LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. §ipt^, drqningl^i !fjj, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. M:A.]SrUA.L OF OBJECT-TEAOHINa WITH ILLUSTRATIVE LESSONS IN METHODS AND THE SCIENCE OF EDUCATION i .BY W. A. CALKINS AUTHOR OP "primary OBJECT LESSONS" " PHONIC CHARTS*' AND "school and FAMILY CHARTS" /-'^ "f/ie art of teaching is no shallow affair, hut one of the deepest mysteries of Nature " C0MEMU3 (( DEC g,f-^M NEW Y0RK^^S^4ir'"'''^ HARPER & BROTHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE 18 8 2 , / i> ... 'J>- ,9>t% Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1881, by HARPER & BROTHERS, la the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. All rights reserved. TO TUE TEACHERS OF NEW YORK CITY, WHOSE INTEREST IN METHODS AND PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATION — MANIFESTED BY THEIR ATTENDANCE AT MY SATURDAY LECTURES DURING SUCCESSIVE YEARS, BY THEIR USE OF INSTRUCTION GIVEN, AND BY THEIR ■WORDS OF APPRECIATIVE COMMENDATION — FURNISHED MUCH ENCOURAGEMENT FOR EFFORTS IN THEIR BEHALF, AND IN BEHALF OF THE BETTER EDUCATION OF CHILDREN, THIS NEW VOLUME OX TEACHERS' WORK IS tiespectfuUn PcIiicatcD. PREFACE. Knowestg that wliich is needful to be learned is a great attainment. Knowing what should be taught, and how to teach it, is a high art. To secure this necessary attain- ment is the first duty of every teacher. To master the high art is like unto the first duty in its imjDortance ; it enhances the value of the attainment in knowledge, and insures success in the great work of education. It is strangely curious that the doing of the same thing may be both easy and difficult — easy when done in the right way, difficult when done in the wrong way. Suc- cess attends tlie doing in the right way ; failure is cer- tain to follow the doing in the wrong way. This is em- inently true of teaching. Therefore, to determine what is the proper way becomes a question of great moment to every earnest teacher ; for on the correctness of this decision depends the results of the teaching and the welfare of the pupils. A person may compare the results of one period of his work with those of another period, and thus note his own growth and progress in that work ; but no per- son can measure himself by himself, alone, and thus de- termine his actual ability. No teacher can measure his own work by itself, and thus determine its true quality. To obtain accurate results of any kind of work, and ar- 6 PREFACE. rive at just conclusions as to its cliaracter, comparisons must be made under many conditions, and extended to a multitude of cases. So the teacher must compare his own methods of teaching with those that have been prov- en to be good by a long series of practical experiments — made under a great variety of conditions, and tested by the principles of education — before he can know with certainty that he has a standard of high value to guide him in the work of instruction. Those teachers whose methods agree with the princi- ples of education, and are confirmed by intelligent ex- perience, stand upon a plane far above that occupied by the untrained and unskilled school-keeper, or that of one who remains an undecided experimenter in this impor- tant field ; and the intelligent work, approved by such reliable authority, becomes certain in the character of its results, and positive in its value. To know how to teach, so as to secure the best results of education, is the most common need in teachers. One of the chief purposes of this work is to furnish teachers with available means whereby they may ascertain what is the nature of the being to be taught, the true character of the work to be done in teaching, and how the impor- tant results aimed at may be attained with a good degree of certainty under all ordinary circumstances. Toward the accomplishment of this object, a variety of methods are described for teaching many subjects, thus endeavor- ing to point out those fitted for the differing conditions of the largest number of teachers. There are many subjects concerning which teachers must seek information almost daily — infonnation which they cannot be expected to have always at their tongue's end, as they do the multiplication table. To have the PREFACE. 7 means necessary for obtaining this, easily accessible at all times, is a great boon to the teacher. To supply this means, in part, and to point out other sources where the desired information may be found, are among the pur- poses of this work. Toward the accomplishment of this, facts upon several appropriate subjects have been gath- ered and arranged for the special convenience of teach- ers, thus saving much time that otherwise might be spent on encyclopasdias, and other works of reference, even by those who have access to such books. It is not claimed that these collections of facts, concerning different sub- jects, are complete in relation to each topic, yet it is be- lieved that teachers will find them specially useful in their work. Permanent and uniform success in teaching must come through the use of those methods which are in accordance with the principles of education ; therefore an intelligent understanding of those principles is necessary to the securing of desired results. From these statements the importance of attention to the science of education — of knowing what are the several powers of the mind, and the means for their development and proper cultivation — become readily apparent. By a careful study of this department of education, teachers may ascertain M'hether. or not the means which they are using will accomplish the end in view in the acquisition of knowledge, and the proper training of mental power. Indeed, it is the duty of every teacher to hioio how to do his work, and also to know why he does it in one way rather than in another. An important purpose of this volume is to aid the teach- er in learning the how and the lohy, in teaching, and thus help him onward in the better work of instruction, while it awakens, at the same time, a deeper interest in the 8 PREFACE. philosophy of education, and leads to a more thorough understanding of the important Avork to be accomplished. The introduction of a series of questions for use in the examination of teachers on matters pertaining to object- teaching, to school management, to methods, and to gen- eral principles of education, is believed to be an impor- tant feature of this work ; and one that will lead teachers, who carefully consider them, to a more intelligent under- standing of the chief purposes of instruction, and enable them to accomplish better results in the training of those under their care. It has not been one of the purposes here to present all the topics necessary to a complete course of instruc- tion, even for a primary school; but rather, by means of methods illustrated with several objects, and by the prin- ciples of education, to set forth the chief results that should be secured through teaching; and to point out means within the reach of every teacher by which these desirable ends may be attained ; and also to prepare them to devise and use equally good methods in teaching ev- ery subject. It is one of the purposes in this book to increase the value of the work of instruction, and at the same time to lessen the amount of the teacher's labor, by showing how to train pupils to teach themselves. All real teaching is self -teaching. It is also an aim to render the work of learning more attractive to the pupils, and practical in its results, by the use of modes in harmony with natural methods of getting knowledge, thereby saving time, and making the work both of the learner and the teacher more easy of accomplishment. Twenty years ago my work entitled "Primary Object Lessons" was published. The facts that it has now reach- PREFACE. y ed its fortieth edition, and also been republished in Span- ish, thereby enabling those engaged in the work of edu- cation in both divisions of the Western hemisphere to become familiar with its plans of instruction, are indica- tions that the methods for elementary training which it sets forth have been favorably received and widely intro- duced. The new volume now presented to the public embraces the same general plan of instruction as did the former one ; and it also extends over a broader field, including subjects for more advanced teaching, and introduces a greater variety of available means for developing the powers of pupils. This volume is further intended to supplement my first work on Object Lessons, thus pre- senting the subject in greater completeness by means of both books. It also specially aims to lead teachers to consider the principles of education by which true teach- ing is guided to valuable results. It is earnestly hoped that this volume on the teacher's work will be found valuable for the variety of infor- mation whicli it supplies for the use of teachers — for the instruction it gives relative to methods of teaching, and the development of the mental, moral, and physical powers of pupils — for its statements pertaining to the science of education and the art of teaching ; also that it may become an inspiration, unfolding to teachers a more thorough knowledge of their noble calling, and im- buing them with an enthusiasm that shall enkindle an ardent love of learning in all their pupils. N. A. Calkins. New York, Aitgusf, 1881. CONTENTS. DESIGN OF OBJECT-TEACHING. Paoi? Stages of Objcct-teacliing 17, 18, 19 Object Lessons and Object-teaching 21 How the Child obtains Elements of Knowledge 22 Importance of Attention to Methods of Teacliing 25 Other Means than Common Studies needed for Training 27 Means of Developing Language 27 AVhat is 01>ject-teaching ? 29 The Range of Object-teaching 31 PLACE, DIRECTION, AND DISTANCE. To DEVELOP Ideas of Place 34 To DEVELOP Ideas of Direction 38 To develop Ideas of Distanx'e 42 To develop Ideas of Bocndakies and Maps 44 GEOGRAPHY. First Lessons in Elementary Geography 51 Where to begin 51 How to proceed 51-56 To develop Ideas of the Earth's Shape and Size 57 Repkesentations of the Earth's Scrface on Globes and Maps 59 How Locations of Countries may be learned 60 Map Drawing as a Means of Teaching Geography C2 How to commence Map Drawing C3 WEIGHT. Exercises to develop Ideas of Weight 68 The Necessity of Standard Weight 70 Facts about ^V'■EIGIIT, for the Teacher 70 Tables of Weights 70-72 Weight of Objects — Comp^vrative 72 Metric Measure 74 12 CONTENTS. FORM. PaOR Additional Methods for Elementary Lessons 77 Reviewing Form Lessons 81 Advanced Lessons on Form 84 COLOR. Additional Suggestions for Teaching Color 93 Results of Mixture of Colors 97 Statements about Color, for the Teacher 103 Harmony in Colors 106 Color-blindness 110 Nature of Color-bliudness Ill Tests for Color-blindness 112 Colors as Signals 114 Colors as Emblems 115 Effects of Color on Complexion 116 Advanced Lessons on Color 117 Lessons in Harmony of Colors 120 PROPERTIES OF OBJECTS. Lessons to develop the Idea of Substances 126 Substances — Materials for Advanced Lessons on Objects 136 Suggestions for Lessons 137 Notes of Lessons 157 Subjects for Lessons 166 NATURAL HISTORY. Lessons on Animals — First Stage 177 Lessons on Animals — Second Stage 181 Lessons on Animals — Third Stage 202 Notes for Lessons in Natural History 219 Classification of Animals 229 PLANTS. Hints for Manner of giving Lessons on Plants 250 Facts for Teachers — about Plants 252 Sliapcs of Leaves 252 Shapes of Flowers 255 Shapes of Roots 256 Families of Plants 258 Poisonous Plants 2G4 CONTENTS. 13 MINERALS. Paqe Prepare Pupils to observe Minerals 274 CUEMISTRY ; OR, ELEMENTS OF SUBSTANCES 278 Mineral-letters 279 OCCUPATIONS AND TRADES. Lessons on Occupations and Trades 285-288 PHYSICAL TRAINING. Physical Exercises 301 Movements illustrated 301-308 Teaching the Movements 309 Sets of Exercises 310 Exercise-drill 312 MORAL TRAINING, AND SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. Facts to be remembered by the Teacher 320 SCIENCE OF C0:MM0N THINGS. Atmosphere 331 Mechanical Powers 337 SCIENCE OF EDUCATION. Definitions of Educational Terms 343 Principles of Education 317 Directions for Teachers 319 How Nature Teaches a Child S.").") Elements of Mental Activity 359 MAN'S NATURE AND POWERS. The Mind 364 The Senses 364 Organs of Sense 367-373 Classification of Knowledge gained by the Senses 374 Developing the Powers of Mind 375 Cultivating Perceptiveness 375 Powers of Mental Acquisition 379 Observation 380 14 CONTEXTS. POWERS OF MENTAL REPRODUCTION. Page Language 384 Culture ia the Use of Language 386 Memory 392 Culture of Memory 396 Three Periods of Memory 39Y-400 Attention 402 Culture of Attention 403 Lmagination 408 Culture of Imagination 411 POWERS OF HUMAN REASON. Comparison 416 Culture of Comparison 417 Analogy 420 Judgment 421 Reason 423 Cultivation of Keason 426 POWERS OF MORAL ACTION. The Feelings, Sentiments, and Emotions 430 Training the Moral Powers 431 Means of Moral Culture 441 POWER OF AVILLTNG. The Will 413 Influence of Will on Character 4-15 Freedom of Will 446 Training the Will 446 Will a Power in School Government 449 QUESTION FOR EX.VMINATION OF TEACHERS 455 INDEX 465 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. DESIGN OF OBJECT-TEACHING. The term ohject-teachlng has been so frequently applied to modes of giving lessons widely differing in matter, ■manner, and aim, that its real import is often misappre- hended. It seems to be necessary, therefore, to explain Avhat constitutes ohject-teaching, that the reader may be prepared to understand the design of the succeeding lessons. Object-teaching has for its purpose a thorough develop- ment of all the child's faculties, and their proper employ- ment in the acquisition of knowledge. It is not a plan of fixed, unchangeable methods, but a system of training based upon and controlled by the fact that the beginning of real knowledge must come through the appropriate exercise of the senses. Its purpose is not the attainment of facts, nor the cultivation of language as an end, but the development, to vigorous and healthy action, of the child's powers of getting and using knowledge by the means both of obtaining and of using it. It furnishes exercises to produce the ability to learn, and methods to aid in learning. It does not signify the things about which something is taught, nor that which is taught about them, so much as it means the principles by which the teaching is performed, and the purpose and manner of the teaching. 16 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. It deals with things, and it considers subjects also. It at- tends to realities and their relations, rather than to ideals and their representations. It furnishes a means of attain- ing clear ideas of distant objects and events through those that are near and known. Object-teaching prepares the learner's mind, by devel- opment begun thi'ough sense-perceptions, and continued by observation and reflection, to clearly understand the important facts concerning things and acts, and their re- lations to spoken and written language. It does not pro- pose that the child shall gain all its knowledge from the process by which the human race was led through the wilderness of personal experiences to the attainment of the present sciences, but it does propose to lead the in- experienced learner into the midst of objects and influ- ences that will awaken the several senses to activity, and thus increase his progress in knowledge. It proposes to guide the young learner till his enlarged experiences pre- pare him to extend his acquisitions through others' expe- riences as furnished by books, and also to confirm the facts thus gained by his own observations. Once more, object-teaching implies. First. The use of sj'stematic exercises with objects, for the development of the power of gaining knowledge ; Second. A training in habits of getting knowledge from objects, models, pictures, and diagrams by careful obser- vation — both of these ends being reached through the guided personal experiences of the learner; Third. The teaching of pupils to avail themselves of facts discovered by others and recorded in books, and training them to verify those facts, so far as practicable, by personal examination. For further explanation of the design of object-teach- ing I will describe the stages into which the work may be divided, and the purposes of each. STAGES OF OBJEOT-TEACniXG. 17 First stage of Object-teaching. — The first stage of object-teaching has for its chief aim the development of the child's perceptive powers through proper exercise of the several senses. At this period it does not propose the teaching of objects nor of subjects, but rather a sys- tematic plan of using objects as a means for developing the senses to that facility of activity which will enable the child to form habits of gaining knowledge by careful observation. This stage of object-teaching should be commenced by the mother before the child is old enough to enter school; and during the first year or two the chief efforts should be directed to the supplying of suitable materials to in- duce the exercise of each of the senses, and, when neces- sary, stimulating the child to use these materials in such a way as to become familiar with their easily perceived properties and qualities — as colors, shapes, hardness, soft- ness, sweetness, sourness, heaviness, lightness, etc. — devot- ing less attention to teaching the names of these proper- ties than to training the pupils to receive them readily. The want of knowledge which the child expresses by those familiar and oft-repeated questions, "What is it?" " What is it for ?" " Why does it do so ?" should be care- fully heeded, and the child led to find answers to his own questions, as far as possible, through his personal experi- ences. The exercise of liis powers which the child gains by that which he sees and does with the objects teaches him the most useful lessons during this stage — lessons which are more valuable than the words which he learns to say about them. It is through such lessons that the 3'oung learner develops his perceptive powers by the con- tact of his senses with the objects about him, and gains a real knowledge of them. Kindergarten training belongs to this stage of object- teaching. And where children enter school without liav- 18 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. ing received any S3'stematic training for the development of their senses, either through lionie training or by kin- dergarten instrnction, this introductory stage of object- teaching should be employed during the lirst term of school attendance in the lowest primary class, as a means for preparing the young pupils for subsequent instruc- tion. The efforts toward teaching language during this stage should be limited chiefly to the names of objects and acts, and to the obvious properties which the pupils dis- tinguish. Second Stage of Object-teaching. — This stage prop- erly belongs to the first years of the child's school-life, and its chief aim is to prepare the young pupils for re- ceiving instruction in the elementary steps of those sub- jects which are included in the course for the first two years at school. Ohjeds may now he employed hoth as a means of develojyment and as subjects of instruction , hut the development and the instruction must he hased upon the pnqnl '5 personal experiences. Tiie iirst duty of tiie teacher, in the second stage of object-teaching, is to supply materials suitable for the ex- ercise of the child's powers, and then to stimulate and guide in the proper exercise of those powers. The ma- terials first provided for instruction at this time should consist of objects chiefly. Pictures may be used profita- bly during later exercises. The teacher must co-operate with and direct the pupil's own activity in the use of the materials for the cliild's development, but should do nothing to supersede the personal activity of the pupil. The child's education comes from that which he does himself. The teacher should endeavor to secure disci- pline of the pupil's mind through the formation of habits of ready and accurate observation. STAGES OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 19 When an object is the subject of a lesson, the pupils should be led to observe those obvious qualities and prop- erties in wliicli it resembles similar objects ; also those by which it is chiefly distinguished from other objects, or which add most to its usefulness. The teacher should cause the instruction about the object to be intimately associated with the facts already learned by the pupils through their own observations. When a snhject or tojyic is the matter of the lesson, the pupils should be prepared for the instruction by rirst di- recting their attention to kindred facts already known, and their knowledge of these used to teach the unknown of the new subject. During this stage attention should be given to teach- ing the children the use of simple language that will en- able them to express the knowledge which they acquire concerning the objects or the subject-matters that consti- tute the lessons. Third Stage of Object-teaching. — The acquisition of knowledge by means of objects, and the use of facts previously learned to aid in gaining knowledge of new subjects, become prominent aims of this system of in- struction during the third stage of object-teaching. The number and kinds of objects, and the range of appropri- ate subjects, are now greatly increased. The principles which give shape to the plans of teaching during the flrst two stages now may be extended to a greater variety of subjects; and objects, pictures, diagrams, etc., be used to aid the pupils in obtaining clear and correct ideas per- taining to these different subjects. In lessons upon objects, the pupils should be led to distinguish those qualities and properties which give spe- cial value to the object, and which chiefly render it suita- ble to those uses for which it is commonly employed. 20 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. If the lessons be on animals, the children may be led to observe the prominent peculiarities of some familiar ani- mal — as a cat ; such as the shape of its head, teeth, claws, feet, ears, eyes, nose ; then these and its habits may be compared with others of the same family — as the lion, tiger, leopard, lynx, and panther in a menagerie, or by means of pictures, and the pupils thus taught their obvi- ous family likenesses and characteristics. If the subject be geography, the teacher may com- mence with the school-room — its shape, boundary, its lo- cation, and direction from familiar places in the vicinity ; then direct attention to streams, ponds, islands, hills, val- leys, and occupations that are known to the children, and from their knowledge of these teach them to understand lessons about similar objects and occupations in countries which they have not seen. If tlie subject be arithmetic, counting, adding, and oth- er operations with objects may be employed to give cor- rect ideas before processes, definitions, or rules are taught. Thus the plan of instruction in this stage also places the knowledge of things before. words in the order of teach- ing, and in the order of importance. It illustrates by objects, pictures, drawings, and examples, before present- ing descriptions, definitions, or rules. It trains children in the manner best suited to the gaining of ideas from objects or from subjects, and gives them the proper lan- guage for expressing those ideas. It leads also to a clas- sification and association of kindred ideas and facts. And during succeeding lessons special care is taken to associ- ate the new facts with the knowledge previously learned concerning the same subject ; also to extend and attach all knowledge, as far as practicable, to the affairs of daily life; and tlms cause the school- lessons to become instruction on real things. STAGES OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 21 Object Lessons and Object-teaching. — Tliosc proc- esses of instruction which embrace tlie aims ah'eady de- scribed, and conform to the principles herein presented, and secure the results thus contemplated, may be called object-teaching. This sj'stem of using objects, and of treating subjects by its methods of teaching, develops the mental powers through a proper exercise of the appropri- ate senses, and leads to correct habits of gaining knowl- edge; therefore, it will be seen that it is chiefly the man- ner and 2>'iir2>ose of using objects, as a means of develop- ment and instruction, which determines whether the plan of proceeding may be called object-teaching, or not. An object lesson has for its matter an object, or some quality or property of an object, which is made the means of gaining ideas and developing certain perceptive pow- ers. An object lesson is an individual or single lesson upon an object, given in a proper manner, for a definite purpose. Object -teaching may have as the subject-matter of a lesson an object, or a topic, or subject of any branch of knowledge. It is a systematic plan for successive lessons, so conducted that knowledge is derived from and associ- ated with objects and the learner's jiersonal experiences to the greatest extent practicable. It may embrace a course of instruction including many topics, with each lesson founded upon the pupil's previous knowledge, wdiile it prepares him for succeeding lessons. It employs objects and facts previously known as the means of illus- trating the new lesson. It is a process for combined de- velopment and instruction in accordance with correct principles of education. True object -teaching implies knowledge obtained by and through the j^t/pH^s jy^^^'sonal experiences luider com- petent guidance. The teacher guides the learner to the knowledge, but requires the pupil to gain it by his own 22 ILiNCAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. exertions. The teacher arranges the materials for the lesson, and brings the mind of the pupil into such contact ■with the materials that the activity of the learner's mind secures the desired knowledge. How the Child Obtains Elements of Knowledge. — For the purpose of securing a clearer understanding of the basis of object-teaching, and its adaptation to the attainment of the important ends in education already mentioned, the reader's attention is here invited to the following consideration of the manner by which children gain ideas and acquire their earliest knowledge. It is a well-known fact that the mind is endowed with power of acquiring ideas ; that this power is early mani- fested through the several organs of sense ; and that by this means the elements of our knowledge are obtained. Even the consciousness which we have of our own minds, and of the mind's power, becomes more complete and vivid as the knowledge of things around us becomes more definite and thorough. The amount of information which the mind may acquire, from all sources, depends to a greater or less extent upon the clearness of the ideas derived through the senses. It is, therefore, evident that material objects and sensible events should comprise a large part of the exercises for intellectual training during childhood. It has been well said that " the knowledge which a child acquires by the exercise of its own senses penetrates the intellect more deeply and pervades it more complete- ly than any other, for it is the impression which nature herself makes upon the mind by direct contact ; while all other media of instruction are but representatives of nat- ure, more or less imperfect."* * 3Iaiiual of Human CuUure, by Garvcy. STAGES OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. 23 The natural development of mind begins with its ac- tivity through the organs of sense, and corresponds in its progress to tlie facility which it attains in acquiring ideas through the influence of external objects. If these chief gate-ways of knowledge be but partially opened, the ele- ments of ideas must pass through them with difhculty, and often become distorted by the passage. But with these doors and windows to the mind wide open, the ob- stacles to learning are easily overcome, and the pupil's progress made rapid, as clearness of perception leads to completeness of knowledge. The earliest exercises of the child's senses excite in its mind a desire to hioiv something about what it sees, hears, feels, tastes, smells, etc. This desire for informa- tion, or curiosity, increases with the delight experienced by new accessions of knowledge, and induces a contin- ual mental activity and restlessness during the child's waking hours. It is also a provision of nature that, as soon as the in- fant mind has taken in such knowledge of an object as its limited capacity can readily receive without aid, the child no longer manifests any interest in or curiosity to- ward the object ; and unless a skilful instructor assists him in gaining still further knowledge, and thus continu- ing the interest, the child soon turns to seek information from something new. But, even when thus aided, the amount of information which the undeveloped mind has power to grasp, or capacity to receive at one time from the same object, is very limited, to say nothing of the fatigue which might be experienced by efforts to attend to the same subject for a long time ; hence the child must of necessity change his attention frequently from one subject or class of objects to another. Nevertheless, after an interval during which the mind has been occupied with other things, the same object 24 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. will afford fresh interest by a repetition of the informa- tion given before, thus recalling the pleasure experienced during its first reception. These facts account for that fondness for variety, or love of novelty, or curiosity, as this trait is variously called, which is so prominent in children, and which may be made a valuable means of aiding the teacher in both the instruction and the man- agement of the class. The same principles apply to the mind in youth and in maturity, the results differing in quantity or degree. As the mind attains degrees of development M-hich enable it to gain more knowledge from an object, and acquires habits of attention which give it the power of observing the same subject for a longer time, there is less necessity for frequent changes. Some objects naturally secure the attention and inter- est of children longer than others, because of the variety of the information which may be received from them, and the greater number of senses and faculties which they ex- cite to action. Objects that move, and those which the children can themselves cause to move, and to assume va- rious positions and shapes, and those exercises in which the children have something to do, belong especially to this class. Now it is of great importance for parents and teachers to remember these facts during the early train- ing of children. In conformity with these provisions of nature, and their relation to the capacit}'^ of the infant mind, the first les- sons of instruction should he short and frequently alter- nate. But as the mind becomes stronger from repeated exercises, the habits of continuous attention become fixed, and its capacity enlarged by development, the lessons may be increased in length, and the same subjects continued longer under investigation. Habits are formed by repetitions of the same acts. STAGES' OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 25 The pupil's habits of learning are cliieflj formed by the modes of instruction employed by the teacher. To attain correct habits, the foundation must be laid in childliood. If a child be early trained in habits of accurate obser- vation of the various properties of tlie common objects around him, he will have a permanent guarantee for the successful acquisition of knowledge during after-years. We cannot add a neio poicer or faculty to the mind by any method of teaching, nor change the natural mode of its development; but we can surround it with influ- ences adapted to awaken its slumbering energies, and thus increase its power of action. Importance of Attention to Methods of Teaching. — It is a well-known fact that proper exercise develops and strengthens our limbs. The mind is subject to the same laws of development, and requires suitable exercise to give it the power of vigorous action. The manner of learning^ as well as the facts acquired, develops the mind, and disciplines its powers in habits that influence all its subsequent attainments in knowledge. It becomes, tliere- fore, a matter of great moment what methods of instruc- tion shall be employed in the processes of early educa- tion, since upon these must depend, to a great extent, the habits of learning that will influence all the future career of the pupil. Systematic object -teaching gives special attention to the manner of learning with a view to the formation of the best habits. The principles of object-teaching require that children shall first he trained to nse their several senses with facili- ty, and to observe with accuracy j that they shall he taught to compare objects, and classify like things and facts, and to describe intelligently what they observe around them. These principles also require that children shall be taught tlie rudiments of each subject presented to them, during 26 MAlfUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. the early stages of education, in accordance with the nat- ural mode of gaining knowledge, before books relating to the subjects are placed in their hands; also that these elementary steps of instruction shall prepare the way for, and lead to an intelligent use of text-books. During the third stage of object-teaching the pupils should be en- couraged to seek knowledge from books as well as from objects, and thus form correct habits of learning from this important source of knowledge. Object-teaching takes heed of the jyroTninetit character- istics of childhood — the desire to use the respective senses in seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, etc., and their limbs in doing. It leads children to ^lse their 2^owers for jper- ceiving, trains them to hnow froin ohsei'ving, and to ac- cumulate knowledge hj classifying like objects, facts, and experiences^ and associating them with the things to which they chiefly relate. Children generally make great progress in tlie use of their senses, in the develojiment of their faculties, in ac- quiring facts from surrounding objects, and in strength- ening their physical powers, before they enter school. Object-teaching requires that due cognizance shall bo taken of these facts, by ascertaining the extent of this progress, and then employing the appropriate means for continuing the })upirs advancement in knowledge in ac- cordance with the same laws of nature Avhich controlled the process of learning before the child came under the influence of school. For the accomplishment of these aims, suitable exercises are provided whereby the unde- veloped powers of the pupils — their defects of hearing, seeing, speech, etc. — are as far removed as the nature of the case will allow. Thus it is the design of object-teach- ing, during all the stages of instruction, to consider first the real state of the nnnd's development, as a means of determining Avhat steps should be taken in the methods DEVELOPING LANGUAGE. 