex-
plained, it is better not to give a partial explanation ; it will be
best to say, steadily, 'You cannot understand this now; you will
perhaps understand it som,e time hence.' Whenever we forbid
children to do such and such things for any particular reason, we
must take care that the reason assigned is adequate, and that it
will hold good in all cases."J
* Locke. + James Curric.
X Fraciical Education, by Edgcwortb.
452 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG.
One of the gravest errors in training the will, and in
maintaining good discipline, lies in an attempt to exact
the same kind of obedience, and to allow the same degree
of freedom throughout all the periods of the child's de-
velopment. The temptation for the teacher to disregard
the change of circumstances on the part of the pupil is
very strong, from the fact that it is easier, and with many
more agreeable, to supersede the will for the time being
than to train it in habits of right self-action. To incul-
cate an obedience that is free, and self-prompted, should
be the aim of the instructor. This cannot be accomplish-
ed unless the child be given room for the judicious ex-
ercise of freedom. To he always exjpresdij commanding
what the child may easily he led to do fi'eely of his own
desire, will tiever confer on him the inestimahle hlessing
of a strong character.
" Constancy of will is one of the last blessings wliich education
has to bestow. It is one not to be readied till trials of all kuids
Lave been endured — till the mind has power to reflect attentively
on purposes deliberately formed, of which the realization lies yet
in the remote future. It is but a short distance that the child,
with his extreme volatility, can advance toward this goal, yet he
may imbibe from the whole of his school-training, if it be judi-
ciously conducted, an impression of constancy of purpose. lie
may feel himself enveloped by a power of which constant., steady
aim is the mark ; and thus he may receive a bent in this direc-
tion himself before he is at all conscious of the nature of the in-
fluence at work upon him. Thus a foundation is laid for con-
stancy of purpose by the habit of perseverance which is formed,
and tliis is a most auspicious starting-point for the will when it
comes to a full degree of self-consciousness."*
Habits, to a great extent, constitute the character.
They do not always have the sanction of the will; but,
* Pnnciples of Education, by James Curric, A.JI.
rOWER OF AVILLING. 453
in effect, it is much the same as if they had. Habits be-
come so strong that it is said they are a second nature.
The formation of habits is the formation of character, and
herein lies the influence of education to elevate the cliar-
acter. The teacher should remember tlie use of this pow-
er of habit in his work, and view all the acts of the child
in the light of it.
"Things often seem trifling in tliemselves which are of great
moment when viewed iu this relation ; for what we do once we
are apt to do again, and we find it easier to do at each repetition.
The child imitates itself even more readily than it imitates others.
Single acts may seem of small consequence, hut from their ten-
dency to be repeated they are important. AVe can never estimate
the effect of single acts ; and this should teach us to permit noth-
ing in children of the propriety of which we have the smallest
doubt. Not only in moulding the child to a certain line of con-
duct, but in withdrawing him from a wrong one, habit is the only
power available. One bad habit can be overthrown only by a
good one growing up as a counter-agent; which, like its prede-
cessor, must be formed gradually.
" There is, doubtless, one danger attending habit ; it may de-
generate into routine, thus subverting freedom. But we cannot
help working by habit; we must form bad habits if we do not
form good ones. In childhood habit is less mechanical in its
nature than at a later period. The cliild's natural activity is so
abundant that acting, though it be a repetition of the same thing
again and again, is always fresh to him ; so that during the peri-
od of early childhood there is nothing in habit which has a ten-
dency to supersede will,"*
* Principles of Education, by Juiuus Curiie, A.M,
QUESTIONS. 455
QUESTIONS
PERTAINING TO ]\IETnODS AND PRINCIPLES OF
EDUCATION.
FOR TUE EXAMINATION OF TEACHERS.
