;tepSt'h"eExpansion OF OUR TERRITORY OSCAR P. AUSTIN > -V ^^2!%^".. ' -i> ^<^' .-^^ " 4 V ^ r '^'«i : '.^ /^•^^-■"'A % . '/ * o. -^ --^ \^. sX V oo- ^ ^^ ^^' -n^^ •N^^ c ^ v^r ->. > .0' :%. * » 1 \ \V X'--\o^" %• .^^' .".' > %^^^, .."^ ,^^ c . -^b ^1 '^. v^^ ^^A v^^' ^ : \Q ^^ V ^ .0^^ ^'- -OO^ ^^^^ '-''t-, '/^. ^-^ ^*.- V^ -^^^ ^ Z-^ ^^ V^^ ^ s ' *■ r v-'-';f' ,^^^ '^z^. N° ^,. ■ ^ "'^. v%;^.':,- , ^•^ o" c- \ ■ ■^ ^^ ''/ '^ A*- ■/*. -s^% ^V...^.^ .^:^^'^ ■*'^^ ' -? '• ^ x-^ "V' ^ C' ' ■'^. c^^ \ ^^^^ v^"" vO O. .0- ,ya^-^.^-^^ ^^'^y&^^ ,sj>" . '■^.^!?^ '. of t\)t Republic STEPS IN THE EXPANSION OF OUR TERRITORY APPLETONS' Expansion o! the Republic Scries Each volume lamo. Illustrated. $1.25 net Postage, 12 cents additional The History of the Loviisiana Purchase By James K. Hosmer, Ph.D., LL.D. Ohio and Her Western Reserve By Alfred Mathews. The History of Puerto Rico By R. A. Van Middeldyk. With an introduction, etc., by Prof. Martin G. Brumbaugh. Steps in the Expansion of Our Territory By Oscar Phelps Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department. Rocky Mountain Exploration By Reuben Gold Thwaites. In preparation. The Conquest of the Southwest By Cyrus Townsend Brady, Author of " Paul Jones" in the Great Commanders Series. In preparation. The Purcha.se of Ala-skaL By Oscar Phelps Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department. In preparation. Proposed Volumes TKe Settletnent of tKe Pacific Coast TKe Foxinding of Chicago &rvd tKe Development of tKe Middle West JoKn Brow^n and the Troubles in Kansas D. APPLETON and company, new YORK STEPS IN THE EXPANSION OF OUR TERRITORY BY OSCAR P. AUSTIN CHIEF OF THE BUREAU OF STATISTICS, DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE AND LABOR, WASHINGTON MEMBER OF NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY NEW YORK D. APPLETON AND COMPANY 1903 t>? a-i Ci-^KiCi WlUJtiV Copyright, 1903 By D. APPLETON AND COMPANY Published November, 190S CONTENTS ^ PAGES INTRODUCTION . 1-9 FIRST PERIOD Discovery and exploration ..... 10-23 Spanish exploration and occupation — Portuguese discovery and occupation— French and English exploration. SECOND PERIOD Colonization 24-56 Jamestown, 1607 — French colonization begun — Plymouth, 1620 — Dutch colonies on the Hudson — The Massachusetts colony— The Maryland colony— New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Connecticut— New York, New Jersey, and Delaware —The Carolinas— Pennsylvania— Georgia— From 1607 to 1750 — Other English colonies in America — French and Eng- lish claim the Mississippi Valley— Territorial claims in North America in 1750 — Relations of the English colonies prior to 1750— The struggle for control of the Mississippi Valley— The French driven ofF the continent. THIRD PERIOD Independence and union 57-81 Trouble between the English colonies and the mother coun- try—The northern Ohio Valley annexed to Canada— British territory in America at the beginning of the Revolution — The War of the Revolution—Formation of the Confederation — Determining the boundaries of the new Union. Expansion of Our Territory FOURTH PERIOD PAGES Western lands ceded to the common Union . . 83-99 The "Independent State of Frankland "—First steps in State-making from common territory — The Northwest Ter- ritory organized — Adoption of the Constitution — A govern- ment for the territory south of the Ohio. FIFTH PERIOD The formation of new States. .... 100-116 Vermont — Kentucky — Tennessee — The Territory of Missis- sippi — First State formed from the Northwest Territory. SIXTH PERIOD Expansion begun — the Louisiana Purchase . . 117-126 Causes of the purchase of Louisiana — The national area doubled by the purchase of Louisiana — Boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase. SEVENTH PERIOD The middle west subdivided — Florida purchased 127-149 Burr's attempt to establish a new government in the south- west—The Territory of Illinois created— The War of 1813 — Activity in State-making— West Florida added to the national area— State of Indiana — State of Mississippi — State of Illinois— State of Alabama— The Florida purchase- Boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase defined — Arkansas Territory created. EIGHTH PERIOD The slavery question in its relation to State- hood 150-164 The Missouri Compromise and the State of Missouri — Balance of power between free and slave States — The Ohio and Michigan boundary dispute — Arkansas and Michigan admitted as States— Florida and Iowa admitted as States. vi Contents NINTH PERIOD PA.GES Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War . . . 165-178 Texas added to the Union — Wisconsin admitted as a State — The Oregon Territory — The Mexican cession. TENTH PERIOD Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri .... 179-189 Minnesota and Oregon admitted as States — The question of slavery in the new Territories. ELEVENTH PERIOD The Civil War 190-203 The war for the dissolution of the Union — Slavery termi- nated — Activities during the war period — Many new Ter- ritories formed — How West Virginia was created a State — Dividing the extreme northwest — State of Nevada. TWELFTH PERIOD Alaska, reconstruction, and later States . . 204-215 The seceding States readmitted — Colorado, the " Centennial State" — Washington, Idaho, Wyoming, and the Dakotas made States — Utah as a Territory and State — Oklahoma and the Indian Territory. THIRTEENTH PERIOD Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the Philippines . . 216-225 Annexation of the Hawaiian Islands — Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines — Our Samoan Island — The home of the National Government. The Causes of National Growth .... 226-244 Growth of population — Growth of commerce — Growth of area — The land system — Result of a liberal land policy — Growth in manufacturing industry — Our .irea compared with that of other countries. vii Expansion of Our Territory PAGES APPENDIX 245-253 Summary of States and Territories — Statistics of States of the Union organized from acquired territory — Agricultural and manufacturing interests of the United States, 1850 to 1900 — Additions to the territory of the United States from 1800 to 1900. INDEX 253 VIU MAPS America, routes of discovery Possessions claimed by discovery in 1600 French explorations and posts . Early colonial grants . Original English grants Territorial claims in North America in 1650 Territorial claims in North America Territorial claims in North America in 1750 , Territorial division after withdrawal of French English colonies, 1763 to 1775 .... Land claims of the original States in 1773 Plan of division of North America offered by French in 1782 . . . . . Area ceded to Union by peace treaty of 1783 Territory relinquished to common Union by original States 85 Jefferson's plan for dividing western territory First steps in dividing the western territory The United States at the opening of the 19th century The Louisiana Purchase and division of Northwest Ter- ritory Subdividing the country, work of the first decade . Subdivisions and additions, 1810 to 1820 . Subdivisions of territory, 1820 to 1835 ix 9 23 27 31 41 47 51 54 56 62 75 78 80 89 98 109 115 125 135 148 Expansion of Our Territory Subdivisions of 1836 and 1837 . Addition of Texas .... The Oregon country added to the Union The Mexican Cession of 1848 The western area subdivided History of slavery in the United States Reference map of Civil War Subdivisions of territory, 1858 to 1861 Subdivisions of territory during the Civil War Recent division and addition of island territory The United States at the opening of the 20th century Development of States PAOE 103 169 173 176 180 188 193 197 201 211 221 facing page 242 STEPS IN THE EXPANSION OF OUR TERRITORY INTEODUCTION To tell in simple terms the steps by whicli the United States has been trans- formed from thirteen political communities into fifty, the process by which new terri- tory has been added and great unoccupied areas have been transformed into Territories and then States, is the object of this work. The process of our national growth has been unique. Nations have usually been con- structed by the conquest and absorption of adjacent territory, by an alliance or consoli- dation of countries or communities, or by the planting of colonies which have remained subject to the parent country. But the spec- tacle of thirteen distinct communities uniting in one common organization and voluntarily creating from their unoccupied area other organizations of equal rank and power with themselves, until the newly created members 1 Expansion of Our Territory of tlie family finally exceeded the original in number, in population, and in political power, is an unusual feature of national history. The area conceded to the original thirteen States by the peace treaty which followed the close of the Revolution was, in round terms, 828,000 square miles, or about three times the present area of Texas. More than half of this area was voluntarily relinquished for the formation of new political organiza- tions which were to have equal rank with those which relinquished it; and thirteen other States, since formed and admitted to the Union, are composed in whole or in part from territory which belonged to the original thirteen in 1783. The original States were, as is well known, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Is- land, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The area conceded to them by the peace treaty of 1783 was 827,844 square miles. Their pres- ent area is 325,065 square miles, or less than 40 per cent of their original possessions. From the remaining 502,779 square miles 2 Introduction have been constructed the States of Maine, Vermont, West Virginia, Alabama, Missis- sippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and part of Minnesota. Over 50,000,000 people now occupy the area ceded to the thirteen States by the peace treaty of 1783, and practically one-half of that number are located in the new States which have been formed out of that area. Turning to the territory which has been added to the area of the United States by the various processes, the number of political organizations which have been cre- ated is much greater. From the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, which more than equaled the original area of 1783, have been created fourteen new States and Territories, in whole or in part ; from the Florida Purchase of 1819, a single State ; from the Texas Annexa- tion of 1845, the great State of Texas and parts of ^Ye other States and Territories, as will be hereafter described ; from the Oregon territory, to which our title was confirmed in 1846, three States; and from the Mexican Cession of 1848, seven States and Territories, in part or whole ; while the Alaska Purchase 3 Expansion of Our Territory of 1867 gave a territory larger than any of the additions except the Louisiana Purchase. From the areas thus added have been formed twenty-five political organizations, and they contain a population of about 25,000,000, an area three times as large as that ceded to the original thirteen States and eight times as large as that which those thirteen original States now possess. In a word, it may be said that the original thirteen States relinquished about 60 per cent of their temtory which afterward formed thirteen other States, in whole or in part, and that there has also been added to the Union an area practically three times as great as that which originally belonged to the thir- teen. About one-third of the population of the country is located in the area reserved for themselves by the original thirteen States, another one-third in the area which they re- linquished to form other States, and the re- maining one-third in the area since added to the Union. Thus, the United States of to-day, through the process of addition and division into new political units, equal in political rank with 4 Introduction that of the older members of the Union, has now nearly four times as many political di- visions as at the formation of the Union, more than four times the area, and more than twenty-five times the population which it then had. It is to tell the history of this growth in area and population and especially the transition of that area into new political divisions that this work is devoted. Three hundred years is not a long time in the history of nations. Within that time the population of England has grown from 5,000,000 to 32,000,000, that of France from 15,000,000 to about 40,000,000, and that of all Europe from about 75,000,000 to practi- cally 400,000,000. Yet in that same period — from 1607 to the present time — the Eng- lish-speaking population of the area now known as the United States has grown from a little more than one hundred persons to 80,000,000, and the territory which they con- trol from a few acres to an area equal to that of all Europe. Even if we go back to the very beginnings of American history, the discovery by Colum- bus, the period is not a long one or the 5 Expansion of Our Territory story of development difficult to trace in its outlines. The period from 1492 to the pres- ent time falls naturally into three simple di- visions of nearly equal length: 1. That of exploration and discovery, from 1492 to 1607. 2. Colonization and colonial life, from 1607 to 1776. 3. The formation and development of a nation governing itself by the dictates of its own people, and growing great and strong and prosperous until it stands in the very front rank of the world's great nations, ex- tending from 1776 to the present time. These three divisions of time do not differ greatly in length : the first, nearly a century and a quarter ; the second, nearly a century and three-quarters ; the third, a full century and a quarter. Their relative length may be better determined by the accompanying lines : Exploration, 1492-1607. Colonization, 1607-1776. Union, 1776 to the present time. These three divisions are necessarily somewhat arbitrary. There were more or 6 Introduction less attempts at colonization in the first period, and more or less exploration and dis- covery in the second and even the third. There was a slow drifting toward self-govern- ment and union in the closing portion of the second period. Great changes in the move- ments and purposes of mankind do not occur instantaneously, and this was especially true in the earlier periods when intercommunica- tion between men was carried on by the slow processes which existed before the application of steam and electricity to the transmission of thought and intelligence. But they, never- theless, form the outlines of our history — a history which begins with the discovery of the continent of which the United States is now the chief nation, so distinctively the chief nation that its people are designated the world over by the simple title " Americans." The third division includes the chief events to which this study is devoted, the trans- formation of common area into new States. The native population of America at the time of its discovery can, of course, only be estimated, and the fact that the people them- selves had no established basis of fact upon Expansion of Our Territory whicli estimates could be calculated, renders the task of forming even an estimate a diffi- cult one. Estimates of tlie entire population have, therefore, differed widely, ranging as high as 25,000,000, or even 30,000,000, for the entire continent. But the sober studies of ethnologists in recent years have resulted in the conclusion that these estimates were greatly exaggerated, and it now seems prob- able that the population of all America at the date of European discovery, exploration, and settlement did not exceed 10,000,000, and may have been considerably below that fig- ure. This population was, aj)parently, about equally divided between North and South America, the most densely populated sections being Mexico, Central America, and Peru, where also the highest grade of civilization and the greatest accumulations of wealth prevailed ; and it was to these sections that the Spanish gave their chief attention, slaughtering and despoiling the people, rob- bing them of their wealth, enslaving them and in some cases causing the almost total disappearance of considerable groups of the native population. 