27 of teaching, and then to proceed in accordance witii the needs of the case and the laws of mental growth. Other Means than Common Studies needed for Training. — The common studies — reading, spelling, arith- metic, granmiar, geography, and writing — do not supply all the needed opportunities for fixing the attention and continuing the interest of pupils; nor do these furnish the varied exercises for training the several senses of children in a manner that will lead to a complete devel- opment of the different faculties of the mind. Indeed, these subjects, as too commonly taught, do not lie within the range of the usual experiences of children ; therefore they do not furnish the best materials for the first steps of instruction. For these reasons lessons on the shape, color, and qualities of objects, the prominent characteris- tics of animals and plants, and various other objects, are needed both to precede and supplement the means for- merly used in elementary instruction. It is only when the conditions for instruction are favorable that pupils may be easily led to form those good habits of learning which will secure a proper mental development, and the power resulting from right discipline of mind. A cor- rect hahit of lemming is chief among the imjportant ends to he secured hy ohject-teaching. Means of Developing Language. — Object-teaching supplies the very best means for developing the language of children. The child first learns to use the names of things, then the names of actions, and afterward names of kinds and qualities of things, and words that tell when, where, and how actions take place. His lessons on objects, of whatever kind, continually add to his vocabulary of words representing names ; of words telling the qualities, properties, shapes, colors, and 28 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHmG. uses of objects ; of words representing various actions, and the manner and time of those actions. Besides, by true object-teaching he is led to see, to think about what he sees, and then to talk about it, or describe it to others. He is taught which are the best words to use, and how to employ them, both in spoken and written language. He is tlius supplied with all the materials necessary for a full development and ready use of our language. The matter of developing the language of the pupils, and training them to use it correctly and fluently, should constitute one of the aims of object-teaching throughout all the subjects of instruction, even though not mentioned in connection with each group of lessons. To this end the mistakes made by the pupils should be noticed, and correct expressions taught them. Languarje is hest learned hj its ])roper use, not hy rules. Wherever the characteristics of childliood are care- fully studied and clearly understood, the utility and im- portance of object-teaching, in the processes of elemen- tary education, can no more be questioned than can the necessity and usefulness of the gardener's labor in preparing tlie soil for his plants, or that of the farmer in getting his fields ready for the various seeds which he hopes will spring up and produce the ripened grains and delicious fruits both as the result and the reward of his labors. Whoever studiously observes the means by which the minds of children are naturally developed, and the man- ner of acquiring that which is most lasting in its sub- stance, most enduring in its influence, and most practical in its usefulness, of all their educational attainments, can- not fail to acknowledge the important agency of object- teaching, when directed by a skilful teacher, in laying tlie best possible foundation and supplying the best condi- tions of success in elemcntarv education. WHAT IS OBJECT-TEACHING? 29 Object-teaching. — What object-teacliing is has been described so exceedingly well by Professor S. S. Geeene, of Brown University, tliat I take the liberty of repeating his language in this connection.'-^ "Object-teaching is that which takes into account the whole realm of nature and art, so far as the child has examined it, and assumes as known only what the child knows — not what the teacher knows — and works from the well known to the obscurely known, and so onward and upward till the learner can enter the fields of science or of abstract thought. It is that which devel- ops the abstract from the concrete, which develops the idea, then gives the term. It is that which appeals to the intelligence of the child through the senses until clear and vivid conceptions are formed, and then uses these conceptions as something real and vital. It is that which follows Natiu'e's order — the thing, the conception, the word ; so that when this order is reversed — the word, the conception, the thing — the chain of connection shall not be broken ; the word shall instantly occasion the conception, and the conception shall be accompanied with the firm convic- tion of a corresponding reality. It is that which insists upon something besides mere empty, verbal expressions in every school exercise ; in other words, it insists upon expression and thought in place of expression and no thought. It is that which culti- vates expression as an answer to an inward pressing want, rather than by a fanciful collection of pretty phrases culled from differ- ent authors. It is that which makes the school a place where the child comes in contact with realities, just such as appeal to his common" sense when he roams at pleasure in the fields. It is that which relieves the child's school task by making it intellir/i- ble and possible. It bids him examine for himself, discriminate for himself, and express for himself ; while the teacher stands by to give hints and suggestions, not to relieve the labor. In short, it is that which addresses itself directly to the eye, external or * From "A Report on Object-teaching^^ made before the National Teachers' Association, 1805. 30 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. internal ; which summons to its aid things present or things ab- sent, things past or things to come, and bids them yield the les- sons which they infold ; which deals with actual existence, and not with empty dreams." Its Effects. — " It should be introduced in some way every- where. It will aid any teacher in correcting dogmatic tenden- cies, by enlivening his lessons, and giving zest to his instructions. He will draw from the heavens above, and from the earth be- neath, or from the waters under the earth, from the world w'ith- out, and from the world within. He will not measure the in- struction by pages, nor the progress by fluency of utterance. He will dwell in living thought, surrounded by living thinkers. Thoughtful himself, he will be thought-stirring in all his teach- ing. In fact, his very presence, with his thought-inspiring meth- ods, gives tone to his whole school. * * * Object-teaching has a direct influence upon the teacher himself. It cannot be pursued, even tolerably well, without making it manifest to any one that the great object of teaching is to deal with ideas rather than to crowd the memory with words. He who can give an object les- son well is capable of giving any lesson well, because he has learned that it is the reality, and not the expression of it, that is the chief object to be gained. He who makes it his first, second, and last aim to teach realities will soon discover two essential conditions : he must know the present capacity and attainments of the child, and then what realities are suited to them. " If it were not for one fact, our primary schools would Lave cabinets of natural objects as varied as those that fill the halls of our highest institutions, and that is the simple fact that children can remember words, as words, without associating them with any idea tvhatever. They can use words which mean much, while to them they mean nothing. They can repeat them fluently, and use them as though they really meant something to themselves, by imitation of the teacher's voice. They can see that the teacher accepts them as though all was right. Here is a double evil: the teacher is a stranger to the child's real condition, and the child supposes he is actually learning something. "One reason why many oppose object -teaching is the fact THE RANGE OF OBJECT-TEACHING. 31 that they cannot readily free themselves from the impression that their knowledge of the subjects to be taught is somehow neces- sarily connected with the language of the text-book. They have never tried to disengage it from the particular forms into which some author has moulded it. They use technical terras, and often the worst of technical terms, because they know no other. There is an almost servile dependence upon the use of certain terms; and if the whole truth were known, it might appear that the idea is not sufficiently mastered to disengage it from the term. IIow can such a teacher do otherwise than cling to his authority ? *' The very essence of teaching lies in a living apprehension of the subject itself; such an apprehension as will enable the teacher to adapt his instruction to the child's real wants ; which is just ■what a text-book cannot do. Teach realities is the true teach- er's motto. To this he commits himself; nay, crosses the river and burns the bridge. He is ashamed of his teaching if it is anything short of this. Hence his ingenuity, his aptness, his ver- satility, liis varied resorts in an emergency. He can teach with a text-book or without it. A text-book in his hand becomes alive.''^* The Range of Object-teaching, — "It draws its mate- rials from all branches of knowledge, dealing with things which can interest the child or exercise his mind. Thus it is Natural History for children ; for it directs their attention to animals of all classes, domestic and others, their qualities, habits, uses, — to trees, and plants, and flowers, — to the metals, and other minerals, which are in constant use. " It is Physical Science for children ; for it leads them to ob- serve the phenomena of nature, the sun, moon, and stars, and the seasons, with the light and heat which mark the changes of weather, with clouds, rain, dew, snow, and the properties of tlie bodies which form the mass of matter around us. " It is Domestic Economy for children ; for it exhibits to them the things and processes daily used in their homes, and the way to use them rightly. " It is Industrial and Social economy for children ; for it leads * Greene. 32 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. them to observe the various trades, and processes in different art- occupations, and the arrangements as to the division of hibor whicli society has sanctioned for carrying these on in harmony and mutual dependence. " It is Physiology for children ; for it causes them to learn from their own bodies the uses of the various members for phys- ical and mental ends, and tells the way to use them best to avoid their abuse. " It is the Science of Common Things for children ; for it dis- regards nothing whicli can come under their notice in their con- tact with the world around them, and in their intercourse with their fellows or their superiors."* " Object Lessons should be extended to a range of things far wider than now. They should include those of the fields and the hedges, the quarry and the sea-shore. They should not cease with early childhood, but should be so kept up during youth as insensibly to merge into the investigations of the naturalist and the man of science. " Having gained due familiarity with the simpler properties of inorganic objects, the child should by the same process be led on to a like exhaustive examination of the things it picks up in its daily walks — the less complex facts they present being alone noticed at first. In plants, the color, number, and forms of the petals, and shapes of the stalks and leaves. In insects, the num- ber of the wings, legs, antennse, and their colors. As these be- come fully appreciated and invariably observed, further facts may be successively introduced. Here we have but to follow Nature's leadings. Where can be seen an intenser delight than that of children picking up new flowers, and watching new insects, or hoarding pebbles and shells ? " The consistent follower of Bacon, the ' servant and interpreter of Nature,' will see that we ought modestly to adopt the course of culture thus indicated."! * James Currie, Principal of the Church of Scotland Trainiug College. + Herbert Spcuccr, iu his Education. LESSONS OX PLACE, DIRECTION, AND DISTANCE. PLACE, DIEECTION, AND DISTANCE. INTRODUCTORY TO GEOGRAPHY. Ideas of location and direction are necessary to an un- derstanding of even the most elementary lessons in Ge- ography. Before children can. comprehend the relative location of comitries in different parts of the world, they must have observed the position of objects around them, and the direction of the same from each other and from themselves. Some ideas of such things are usually ac- quired by children, even when left to their own experi- ence ; but their knowledge of location and direction will remain too indefinite to be of much utility in learning geography without special training on this matter in the school -room. It, is for this reason that the following lessons on Place and Direction have been introduced, with a view to leading children to notice carefully the objects and scenery around the school and home, and insure the necessary preparation for elementary steps in Geography. These preparatory lessons will differ as widely as the locations of the schools and the homes and the objects and scenery surrounding them differ, and therefore they must always be given orally. Not only must they be given without text-books, but they must be made up from actual observations and experience of the pupils. The folloioing lessons are intended only to explain the manner of conducting this oral training, and not as some- thing to be taught to the pupils. 2* 34: MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF PLACE. FIRST SERIES OP EXERCISES. First Exercise. — Teach the children to distinguish the right and left hands; right and left arms, elbows, shoulders, ears, eyes, cheeks, feet, and various objects to the right and to the left of the pupils. Li doing this the teacher may ask : Which is your right hand ? Which is your Uft hand ? Hold your book in your right liand. Take your book in your left hand. Who sits at your right side ? Who sits at your left side ? What things can you see on the left side of the room? What things can you see on the right side of the room ? Stand on your right foot. Rest on your left foot. When the children can readily distinguish right and left posi- tions, they may be led to understand the terms front, back, rear, before, behind, above, over, below, under, by the side of, etc. This can be accomplished by holding a book or other object above the table, below it, bg the side of it, to the left of it, before it, etc., and requesting the pupils to tell, in each instance, tohere the object is held. Second Exercise. — Place three objects on a table in front of the class — one on each end, and one in the middle of the ta- ble; as a cup, a book, and a slate. Then require the pupils to observe and tell where each object is located, thus : The cup is in the middle of the table. The book is on the right- hand end. The slate is on the left-hand end of the table. When several of the pupils have described the position of the objects, each may be changed to another place, and the pu- pils requested to describe the new location. Afterward all the objects may be removed, and different pupils called upon to place ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— PLACE. 35 them in their former positions. Then they may be required to place them as directed, thus : Place the cup on the nearest right-hand corner. Place the book on the farthest left-hand corner, etc. Third Exercise. — Place four objects on the table, and re- quest different pupils to describe the position of each, as in the last exercise. Remove the objects, and then let the pupils place them in the positions -which they occupied when described. Afterward let pupils go to the table, singly as called upon, and each place an object in a position as described by the teacher. Continue these exercises, as before, with five objects. During the preceding exercises the several pupils should be al- lowed to take an active part in each until they have become suf- ficiently familiar with position, ov place, to be able to distinguish the position of several objects, and to replace them after they have been removed. Representing Position. — ^Yhen the pupils are able to describe the position of objects, and to place them in position from descriptions, and to replace them from memory, they may be taught to reiyresent their positions on the blackboard and on slates. Having placed three objects on the table so that one stands in the centre, one in the front right-hand corner, one in the back left-hand corner — the teacher may show the pupils how to repre- sent the surface of the table on the blackboard, and the position of each object on it, somewhat in the following manner : I wish to draw lines on the blackboard to represent the sides and ends of this table or its 'boundaries, so that you will see there the shape of its surface ; also to place marks to show the positron of each object on the table. I wish to represent the position of tlic table and these objects, just as they would appear to you were I to take up the top of the table and place it against the blackboard, as I now take up this slate and jDlace it against the blackboard. Teacher. Now please tell me where I shall draw the line to rep- resent the back edge of the table. Pupils. Across the blackboard, above the middle. 36 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. Teacher. Where shall I draw the line to represent the front edge of the table ? Pupils. Across the blackboard, below the middle. T. Where shall I draw the line to represent the left end of the table ? P. From the up^^er to the lower line, near the left side of the blackboard. T. Where shall I draw the line to represent the right end of the table ? P. From the upper to the lower line, near the right side of the blackboard. T. Now we have the shape of the surface of the table represent- ed, who can tell me where to make marks to show the position of tlie book on the table ? P. Make them at the right side, near the lower corner. T. Where shall I make marks to show the position of this cube on the table ? P. Make a small square iu the centre of the drawing on the blackboard. T. Where shall I make marks to show the position of the bell on the table ? P. Make a circle at the left side, near the upper comer. The teacher will please notice that in each case the pupils are called to observe and describe, and thus direct what the teacher shall do. The teacher must see that the pupils do their own part of the observing, thinking, and describing, while he represents what thej describe, and also requires them to determine whether or not the rep- resentation is correct. After two or three representations of the surface of the table, with the position of three or more objects upon it, have thus been drawn on the blackboard, the pupils may make a copy of the representation upon their slates. They may also be called to locate the objects in the draw- ing upon the blackboard, and to represent their positions on the table. These exercises will prepare the pupils for understand- ing the use of maps when instruction in elementary ge- ography is commenced. ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— PLACE. 37 SECOND SERIES OF EXERCISES. First Exercise. — Lead the pupils to describe the location of several objects in the school-room, somewhat after this manner : The door is in the left-hand corner of the room. The windows are on the right-liand side of the room. The stove is in tlie centre of the room. The teaclier's desk is in the front part of the room. The cliair is back of the teacher's desk. The closet is at the right of the desk. The teacher may also ask questions similar to the following : Where is the ceiling of this room ? Where is the blackboard ? What room is nearest this ? AVhat room on the left of this ? What room back of this ? How many class-rooms are there on this floor ? Eepresent the shape of this room on the blackboard, and the position of the prominent objects in the room that occupy space on the floor. Let pupils copy the representation on their slates. Second Exercise. — Request the pupils to draw on their slates the boundaries of the class-room, and represent the posi- tion of the objects in it from their own observation. Third Exercise. — Let the pupils draw the outline shape of one floor of the school building, and represent the location of the several rooms on the floor. Other Exercises. — Talk with the pupils about the differ- ent kinds of rooms at home, and encourage them to make draw- ings of single rooms, also of several rooms of a house, as kitchen, dining-room, pantry, hall, parlor, bedroom, etc. Encourage the pupils to represent the location of objects about the school-house, as streets, yards, etc. 38 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF DIRECTION. First Exercise — Simple Direction. — The first lesson may be a simple one of direction alone. Request the children to point toward objects in the school-room ; then toward the streets near, as eacli is named by the teacher; also toward the nearest house, store, church, railroad, river, pond, canal, mountain, hill, village, etc. Of course the location of the school, and the objects surround- ing it, must determine what the teacher will ask the pupils to point at. Second Exercise — To Show the Necessity of Fixed. Points of Direction. — For the accomplishment of this purpose the teacher might say to the pupils: ""When I asked you about the position of different objects in this room, you said that one of them was located at your right hand, an- other one at your left hand, and so on. Now observe where I stand, and tell me whicli way I must walk to go to the door." " You must go toward the right." After turning half-way around, the teacher says, " Now must I go to the right to find the door?" " No, the door is behind you." Turning half around again, the teacher asks, " ^lust I go to the right, now, to find the door ?" " No, the door is in front of you." "Thus you see that you must know where and how the per- son stands before you can direct him, by the use of the terms right or left, which way he must go to find any given object. Suppose a person should inquire the way to the post-office, could you inform him by saying ' Go toward the right,' if you did not ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— DIRECTIOX. 39 see ^v'hethcr his right hand was on the side toward the post- ofiicc ? " You perceive that it would be very difficult to direct people where distant objects and places may be found without having some fixed points of direction which all understand. There are such fixed points commonly known, and these I propose to teach you in the next lesson." Third Exercise— Points of Compass.— You may point in the direction in which you see the sun at noon. Ycry well. At noon the sun is in the south. Now point toward the south. Point in the direction in which you see the sun in the morning. "We say the sun rises in the morning, and sets in the evening. Now point to the place where the sun rises. Now point to the place wliere the sun sets. The place where the sun rises is called the east. You may point toward the east. Tlie place where the sun sets is called the tcest. You may point toward the west. What can you see in this room that is east of you? What can you see that is icest of you? John, you may walk in this room toward the east. James, you may walk toward the west. My bedroom has windows on one side of it. In tlie morning, when the sun rises, it shines in at my windows. On which side of the house is my bedroom ? On wliich side of my room are the windows ? Does the sun shine into your bedroom in the morning ? Through wliich window in the school-room will the sun shine in the morning ? Through which in the afternoon ? As I was walking the other day, I saw the sun before me, appear- ing like a very large red ball, sinking behind the hills. In what direction must I have been walking ? At the close of the lesson the children may repeat : The place where the sun rises is called the east. The place where the sun sets is called the West. The place where we see the sun at noon is called south. Fourth Exercise — Points of Compass.— You may point toward the east. Point toward tlie west. You may now point in the direction in which you see the sun at noon. What 40 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. is the place called where the sun is seen at noon? You may point toward the south. The class may stand with backs toward the south, and right hands toward the east. Now the direction in front of you is called the north. You may point toward the north. Point toward the west with your left hand. Turn your face toward the south. Now point toward the east with your left hand, and toward the west with your right hand. Once more stand with your right hand toward the east and your left hand toward the west. The point before you is called ,* and the point behind you is called the .* The point at your right hand is .* The point at your left hand is .* Four pupils may now be called uj^on to walk, in the school-room, in the direction of the four points of compass. Let each pupil be required to tell, before returning to his seat, in what direction he walked, also in what direction he must go to return to his seat. The class may stand facing the north. Now point in the direc- tion between north and east. The point between north and east is called north-east. Now point in the direction between 7iorth and west. The point between north and west is called north-west. The class may face toward the south. Now point in the direction between south and east. The point between south and east is called south-east. Point toward the south-east. Point in the direction between south and west. The point be- tween south and west is called south-west. Point toward the south- west. The class may now point as I name the direction : — south; south- west ; south - east ; east ; north ; north - cast ; north - west ; west ; south-west ; north-east ; south-east ; north ; south ; etc. When the members of the entire class are thus called to point simultaneously, it is necessary to train them to be self-reliant, and to point without waiting to see how their class-mates do. To secure this independent action of each pupil let the teacher point at the same time in a different direction from the one given to the class, thus : Teacher says, " Point to the east ;" but at the same time the teacher points toward the south. Teacher says, " Point toward the * Let the children supply the ellipsis. ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— DIRECTION. 41 north," but points toward the west. Teacher says, " Point toward the south-east," but points toward the south-west. By this means the children soon learn to point toward the direction named, regardless of the way in which others point. This plan will materially aid in training the pupils to knoiv all the points of the compass with certainty, and also is suitable for rapidly reviewing large classes in this subject. "Boxing the Compass." — Beside the eight points of compass, already named, there are eight others, making sixteen altogether. All of these are used by sailors. A sailor is said to be able to "Box the Compass" when he can name these sixteen points in their order, thus : North, north-north-east, north-east, east-north-east, east, east-south- east, south-east, south -south -east, south, south- south -w'est, south- west, west-south-west, west, west-north-west, north-west, north-north- west. Fifth Exercise. — ^lien the pupils have learned to point out and. name each of the eight directions commonly known as " the points of compass," let them be required to apply this knowledge in stating the directions of objects in the vicinity of the school. Let them tell what direction different members of the class must take in coming to school, also what directions must be taken by them in going home. Suppose you were walking toward the north in the morning, over whicli shoulder would you look for the sun ? Which way would you look for the sun if walking north in the afternoon ? Sujjpose you were walking toward the sun at noon, in what direction would you be going ? Does a street cross the one which passes by the school -room ? In what direction does it run ? Which way from us is that street ? Do any of you live on it? If you were going home, in what direc- tions would you go ? 42 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF DISTANCE. In the natural modes of learning, children take notice of dis- tance as well as of direction. This, therefore, becomes an im- portant item in the elementary steps of instruction preparatory to lessons in geography. Inasmuch as the subjects of " Size," "Length," "Measure," "Distance," etc., have been presented in "Primary Object Lessons" [on pages 261-281], the teacher will do well to examine what is said there relative to the more ele- mentary steps in the presentation of these subjects, and espe- cially the suggestions pertaining to "Distance" [on page 275]. In addition to the lessons there presented, it is also desirable that the teacher should give a few exercises which will cause the pupils to associate ideas of direction and distance as their at- tention is given to familiar objects, places, etc., in the vicinity of the school-house, during these lessons introductory to geog- raphy. First Exercise — Naming Relative Distances. — Re- quest the pupils to name two streets running the same way, and tell which is more distant. Let them name the pupils that live nearest to the school in the same direction from it, also those that live most distant. Let them name streams, hills, ponds, orchards, fields, etc., that are near, and those that are distant. Let them also name objects, buildings, or places that arc in dif- ferent directions from the school, and tell which arc nearer and which more distant. Let them mention places that are about half a mile distant, also those that are a mile distant, etc. Representing Relative Distances. — The teacher may now represent on the blackboard the direction and relative dis- tances of several of the objects, places, etc., named, and then re- quest the pupils to copy these on their slates. Afterward the ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— DISTANCE. 43 pupils may be requested to represent on tlicir slates the direc- tion and relative distances of other places, as the teacher names them. The pupils may represent tlie location of the school-room near the centre of their slates ; then draw lines to represent the streets that pass the school. Direct the pupils to write North at the top of the slate, South at the bottom, East at the right-hand side, West at the left-hand side. Then request them to represent the objects, places, etc., that are north of the school, in their relative positions toward the toj) of the slate ; then the places that are south of the school toward the bot- tom of the slate; and those east of the school toward the right-hand side ; and those icest of the school toward the left-hand side. Similar exercises may be continued, as the condition and prog- ress of the class seem to demand. These will be interesting from the fact that they furnish the children with something to do, and will aid in preparing them to understand the representations by maps. Such lessons may be extended so as to embrace all prominent objects and places within the 2^ersonal observation of the piqnls ; as churches, school-liouses, villages, railroad, depot, river, manu- factory, lake, mountain, mine, etc., even though several miles may be included in the distances. 44 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. TO DEVELOP IDEAS OF BOUNDARIES AND MAPS. Teaclier. I will now try to make a drawinj]^ or map of this room on the blackboard, and I wish you to tell me where to place lines to represent the different parts of it. First I will tell you some im- portant facts which must be remembered when drawing a map of any place : The marks representing the north part, side, or end of the object must be placed at the top of the blackboard or slate, and those rep- resenting the south part at the bottom of the board ; those repre- senting the east at the right-hand side ; those representing the west at the left-hand side. I will write the words NbrtJi, South, East^West, on the top, bottom, and sides of the blackboard to help you in remembering what I have just told you. Now where shall I draw a line to represent the north end of this room ? Pupils. Near the top of the blackboard. [The teacher then draws a horizontal hue near the top of the blackboard.] 2'. Where must I make a line to represent the south end of this room ? P. Near the bottom of the blackboard. [The teacher draws a line in the proper position.] T. Point toward the east side of the room. "Where shall I draw a line to represent that side ? P. On the right-hand side of the blackboard. [The teacher draws a vertical line on the right-hand side, so as to connect the two horizontal lines previously made.] r. Point toward tlie west side of this room. "Where shall I draw a line to represent that side ? P. On the left-hand side of the blackboard. [The teacher makes the line in its proper position.] T. What shape do these four lines form ? P. An oblong, or parallelogram. T. Now observe and tell me in which direction this room is longer. Does the drawing on the blackboard represent tlie room longer from north to south than from east to west? Now take your slates and copy the drawing, which I made to represent this room, ou your slates. ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— BOUNDARIES AND MARS. 45 Where did you make the line to represent the north end of the room ? On what part of j-our shite did you draw the line to repre- sent the east side of the room ? Now tell me what part of the room these four lines represent. Have we drawn anything to show where the door and windows are ? Look at the door and then tell me in which part of the room it is. Pupils. The door is in the north end of the room, near the w-est side. Teacher. Then where shall I make marks to show the position of the door ? Look at the windows and tell me where they are. Where shall I make marks to show the position of the windows in this room ? We now have a drawing of the walls of this I'oom, and the places for the door and windows marked. Now you may place marks in the drawings on your slates to show where the door and win- dows are. Next we will make marks to show where my desk stands; then some for the stove ; then some to represent the places for your scats. Thus proceed until the drawing on the blackboard represents the positions of the principal objects in the room, and then re- quire the pupils to copy the same on their slates. It might be well to draw an outline of the school-room on the floor with chalk, then to select objects to represent the different articles of furniture, and request the pupils to place them in their relative positions within this drawing. Boundaries. — Tmdicr. What parts of the room do the lines which I drew on the blackboard to show the shape of this room represent ? Pujnls. The walls of the room. T. How many walls has this room ? Then this room has a wall on each of its four sides. These walls are the boundaries of the room ; they fix its size. How many walls bound this room ? How did I represent these walls, or boundaries, on the blackboard ? P. By four lines. T. You say that the walls bound a room; now if you should see a yard with a fence on each of its sides, what would you say bounds the yard ? i P. The fence. T. Yes, the fences around yards, or the fences or stone walls 4G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. around fields bound the yards or fields. In the city a square, or block, is bounded by streets. So if you wish to make a map or drawing of a field, you must draw lines to represent its fences; if you w'ish to make a map of a block or square in the city, you must draw lines to represent the streets that surround it. Play-grounds. — For the next lesson the teacher may show the pupils, as before, how to draw a plan or map of the play- grounds, or school-yard. The teacher may talk with the pupils, and question them somewhat as follows, but of course adapting the conversation to the circumstances, objects, etc., which sur- round the school : You have learned about the school-room, and how to make a drawing of it on your slates; now we will make a drawing of the play-ground and of the street. Which way from the school-room is the play-ground? Which way is the street? Where shall I draw the line to represent the north end of the play-ground ? Where the line for the south end ? Proceed in a similar manner with all the lines for the boundaries; then locate the objects of the play-ground, as the swing, the place for ball-playing, etc. Where is the street? "In front of the school-room." In what direction does it extend? " North and south," or " east and west," as the case may be. Do any of you live on this street ? Which way js your home from the school-room ? Which one of you, who does not live on this street, goes along it on his way home from school ? Now let us draw this street on the board. You said this street was in front of the school-room ; now will you tell me which way the front is ? " West." Then the street passes along tlie west side of the school-room. In what directions did you tell me it extended ? If it extends north and south, how must I place the lines on the board to represent it ? " You must draw them from the top to the bottom." Now draw them on your slates. Does any street cross tlie one which passes by the school-room? In what direction does that run ? Which way from us is that street ? Do any of you live on it ? If you were going home, in what direc- tion would you go ? How shall I represent it on the board ? Similar questions may be asked about all the principal streets in the vicinity, and each one drawn ; and while doing this, the children should be led to observe " relative distances." ILLUSTRATED LESSONS— BOUNDARIES AND MAPS. 47 When tlie pupils become able to make good representations of the school-room and play-grounds, as already described, they may be taught to represent in a similar manner the streets, build- ings, etc., situated near the school ; or, if the school be in the country, the pupils may repi'oscnt the boundaries of the fields in the vicinity. Scale of a Map. — To give the pupils some idea of a *' scale of maps," the teacher may draw two maps of the school- room on the blackboard — one quite small, and the other about four times longer and wider ; then request the pupils to observe and tell how they differ. Care should be taken to have the pupils notice that the two drawings are alike in shape, and that they differ in size only. One pupil may take a foot-rule and measure the blackboard, to find its length and its width. One pupil may measure one side of this class-room, and another one may measure one end of it. " The blackboard is six feet long and three feet wide." " This room is twenty-four feet long." " It is eighteen feet wide." Draw Class-room by Scale. — Very well; now we will make a drawing of this room on the blackboard. Let us make the length of it twenty-four inches, and the width eighteen inches; then each inch of the drawing will represent one foot of the room. "Which cud of tlie room did you measure? "The north end." How many feet is it? "Eighteen feet." How many inches long must I draw the line to represent this end ? " Eighteen inches long." Where must I place the line to represent the north boundary of any object? "At tlie top of the board." Which side did you measure? "The east side." Then where must I draw the line on the board to represent the boundary on the east side ? " At the right side of the board, from the end of the line that represents the north end, downward." Where must I draw a line to represent the boundary of the west side of the room ? " At the left side of the board, from the end of the line that represents the north end." How long is the south end of this room ? " Eighteen feet." 48 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. How long and where must I draw . for pouncJ. 4 " " one C|uarter of a pound. 100 pounds make one hundred-weight. " cwt. for 100 pounds. 20 hundred-weight make one ton. 2000 pounds make one ton. FACTS ABOUT WEIGHT. 71 For pupils who are advanced beyond the simple rules of arith- metic, the following tables are given : MISCELLANEOUS COMMON WEIGHT. 7000 grains make one pound. Sign : lb. for pound. 60 pounds one bushel of wheat. " hmh. for busliel. 196 " " barrel of flour. " hbl. for barrel. 200 " " " " beef or pork. 280 " " " " salt. 2240 " " old ton, or gross -weight ton. 100 " " quintal of lish. 144 " avoirdupois equal lYS lis. troy. 192 ounces " " lYu oz. " 1 ounce " " 4o7i grains. 1 " troy " 480' 1 grain " " 1 grain avoirdupois. 1 pound " " 5760 grains. TROY WEIGHT. Explain the use of this Aveight. Compare the grains, ounces, and pounds with those of common weight. Let the pupils see that the common pound is heavier than the troy pound, by 1240 grains; and that the ounce of troy is heavier than the ounce in common, or avoirdupois weight, by 42 J grains. 24 grains make one pennyweight. Sign : diet, for pennyweight. 20 pennyweights make one ounce. " oz. for ounce. 12 ounces make one pound. " /^. for pound. 5760 grains " " " 480 " " " ounce. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. Explain its use for mixing medicines. Lead the pupils to notice that the pound, ounce, and grain are the same as in troy weight ; that the only difference between the troy and apothe- caries' weight consists in the subdivisions of the ounce into drachms and scruples. 20 grains make one scruple. Sign : 9. ;$ scruples " " drachm. " 5. 8 drachms " " ounce. " 5. 12 ounces " " pound. 480 grains " " ounci-. 5760 " " '• pound. 72 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. DIAMOND WEIGHT. In this weight the grain is equal to ^ of a troy grain ; and the diamond grain is divided into sixteen parts : 16 parts make one grain. 4 grains " " carat. 1 carat equals 3^ grains troy. Some idea of the rate at which the value of diamonds in- creases as the weight increases may be understood from the fol- lowing statement : If a rough diamond weighing one carat is worth $9, a cut diamond weighing one carat is worth $36 ; and a cut diamond weighing two carats would be worth four times $36, or $144 ; one Aveighing three carats, nine times $36, or $324. To get an idea of the relative value of diamonds of equal purity and different weight, multiply the jrrice of one carat by the square of the iveiyltt in carats. An Assay Carat means one-twenty-fourth part ; 20-carat gold contains 20 parts of pure gold and 4 parts alloy; 18-carat gold contains 18 parts of pure gold and 6 parts alloy. WEIGHT OF OBJECTS. The teacher may give interesting exercises by showing the pupils what objects are lighter than water, which are heavier than water, and how many times heavier; and thus develop more fully ideas as to heavy and light objects. Fill a glass jar with water, and place it on a table before the class. Put in the water a cork cut in the shape of a cube, also pieces of poplar, pine, maple, and oak wood cut in the same shape and size. Let the pupils notice whicli sink lowest in the water. Try a piece of ice in the same way, and they will see that about y'tj- of it will remain above the water. Also, place in tlie water objects that are heavier than water, and let the pupils observe that some sink slowly, that others sink quickly. WEIGHT OF OBJECTS. 73 The following tables will furnisli facts that will aid the teacher in making experiments, whicli will lead the pupils to gain much useful information about the weight of objects : COMPAEATIVE WEIGHTS. Steam is lighter than gas. Gas i( 1 ' air. Air It t ' cork. Cork (( ( ' poplar wood Poplar H 1 ' pine wood. Pine (1 < ' ice. lee " ' ' fresh water. Fresh w ater " ' ' salt water. Oil «t t ' water. LIGUTER THAN WATER. Steam is about xa^mx ^^ heavy as water. Air ' Cork Woo Poplar ' Pine ' ' 1 Maple ' Oak < 2 vithin these lines is the surface. Has the surface length ? Has the surface breadth ? Has the surface thickness? A surface has length and 'breadth. It has no thichiess. A surface is a magnitude of two dimensions. Figure. — A form that is represented l^y a plane surface is called a figure. The size and shape of a figure are determined by lines. Boundary. — How many straight lines form the sides of this square ? How many straight lines has the triangle ? How many lines has the circle ? The lines that form the sides of plane fgures are the BOUNDARIES of those figures. The boundaries of a triangle, a square, or rhomb are called its sides. The boundary of a circle is its circumference. How many boundaries has a triangle? How many has a square ? How many has a rhomb ? How many has a pentagon ? How many has an octagon ? Linear Figures. — Figures that are bounded by lines are called linear fgures. What is the least number of lines that will bound a linear figure ? What kind of line must be used ? What is the least number of straight lines that will bound a linear figure ? What linear figures are bounded by two lines? (Semicircle, seg- ment, crescent.) Ilepresent a figure bounded by two lines. Make three diff'erent figures, each I)ounded by one line, and write the name of each figure in it. {Circle., oval, ellipse.) Make a figure bounded by two curved lines, and write its name. Quadrilateral. — Figures that have four sides or Ijoundaries are called quadriluteruls; as square, rhomboid, trapezium, trapezoid, etc.* Parallelogram. — Figures that have their opposite sides paral- lel are axWedi parallelograms; as, squares, oblongs, rhombs, rhomboids. Polygon. — Figures that have more than four sides are called p>ohigons.^ Eegular polygons have equal sides, and equal angles. Make six kinds of quadrilaterals, and write the name of each. •-• See Primai-y Object Le.isons, pp. 97, 99, 101, 103. t Ibid. , pp. 103, 104, 105. 8G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. Make four kinds of parallelograms, and write the name of each. Make sis difiering figures each bounded by three lines, and write their names. AYhen may we call a plane figure with two equal acute, and two equal obtuse angles a rhomb ? What form may be produced from a rhomb by so changing its angles as to make them all equal ? How many squares can you draw around a single square, so that one side of each shall be bounded by one of the sides of the single square ? Try it. How many squares can you place around one square, so that it shall be touched by each square ? Diagram. — "When a plane form is spoken of with regard to its sha]ic,it is called a figure. "When several lines are arranged so as to represent two or more combined figures for the purpose of illustra- tion, it is called a diagram. Draw a figure on your slate. Draw a diagram on your slate. Circle and its Parts.*— Direct the pupils to draw six cir- cles on their slates with a string and pencil. "Write above them the name of the figures ; and write around the first circle the name of the houndnry, and in the circle the name of the 2}oint in the middle. Divide the second circle into two equal parts, and write the name of the i^arts on one of them. Divide the third circle into four equal jjarts, and write the name of the parts on two of them. Draw a line on the fourth circle to represent the greatest distance across it, and write the name of it on tlie line ; also, draw another line half the distance across the circle, and write its name on it. Draw lines in the fifth circle to represent a sedoril) and a segment{2), and write the name in each. Draw lines on the sixth circle to represent a chord{^) and an rt?-c(4), and write the name by each. Lead the i)upils to notice the differences between a sector and a segment; also be- tween a chord and an arc, and to point out each. Request the pupils to state what is represented in each circle. Lead them to notice that all the diame- ters of the same circle are equal; that all the radii of tlie same cir- * See rrimary Object Lessons, pp. 100, 108, 111-114. ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORil. 87 cle are equal ; and that the radius is always half of the ^ \ diameter. /i\^l/'^\ Lead them also to notice that the chord of the arc of Ij/'T^-^ a sextant of any circle equals the radius of tliat circle. V. l^-:>/ The dotted lines represent the cliord of the arc, in tliis cut. Let the pupils prove tliis equality -with a pair of coniprisses. Sextant. — Draw a circle and divide it into six equal parts, or sectors. Each of these parts may be called a sextant. If a circle be divided into eight equal parts or sectors, each part may be called au octant. Tangent. — Draw a circle; then draw a straight line so that it will pass the circle, just touching its cir- cumference. This line is called a tangent. The radius of the circle forms a right angle with the tangent. Degrees. — Every circle contains 360 degrees. When a circle is divided into four equal parts, what is each part called ? How many degrees has the curved side of each quadrant? ITow many degrees has each right angle ? "Which contains more degrees, a right angle or an obtuse angle ? That which any angle lacks of being a right angle, /. e., that which it lacks of 90 degrees, is the complement of the angle. What part of a circle is 90 degrees? What part is 45 degrees? What part is 180 degrees? How many degrees would an object elevated 75 degrees lack of being vertical ? The sum of three angles of a triangle is 180 degrees. Eacli of the angles of au equilateral triangle is one-third of 180 degrees, or 60 degrees. Concentric Circles.— When one or more cir- cles having the same centre are drawn within a circle, they are called concentric circles. Make two concentric circles. Draw four concentric circles. Are any two of the circles in the same con- centric circles of the same size ? Do two of the circles have the same centre ? Eccentric Circles. — When two circles, one within the other, have not the same centre, ihcy are call- ed eccentric circles. ]\Iake eccentric circles. 88 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. About Angles.— The length of the lines that form an angle can in no way atiect the size of the angle. The size of an angle is determined by the size of the opening between the lines, or the difference in the direction of the two lines. Illustrate this with a pair of scissors and by lines on the blackboard. Two right angles are equal to each other. Draw two, and let the jiupils compare them. All the angles formed on the same side of a straight line, by other lines meeting at the same point, are equal to two right angles. Show this fact by drawing a straight line, and, from a point near the centre, extend lines so as to form angles of different sizes, and let the pupils see that all the angles thus made occupy the same space as two right angles — that they are equal to only two right angles. If one straight line meet another straight line, the sum of the two adjacent or joining angles equals two right angles. Lead the pupils to see this fact by drawing such lines and angles on their slates. Triangles. — The three angles of a triangle equal two right angles. How many equilateral triangles can be placed together so that a point of each shall touch a point of all the others ? Cut equilateral triangles from thick paper, and let the pupils find an answer to this question ; and observe svhat form will be thus produced. The largest triangle that can be drawn within a circle is an equi^ lateral triangle. Let the pupils try to draw it on tlieir slates. Tiie area of a circle inscribed in an equilateral triangle is one- fourth of the area of a circle circumscribed about the same triangle. The area of an equilateral triangle inscribed in a circle is one- fourth of the area of an equilateral triangle circumscribed about the same circle. Squares. ^^ ''^ ^ ^ ^ "^ / ■^ / 1 \ 1 \ /■ 1 ^ •^ "^ / N ^ ■^ / ^ X 1 N / «> - — \ / \ ^/ \ / \ / \ \ In / 1. A square drawn on the diagonal of another square is just twice as large as the first square, llepresent this foct by drawing two such squares; and let tlie pupils learn it by drawing squares on the diagonals of other squares. 2. A square drawn within another square, so that its corners shall touch tlie middle of the sides of the outer one, will be just half as large as the outer square. Illustrate this fact by folding a paper square as represented by the dotted lines ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORM. 89 in this figure, so that the corners of the outside squ.are shall meet in the centre of the small one. 3. A square drawn outside of a circle, so that the centre of each side of tlie square shall touch the circle at four opj^o- site points, will be just twice as large as another square drawn within the same circle so that its comers shall touch four points of the circle. Illustrate this by drawing a circle circumscril)ed liy a square ; and another circle of equal size, with an enclosed square. 4. The size of a square drawn on the hvpotheuuse of a right-angled triangle equals the size of the squares drawn on the other two sides of the triangle. Illustrate this by drawing squares on the sides of a right-angled triangle ; and let the pupils make the illustration on their slates, and count the squares of the base and perpendicular together ; then count those of the hypothenuse. How to Find Areas. — A square Avhose side measures one inch is called a square inch. The c(rca of such a square is a square inch. The area, of a square whose side is two inches is four square inches. The area, in square inches, of any rectangular form may be found by multiplying the number of inches in its length by the number in its breadth. Find the area of a figure whose sides ai'e 5 inches and 9 inches. What is the area of a square which measures twelve inches on each side ? 144 square inches make one square foot. /S/w?r,by a diagram, how many square inches there are in three square feet. ^ Show how many square feet there are in one square yard. Which is larger, a piece of paper containing cigid square inches, or a piece of paper eight inches square? Represent the diflerence on the blackboard. Is one square foot larger than one foot square ? Which is larger, four square feet, or four feet square ? Let ijupils represent the diftereuce between them by making dia- grams on their slates. To find the area of a triangle, multiply tlie length of its base by one-half of its height. 90 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. Measuring Circles, etc. — Take a hoop, measure its diame- ter with a string, phice this string on the outside of the lioop and see liow many times its lengtli will be n^quired to go around it. Three times its lengtli will not reach quite around. Nol)ody knows or can find out exactly liow many times further it is around a circle than across it; but the proportion between the circumttTeucc and diameter is about 22 to 7, so that about 31 times the diameter will equal the circumference. But if you wish to be more exact, observe the following rule : To find the circumference of a circle, multiply its diameter by 3.1416. If you know the circumference of a circle and want to find its diameter, use the following rule : To find the diameter of a circle, multiply its circumference by 7, ami divide the product by 22. Give the pupils examples to apply these rules. Let them find the circumference of a plate whose diameter is seven inches ; of a wheel whose diameter is nine feet. Let them find the diameter of a wheel whose circumference is twenty-two feet; of a log whose circumference is sixteen feet. To find the area of a circle, multiply the circumference by one- half of the radius. Let the pupils try this with a circle whose radius is five feet ; with one whose diameter is eight feet. Find the area of a circle by multiplying the diameter by itself, then multiplying this product by l of ^^, or \^. Let the pupils prove these two rules by finding the area of a circle wliose diameter is six feet. Which pie would be larger, one of six inches in diameter, or one of sixteen inches in circumference ? HO'W to Dra'W an Ellipse. — Drive two pins into a board about three inches apart ; fasten the ends of a string about six inches long to these i^ins, then put a pencil inside the string, stretch it out and move it around, marking a line with the pencil ; or make a loop six inches long, place it around the two pins, put the pencil inside of the loop, stretch it out and move it around tlie pins, mark- ing as it moves. In a room of the shape of an ellipse, a person standing in one focus — a point corresponding to one of the pins — could hear distinctly the whisper of a person at the other focus. ADVANCED LESSONS ON FORM. 91 Foci. — Tlie points where the pins are placed are ihc foci ol'the elli})se. When the foci are near each other, tlie ellipse is nearly a circle. The orljit or path of the earth around the sun is of the form of an ellipse, and one of the foci represents the position of the sun within the orbit. Planets have similar orbits. Axis. — A line drawn lengthwise of the ellipse, througia the foci, is called the major axis. A line drawn crosswise of the ellipse through its centre, per- pendicular to the major axis, is called the minor axis. To find the area of an ellipse, multiply one-half of the two axes together, and that product by 3.141G. A Cycloid is the path of a point in the circumference of a wheel rolling on a level surface. Take a large spool, stick a pin in one end near the edge, roll the spool slowly on the table and the path of the pin will be in the form of a cycloid. Now, if you could turn the ci/cloid upside down, the inside of the curve would represent the line of swiftest descent. If a Iiill was hollowed out in tliis shape, sleds would slide down it faster than they could down a hill of any otlier shape of the same height. This is the line which the eagle makes in his swiftest descent. Catenary. — Suspend a small chain between two posts, and the curve it forms is called a catcnavy. A loosely hung clothes-line, and the curve in the jumping-rope as it is swung, rejiresent the catenary. If a chain made in the form of the one inside of a watch, and sus- pended at each end so as to form the catenary, the curve might be turned upside down, and it would stand without falling in. This curve represents the shape of the strongest possible arch for a bridge. Solids. — Look at the cube. IIow many faces has it? Height or thickness is the distance l>etween the top and bottom. Breadth is the distance between the loft and the right side. Lengtii is the distance between the front and the back. lias the cube thickness or height? Has the culje breadth ? lias the cube length ? The cube is a solid. A solid has thiclnrss or lieight, hreadth aiul length. A solid is a mag- nitude of three dimensions. 92 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. Solid Angle. — How many surfaces has this cube? Point to three surfaces that meet in a corner. A corner wiiere three surfaces meet is a solid angle. How many solid angles has a cube ? How many solid angles has a square prism ? How many solid angles has a triangular prism ? Other Facts. — Many interesting facts may be brought before the pupils in these lessons on Form, which will awaken a taste for the study o^ geometry, ivad prej^are them for understanding it. The teacher should watch for favorable opportunities for Ijringing these facts to their attention, so that they may be presented in answer to, or explanation of, questions asked by the pupils. Sometimes this opportunity may be found by the teacher making statements or ask- ing questions, somewhat like the following : A man had a window a yard square, which let in too much light ; he covered up one-half of it, and still had a square window a yard high and a yard wide. How did he do it ? [See Squares, P^ige 88.] Can you place nine trees in ten rows, with three trees in each row ? Can you show by cutting a turnijj which is greater, two inches solid, or tiDo solid inclies? Draw a figure of luilf afoot square, and another of half a square foot, and see which is larger. Show how many cubes can be made to touch one point. Show how many liexagons you can place around another hexagon, so that each shall touch the central one. Can the figure formed by these three squares l)e divided into four equal jiarts of the same shape ? If you had two balls to be covered, one two inclies in diameter, the other six inches in diameter, how much more leather would it take to cover one than to cover the other ? [Notice how many times the diameter of one is contained in that of the other. The square of this number will show how many times as much it will take to cover the large ball as it will to cover the small one. The diameter of one is three times that of the other; the square of three is nine. It will take nine times as much.] Axiom. — A truth that is self-evident, needing no proof; as two lines may be drawn of the same length. Postulate.— A truth too plain to need proof. A thing so sim- ple tliat no douljt appears that it can be done; hence we are asked to take it for granted that it can be done. j — 1 i SUGGESTIONS FOK TEACHING COLOR. 93 COLOR. ADDITIONAL SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHING COLOR. The great progress made during the past twenty years in matters pertaining to the nature and relations of colors, and the results of experience with color as a matter of school instruction, show the great importance of giving careful attention to the following points concerning this subject : First. Training children to distinguish, match, and name colors, as the means of developing the iKrception of colors. Second. Ascc7'tai7iing, hy means of this training^ lohich 2)upils,if any, are color-Wind in regard to either red, green, or purple. Third. Teaching children, as adva7iced lessons, to un- derstand harmony of colors, and to determine what colors appear %oell when plcLced together. In view of the great importance of giving the lessons on color so that they may not fail to secure the results aimed at ; and believing that variety in good modes of presenting any subject tends to increase the interest of pupils and perfect their understanding of it, I deem it important for teachers that other methods for instruction on color be given in addition to those indicated in my Primary Ohject Lessons; and furthermore, I trust that the additional information also pi ""sented in this book Oi MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. will be found interesting and instrnctive to teachers. Many teachers find it difficult to so combine individual and class-teaching as to secure the best results in the least time. A few hints about giving lessons to large classes will assist in overcoming this difficulty. It is for these reasons, and others stated under the head of Form^ that the following lessons and statements are given. Train Pupils to Compare and Name Colors. — Pro- vide pieces of colored papers, or cards, Avliich represent the most prominent colors, as rcd^ yellow, hlue^ green, 'purple^ vcc\^ proceed somewhat as follows : First. Distribute red, yellow, and blue papers, giving each pu- pil one color. Then the teacher may hold up one of these colors, and request all the pupils to compare the color shown by the teacher with the one held by themselves, and those who have the same color to hold it up. When all liands are again down, the teacher may hold up another color and require the pupils to pro- ceed in the same way. Continue this exercise until the three colors have been thus compared several times. Then change the manner by which the pupils show that tlie color held is like the one held by the teacher, by requesting each pupil who has a like color to stand, holding the color in front of the breast. Should any pupil stand who has a color differing from the one shown by the teacher, ask that pupil to come in front of the class and compare his color with the one held by the teacher; and let that pupil, also the class, decide whether the two are alike. Pro- ceed in a similar manner with each of the other colors. Should it be discovered that the pupil cannot distinguish each color, tests for color-blindness should be made. [See " Color-Bliudness," for methods of testing.] Second. Distribute in like manner paper or other material of oranye, yrcen, and purple colors, and proceed as in the previous exercises. TO COMPARE AND NAME COLORS. "95 Third. Distribute tlic papers as in previous lessons, and ask each pupil to notice what color he has, so that he can remember it when he sees another paper of the same coloi-. Then direct all to put their colors out of siG;ht by folding their arms over them, and the teacher may now hold up a color and request those who have a color like it to stand and show it. Should any one stand who has a different color, call him in front of the class, and let him compare the color that he has with the colors which the teacher holds, and both himself and the class decide, as before, whether the colors are alike. Proceed in a similar manner with the other colors. When the same mistake is repeated by a pupil, test for "color-blindness."'' Fourth. When the children know the names of the common colors, the teacher may request all who have a blue color to show it; then those who have a red color may hold it up, and so on. In each instance let the class correct the mistakes made in show- ing the Avrong color. Lessons may be given in the same manner with each of the common colors. At the close of each of these exercises call upon pupils to col- lect the papers — one the red, another the blue, another the yclloio ones. Should any mistake be made in collecting the proper color, let the class coi'rect it. These exercises will teach the children to compare colors while seeing them, to compare them by remem- bering them, and to learn their names. To distribute these colored papers quickly and in an orderly way, they may be placed upon slates, and one slate passed to each row of seats ; or they may be put into envelopes made of stout paper, and as these are passed from pupil to pupil, each one may take out a paper and pass on the envelope. In a similar maimer the collections of these papers might be made at the close of the lesson. Such lessons as have been described here may be given to chil- dren during their first year at school. Each lesson should be brief, occupying from ten to fifteen minutes at one tinie. The first lessons, which especially ought to be short, should embody illustrations by the teacher, calculated to attract the attention of 96 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. the pupils. Subsequent lessons, which require more activity on the part of the pupils, may be longer. Order of Presenting the Lesson. — The order of giving these lessons may be stated briefly, as follows : First. Showing colors by the teacher; observing, comparing, and matching colors by the pupils. Second. Pointing out, naming, and otherwise indicating colors, by the pupils, so as to show whether or not they can distinguish them. Changes in the methods of representing the different colors in- crease the interest of the children in tlie lesson ; and changes in the modes by which the pupils represent what they know of col- or, also add interest to these exercises. Avoid, therefore, the use of stereotyped forms of giving the lessons, as these lead to me- chanical routine. Other Methods. — 1. Place the chart of colors before the class; call out two pupds ; let one take a pointer, the other a color-card, and show it first to the one holding the pointer, then to the class, while the one with the pointer tries to point to the same color on the chart — the class saying "right" when he suc- ceeds. As these two pupils return to their seats, two others may be called on to proceed in a like manner with other colors. 