Ijf presenting a series of questions for the examination of
teachers, and candidates for teaching, the aim has been to give
several questions relating nearly to the same points, on each
subject, in order to furnish a suitable variety to meet the differ-
ing conditions, experience, and training of teachers, and also to
enable those who conduct successive examinations on the same
subject to vary the questions, and still be able to test the can-
didate's knowledge.
In using these questions it will be desirable, frequently, to
change the phraseology of some of them, to adapt them to oth-
ers selected on the same topic. In making a selection of a few
questions from each subject, care should be taken that no two
questions shall cover exactly the same points; also that the entire
selection shall be sufficiently comprehensive to embrace the most
important points in the topic under consideration.
SCIENCE AND PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION.
METHODS AND ART OF TEACHING.
1. What is education?
2. What is the science of education ?
3. What is a principle of education ?
4. What is a method of teaching ?
5. What is the art of teaching ?
G. What is a system of education ?
456 MANUAL OF OB JECT-TE ACHING.
7. Describe a method of teaching — selecting your suljject.
8. State d4fl:ei'ences between a metliod of teaching and a iwinclple
of education.
9. Mention three or more general i)rincii3les that govern good
methods of teaching.
10. What are the teacher's duties toward his pupils?
11. What is the work of the pupil in obtaining an education ?
13. Should the pupil be chiefly a receiver^ or a doei\ in getting his
education?
13. What do you understand by the icvm developtncnt in teaching?
14. Define the terms teaching^ training, learning.
15. State the difi'erencc between illmtration and explanation. Which
should be most used in primary schools?
10. What is rote-teaching? Can it be made useful during any part
of the process of instruction ?
17. What is cramming ? Why should it not be used in school work ?
18. What should be the first step of the teacher toward instruction,
on taking charge of new pujiils ?
19. With what must the work of instruction commence in any sub-
ject, to insure the best results ?
20. What should education accomplish for the pupil ?
21. Mention three points that a good method of teaching should
possess ; and state the sjiecial value of each.
23. Mention two or more prominent characteristics of children; and
state how tlie instruction in a primary school can be adapted
to those characteristics.
23. How can the natural activity of children be utilized in the
methods of teaching ?
24. By what means does the child gain knowledge of the world
around him ?
25. Wliat are those organs called that enable him to get knowledge
from external objects?
20. What powers of tlie mind are chiefly used by the child while
gaining knowledge of things and actions ?
27. What is the advantage of using more than one of the senses in
gaining knowledge of the same object?
28. Which setise is occupied by the pupil during oral instruction ? y
QUESTIONS. 457
29. Which sense is chiefly occupied by the pupil during illustrative
teaching ?
30. 'What jaeultj/ of the mind is most occujiied in learning lessons
from books ?
31. What means may the teacher rely upon to develoj) and strength-
en any power of the mind ?
32. Should the acquisition of knowledge be made the chief aim in
the work of teaching ?
33. What should be the general character of tlie school exercises,
for young pupils, during the tirst three years in school ?
34. Mention common faults of teachers in questioning i)upils. State
important characteristics of good questions.
35. What is the chief result toward which the teacher's work should
tend ?
36. What particular results should the teacher aim to secure in the
pupil's mental and moral training ?
37. Should the pupil's ability to commit lessons to memory, and re-
cite them readily, be considered a standard of his knowledge
of the subject ?
38. ISFention the mental liowers, or faculties, that are chiefly exercised
by children under ten years of age.
39. State the three 2^criods of memory, and llic cliaracteristics of each.
40. Mention studies that are adapted to each of the three periods of
mcmorj\
41. What constitutes a prominent dilTereuce in the ability of jiupils
to gain knowledge ?
42. How may this difl'erence be lessened by the teacher's work 2
43. Do children generally notice first the elements or parts of an ob-
ject, then observe the object as a whole ? or do they notice the
ohjcct as a ichole first, and afterward observe its parts or ele-
ments ?
44. What effect should the proper answer to this question have on
the methods of teaching young children ?
45. Should the teacher's chief aim be the communication of infor-
mation to his pujtils ?