8 FIKST PEEIOD DISCOVERY AND EXPLORATION" The first period, from tlie date of discov- ery in 1492 to the first permanent English settlement in 1607, was devoted to determin- ing the form, the character, and the possibili- ties of the newly found world — the Ameri- can continent. Its discovery was an incident in an attempt to find a direct water-route to India, whence Europe had long drawn an important supply of gold and silks and spices and perfumes and precious stones, but to which the overland route was difficult and attended with great dangers from fierce des- ert tribes ; and Columbus, who discovered America in 1492, supposed up to the time of his death in 1506 that the land which he had found was simply the eastern coast of Asia. Seven years later, however, Balboa, exploring the Isthmus of Darien from the most west- erly point he had been able to reach by 10 Discovery and Exploration water, discovered that anotlier ocean lay be- yond, and then the European world began to realize that a new continent awaited its ex- ploration and development. SPANISH EXPLORATION AND OCCUPATION The first settlement of Europeans in America was established by Columbus him- self. On his first voyage he left forty of his crew with abundant supplies on the Island of Haiti, as it was called by the natives, or Santo Domingo as the Spanish named it, with the purpose of establishing a permanent set- tlement. On his return, a year later, he found that the entire colony had perished, partly though internal dissensions and partly by reason of unjust dealings with the natives who had destroyed them. Another colony was immediately planted at a more favorable spot on the same island, naming it Isabella. The city thus founded became the first per- manent European settlement in America, and was the capital of Spanish America until about 1520. ' From it other colonies or groups of Spanish settlers were sent, to Ja- il Expansion of Our Territory maica in 1509; Porto Kico, in 1510; and Cuba, in 1511. Ponce de Leon, who liad been ^Governor of Porto Eico, went from tbat island to Florida in search of a fountain which was reported to be capable of giv- ing permanent youth, and thus was the first to explore the mainland of the continent (1513), and two years later Pineda explored the country along the north coast of the Gulf of Mexico. Soon the Governor of Cuba sent Cortez on an expedition to explore and con- quer Mexico, and on arriving there (1519) he found that the land was occupied by a people far superior to any that had been seen in the islands or on the northern shores of the Gulf of Mexico. Destroying his ships to compel his men to fight with greater courage he penetrated the country, and in two years had subdued and taken control of Mexico. Pizarro, who had accompanied Balboa when he discovered the Pacific in 1513, visited Peru in 1526 and discovered its civilization and wealth. On reporting the facts to the Span- ish Government, he was authorized to in- vade and conquer it, and by 1536 was in con- trol of the country which now forms Peru, 12 Discovery and Exploration Chile, and Ecuador. In 1539 De Soto, who had accompanied Pizarro to South America, returned to the mainland of North America, where he supposed he would also find a wealthy people whom he might conquer and despoil ; and with a company of men marched from the coast of Florida to the Mississippi Eiver near the present city of Vicksburg, finding only savages and undergoing hard- ships which caused his death. His suffering followers, much reduced in numbers, descend- ed the river and reached the Spanish settle- ments in Mexico. In 1540 Coronado, a Spanish governor of northern Mexico, heard that there were seven wealthy cities lying at the north of his country, and organized an expedition to conquer them. He marched to the north, but found, however, only some cities of the Pueblo Indians, and turning eastward, crossed what is now known as New Mexico and probably a part of Kansas, and extended his explorations eastward nearly to the point on the Mississippi Kiver which De Soto had reached on his westward march from Florida. Finding none of the expected riches, he returned to Mexico. In 1582 Fran- 13 Expansion of Our Territory ciscan friars opened missions in the valley of the Kio Grande, and in 1598 Santa Fe, a city of the Pueblo Indians, was occupied and made the seat of Spanish government in the north of Mexico; but it was not until 1776, the year of the Declaration of Independence, that the Spanish extended their settlements to San Francisco on the Pacific coast. In 1535 Spain established a settlement at Buenos Ayres in South America and took possession of the Plata River, thus controlling practi- cally all of South America except Brazil, which was claimed by the Portuguese. In 1526 Vasquez de Ay lion, who had been on a special mission to Cuba, obtained permission from the Spanish Government to establish a colony on the Atlantic coast of North Amer- ica, and planted an unsuccessful Spanish col- ony called San Miguel, on the James River, at the very spot where, eighty-one years later, Jamestown was established as the first per- manent English settlement in America. In 1565 Menendez de Aviles established the set- tlement of St. Augustine, Florida, which re- mained a permanent Spanish settlement, and was the first permanent settlement of Euro- 14 Discovery and Exploration peans in the area now known as the United States. The Spanish retained their control of Florida until 1763, when they ceded it to Great Britain in exchange for a part of Cuba, w hich that country had captured ; but it was in 1783 retroceded by Great Britain to the Spanish, and in 1819 it was sold by Spain to the United States. The Spanish retained possession of Mexico, which ex- tended as far north as the present northern boundary of California, until 1822, when a popular uprising drove out the Spanish offi- cials and the Eepublic of Mexico was es- tablished in 1823. A series of revolutions against Spanish control, which had been be- gun in South America in 1810, was finally successful in 1824, and in 1825 the people of Central America also established a repub- lic, thus terminating Spanish control on the mainland of America. In 1898 the United States, moved by the cruelties of the Span- ish Government against Cuba, compelled Spain to relinquish control of that island and Porto Kico, and aided Cuba in organ- izing an independent republican govern- 15 Expansion of Our Territory ment, thus terminating Spanish control in America. The work of Spain on the American con- tinent may be summed up in a few words. The establishment of settlements or colonies began with the first voyage of Columbus and was rapidly extended during the following half century. Before the English or French or Dutch had founded a single colony in the new world, the Spanish had overrun and taken possession of the West Indian Islands, Florida, Mexico, Central America, and prac- tically all of South America except Brazil. Their control and operations, however, were for the purpose of obtaining wealth rather than of establishing colonies and permanent homes for their people. They ravaged the territory which they occupied, despoiled the natives of their accumulated wealth, destroyed their cities, took possession of their mines, and enslaved the population for their opera- tion and for the operation of theii^ sugar plantations in the West Indian Islands, the only section of their great American posses- sions in which agriculture was extensively developed by them. 16 Discovery and Exploration PORTUGUESE DISCOVERY AND OCCUPATION Portugal was tlie next country after Spain to establish permanent settlements in Amer- ica. A Portuguese fleet starting for India via the southern extremity of Africa, in the year 1500, by some miscalculation sailed far- ther west than intended and discovered the eastern coast of South America, and took pos- session in the name of the Portuguese Govern- ment. No attempt at settlement was made, however, until 1532, when a colony was plant- ed south of the present site of Kio de Janeiro, and other colonies soon followed. That set- tlement remained a successful Portuguese colony for many years, its gold, diamonds, and plantations proving a source of great wealth to Portugal. When the Portuguese prince regent, John VI, was compelled to flee from the armies of Napoleon in 1808 he estab- lished the seat of Portuguese government in Brazil, remaining there until 1821, when he returned to Portugal as king, leaving his son, Don Pedro, as prince regent of Brazil ; but the prince soon placed himself at the head of a movement for independence, and in the fol- 17 Expansion of Our Territory lowing year was proclaimed the head of the independent empire of Brazil, which in turn became a republic in 1889, ending Portuguese government in America. FRENCH AND ENGLISH EXPLORATION During the period in which Spain and Portugal were taking possession of America from Florida southward two other nations were busy exploring and studying the eastern coast of North America from Florida north- ward. These two nations were England and France. They began these explorations with- in a few years following the discovery, partly in an effort to find a northwest passage to Asia, partly in the hope of discovering valu- able minerals, and partly in the general spirit of adventure. Soon the value of the fisheries near the mouth of the St. Lawrence became known and proved a great attraction to the people of those countries, and especially to those accustomed to maritime occupations. In this manner the English and French gradu- ally became acquainted with the coast from Florida to a point far north of the mouth of the St. Lawrence. Efforts to plant colonies 18 Discovery and Exploration began as early as 1534-35 by the French, Cartier spending a winter at a point on the St. Lawi-ence which he named Mont-Eeal, and another effort was made by him in 1541 near Quebec. Twenty years later efforts were made by the French to establish colonies on the St. Johns river in Florida, naming the country Carolina, in honor of the boy king, Charles IX, but the efforts were unsuccessful. Other efforts were made in Nova Scotia and along the St. Lawi^ence later in the century, but were unsuccessful, owing chiefly to the fact that the persons sent as colonists were largely of the pauper and criminal classes and devoid of the sterling qualities which were required for success in a new land. The English also made slow progress in attempts at colonization. Many English ves- sels visited America following Cabot's voyage in 1497, and by 1570 from thirty to fifty ves- sels went every year to the Newfoundland fishing banks, while many others cruised along the eastern coast of America in search of gold, seeking a northwest passage to India, or on buccaneering expeditions. An attempt was made to establish a permanent settlement 19 Expansion of Our Territory at IN'ewfoundland in 1579, but it was not suc- cessful. In 1585 another effort was made farther south, at Roanoke Island, North Caro- lina, but the colonists hastened back to Eng- land at the first opportunity. In 1587 Lord Raleigh, who had made unsuccessful attempts to establish colonies in Newfoundland in 1579 and at Roanoke Island in 1585, sent another party to Roanoke Island, with John White as governor. Among the colonists were Gov- ernor White's daughter, Eleanor Dare, and her husband, and on August 18th of that year (1587) she gave birth to a daughter, the first child of English parents born in America. This child was given the name of Virginia, the name by which that part of America had been designated in honor of the virgin Queen Elizabeth. Governor White soon left for England to obtain supplies, but his return was delayed by war troubles at home until 1591, when he found only the ruins of the buildings and no traces of any of the colonists, and all attempts to find them were unavailing. Rumors were afterward heard that members of the colony still existed among the Indian tribes, but none of them was ever found, and 20 Discovery and Exploration the fate of Virginia Dare, tlie first child born in America of English parents, is unknown. All of the efforts at colonization made by the English and French between the discov- ery in 1492 and the year 1607 were failures, chiefly because of a lack of knowledge of the territory and the selection of a class of peo- ple unsuited by training and disposition to undergo the hardships and apply the persist- ent labor and energy necessary to overcome the adverse conditions of climate and sur- roundings among the savages. The Spanish were more successful, because they had chanced to make their efforts in a part of the country having a less rigorous climate and inhabited by prosperous but physically w^eak nations whom they were readily able to over- come and rob of both their labor and their accumulations of gold and silver. The century of study of America and the experiments at colonization made during that time finally taught the English and French something of the difi&culties of the task and the class of people necessary for this work. By the year 1600 both nations had begun to realize that if they were to accomplish any- 21 Expansion of Our Territory thing in America they must utilize people of energy, perseverance, and having some defi- nite and well-developed motive. The French chose for their medium of success a combina- tion of religion and commercialism, a part of the people sent to America being Catholic priests, who entered zealously upon the work of carrying their religion among the savao:es, while traders were authorized to operate among the Indians in the purchase of furs in exchange for merchandise from Eu- rope. By the explorations of these two classes it was expected that the French could extend their claims to American territory, as they subsequently did. Hence the French settlements established after 1600 partook more of the nature of missions or trading posts than of colonies. The English selected as their method of controlling the country the establishment of groups of people of a class who would attempt to make permanent homes for themselves, to cultivate the soil, and thus render themselves self-supporting, and provide for a gradual enlargement of the area occupied and of their control of the country and people. 22 23 SECOND PEEIOD COLONIZATION The English having learned by their ex- plorations and experiments during the six- teenth century that colonization in the New World was a serious task, set seriously about it shortly after the year 1600. In 1606 King James chartered an organization whose avowed purpose was to plant colonies in America. A part of this organization was composed of London merchants and a part of traders and gentlemen located at Plymouth, in the west of Eno^land. The orsjanization was divided in two sections — that composed of London merchants being called "The London Com- pany," the other, composed of those residing at Plymouth, was called " The Plymouth Com- pany " — and they seem to have operated alto- gether independently of each other. The London Company was authorized to plant colonies between the thirty-fourth and forty- 24 Colonization first parallels of latitude, or between what is now the southern limit of North Carolina and the southern line of Connecticut. The Plymouth Company was authorized to plant colonies between the thirty-eighth and forty- fifth parallels, or between a point just north of the mouth of the Potomac and Eastport at the extreme eastern point of Maine. Their assignments of area, it will be seen, over- lapped each other, but this was adjusted by later action. JAMESTOWN, 1G07 The London Company was more active than its Western England associate, and in the very year of its organization sent out a colony of a little above one hundred men to settle at or near Eoanoke Island. They sailed in December, 1606, sighted land in April, 1607, entered the Chesapeake Bay, naming the capes at its mouth Henry and Charles after the king's sons, and ascended a river which they called the James after the king himself. On May 13 they landed at a point fifty miles above the mouth, and there planted the first permanent colony of Eng- 9r^ Expansion of Our Territory lishmen in America. Curiously the spot se- lected was the very one on which De Ayllon, the Spanish commander, had located his un- successful colony of San Miguel in 1526, eighty-one years earlier, though there is no evidence that this fact was known to the English when they selected this spot. The colony had a hard time for years, and the survivors were on the point of abandoning Jamestown to seek food among the fishermen of Newfoundland when a vessel arrived with supplies and the colony was made permanent, and by additions from time to time began to slowly expand. FRENCH COLONIZATION BEGUN The very next year (1608) the French established their first permanent settlement in America, locating it at the present Quebec, but, like most of the French ^' colonies," it was a mere trading post, set up chiefly for the purpose of trading with the Indians and establishing the claim of France to the sur- rounding territory. In 1611 they established a post at what is now Montreal, and their fur-traders and missionaries began to explore 26 GVL,F OP MEXICO Longitude "West 89° from OTeenwleh Marqnette & Joliet'a Route, in 1673. La Salle's Roiite to Ft Crevecoeur and return, 167 La Salle's Route from Ft. St. Louis to the Gulf, 1682. ^•i— Hennepin'A Route, 1680. SCALE OF MILE8_ ^ 27 Expansion of Our Territory the interior, following the Ottawa Eiver from Montreal to the west, and by 1615 had reached Lake Huron, having selected this northern route to the interior because the country along the St. Lawrence and Lakes Ontario and Erie was occupied by hostile In- dian tribes, the Iroquois. The name " Cana- da " was given to the country along the St. Lawrence Eiver by the early French explor- ers, and seems to have been derived from the Indians. PLYMOUTH, 1620 The next step in permanent colonization was by a group of English people who had removed from England to Holland because of dissatisfaction with the established state re- ligion of England. This state religion of Eng- land, while Protestant, retained certain fea- tures of the Catholic rituals with which some of the people were dissatisfied, and the various bands who opposed it were known as Inde- pendents, Puritans, Dissenters, etc. Many of them had left England for Holland in the fifteenth century, and in 1620 a little band of Independents determined to remove from Holland to America, where they could have 28 Colonization botli freedom of worship and establish per- manent homes for themselves. They ob- tained a grant of land from the London Company, intending to settle between the Hudson and the Delaware Kivers. The cap- tain of their vessel professed, however, not to be able to proceed so far south on account of adverse winds, and they landed, December 22, 1620, on the northern coast of Cape Cod, a short distance south of the present city of Boston, and within the territory of the Plymouth Company, from which they sub- sequently obtained a patent. They experi- enced great sufferiDg that winter, but the next year fifty more Englishmen came out from Holland, and in the following year thirty more, and thus the colony, which was called Plymouth, became permanent. Many years later, in 1691, it was united with the Massachusetts colony and ceased to exist as a separate colony. \ DUTCH COLONIES ON THE HUDSON Meantime the Dutch had begun to exhibit an interest in America. A Dutch exploring expedition under Captain Hendrick Hudson, 29 Expansion of Our Territory searching for a passage througli America to India, had sailed up the river now known as the Hudson in 1609, two years after the English settlement at Jamestown, and one year after the French settlement at Quebec, and soon Holland set up a claim to that part of America, calling it New Netherlands, and naming the river after its explorer, Hudson. Some of their fur-traders built huts near where New York is now located as early as 1615. In that year the Dutch Government chartered the New Netherlands Trading Com- pany, granting it trading privileges in New Netherlands, and it was succeeded in 1621 by the Dutch West India Company. In 1624 this company sent thirty families to found a colony on the Hudson. Part of them settled at the mouth of the river, near where New