2. This form of giving the lessons may be changed by calling out three pupils at a time ; one to use the pointer, another to select the card of the color named by the teacher, and the third to take a colored crayon resembling the color of the selected card ; and, while the pupil with the pointer and the one with the card proceed as before, the one with the crayon makes a mark on the blackboard to show the class what color he has selected. 3. For another exercise, let a pupil stand by the table on which a variety of colored objects are placed, and, as one member of the class after another names a color, he is to try to find it and hold it before the class; Avhen "right" or "wrong" will be said by the pupils, as the case may be. When this pupil fails to select the color named promptly, the one who named it may go and find the color, and then take the place at the table, while the first MIXTURE OF COLORS. 97 pupil returns to his scat. Daring tins exercise, the aim of the chiss will be to name the color which the pupil does not know- well enough to select promptly, and thus send him to his seat, that another may take his place at the table. 4. When the pupils have become familiar with the colors, fresh interest may be added to the lessons by calling out different pupils to act the part of the teacher in conducting the exercise. These different modes of conducting the lessons on color may be changed once in two or three weeks, as the frequency of the lesson and the interest of the pupils seem to require. By these changes the pupils will not become weary of the lessons before learning all that is aimed to be taught by them. The children should also be encouraged to observe the colors of flowers and other objects at home, and at school to tell the name of the colors thus observed. With young children these color lessons may be given daily, or every otlier day; while with more advanced primary pupils one lesson each week will sufiice. In each case, both the length of the lessons and their frequency should be adapt- ed to the other school exercises. RESULTS OF ]\IIXTURE OF COLORS. For the purpose of illustrating the results of the mixt- ure of colors, with a view to explaining why some colors are called primary^ and others secondary^ procure pig- ments, in oil-colors or in water -colors. Select carmine for the red^chrome for the yellow, and a light or medium ultranianne for the hlue. Provide, also, a small palette, and two palette-knives. Of course, these pigments do not perfectly represent the red, yellow, and blue as seen in the solar spectrum ; yet they furnish good illustrations of those colors. 98 MANUAL OF OB JECT-TE ACHING. Since it is of great importance tliat the methods of giving lessons should be such as to awaken and secure an interested attention on the part of the pupils, care should be taken to give them an opportunity of seeing all that you do to illustrate the lesson. You may commence by placing on the palette a little of the hhie and of the yel- low pigments. Spread these out, side by side, with the palette-knives, then request the children to name each of these colors. Next proceed to mix these two colors to- gether within view of the class, and ask the pupils, to tell what you are doing. When you have produced the green, by mixing the yellow and the Jjlue^ ask the pupils : " What color do you see now on the palette ?" " What colors did I mix together?" " What color have I made by mixing the yellow and the hlue V Then you may write on the blackboard the following : Mixing yellow and hlue lyigments ivill make a (jreen. Require the class to read this two or three times. Before illustrating to the pupils how another secondary color may be produced, require them to show that they observed and understood what you did to produce the green color. Children become acquainted with colors by seeing them, by comparing them, and by making experiments with them. Therefore, in teaching color to your pupils, it is necessary that you should pro- vide the means for enabling them to learn colors by personal ex- perience with colored substances. You may provide such means by the use of pigments, colored papers, colored crayons, etc. Va- rious exercises may be used for this purpose. Some of these I will describe as illustrative lessons. Illustrative Exercises. — First. Call a pupil to point out, on a chart of colors, the two colors tliat were mixed, and require the class to name each as it is pointed out; and at the same time let one pupil select the same colors from colored cards, ILLUSTRATIVE EXERCISES IN MIXING COLORS. 99 or colored papers, and show them to the class ; and tell another pupil to select a colored card to represent the color produced by mixing the yellow and blue, and show it to the class ; at the same time the pupil with the pointer may point to the green on the chart of colors. Continue this exercise with different pupils until all appear to know the fact that green may be made by mixing yellow and blue pigments. Second. For your second illustration of secondary colors, place on the palette, side by side, red and yellow. After the pupils have observed and given the names of these colors, proceed to mix them together, as before, at the same time asking the class to tell what you are doing. When you have produced a good orange, ask the pupils to tell what color you made by mixing red and yellow. Now write on the blackboard : Mixing red and yelloiv pigments will make an orange color. Require the pupils to read it two or three times. Next call out pupils, as before, one to point to the red and yellow on the chart, one to select those two colors from the color-cards, and one to select a card to represent the color that was produced by mix- ing red and yellow. Continue this exercise as with the one for green. Third. For a third lesson on mixing colors, take red and blue, place them on a palette, and proceed as in the previous lessons, sho\\«ing that these two colors will produce a purple. Fourth. For a fourth lesson on mixing colors, write on the blackboard the result of the illustrations in the three previous lessons : Mixing red and yellow loill make orange. Mixing red and blue will make purple. Mixing blue and yelloiv will make green. Then call upon tliree pupils each to select from color-cards, or other colored objects (without telling them the names of the colors), two colors that will produce another; also call upon 100 Mi\^"UAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. three other pupils to select colors that would be produced by mixing each of the two colors held by the first three pupils. Other Methods. — You can also illustrate the fact that sec- ondary colors may be produced by mixing two primary colors with good colored crayons. You may find it difficult, if not im- possible, to get a good red crayon, but you can obtain good ydloxo and hlue crayons. Take a piece of old white muslin, place it on a slate, or on a piece of smooth board ; make a broad line on it, at least half an inch wide, with a yelloiu crayon ; then make a broad line with the hlue crayon across the yellow. By mixing these colors a little where they cross each other, a green will appear. By making similar lines, crossing each other, with red and yellow crayons, an orange color may be made. By using red and blue crayons, a purple may be made. Similar results may be shown on the blackboard by using colored crayons, but the colors will be less distinct. A good exercise may be had for ascertaining how well the pu- pils remember the several facts that have been illustrated with the mixing of colors, by calling upon a pupil to take a red crayon and make two lines on the blackboard ; then ask another pupil to take another colored crayon and draw across one of the red lines a color that should be mixed with red to make orange. Ask another pupil to take a crayon and draw a line across the other red one, to show what color should be mixed with red to make 'purple. Let other pupils make yellow lines, and show how green and orange are produced. Blue lines may also be made, and the other colors drawn across them to show the formation of green and purple. Take care to continue each mode of illustration until all the pupils understand it; but also take care to change the form of your illustrations of each fact before the pupils tire of it. Exercise for a Large Class. — The following method Avill bo found a simple, inexpensive, and efficient means of fur- nishinu' additiunal exercises for illustralinu' the forn)ation of sec- EXERCISE FOR A LARGE CLASS. 101 ondary colors. This mode is tlic more valuable because it o-jvcs each pupil an opportunity of representing the fact simultaneously : Procure pieces of colored tissue-paper or some common colored motto-papers, each about three by four inches. Select the best specimens of red, yellow, and blue. Distribute these papers among the pupils, giving to each two different colors. The teacher may now take pieces of yellow and of blue tissue-paper, place one npon the other, and hold them up toward the window, so that light may be seen through them. Then ask the children who have yellow and blue papers to do the same, and to tell what color they see through the yellow and blue papers. Request the pupils that saw the green color to stand and tell what colors were placed together to make the green. Proceed in a similar Avay with red and yellow ; afterward, with red and blue. Call upon each pupil to look through his colored papers, and to tell what color he sees, also to name the two colors which were placed together to be looked through. Then call upon all w"ho have suitable papers to show how orange is made ; then call upon others to show how green is made ; and others, how imrple is made. Vary this exercise by asking pupils to show the two colors that will make green ; then orange ; then purple. Make Lessons of Your Own. — If you will receive these as illustrative lessons rather than methods to be invariably followed, and — after becoming familiar with their spirit and aim — will then devise other similar ex- ercises having the same end in view, and endeavor to bet- ter adapt the lessons to the wants of your own pupils, and especially if your methods of conducting the lessons shall furnish the pupils abundant opportunities for showing that they understand the subject, success will attend your instruction. 102 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. REVIEW OF LESSONS ON COLOR. Naming Colors in Groups.— Write the names of three reds; of three yelloics ; of three blues; of three greens; of three orange colors ; of three purples. Dark Colors. — Write the names of two dark reds on your slate ; the names of two darlc yellows; of two darlc Hues; of a dark orange; of a dark green; of a dark j)iirple. Show pieces of paper, ribbon, and worsted of each of these colors, and require the pupils to name the color shown. Light Colors. — Write on your slates the names of two ligM reds; of two llglit Hues; of two light yellows; of two light greens; of two light 2mrp)les. Require the jjupils to name each of these colors as it is shown. Standard Colors. — Write the name of the color that Lest represents each of the standard colors — red, yellow, blue, orange, green, purple. Require the pupils to select each of these standard colors from a group of colors. Shades of Colors. — Write the name of a sJiade of each of the following colors — 7-ed, yellow, orange, green, Hue, pwple. Let the pu- pils select a shade of each color named. Tints of Colors. — Write the name of a tint of each of the fol- lowing colors — red, yellow, orange, blue, green, purple, and require the pupils to select each tint from worsteds. What pigment will produce orange when mixed with yellow ? What i^igment will produce green when mixed with yellow ? What i^igment will produce purj^le when mixed with Uue? What pigment must be mixed with Uue to produce green ? What pigment must be mixed with red to produce purple? What pigment must be mixed with red to produce orange ? Write the names of each of these groups on your slate, so as to represent the two colors which must be mixed to produce the third color, thus : 'Purple. fiZr:::^Orange. TelloW' MIXTURE OF COLORS. 103 STATEMENTS ABOUT COLOR. FOR THE TEACHER. Mixture of Colors, — Experiments made with the mixture of pigments of different colors led Sir David Brewster and otlicrs to believe that all colors may be divided into two groups — those that cannot be produced by mixing colors, and those that can be produced by the mixture of two or more colors. It was found that an orange color could be produced by mixing together red and yellow pigments ; green, by mixing yellow and blue pigments ; purjile, by mixing red and blue pigments ; also, that no mixture of pigments could be made that would produce either red, yellow, or blue. In consequence of these results from the mixture of pigments, the three colors which could not be produced by mix- ing — red, yellow, blue — were called inhnary colors; and the three colors that could be produced by mixing two of the primary col- ors were called secondary colors. Newton having shown that the white light of the sun ma}^ be separated into the seven prismatic colors — red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, purple — it was assumed that sunlight may be resolved into the three primary colors, and that tlie mixture of colored rays of light would produce the same results as the mixt- ure of pigments. But more recent experiments have shown that the mixture of colored rays of light does not, in all cases, produce the same colors that arc obtained when pigments of corresponding colors are mixed. This fact may be easily illustrated by placing a blue veil upon a yelloiu surface ; or a yclloiv veil upon a blue surface, when it will be seen that the color produced is grayish, and not a green, as when blue and yclloiv pigments arc mixed. This fact may also be illustrated by drawing a group of fine lines of blue upon yelloiv ground, which will also produce a grayish color. If fine red lines be drawn in a like manner upon a blue ground, the surface will appear purple at a little distance. If red lines be drawn upon a yellow surface, an orange color will appear. 104: MANUAL OF OB JECT-TE ACHING. In explanation of the foregoing facts, the scientists say that colors are not mixed by tlie mixture of pigments ; and that in the case of ingmcnts the mixing takes i^lace upon the 2)alette, whWe ivith colors of light, as with the colored veils and the colored lines, the mixture takes place in the eye. In many cases, however, the mixture of pigments and the mixture of colors of light lead to results which are nearly identical, as that of red and yellow, in producing orange ; and that of red and blue, in producing purple. It is a common occurrence for manufacturers to produce mixed colors by twisting together differently colored threads, and weav- ing the yarn thus formed into the fabric, so as to make it, at the distance at which it will usually be seen, appear of the color desired. Colors are also mixed in the eye by the 'persistence of impres- sions. You may understand the meaning of this term by recall- ing the fact that a stick with a coal of fire at one end may bo swung around so rapidly as to produce the appearance of a circle of fire. This may be illustrated, also, by painting a red spot upon a black disk, and revolving it rapidly, when a faint red ring will appear. This shows that the impressions' of light and color, made upon the retina of the eye, do not cease instantly after the object that produces the impression is removed. It is owing to this fact that the rotating color, and the coal of fire, produce the circular appearance. Tlie mixture of colors hy persistence of impressions may be illus- trated by means of rotating disks, and also by color-tops. Procure circular disks, each about six inches in diameter, made of very thin boards. Let each disk be fastened on one end of an axle, or shaft, which is fitted in two upright standards, so that the disk can be made to revolve rapidly. On one disk paint red and yellow, in the form of sectors of nearly equal size, and so arranged that each color alternates with the other. Now, by pulling the cord, which is wound around the shaft, the disk is made to revolve rapidly, and the two colors are so blended by the motion that you can distinguish neither the red nor yellow, but in the place of these you will see orange, which is a secondary color. On another disk paint, in sectors, red and blue, with the blue MIXTUllE OF COLORS. 105 sectors covering about two-thirds of the disk, and the red one- third. By revolving this disk rapidly, these two colors, red and blue, blend together, and you will see in their place one color, a purple, which is another secondary. In both of these cases the mixture of the colors takes place in the eye. On a third disk paint sectors of yellow and blue, in the propor- tion of two blue sectors to one yellow one. Now, from what you have already observed, as the disks revolved which contained other colors, you naturally will expect to see green when this disk re- volves. Please observe the result : You will see on this revolving disk neither blue, nor yellow, nor green, but a grayish color, sim- ilar to that produced with the blue and yellow veils, or with the blue lines upon a yellow surface. Varied and numerous experiments have been made in attempts to produce green by the mixture of colors in the eye, or by the mixture of colored rays of light, but without success; therefore, scientists tell us that green may be classed with the primary colors. In reality, all the colors into which sunlight can be resolved by the spectrum may be called primary colors. And white light may be called a mixed color. As far as pertains to the common experiences of artists, paint- ers, and those who use colors in pigments, or paints, red, yellow, and blue may be regarded as primary colors, and orange, green, and purple as secondary colors. Artists sometimes divide colors into three groups — primary, secondary, and tertiary ; the second- ary colors being those formed by the mixture of two of the j^^i- maries ; while a tertiary color is one produced by the mixture of two of the secondary colors. And, inasmuch as these groups or classes furnish interesting exercises for making the pupils familiar with the different colors, they may be appropriately used in giving color lessons ; yet, these classes cannot be regarded as of much importance in matters pertaining to colored rays of light. 5* 106 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. HARMONY IN COLORS. Purple. Orange. Purple. Orange. Green. <^>-een. 1. 2. BIAGEAMS OP HAnMONlZINQ COLORS. Citrino. The above diagrams will aid in understanding and remember- ing the harmonizing colors, and the laws that govern them. It will be seen in the first of these diagrams that the name of the secondary, produced by the combination of two primary colors, is placed at the angle between the two colors that produce it, and at the angle of the hexagon opposite the primary color with which it harmonizes. The same plan of arrangement may be seen in the second dia- gram, showing the two secondaries that produce a tertiary color, and the secondary at the opposite angle, which harmonizes with it. It may be seen by the preceding diagrams that primary colors liarmonize with secondary colors, also that secondary colors har- monize witli tertiary colors. It may be added that the shades and tints of these colors harmonize also. But in this connection it should be remembered that as one of the primary colors loses its purity by the mixture of a little of either of the other colors, its complementary must also contain some of the remaining pri- mary. Thus, if the red contains a little yellow, tending toward a scarlet or vermilion, the green, to be truly complementary, should contain more blue, or be a bluish green. If, on the other hand, the red contains blue and tends toward a crimson, the green should contain more yellow, or be a yellowish green. EFFECTS BY CONTRAST OF COLORS. 107 There is also a principle of contrast existing between colors wliicli harmonize. Thus yellow, which is of all colors the nearest to light, harmonizes with purple, the darkest of the three regular secondary hues. Red, the most positive and exciting of colors, harmonizes with green, which is the most soothing and grateful to the eye. Again, blue is the coldest and most retiring of col- ors; it harmonizes with orange, Avhich is the warmest and most advancing. The secondary color which harmonizes with a given primary is sometimes called the complementary , or accidental, or the con- trasting color of that primary. The tertiary colors stand in the same relation to the secondaries that the secondaries do to the primary colors ; and they are also called complementary colors when they harmonize with the secondary colors. We have already seen that the combination of those colors "which are the constituents of white light are always harmonious, beautiful, and refreshing ; and, on the contrary, that those colors ■which contain only a part of the constituents of white light, as red and yellow, red and blue, or yellow and blue, when placed by the side of each other, arc most decidedly inharmonious, and are held as offensive to taste and unrcfreshing to the eye. However, this discord may be partially relieved by bringing in a third color which is a harmonic to either of the other two ; thus, red and yellow are disharmonic, but they may be harmonized by the in- troduction of green. These three colors are often seen harmoni- ously blended in the variegated foliage with which autumn clothes our forests. Effects by Contrast of Colors. — When two harmoniz- ing colors arc placed side by side, each color not only reflects its oivn proper hue, but also some of its oivn complementary rays, thus mutually enriching each other. When two colors which are in- harmonious arc placed side. by side, the juxtaposition renders them still more inharmonious from the same law of contrast. If a blue is placed by the side of a purple, the blue is apparently darkened in shade, and becomes greenish from the effects of the comple- mentary yellow rays given out by the purple ; while the purple is 108 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. injured by tlie reflection of the complementary orange rays from the surface of the blue adjoining' it, Avliicli inclines the purple toward a russet hue. But these effects are greatly modified by dividing the colors from each other by white. A color is enriched by contrasting it with a white ground ; and weakened by contrasting it with a black ground. Grays increase the brilliancy of the primary colors when placed in juxtaposition with them. Arrangements of the primaries with black are agreeable. "When two tints of the same color are placed together, the light tint will ajjpear still lighter, and the dark tint still darker. Phenomena of "Vision. — Simple experiments may be made with colored wafers, or with small pieces of colored paper or ribbon, illustrating the curious relations of those colors which are complementary to each other. If a red wafer be placed on a sheet of white paper, and the eyes be steadily directed to it, by-and-by it will appear to be en- circled with a fringe of green ; now, if the wafer be suddenly removed, there will appear in its place, for a short time, a green spectrum of the form of the wafer. This ocular sjjectrum grad- ually fades away as the nerves of the eye, which had become fa- tigued with looking at the color of the wafer, recover their tone. If the wafer be green, the spectrum will appear red ; if the wafer be yellow, the spectrum will be purple. Whatever the color of the object, the ocular spectrum will have its harmonic or com- plementary color. In a like manner, if we look at the sun when low in the hori- zon and red, on turning the eyes away there will float before the vision an ocular spectrum of the form of the sun, but of a greenish color. The reason of these curious effects of color may be explained by the supposition that the part of the retina on which the col- ored image fell had become fatigued by looking intently at one color, and thereby rendered insensible to it, or unable to receive more rays of that color, so that, when it is removed, the other colors necessary to produce white light, with the color under ob- TBEXOMENA OF VISION. 109 servation, iminodintcly unite with it, forming the complementary color seen in tlie ocular spectrum, thus effecting the restoration of the exhausted portion of the retina to its normal condition. There is another familiar phenomenon connected with the laws of vision on which the harmony of colors is based. When we examine, for a length of time, a minute object lying on a differ- ent colored surface, as a small dark spot on white paper or in a distant field, the' object will suddenly disappear. The same re- sult ensues when we strain the eye to perceive a distant object of a small size. After looking at it steadily for some time, the more intently we try to observe it the more sure is it to elude our vision. The sportsman, in endeavoring to follow his game and mark the spot where it alights, is almost certain to be baiSed by this physiological law of sight. Let it be remembered that the point of our best vision is directly in the centre of the retina, and extends over but a small space; that the perception oi form diminishes rapidly from the centre of the pupil outward in all directions ; that around the best point of vision we perceive red, green, and purple; that out- side of this circle or belt we perceive only green and purple, and that beyond this belt we perceive only blue or violet; and then consider these facts in connection with the laws of harmony of colors, and the phenomena of vision may be more easily under- stood. These peculiarities of vision might have proved very embar- rassing to us had it not been provided that for clear and distinct sight the eye need not rest long upon the object. A searching motion of the eye, with only a brief dwelling upon the object, gives clearest vision. 110 M^VNUAL OF OBJECT-TEACniXG. COLOR-BLINDNESS. Color-blindness is a subject about which little was known before the beginning of the present century ; and more facts have been discovered in relation to its nature, extent, and dangers within the past thirty years than were previously known concerning it. During the past five years it has assumed great importance in connection with the management of raih'oads, marine service, manufacto- ries, etc. Both in Europe and in the United States spe- cial attention has been given to the detection of color- blindness among railroad employes, with a view to protect travellers from danger and companies from loss by acci- dents. Kot only have railway companies instituted exam- inations of their engineers, conductors, brakemen, switch- men, flagmen, etc., but several of the State Legislatures have passed laws requiring the railroad companies to make the tests necessary to determine whether or not their employes are defective in distinguishing the colors used as signals ; and fines have been fixed for employing any person found to be thus defective in visual power. This matter has also received special attention from some of the members of the medical profession, who have made extensive examinations to determine the nature and extent of color-blindness. Dr. B. Joy Jeffries, of Boston, has examined instructors and students in colleges and art- schools, and boys in high and grammar schools, during the past two or three years, to the number of more than ten thousand persons. In this number he found nearly three hundred who were red-hJlnd., seventy-five who were green -Mind., and over four hundred totally color -hlind. Dr. Jeffries also examined about eight thousand female NATURE OF COLOR-BLINDXESS. Ill teachers, students, and pnpils in normal schools, higli- schools, and grammar-scliools, and among these he found one who was red-blind, one who was green-hlind, and four who were totally color-lllnd. Examinations made of fe- males in Europe show also that the proportion of color- blind females is very small, as compared with that of males. It is probable tliat the early exercise of the sense of color by girls, and their extensive practice in atten- tion to colors during the experiences of life, develop the color-perception so completely in them as to overcome those deficiencies that are not of a physical nature ; while in the case of boj's, who naturally give but little attention to color, the color-perception remains but partially devel- oped, and feeble. Dr. Favre, of France, examined about six thousand per- sons who were candidates for railroad work, and found more than sixty red-blind. He also examined seven hun- dred and seventy-five ofiicers and sailors, among Avhom he found seventy-five color-blind ; and nineteen of these con- founded red with green. Similar results have been found by examinations made by other persons, in England, Holland, Germany, Norway, Sweden, Austria, Italy, and Switzerland. As a means of lessening the danger from mistakes in distinguishing colored signals, several railroads, among them the elevated roads of New York city, have adopted a system of combined Signals of Color and Signals of Form, so that one signal shall verify the other. Nature of Color-blindness. — The sense of seeing appears to possess two distinct powers of perception : these may be aoWed. form-percej^tion, or the power to per- ceive different forms ; and color-xierception, or the power to perceive different colors. In some persons the power to perceive colors is absolutely wanting. To such indi- 112 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. viduals all colors appear only as different degrees of dark- ness and lightness. This condition is called total color- hlindness. In some persons the power to perceive one color — either a red, green, or violet — is wanting. Tliis is known ^'s>2KiHial color-hlindriess, and is divided into three kinds, viz. : Red-blindness — or inability to perceive red, mistaking it for green' and the seeing of all red colors 7mic/i darker than they are j- 2X^0 confounding reds with grays. Green-blindness — or inability to perceive green, mistak- ing it for red; and the seeing of all green colors 'iuuch lighter than they are; also confounding greens with grays. Violet-blindness — or inability to perceive motet, or bluish purple, mistaking red and orange for purple. This kind is seldom found. Tests for Color-blindness. — The method of testing for color-blindness now most commonly used, because of its sim- plicity and certainty, was devised by Professor Holmgren, of Sweden. Tlie materials used are chiefly Berlin worsteds. Col- ored silks, papers, and other materials may be used ; but the wors- teds are best, because these can be procured in all possible colors and tones or degrees of color. The Colors used for this purpose should include excellent samples of red^ orange, yellow, yelloiv-grcen, -pure-green, hlue-green, blue, violet, jmrple, ^;/m/1-, broion, gray, with at least five gradations of each color, from very light to very dark. Greens and grays, and the pale-gray browns, yellows, reds, and jnnks, must be well represented. Method of Testing. — Place the worsteds on a white cotton cloth upon a table in a good light. Lay a skein of the color desired for the test far enough aside not to be confounded with the other worsteds, and require the person to be examined to select other skeins that resemble that, and place them by the side of it. The one examined may be told to select a color like the TESTS FOR COLOR-BLINDNESS. 113 test-color, also two or three lighter and one or two darker ones. The individuars ability to perceive color is determined by the manner in which this task is performed. The prin«iple of the test is to require the selection of one color from many colors, and to select it by its resemblance, and not by its name. It is better not to name the colors during the test. The individual examined should depend entirely upon his ability to perceive and distinguish resemblances and differences in colors. Speak of the color laid aside as the test-color ; the other worsteds may be called the " colors of confusion,^'' or simply the bunch of worsteds. First Test. — In testing for color-blindness use the green test- color first. Select a ^^wre green, one that is about midway be- tween the lightest and darkest grades of the greens. Emerald- green, or the color of Paris-green, will give an idea of the ap- propriate color for this purpose. Do not select a yellowish green. The person examined should be told to find all the colors that resemble the test-color, including those that are darker and those that are lighter than the test-Qolor, and to place them by the side of it. Carefully observe what colors are chosen, and the mistakes made, in order to determine whether or not color-blindness exists. If the person chooses the pale colors, as light grays, with a buff, pink, yellow, brownish, or greenish tint to match the green test- color, or if he chooses a reddish purple or a gray for the same purpose, he may be considered color-blind. Second Test. — As a second test for color-blindness use a light jmrple as a test-color — one that is midway between the lightest and darkest blue-purple, and inclining toward a violet, or bluish purple. If the colors selected to match this by the one who ap- peared to be color-blind by the first test are all purple, including lighter and darker grades, he is not fully color-blind. Red-blind. — If the person selects a dark blue or a violet to match the 2^^i^2^l<^ test-color, he is red-blind. If he selects dark green, brown, or gray to match a red test-color, he is red-blind. Take the color known as vermilion as the red test-color. Should the person select blue, yellow, or other light colors to 114 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. rnatch red, it is evidence of stupidity, or want of developed knowlcdg-e of color, and not of red-blindness. The red- blind never select the colors chosen by the green-blind. Green-blind. — If the person selects a bluish green or a pur- plish gray to match the liurple test-color, he is green-hUnd. The green-blind often place a bright violet or a blue with the green test-color. If he selects lighter greens or browns to match a red test-color, he is green-blind. The green-blind never select the col- ors taken by the red-blind. Importance of this Subject.