4G. What is tlie first duty of (he teacher when presenting a new
subject to a class ?
20
458 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
47. Why should the lessons for youug children be short, and the
subjects changed frequently ?
48. Under -what conditions may repetitions produce mental devel-
opment, and aid in the acquisition of knowledge?
49. Mention the i)rincipal powers of the mind, and the office of each.
50. State a general principle by which any power of the mind may
be strengthened.
51. Which powers of the mind are most active during childhood?
53. State the subjects of instruction which are best adapted to those
faculties that are most active in childhood ; and describe the
general plan of teaching which is fitted to the condition of
young pupils.
53. What is necessary to fitness for teaching?
54. State how the teacher should proceed in the work of education.
55. What part of a subject should be first taught, after the teacher
has ascertained what the pupils already know relating to it ?
56. Mention tlie general heads under which all human knowledge
may be included.
57. What exercises will tend to make the sight more accurate in its
perceptions ?
58. By what means may the sense of hearing be rendered more acute
in distinguishing sounds ?
59. Should lessons that exercise the several senses and tlie percep-
tive faculties, or those which exercise reason and judgment, be
chiefly used in primary schools ?
[N.B. — For information that will supply answers to the foregoing questions,
see previous pages in this book.]
READING.
1. When the young child first attends school, what docs he know
that may be used in teaching him tlie first lessons in reading?
2. Does he then know anything concerning language? If so, what
is the known to him, in language ?
3. Does he know words or sentences best ? How does he know
them — by the ear, as sounds, or by the eye, as forms ? Wliat
is the unknown to be taught ? Where and with what, then,
should the teaching of language, or reading, begin ?
QUESTIONS. 459
V. 4. Wliich should be tanglit first — -words, sounds, or letters ?
5. Would you use tlie blackboard, chart, or book first in teaching
reading to j'oung pupils ? Why ?
G. Mention important steps to be taken during the first month's
instruction in reading, without the use of books.
;>^ 7. State methods that you would use in teaching reading to begin-
ners.
V 8. How would you prepare a class of children for the Jirst lesson in
a reading-book ?
9. Mention the important steps, in their order, to be taken in teach-
ing a class of beginners to read from books.
10. State the steps which should be taken with a class of young
pupils, in teaching them to read a new lesson from the read-
ing-book,
X^ 11. In beginning the use of reading-books in a class, what are the
principal points to be attended to by the teacher ?
A 12. Should reading generally be taught by directing the attention
* of the pupils to the thoughts represented in the lesson, and to
a distinct and natural utterance of tliosc thoughts, or chiefly
by imitating the teacher's reading of the lesson ?
13. While teaching a new lesson should the pupils attend to the
meaning of single words chiefly, or to groups of words as used
in i)hrases ? '\Vhy ?
"V 14. Should i^upils be allowed to read words singly, or required to
^ read tliem in groups ? Why ?
15. Should instruction in the meaning of phrases used in the lesson,
or the definitions of words receive more attention? Why?
^ 16. What are the prominent characteristics of excellent reading ?
17. Should instruction in reading, during school, be confined to the
usual class reading-books ?
18. Can reading in concert be employed so that the evil habits ac-
quired by it shall not overcome all the good results that may
be attained by it ?
19. Write a brief outline of a good course of instruction for teaching
reading — an elementary course, and an advanced course. State
the principal ends to be attained in each course.
20. Mention three important points in teaching reading, iu their
order. State why each point is important.
v:
460 MANUxiL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
SPELLING.
S^ 21. Shoukl reading be tauglit by means of and through spelling; or
spelling be taught by means of and through reading?
22. Should the spelling of words be taught before their use and
mcauing are understood ?
^23. Should reading or spelling receive more attention in a jDriniary
' school ?
•y" 24. For what purposes should spelling be taught ?
25. How can sijelling be tauglit so as to secure the object of teach-
ing it ?
PHONETICS.