York now stands, and a part went up the river to the present site of Al- bany, establishing 9. fort which they called Fort Orange. A few also went to a point on the Delaware, not fer from the present site of Philadelphia, and another party settled on the north side of Long Island Sound, in what is now Connecticut. Additions were 30 EARLY COLONIAL GKANTJS .4620-1681 SCALE OF MILES ■* 5 bO lOU Longitude Weat 70° from Qr con' 31 Expansion of Our Territory made to these small groups from time to time, and the Dutch took possession of both sides of the Hudson River and from New York (or New Amsterdam, as it was then called) south to Delaware Bay. They re- tained their control until 1664, when Eng- land, claiming the title of the country by discovery prior to that of the Dutch, sent out a small fleet and took possession of New Amsterdam and of the colonies, calling the town and the colony New York, after the county and city of York, England, and in compliment to the Duke of York, who was made proprietor of the conquered territory. Fort Orange was named Albany, in honor of the duke's second title, Albany. THE MASSACHUSETTS COLONY Eight years after the Plymouth colonists established themselves on the bleak coast of Cape Cod they had neighbors. A new settle- ment was established just beside them at Salem, near the present site of Boston, in 1628. The people had been sent out by a company chartered as the "Governor and County of Massachusetts Bay," and the col- 32 Colonization ony thus came to be known as the Massa- chusetts Colony. As it increased in num- bers, separate settlements or *^ congregations" were organized, and in 1630 Boston became the capital of the colony, which proved suc- cessful from the first, and received additions of about 1,000 from England in that year alone. The people composing this colony were chiefly of the class known as Puritans, as already described. THE MARYLAND COLONY Neighbors also came to the Virginia col- ony about this time. In 1634 a party of about 200 English arrived and located on the north bank of the Potomac, about seventy- five miles north of Jamestown. They came under a charter granted to Lord Baltimore, who had given the colony the name of Mary- land, in honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria. The land granted to this colony was within the limits claimed by the Virginia colony, and this fact, coupled with the fact that the Maryland colonists were chiefly Catholics, led to sharp differences, and for some years their relations were not altogether of a neigh- 33 Expansion of Our Territory borly character. However, the Maryland colony continued to exist, and increased in numbers and area occupied. NEW HAMPSHIRE, RHODE ISLAND, CONNECTICUT After these four English colonies of Vir- ginia, Plymouth, Massachusetts, and Mary- land had been firmly established, the process of colonization or settlement developed by another method. Little groups of people, dissatisfied for one cause or another, left the original colonies, and wandering oif into the forests, established colonies or settlements for themselves, and having formed a nucleus, were joined by people from England. Settle- ments of fishermen and others were made about 100 miles north of Plymouth in 1623, and in 1629 John Mason, of England, who had some years earlier obtained a patent for the land, took control of the section and called it New Hampshire, after his home county of Hampshire, England. The scat- tered settlements increased partly by acces- sions from England, and were known as New Hampshire and the area as the New Hamp- shire Grants until 1641, when they united 34 Colonization witli the Massachusetts colony ; but in 1769 were made a separate royal province. The colony was reunited with Massachusetts in 1685, but was afterward again established as a separate province, and finally became defi- nitely one of the American colonies. In 1635 a handful of people removed from Plymouth to the valley of the Connecticut River, and were soon followed by others from Massachusetts and Plymouth, estab- lishing the settlements of Hartford and New Haven, which were strengthened by acces- sions from England, and were afterward united as the colony of Connecticut. In 1636 Roger Williams, a minister whose ex- treme views did not suit the people of Massachusetts, was banished from that col- ony and established the settlement of Provi- dence. Others, driven from Massachusetts and Plymouth, established the settlements of Newport and Portsmouth, and they were subsequently united under the title of the Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, receiving accessions both from the other col- onies and from England. 35 Expansion of Our Territory NEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, AND DELAWARE In 1664, as already related, the British drove out the Dutch from the Hudson Eiver territory, and taking possession, gave to the settlements the name of New York. They also took possession of the territory along the coast from New York to the Delaware, which had also been held by the Dutch, and this was granted to Sir George Carteret, for- mer governor and defender of the British Isle of Jersey, and called New Jersey in his honor. As the Dutch had also held a small strip of country on the south side of the Delaware River (which was claimed by Lord Baltimore as a part of his grant of Maryland), the English also took possession of that, al- though Lord Baltimore again insisted that it belonged to him. It was subsequently sold to William Penn, but still later established as the colony of Delaware. All of these areas, New York, New Jersey, and Delaware, had a considerable Dutch population, and in New Jersey was also a settlement of Swedes, and to this was soon added English, some from the adjacent colonies and some from England. 36 Colonization THE CAROLINAS Meantime the disposition of the Virginia settlers to extend their settlements into the surrounding country, outside of the area granted to the original colonies, had made itself apparent. The French had planted col- onies of Huguenots in the south in 1562, and called the country Carolina, in honor of the boy King of France, Charles IX; but, although they were quickly driven out by the Spanish, the country was thereafter known by the name of "Carolina." Into this country parties of settlers from Virginia made their way, and the first permanent set- tlement of North Carolina was made at the place subsequently called Albemarle, by a party from Virginia in 1653. In 1664 a party of English from the Island of Barbados set- tled on the Cape Fear River, the settlement subsequently receiving the name of Claren- don, and this was the beginning of the per- manent settlement of South Carolina. These two names of Albemarle and Clarendon were given to these settlements in honor of the Earl of Clarendon and Duke of Albemarle, members of an English company to which 37 Expansion of Our Territory Carolina had been granted in 1663. To the settlements thus created additions were made from Virginia, from I^ew England, from the English settlements in the Bahamas and Bar- bados islands, and from England. These two colonies, however, made very slow growth com- pared with that of the others during the first half century of their existence. PENNSYLVANIA Lying between the colony of Virginia at the south and the area held by the Dutch on the Hudson was a section of country which had received little attention when the Eng- lish took possession of the New Netherlands territory, and formed the colonies or prov- inces of New York, New Jersey, and Dela- ware. This area soon began to attract atten- tion. In 1681 William Penn, an English Quaker, asked that it be granted to him in settlement of a claim of his father, a former admiral in the English navy, and this was done. He proposed to establish a popular government, based upon principles of exact justice, and offered his land at the low price of two pounds sterling for 100 acres, or 38 Colonization about ten cents per acre, and within a short time his colony was established, the name Pennsylvania, or Penn's Forest, having been given to it by the king himself. Quakers, Swedes, Dutch, Germans, Welsh, and Eng- lish flocked in, some from their homes in Europe and some from the surrounding colo- nies and settlements, and Pennsylvania soon became a flourishing colony. GEORGIA No more separate colonies were formed after Pennsylvania until 1733, when James Oglethorpe, a member of the British Parlia- ment, conceived the idea of establishing a colony between the Carolinas and Florida to furnish a home for the unfortunate debtor class of England. A charter was granted to him and others, and the country was called Georgia, in honor of King George II. The debtors transported to the colony, however, proved to be unsuited to the surroundings and the requirements of the situation, and parties of Scotch Highlanders and German Protestants were brought, but the colony remained one of the weakest for many years. 4 39 Expansion of Our Territory This was the last colony established in America by the English. Thus the period from 1607 to about 1750 was devoted by the English to the planting and slow development of their thirteen colo- nies, and by 1750 they claimed and occupied with scattering settlements all of the Atlan- tic coast from Florida on the south to the valley of the St. Lawrence at the north. The charters under which the colonies had been organized and put into operation in some cases purported to extend from ocean to ocean, especially in the case of Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, while North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia also claimed territory as far west as the Missis- sippi. FROM 1607 TO 1750 More than one hundred years were occu- pied in the establishment of the thirteen colo. nies, which subsequently became the United States of America. The first, Virginia, was planted in 1607, the last, Georgia, in 1733, one hundred and twenty-six years later. The population of Virginia in 1600 was about 15,000, and that of all the thirteen English 40 .00 100 I iioo aoo ngrtude ^0" "West from 75° Greenwich 41 Expansion of Our Territory colonies probably about 60,000. By 1700 the population of all the colonies was about 250,000, and by 1750, 1,250,000. By 1750 the thirteen English colonies fully occupied all the area fronting on the Atlantic coast, from the Spanisli territory of Florida to the French territory on the St. Lawrence. Up to about that time the English had made little attempt to extend their settlement be- yond the Alleghanies, though the older colo- nies — Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecti- cut — claimed that their charter extended " to the South Sea," or, in other words, to the Pacific Ocean. A settlement of Virginia was made on the Kanawha west of the Allegha- nies in 1748, and in 1749 King George granted to a company of wealthy Virginians, called "The Ohio Company," 500,000 acres of land in the Ohio Valley on the agreement that they were to locate at least 100 families upon it, and build and maintain a fort. OTHER ENGLISH COLONIES IN AMERICA It must not be understood that the thir- teen colonies whose planting has been here described were the only English colonies in 42 Colonization America. The Englisli had meantime estab- lished colonies in the Bermudas, Bahamas, Jamaica, and Honduras on the south, and Nova Scotia and Newfoundland at the north, and the Hudson Bay Company had estab- lished trading stations in the Hudson Bay country, and thus established a British claim to that territory; but these were so far re- moved from the thirteen colonies lying be- tween Florida and the St. Lawrence that they had little relationship with them, and little of interest in common with them. FRENCH AND ENGLISH CLAIM THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY Meantime the French had not been idle. Their explorers, fur-traders, and missionaries had pushed west through the wilderness from Quebec and Montreal along the Otta- wa Eiver to Lake Huron in 1615. They soon crossed the river which connects Huron with Superior, and pushed westward in 1634 in the area now known as Wisconsin and Illi- nois. In 1641 Jesuit priests said mass in the presence of 2,000 Indians at Sault Ste. Marie. In 1673 Joliet and Marquette ex- 43 Expansion of Our Territory- tended their explorations througli Wisconsin to the Mississippi River, and down that stream to the mouth of the Arkansas, and in the period from 16V8 to 1682 La Salle ex- plored Lake Michigan, crossed from the site of Chicago to the Illinois River, and then descended the Illinois and the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, establishing the claim of the French to the valley of the Mississippi, by reason of discovery and exploration. Thus, although the French population in America was not more than one-tenth that of the English, and although their base of oper- ation occupied an inhospitable climate and region, they had drawn a cordon of explora- tions and claims to territory around the Eng- lish colonies at the north and west and along the St. Lawrence, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi River, from the Gulf of St. Law- rence to the Gulf of Mexico, during the pe- riod in which the English were occupying the area between Florida and the St. Law- rence and the Atlantic and the Alleghanies. After the exploration and establishment of claims to this great stretch of territory from the mouth of the St. Lawrence to the mouth 44 Colonization of the Mississippi, the Frencli proceeded to strengthen their claims by establishing tra- ding stations, military posts, forts, and little communities all along this line at the north and west. They made friends with the Indi- ans, and many of their men who did not bring families from France intermarried with the Indians and reared half-breed families. By these and other methods they strength- ened their hold upon the savage tribes and prepared for the inevitable struggle with the English for the control of this western terri- tory which the English colonists still claimed as their own under the charters to Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut. By 1750 the French not only claimed the line of ter- ritory along the St. Lawrence and Great Lakes and the Mississippi, but all the terri- tory drained by them and by the rivers emp- tying into them, including the Ohio, Tennes- see, and Cumberland on the east, and the Missouri, Arkansas, and Eed Rivers on the west. Thus their claim to territory by 1750 extended far to the north of the St. Law- rence and the Great Lakes, and covered all the territory between the Alleghanies and 45 Expansion of Our Territory the Rocky Mountains, down the Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico, the area claimed at the gulf extending a considerable distance on each side of the mouth of the Mississippi. The Spanish at that time still held Florida and Mexico, claiming the Mexican country as far north as the head of the Rio Grande and Colorado rivers, and west to the Pacific, and still later they extended their claim as far as the northern line of California. TERRITORIAL CLAIMS IN NORTH AMERICA IN 1750 This was the general situation in North America in 1750. The English colonies held the area from Florida to the valley of the St. Lawrence and extending from the Atlan- tic to the AUeghanies, also the Hudson Bay country and Newfoundland. The French claimed the territory from the St. Lawrence half-way to Hudson Bay at the north, and all the territory from the AUeghanies to the Rocky Mountains in a wedge-shaped area down the Mississippi Valley to the gulf. The Spanish held Florida and Mexico, ranging into the north and west to the Pacific coast. 46 NORTH AMERICA 1650. lO'SHOWINQ CUIMS ARISING OUT OF EXPLORATION AND O GCUPANGY. Cfil1 -„.English ^^^^ French ....Dutch m^.... Swedish ^^ Spanish S CALE OF MILES 2U) •lUU 600 800 lOOJ) f^ ^V > C > 1 lOO'Longltude West O'p" from Greenwich 8,9^^-gg^j$:;^:j§;:;:§^.^^^^t:^ 47 Expansion of Our Territory RELATIONS OF THE ENGLISH COLONIES PRIOR TO 1750 During the period from 1607 to 1750 the English colonies had conducted their affairs independently of each other. There had been a confederation of New England colonies for the purpose of mutual defense and coopera- tion in certain matters, each colony, however, continuing to manage its own local affairs ; but after it had operated about twenty years, the British Government grew suspicious that it might result in too great a feeling of inde- pendence, and sent a commission over to assume control and administer government, and the confederation was dissolved, though the commission did not long continue as the governing power. The southern colonies were governed during most of the colonial period by governors sent out from England, or at least appointed by the British Govern- ment, while during a large part of the period the New England colonies were permitted to choose their own governors from among their people ; the laws and general regulations were based upon English laws and customs. 48 Colonization The details of government in each colony were provided by legislative bodies, some of them "bicameral," or having two branches like our own present Congress, others having but a single organization. The purely local government was created and enforced by local assemblies, and by the "town meeting" in New England. The attacks of the Indian tribes sometimes resulted in cooperation of certain colonies for mutual defense, and on certain occasions, when the English and the French governments were at war at home, there were conflicts between the French and English colonies in America, the former util- izing the Indians to aid them wherever pos- sible ; and these events drew the English col- onists closer together, but without resulting in any definite union or general plan of co- operation, though this had been proposed on several occasions. THE STRUGGLE FOR CONTROL OP THE MISSIS- SIPPI VALLEY By 1750 it had become apparent that the control of all the territory west of the Alle- ghanies must be determined, and that it 49 Expansion of Our Territory probably could be settled only by force of arms. The Englisli claimed that they were entitled to control all of the territory extend- ing west from their colonies to the Pacific, and had so held during the century and a half since the charters were granted, extend- ing " to the South Sea." The French claimed the area west of the Alleghanies by explora- tion and occupancy. The English colonists had 1,200,000 people and they were begin- ning to clamor for the privilege of occupying the rich country west of the Alleghanies; and, as already stated, a grant of a half mil- lion acres had been made by King George in 1749 to the Ohio Company, composed of wealthy Virginians, including a brother of George Washington, with the requirement that they settle 100 families on the land and erect and maintain a fort. It was known that they would meet with opposition from the French, who had been exploring the Ohio Valley, planting leaden plates with in- scriptions indicating their claim to the terri- tory, and establishing posts and forts where practicable. The British directed the gov- ernors " to repel force by force whenever the 50 English Fiench- Spanish iU 100 200 300 iOO 500 61 Expansion o.