* — The great importance of attention to this subject of color-blindness will be apparent when it is remembered that red, green, and white are the colors used on railroads as signals of danger, caution, and safety ; and also when it is remembered that success in many of the avoca- tions of life depends upon a normal condition of the perception of color, and the ability to distinguish colors which comes from the exercise of this visual power. By means of proper instruc- tion in school, which shall comprise more experience /in matching colors than in learning their names, the great majority of cases of defective visual power to perceive colors would be detected and pointed out to the pupils, and warning given as to the impro- priety of engaging in any avocation for life in which the ability to perceive and distinguish colors formed a part of the needed qualifications for success. Colors as Signals. — Colored flags and colored lights are universally used as signals. The colors most commonly employed for this purpose, and the signification of each, are given below : Red — a danger-signal. A red Jlag by day or a red light by night is a signal of danger. On a railroad, a red flag or a red light swung or waved over the track signifies, " Danger — stop." If a red flag or a red light is stuck up by the side of a railroad it signifies, " Danger on the track ahead." If a red flag is car- ried unfurled on an engine it signifies, "Another engine on its * Those ■who desire more extended information relative to color-hlindness, metliods of testing for it, etc., are referred to Color -lUudness: its Danr/eis and its Detection, by Dr. B. Joy JeiTries (Houj;htou, Osgood & Co., Boston). COLORS AS SIGNALS AND AS EMBLEMS. 115 way, following." "When a red flag is hoisted at a railway-station it signifies, " Stop at this station." The Signal Service — weather bureau — displays a red flag %vith a black centre by day, or a red light by night, as the signal that dangerous weather or a storm is approaching. Green — a caution-signal. A green flag by day or green light by night is a signal of caution. On a railway, green signifies, " Travel slowly." It is more a signal of safety than of danger. White — a safetg-signal. A white flag by day or a white light by night is a signal of safety. To an engineer or conductor of a railway -train it means, "All right — go ahead." The white flag is a token of peace. In war it signifies a desire to stop hostilities, and a request for a conference. It is called a flag of truce. Black. — A black flag on a ship denotes liiracy. In war it is sometimes hoisted to signify that no quarter will be given or taken ; it denotes death to all. Yellow. — A yelloio flag in a harbor denotes quarantine — a hospital. It indicates the surgeon's head-quarters in the army. Marine Signals. — By a general law of nations lights must be carried from sunset to sunrise, to indicate the jjosition and course of a ship at night. For this purpose the colors chosen are a bright white light carried at the head of the foremast, a green light suspended on the starboard (right) side, and a red light on the port (left) side. These lights are so placed that when all of them can be seen the vessel is directly ahead, and its direction can be determined by observing on which side the red and green lights appear. Colors as Emblems. — Every passion and emotion of the mind has its appropriate tint in colors. Color influences anger, deepens sadness, warms love, and brightens joy. Black is an emblem of sorroio and mourning. White is an emblem of innocence, peace, purity. Red signifies defiance. It is an emblem of war. It stimulates IIG M.VXUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. courage, anger, fierceness. It excites tLc anger of the turkey, and provokes tlie madness of the bull. Blue is an emblem of faith. The tlue sky above reminds of the realms beyond, and enkindles faith in God's promises. Yellow is symbolic of joy. The sensible effects of yellow are gay and enlivening. The yellow harvest crowns the year, and gives joy to the husbandman. Orange is symbolic of richness. Green is symbolic of i/outh and vif/07: It is an emblem of hojoe. Purple is an emblem of royaltij. The sensible effects of pur- ple arc those of grandeur, statelincss, dignity. Brown in its effects is sedate, stable. Gray indicates humility. Effects of Color on Complexion. — If the complexion is that of a blonde, sky-blue, the complement of a pale orange, enriches it. Green tends to add a ruddy tint to a light complexion ; but it changes the orange hue of a brunette to a brick-red color. Yellow and Orange produce a pleasing effect on the brunette complexion. "White has a good effect upon light complexions ; but dark complexions appear worse by its strong contrast. Black makes the complexion appear lighter. The prevailing color of the complexion may be either height- ened or lowered by the dress worn. It is heiyhtened by white drapery, and lowered by black drapery. Green drapery heightens a rosy complexion, and adds more red to the orange complexion. A light-blue drapery heightens a pale orange or blonde com- plexion. A deep-red drapery lowers the tint of a rosy complexion ; and a deep oranye lowers the tint of an orange complexion.- A delicate gi-een is favorable to all fair complexions that are deficient in rose. ADVANCED LESSONS ON COLOR. 117 ADVANCED LESSONS ON COLOR. By carefully observing the effects produced upon the eyes, wliile looking steadily at different colors, it will be noticed that the sensation becomes unpleasant when the eyes are directed to a single color for a long time ; also that relief is experienced when another color is placed before them. It will be found that white light is more agreeable to the eye, in its normal condition, than any colored light. And in order to afford agreeable sensa- tions, there must be white light (which contains all the colors of the spectrum mixed together), or there must be present two col- ors which would produce white if mixed together. Complementary Colors are those hoo colors u'kich, tmited, con- tain the three 2^1'imarij colors; or which, ivhen mixed, xoould pro- duce a whitish color. When pigments arc used in the mixing of colors, the following pairs of colors are the complements of each other: red and green; yelloio and i^ur-ple; blue and orange. It will be observed that in each pair one of the colors named contains the two primary colors which, united with the other color of the pair, furnish the three primary colors necessary to produce white. It has been ascertained by numerous experiments in mixing coloi'cd rays of light, colored lines, and other means by which the colors arc mixed in the eye, that each color in the following list complenients the one opposite in the other column : Red complements .... Bluish green. Orange " .... Turquoise blue. Yelloio " .... Ultramarine blue. Green " .... Purplish red. Violet " .... Yelloivish green. Similar modifications, frou! dark to light, and i>ale, may be 118 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. made in tbc colors of eacli of these pairs, and still tliey "will com- plement each other. If the red be chatiged from a carmine to a scarlet, the complementary green will contain more blue. Even a slight change in the hue of one color renders it necessary that a considerable change be made in the hue of its complementary color. How to find Complementary Colors. — Experiments made with blue lines upon a yellow surface, with a blue veil on a yel- low surface, also with colors on revolving disks, and by mixing pigments, will indicate, by the production of a grayish white col- or, colors that complement each other. But the following are more simple experiments that may be easily made for the pur- pose of determining what color is a complement of any given color. Take colored wafers, or pieces of colored paper, silk, or some other material, place a single one upon a black surface in a strong light, and look at it steadily for a few seconds, then suddenly push away the colored object, keeping the eye fixed upon the spot, and the complement of the color thus looked at will appear in its place. If the object looked at be red, the after- image will be bluish green ; if orange, the image will be blue ; if yelloio, the image will be dai-k blue or indigo ; if green, the image will be ^?M?7;/?s/i red ; if violet, the image will be 7/elloivish green. Colors which are complements of each other will harmonize when placed together. In order to determine whether a color will harmonize, or appear well if placed with another, we may ascertain whether it is a complement of that color by a process similar to that described above; or we must decide whether the two colors contain those that produce Avhite. Harmony of Colors. — From what has been said concern- ing complementary colors, it will be readily seen how we may ascertain which are harmonic colors, as these are governed by the same laws as the complementary colors. It will also appear that a true harmony of colors is based upon something more certain and permanent than the caprice of fashion, or that which is com- monly called " taste," with its liability to become perverted. The laws of harnionv of colors ever remain the same, yet the MATERIALS FOR LESSONS OX COLOR. 119 indefinite modifications of colors allow a corresponding variety in their harmonious arrangements.* Harmony of colors may be properly classed with useful knowl- edge, since it enters into works of art, manufactures, decorations of dwellings, the selection and arrangement of materials of dress, and into various matters of daily life. It is also both useful and interesting as a matter of instruction. But to be most practically useful, the instruction should consist chiefly of exercises for train- ing the pupils to discriminate lohen the given colors harmonize, rather than of those requiring the mere memory of facts as to which colors do appear well together. These lessons will be more generally useful to girls than to boys ; and girls will doubtless take the most interest in them. It now remains to describe how lessons in harmony of colors may be given. Materials for Lessons. — For illustrating harmony of col- ors, procure a variety of Colored papers, pieces of silk, worsteds, etc., of different shades and hues, as dark red, purplish red, light red, vermilion, orange, yellow, yellowish green, green, bluish green, blue, turquoise blue, ultramarine, purple, light purple, violet, light violet, brown, russet, citrine, olive, gray, black, white, etc. The 'colored papers may be cut in squares of two sizes — two inches and one inch. Place a one-inch red square on a two-inch green one, and a one-inch green square on a two-inch red one. Attach the smaller square to the centre of the larger one with gum, so as to allow the color of the larger square to show around the smaller one. Arrange other pairs of complementary colors in the same way. Also, arrange pairs of colors that are not com- plementary in a similar manner. * Those who desire to obtain further information upon this subject, and upon the Seienee of Colors as applied to arts and raanufaetures, may find rceent authority in Tlie Theory of Color, by Dr. Von Bezold, translated by S. R. Kochler, Avitli illustrations (L. Prang & Co., Boston). 120 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. LESSONS IN nARMONY OF COLORS. The following lessons are given as illustrations of methods that may be used, but not to be copied, or literally followed by the teacher : I. Object. — To lead the pupil to simple perceptions of Iianiiony and of discord in colors. Place before the pupils, or, better still, in the hands of each one, a pair of complementary colors, prepared as before described, and request them to notice whether the two colors thus repre- sented look well together. Then let the pupils select the same colors from the worsteds or pieces of silk, place them together, and notice their appear- ance. Change the pair of colors, so that each pupil shall hold a dif- ferent pair. Let them select like colors, place them together, and observe the effect. When the pupils have thus observed pairs of red and green, blue and orange, yellow and purple, place before them pairs of colors that are not harmonic, as red and orange, yellow and or- ange, blue and green, yellow and green, and lead them to notice whether the colors of these pairs look well. Next let the pupils take one of the colors of the non-harmonic pairs, and try to find another color that will look w^cll with it. Talk about colors for a dress. Ask whether blue ribbon would look well on a green dress ; whether yellow would look well on a pink dress ; Avhether red would look well on a green dress, etc. Continue exercises in arranging colors that look well together until the pupils understand that some colors please the eye, while others offend it. If it be found that false notions as to which colors may be grouped together are entertained by the pupils, these should be corrected. LESSONS IN HARMONY OF COLORS. 121 IL Object. — To fiirnisli additional exercise in the harmony of colors. Place before the pupils colored papers, silks, worsteds, etc., and request each to form pairs of colors that look well. Should a pupil violate the law of harmony in the arrangement of these pairs, call her attention to it ; and if she cannot correct it, let the class tell what is wrong, and what color to substitute for one of them. Let pupils select colors that please them best, and the class decide whether the colors are harmonic. Place before the pupils pairs of non-harmonic colors, and re- quest the pupils to tell what changes must be made to produce a pair of harmonic colors. Request the pupils to arrange flowers in a bouquet so that the principal colors shall be harmonic. Place complementary colors side by side, as blue >yith orange, yellow with purple, red with green leaves ; and use white to separate colors which do not harmonize. Add a variety of similar exercises, until the" pupils appear to understand when colors are harmonic, and why some colors do not please the sense of sight. After lessons for observing colors that look well together, ar- range other pairs of colored squares, as follows : red and orange ; yelloiv and orange ; blue and green; yellow and ^reen ; blue and purple; red and jmrj^le. Show these groups of colors to the pupils, and ask them to decide whether these look as well as those of the other groups. Then place squares of red and green, and of red and orange, before tlie pupils, and let them tell which pair appears better. Make similar comparisons with other colors, so as to afford abundant exercise in discriminating colors that harmonize from those that do not. Care should be taken to so conduct all of these lessons on harmony of colors that the 2Jupils tvill be required to observe the effect of each pair of colors, and to decide for themselves whether the colors a[>pear well together. 6 122 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. III. Object. — To teacli the names of prominent colors that harmonize. Request the pupils to name colors that harmonize in the pairs of harmonic colors shown them. Request them also to arrange colors iu harmonic pairs, and to tell what colors they thus place together. Request them to point out and name, from the chart, two col- ors that harmonize. The teacher may name a color, and a pupil name one to har- monize with it. One pupil may name a color, the next pupil one to harmonize with it, and so on around the class. The teacher may name five colors for pupils to write on their slates, and require the pupils to write with each color the name of one that will harmonize with it- Let pupils select colors, and others match them Avith harmonic colors, and name each color. Give lessons in which special attention is directed to ascertain- ing what color harmonizes with a given color. The method already mentioned under the head of "Complementary Colors" — that of placing the given color upon a black surface in a strong light, etc. — may be used. IV. Object. — To lead the pupils to notice harmony between secondary and tertiary colors. Place before the pupils various objects, cards, etc., represent- ing purple, orange, green, russet-, citrine, olive, etc., and request the pupils to select pairs of colors that harmonize. The names of these pairs may be written on the blackboard as they are selected by the pupils, thus — Purple, • Green, Orange, Citrine. liusset. Olive. Request one pupil to select and name a secondary color, an- other one to select its harmonic color, and name it. LESSONS IN HARMONY OF COLORS. 123 Object. — To lead pupils to observe tlie principles of harmony of colors in dress and decorations of rooms, etc. Provide articles — as shawls, capes, etc. — of different colors. These may be made of colored paper if the desired colors can- not be found in garments at liand. Select a child with a pink dress, and place a blue cape on it, and request the pupils to notice the effect. Place a green cape on the same child, and let the pupils tell which looks better. Make similar experiments with dresses of other colors, until the pupils readily understand what colors may be used together in articles of dress. Lead them to notice colors of carpets, and to tell what colors would look well for furniture -covering, wall-paper, etc., in the same room, with the given color. VL Object. — To lead pupils to observe the effect of black and white grounds upon colors, etc. Interesting experiments may be made which will lead the pu- pils to observe how colors arc affected by white, black, or other colors. Place red, blue, green, purple, orange, yellow, etc., sep- arately upon white paper, and upon a black surface, and upon surfaces of other colors, and let the pupils notice the differences in their brightness and fulness when seen in these different posi- tions. Call out two girls, each with dark hair and dark complexion. Place on one child a light-blue cape or shawl, on the other a red or pink one. Request the pupils to tell which color is most be- coming to these girls. Place other colors upon these girls, and let the cliildren tell whether they look well or not. Call out girls with light hair and light complexion, and pro- ceed in a similar manner, leading the children to determine which colors appear best on them. 124 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. During all the lessons on harmony of color, as well as in the previous lessons, you should bear in mind that your chief pur- pose is to train the pupils to distinguish the differences, resem- blances, and relations of color, and that you can succeed in doing this only by exercises that will cause the pupils to use their own powers of observation. In conclusion, let me add that during every lesson on color great care should be taken to give the pupils abundant experience toith colors ; and in all your efforts to teach them the important facts in relation to this subject, let your chief reliance for success be placed upon that which you induce the child to perceive and do for itself. , „ , Name of Pigment or Paiut Name of Color. ^j^^^ ^,i„ p^.^^^^^ j^^ Red Carmine, madder lake, Chinese vermilion. Orange Red-lead, cadmium yellow. Yellow Chrome yellow, gamboge. Green Paris green, emerald green. Blue Turquoise blue, Prussian blue. Dark blue Ultramarine, indigo. •^. , , < Mix Cliinese vermilion, turquoise blue, and ( white, using most of the blue. p , S Mix carmine and ultramarine, using most ^ ( of the red. Each color may be made lighter by mixing pure tuhitc with it. Imperfect representations of some of the primary and second- ary colors may be produced by a solution of chemicals, — inter- esting experiments with such solutions may be shown by any ^Iruggist, — but the mixture of two primary colors, thus produced, will not form a corresponding secondary color, as with the mixt- ure of paints. PROPERTIES OF OBJECTS. 125 PKOPERTIES OF OBJECTS. [Supplementary to Lessons on Qualities in Primary Object Lessons.] The lessons on Qualities in Primary Object Lessons [pages 3i5-364] liavc for their cliief purpose the devel- opment of the several senses of young pupils, by train- ing them to discover given qualities in different objects, and thereby teaching them habits of careful observation. Those lessons on qualities were also intended to prepare the pupils for the succeeding Lessons on Objects [pages 365-406], through which they learn to discover what qual- ities belong to given objects, and which of those qual- ities make the objects most useful. The lessons on ob- jects were designed further to teach that objects are adapt- ed to their respective uses because they possess certain qualities, and also to show how those qualities lit the ob- ject for the purpose for wliich it is commonly used. It is intended by these lessons on the Properties of Ob- jects to teach the pupils to distinguish those other quali- ties which, though less palpable, enable us to determine what substances compose the different objects, and there- by guide the learner to a more comprehensive and practi- cal knowledge of objects and their uses. It is understood that the pupils will have become familiar with the com- mon qualities of objects, by means of previous lessons, before the following lessons are given ; therefore, the teacher may use the knowledge thereby gained to teach the pupils additional facts about objects. 12G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. LESSONS TO DEVELOP THE IDEA OF SUBSTANCES. Teacher's Introduction.— To-day I shall try to teach you something new about objects. You know that some objects are brittle, others tough, elastic, combustible, transparent, absorbent, fusible, soluble, ductile, etc., and that the objects are used to make different things because they possess some of these qualities. You also know that some things are made of wood, as chairs, tables, doors, and various parts of houses ; you know that some things are made of iron, lead, silver, steel, as stoves, nails, shovels, liam- mers, pipe, spoons, forks, knives, and other tools; that some things are made of leather, as shoes, boots, harnesses, saddles, trunks ; other things are made of stone and -brick, as slates, houses, walls, walks, bridges. Now, if you will think about these objects, you will remember that wood, iron, leather, and stone differ from each other very much. Some of them are combustible, while others are not ; some are fusible, while others are not ; but these are not the differences which I wish you to learn now. Each of these objects of which things are made — as wood, iron, lead, stone, leather — is called a substance. I will write the word on the blackboard, and you may name each letter as I make it : s ti b s t a n c e . "What did I call this word? Pupils. Substance. T. William may spell the word, and name some substance. Some substances are hard, like stone, iron, silver ; some are soft, like cotton, silk, fur ; some are heavy, like lead, silver, stone; some are light, like feathers, sponge, cork. Thus you see that sub- stances have many different qualities; that qualities do not make substances, but that substances possess qualities. Qualities be- long to substances. A substance is a thing which can be per- ceived, or used, or made into something to be used. It is the CLASSES AND KINDS OF SUBSTANCES. 127 material of which anything is made. Now you may tell me what a substance is. Pupils. A substance is that of which anything can he made. A substance is something that ive can j^crceive by a sense. Teacher. You may name the substances that you can think of, and I will write the names on the blackboard. P. Wood, coal, ashes, sand, stone, bark, clay, brick, slate, iron, lead, silver, gold, water, cork, cotton, wool, silk, fur, leather, bone, ivory, wheat, corn, turnip, apple, peach, glass, ice, milk, etc. T. Now, if you will look at the names of these substances, and think about them, you will notice that they are not all alike. I will try in our next lesson to teach yoa to distinguish different kinds of substances, and to arrange them in groups or classes. CLASSES AND KINDS OF SUBSTANCES. Second Lesson. — T. You have already learned that all substances are not alike ; now I will try to teach yoa about the kinds and classes of substances, and how to distinguish each class. First, I will give you another word which means about the same as substance ; that word is matter. "When I use the ■word matter^ you may know that I mean cither all kinds of sub- stances, or that of which anything is composed. Thus, all animals are matter; all flowers, plants, and trees are matter; all sand, stone, iron, silver, and gold are matter. By observing these various sub- stances you will discover that all matter is not alike; it may be divided into classes and kinds. One class of matter, such as we see in animals, is arranged into parts for specific uses, as eyes, teeth, nails, hair, feathers, skin, flesh, blood, bones, etc. Another class of matter, such as we see in plants, is also arranged into different parts for other uses, as roots, bark, leaves, sap, wood, fruit, flowers, etc. Another kind of matter has no parts for a specific use, as stone, sand, clay, iron, lead, ice, water, etc. Now, we call all matter that is arranged into pai'ts for specific uses — as parts of animals and plants — organized matter ; and we call all matter that has no part of it arranged or fitted for any 128 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. particular use, iinorganized matter. To show me whether you understand wliat these terms mean, you may name things that belong to the organized matter. Pupils. Wool, feathers, hair, teeth, eyes, skin, wood, sap, bark, leaves, fruit, etc. Teacher. Now you may name things that belong to the un- organized matter. P. Rocks, clay, slate, sand, ice, iron, lead, tin, silver, water, etc. Animals. — T. Very good. Now you can easily learn to dis- tinguish the different classes of substances. You know that some things have life nud feeling, and breathe, and take food, and move about by their own power. Such things we call Animals. Wlio will tell me what animals have ? P. Animals have life and feeling. T. What can animals do? P. Animals can breathe, take food, and move. T. I will write it on the blackboard, and you may copy it : An animal has life and feeling ; it takes food, and can move itself. Animal Substances. — Sometimes we see parts of an animal — something that once belonged to an animal — such as horn, hair, fur, feathers, skin, glue, tallow, bone, wool, etc. ; these things are called animal substances. An animal substance is something that once formed a part of an animal. I will now write some words on the blackboard, and you may tell me which are names of animals, and which are names of ani- mal substances. [Teacher writes three columns ; two of animals, and one of animal substances.] 1. 2. 3. Cat, Fur, Eagle, Dog, Hair, Fish, Cow, Wool, Fly, Sheep, Horn, Ant, Ilcn, Bone, Bug, Duck. Feathers. Snake. ANIlLi.L SUBSTANCES. 129 Teacher. Now, which words are names of animals ? Pupils. Those in the first and third columns. T. What do the words in the second column represent ? P. Animal substances. T. Now let us examine these words, and see if each of those in the first and third columns represents something that has life and feeling. P. I think all of them do represent something having life and feeling. T. Well, does each word represent something that takes food or eats? P. Yes. T. Does each word represent something that can move itself? P. Yes. T. Then all of those words represent animals. Now let us examine the words in the second column. Here is a piece of feather ; did this ever form a part of an animal ? P. Yes ; a part of a bird. T. Can you say that fur, hair, wool, horn, and bone once formed parts of animals ? P. Yes. T. Then you are correct. All the words in the second column are names of animal substances. Now you may take your slates and write the names of ten animals, and the names of ten animal substances. Third Lesson. — T. Some things, I told you, have life and feeling. There arc other things that have another kind of life, but which have no feeling. Some things, you know, have the power of motion. There are other things which have no power of motion. We will now talk about those things which have life, but not the power of motion. Plants. — Here, in this pot of earth, is a flower ; it is also called a plant. It grows, sends out leaves, buds, and blossoms. But if you should remove it from the earth, or neglect for a long time to water it, the plant would die. If a plant can live and die, it must possess life. It has what we call plant-life. 6* 130 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. . Now, if you should pinch a plant with your fingers, or cut !t with a knife, do you think the plajit would feel pain ? Pupils. No. Plants have no feeling. Teaxher. Certainly they have not such feeling as you and other animals liave, although they may be killed. The plant takes food from the moist earth by means of its fine thread-like roots. Water, by remaining in the soil, dissolves some of its nourishment, and this moisture is taken up by the fine roots of the plant or tree, and carried through the little pores to the stem, and branches, and leaves, and blossoms. The water thus taken up is what constitutes the juice or sap of the tree. This sap flows through all parts of the plant very much as the blood flows through all parts of our bodies. The plant also takes food from the air by means of its leaves, which are filled with thousands of very little holes, called pores. It seems to breathe through the pores in its leaves, and by means of these it also takes food frorii tlie air. Thus you see ilmi plants live, take food, and breathe; but^^Zrtn^s have no feeling, nor the power of moving from 2)lace to p)lace. Their life is not the saipe as that of animals ; they do not take food in the same way as animals do ; they do not breathe as ani- mals breathe. All trees, shrubs, flowers, grasses, vines, and mosses arc plants. They are also sometimes called vegetables. Vegetables have life ; they take food ; they grow in or from the earth; but they have no feeling, and no poioer of moving themselves. Now listen while I read to you something which I found about vegetables and animals in a very interesting book :* " Only observe the air and food which a tree requires to keep it alive. Its roots suck up the juices which they find in the earth ; and by some wonderful power which the great Creator has put in a tree, these juices are made to run up the stem. They run up partly under the bark, but mostly through tiie cells or holes in the fresh wood that was made during the former year; and these juices run up the stem, something in the way that water runs up the sides of a piece of sugar; only in tlie trees these juices do not stop, but go on * The Observing Eye. ox VEGETABLES AND ANIMALS. 131 till they reach the leaves. Now every leaf is full of innumerable little holes, through which air rushes in and mixes with the druwn- up juices ; and as every leaf is made up of a top skin and of an under skin, with fine fibres running between them, the fresh sap runs along the top part of the leaf, and then passes to the under- side of the leaf During this passage through the leaf, the air changes the quality of the pumped-up juices. " Sometimes the air prepares the sap to become sweet, sometimes sour or bitter ; sometimes it prepares it to turn to a clear gum, some- times to a thick juice like tar, just according to the laws which the wise Creator has seen it good to establish. As soon as the air has made this change, the saj) flows back into the tree, and going down under the bark, it forms a band of new wood, and likewise uourishes the woody fibre of the great trunk. "Animals have no roots by which to gather up the nourishment they require. Their food is received by a mouth, and passes down into a cavity called the stomacli, where it is melted or dissolved. The juices drawn out of the received food are then carried all over the animal by innumerable little tubes, called arteries and veins. Yet air must always mix with these juices, or the animal will die. Some creatures draw the air into their blood through little holes in their sides — flics do tliis ; others draw the air in by gills — such as fishes; others draw air down into the chest by breathing. In the chest the air meets with the new juices, and turns them to a bright red. This bright-red blood keeps the bodies of all back-boned ani- mals warm, and makes them grow. " So far we have seen that both vegetables and animals want two things : they want food and air. What, then, is the diflereuce be- tween a plant and an animal ? The great difference is that vegeta- bles always absorb, or take up their food l)y the roots, or outside of their bodies; while animals always absorb or take up the juices of their food from cavities in the inside of their bodies. And these two modes of support make an important ditference in vegetable and animal life. Vegetables become fastened down in one place, that tlieir roots may absorb the moisture around them ; while ani- mals carrying their food with them are generally left at liberty to move about. Then, again, vegetables have no feeling and no wills ; while animals feel pain, and not only move about from place to place, but have strong wills." Teacher. Now wlio will tell mc what a plant or vegetable is? Pupils. A plant or vegetable is something that has life, takes food, but has no feeling, and cannot move itself. 132 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. Vegetable Substances. — Thin2:s that once formed a part of a tree or vegetable are called vegetable substances — as wood, bark, nuts, fruit, flax, cotton, tea, coffee, sugar, grains, straw, flowers, etc. Fourth Lesson. — Review. The teacher may now men- tion various articles — as corn, wheat, sheep, hens, flowers, vines, pigeons, hawks, flour, wool, feathers, starch, tea, sugar, hair, cows, etc. — and request the children, as each is named, to tell whether it is an animal or vegetable, an animal substance or a vegetable substance. Afterward the children should be requested to mention several animals, while the teacher writes their names upon the black- board ; then several vegetables, in the same manner ; also to men- tion animal substances and vegetable substances in a- similar man- ner, and the teacher to write the names upon the blackboard. The teacher may extend this subject, when the age and attain- ments of the pupils make it appropriate, to some classifications of vegetable and animal substances. This may be commenced by re- questing the pupils to mention substances for each column, while the teacher writes the Avords in their proper places, after head-lines have been written on the blackboard as follows, viz. : VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES USED For Food. For Clothing. For Other Purposes. Corn, beans. Cotton, Cotton, flax, hemp, and straw Pease, wheat, Flax, for 'paper. Potatoes, Hemp, AVood for houses, furniture, Beets, India-rubber, carriages, fuel, uteiisi Is, ate. Onions, Palm-leaves, Indigo, logwood, madder, saf- Cabbage, turnips, Straw. fron, and various barks, for Apples, peaches, ' coloring. Oranges, grapes, Camphor and other gums. Berries, nuts, castor and other oils, for Suo'ar. medicine. The same plan may be pursued with animal substances, writing on the blackboard as follows, viz. : SUBSTANCES : MINERAL, VEGETABLE, ANIMAL. 