> 2G. What benefit do pupils derive from phonetics?
27. Mention the chief uses of phonetics in school.
y^ 28. What arc the uses of a knowledge of elementary sounds in
teaching reading ?
29. How should instruction in phonetics be given ?
/ 30. Indicate sounds, and the silent letters in the following words :
k/ilfe, what, school, though, cough, hough, chin, hox, seio, knead, ex-
quisite, does, said, four, sure, teas, they, word, thing, lieight.
[N.B. — For information relating to teaching reading, phonetics, etc., see
Primary Object Lessons, 4Utli Edition.]
OBJECT-TEACHING.
^ 1. What is ol/ject-teaching f
2. What is an object lesson ?
•/ 3. What is tlie design of object-teaching ?
4. State what children first notice in relation to objects. Should
all lessons on objects be begun in the same manner ?
5. State some of the uses of object lessons.
6. Mention the important steps in an object lesson.
7. Write a brief sketch of an ol>jcct lesson, showing what should
appear on the blackboard Avhen the lesson is finished.
8. What is the proper range of object lessons?
QUESTIONS. 461
FORM.
9. "What would you give as tlie first lesson in fonn?
10. Compare two of the following solids, and state their rcscm-
Uances and differences — cube, pj'ramid, cone, cylinder.
11. ]\Iention tlie two most important conditions, relating to paral-
lel lines, that pupils should notice in order to understand
the term.
12. State the most prominent facts to be observed as to the shape of
pl/ramids.
13. Mention some of tlie advantages wliich children derive from les-
sons on form.
14. Wliat facts would you teach young pupils I'clating to the shape
of a cule ?
COLOR.
16. Mention important uses of lessons on color.
17. Wiiat exercises should constitute the chief lessons on color ?
18. Why do not all children distinguish colors ?
19. Wliat should the teacher endeavor to ascertain relative to color,
concerning each pupil ? Why ?
20. How may tests be made for color-hlindncss ?
21. What do you understand by harmony of colors ?
22. Mention uses of learning to distinguish harmony in colors.
23. Mention colors used for signals, and what each indicates.
QUALITIES.
24. Mention some of the uses of lessons on qualities.
25. State the important steps in a lesson on a quality.
26. How would you proceed in teaching a lesson on elasticity ?
27. Sliould lessons on single qualities, illustrated by several objects,
or lessons on the several qualities in the same object, be given
first ? Why ?
28. How would you illustrate to a class the differences between
fexible and elastic; comjn-essihle and malleaUe ; soluble and fusi-
ble?
29. Which are most appropriate for young pupils, lessons on differ-
ent qualities in tlie same object, or lessons on a single quality
with various objects ?
4G2 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG.
ANIMALS AND PLANTS.
30. State why lessons on animals are useful for object-teaching.
31. Mention animals and their characteristics that may be observed
by children during their first year in school.
33. State the kind of lessons on animals that are appropriate for the
older pupils in a primary school.
33. Should such attention be given to lessons on single animals as
Avill prepare for subsequent lessons on their classification ?
34. Mention some of the uses of lessons on plants, for young pupils.
35. State some of the important features of lessons on plants, as a
means of developing habits of observation.
3G. What is the general cliaracter of the instruction relative to plants
which is suitable for i)rimary pupils ?
37. Write a brief outline of a course of instruction for object lessons
on one of the following topics : form, color, qualities, animals,
plants, ohjects.
[X.B. — For information relating to object-teaching, and methods for teach-
ing different topics, see previous pages in this book ; also I'rimari/
Object Lcssons.J
«
NUMBER AND ARITIBIETIC.
%^ 1. What should constitute the first lessons in numlyer?
2. On what must the child's knowledge of arithmetic be based?
• ^ 3. State the three steps necessary to complete the process of in-
struction in each subject in arithmetic.
n/ 4. State a method for teaching pupils to add readily and accurate-
ly, without counting.