^ Our Territory Frencli are found within undoubted limits of your province," and the same spirit pre- vailed with reference to the territory claimed by each of the colonies. George Washington, a young surveyor, was sent out to survey and locate the land granted to the Ohio Com- pany. The company, seeing that the junc- tion of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, the present site of Pittsburg, was an important strategic point, determined to take possession of it, and in October, 1753, George Washington was sent by the Governor of Virginia to warn the French not to occupy that spot. In December he returned and re- ported that while the French had treated him politely, they had told him that they meant to take and hold the place and that they claimed the entire surrounding territory. By the following April the French had made good their statement, had sent 1,200 men to the junction of the Alleghany and Mononga- hela, had driven off the forty Englishmen located there, and constructed and manned a fort which they called Fort Duquesne. Washington was sent to the scene of action with a small body of troops, and in May, 52 Colonization 1754, an encounter between his force and a body of the French occurred. The English were successful in the first encounter, but by July the French had rallied their forces and Washington was forced to retire. A final contest between the French and English for the final control of the country west of the AUesrhanies was thus bes^un. From the first the French were at a great disadvantage. They had in all America but 80,000 of their own people, while the English in the colonies numbered 1,200,000, or fifteen times as many. The French relied largely upon the cooperation of the Indians, and had it at first, but as the tide began to turn against them they lost much of the aid of their savage allies. At home the French had a larger army than the English, but the latter were better equipped at sea. The con- test between the colonies in America soon led to a declaration of war between the home governments of England and France. This, however, again resulted disadvantageously for the French in America because the home government of France directed most of its forces against the British in Europe and 53^ Colonization India, where both governments were claim- ing important areas, and the French Govern- ment sent only 5,000 troops to America. The English sent a much larger force and a strong fleet, and had, besides, the troops raised in the colonies whose population was 1,200,000, against a population of 80,000 in the French colonies. Although the French held out four years against these fearful odds, they were finally defeated. THE FRENCH DRIVEN OFF THE CONTINENT The result of the struggle was that the English not only gained the territory in dis- pute, that west of the Alleghanies, but also that along the St. Lawrence, which they had not claimed. The peace treaty between France and England, by which the war was termi- nated, made in 1763, gave to England all the French possessions and claims east of the Mississippi River, including Canada with a French population of 70,000. France had the year before, seeing that she was doomed to defeat in America, ceded to Spain her claims west of the Mississippi, and including the city of New Orleans on its eastern bank. 5 55 Expansion of Our Territory Thus the entire territory claimed by France on the continent of America passed from her possession. Spain, which was also a party to the treaty of 1763, gave Florida to England Territorial Dh'tsion after the Withdrawal of the French by the Treaty of 1763. in exchange for Cuba, which the latter had captured ; and, as a result of that treaty, Eng- land controlled all the territory east of the Mississippi Eiver, except New Orleans. 56 THIRD PERIOD INDEPENDENCE AND UNION The result of the war between the Eng- lisli colonies and those of the French was far different from that intended or expected by the British Government. While it relieved its American possessions of the constant menace of the French, who were drawing a line of forts and territorial claims on the north and west, and greatly increased the British area in America, it also at the same time drew the colonies into much closer rela- tionship than had ever before existed, and prepared them for a struggle for independ- ence, which was soon to follow. The offi- cers and men of the colonial troops from the various sections of colonial America had in- termingled and there was a new feeling of common purposes and common rights. This feeling was strengthened and turned against the government of the mother country by events which soon followed the peace of 1763. 57 Expansion of Our Territory TROUBLE BETWEEN THE ENGLISH COLONIES AND THE MOTHER COUNTRY No sooner had the war between the Eng- lish and the French ended than the British Government determined to carry out plans, which it had considered before the war be- gan, for the enforcement of the " navigation laws " in the colonies. These laws required that all trade of the colonies should be with the mother country or with other British colonies and should be carried in British or colonial vessels. It was also determined that certain articles produced in the colonies should be sent only to English ports, and prohibitory duties were laid on sugar and molasses from foreign countries or colonies, so as to compel the American colonies to purchase their sugar from England or from the British colonies where sugar was pro- duced. These measures interfered greatly with the profitable trade of the American colonies with the wealthy Spanish colonies in the West Indies. In addition to this, the British Government determined to locate about 10,000 troops permanently in the col- 58 Independence and Union onies and to levy a small tax on the colonies with which to bear a part of the expenses of maintaining the troops. This tax at first took the form of an act requiring revenue stamps issued by the British Government to be affixed to certain papers used in legal and commercial transactions in the American col- onies. These rates of taxation were not high, but the colonies protested, asserting that they should not be taxed unless they were permitted to have a voice in the man- agement of the home government through representation in Parliament. Taxation, however light, without representation, they held to be unjust. Colonial legislatures pro- tested and a congress of representatives from nine colonies met in New York (1765) and adopted an address to the home government protesting against taxation without represen- tation. The stamp act was repealed by Par- liament in view of the protests of the col- onies, but the following year a measure was passed placing a duty on certain imports into the colonies, although the rates fixed were not expected to produce enough to bear all of the expenses of the troops to be located 59 Expansion of Our Territory in the colonies. This new form of taxation was as violently opposed in the colonies as the stamp tax had been, and organizations were formed throughout the colonies for a systematic refusal to import or use the mer- chandise so taxed. "Committees of corre- spondence" were organized, and letters and circulars sent throughout the colonies urging opposition to taxation without representa- tion, and also protesting against the quarter- ing of troops upon the colonies. The colo- nial legislative bodies also protested. The Parliament, recognizing the vigor of the oppo- sition, in 1770 repealed all of the taxes ex- cept that on tea, which it insisted should be collected. This was opposed by the colo- nies, upon the principle that it was taxation, no matter how small, without representation ; and a cargo of tea on which duty was to be collected was (1773) thrown overboard by the colonists at Boston. This action and the continued protests of the colonies resulted in action by Parliament, which intensified the feeling in the colonies. One act closed the port of Boston to commerce, because of the " tea-party " incident. 60 Independence and Union THE NORTHERN OHIO VALLEY ANNEXED TO CANADA Anotlier act, and one whicli caused great dissatisfaction in tlie colonies, attached to tlie Province of Quebec all of the territoiy lying between the Ohio and Mississippi Riv- ers and the Great Lakes. By this measure, enacted by Parliament in 1774, all of the country claimed by Virginia, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, lying north of the Ohio River and extending west of Pennsylvania and New York to the Mississippi River, was taken from those colonies, although it had clearly been given them by their original charters. It had been originally held that the grants to these colonies, under the word- ino- "to the South Sea," extended their claims across the entire continent to the Pa- cific ; but as the English Government made no effort to enforce its claims to territory west of the Mississippi, but had accepted the Mississippi as its western boundary by the peace treaty with France in 1763, the colo- nies had since that time only claimed that their area extended to that river. But they 61 > , ENGLISH COLONIES 1763-1775 SCALE OF MILES '^._j IV^' A*^ >^^ y J kS^^i \j 14a The Florida Purchase As constituted in 1819 it included all of the present State of Arkansas and most of tlie area now known as Indian Territory and Ok- lahoma. Its eastern boundary was the Mis- sissippi River and it extended west to the western limits of the Louisiana Purchase. 149 EIGHTH PEEIOD THE SLAVERY QUESTION 11^ ITS EELATION TO STATEHOOD Maine was tlie next State admitted to the Union. During one hundred and forty years it had been considered a part of Massachu- setts and governed by it, although not con- tiguous territory. The territory had in 1606 been granted by James I to a company of English, but they made no permanent settle- ment. In 1620 the charter of New England was granted; and in 1622 the country be- tween the Merrimac and Kennebec Rivers had been granted under this charter to Cap- tain John Mason and Fernando Gorges. In 1829 it was divided and the section between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec fell to Gorges, who established a colony. After his death Massachusetts laid claim to the terri- tory upon the ground that it had been in- cluded in the charter of New England in 150 The Slavery Question 1620. Her claims being disallowed, she pur- chased the territory from the heirs of Gorges in 1677 for £1,250. In 1691 the charter of William and Mary also included Maine in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. The people of Maine took part in the Kevolution- ary War, and soon after its close began to agitate the question of separation from Mas- sachusetts and the formation of a State, but made little progress until after 1800, when Maine became " Anti-Federalist," while Mas- sachusetts remained Federalist. This diver- gence of views increased the desire for a separation, to which the Legislature of Massa- chusetts finally assented, and in 1820 Congress passed an act establishing Maine as a sepa- rate State, after one hundred and forty years of control by Massachusetts. It was the tenth State admitted after the formation of the Union, and the twenty -third in the full list of States. THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE AND THE STATE OF MISSOURI Missouri was the next State admitted after Maine. The measures providing for the ad- 11 151 Expansion of Our Territory mission of these two States were discussed in Congress simultaneously and passed within a few days of each other ; but as the act with reference to Maine established it as a State, while that regarding Missouri merely author- ized the people to frame a Constitution pre- paratory to admission, Maine actually became a State in the year preceding that in which Missouri was admitted. The admission of Missouri was marked by a bitter struggle between the opponents and supporters of slavery. It involved the ques- tion as to whether the great area included in the Louisiana Purchase should be free or slave territory. This question had been more or less discussed in the years following the pur. chase, but did not come up for settlement when the State of Louisiana was admitted, since slavery had been so long a recognized institution in that section. But when the Territory of Missouri asked admission it was felt that the matter must be determined. Most of the area of the proposed State lay north of the mouth of the Ohio, which stream had been considered the northern boundary of slave territory, especially as the 152 The Slavery Question ordinance establishing the Territory North- west of the Ohio had forever prohibited slavery north of the Ohio River. The strug- gle in Congress was long and exciting, and public meetings were held in the North and South advocating the views of those sections respectively with reference to this matter. The House passed a bill admitting Missouri without slavery, and the Senate struck out the anti-slavery clause. A bill admitting Mis- souri with slavery was attached to a bill ad- mitting Maine without slavery, with the hope of strengthening the slavery forces. After a long struggle a compromise was proposed separating the Maine and Missouri measures, admitting Missouri as a slave State with a distinct declaration that slavery should be forever prohibited in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase north of 36° 30' of north latitude, except as to Missouri, which was north of that line. This proposition, known in the history of the country as " The Mis- souri Compromise," was accepted, and the Maine and Missouri bills passed. Maine be- came a State at once, and in the following year Missouri, having formed a Constitution 153 Expansion of Our Territory providing that the Legislature should not en- act laws interfering with slavery, was ad- mitted in 1821. The sectional feeling over this struggle was intense, and a member of Congress said in the debate that " a fire had been kindled which all the waters of the ocean can not put out, and which only seas of blood can extinguish " ; a remark which proved true in the Civil War which began forty years later. The population of the great Territory of Mis- souri, as the Louisiana Purchase north of Arkansas was then known, was, in 1820, 66 j- 500, and a large proportion of this number were included in the State of Missouri. The remainder of the Territory continued for some time to be known as the Territory of Missouri, but the name was subsequently changed to " The Indian Country." The west- ern boundary of the State when admitted extended in a line due north from the south- ern to the northern boundary, but in 1836 was so changed as to follow the Missouri River northwestwardly from the point at which it touched that river, the present location of Kansas City, to its northern boundary line. 154 The Slavery Question BALANCE OF POWER BETWEEN FREE AND SLAVE STATES During the next fifteen years no new States were admitted. The struggle over the slavery question had been fierce, and the ad- dition of Missouri as a slave State established an exact balance between the free and slave States in the Senate, in which each State was entitled to two members. There were twenty- four States. Seven of the original thirteen abolished slavery either prior to or shortly after the union, viz. : New Hampshire, Massa- chusetts, Connecticut, Khode Island, New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania.^ Five of the States subsequently admitted were also without slavery, viz. : Vermont, Ohio, Indi- 1 The Massachusetts constitution of 1780 declared that " all men are born free and equal," and the courts held this to be an abolition of slavery in that State. Pennsylvania passed a gradual emancipation act in 1780, and similar action was taken in New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island between 1780 and 1785, by New York in 1799, and New Jersey in 1804. The total number of colored persons of African descent in these States is given by the census of 1790 at 67,424, out of a total of 757,208 in the entire United States. Of this number 25,978 were in New York, 14,185 in New Jersey, 10,274 in Pennsylva- nia, 5,572 in Connecticut, 5,463 in Massachusetts, and 4,355 in Rhode Island. 