133 ANIMAL SUBSTANCES USED For Food. For Clothing. For Other Purposes. Beef, pork, Wool, Leather for harnesses, shoes, Mutton, fish, Fur, bookbinding, trunks. Veal, lamb, Silk, • Horn for buttons, knife-han- Tiirkc}^, chicken, Leather, dles, combs. Eggs, butter. Uair. Bone for buttons, handles. Cheese, milk. Ivory for keys ofjiianos. Fifth Lesson. — Mineral Substances. Teacher. We have been talking about things that have life, and those that once formed a part of something that had life. Now, can any of the children tell me whether they ever saw anything that has no life, and that is not a part of any animal or vegetable ? Pupils. Yes ; a stone, a piece of iron, salt, silver, glass, gold, sand, slate-pencil, copper, chalk, coal, etc. T. Now let us see how many ki7ids of substances \yQ have found: those that have life and feeling and self-motion, as animals ; those that have life, but no feeling nor self-motion, as vegetables; and those that have neither life, nor feeling, nor motion ; these arc called minerals. Now write on your slates what I tell you about these three classes of substances. Mineral. — A mineral has no life, no feeling, no self-motion, and does not take food. A mineral is obtained from the earth, and is a part of the earth, A mineral has no parts arranged for any particular purpose, as roots, sap, leaves, feet, hands, etc. It has no organs. A mineral is not an organized substance. Vegetable. — A vegetable has life ; it grows in or from the earth ; it takes food from the earth. Its food is unorganized matter, or a mineral substance. A vegetable has roots, trunk, branches, leaves, bark, sap, each designed for a special purpose. These arc its organs. It is called an organized substance. Animal. — An animal has life ; it moves about tlie earth ; it takes for food organized matter, either vegetable or animal sub- stances. 134 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. An animal has organs for seeing, for breathing, for eating, for hearing, for feeling, and for moving about. It is called an organ- ized being. Now tell me what both the vegetable and animal have. Toll me what both the vegetable and animal do. Tell me what the animal does that the vegetable and mineral cannot do. The teacher may now write on the blackboard the following head-lines, also the names of substances, as the pupils tell in which column the names mentioned should be written : Mineral. Vegetable. Animal. Stone, iron. Grass, flowers, Cat, horse, Lead, water. Coffee, tea, Fly, bird. Ice, brick. Sugar, starch. Cow, moth. Salt, coal, Wheat, potatoes. Snail, fish. Slate, chalk. Apples, nuts. Ant, boy. Teacher. You have already learned that there are three kinds of substances : minerals, vegetables, and animals ; that animals and vegetables have life, and that minerals have no life. Now can you tell me what animals do to sustain life ? Piqnls. They take food. T. Which do they eat — animals, vegetables, or minerals ? P. Some animals cat other animals, and some eat vegetables. T. Can you tell what animals cat other animals, and what ani- mals eat vegetables. P. The cat eats mice and birds ; the dog will eat the flesh of other animals; the lion, tiger, hawk, and eagle cat other animals. The cow, horse, sheep, goat, hen, goose, and many birds cat vege- table substances. T. Can you name any animal that takes minerals for its food ? P. I cannot. T. Animals cannot live on mineral substances alone. Some animals must take vegetable food, and thus produce animal food of their own flesh. Some animals eat the flesh of other animals; but animals could not live without vegetables to change mineral substances into conditions suitable for food. Thus you see that animals depend on vegetable life for their food, and vegetables depend on minerals for tlieir food. SUBSTANCES : MINERAL, VEGETABLE, ANIMAL. 135 The rain, sunlight, heat, and frosts soften the rocks, and cause them to crumble into fine earth, or soil. The moisture, warmth, air, and sunlight cause the plants to grow. By some wonderful process they obtain food from the fine soil at their roots, and ivom the air around their leaves, and thus change their food into a new substance that we call vegetable. This new substance, in turn, be- comes food for animals, and it is again changed into other sub- stances that form the flesh and bones of the animal. Thus you may see how each kind of substance depends upon each of the other kinds. The plants take the mineral substances of the earth and air, and change them into vegetable substances ; the animals take the vegetable substances, and change them into animal sub- stances. Minerals are inorganic matter ; vegetables and animals are or- ganic matter. Minerals furnish the materials for vegetables ; veg- etables furnish the materials for animals. Animal life depends vj)on vegetable life for supj)ort ; vegetable life depends iqyon min- erals for siipjiort. Plants j)roduce ; animals consume. Without plants, animals would 2>erish. 136 MANUAL or OBJECT-TEACHING. SUBSTANCES. MATERIALS FOR ADVANCED LESSONS ON OBJECTS. Model lessons arc apt to become formal ; do not try, therefore, to commence all lessons in the same manner. Sometimes begin bj telling the pupils something about the subject ; sometimes by requesting tliein to tell some- thing about it ; sometimes by questions. Surprises are frequently more effective in arresting attention than the best of prepared introductions. Try to make the lessons real and life-like to the children. At times let them tell what they see in the object, or what they know about it ; at other appropriate times tell them new facts, when they most need them. Never tell them facts. for the sake of the telHng, but to meet a pressing want on the part of the pupils, which they cannot themselves supply by ordi- nary efforts. The aim in these pages is to supply a sufficient amount of information on a variety of subjects, with notes of les- sons and suggestive exercises, to furnish teachers with abundant materials for interesting and profitable object- lessons. Where lessons arc written out they are intended chief- ly to illustrate the general manner of giving them. The notes of lessons are furnished to point out tlie important facts, and to indicate an orderly presentation of them ; while the information /"o^' lessons on other subjects is de- signed to furnish accessible matter necessary for arrang- ing new lessons. SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 137 No one must suppose fur a moment that the range of subjects and lessons here presented exhausts tlie treasures of this interesting fickl ; they are barely first steps into regions almost boundless in the extent and variety of ma- terials suitable for object-teaching; and they aim to point the way in which teachers may lead their pupils to a prac- tical study of the world around them. In conducting lessons on objects with these substances, the pupils should be led to give sj^ecial attention to tJiose qualities and ]) rope Hies lokich constitute their chief value, and which cause them to be used for their respective pur- poses. Teachers should prepare for giving the lesson by selecting the subject and deciding which are the impor- tant facts to be taught. The substance about which in- struction is to be given, and other materials for illus- trating the lesson, should be provided beforehand. On going before the class the teacher should first ascertain what the pupils already know concerning the subject, and thus determine where the proper place is to begin the les- son. And the teacher should be able at once to present any fact which the condition of the pupils may indicate as needed. SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. CLOVES. Before commencing this lesson the teacher should procure a few cloves for the pupils to examine, and suspend maps of the hemispheres, that the location of the places named may be pointed out before the class. Teacher. IIow many of you can tell me what I hold in my hand ? IIow many have tasted cloves ? Pungent. — IIow do they make the mouth feel ? Can you tell me of other things that have a hot, biting taste? What do we call this taste ? 138 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. Aromatic. — Did you ever smell of cloves? Is tlie odor so pleasant that you would like to sineil it again ? When anything has a strong, pleasant, spicy odor, like that of cloves, we say it is aromatic. Can you tell me of any other thing that is aromatic? Fragrant. — There is another word which we use in speaking of an odor that is pleasant to the smell, but not spicy; it \?, fragrant. Some things are fragrant that are not aromatic. A rose is fra- grant; cloves are fragrant and aromatic. Please notice the shape of these cloves. Did you ever see any- thing that resembled this shape ? Pupils. Yes ; it has a head, body, or shank, and point, some- what like a nail. T. This is called a clove because of its shape. Tlie name clove comes from clou, a French word for nail, because the clove resem- bles a French nail in its shape. Its Country. — Now let us find on the map the places where cloves grow. The clove is a native production of the Molucca Islands, north of Australia. Who will point out these islands? The clove was originally produced chiefly on the island of Am- boyna. The French introduced the clove-tree into the islands of Mauritius and Bourbon, east of Madagascar. Who can show us where these islands are ? The clove-tree was afterward taken to French Guiana, in South America, and from thence to the AVest India Islands. Who will point out these places ? The clove-tree somewhat resembles a cherry-tree. It grows from fifteen to twenty feet in height, and lives from seventy-five to one hundred years. It commences to produce cloves when eight or nine years old. The trunk of this tree is slender, bark smooth, and the leaves remain on the tree during the greater part of the year. The blossoms grow in clusters — from nine to eighteen in a bunch — and bear a slight resemblance to those of the honey- suckle. Their color changes from yellow to red. A single tree will produce several hundred thousand flowers in a year, and yield from five to ten pounds of cloves. The culture of the clove is SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 139 easy, as the trees require no more attention than cherry -trees. The harvest takes place from October to December, Cloves are the unexpanded flower -buds, gathered before tlie flowers open, and then dried. The calyx tube forms the long part of the clove ; the corolla, enclosing the stamens, forms the ball in the centre, around which are four pointed leaflets. The bunches of flower-buds are gathered by hand, or by means of a crooked stick, and dried by a hot sun. Oil of cloves is obtained from the juice of the flov/er-stalks. Cloves are used for domestic and medicinal purposes, because they are pungent and aromatic. Now write on your slates answers to the following questions : What kind of a substance is a clove ? What are cloves ? Where arc they obtained ? What are their qualities ? What are their uses ? PEPPER. Its Country. — The pepper-plant is a native of the East Indies. It is a climbing vine, with stems from eight to twelve feet in length. The leaves are dark green, thick and leathery ; broad at the base, and pointed at the apex, and resemble the ivy. The flowers, which grow in close spikes, are green and insignificant. These are succeeded by a compact cluster of round green berries, which change to a bright red. The berries are gathered as soon as they redden. If allowed to ripen on the vine, they lose their pungency, and fall off. The plant is propagated by cuttings, and is supported by poles, or by trees planted for the purpose, upon which it is trained. The vine begins to bear fruit when three or four years old. The best crops are produced when the plant is from five to eight years old. The vine becomes useless after twenty years. The berries are gathered twice a year, and placed on mats to dry in the sun, when they become wrinkled and black. "White Pepper is produced by soaking the dried berries of the black pepper in water until the wrinkled skin becomes soft, and then rubbing it off. This process destroys some of the pun- gency. 140 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. Uses. — Pepper is used as a condiment for food, and as a pow- erful stimulant and tonic in medicine. Its value depends upon its pungent quality. Cayenne Pepper. — Cayenne pepper is cultivated in large quantities in Guiana, South America, and shipped from the port of Cayenne. This plant is commonly cultivated in the United States, picked while green, and used for pickling. When allowed to remain on the stalk until ripe, it becomes bright red. After the ripe pods of the Cayenne pepper are picked and dried, they are ground, and thus form the red, or Cayenne pepper, used on our tables. Take your slates and write all you can remember about 'pepper — where it grows ; how it grows ; how it is gathered ; where the plants arc raised ; the kinds of pepper ; its qualities ; its uses, etc. Let the several pupils read what they have written. Call atten- tion to faulty statements, and make such suggestions as will tend to improve the arrangement of the facts, the manner of presenting them, and aid the pupils in the use of good language. ALLSPICE, JAMAICA PEPPER, OR PIMENTO. "Where it Growa — The pimento-tree, which produces the ber- ries commonly known as " allspice," grows abundantly in Jamaica and other West India Islands. It attains the height of about thir- ty feet. The trunk is gray and shining, and contains numerous branches, covered with dark green leaves; and when bruised they emit a fine aromatic odor. The blossoms are white and numer- ous. A grove of pimento-trees in blossom presents a most beau- tiful appearance ; and during the months of July and August it perfumes the air with a most fragrant odor. When the tree has attained its seventh year the harvesting of its berries is commenced. In a favorable season a single tree sometimes yields a hundred pounds of dried berries. Soon after the flowers disappear the berries are ready for pick- ing, for they must be gathered before they ripen, or the berry becomes valueless. The berry is nearly twice the size of the SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 141 common black pepper, and contains two small seeds, closely pack- ed in a shell. The harvest commences in September, when the green berries are gathered by hand. One person on the tree gathers the small branches, while children pick up the berries that fall on the ground. These berries are spread on floors made for the purpose, and ex- posed to the sun for about a week. During this time they are frequently turned and winnowed. Daring this drying process they change from a green to a brown color. They are then put into bags, ready for market. This spice is sometimes called by the name of the tree that pro- duces it — ^J?/Me«'(iffi)iC- How Tallow -candles are Made. — Tallow -candles are some- times made by dipping the wicks into melted tallow many times, allowing the tallow to harden after each dip. These are known as dlp2)ed candles. They are also made by pouring melted tallow into moulds in which the wicks have been fastened, and allowing it to cool. These are known as mould candles. Candles com- posed of other substances than tallow or wax are generally made in moulds. Wax -candles are made by suspending the wicks over the melted wax, and pouring tlie wax repeatedly over the wicks until they attain the desired size. Spermaceti is a white, semi-transparent substance found in the head of the sperm-whale. Wax, the substance made by bees from which the comb is 7* 154 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. formed. This is melted and strained to form wax for candles. Wax-candles are the most expensive of all kinds of light. Stearine, or Stearic Acid, is one of the solid substances ob- tained when fats are decomposed by a chemical process. It does not feel greasy, is firm, dry, and makes an excellent candle. ParafBne is a white, waxy, inodorous, tasteless substance, ob- tained from distillation of resinous or bituminous materials. It is obtained from oil of tar. It readily combines with wax, sper- maceti, or stearine; and when used for making candles, it is mixed with one of these substances to render it easier to melt by the heat of the burning candle. The illuminating power of gas is estimated by the number of burning candles that its light equals. The gas-light of one burn- er generally equals the light of fifteen or twenty candles. Now write what you can remember about candles — of the ma- terials from which they are made ; how candles are formed ; the kinds of candles used ; about" gas-light as compared with candle- light ; and any other facts. PUTTY. Can you tell me what holds the glass in a window ? Who uses putty ? Is it used for other purposes than to hold glass in windows ? Qualities. — Its color is a dull white, somewhat like dough. It feels soft and greasy. It can be pressed into any shape. It is adhesive — sticks to glass, wood, or any substance. It hardens in air — the older the putty, the harder it becomes. It is impervious to ivater, and thus keeps the rain from coming through windows at the edges of the glass. How Made. — It is made of whiting (a finely-ground chalk) and boiled linseed-oil, kneaded into a doughy mass and beaten with a mallet. CAMPHOR. Take this vial, smell the liquid in it, and tell its name. Now take this semi-transparent gum; notice its soft feeling and its SUGGESTIONS FOR LESSONS. 155 odor, and tell mc wbetlier it smells like the liquid in the vial. What is it ? The liquid camphor which you see used at home is made by dissolving- cainphor-gum, like this piece shown you, in alcohol. Where Found. — The camphor-gum is obtained from the cam- phor-tree, which grows most abundantly on the islands of Su- matra, Borneo, and Formosa. This tree often attains the height of one hundred feet, and is from six to ten feet in diameter. The camphor-gum is found in masses, and is obtained by splitting the trunk in pieces and picking out the lumps with a pointed instru- ment. Some lumps have been found as large as a man's arm ; and some trees yield twenty pounds of gum ; but commonly not more than half of this amount is found in one tree. Camphor is also obtained by distilling the chipped wood, and then collect- ing the gum from the liquid. Camphor-gum is soft, friable, and tough ; very volatile, inflam- mable, fragrant, with a strong odor, and is soluble in alcohol. When taken in large doses, it is fatally poisonous. It is also destructive to insects. The wood of the camphor-tree is valuable for making boxes and trunks, which will protect clothing kept in them from insects. Write a description of camphor — its qualities, uses, where ob- tained, etc. WHALEBONE. Teacher. What have I in my hand ? What can I do with this piece of whalebone ? Can you name any of the qualities that make whalebone useful ? Pujiils. It is tough, fibrous, flexible, light, and clastic. T. [Show^s the pupils a piece of a cow's horn, a piece of bone and of whalebone. They examine each, after which the teacher asks :] Which of these two substances, the horn or the bone, does the whalebone most resemble ? P. The horn. T. That which Ave call whalebone is not a true bone ; it is not a part of the common bones in the body of the whale. It is 150 MANUAL OP OBJECT-TEACHIXG. found in the mouth of the Greenland whale. It is a horny sub- stance, composed of many layers of fibrous plates, which form a compact mass where they are attached to the upper jaw ; but as they extend downward from six to twelve feet, they become divided into coarse, loose fibres, forming a fringe-like enclosure along the sides of the mouth. This fringe does not extend across the front of the mouth. There arc about three hundred of these blades on each side of the mouth, each of which is from eight to twelve inches wide at its root, and from one to two inches thick. About one ton of Avhalcbonc is sometimes obtained from the mouth of a single whale. It varies in quantity and length ac- cording to the size of the animal. Its Use to the Whale. — The food of this whale consists of small shrimps, crabs, fishes, mollusks, and other soft-bodied animals which congregate in shoals of millions in the waiters frequented by the Greenland and other whales of this kind. The whale feeds by swimming through shoals of these minute animals with its capacious mouth open, allowing the sea-water, swarming with its food, to pass in and flow out 'hrough the back and sides of the mouth ; but the multitudes of small animals are retained in the mouth by the great fringe strainer of whalebone ; thus the whale is enabled to capture its prey by means of the great whalebone fringes which line its mouth. Its Uses to Us. — AVhalebone may be softened by boiling it, and then it can be cut easily into such shapes as are needed for its various uses. On cooling, it becomes harder, and of a darker color than before boiling. It is used for stretchers of umbrellas and parasols ; it is split into fibres and used for brushes, in place of coarse bristles; for framework of bonnets; for stiffening stays and waists of dresses ; for whip-handles, and various other pur- poses in which elasticity is a needed property. Since the capturing of whales for their oil has diminished so greatly, whalebone has become scarce and dearer. Write all yon can about whalebone; what it is; where it is ob- tained ; its use to the whale ; its value and uses to us ; its quali- ties, etc. NOTES OF LESSONS. 157 NOTES OF LESSONS. COTTON. Its Uses. — For thread ; for various kinds of cloth — as sheet- ing-, drilling, jean, cotton or Canton flannel, gingham, calico, chintz, muslin, tarlatan, lace, hosiery, paper. What is Cotton? — A soft, downy substance resembling very fine wool, which grows in pods of the cotton-plant in warm coun- tries. How it is Obtained. — The seeds of the cotton-plants are sown in rows, four or five feet apart, late in March or in April. The plants generally grow from four to six feet high. The blossoms are of a pale yellow or a faint purplish color. The pods contain- ing the cotton fibre ripen and burst open in August and Septem- ber, after which the cotton is picked from the plant. The cotton seeds adhere to the cotton fibre when it is picked, and the first step toward manufacture consists in separating the seeds from the fibre. This is done by a machine called a cotton- gin. After this process the cotton is packed in bales of several hundred pounds each, and sent to market, from whence it is taken to manufactories to be spun into yarn, and woven into different kinds of cotton goods. Where is the cotton raised in the United States taken to be manufactured ? Qualities that make Cotton Useful. — Its fine, long, and strong fibres. The long and strong fibres make the thread and cloth strong. Its fine, strong fibres make excellent thread. Its fibre is not as strong as that of flax. "Wliere Cotton is Raised. — In the warm portions of the United States, West Indies, South America, Africa, India, and China. It is most extensively raised in the United States. Require the pupils to write out a statement of all the important facts presented in this lesson, and to read the statements before the class. Proceed in the same manner with each of the -succeed- ing lessons. 158 MAisUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. FLAX. What is Flax ? — The strong fibre of an annual plant, with a slender stalk, whicli grows from two to three feet high, covered with a strong, fibrous bark. The seed of the flax-plant is sown in the spring ; the plant bears small, blue blossoms in June and July, and is ready for gathering in August — which is done by pulling it up by the roots and tying it in small bundles. How Flax is Obtained. — The small bundles of the plant are placed on wet meadows, or under water, where the gluten is soak- ed out, and the woody stem becomes brittle by partially rotting. The plant is afterward dried, then the woody stems are broken by a machine and beaten out. The fibre is then combed by draw- ing it over an instrument with long iron teeth, or spikes, set in a board, which forms a sort of comb, called a hatchel or hackle. By this combing process the coarser fibres are separated from the fine and soft ones, and the flax is made i-eady for spinning. Uses of Flax. — It is used for strong thread for sewing cloth, carpets, and leather, for flsh-lines, cords, and for linen goods. Names of Goods made from Flax. — Linen thread, tape, dam- ask, white linen, brown linen, cambric, lawn, towels, handkerchiefs. Qualities that make Flax Useful. — Its fibre is very long, strong, and durable. Where it is Raised. — It is grown most extensively in Ireland, but is also raised in Scotland, England, Holland, France, Belgium, Russia, and other portions of Europe ; also in the United States. HEMP. What is Hemp ? — The hemp-plant is native of Asia, but is ex- tensively cultivated in Russia, and is grown also in other parts of Europe and in the United States. The plant is an annual, which grows to the height of five or six feet. Hemp is the fibre of this plant. It is coarser and stronger than that of flax. If carefully examined, it will be seen that each coarse fibre is composed of several minute ones twisted spirally. NOTES OF LESSONS. 159 How it is Procured. — Tho hemp is obtained by rotting the woody stem of the pLint, breaking it, and then beating it out, much in the same manner as is done with flax. What is Made of it ? — Cords, ropes, and cables ; sacking, and various kinds of coarse, strong cloth. WOOL. What is Made of Wool. — Yarns, worsteds, flannels, blankets, shawls, broadcloth, tweed, and other kinds of cloth ; merino, car- pets, rugs, mats, drugget, baize, hosiery, felt, and many other arti- cles of woollen goods. What is Wool ? — By tho term wool is commonly meant the fleecy covering of sheep, which is sheared from them early in summer. This name is also given to the covering of some kinds of goats, as the Cashmere and Angora goat, of Asia ; and to the Llama and Guanaco of South America. Tift Cashmere goat has a double covering — one of long, coarse hair, and underneath this one of fine, soft wool, from which expensive shawls are made. The wool of the Alpaca Llama is fine, silky, and long. It is used for alpaca goods and other materials. Wool is raised in nearly all countries. The most extensive manufactories of cloths and other woollen goods are in England, France, Germany, and the United States. What kind of a substance is wool ? SILK. Its Uses. — Tt is used for sewing-silk, ribbons, liandkerchiefs, dress-silk, satin, velvet, curtains, furniture-covering, hosiery, gloves, gauze, crape. What is Silk? — Silk is the fine glossy web of the silk-worm. It is stronger than the web of the spider. The silk-worm spins this web around itself, in the form of a hollow case called a co- coon, before changing into a moth. The cocoons are about one inch long, and two-thirds of an inch thick. What kind of a sub- stance is silk ? ICO MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. About the Silk-worm. — Tlie silk-worm is an insect in the form of a caterpillar. It is hatched, by the warmth of the sun, from an egg about the size of a pin-head ; and it attains tlie full size — two to three inches long — in about eight weeks. During this time it changes its skin four or five times. As the old skin becomes too small, it bursts near the head, and the caterpillar crawls out with a new dress. At each change of its skin the size increases. The silk-worm feeds on mulberry-leaves while it is growing. After eating and growing for about eight weeks, the worm stops eating and begins to spin, and continues spinning for about five days. While spinning, it moves its head from side to side, as if winding the fine silk about ; and the worm grows shorter as it spins, and winds itself inside of the cocoon. It next changes into a chrysalis, in a dark-brown case, within the cocoon. In this condition it remains torpid for two or three weeks ; then it changes into a moth, makes a hole in the cocoon by softening the threads with a fluid, comes out, lays eggs, and soon dies. How Silk is Obtained. — In about ten days after the cocoons are finished, the insect must 'be killed, to prevent it from making a hole in the cocoon, and coming out in the form of a moth. To do this they are placed in a heated oven before the time for the chrysalis to change to the moth, and thus the insect is killed. The cocoons are next put in hot water, which dissolves the gum and loosens the thread. The whole is now- stirred with a bunch of twigs, which catch the loose ends of the threads. Several of these are taken together, to make them strong enough to handle and wind upon a reel. The silk is taken from the reel, and tied up into hanks ready for the manufacturer. In this state it is called rail) silk. These hanks of raw silk are placed on a six-sided reel, or swift, and wound on bobbins. The silk is now sorted ac- cording to its fineness and quality, and then is ready for spinning or twisting. This raw silk is sent to a mill, where two or more threads are twisted together, and prepared for Avoaving and other purposes. Manufacturers usually purchase silk in the raw state. NOTES OF LESSONS. IGl Before the silk is ready for weaving it must be cleansed by boiling it in soapy water. The color is now yellow. To make silk white, it must be bleached; to give it other colors, it must be dyed. The web of a single cocoon is from three to five hundred yards in length. About one pound of good raw silk is obtained from twelve pounds of cocoons. "Where Silk is Raised. — Silk is raised in China, Japan, and some other places in Asia; in Italy, France, and other countries of Europe ; in South America, and in many parts of the United States. Silk goods are most extensively manufactured in France. Articles Made of Silk. — Silk for sewing; twist for button- holes ; ribbons ; silks, plain, figured, etc. ; satin, crape, velvet, gauze, handkerchiefs, shawls, stockings, gloves, poplins, etc. LEATHER. Its Uses. — Leather, in different forms, is used for inaking boots, shoes, gloves, mittens, harnesses, trunks, valises, book-binding, cush- ions ; seats for chairs, cars, and carriages ; covers for carriages ; cases, belts for machinery, washers, hose for fire-engines ; parch- ment, on which valuable documents were formerly written. Kinds of Leather. — Calf-skin, kip, cow-hide, morocco, patent- leather, kid, Russia-leather, harness-leather, sole-leather, sheep-skin, buck-skin, seal-skin, dog-skin, vellum, parchment. Prom what the Kinds of Leather are Made. — ■' Calf- skin is made from the skins of calves not more than six months old ; kip leather, from the skins of young cattle, older than calves; coio-hide, from the skins of young cows; sole -leather, from the skins of the ox, also of the old cow ; morocco, from the skins of goats ; kid, from the skins of kids that are killed wlien too young to cat grass ; ji'^'^tcnt-leatheK, a kind of leather covered with a japan that gives it a smooth surface and a permanent polish ; Russia- leather is made from the skins of calves, cows, goats, sheep, etc., by a special process of tanning, in which are used willow-bark, red sandal-wood, and an oil, prepared from birch-bark, that im- parts to this leather its peculiar odor, and renders it repulsive to 162 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. insects ; sheejy-skin, made from the skin of the sheep ; buck-skin, from the skin of the deer ; dog-shin, from the skin of tlic doc^ ; seal-skin, from the skin of the seal ; harness-leather, from thick o.\-hidc ; ^ra?r/ime?i/, from the skins of sheep and goats ; vellum, from the skin of young calves, tanned in nearly the same manner as parchment. Hovir Common Leather ia Tanned. — The process of tanning implies saturating the skins of animals with an astringent vegeta- ble substance, called tannin, so thoroughly that it becomes insolu- ble, and incapable of putrefaction. Skins are prepared for tanning by first soaking them in lime- water, to loosen the hair and the outer membrane ; then they are scraped, to remove the hair and the hard cuticle ; then soaked in an alkali, to remove the lime ; next they are soaked in a weak so- lution of sulphuric acid, which opens the pores of the skin and prepares it to receive the tannin more rapidly. At this stage of the process the skins, which arc now called peZ^s, are placed in pits, or tan-vats, with layers of ground tan-bark between them, and the vat is filled with water. The skins are allowed to soak in this manner for several months. Sometimes the vats arc emp- tied, and the hides placed in the vat again with fresh tan-bark. The best leather is prepared by allowing the hides to soak thus for about two years. Slow tanning makes the leather soft. By means of the astringent property in the liquid in which the skins are soaked, they become thicker and firmer, and the pores so closed that water does not easily affect the leather. Scraping the leather makes it of uniform thickness; rubbing and oiling it makes it pliable and soft. How the Tamiin is Obtained. — The astringent property in which the skins are soaked — the tannin — is obtained chiefly from oak-bark and hemlock-bark. Hemlock-bark is more commonly used in this country, and oak-bark in Europe. Ilenilock-tanned sole-leather is of a darker color than the oak-tanned. A cord of hemlock-bark will tan about five hides ; and it takes the bark of two or more trees to make a cord. The acorn cup and ball of the burr oak of the United States, if collected annu- NOTES OF LESSONS.. 