5. Give examples of a good method for teaching the following
rules: addition, snUraction, imdtiplication, division.
G. How should lessons on the taNes of loeiglits and measures be in-
troduced to a class ?
7. What are the principal ste2)S in teaching notation and numera-
tion?
8. In oral arithmetic, what points should be kejjt in view in decid-
ing what forms of solution arc best for young children ?
9. Into liow many steps, or difficulties, would you divide the work
of teaching division ?
^
<
QUESTIONS. 463
10. What should constitute the lessons in arithmetic during the
child's first year in school? What during the second and
third years?
11. What general plans would you pursue in teaching the tables of
weights and measures ?
12. State the difficulties to be explained in teaching multiplication.
13. Write a brief outline of a good course of instruction for teaching
arithmetic — give three or more steps for the elementary course,
and three for the advanced course. State the principal ends
to be attained in eacli step of the course.
[X.B. — See Primarii Object Lcsso)is.^
^
GEOGRAPHY.
1. With what should the lessons introductory to geography begin?
3. What should constitute the first lessons in geography ?
3. State a general plan for giving early lessons in geography.
4. How would you give the child ideas of the world, its shape and
size ?
5. What is the natural starting-place for teaching geography ?
6. What sliould be the general character of the instruction in ge-
ography in primary schools ?
7. What classes of facts do you consider most useful for advanced
pupils in geography ?
8. Write a brief outline of a good course of instruction for teaching
geography — including the introductoiy steps.
[N.B. — See previous pages in this book.]
SCHOOL MANAGE^IENT.
1. What qualities, in the teacher, are conducive to success in school
government ?
2. What should the teaclier endeavor first to ascertain, in relation
to his pupils, as necessary to success in the management of his
school ?
3. By what means should the discipline of a school be secured?
464: MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING.
4. How may the processes of instruction be made to aid in the dis-
cipline of a class ?
5. What means may be nsed for elevating the general character of
a class, in respect to good conduct ?
6. How may pupils be trained to habits of orderly behavior, and
prompt and willing oljedience ?
7. When is praise projier, as an aid to school management ?
8. What is the general effect of scolding, fault-finding, and censure
upon puijils ?
9. State how encouragement may be made effective in the manage-
ment of i:)upils.
10. What is the effect of frequently telling children of their faults,
before the class ?
11. Sliould the teacher's chief aim, in the discipline of his class, be
to correct individual faults, or to overcome them by develop-
ing the jiublic opinion of his class in favor of the right, and
to dislike the wrong ?
~^}-^12. Should the formation of good habits, as to character or the ac-
quisition of knowledge, constitute the chief aim in school dis-
cipline ?
13. What constitutes good order in a school ? State some methods
by which it may be maintained.
14. State important matters to be attended to in the organization
of a scliool ; why each matter is important; also what means
are adapted to secure the best results in school organization.
15. What should the teacher do when the jjupils cease to give prop-
er attention to the lesson ?
16. Mention some of the means that are appropriate for securing the
attention of pupils.
17. State general plans of discii)line that are successful in the man-
agement of school.
18. What means would you employ for maintaining order in your
class ?
[N.B. — See previous pages in this book.]
INDEX
A.
Activity, Love of Pafie
Allspice
Analogy
Animals, Lessons on — first stage
" " " second "
" " " third "
" Classification of — sim-
ple
Animals, Classification of— Sci-
entific
Animals, Branches of
" Classes of 231-
" Orders of 23(i-
Atmosphcre ; its properties . .331-
Attention
" Culture of
404
140
4:20
177
181
202
199
229
230
■235
■239
■334
402
403
B.
Bat.