155 Expansion of Our Territory ana, Illinois, and Maine, making the total number of free States twelve. Six of the original thirteen were slave States, viz. : Dela- ware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia ,• and six of the States subsequently admitted permitted sla- very, viz. : Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Missouri, making the total number of slave States twelve. The area of the twelve free States was 302,000 square miles, that of the twelve slave States 523,000 square miles. In 1820 the twelve free States had 5,152,000 population; the twelve slave States had 4,486,000, of which number 1,600,000 were slaves. In 1830 the twelve free States had 7,006,000 population ; the twelve slave States had 5,848,000, of whom 2,153,000 were slaves. In 1820 the free States had 24 members of the Senate and 105 members of the House; the slave States had 24 members of the Senate and 82 members of the House. In 1832 the free States had still 24 members of the Senate and 141 members of the House; the slave States had 24 members of the Sen- ate and 99 members of the House. Thus, 156 The Slavery Question while the free States had a majority of the House, the free and slave States were evenly balanced infthe Senate, a condition which continued from 1820 to 1850. "While the power of the free and slave States was thus evenly balanced in the Senate, the sup- porters of slavery recognized the fact that the expansive power of the free territory was much greater than that of the slave territory in the matter of State-making. By the Or- dinance of 1787 it had been decreed that slavery should never exist in the Territory Northwest of the Ohio, and by the Missouri Compromise it had been agreed that there should be no slavery in the Louisiana Pur- chase north of 31° 30' except in the State of Missouri. The great free area north and west of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri was capable of furnishing material for a dozen States, while the only available territory for State-making in the area where slavery might be maintained was the territories of Florida and Arkansas. Having by the admission of Missouri obtained an even division of power in the Senate, in which the free States had formerly always had a majority, the slave 157 Expansion of Our Territory States discouraged further State-making, while the free States, remembering the bitterness of the Missouri struggle, were not anxious to precipitate further strife so long as it could be delayed. The only important changes in territorial lines or government in the period from 1821 to 1834 were the establishment of Florida as a Territory in 1822 and a reduction in the area of Arkansas Territory in 1824 and 1828, the area now Oklahoma and Indian Terri- tory being detached from Arkansas and restored as a part of the Louisiana Purchase, from which it had been taken. In 1834, however, the growth of popula- tion in the Northwest was so great that it became apparent that there must be some better form of government. There were a quarter of a million people in the area north of Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. In that year, therefore, the area between the northern boundary of Missouri and Canada, and extending as far west as the Missouri Eiver, was attached to the Territory of Michi- gan, for purposes of government. Michigan Territory, after this was accomplished, in- 158 The Slavery Question eluded all of the present States of Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and parts of North and South Dakota, an area of 325,000 square miles, or as much as the area at present occupied by the original thirteen States. THE OHIO AND MICHIGAN BOUNDARY DISPUTE The people of Michigan had been for several years clamoring for the admission of their original area as a State and had made ap- plication to Congress for authority to frame a Constitution, and took the necessary steps for admission. A disagreement between Michi- gan and Ohio regarding the boundary line delayed action by Congress. The Michigan authorities claimed that their southern line should run due east from the most southerly part of Lake Michigan and would therefore touch Lake Erie at a point south of Toledo, thus giving that place and its important harbor to the State of Michigan. To this the people and authorities of Ohio objected strenuously. The line claimed by Michigan had been adopted when Michigan Territory was first formed, but the present line, 67 159 Expansion of Our Territory miles farther nortli, had been adopted when Ohio and Indiana were made States. The area had remained under control of Michigan until 1836, when the Legislature of Ohio passed an act organizing the disj3uted terri- tory into townships. Each State appealed to the President, who, however, took no action. The Governor of Ohio called out the State militia and the Governor of Michi- gan took possession of Toledo. Congress proposed to admit Michigan without the disputed territory, but to give it in exchange for that area the section now known as the northern peninsula of Michigan. The propo- sition was at first rejected by the people of Michigan, but finally acceded to and prepara- tions made for admission. The area thus given at the northwest has become very valuable by reason of the great copper and iron mines since developed in that section. ARKANSAS AND MICHIGAN ADMITTED AS STATES Meantime the supporters of slavery took steps to maintain the balance of power which had existed in the Senate, and Arkansas was 160 The Slavery Question proposed for statehood and application made. Arkansas was admitted in June, 1836, and Michigan in January, 1837. The slave States had thereafter 26 members of the Senate and the free States also 26 members. Michigan, as has already been stated, in the year before its admission as a State in- cluded within its boundaries all of the area now known as Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, and parts of North and South Dakota. When Michigan was admitted as a State the re- maining area was established as the Territory of Wisconsin and so continued during a period of about two years, when the section lying between the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers, from the State of Missouri north to Canada was in 1838 established as the Territory of Iowa. The Territory of Wisconsin then in- cluded all the present State of Wisconsin and that part of Minnesota east of the Mis- sissippi River; and the Territory of Iowa included the present State of Iowa, that part of Minnesota west of the Mississippi, and that part of North and South Dakota east of the Missouri River. 161 Expansion of Our Territory ' FLORIDA AND IOWA ADMITTED AS STATES Anotlier long period of delay in the admission of new States followed the simul- taneous admission of Michigan and Arkansas. The people of Florida desired admission, but many of them desired that the territory should be divided into two States, East and West Florida, respectively ; the latter to con- tain at least a part of the area which had been included in the province of West Florida, and this suggestion was quite agreeable to those who desired to see as many slave States as possible. The division proposition was, how- ever, finally abandoned and application made for statehood. Meantime Iowa had also asked admission in 1844, though without success; but finally the propositions for the admission of Florida and Iowa were coupled in one bill, which became a law March 3, 1845. Florida had already framed a Constitution and was admitted at once, but the people of Iowa were dissatisfied with the boundary lines named in the enabling act and did not comply with its provisions. The boundaries originally named fixed the northern limit farther north 162 ^Vi 163 Expansion of Our Territory than at present, but made the western bound- ary a due north and south line a considerable distance east of the Missouri River. This was unsatisfactory to the people of Iowa, and in 1846 a new act was passed fixing the western boundary on the Missouri River, and Iowa became a State. The area north of the State of Iowa was subsequently established as the Territory of Minnesota. The area which formed the State of Iowa had been successively a part of the Territory of Louisiana, the Territory of Missouri, the Territory of Michigan, the Territory of "Wis- consin, and the Territory of Iowa. 164 NINTH PEKIOD Meantime, during the period intervening between the admission of Arkansas and Michi- gan in 1836-37 and the admission of Florida and Iowa in 1845-46, developments of great importance were in progress looking to the addition of new territory to the United States, an area which would give opportu- nity for the further expansion of slavery. The people of Mexico had revolted against Spanish rule in 1810, and after a long series of struggles were in 1822 successful, and in 1824 a republican government was established under the title of the United States of Mexico, with a system of govern- ment based upon that of the United States. Among the provinces or states included in this Union was the area claimed by Mexico north of the Eio Grande, which at the time 165 Expansion of Our Territory of tlie formation of the republic consisted of tlie provinces or states of Upper California, New Mexico, and "Texas and Coahuila," which latter were admitted to the Mexican Union as one state. The United States, it will be remembered, had originally claimed the Texas Territory as a part of the Louisi- ana Purchase, but had finally abandoned it in the treaty by which Florida was purchased and the boundaries between the United States and Spanish territory fixed. TEXAS ADDED TO THE UNION But there still remained a desire, espe- cially in the Southwest, to see Texas become a part of the United States, and an offer of $1,000,000 was in 1827 made to the Mexican Government for Texas, and another of $5,- 000,000 in 1829, but were successively re- jected. Large numbers of people from the Southwest of the United States settled in Texas shortly after the establishment of the Republic of Mexico, by their presence and in- fluence creating a sentiment in favor of an- nexation to the United States. In 1833 the Texans attempted to obtain a separate State 166 Texas government, but without success ; but when the Mexican Congress abolished all State Con- stitutions, and in 1835 created a dictator, Texas in 1836 seceded from the Mexican Union and established itself as an independ- ent republic. In the election for President of the Kepublic which followed, an almost unanimous vote was cast for annexation to the United States. The application was made by the Minister of Texas at Washington in 1837, but failed to receive favorable action in Con- gress. In 1843-44, however, the pressure for the admission of Texas became very great, especially in the South, where land warrants for immense tracts of land in Texas had been sold at low prices, and where the desire for additional slave area rendered the proposition an extremely popular one. A new treaty of annexation was made in 1844, but again re- jected in the Senate. The question became one of party politics in the United States, and entered largely into the presidential election of 1844, when President Polk was elected upon a pledge in favor of the annexation of Texas. But before he was inaugurated Congress had, 13 167 Expansion of Our Territory in January, 1845, passed an act giving its "consent tliat the territory properly in- cluded within the Kepublic of Texas may be erected into a new State to be called the State of Texas," in case evidence of the formation of the new State should be sent to Congress during that year. President Tyler hurried a messenger off to Texas the day pre- ceding the inauguration of Polk, and the mes- senger returned in due time with the consent of the Texan Congress, ratified by popular vote ; and in December, 1845, a joint resolu- tion admitting Texas as a State passed the House and Senate. Thus Texas passed from the position of an independent republic to a State of the Union without a treaty and without serving the usual probationary period as a Territory, and actually became a State before Iowa, for which the enabling act had become a law March 3d of that year. The act admitting Texas also gave to the supporters of slavery an opportunity to further continue their bal- ance of power in the Senate, by providing that "new States of convenient size not ex- ceeding four in number in addition to the 168 Expansion of Our Territory said State of Texas may hereafter by tlie con- sent of said State be formed out of tlie terri- tory thereof, and shall be admitted to the Union with or without slavery, as the people of each State may desire." The area of Tex- as as admitted was 389,795 square miles, or nearly one-half as large as the Louisiana Purchase. Subsequently (1850) the United States purchased 123,784 square miles of the northwest part of the territory claimed by Texas, paying $10,000,000 for it. The area so purchased now forms the eastern half of the Territory of New Mexico, and parts of Oklahoma, Kansas, Colorado, and Wyoming. WISCONSIN ADMITTED AS A STATE "With the addition at the South of Texas as a State and the possibility that the area might soon become several slave States, the North made haste to demand an increase in the number of States in that section, and in 1848 Wisconsin was admitted as a State with about its present boundaries, and in 1849 Minnesota Territory was established from the area north of the State of Iowa, which had been formerly included in Iowa Territory, 170 ^^ Texas and also including the area north and west of Lake Superior which had been originally a part of the Northwest Territory, and for- merly included in the Territory of Wiscon- sin. This inclusion in Minnesota of the area north and west of Lake Superior was not in exact compliance with the act creating the Territory Northwest of the Ohio, which pro- vided that that area should be formed into not more than five States. As Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin had been severally formed from that area, the inclu- sion of remaining Territory as a part of a sixth State does not seem to have literally complied with the original act. The area in question was a part of the area of Wisconsin, and statements have been made by generally accepted authorities that it was included in the State of Wisconsin, as at first formed and afterward taken away and added to Minnesota, but this later statement does not seem to be justified by an examination of the acts by which the boundaries of the State of Wisconsin were originally fixed. 171 Expansion of Our Territory THE OREGON TERRITORY The next great step was the favorable set- tlement of the claim of the United States to the Oregon country and its admission as a Territory of the United States. The Spanish and British had both claimed it by right of discovery and explorations prior to the War of the Eevolution; and in 1792 a Boston trader, Captain Kobert Gray, entered the mouth of the Columbia River and laid the foundation of the claim of the United States. After the purchase of Louisiana from France, it was at first supposed that the Oregon area was in- cluded in that purchase. In 1811 John Jacob Astor and others established a fur-trading post at the mouth of the Columbia, calling it As- toria. The British, however, insisted that the territory belonged to them and captured As- toria, and in 1818 a treaty of joint occupation between Great Britain and the United States was made. As has already been stated, the treaty between the United States and Spain, for the purchase of Florida, defined the bound- aries of the Spanish possessions in America, and fixed the northern boundary of her claims 172 173 Expansion of Our Territory at tlie 42d degree of latitude, tlius disposing of Spain's claim to this Oregon Territory and to this extent strengthening those of the United States. The joint occupancy of the United States and Great Britain, which had been agreed upon in 1818, continued until 1846. By that time the demand of the peo- ple of the United States became so urgent that war with Great Britain for its possession seemed imminent, and when in that year a proposition was made by the British Govern- ment, fixing the boundaiy at the 49th parallel and the Straits of Fuca, it was accepted by the United States, the treaty ratified, and Great Britain withdrew, leaving the United States in full possession. An organic act had meantime been framed and accepted by the American settlers in the Oregon coun- try, who then numbered several thousands, and in 1848 the Territory of Oregon was formed by the act of Congress. The area thus added to the Union includes the present States of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and parts of Montana and Wyoming. 174 The Mexican War THE MEXICAN CESSION The next great step was the cession to the United States by Mexico of the area west of Texas and south of Oregon. A dispute arose between the United States and Mexico regarding the southern boundary line of Texas shortly after the annexation of Texas. The Mexican Government held that the southern boundary of Texas was the Nueces Kiver, and the United States claimed that the Eio Grande was the proper boundary line, and proceeded to take possession of the area in question. This resulted in war be- tween the United States and Mexico, in which the United States was successful in every engagement. During that war the United States took possession of the Mexican States of New Mexico and Upper California, ex- tending westward from Texas to the Pacific, and when the war ended with the complete success of the United States forces, an agree- ment was made by which the United States retained possession of all this territory, upon payment of $15,000,000 to Mexico, and $3,250,000 of claims of American citizens against Mexico. By this was added the ter- 175 The Mexican War ritory now included in California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona and parts of New Mexico and Colorado, and the hopes of the South for additional slave territory were thus renewed. The territory east of the Rio Grande, which was claimed as being included in the Mexican cession, was also claimed by Texas as part of her original territory, and this claim was settled in 1850 by payment of $10,000,000 by the United States to the State of Texas for the area in question, which amounted to 123,784 square miles and now forms parts of New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kan- sas, Colorado, and Wyoming. By the steps which have been above de- scribed — the Texas annexation in 1845, the Oregon settlement in 1846, and the Mexican cession in 1848 — the United States had in less than three years become possessed of the en- tire territory west of the Louisiana Purchase and extending to the Pacific Ocean, and had thus increased its area more than fifty per cent. At that time no part of the Louisiana Purchase west of Louisiana, Arkansas, Mis- souri, Iowa, and Minnesota, had even been divided into Territories, 177 Expansion of Our Territory The necessity for establisliing government in this great western area soon became ap- parent. Thousands were flocking to Oregon and tens of thousands to California, where gold had been discovered ; the Mormons had established themselves in Utah ; there was a considerable Mexican population in New Mexico and California, and the country west of the Missouri required a government to pror tect those who were endeavoring to reach the Pacific by an overland route, as well as the pioneers who were beginning to make their homes in that section. 