103 ally, would supply tannin for all the liidcs in this conntry, and save the great destruction of trees to procure bark for this purpose. What qualities make leather useful for shoes? What kind of a substance is leather ? INDIA-RUBBER. Its Uses. — For making overshoes, boots, soles of boots, sus- penders, tape, cord, braces, bands, rings, air cushions and pillows, life-preservers, beds, springs for doors, bearers for springs on rail- road cars, bands, balls, tubes. It is dissolved and spread on cloth for water-proof garments. It is mixed with pitch, sulphur, etc., and made into a hard sub- stance, from which combs, knife-handles, cups, and other articles are made. Used for erasing or rubbing out marks of the black-lead pencil ; and this use gives it the name " rubber." Properties of India-rubber. — Children should be led to dis- cover that India-rubber is soft, flexible, very elastic, tough, durable, difficult to cut ; that it is inflammable ; that its elasticity is in- creased by warmth, and diminished by cold ; that it is soluble in naphtha, spirits of turpentine, and ether; that it is insoluble in water, alcohol, and acids ; that it is non-absorbent of water, im- pervious to water — hence is water-proof; that it melts by heat, and remains sticky and glutinous. What is India-rubber ? — It is the juice of trees which grow in South America .and in Asia. In India these trees sometimes grow to the height of one hundred feet, and twenty feet in di- ameter. The best India-rubber, and that principally used in the United States, comes from South America. This tree grows abundantly in Brazil, along the Amazon. How it is Obtained. — During the rainy or cool season of the year, deep incisions are made in the bark of the India-rubber (or caoutchouc) tree {Jatropha elastica), when a thick, creamy juice, of a yellowish white color, flows out. This may be collected in bottles, and, if closely corked, can be kept in a fluid state for a 1G4 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. long time. It soon dries and hardens in the sun, by which proc- ess it loses about one-half of its quantity. The drying is hastened by placing the juice over a wood fire, and at the same time the color is changed from a yellowish white to a color neai'ly black. Clay moulds of various shapes, as of bottles and shoes, are made by the natives, and the juice is spread over these in successive layers, and dried, after which the clay mould is broken up and removed. In conclusion, require the pupils to state which qualities render India-rubber most useful. To which class of substances does In- dia-rubber belong ? GLASS. Its Uses. — It is used for windows, pictures, mirrors, bottles, tumblers, goblets, decanters, vases and other ornaments, chande- liers, lanterns, spectacles, telescopes, watch-glasses. What is Glass ? — A transparent, hard, insoluble, brittle sub- stance, made by melting together sand and soda. Kinds of Glass. — Crown-glass, sheet-glass (or broad-glass, or cylinder-glass), plate-glass, flint-glass, bottle-glass, window-glass, stained-glass. How Glass is Made. — The materials of which glass is com- posed — silicates of potash, soda, lime, magnesia, alumina, and lead, the proportions varying in different kinds of glass — arc incited together by great heat in clay pots. The melted glass is manu- factured into an immense variety of articles by the use of a hol- low tube, or blowing-pipe, and a few other simple tools. The tube is dipped into the melted glass, and a quantity collected on the end sufficient for the desired article. The mouth of the work- man is then applied to the other end of the tube, and the glass is blown into a hollow form, rolled, pressed, twisted, cut, or pressed in a mould, to make it assume the desired shape. Melted glass is exceedingly ductile^ tcnacmis, and 2)i<^(stic. After the articles are made in the desired shape, they are placed in heated ovens to cool slowly. Crown-glass. — The melted glass is taken from the pot on the blowing -pipe, is blown, whirled, and pressed until it becomes NOTES OF LESSONS. 105 globular, with one side flattened. Then an iron rod, called pontil, is dipped into the molten glass, and attached to the centre of the flattened part, after which the blowing-pipe is removed, leaving an opening. This globular glass is now exposed to heat, twirled around with gradually increasing rapidity, which causes the open- ing to expand, until the glass finally flattens out into a plane sur- face four or five feet in diameter. The pontil is then removed, and the disk is put in the annealing arch to gradually cool. Some windoio-glass is made in this manner, and subsequently cut up into panes of the desired sizes. Another mode of making window-glass is by a process in which the glass is first formed into a cylinder, and then cut open lengthwise and flattened. Glass made in this way is known as cylinder-glass, broud-glass, sheet- glass, and German glass. Sheet-glass. — To make sheet-glass, or cylinder-glass, the work- man collects a mass of molten glass around the end of his blow- ing-tube ; then, by blowing and rolling, and blowing and swinging it in a vertical circle, and heating and repeating the blowing and swinging, the end opposite the blowing-tube bursts open : this end is trimmed, and the glass has the form of a cylinder. Then the blowing-tube is removed from tlie other end, leaving a hole, which is expanded to the size of the opposite end of the cylinder. The cylinder is then split open, flattened, and placed in the annealing oven. Plate-glass. — This glass is made by pouring melted glass upon a heated iron table of the size required, and with raised edges to regulate the thickness. A copper roller is passed over the melted glass to make it smooth and even. This plate is then cooled in the oven. After this it is ground smooth by rubbing two plates together with sand or finely powdered flint between them, and finally polished with emery. This glass is used for mirrors and for large windows in stores. Flint-glass. — This glass is made of white sand, carbonate of potash, oxide of lead, and alumina. It melts more easily than either crown, plate, or window glass ; is softer, therefore is more easily cut and engraved. It is used in the manufacture of table- IGG MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACUING. ware, bottles, decorative articles, lamps, globes, drops, bells, chirn- neys, etc. It is made into the various articles for which it is used chiefly by means of the blowing-tube, moulds, etc. Bottle-glass. — This is made from coarse or common materials, and manufactured by blowing and moulding. In making glass bottles, where a uniform size and shape is re- quired — and especially where letters are to be made in the glass — the bottles are shaped by means of a mould which can be closed around the unfinished, blown form. What qualities render glass suitable for the piuyoses for which it is commonly used ? To which class of substances docs glass belong? SUBJECTS FOR LESSONS. The following list of subjects will suggest topics for suitable lessons from which teachers may select those that are adapted to tlieir pupils. The information concerning many of these subjects will be familiar to teachers. The facts needed for lessons on many other subjects can be ob- tained from books to which teachers usually have access. Lessons upon several of these subjects may be given to a class before those of the preceding pages are presented. In giving these lessons, the attention of the pupils should b^ directed to such points as will lead them to observe those characteristics which chiefly distinguish the objects and render them useful. For lessons on fruits, nuts, grains, and other vegetable productions, lead the pu- pils to consider as mati}'- of tlie following points as may be appropriate to the object under consideration : 1. Is it a fruit, nut, grain, gum, juice, root? 2. Where does it grow ? 3. How is it obtained ? 4. What docs it SUBJECTS FOR LESSONS. 167 most nearly resemble ? 5. What is its principal quality ? 6. What is its chief use ? If the lesson be on a mineral or metal, let attention be directed to the following points : 1. In what form or condition is it found ? 2. What is done with it to make it useful ? 3. What are its princi- pal qualities ? 4. What are its chief uses ? If the lessons be on manufactured articles, let the at- tention of the pupils be directed to the following points : 1. Of what substances is it made ? 2. Why w' ere these substances used ? 3. Could any other substance be used ? 4. State processes of the making. 5. For what purpose was it made ? G. Where was it made ? In all of these lessons obtain facts from the pupils, as far as possible. When the object is such that they can easily gain the desired information about it at home or elsewhere, postpone further consideration of it until an- other day, and request the pupils to gain all the facts pos- sible before the lesson is taken up again. Dew. — When seen, Low formed? [Moisture of the atmos- phere condenses on cool objects, just as the water collects from the moisture in the air on the outside of a pitcher of ice-water.] Frozen dew, called //'os^ Vapor. — Moisture in the atmosphere, too thinly diffused to be seen ; or moisture rising and condensing into a very thin, cloud- like condition, somewhat as steam condenses, so as to be visible. Clouds. — A collection of visible vapors in the sky. "Wlicn the clouds are condensed by cooler currents of air, so as to form drops, these descend as rain. Hail and snow are produced by these drops freezing, under dif- ferent conditions. Raiubcws arc formed by the reflection of the sunlight in drops 1G8 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. of falling water. To see the rainbow, you must look in a direc- tion opposite to the sun. Fog. — Cloud-like vapor filling the atmosphere near the ground. Sometimes this vapor becomes so dense that a person can see but a few feet from himself. SEEDS OF GRAIN-BEARING PLANTS. Interesting lessons may be given on the seeds of plants used for food. Samples of each might be collected, and kept in small bottles, with the name of the seed on each. In giving these les- sons, the following facts will be found useful, to be told the pu- pils after they have stated all they know concerning that which is the subject of the lesson : Cereals. — The common grain-bearing plants — loheut, rye, bar- ley, Indian-corn, rice, oats, also broom-corn and millet — are called cereals, from Ceres, who was the fabled goddess of corn and ag- riculture, and who is generally represented as crowned with ears of wheat. All of these grain-bearing plants belong to the yrass family. Barley. — The seed of a grass-like plant. It is said to liavc been the first grain used for human food. It is cultivated in a northern climate, and used for food as bread, soups, and malt drinks. Oats. — The seed of a grass-like plant. Each grain grows on a separate branch of the stalk. Oats are used in various forms as food for both man and beast. Oats and barley will grow in colder and less fertile regions than other grain-bearing grasses. When ground, it is called oat-mcal. Rye. — Tbe seed of a grass-like plant which resembles wheat in its growth. This grain may be cultivated where the climate is too cold for wheat to flourish. Rye is made into flour, and used for bread, etc. Buckwheat. — The triangular-shaped seed of a plant cultivated chiefly in a northern cliuiate. The grain is ground into flour, and used for food in the form of ii'riddle-cakes. The name buck- SUBJECTS FOR LESSONS. 169 wheat was probably given to this grain from the fact that its shape is like that of the nut of the beech-tvcc. "Wheat. — The seed of a common grass-like plant cultivated in the temperate zones. It is the most valuable of the grains used for food. It is used in a great variety of forms. How many of these can you mention ? Rice. — The seed of a grass-like plant cultivated for food. It is chiefly raised in the torrid zone, and in the warmest portions of the temperate zones. Although rice is much less nutritious than wheat, rye, or barley, yet it forms the food of a greater number of the human race than any other grain. What food have you eaten made of rice ? Indian-corn, or Maize. — The seed of a large plant of the grass- family. It was originally found in North America, but is now cultivated in many parts of the world. The seeds grow around a central stem called a cob. It is used for food for man and beast. When ground, it is called Indian-meal. Broom-corn. — The top of this well-known plant is extensively used for making brooms. The seed forms a portion of the food of the people in Arabia and India. In the West Indies the seed is called negro-corn, as it is much used for food by the negroes. MUlet. — The seeds of this grass-like plant are the smallest of the grains used for food. The Italians make a coarse, dark-col- ored bread from the flour of this grain. In this country it is chiefly raised for feeding poultry. Quinoa. — The seed of a weed-like plant which grows in ele- vated regions in Chili and Peru, South America, 10,000 or 12,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is ground into flour, and resembles oatmeal in many of its qualities. The seeds are small and roundish. SEEDS OF POD-BEARING PLANTS. Beans. — The seeds of well-known pod-bearing plants. They are very nutritious. In what form are beans used for food ? 8 170 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACUIXG. Pease. — The seeds of well-known pod-bearing vines. Like beans, they are nutritious, and wholesome as food. How are pease prepared for food ? Lentils. — The seeds of a pod-bearing plant well-known in Eu- rope. It is used for food. FRUITS, NUTS, GRAINS, ETC. The following classes and names of substances will suggest topics for several lessons similar to preceding ones : Fruits. — Orange, lemon, fig, date, prune, pineapple, raisin, bread- fruit, banana, peach, plum, apricot, apple, pear, cherry, currant, grape, berries, etc. Nuts. — Almond, Brazil-nut, chestnut, beechnut, hickory -nut, walnut, filbert, cocoa-nut, peanut, vegetable-ivory, pecan-nut, hazel- nut, butternut. Grains. — Wheat, rye, corn, oats, barley, rice, buckwheat, bean, pea. Roots, Bulbs, etc. — Potato, sweet-potato, turnip, beet, carrot, radish, yam, horseradish, onion, lily, tuberose, tulip, crocus, ginger, sweet-flag, etc. Juices. — Cider, vinegar, turpentine, tar, rosin, liquorice, gum- arabic. Drinks. — Tea, coffee, chocolate, cocoa, broma, alkathrepta, milk. Metals. — Iron, steel, copper, silver, gold, lead, tin, pewter, brass, zinc, nickel, shot. Minerals. — Coal (hard and soft), charcoal, coke, lime, marble, graphite or black-lead, mortar, chalk, alum, borax, pumice-stone. Miscellaneous Articles. — Brick, glue, matches, gunpov/der, gun-cotton, paper, calico, oil-cloth, butter, cheese, rattan, vanilla, earthen-ware, mustard, olive-oil, honey, molasses, arrowroot, Ice- land moss. NATURAL HISTORY. 171 NATUEAL HISTORY. " Nature h man's best teacher. She unfolds Her treasures to his search, unseals his ej-e, Illumes his mind, and purilles liis heart, — An influence breathes from all tlic sights and sounds Of her existence ; she is Wisdom's self." Alfred B. Street. Living, moving forms possess the greatest attractions for children. The life and motions exhibited in the ani- mal world, corresponding to the activity of childhood, place animals among the earliest and most interesting ob- jects that awaken the curiosity of the young ; hence they furnish materials admirably adapted to cultivating their perceptive faculties, and forming habits of attentive ob- servation. " Those who have watched the faint dawnings of intellect and the gradual brightening that heralds the day will have observed that children very early become acquainted with certain objects, and indicate, when only eight or ten months old, their instantane- ous detection of changes in those things to which they are accus- tomed. Such observers will testify that, next to the familiar faces of the members of their own family, there are no objects which attract their attention sooner or more powerfully than our do- mestic quadrupeds. The dog, the cat, the horse, the cow, and the sheep are to them wonders. Not only do they become acquainted with the figure, color, and movements of these animals, but Avith their various cries ; so that long before the infant lips are capable of articulating the name of the dog or of the cow, the bark of the one and the lowing of the other will be attempted, and will be so associated with the animal as to serve instead of a name. Thus 172 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. the imitative or natural language of the child precedes the arti- ficial. And ideas relating to a class of natural history objects are among the earliest mental acquirements of children. "As it is a beneficent law of our nature that the legitimate ex- ercise of every organ and faculty is in itself a source of pleasure, we may feel assured that the use of the observaut powers is a source of gratification to the child, and a stimulus which leads to a desire to see more. The object — whether animal or plant — that the child thus sees may be described in a hundred books, and have been familiar for ages to men of science, yet these facts do not detract from the delight of the child. It is new to him ; and his pleasure is akin to that of the naturalist, who detects an un- recorded species, and gives it a name, and places it for the first time on the rolls of science."* Children always find delight in watching the move- ments and noticing the intelligence of animals, and in lis- tening to stories about them. No department of nature is more attractive to them, or supplies so great an abun- dance of suitable objects for developing their habits of gaining knowledge from the M'orld around them ; yet when left entirely to themselves in this matter of obser- vation, they neglect to see many of the things that are most important to correct knowledge ; and they also fail to associate in proper groups the facts which they thus learn. The guiding influence of the competent instructor becomes, therefore, especially beneficial to the young ob- server, even with such an abundance of attractive mate- rials, by leading him to notice tliose significant features and characteristics that belong to the different kinds of animals. Young children need to be guided to that which is best for them to see much of, as M'ell as to what is best for them to eat much of. "With all their fondness for watch- ing the movements of animals, they need to be led to see * Robert Patterson, in Natural Hhtonj in Home Education. NATURAL HISTORY. 173 for a special purpose, and to see things that rcLate to that purpose. But they may also be allowed to see as much more as they please, if their attention be properly given to those objects which are under investigation. One of the great mistakes in the plans of education lies in the neglect to provide for a proper use of the valuable materials which nature furnishes so abundantly in the an- imal world as a means for the early development of the powers of gaining knowledge. The domestic animals, and such others, including insects, as come within the range of frequent observation, engage the attention of children long before they are old enough to commence their lirst lessons in books. Nature does not weary the young learner, as books do. These facts should be remem- bered in the arrangement of courses of primary instruc- tion. That which is familiar and interesting to children should be among the subjects of the earliest lessons. Nat- ure should be studied first; then books and nature togeth- er, each helping the student to understand the other. Give children correct ideas of the leading groups of animals, teach them to distinguish their characteristics by personal observation, and to arrange them in classes by such means, and not only will the real interest of children in this subject be secured, but the usefulness of text-books will be largely increased. Children thus taught become real and practical students. By becoming accustomed to observe carefully, to arrange in classes by common resem- blances, habits of order are formed which prove valuable at a later period in life, in whatever situation the person so trained may be placed — whether in the office of the lawyer, in the counting-room of the merchant, in the lab- oratory of the chemist, in the workshop of the mechanic, or in the fields of the farmer. Among the attractive materials of the animal world ap- propriate for the early exercises of the perceptive powers 174 MAA^UAL or OBJECT-TEACHING. are those animals with whoso appearance children are to some extent familiar — as the cat, dog, cow, horse, hen, goose, duck, sheep, pig, mouse ; and birds of all kinds. The toad and the snail snpply interesting materials for these lessons in nature, because children do not usually expect to find anything instructive in things so common and unattractive. The peculiar structure and uses of the cat's eye, her cushion -like feet, and retractile nails; instances of the fidelity and sagacity of the dog ; the docility of the horse ; the gentleness of the cow ; the playfulness of the lamb and the kitten ; the different movements of birds — as walk- ing, hopping, swimming, flying, their nest -building and migratory habits ; the form, movement, and habits of fish- es, reptiles, and insects, with the wonderful adaptation of structure to their several modes of life. Also the differ- ent voices of animals: as the bark, the whine, and growl of the dog; the mew and purr of the cat; the neigh and whinny of the horse ; the bleats of the sheep, goat, lamb, and kid ; the cluck and cackle of the hen ; the gabble and hiss of the goose ; the quack of the duck ; the caw of the crow ; the whistle of the quail ; the songs of the thrush, robin, bluebird, and canary, all furnish materials and sub- jects adapted to interest and instruct children. Attention may be also directed to those animals which serve us by their strength, swiftness, and sagacity ; and to those that supply so many of our w^ants by their milk, flesh, honey, wool, hair, fur, skins, horns, bones, tusks, feathers, etc. The lessons during the early stages of instruction should De short. Give an idea of some one thing, or of the ac- tion of some one animal ; then stop, let the young learn- ers go away and think and talk about it, and look to see if the thing be really so. Then they will return to the next lesson desirous of knowing more. NATURAL HISTORY. 175 The natural fondness of cliildrcn for animals renders tliese objects especially appropriate for lessons to develop their liuniane feelings, sympathy, kindness, and benevo- lence. Plants, as ^vell as animals, supply useful materials for the child's development by their beautiful flowers of many shapes and colors; their variety of delicious fruits; their fragrance and flavor ; the many forms of their leaves and stems; by the wonders of their growth, and their uses for food, medicine, clothing, building, furniture, fuel, etc. Al- though these lack the attractive feature of motion which renders the animal world so full of interest to the young, very interesting and profitable lessons may be given on these subjects, which will gladden the footsteps of many weary pilgrims along the road to the temple of knowl- edge, and enrich them with lasting treasures. Minerals form an important part of the common ob- jects and implements which the child sees and handles daily. Although not endowed with the power of motion like animals, or of growth like plants, yet they arc also calculated to awaken the curiosity of children, and there- by furnish appropriate means for their mental develop- ment. The transparency of glass ; the elasticity of steel springs ; the flexibility of copper wire ; the fusibility of lead ; the attraction of the magnet ; the usefulness of iron, and its softening by heat; the astringency of alum; and the ap- pearances, qualities, and uses of other metals, minerals, rocks, and soils, add to' the great variety of materials which nature abundantly supplies for the development and instruction of the child. These three grand divisions of nature — animals, vcge- tahleSf and minerals — comprise the materials which God 17G MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. employs in exercising the senses, stimulating the percep- tive powers, awakening intelligence, and cultivating the human mind throughout its stages of intellectual devel- opment. And these things are especially adapted to the purposes of elementary education, since the aim at this time is not so much the giving of a certain amount of knowledge as it is the awakening of the faculties, and training the pupil to use his own mind. The introductory lessons on natural history should be graded, and presented in successive steps, corresponding to the different stages of the child's development. The age and capacity of the child should determine as to the extent and minuteness of the observations required, and the amount of information to be gained. LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 177 LESSOXS OX AXIMALS. FIRST STAGE. {Intended for children at home, and during the first year in school.'i When children have become sufficiently familiar with their own bodies to be able to point out and name the principal parts, and to tell the use of each organ of sense, they will be ready for the lessons on animals, and pre- pared to observe the different parts of animals, to compare them with parts of their own bodies, and notice resem- blances and differences in the structure and uses of these parts. The first lessons should not be formal in character, but rather consist of familiar conversations, with abundant op- portunities for personal observation by the child. As far as practicable, let the pupil see the object first, and then hear about it. The spontaneous questions by the child that follow his seeing — what is it? what is it for? why does it do so ? will it hurt me ? — furnish abundant oppor- tunities for instruction, and guide the parent or teacher as to the kind of information that is most appropriate for the young learner during his first lessons. When the child enters school he has already acquired some knowledge concerning domestic animals, and other familiar ones, through home experiences. The teacher's first aim must be to ascertain the character and extent of this information, and then to follow with appropriate les- sons connected with and based upon this knowledge. The following series of exercises will suggest some of the meth- ods which teachers may pursue during successive steps in these early lessons. 8* 178 MAls'UAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. First Series of Exercises, — To ascertain what animals the children are most familiar with, request them to tell what an- imals they have seen. When several names have been given, se- lect one animal named, and ask a child, Where did you see it ? Then ask another where he saw it ; repeating the question to sev- eral members of the class. What can it do? is another question that may invite answers from several pupils. This may be followed by other questions; as. How does it move? What does it eat? Where does it live? What is it good for? The same or similar questions may be asked about different familiar animals. The pupils should be en- couraged to make new observations of each animal that forms a subject of this exercise, and to talk about them at a subsequent lesson. To further stimulate them in observation, tell the children some simple story about the animal ; or, if the exercise be about a cat, ask the children to look at the opening in the cat's eyes when the sun «hines, and to look at it at night, or when there is not much light in the room, and to tell their teacher the next day what they saw. They may be requested also to look at the feet of a duck or goose, and the feet of a hen, and afterward tell how they dif' fer. Lead them to tell what the cat does when it is happy ; what it docs when it is mad. Thus in various ways the teacher may stimulate and lead the children to find out many interesting and useful facts about animals. Do not tell the pupils that which tlieij can discover. The teacher may choose the object, lead the pupils to it, then leave them to sec it, handle it, and learn from it by the exercise of their own senses. These exercises may be made a part of the lessons in reading and spelling, by teaching the pupils the names of the animals talked about ; and to read some of the simple statements as to what they can do, how move, what they cat, etc. Second Series of Exercises. — Place before the pupils pictures of several of the animals about Avhich conversations have already been held ; as cat, dog, cow, sheep, goat, horse, etc. Let LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 179 the pupils name these animals as the teacher points at the pict- ures. Let the pupils, singly, point out and name these animals. Let them point out and name the principal parts of each ; as, head, neck, body, legs, feet, tail, back, ears, eyes, nose, mouth, etc. Select a single picture — as that of a cat. Let the pupils point out and name the principal parts ; as, head, neck, body, tail, legs, feet, claws, ears, eyes, teeth, feelers, tongue. Select the picture of a familiar bird — as hen, duck, turkey, robin — and let the pupils point out and name the principal parts ; as head, neck, body, tail, legs, wings, beak, eyes, feet, etc. Pro- ceed in the same way with pictures of the dog, the horse, the cow, sheep, goat, pig, etc. Third Series of Exercises. — Place the pictures of fa- miliar animals — as cow, horse, and sheep — before the pupils, and request them to tell what each is good for. One pupil might say the cow gives us milk ; another, the sheep gives us wool ; another, the horse can draw us in a wagon, etc. Then a single picture may be selected, and the pupils requested to tell all they can about that. If it be the picture of a cow, the pupils might Siiy, "We get milk from the cow ; we make butter from the milk ; we can make cheese from the milk. Leather for shoes and boots is made from the skin of a cow. The flesh of the cow is called beef. We eat beef." Do not try to make the pupils tell things which they cannot learn by observation, nor such as they would not be likely to have learned by talking about the subject. Proceed in a similar manner with other familiar animals, and thus lead the pupils to consider their uses — i. e., to answer one of their own questions — "Wliat is it for? In this way they may become able to mention, somewhat as follows, many USES OF ANIMALS. The Horse is useftil for riding, for drawing loads, carts, wagons, sleighs, carriages, cars, ploughing, etc. The Sheep is useful in supplying wool for clothing, flesh for food, and skin for soft leather. The Goat is useful in supplying milk for food, and skin for leather. 180 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. The Dog is useful to guard the house and barn, to hunt, to kill rats, etc. Hens and Turkeys sui)2)ly eggs and flesh for food. Ducks and Geese suiDply eggs and flesh for food, and feathers for liillows, beds, etc. Fourth Series of Exercises. — Lead the pupils to talk about the movements of animals. First — they may tell what they have noticed concerning tlie movements of the animals named for the lesson. Second — then lead them to observe the different movements of animals more carefully. In conducting this exercise, the teacher should not tell the piqnls what the movements are, but request them to find out, if they do not already know, and to tell about them during tlie next day's lesson, which should include a review of the lesson on the pre- vious day. As suggestions to the teacher relative to the facts which the pupils might notice and mention concerning these movements, the following list of appropriate animals, with their movements, is given : The Cat can walk, run, jump, and cHmb. The Dog can walk, trot, run, leap, and jump. The Horse can walk, trot, run, canter or gallop, and pace. The Hen can walk, run, and flJ^ The Goose can walk, run, fly, and swim. The Sparrow can hop and fly. The Robin can run, walk, and fly. The Turkey can walk, run, and fly. The Fish can swim. The Bee can creep and fly. The Toad can walk and leap. The Mouse can walk, run, and climl). The Squirrel can walk, run, climb, and jump. The Monkey can walk,jumi), climb, and swing. Use these exercises as reading-lessons from the blackboard; also as lessons in spelling and writing on slates. LESSONS ON ANIMALS. ISl LESSONS ON ANIMALS. SECOND STAGE. ITntended for children from eight to ten years ofage.1 When the cliildren have acquired a good variety of facts by their own observation of familiar animals, and the ability to give sufficient attention to a single object to consider more than one of its characteristics at the same lesson, they will be prepared for a second series of lessons, during which they may be led to observe more minutely the peculiarities of each object. During this second stage lessons may be given that will afford exercise for the child's imagination, and thus give pleasure through a faculty that is very active in early life. In giving this series of lessons, the teacher should use a few interesting facts about each animal in such a manner as to lead the pupils to observe and learn other facts about it. Some lessons may be commenced by first requiring the pupils to tell all they know about the animal ; then the teacher may ask a few questions about special habits of the animal that will stimulate the pupils to try to find answers by their own observations ; as, What does it do ? How does it get its food ? What does it eat ? How does it move ? Would it like to have you pat it ? etc. Sometimes the lesson may be commenced by comparing the habits of animals with some appropriate occupation ; adding a few interesting facts about them, and telling the children how they may see the same things, and many others equally interesting. Throughout all the lessons in this stage the constant aim 182 MANUxiL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. of the teacher should he to cause the pupils to see carefulhj, observe jpatiently ^ and learn for themselves. This series may include lessons on a few animals that the children see only in museums, menageries, zoological gardens, or become somewhat acfjuainted with by means of pictures. Some simple classification of animals in groups, by their similar habits, modes of life, etc., may be made in this stage, to give children an idea of kinds or classes of ani- mals. The following lessons are not intended to be copied by the teacher, and taught to the children ; but they are de- signed to furnish sufiicient information for bringing the lessons before the class, and to suggest methods for con- ducting them. Each teacher should endeavor to make the lessons her own, and to adapt them to the pupils in her class. Concerning some of the animals only the most important facts and characteristics are given, and the teacher is expected to arrange these in an appropriate form for a lesson, with such additional information as she can supply. After a lesson has been given and reviewed, the pupils should be required to write on their slates, or on paper, the most important facts contained in the lesson. By proper management on the part of the teacher, the pu- pils may be led to the writing of compositions in a way that will be interesting to them. THE CAT. The teacher may introduce the lesson in a way that will gain the attention of the pupils; and this can be secured by furnishing them a little exercise for their imagination, somewliat as follows : Children, I am going to talk with you about a small animal ^vhich all of you have seen. It is fond of staying in the kitchen, and of lying in a warm place. It likes to he noticed, and even LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 183 caressed by those ■\vlio are kind to it. I tliink some of j'ou have taken this animal in your arms, and felt of its soft fur. Having thus prepared the class for the lesson, the teacher may proceed somewhat as follows : Teacher. All who think they can tell the name of this animal may raise a hand ? Wliat is its name ? Children. A cat. T. Very good. Here is the picture of a cat. What do you think it is doing ? What do you see on each side of its mouth ? C. Whiskers. T. That which you call the cat's whiskers are its feehrs. When the cat puts its head in a hole it can tell by these feelers whether the hole is large enougli to allow its body to go through. The cat docs not like to lie down in a dirty place. It is more care-ful about keeping out of the dirt than some children are when they are at play. The cat does not like to have her face dirty. How does she keej) her fiice clean ? C. She washes it with her paws. She licks her paws, makes them clean, then rul)s them on Iier face, then licks them again. T. Puss carries a brush, and smooths her fur with it. I think some of you have seen her use it. Do you know what this brush is ? C. I think it is her tongue, for I have seen her lick her fur; and her tongue is rough, something like a brush. T. You arc right; the top of her tongue is covered with homy points, which slant backward toward her throat. With this rough tongue she can make her hair smooth. Did you know that cats can see in the dark ? They have curtains in their eyes of a yellowish-green color. When the sun shines very briglitly they draw these curtains together, so as to leave only a nar- row opening between them, and let in a little light. When too much light goes into the eye it has a blinding cfl'ect, and prevents the cat from seeing well. At niglit this curtain is pulled back to make a wide opening, to let in enough light to enable tlie cat to see. By this means the cat can see to hunt its prey at night. Did yoii ever look in a cat's eyes when the , , ij,, sun sliines brightly on her, and notice how the <^ m'^l^^s^/^^ curtains are drawn nearly together, leaving w..'" only a narrow opening? I will try to make a picture on the blackboard to show how tlie ,, . , cat's ej'c looks when these curtains are drawn '" ''" together. eye in suNLicnT. 