187
Bay 55
Birds, Orders of 237
" Families of 243-245
Blacksmith 291
Boundaries, Exercises to develop
ideas of. 44
" Boxing the Compass " 41
Butterfiy 198
Caleitc 275
Camel 210
Candles 1.53
Cape 56
Carpenter 290
Cat 182,205
Chalk 276
Chemistry; or. Elements of Sub-
stances Page
Cinnamon
City
Classification of Animals — Scien-
tific
Classification of Knowledge gain-
ed by the Senses
Cloves
Coffee
Color — Additional Suggestions
for Teaching
Color-blindness 110,
Tests for
Colors, Mixture of. 97-
" " " Illustrative
Exercises
Colors, Harmony in 100,
" Lessons in Harmony
of 119,
Colors, Advanced Lessons on
" Effects on Complexion. .
" " by Contrast
" Review of Lessons on. ..
" as Signals
" as Emblems
" Statements about, for
Teacher..*.
Colors, Pigments that represent
them
Colors, Complementary, How to
find 117,
Common Studies, other means
needed for Training
Common Things, Science of
Comparison
" Culture of
Conception
278
143
56
229
374
137
148
93
111
112
-103
lis
120
117
110
107
103
114
115
103
124
118
27
331
416
417
336
2U*
•iOG
INDEX.
Conscience Page 430
Cotton 157
Countries, How locations may be
Learned GO
Cow 209
Cuckoo 23(3
Curiosity 40i
D.
Desire, A 443
Developing tlie Powers of Mind 375
Direction 33
" Exercises to develop
ideas of. 43
Directions for Teachers 34'J
Discipline — School 317
Distance 33
" Exercises to develop
ideas of 43
Dog 185,208
Dolomite 275
Dragon-fly 214
Duck 203
E.
Earth, Proof that it is Round ... 58
Earth's Shape, to develop ideas
of 57
Earth's Size, to develop ideas of 57
" Surface, Representations
of, on Globe and JIaps 59
Earth-worm 191
Education, Science of. 341
" Principles of 347
Educational Terms — Definitions
of 343
Elements of Knowledge, How
the Child obtains..../. 23
Elements of Mental Activity 359
" of Substances 278
Elephant 231
Emotions 430
Facts for Teachers, about Plants. 253
" " " " "Weight 70
" " " " Colors. 103
" to be remembered 330
Feeling, or Touch Page 371
Feelings 430
" Means of Training the 433
Feldspar 274
Flax 1.58
Flowers, Shapes of. 255
Form, Additional Methods for
Elementary Lessons 77
Form Lessons, Review Exer-
cises 81,82
Form Lessons, Advanced Les-
sons on 84
Fruits 170
G.
Geography 49
" First Lessons in Ele-
mentary 51
Geography, where to begin First
Lessons 51
Geography, how to proceed 51
Ginger 143
Glass 1G4
Globes 59
Goat 18G
Grains 170
Granite 274
Grasshopper 195
H.
Habits 437
Harbor 5G
Harmony in Colors 106
" " " Lessons in.. 130
Hearing 3G9
Hemp 158
Hen 204
Hill 52
Honesty 436
Horse 220
How Nature Teaches a Child 355
I.
Imagination 408
Culture of 411
India-rubber 163
Insects, Orders of. 239
Island 51
INDEX.
467
J.
Judgment Page 421
K.
Kindergarten 17
Kindness 435
Kinds of Type used 2'.)5
King-bird 220
Knowledge gained by the Senses
— Classification of 874
L.
Lake 55
Land 59
Language 38-1
" Culture in the Use of. 3S0
" Means of developing.. 27
" Importance of 395
Leather IGl
Leaves, Shapes of 252
Limestone 276
Lion 206
Location of Countries, How
learned GO
M.