178 TENTH PEKIOD KANSAS, NEBKASKA, AND MISSOURI The years from 1848 to 1854 were there- fore full of activity in the establishment of new political divisions west of the Missouri River. A convention was held in California in 1849 and a State Constitution framed, and in 1850 Congress admitted it as a State, with- out preliminary apprenticeship as a Territory. In the same year all of the remainder of the area obtained from Mexico, including the dis- puted area for which a quitclaim had been purchased from Texas, was formed into two great Territories, Utah and New Mexico. The " Gadsden Purchase " was the next addition made to the territory of the United States. A disagreement having arisen with Mexico regarding the boundary line south of New Mexico, the matter was settled in 1853 by the payment of $10,000,000 and the addi- 179 Or ^ <0! (« :& - Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri tion to New Mexico of the area since known as the Gadsden Purchase. The area thus added was 36,211 square miles in extent, or about equal to the State of Indiana. It re- ceived the name " Gadsden Purchase " be- cause the purchase was negotiated by General James Gadsden, then United States Minister to Mexico. In 1 854 that part of the Louisiana Purchase west of Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota was divided into the Territories of Nebraska and Kansas. A small section of the area pur- chased from Texas was also included in the Territory of Kansas, and Nebraska Territory included what is now North and South Da- kota and parts of Montana, Wyoming, and Colorado. MINNESOTA AND OREGON ADMITTED AS STATES The transformation of these great terri- tories into smaller divisions soon began. In 1858 Minnesota Territory was reduced to about its present boundaries, and made a State ; in 1859 Oregon was reduced in size and made a State, and the eastern part of the territory added temporarily to Washington 181 Expansion of Our Territory Territory. In 1861 the western part of Utah was established as the Territory of Nevada ; the eastern part of Utah, the western part of Kansas, and the southwest corner of Ne- braska were established as the Territory of Colorado ; the remainder of Kansas Territory was admitted as the State of Kansas, and the northern part of Nebraska cut off and es- tablished as the Territory of Dakota, includ- ing with it that part of the former territory of Minnesota which had not been included in the State of Minnesota. THE QUESTION OF SLAVERY IN THE NEW TERRITORIES Meantime the question of the relation of slavery to the new territory was a subject of much bitter discussion. It was conceded that Texas was to be a slave State, and the act establishing the Territory of Oregon excluded slavery from that section ; but the question of whether it should or should not be permitted in the great area ceded by Mexico was a burning issue. The Missouri Compromise, which excluded slavery from the territory of the United States north of 36° 30' except 182 Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri in the State of Missouri, could not be held to apply to the area ceded by Mexico, because it was not a part of the United States when that law was enacted. The laws of Mexico prohibited slavery and of course had ex- tended over the area in question before its cession to the United States, but did not apply after that cession. California, which had been rapidly populated by people from the East and especially the North after the gold discoveries of 1848, in 1849 adopted a Constitution prohibiting slavery, and applied for admission as a State. This precipitated the discussion as to whether the area ceded by Mexico should become free or slave terri- tory. After much discussion another "com- promise " was proposed by Mr. Clay, and in 1850 adopted. It provided that California might be admitted with the prohibition of slavery, but that the remainder of the Mexican cession should be divided into two territories. New Mexico and Utah, without any express restriction upon slavery, the purpose being to at least defer action on this question and probably leave it to the people Expansion of Our Territory of the Territories in framing their constitu- tions for admission as States. This proposi- tion was adopted and the Mexican cession, except California, became debatable ground for the introduction of slavery. In 1854 the confusion over the slavery- question was intensified by the presenta- tion by Mr. Douglass, of Illinois, of a bill organizing that part of the Louisiana Pur- chase between the 37° and the Canadian line into the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, and providing that all laws of the United States should be extended to these Territories "except the eighth section of the act preparatory to the admission of Missouri in 1820 (the compromise section), which being inconsistent with the principles of non-intervention by Congress with slavery in the States and Territories is hereby declared inoperative and void." It further declared it the purpose of the act not to legislate slavery into or out of any Territory, but to "leave the people thereof perfectly free to form and regulate their domestic institutions in their own way." It also extended into the Territories the fugitive 184 Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri slave law which permitted the recovery in any State or Territory of slaves escaping from other States, requiring officers and citizens to assist in their recapture and return, and pro- hibited the acceptance of the testimony of the person claimed as a slave. This proposi- tion, known as " The Kansas-Nebraska Bill," became a law. It virtually annulled the Missouri Compromise, by which slavery was prohibited north of 36° 30', and left to the people of the great area included in the Terri- tories of Kansas and Nebraska the right of framing Constitutions with or without slavery and applying to Congress for admission under them, and by implication at least extended a like privilege to any other area which had not been erected into a State. This act was followed by a bitter struggle for the control of Kansas. People from the South and from the North flocked in for the purpose of controlling the Territory and adopting a Constitution with slavery or with- out slavery, and the contest resulted in col- lisions between the two parties, the establish- ment of two Territorial governments, blood- shed, actual warfare and the interference of 185 Expansion of Our Territory United States troops. A State Constitution prohibiting slavery was finally adopted in 1858 and admission asked of Congress. The bill for the admission passed the House, but was rejected by the Senate. In 1857 another event increased the privi- leges of slavery in the Territories and inten- sified public feeling. An army oflScer who owned a slave, Dred Scott by name, had taken him from Missouri into Illinois and thence into Minnesota as his property, and after remaining there for some time returned with him to Missouri. Scott, on returning to Missouri, endeavored to secure his liberty, claiming that his residence in a free State had destroyed his master's rights over him. The question was carried to the Supreme Court of the United States, which decided that Scott was not a citizen and could there- fore have no standing in the courts. It also held that slaves were mere property and that Congress had no right to exclude this kind of property from the Territories, but must grant to every citizen the right to carry this as well as any other property into the Territories of the United States 186 Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri and protect liim and his property against hostile legislation in those Territories so long as they remained such, or until they became States. This series of events, and especially the last mentioned, extended the right to hold slaves to all the great western area which had not already become States, and intensi- fied the hostilities between the opponents and supporters of slavery. But these rights to carry slaves into the Territories and hold slaves there while they remained Territories did not fasten slavery upon any given area indefinitely, because the matter had to be determined by congressional action when the area should be admitted as a State of the Union. The slave States had lost the balance of power in the Senate when California was admitted, and in 1852 they had but 30 Senators and the free States 32 ; while in the House they had 90 members and the free States 144. In 1858 the State of Minnesota was organized from the eastern part of the Territory of Minnesota and admitted, and in 1859 the State of Oresron was formed from the western portion of 18? Kansas, Nebraska, and Missouri Oregon Territory, aud these two events in- creased the number of fi'ee State Senators to 36 against 30 from the slave States. Kansas was also knocking loudly for admission as a free State, and it was apparent that this could not be long delayed. 189 ELEVENTH PEKIOD THE CIVIL WAK The events above described and the radi- cally different views between tbe two sections on the question of slavery had led to a gradual development and open advocacy in the South of a sentiment which had been from time to time expressed during nearly all of the history of the Union, viz.: that the Union was a "compact" and that those forming it sur- rendered only a portion of their individual rights, and that when the Federal Government passed the limits of its delegated authority it was within the power of the States to inter- pose, and maintain certain rights which they had reserved to themselves; that the States were one party to the compact and the Federal Government the other, and that each party must be the judge of infractions of the ao:reement and the mode of redress. This sentiment had been expressed by 190 The Civil War resolutions of the Kentucky Legislature as early as 1798 and by that of Virginia in 1799. In 1814 a convention of delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connec- ticut, and parts of Vermont and New Hamp- shire had held a secret convention at Hart- ford which expressed somewhat similar sen- timents, and was believed to have for its purpose the dissolution of the Union, though this was strenuously denied. In 1832 South Carolina had gone to the extent of declaring by a State convention the tariff acts of Con- gress null and void in that State and pro- posing secession if the Government attempted to enforce the objectionable tariif law in that State, and the Legislature a few months later passed acts reassuming powers which had been abandoned under the Constitution. Further developments were, however, averted by the prompt action of President Jackson in support of the tariif law and by subsequent modifica- tion of that law by Congress. The above events relative to the slavery question and the doctrine of the rights of a State or States to terminate the "compact" or dissolve the Union have been stated some- 191 Expansion of Our Territory what in detail because of their bearing upon the great events of 1861-65, by which an attempt was made to divide the territory of the United States, w^hose growth from an area of 827,000 square miles and thirteen political divisions to over 8,000,000 square miles and nearly forty political divisions has been here traced. THE WAR FOR THE DISSOLUTION OP THE UNION In 1861 came the war of secession, the effort to divide the Union and to establish a new government — The Confederate States of America — from the territory in which slavery existed. All of the slave-holding States, ex- cept those on the northern border of the slave area — Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri — joined in the terrible struggle, adopted ordinances of secession, raised armies and entered upon the war which continued from 1861 to 1865. The States which joined in the movement for secession and declared themselves separated from the Union were Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mis- sissippi, Louisiana, Arkansas and Texas. 192 Expansion of Our Territory The struggle to determine whether the nation should be divided continued for four long years, with a loss on both sides of more than 600,000 lives and a cost, counting that of both sides, of about $5,000,000,000. The plan of the Union forces was to split open the Confederacy by taking possession of the Mississippi Valley, and this was finally accomplished after two years of per- sistent struggle, partly by forces making their way down the river from the north, and partly by others who had forced their way past the Confederate batteries at the mouth of that river and worked their way north- ward. With Louisiana, Arkansas, and Texas cut off at the west, another wedge of troops was driven through the center toward the southeast, at Chattanooga (Tenn.), Atlanta (Ga.), thence to Savannah, and then turning north again through South and North Caro- lina. While this was in progress stubborn fighting was going on between the two capi- tals located comparatively near to each other — Kichmond and Washington — battles which for persistence and bravery on both sides were not surpassed by anything that the 194 The Civil War world had ever seen ; and it was not until April 9, 1865, that the leader of the Confed- erate forces surrendered and the war closed. SLAVERY TERMINATED Meantime, slavery, which had been the cause of so much sectional strife for many years, ceased to exist in the sections in rebel- lion, through a proclamation issued by Presi- dent Lincoln as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy, in which he declared the act a military necessity ; and in 1865 it was rati- fied by the adoption of the Thirteenth Amend- ment to the Constitution, prohibiting slavery within the United States, in nearly the same words used in 1787 in prohibiting it in the Territory Northwest of the Ohio. [Slavery had originated in the colonies only twelve years after the settlement at Jamestown through the purchase in the Vir- ginia colony of a cargo of negroes from Africa brought by a Dutch vessel. At that time slavery was not uncommon in many parts of the world. It extended over all the colonies, but was not especially popular in the North, because the negroes from Africa 195 Expansion of Our Territory could not thrive in that rigorous climate and their labor was not so much required in that section of limited agricultural areas ; while in the South, with its milder climate and chief dependence on agriculture, it became popular. Massachusetts abolished slavery in 1780, while acts of gradual emancipation were passed by Pennsylvania in 1780; New Hampshire, 1783; Khode Island, 1784; Con- necticut, 1784; New York, 1799; and New Jersey, 1804. New York afterward passed an absolute emancipation act to take effect in 1827.] ACTIVITIES DURING THE WAR PERIOD The war period, 1861-65, was one of great activity at the North. It was necessary to develop the producing area to furnish sup- plies for the enormous army, and railway construction was also rapidly opening new areas in the West. The discovery of gold in the Pikes Peak Kocky Mountain region was drawing large numbers of people across the plains which had formerly had little popula- tion and required little in the way of govern- ment. The project of a railway to the Pa- 196 Expansion of Our Territory cific, which had been discussed for a decade, took definite form in the passage by Congress in 1862 of an act granting five sections of land and $16,000 in bonds per mile for a transcontinental road from the Missouri River to the Pacific, and in some difficult sections the amount of bonds per mile was much higher. MANY NEW TERRITORIES FORMED These conditions suggested that a more satisfactory form of government should be furnished for the territory through which these roads were to be built, and into which many thousands were hastening, attracted by the gold discoveries. Accordingly, in 1861, as outlined elsewhere, the great Territory of Utah, which included about one-third of the Mexican cession, was divided into three sec- tions, the western part called the Territory of Nevada, and the central part retaining the name of the Territory of Utah. To the east- ern section was added about an equal amount of territory from the western area of the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska, and the political division so formed was called the 198 The Civil War Territory of Colorado. That Territory thus included as its western area land which had been acquired as a part of the Mexican ces- sion, in the center a part of the land pur- chased by the United States from Texas in 1850, and in the east a part of the Louisiana Purchase. The great Territory of Nebraska, which had stretched from Kansas at the south to Canada at the north, and from the Missouri River on the east to the Rocky Mountains on the west, was also divided in 1861, all of the area north of its present boundary being erected as the Territory of Dakota, with which was included that western part of the former Territory of Minnesota which had not been included in the State of Minnesota when it was formed in 1858. Nebraska remained a Territory and retained its western area, which subsequently became a part of Wyo- ming. HOW WEST VIRGINIA WAS CREATED A STATE One step in State-making which occurred in the early part of the war period was unique in character. It was the admission of the 14 199 Expansion of Our Territory western counties of Virginia as a separate State. The people of that part of the State were Unionists and had refused to agree to the ordinance of secession which Virginia had adopted. They desired to form a new State and remain in the Union, but the Con- stitution provides that " no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State without the consent of the Legislature of the State and of Congress." In order to meet this requirement a conven- tion was held at Wheeling, Va., the Virginia Ordinance of Secession declared void, the State offices declared vacant, and a Legislature elected. An election for Governor was held, and Senators chosen and sent to Washington, and they were admitted to the Senate as rep- resenting the State of Virginia, whose Senators had previously withdrawn from the Senate. An ordinance was passed by the new Legisla- ture for the establishment of the State of '' Kanawha," and it was approved by popular vote. A new convention, however, which framed the Constitution of the proposed State, submitted the name of " West Virginia," and the Constitution with this name was ratified 200 Expansion of Our Territory by popular vote. The Legislature, chosen in fact from the forty counties of Virginia which had refused to secede, but assuming to represent the whole State, gave its consent to the erection of the forty counties into the State of West Virginia, and Congress ad- mitted the new State December 31, 1862. In 1866 the Legislature of Virginia trans- ferred two additional counties to West Vir- ginia. DIVIDING THE EXTREME NORTHWEST The Territory of Washington, which had been formed from the northern and eastern parts of Oregon, had by this time become sufficiently populated to require a division, and the great Territory of Dakota also re- quired a division. In 1863 the eastern part of Washington and the western part of Da- kota with the western section of Nebraska were formed into the Territory of Idaho. In the same year the great Territory of New Mexico was divided and the western part es- tablished as the Territory of Arizona. This Territory included in its southern section most of the " Gadsden Purchase." The re- 202 The Civil War mainder of the Territory of New Mexico re- tained its former name, and both Arizona and New Mexico remained Territories more than half a century after the organization of the Territory of New Mexico, and more than forty years after its division into these two Territories. STATE OF NEVADA Nevada was the next State admitted after West Virginia. Indeed only two States were admitted during the war period, although many new Territories were formed, chiefly because of the rapid development due to gold and silver discoveries, railroad building, and the westward movement of population. Ne- vada was admitted as a State in 1864. The act creating the Territory of Nevada, passed in 1861, had included a part of California in its limits, but the consent of that State was refused, and, as a consequence, the eastern line of Nevada was extended eastward to the 115th meridian by the act which admitted it as a State ; and two years later the eastern boundary was again removed eastward to the 114th meridian, where it has since remained. 