184 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. Did you ever look at a cat's eye at night, W'lien the curtaius were pulled so far back that tlie oj^euing in the pupil of the eye w.as like a large round spot, or circle ? The opening be- "^z^^^^^^^^^**^ " tween the curtains of the cat's eye is the pupil. ' The cat sees throu Marten, Seal, Squirrc '1, ChincLilla. 9-= 5- 202 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACIIIXG. LESSONS ON ANIMALS. THIRD STAGE. [Appropriate for children during their fourth, fifth , aivl sixth years in school.] When the pupils have liad a year or two of such expe- riences in observing the habits of different kinds of ani- mals as is contemplated by the lessons of the second stage^ they MuU be fnlly prepared to compare the habits and structure of similar animals, and thus become familiar with their leading family characteristics. The first lessons should commence with animals that the pupils can examine personally; as the duck, the hen, the cat, the cow, etc. In cases where several animals of the same kind cannot be examined personally by the pu- pils, pictures may be used as a substitute in making the comparisons as to their form and structure. The outline of a few lessons is here given, to indicate the general plan of conducting the exercises in natural liistory for the tJt'ird stage. Following these lessons are the names of several other animals, with brief statements of facts concerning them, which the teacher may use as materials in preparing lessons. In giving these lessons, it will be well for the teacher to direct special attention of the pupils to one or more of the following points in relation to each animal. That point in relation to any one which is most familiar to the pupils will indicate where the lesson on that animal may commence : The hahits of the animal, or what it usually does. Where it is found; its mode of living. IIoio it moves; kind of food eaten hy it. Its structure; whether that of a hird, quadruped, fish, reptile, insect, etc. LESSONS ON AXIilALS. 203 Its shape and size. Its covering and color. Its uses. How its structure adapts it to its mode of life, to its habits, food, uses, etc. THE DUCK. If the duck be selected as the subject for the first lesson, let the pupils be required, as an introductory exercise, to tell what they know already about the shape of the duck's body, head, neck, beak, and feet. Let them describe some of the habits of the duck — tell Avhat it docs, its uses, color, where found, etc. Request the pupils to make further observations, that they may ascertain and report at the next lesson how many toes ducks have; what is between their toes; how they use their feet; the position of the legs on the body; whether the legs are short or long; whether their feathers hang loosely, or lap upon each' other closely ; what is under their feathers ; about the oiling of their feathers; the use of their long necks; their broad bills, with the comb-like edges; and what is their food. After full observations have been made by the pupils, and re- ported in class exercises, request them to name other birds which have similar bodies, feet, necks, and bills. Then let the pupils make observations to see how these characteristics resemble and how they differ from those of the duck, and report concerning these also to the class. To facilitate this work of observation and comparison, the teacher may place before the class a large 2)icture of a duck, and let the pupils point out each characteristic that may be seen in the picture. Then pictures representing other swimming birds may be shown the pupils, that they may compare the character- istics of the birds thus represented with those of the duck. If the exercises on this subject be properly conducted, the pu- pils will learn that the general forms of swimming birds are — boat -shaped bodies, short logs, webbed feet, and long necks; and tliat all ducks, geese, swans, gulls, and many other birds, belong to this group. 204 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. Before leaving this group of Lirds, request the pupils to state ill writing their principal characteristics, habits, uses, etc., and to give the names of all they can remember as belonging to the or- der of sioimming birds. THE HEN. When the hen is made the subject of a lesson, require the pu- pils first to tell all they know about her general shape, size, struct- ure, habits, etc. ; then place before them the large picture of a turkey, and let them point out parts similar to those of the hen. When they have observed that the hen and the turkey have heavy bodies, small heads, short wings, strong but not very long legs, toes nearly straight, with short, blunt nails — three front toes longest, hind toe short and higher than the others ; that their beaks are short and stout — tails large; that the hen finds her food by scratching the ground; that both spend most of the time on the ground ; that their food consists of grain, seeds, and insects ; that they usually select some elevated position — as a branch of a tree — for a roosting-place at night ; that their young are hatched from eggs; — when the pupils have given attention to these characteristics, other pictures of this group of birds (scratching birds) may be placed before them, that they may observe similar forms and characteristics in the birds represented by the pictures. The teacher may now tell the pupils a few facts about each of the birds in this group : why they are called scratchers ; their general habits ; where found ; uses, etc. When the exercises on this group of birds are finished, the pupils will know that all hens, turkeys, peacocks. Guinea-fowls, pheasants, prairie-chickens, quails, partridges, and grouse belong to the group of scratchers ; and that pigeons, doves, etc., resemble those of this group in many respects. THE QUAIL. Did you ever hear a bird say, with a whistling voice, "Bob White —Bob White ?" or " More wet— more wet !" several times in succes- sion ? Some persons think he says, " Buckwheat — buckwheat !" LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 205 Did you ever see this brownish bird, witli head aud feet of the shape of those of a hen, and body about the size of a chicken when its feathers begin to grow out? This bird has several names; it is called Boh Whitepox a qiiail^'iw the New England and Middle States, and Virginia partridge in the Southern States. It belongs to the gallinaceous^ or scratching birds, and the grouse family. The body, from the tip of the beak to the end of the tail, is about nine inches ; wings, extended, from fourteen to fifteen inches ; beak short and blunt ; head small ; legs bare ; the front toes rest on the ground; hind one short and slender. It lives in fields aud mead- ows ; feeds on grain, seeds, and insects ; makes its nest on the ground ; lays from eight to ten white eggs. The young quails look like young chickens. The flesh of the quail is much prized for food. Did you ever read the story of a man who caught two young quails and tamed tliem ? Did the old quail find them after they became tame ? Can you tell that story ? THE PRAIRIE-HEN. This bird also belongs to the order of scratchei's — to the grouse fjimily — and is known as the pinnated grouse ; also as the p)rairie- hen. It may be easily tamed. It is found in flocks on tlie Western prairies ; length of body, from tip of beak to end of tail, sixteen to eighteen inches; wings, when extended, are twenty-four to twenty-eight inches ; legs cov- ered with feathers; the hind toe higher up on the leg than the front toes. It feeds on grains, seeds, and insects. The flesh is highly prized for food. It may be seen for sale in markets during autumn aud winter. The prairie-hen can produce sounds, which may be heard half a mile or more, by inflating tlie air sacs under the tuft of feathers at the sides of its neck. Did you ever see a prairie-hen ? Now request the pupils to write out the chief characteristics as to structure, habits, uses, etc., of this group of birds, and to give a list of those that belong to it. THE CAT. After the children have stated all the facts which they have discovered by personally observing the cat, place before them a large picture of this animal, and request different pupils to point 20G M.iNUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHIXG. out each characteristic part wliicli has been noticed in their ex- amination of the cat. \yhen they have thus shown that their attention has been given to the following particularities of this animal — as, round bead; short ears; great changes in eyes in light and in dark- ness ; sharp teeth ; rough tongue ; feelers ; soft feet ; sharp, hid- den nails; difference in number of toes on front and hind feet — the teacher may tell the pupils the use of each of these peculiar- ities of structure, and add other interesting facts about the cat's habits, etc. At a subsequent exercise place other pictures of tlie cat family before the class, that they may compare each picture with that of the cat, and notice prominent resemblances and differences. Facts about each member of the cat family thus shown to the pupils may be stated to them. Suitable information on this sub- ject will be found in Prang''s Natural History Series for Chil- dren (Cat Family), and in other books of natural history. Before the lessons on this family are finished, the pupils should become familiar with the leading characteristics of the cat, and of other members of the family — as, the Manx cat, Angora cat, wild-cat, lynx, panther, cheetah, jaguar, tiger, leopard, lion, etc. — and able to recognize them all as flesh-eating animals with many similar habits. Facts about the cat of interest to children may be found in Lessons on Animals for Second Stage. [See page 181.] Request pupils to write descriptions of members of the cat family. THE LION. After the preceding lesson on the cat family, it would be ap- propriate to give a lesson about the lion in a different manner from the preceding ones — the teacher giving most of the infor- mation, somewhat as follows: A few days ago you had a lesson on the cat family, in which it was shown that the lion — sometimes called "king of beasts" — be- longed to that family. You may call him the great-uncle of the cat. I will tell you something about this wonderful animal. His na- tive place is in Africa ; also in some parts of Asia. lie likes to LESSONS OX ANIMALS. 207 roam over stony plains, dotted here and tliere witli thickets of bushes, in which he can hide and uatch for his prey to come near. The home of the lion is ilir from the liome of man. People seldom visit the places where lions live, except as they go there to hunt wild animals. Lions live in i)airs. They are usually from six to eight feet long, and from three and a half to four feet high. The weight of one is from four to five hundred pounds. Their color is usually a tawny yellow. A mane of long hair covers the neck of the male lion. The lion has thirty teeth, which are sharp and pointed like those of the cat. The feet and claws are also like those of the cat in form, but very much larger and stronger; and, like the cat, the lion can walk al- most noiselessly. Like the cat, tiie lion has a rough tongue ; but tiie rough points are much longer and harder than those of the cat. Tliese points slant Ijackward, or toward the mouth, and are so strong that flesh may be scraped from bones by tliis rough tongue. Thus it may be seen that the structure of the lion indicates an an- imal of great strength and power in overcoming other animals. It is said that the lion can carry a young ox or a sheep in his mouth with as much ease as a cat can carry a rat. He cannot run as fast as a deer or a zebra, and could not get a good living by chasing his game. In the country where the lions live there arc not many springs or streams of water ; often the animals must go a long distance to quench their thirst. The lion finds those places where the animals which he likes for food go to get drink. Near these places he lies concealed in a thicket, watching for his prey to come along, just as tlie cat watches for tlie mouse to come from its hiding-place. Cat- like, the lion springs with a bound, and seizes its prey with his mouth and fore -paws. Sometimes it will spring twenty feet at a single bound. When the lion seizes his prey he usually utters a tcml)le roar, which almost paralyzes the victim with fear; but his loudest roar- ing is made during the night ; and in those secluded regions it must produce great fear among otiier animals. His roar consists of a deep-toned, moaning sound, repeated five or six times in quick succession, each time increasing in loudness ; ending witii an audi- ble sigh. Sometimes several lions may be heard roaring at the same time. What a concert exercise ! Like the cat, the lion can see well at night; and during this time he goes about, while during the day he sleeps most of the time in his /«//•, which is usually in a thicket, or by the side of a rock. He is commonly seen moving about at sunset, or just before sunrise. 208 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. The liou lias a long tail, ■with a tuft of hair at the eiul, like a tas- sel. When angry, he lashes his sides with his tail, just as a cat does when it is displeased. It possesses sufficient strength in its tail to knock a man down at a single blow. Let the pupils write what they can remember concerning the lion. THE DOG. When the pupils have told what they know about dogs — their habits, food, structure, uses, and the different kinds — place large pictures of dogs before the class, and let the pupils point out and name the different kinds, their parts, etc. Direct attention to the attachment of dogs to their masters — to their swiftness in running; their keen scent; pointed nose; smooth tongue; flesh-tearing teeth; fore feet five-toed; hind ones four-toed; thin legs; tails curved upward; and to the fact that they are found in all parts of the world. Compare their nails, feet, and eyes Avith those of a cat. Dogs chase prey ; cats wait for it to come near, then suddenly spring upon it. Dogs hunt by day ; cats hunt at night. All the senses of the dog arc well developed, especially those of smell and hear- ing.* Dog not strictly a carnivorous animal ; when domesti- cated, will cat all kinds of food. Tell stories about dogs. Let the children read stories about them and write about them. THE WOLF. The tiiolf is a kind of cousin to the dog. He belongs to the flesh-eating quadrupeds, and to the dog family. In general ap- pearance he is much like the dog, and his hair is longer, but he lets his tail hang, instead of curving it upward like the dog. The wolf growls and howls, but does not bark like a dog. Al- though he is cunning and ferocious, he has not the dog's noble courage. He lives in forests, hunts at night, and usually in packs. Wolves are very destructive to sheep. Tell a story about wolves, and request the pupils to read about them at home ; also to write about them. * See Lesson on the Bog for Second Stage, p. 185. LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 209 Foxes, like wolves, belong to the dog family. They have heads, teeth, and ears much like some dogs. Foxes hunt at night, but singly. THE COW. By requiring the pupils to state what they have observed in re- lation to the cow's food, her peculiar manner of eating, her feet, horns, teeth, and the several uses of the cow ; by stimulating them to make further and more careful observations of cows, sheep, goats, deer, etc. ; by the use of pictures, and by awakening a desire to read books of natural history — seek to make the pupils acquainted with the chief peculiarities of the cud-chewinr/ animals. Direct their attention to the following facts concerning the group embracing the cow, ox, bison, sheep, goat, yak, zebu, ante- lope, etc. — that these have hollow horns ; feed on grass, etc. ; that they chew their food twice ; that they are generally timid animals, and seek safety in flight ; that they have parted, or cloven hoofs. [The teacher should sketch the hoof on the blackboard.] OLOVEN-IIOOF. 6KUI.L OF A COW. The pupils may also be led to notice from a sketch on the black- board — also from observing the mouth of a goat, sheep, or cow — that they have no front teeth on the upper jaw ; and also to notice that they get up on their hind feet first ; that these animals are of great service to man ; that they supply us with numerous articles for food, clothing, and other purposes, which contribute much to our comfort. Lead the pupils to write all the facts they know about the cow and the ox at the close of the lesson. 210 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. THE SHEEP. The sheep is so familiar to children that they will be able to state many facts which can be used by the teacher as the basis of lessons about this animal. They can tell something about their uses — their wool for clothing, their flesh for food, their skins for leather, their tallow, etc. They may also know the names and distinguishing cbaracteristics of the Merino, with its large horns, small body, and very fine, soft wool ; or of the Soiithdowns, with their dark faces, long necks, coarse wool, large bodies — without horns — and the excellent mutton from their flesh ; or of the Leicester, without horns, with straight, round bodies, broad backs, and very long avooI. Direct attention of the pupils to their cloven hoofs ; cud-chew- ing ; feeding upon grass, grain, and vegetables; no front teeth on upper jaw ; long, slender head ; horns much curved, and rough, like ridges. Call attention to the fact that sheep follow a leader, and that, like some children, they do as their leader does, without thinking for themselves. Did you ever hear any children say what the others do, without thinking whether it is right? The common sheep is called a stnpid animal, because if one of the flock should jump into a deep ditch, the others would follow, apparently with- out looking to see where they are going. The sheep belongs to the branch vertebrates ; c\a?,%, mammalia ; ovdcr, rnminants ; iamWy, ox, sheep, etc. \ genus, oi'/s. They get up on their hind feet first; live in flocks; their young are very playful. Did you ever see lambs play ? THE CAMEL. Introduction by the Teacher. — Far away, across the wide ocean, in the countries called Africa and Asia, tliere are many large deserts of sand. In these deserts there are no trees, no soft, green grasses, no rains, no rivers, no roads, no houses, and no people living there. The sand is so fine and dry that tlie winds cany it about in great clouds. It is so soft that even a child would sink into it over its shoes when walking. Horses cannot travel there, because their feet would sink so deeply into the sand; besides, tliey would die of thirst and huu- LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 211 ger before they could rcficli a place where food and water might be obtained. Yet the people who live near these pathless deserts often want to cross them, and to carry goods on tlicse dreary journeys. God has created an animal which is titted to live in just such a country. It is so formed that it can travel in soft sand, and live a long time without food or water. Now I will show you a picture of that wonderful animal, and we will talk about its structure and habits. [Showing a picture of a camel.] Here is the picture. Can you tell the name of this animal ? Its Feet. — Now look at its feet. Are they like the feet of a liorsc ? The feet of the camel arc long and broad, and soft and tough. They are broad and soft, and become so much spread out under the weight of the animal that they sink but little in the sand; they are so tough that the sand does not hurt them. Tiie small, hard foot of a horse would sink so far in the sand that the horse would soon become exhausted; tiie cushion-shaped feet of the camel prevent its sinking, and thus enable it to travel a long distance with- out fatigue. Its feet would become sore on stony roads, and they are not fitted for travelling in wet places. The camel was made for a dry and sandy country. Its Legs. — Do you see the h gs of the camel ? What can you say of them? They are long and slender, and fit the camel for rapid travelling. Its Neck. — What sort of a neck has the camel ? It has a very long, curved, and slender neck. This is to allow its head to reach the ground easily for food and water. Its Head and Ears. — Can you see its ears ? lias it a large, round head? No; its head is long and slender, and its ears are (piite small. Its Nostrils. — The nostrils of the camel are so formed that it can close them at will. This enables it to keep out the drifting sand, and prevents a great deal of pain and injury to the animal. Its sense of smell is very acute; it can smell water at a great distance, and by this means it sometimes saves the life of its master. Its Size and Shape. — The body of the camel is about the size of a horse, but its back resembles an arch instead of being nearly straight, like that of the cow or horse. It is generally taller than a horse, being from five to seven feet high. Its Hump. — Is the back of the camel like the back of a horse or a cow? No; it has a liump on its back. This hump is a mass of fat. When the camel is fat, the hump is very large; but when tlie 212 MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACHING. animal is lean, the hump h sniall. When the camel, on its long journey across the desert, is obliged to subsist on a very small al- lowance of food, or even to go without food, the fat of the hump supi)lies nutriment. Its substance is absorbed and taken into the general circulation, and thus supports the animal to the end of its journey, or until it sinks under privations which no other animal could have borne for half the time. Its Food. — What did I say about the deserts across which tlie camel travels ? They contain no trees, and no green grass. In some places, however, there may be found prickly shrubs and a dry, coarse grass, but only in small sjiots. No horse or donkey would eat such food ; yet the camel seems quite contented if, when it stops to rest for the night, it can find even such coarse food as thorny shrubs and dry, coarse grass. Its master, however, usually takes along with him dates and beans, aud a few of these seem to satisfy its hunger when a regular meal cannot be had. The camel chews its cud, like the cow, the sheep, aud the goat. Its Driiik. — You remember I told you that there were no rains and no rivers in the desert. Frequently it is necessary to travel ten or twelve days without finding a spring or a well of water. During all this time the camel must go without drinking. Here we see the beneficence of the Creator in the formation of an animal so well adapted to meet the wants of man. The camel has four stomachs ; one of these is provided with a great number of water-cells ; and before setting out on a journey he drinks a great quantity of water, filling all of these cells. The water thus stored up in its stomach lasts for a long time; and whenever it desires to do so, the camel can make use of a little of this water tb moisten its food and refresh itself. By this means it can travel a long distance without suffering from thirst. Its Habits aiid Uses. — When kindly treated, the camel is gentle, patient, aud easily taught. It kneels down to receive its load, and kneels down again to have it removed at night; also to let its mas- ter mount and dismount. At night it lies down by its master's tent. In the morning it comes at his call to receive its load. The camel furnishes milk for its master's family. It carries them on its back during the day, and often its side serves them as a pil- low at night. Its body is a shelter against the Avhirlwinds of sand, and in battle an intrenclunent behind which the family and their property are protected. The hair of the camel supplies materials for clothes and tents; of its skin are made sandals for the feet, sad- dles upon which to ride, buckets for water, and large bottles for car- LESSONS ON ANIMALS. 213 rying M'Htcr to supply tlio traveller on his long journeys across the desert. Its flesh is used for food. The camel may be regarded as one of the most useful of animals. The Arabs consider it as a "gift of Heaven," a sacred animal, with- out whose assistance they could neither travel, traffic, nor subsist. They call it the " Ship of the Desert," for it bears them sftfely over the pathless wastes of Arabia and Northern Africa, under privations wliich no other animal could endure. The usual load of a camel is from six to eight hundred pounds ; and with this weight on his back he will travel from forty to fifty miles in a day. But the camel that is trained for speed will bear its master and his food on its back, and travel from seventy to one hundred miles in twenty-four hours, and continue at this speed for several days in succession. It sometimes jierforms a journey of seven hundred miles. Training the Young Camel. — When the Arab desires a camel for speed, he takes it when quite young, folds its limbs under its body, and while in this situation on the ground he loads its back. This weight is removed only to be replaced by a heavier one. Instead of allowing it to feed at pleasure and drink Avhen thirsty, he regulates its meals and drink, and gradually trains it to travel long journeys, and diminishes at the same time the quantity of its food. When it has thus acquired strength and endurance, it is trained to move with speed. In this manner it becomes robust and fleet, and capable of great endurance. Review the Lesson. — When tlie preceding- facts relative to the camel have all been given, the teacher should require the pu- pils to tell all they can remember about this animal. At first, any pupil that can think of anything to say may raise a hand, and the teacher proceed to call upon them, one at a time, to say what they remember, care being taken to have as little as possible repeated. Subsequently the pupils may be called upon in turn, and more system be required in the order of stating the facts. Afterward they should be directed to write all they can re- member about the camel, and state what group of animals it be- longs to. In this connection the attention of the pupils may be directed to the form and habits of the Giraffe, also to those cud-chewing animals found in South America — the Llama and the Guanaco — which belong to the liornlcss ruminants. 21-i MANUAL OF OBJECT-TEACUING. THE DRAGON-FLY. Introduction by the Teacher. — JMost children are very much frightened when they see a hirge insect living about which they call a " darning-needle," or the " devil's darning-needle." They think it can sting or bite them, or get in their ears. Some older persons have a dread of it ; so that it has many enemies, and but few friends. Now, before looking at this insect or its picture, and before talking about its habits and life, let me assure you that there is no cause either of fear or dislike for this harmless creature, which is really very useful to us in destroying mosquitoes and flies. It cannot bite, or sting, or poison, or do any injury to any person. It is just as harmless as a butterfly. When you have learned more about tliis insect, you will understand iiow useless are the fears which children have of it; and I hope you will learn also to welcome its restless, rapid movements in pursuit of mosquitoes and flies, through gar- dens, over ponds, and even in the house, rather than scream and run away from it. Now let us examine this dragon-jiy — that is the real name of this insect. What can you say about it? Children. It has four wings. It has a long, slender body. The shape of the body is cylindrical. It has a large head. Its wings are oblong. They are very thin, and almost transparent. The wings look something like net-work. It has ten rings around its body. It has six legs. It has two large eyes. It has two feelers. Teacher. Very well said. See its great head, large eyes, short neck, its hunch-back, and long, slender body, its gauze-like wings, and its l)eautii'ul colors ! I told you that it is useful to us in destroying- mosquitoes. It catches them with its feet while flying, and devours them. If a few dragon-flies were shut up in a room for a short time, tliey would elfectually rid it of all moscjuitoes and flics. Eggs of the Dragon fly. — Tiic dragon-fly alights upon stems of rushes or other water-])lants, and deposits its eggs below the surface of the water, frequently attaching them in a bunch to a stem or leaf. These eggs are hatched during the warm weather of summer by the heat of the sun. The Larva or Grub. — At first the larva or grub of the dragon-fly resembles a bug, with large eyes and six long legs. In this state it is very active, walking over the bottom of the pond of water it in- habits, or swimming in search of the larva of mosquitoes and other insects, of which it devours great numbers. It tlius aids in dimin- ishing and removing from ponds and swamjis, and also from our fields, gardens, and houses even, swarms of hlood-suc^king insects. LESSONS OX ANIMALS. 2' The Pupa. — When the larva has outgrown its skin, tins spli. open at the back, and the insect crawls out, thus changing from the larva to the pupa state. It still continues to live in the water, remaining there in all some ten or twelve mouths. As before, its food is chiefly the larva of mosquitoes. The Dragon-fly. — When the pupa has grown too large for its skin, and is about to change into the full -formed dragon -fl}% it climbs up the stem of some plant near the surface of the water. AVhile it remains there, its skin again splits oj^en at the back, and the dragon-fly emerges slowly. For an hour or two it remains quiet, with its soft wings motionless. Soon the surface of the Ijody dries and hardens, and at lengtli the full-formed dragon-fly exjwnds its wings and rises into the air, henceforth to live in a new world, al- though its existence in this state lasts but a few weeks. It is by far the most powerfid flier among insects. It can fly in all directions with equal facility, forward and backward, and sidewise, to the right or left. While it was an inhabitant of water, it devoured the young of mosquitoes ; now it pursues the full-grown mosquito on the wing with relentless energy. From the moment of its birtii to the hour of its deafli it riots upon baneful insects ; thus its Avliole life is a continued good to man. It seems to have been sent into the world by a kind Providence to prevent too great an increase of those in- sects which arc most annoying to man. Teacher. Now I will write on the blackboard the names of the parts of tlie dragon-fly, and of the shape of each ; also some other facts. Then I want you to describe the dragon-fly, telling all yon can remember about it. THE DRAGON-FLY. Its Parts. Shape. Facts. Body Cvlindrical 1 t,. r i • -i. t xt- -rrr. ^v , Its lood IS mosouitocs and flies. Wmgs Oblong t. • •.• ^ ^ i r n T ^. , T It IS usctul to man, and i)erlectly Legs Crooked i , i i j TT 1 r., 1 y harmless. Head Oblong I t, i i + *i • * ^ -i _ r> I belongs to the msect tribe. -C , ,, ' "" Its body is divided into three parts. Feelers Carved J "' ^ Now request the pupils to write an account of the dracfon-fly. Ask them to watch tlie movements as it flics about ponds, gar- dens, and other phices, in pursuit of food. Tell tlicm also to catch a dra