Mace 142
Mammals, Families of 240-242
Man's Nature and Powers 364
Map-drawing as a Means of teach-
ing Geography G2
Map-drawing, How to commence G3
Maps 44
" Scale of 47
Materials for Advanced Lessons
on Objects 130
Mechanical Powers 337
Memory 392
" Culture of 396
" Three Periods of. . . .397-400
" Human and Brute 395
Mental Activity, Elements of 359
" Acquisition, Powers of .. 379
" " Cultivation
of 379
Mental Reproduction, Powers of 384
Methods of teaching. Importance
of Attention to 25
Metric Measure Page 74
Mind, the 364
Minerals 273
" Prepare Pupils to ob-
serve them 274
Mineral-letters 279
Moral Action, Powers of 430
" Culture, Means of 441
" Powers, Training the 431
" Training 317
" Facts to be Remembered, 320
Mountain 55
Mouse 188
Muscular Sense 372
N.
Natural History 171
" " Lessons on Ani-
mals — first stage 177
Natural History, Lessons on Ani-
mals — second stage 181
Natural History, Lessons on Ani-
mals — third stage 202
Natural History, Notes for Les-
sons in 819
Nature Teaches a Child, How . . . 355
Nerves 3G5
Nutmeg 141
Nuts 170
O.
Objects, Properties of 125
" Materials for Advanced
Lessons on 136
Object-teaching, Design of. 15
" " itsElfccts 30
" " and Object Les-
sons 21
Object-teaching, Range of 31
Stagcsof ..17, 18, 19
" " Wliat it implies 16
" " "What is it?.... 29
Observation 380
Occupations 282
" Lessons on 285-288
Organs of Sense 307
Ostrich 216
468
INDEX.
P.
Painter Fage 293
Pepper loi)
Perception 305
Pereeptiveuess 305
" Cultivating 375
Pliysical Trainin.4
Sentiments 430
Scliool Discipline 317
" Facts to be Re-
membered 3;20
School Goverumcut, Will a Power
in 449
Sheep 210
Shoemaker 287
Silk 159
Smelling 372
Snail 192
Soap 153
Soda 151
Sound 334
Sparrows 227
Specific Gravity 337
Spider 190
Substances, Lessons to develop
Ideas of 120
Substances, Classes and Kinds of 127
" Elements of 278
" Materials for Ad-
vanced Lessons on Objects 130
Substances, Notes of Lessons on. 157
" Subjects for Lessons
on 100
Substances, Suggestions for Les-
sons 137
Sugar 14(;
Sympathy 405
T.
Tailor 280
Tapioca 145
Tasting Page 373
Teaching, Complete Fitness for 349
Tinsmith 291
Toad 194
Touch 371
Trades 282
" Lessons on 285-287
Training the Moral Powers 431
" Will 440
Truthfulness 434
V.
Valley 54
Village 56
Vision, Phenomena of. 108
W.
Water 59, 330
Weight 07
" Exercises to develop
Ideas of 08
Weight, Facts about, for the
Teacher 70
Weight, Necessity of Standard . . 70
" of Objects — Comparative 72
" Tables of 70
Whale 224
Whalebone 155
What people do— Trades, etc. . . . 284
Whippoorwill 220
Will, a Power in School Govern-
ment 449
Will, Freedom of 440
" Influence of, on Character 445
" training the 440
" —What is it? 443
Willing, Power of 413
Wolf 208
Woodpecker 225
Wool 159
THE END.
CALKINS'S PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS,
PRIMARY OBJECT LESSONS, FOR TRAINING THE
SENSES AND DEVELOPING THE FACULTIES OF
CHILDREN, A Manual of Elementary Instruction for Par-
ents and Teachers. By N. A. Calkins. Fifteenth Edition.
Re-^Yritten and Enlarged. 12mo, Cloth, $1 00.
"Instruction must begin ■with actual inspection, not with verbal descrip-
tions of things. From such iusiicction it is that certain knowledge comes.
What is actually seen remains faster in the memory than description or
enumeration a hundred times as often repeated." Tluis wrote Jolin Amos
Comenius, an exiled teacher of Austria, about the middle of the sev.cutcenth
century. And to the introduction of his works Germany is largely indebt-
ed for the great progress in her schools which commenced during that cen-
tury. Said the great Swiss educator, Pcstalozzi, at the close of the eigli-
tecnth century, "Observation is the absolute basis of all knowledge. The
first object, then, in education must be to lead a child to observe with accu-
racy; tlic second, to express witli correctness the result of liis observa-
tions." On the philosophical principles taught by those two great educa-
tors, and confirmed by tlie experiences of subsequent observers, is based the
system of mental development illustrated in the present work.