203 TWELFTH PERIOD ALASKA, EECONSTEUCTION, AKD LATER STATES In 1867 came anotlier addition to the area of the United States, the purchase of Alaska. It had been claimed by Russia by right of discovery in 1741, by exploration, and by a settlement begun in 1784, the year after the peace treaty between Great Britain and the successful colonies. A Russian company was given charge of the fur business which rap. idly grew up there, a naval station was estab- lished, a shipyard constructed, foundries and machine shops put into operation, and experi- ments made in the manufacture of bricks, woodenware, and implements for use in agri- culture and mining. Commercial operations were opened later with the Mexicans in Cali- fornia and along the Mexican coast, and upon the discovery of gold in California, in 1848, large stocks of goods from the warehouses at 204 Reconstruction Sitka were sold to the people of San Fran- cisco and an active trade established. By this time the people of California and Ore- gon became acquainted with the fisheries and mineral products of Alaska and began to urge its purchase. The Kussian Govern- ment was not averse to disposing of the Territory, so distant from its seat of govern- ment, and in 1867 it was purchased by Sec- retary of State Seward, for $7,200,000. The government of Alaska is adminis- tered by a governor and other officers ap- pointed by the President. Its fur seals were for many years of great value, and the salmon fisheries are now the most valuable of the world, and its mines yield several million dollars' worth of gold annually. It has no legislature and no delegate in Congress. THE SECEDING STATES READMITTED The question as to how the Southern States should be restored to their standing in the Union at the close of the war was a new and difficult one. The Constitution made no provision for such condition, and there were no precedents. President Lincoln issued an 205 Expansion of Our Territory amnesty proclamation in 1863 offering full pardon and restoration of all property rights, except slaves, to all (except certain leaders in the rebellion) wlio would take the oath to support, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States, and support all acts of Congress and proclamations of the President with reference to slaves, unless repealed, modified, or held void by Congress or the Supreme Court, and that in every State in which one-tenth of the voters of 1860 should take such oath, a republican form of govern- ment would be recognized by the President, the question of representation in Congress to be determined by that body. This ]3lan was favored by some at the close of the war. Another plan proposed was for the appoint- ment of provisional governors and the enrol- ment of those willing to take the oath of allegiance, the adoption and approval of a constitution, and admission of the State in the same manner followed in regard to Terri- tories. Congress finally adopted a measure pro- viding that no State should be represented in either House unless Congress had declared it 206 Reconstruction entitled to representation. An amendment to the Constitution (the Fourteenth) was then proposed, and an act was passed de- claring that any State ratifying this amend- ment should be entitled to representation. This proposed amendment to the Constitu- tion made all persons born or naturalized in the United States, citizens thereof, ir- respective of color, prohibited the State from making laws to abridge the privileges or immunities of any citizen, and provided that Representatives in Congress should be apportioned to the States according to their respective population, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excepting Indians not taxed. [Formerly Representa- tives were apportioned by adding to the whole number of free persons three-fifths of all others, except Indians not taxed.] It also provided that if suffrage should be denied to any male inhabitants twenty-one years of age, the basis of representation should be propor- tionately reduced. It also provided that the validity of the public debt authorized by law and for payment of bounties and pensions should not be questioned, but that neither 207 Expansion of Our Territory the United States nor the States should pay- any debt incurred in aid of the rebellion or any claim for loss by emancipation, and de- clared all such debts and claims void. Tennessee accepted this proposition in 1866, but as the others delayed, Congress divided the remainder of the States into military districts, and military governors were appointed. They were to protect life and property, and provide for and supervise the election of delegates to constitutional con- ventions. These conventions were to frame constitutions and submit them to a popular vote, and if ratified they should be forwarded to Congress. Should they prove satisfactory, and the Fourteenth Amendment be ratified by the Legislatures of the States, they might be admitted after the amendment had been rati- fied by a sufficient number of States to make it a part of the Constitution. Under this, North Carolina, South Carolina, Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, and Louisiana were ad- mitted in 1868, and Georgia also took action, which was, however, not in form satisfactory to Congress, and her admission was not made complete until 1870. The other States — Vir- 208 Later States ginia, Mississippi, and Texas — delayed action, and meantime the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution was proposed and adopted, declaring specifically that the right of citizens to vote should not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude ; and Virginia, Mississippi, Texas, and Georgia were required to ratify this amendment before their final admission in 1870, when the Union was again complete. Thus, all of the eleven seceding States had returned, but when they reassembled in the halls of Congress they found that the territory which formed the eleven States in 1860 formed twelve States in 1870, West Virginia having been constructed from a part of the territory formerly within the State of Virginia. Only three other States — Kansas, Nevada, and Nebraska — had been admitted during that period : Kansas in 1861, Nevada in 1864, and Nebraska in 1867. COLORADO, THE "CENTENNIAL STATE" Duiing the twenty years following the close of the civil war and the reconstruction 209 Expansion of Our Territory period, only one State was admitted. Col- orado applied for admission in 1875 and was admitted in 1876, the year in wMcli tlie hundredtli anniversary of the Declaration of Independence was celebrated, and Colorado thus became known as "• The Centennial State." It was admitted with substantially the same boundaries under which it existed as a Territory. WASHINGTON, IDAHO, WYOMING, AND THE DAKOTAS MADE STATES In 1889 came a period of activity in State- making. The Territory of Washington was in that year admitted as a State, and the Territory of Dakota was divided and ad- mitted as the States of North and South Da- kota. The great Territory of Idaho had been in 1864 subdivided, and the northeastern part established as the Territory of Montana, and in 1868 the southeastern part was es- tablished as the Territory of Wyoming ; Montana was admitted as a State in 1889 and Idaho and Wyoming in 1890. Wyoming, when admitted, had the unique distinction of being composed of sections of 210 tf o 11 1 ►— t Q r«> m t 05 ^ 52 u> ^ W 5* g c Sji u 1^ (§ «• r = 2 * 211 Expansion of Our Territory four different additions to the national terri- tory : the Louisiana Purchase, the Texas Pur- chase, the Mexican Cession, and the Oregon Country. Colorado, as already indicated, in- cluded parts of three additions : the Louisi- ana Purchase, the Texas Purchase, and the Mexican Cession ; but Wyoming included also a section from the original Oregon Ter- ritory. About two-thirds of the area at the east and northeast was from the Louisiana Purchase, the middle west from the Oregon Territory, the southwest from the Mexican Cession, and a small section in the central south from the area claimed by Texas and purchased from her by the United States in 1850. UTAH AS A TERRITORY AND STATE Utah was admitted in 1894 as the forty- fifth State of the Union. It was originally a Mormon settlement, founded in 1847 by Mormons from Illinois and Missouri, when the section where they settled was Mexican territory. The Mormons sought this secluded spot in order that they might practise undis- turbed their religious beliefs, including that 212 Later States of polygamy, or plural wives. The cession of this area by Mexico in 1848 brought them again within the jurisdiction of the United States. They, however, organized an inde- pendent government, calling it "The State of Deseret," and in 1850 attempted to obtain admission as a State of the Union. In that year the great Territory of Utah was formed, and Brigham Young, the head of the Mormon Church, was appointed as governor ; but the treatment of non-believers in their form of religion resulted in his removal. In 1882 Congress passed a law making polygamy a misdemeanor and denying the franchise to polygamists. Subsequently the Church re- nounced polygamy, and in 1895 a Constitu- tion was framed condemning polygamy and continuing in force the laws prohibiting it, and under this Constitution Utah was admitted as a State in 1896. OKLAHOMA AND THE INDIAN TERRITORY The last Territory organized was Okla- homa. It was formerly a part of a tract set aside in 1834 from the Louisiana Purchase for the use of Indian tribes and designated 213 Expansion of Our Territory "The Indian Territory." In 1866 the Creeks and Seminoles ceded some 5,000,000 acres of land to the United States, a part at fifteen and a part at thirty cents per acre, to be used exclusively for civilized Indians and freed- men, but large tracts remained unoccupied. In 1879 schemes for its occupancy by white men were developed, and some of the lands were occupied without authority and the occupants ejected by order of the President. Later the Creeks and Seminoles expressed a willingness to make a complete sale of the lands for the occupancy of the whites, and these lands were bought by the Government for $4,193,000 and opened to settlement, and the area established as the Territory of Oklahoma in 1890. Subsequently other lands were purchased from the Indians and added, and the area is now 39,030 square miles, or nearly equal to that of the State of Kentucky. The remainder of the Indian Territory still exists as an unorganized Territory, being without the form of government prescribed by Congress for Territories. In some parts the inhabitants are governed by the tribal 214 Later States cliiefs, in others by laws enacted by legisla- tures, and in part under Federal supervision by officers of tlie Bureau of Indian Affairs. The present area of the Indian Territory is 31,400 square miles, or nearly equal to that of the State of Maine. 15 215 THIKTEENTH PEKIOD HAWAII, PORTO EICO, AND THE PHILIPPIIS^ES The latest developments in the addition of area to the United States and the estab- lishment of governments were the annexa- tion of the Hawaiian Islands on the applica- tion of the people of those islands, and of Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands as a result of the war with Spain. ANNEXATION OF THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS Neo^otiations for the annexation of the Hawaiian Islands began as early as 1854, under President Pierce, and would probably have been completed but for the death of the King of those islands after the annexa- tion treaty had been drawn and forwarded to Washington. In 1893 a revolution occurred in the islands and a provisional government was formed, and a commission sent to Wash- ington to negotiate for the annexation of the 216 Hawaii islands to the United States. A treaty of annexation was agreed upon by President Harrison, but had not been acted upon by the Senate at the close of his term, and was withdrawn by his successor, President Cleveland. At the close of President Cleve- land's term and the inauguration of President McKinley, the Hawaiian commissioners again proposed annexation and a treaty for that purpose was agreed upon and sent to the Senate ; but action on the treaty being delayed, a joint resolution passed the House and Senate in 1898, annexing the Islands as a part of the territory of the United States. In 1900 an act was passed ex- tending the Constitution and laws of the United States over the islands and creating them a Territory of the United States, with a Governor appointed by the Presi- dent, and a Legislature elected by the qualified voters. The islands are by law a customs district of the United States, and all articles pass between them and the United States without any tariif restrictions. A large proportion of the trade between the islands and the United States had been free from 217 Expansion of Our Territory- tariff restrictions under a reciprocity treaty- agreed upon in 1876, but the annexation of the islands and the removal of all tariff restrictions was followed by a marked in- crease in the commerce between the two sections and in the prosperity of the islands themselves. PORTO RICO, GUAM, AND THE PHILIPPINES The annexation of Porto Rico in the West Indies and Guam and the Philippine Islands in the Pacific were the result of the war with Spain, begun by the United States in 1898 to compel that Government to terminate her op]3ression of the people of Cuba. All of these islands were occupied by the American forces during that war, and on its termination they were all ceded by Spain to the .United States, the latter paying to Spain the sum of $20,000,000. While the treaty did not specify the purpose of this payment, it was understood that Porto Rico and Guam were retained by the United States, under the rules of war, as a partial compensation for her ex- penditures, and that the payment of $20,000,- 000 was with reference to the Philippines. 