The work differs from others prepared for teachers in this important feat-
ure : it illustrates how the teacher should proceed at each successive step
in developing the minds of children. In telluig what owjld to he done, it pro-
ceeds to shov) how to do it by illiiMrative examples.
The present edition of the Primary Object Lessons has been entirely re-
written, re-illustrated, and enlarged. Jt is essentiaUy a new tvork.
The difference between the lessons of this and former editions consists
chiefly in the methods of giving them ; the princijiles of the system on which
they are founded remain unchanged.
This work embodies the results of the author's experience of nearly eiyht
years as a Superintendent of the Primary Schools in the City of New York.
It is intended to present a course of instruction by the system of Object
Teaching, embracing the period and the methods of elementary training
necessary to fit youth for the acquisition of such knowledge from books and
from nature as will prepare them for the duties of subsequent life.
It should be in the hands of every j^rofessional teacher.
Published by HARPER & BROTHERS, New York.
Haepek & Brotiihhs wiU send the above work by mail, pnxfage prepaid, to any
part of the United States, on receipt of the price. '
METHODS OF TEACHIN&.
METHODS OF TEACHING. A Hand -Book of Principles,
Directions, and Working Models, for Common-School Teach-
ers. By John Swett, Principal of the San Francisco Girls'
Higli School and Normal Class. 12mo, Half Leather, $1 25.
An admirably sensible and susjgcstive liand-booli of principles and work-
ing models of methods of teaching. It is tlie worlv of an experienced and
earnest teacher who seeks liere to give to other earnest teacliers tlie best
resnlts of liis experience. * * * His views are thoroughly enlightened and
liberal, and his book is rich in suggestions which cvci-y earnest teacher will
welcome. — ^V. Y. Eveniuf/ Font.
The work embodies the most progressive kind of teaching, and is marked
by sound common-sense. — Providence Journal.
One can hardly open the book without finding something that would be
of value to teaclier or pupil. — Rochester Express.
One of the best practical works on education ever published in this coun-
tr}'. — Vtlca Herald.
The tlieory of education on which the book is written is a sound and
healthy one, and docs not propose to achieve by pictures and general good
nature what can only be accomplished by the enthusiasm developed under
hard drill. — Independent, N. Y.
The book is replete with common-sense, and its practical directions are
clear and i^reeise. — N. Y. Evening Mail.
The author of this volume deals with the subject of our common schools,
their advantages and defects, and the best methods of remedying the latter,
in a practical manner that places his work I'ar in advance of the general av-
erage of those on education. — N. Y. Times.
It speaks with the emphasis of experience, and to the thoughtful teacher
who aims to learn the best ways and to employ them, it is calculated to be
a real help. — Troij JJudr/et.
In every way the work is interesting and instructive in a high degree. —
Wisconsin State Journal.
' Few better books for educational purposes have seen the light. — Boston
Commonwccdth.
In every page of this work the reader feels that he is under the guidance
of a master. — N. Y. Herald.
We recommend it as a practical hand-book, worthy a place on any teach-
er's table. — Literartj World, Boston.
A fresh, practical presentation of the directions most needed by our pub-
lic school teachers. — San Francisco Bulletin.
Deals directly with the practical needs of the school-room, and cannot fail
to be of great service to all who are interested in or engaged with the busi-
ness of education. — Boston Evcninr/ Transcript.
Published by HARPER & ]}ROTHERS, Nkw York.
Haepku & Beotiif.r.s «'?7? send the ahoi-e vwrk hy mail, postage prepaid, to any
jtart of the United SlatAis, on receipt of tlie inice.