218 Porto Rico and the Philippines The government of Porto Eico is ad- ministered by a Governor appointed by the President with the assent of the Sen- ate, and a Legislature of which the pop- ular branch is elected by the people, the upper branch being appointed by the Presi- dent. The government of the Philippine Islands is conducted by a commission ap- pointed by the President, a part of the number being citizens of the United States and a part natives of the Philippine Islands. Porto Rico is a customs district of the United States, and all merchandise passing between that island and the United States is free of duty, and this condition has resulted in a great increase in this commerce in both direc- tions. The tariif duties on articles from the Philippine Islands entering the United States have been reduced in part, and it is probable that they will be still further reduced, and perhaps entirely removed, as is now the case with reference to the products of Porto Rico and the Hawaiian Islands. The treaty with Spain provides that the products of that country entering the Philippine Islands shall be given the same rates of duty as those of 219 Expansion of Our Territory the United States for ten years from the date of the exchange of ratifications of the treaty, or until 1909. The occupation of all these islands obtained from Spain as a result of the war occurred in the year 1898. OUR SAMOAN ISLAND The Island of Tutuila in the Samoan group passed under the control of the United States in 1899. The United States, Great Britain and Germany had exercised a joint protectorate over the Samoan Islands since 1889, but in 1899 this was terminated. Great Britain exchanging her claims for certain other islands formerly held by Ger- many, and the latter taking control of the entire Samoan group, except Tutuila, whose people had formerly expressed a desire for control by the United States. Tutuila and certain small islands adjacent to it were as- signed to the United States. The area of the island is but about fifty-four square miles, but its harbor is the best in the South Pacific, while that of the Hawaiian Islands is the best in the North Pacific. Tutuila and Guam are respectively governed by officers of the navy 220 Expansion of Our Territory designated for that service. The population of Tutuila is about 4,000, that of Guam about 9,000. The population of Porto Kico is about 1,000,000, that of the Philippine Islands about 8,000,000. THE HOME OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT The District of Columbia, the seat of the Government of the United States, was created as the result of legislation by the first Con- gress under the Constitution. Congress had led a wandering life during the period from the Declaration of Independence to the adop- tion of the Constitution. The first Congresses met in Philadelphia, but in the latter part of 1776, a few months after the Declaration of Independ- ence, there was reason to believe that Philadelphia might be attacked by Brit- ish troops, and Congress in December re- moved to Baltimore. It held one session there, returning to Philadelphia in the follow- ing March. By September of that year Phil- adelphia was again in danger, and Congress moved to Lancaster, Pa., where it remained but three days; and deeming York, on the 222 The Seat of Government western side of the Susquehanna, a safer lo- cation, removed to that place and remained there during that terrible winter which Wash- ington spent at Valley Forge. In the follow- ing May came the news of the alliance with France and the evacuation of Philadelphia by the British, and the Congress soon returned to Philadelphia, where it remained until 1783. In that year a little body of unpaid troops of the American army drew up in front of Independence Hall and demanded their pay. Congress called upon the city authorities for protection, but not receiving what it deemed proper attention, removed to Princeton, N. J. During its session there it decided that there should be two meeting places for Con- gress, one on the Potomac and one on the Delaware Kiver, and that until suitable places should be established Congress would meet alternately at Annapolis and Trenton. One session was held at Annapolis, beginning in November, 1783, and another at Trenton, in November, 1784 ; after which New York was determined upon as the place for meeting, and Congress met in that city in 1785. Its sessions were held there until after the adop- 223 Expansion of Our Territory tion of the Constitution and the inauguration of President Washington. The question of a permanent seat of gov- ernment came up soon after the inauguration of the first President. It was discussed with considerable sectional feeling, and was finally yielded to the South in exchange for support for Hamilton's proposition that the Government should assume the debts incurred by the various States during the Revolutionary War. The measure adopted provided for the location of the permanent seat of government on the Potomac, to be occupied in November, 1800, and Congress removed to Philadelphia in 1790 and re- mained there until 1800, when it removed to Washington, the permanent seat of gov- ernment, on the Potomac. An area 10 miles square, or 100 square miles, was meantime determined upon, lying on both sides of the Potomac, of which 64 square miles lay within the State of Maryland and 36 square miles in Virginia. Each of the States ceded the area asked for this purpose. The District was originally designated as "The Federal Dis- trict," and the city was designated as " The 224 The District of Columbia Federal City," but the commissioners ap- pointed in 1791 to determine its boundaries gave it tlie name of " The Territory of Colum- bia," and the name of the city, Washington, thus dividing honors between Columbus and Washington. Later the Territory became known as " The District of Columbia." The area was ceded by Maryland and Virginia on the condition that the Congress of the United States should forever exercise jurisdiction over it. In 1846, as no public buildings had been erected on the Virginia side of the Potomac, the area ceded by Virginia was retroceded to that State, leaving the area of the District of Columbia 64 square miles. The district was governed directly by Congress without the right of representation in that body until 1871, when it was given a territorial form of government and a representative in Congress ; but in 1874 this was abolished and the gov- ernment placed in the hands of three com- missioners, to be appointed by the President with the assent of the Senate, all legislation for the collection and disbursement of taxes and public improvements to be performed by 225 Expansion of Our Territory Congress, and that system still prevails. The people of tlip District of Colunibia, therefore, have no vote and no representation in Con- gress. The entire District is included within the limits of the city of Washington. The city stands unique among the capitals of great nations, in the fact that it was created fpr thp sole purpose of a seat of government. THE CAUSES OF NATIONAL GKOWTH fa the events which have been sketched in the preceding chapters we have witnessed the growth of the nation from a mere hand- ful of people to 80,000,000, and from thirteen scattered colonies to more than fifty political communities combined in one great nation. The growth has been unparalleled in the his- tory of nations, and not merely the growth in area and population, but in all the other es- sentials of a great nation. In the production of the fields and forests and factories, in the development of systems of transportation and communication, in the growth of commerce among its own people and with those of other 226 Growth of Population parts of the world, tlie development has been marvelous and lias far exceeded anything in the previous record of man, and also sur- passed that in any other part of the world during the same period. In the hundred years from 1800 to 1900, the area grew from 827,844 square miles to 3,622,923 square miles and the population from 5,308,483 to 76,303,387. In other words, the area in 1900 was four times as much and the population fourteen times as much as in 1800. GROWTH OP POPULATION During that time the population of the United Kingdom grew from 16,000,000 to 41,000,000, or a little more than trebled ; that of France from 27,000,000 to 39,000,000, an increase of less than fifty per cent; that of Germany from 23,000,000 to 56,000,000; Eussia from 35,000,000 to 130,000,000, or four times its population in 1800. The popu- lation of all Europe has grown from 175,- 000,000 to about 400,000,000 during the cen- tury, while that of the United States, with an area nearly equal to that of all Europe, has grown from 5,000,000 to 76,000,000. The 227 Expansion of Our Territory population of Europe at the end of the cen- tury was less than three times that at the be- ginning of the century, while that of the United States, with an equal area, was four- teen times as much as at the beginning of that period. GROWTH OF COMMERCE In commerce, both among our own people and with those of other parts of the world, our own growth has been equally marvelous, our exports of domestic products having grown from 32,000,000 in 1800 to 1,394,- 000,000 in 1900, while those of France were growing from 70,000,000 to 793,000,000, and those of the United Kingdom from 200,000,- 000 to 1,417,000,000. Thus, the domestic exports of the United Kingdom are seven times as much in 1900 as they were at the beginning of the century, those of France eleven times as much, and those of the United States forty -three times as much. GROWTH OF AREA This wonderful development on the part of the United States has been chiefly due to 228 Liberal Land Policy (1) the great additions to area ; (2) to the fact that a very large share of our area is of extremely productive land ; (3) that the na- tion has maintained from the first an ex- tremely liberal land policy. In the very beginning, when the colonies were first es- tablished, the English Government assumed the entire ownership of the land. This claim was based in part on the right of discovery and exploration, and in part on that of pur- chase from the occupants of the land, the Indians. All persons w^ere required to ob- tain their lands from the Government, and purchases from the Indians were not recog- nized or permitted* When the colonies es- tablished themselves as an independent na- tion they followed the same rule. As has been already told, those States which had large areas of unoccupied land in the West, ceded them to the Government. In those sections of that area which were occupied by Indians, the lands were purchased from them by the Government, even though they had been already ceded by the States. The sums paid for these lands were in the earlier years, of course, extremely small, but they served 229 Expansion of Our Territory the purpose of giving the Government a com- plete title and enabling it to dispose of the lands to those desiring to make homes upon them. A treaty with the Kaskaskia tribe of Indians, in 1803, gave to the United States the title to all of the land between the Illi- nois, the Ohio, the Mississippi and the Wabash Rivers for an annuity of $1,000 to the tribe, $100 per year for seven years to their priest, and $300 for the construction of a church ; and other great tracts were ob- tained for equally small considerations. In later years, however, much higher prices were paid to the Indians, the sum paid to the Choctaws for their lands in Mississippi being $50,000 and an annuity of $3,000. THE LAND SYSTEM During the first few years the Government sold lands in large tracts to companies or in- dividuals, among these sales being one to the Ohio Company of nearly a million acres, and another in the Ohio country to John Cleves Simmes of about a quarter of a million acres. It soon became apparent, however, that this policy was not a good one for the masses, and 230 The Land System it was abandoned. The lands were surveyed in townships ten miles square, and these sec- tions again divided into quarter sections of 160 acres each. The lands were offered at $2 per acre, one quarter of the amount in cash, and the balance in three annual pay- ments. This resulted in very large sales, many of which were not paid in full, and in 1820 the credit system was abandoned and a cash price of $1.25 per acre fixed. The pre- emption laws, under which the citizen may occupy 160 acres of land and pay therefor the price of $1.25 per acre, was based upon this. In 1862 the '^homestead" law was passed, by which any citizen might become the ovnaer of 160 acres of Government lands by a ^ve years' residence thereon, the con- struction of buildings and cultivation of the land. Another method by which the titles to land could be had was by planting and maintaining a certain proportion of it in for- est trees, and by this the forest area in the treeless sections of the West was materially increased. The arid lands of the West were also made available at a nominal price to persons who would irrigate them. 16 231 Expansion of Our Territory Another method by whicli the public lands were made to contribute to the develop- ment of the country was by utilizing a por- tion of them in the construction of transporta- tion systems. In the early part of the century, small grants of public lands were made to aid in the establishment of wagon-roads, and these were followed by larger grants in aid of canals ; 4,000,000 acres being granted for this purpose alone. About the middle of the century began the policy of granting lands in large quantities in aid of railroad construction. The first grant of this char- acter was to the Illinois Central Road, which was given each alternate section on either side of the proposed line for six sections in width, and this road thus begun now connects the Great Lakes with the Gulf. Agitation for the construction of a great through line to the Pacific soon began, and in 1862 a large grant of land was made in the interest of that project. This was quickly followed by grants to other roads : the Central Pacific, the Kan- sas Pacific, the Southern Pacific, the Northern Pacific, the Atlantic &, Pacific, and others not intended to become transcontinental lines. 232 Railroad Land Grants The amount of land so granted to railroads aggregated about 200,000,000 acres, but a con- siderable share of it was not given to the roads because of their non-compliance with the provisions of the grants. The amount of land actually patented to the railroads is about 100,000,000 acres. These grants were made on both sides of the line, each alternate section being given; and where the lands within the limit had been already occupied by settlers, the roads were given indemnity lands at a greater distance from the line. The Government compensated itself for this land by doubling the price of the alternate sections which it retained, and it was held that this worked no hardship on the people because the actual value of the lands was much more than doubled by the construction of the railroad, which would carry their products to market. The lands granted to the railroads were sold by them to the public usually on long time payments and were soon occupied, after the Government land near to the railroad was pre-empted and homesteaded. Up to the end of the fiscal year 1902 the amount of the public lands appropriated by 233 Expansion of Our Territory the various processes was 764,000,000 acres, equivalent to about 4,500,000 farms of 160 acres each. Of these 764,000,000 acres which the Government has disposed of, about 175,- 000,000 acres was in the form of homesteads, given at a merely nominal price to actual set- tlers, 225,000,000 acres by cash sales, of which about 200,000,000 acres was sold at $1.25 per acre to pre-empters, nearly 100,- 000,000 in railroad lands, about 75,000,000 in swamp lands, and 60,000,000 in bounties for military service ; a large area amounting to 151,000,000 acres has been set aside, chiefly as forest reserve, and there still re- main 894,000,000 of acres unappropriated and unreserved. This, of course, is not of as great value as that which has been already appropriated, much of it being mountainous, other parts arid, and 386,000,000 acres in Alaska. RESULT OF A LIBERAL LAND POLICY The result of this liberal land policy has been the opening up of the interior, the es- tablishment of homes, the construction of railways, and the development of systems of 234 Development of Agriculture agriculture, manufacturing, and transportation which far surpass anything accomplished meantime in any other part of the world. The railroad is a production entirely of the last century, and two-fifths of the railways built in the world in that time are in the United States. With the fertility of the lands, the wealth of the forests and mines, and the facility of transportation, the United States has become the world's greatest pro- ducer of foodstuffs, of cotton, of iron, of coal, of mineral oil, and of manufactures. The ready welcome extended to people of other lands, the homes offered free of cost to actual citizens, the high wages and general activity and employment, coupled with freedom from military service and a republican form of government, have attracted people from all parts of the world ; and the number of per- sons added to the population by immigration alone in the last century is fully 20,000,000. The total population, exclusive of the In- dians, grew from 143 persons at Jamestown in 1607 to about a quarter of a million in 1700, 5,000,000 in 1800, and 76,000,000 in 1900; the center of population has moved 235 Expansion of Our Territory from near Baltimore in 1800 to central In- diana in 1900, and the center of agriculture to southern Illinois, and the center of manufac- turing from the Atlantic Coast in 1800 to central Ohio in 1900. The total value of agricultural productions has grown to nearly $4,000,000,000, that of manufactures to over $8,000,000,000, exclusive of duplications, and the foreign commerce to over $2,000,000,000, while the internal commerce of the United States has grown to $20,000,000,000, or as much as the entire international commerce of the world. GROWTH IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY The growth in the manufacturing industry in the United States during this period of development has been very great. The total value of manufactures are shown by the cen- sus of 1850 at one billion dollars, that of 1860 a little less than two billions, 1870 four billions, 1880 five billions, 1890 nine billions, and 1900 thirteen billions. Efforts to obtain statements of the value of manufactures were made in each census beginning with 1810, but with unsatisfactory results. The census of 236 Development of Manufacturing 1810 placed the value of manufactures at $145,385,906, but an analysis and estimate made by Hon. Tench Coxe, who was ap- pointed by the Secretary of the Treasury to consider these figures, placed the total value of the manufactures of that year at $198,- 614,471, so that it may be assumed that in round terms the value of the manufactures of the United States in 1810 was about $200,- 000,000. From that date to 1850 the census returns were so incomplete that no satisfac- tory estimate of the value of the manufactures can be made for that period. The first census whose figures the census authorities of 1900 deemed proper to present as a total of the manufactures of the country are those of 1850, and they are given in the above table followed by those of 1860, 1870, 1880, 1890, and 1900. It will be seen from these figures that the gross value of manufactures had only reached $1,000,000,000 by the middle of the century, and that they had reached $13,000,- 000,000 at the end of the century; or, in other words, that the increase in the last half of the century was twelve times as great as the total at the middle of the century. It 237 Expansion of Our Territory is probable tliat the value of manufactures in 1800 was about $130,000,000, and tliat those of 1900 are therefore about one hundred times as great as those of 1800. The total value of manufactures exported in 1800 was $2,500,- 000, and in 1900, $433,000,000. The slow growth in the first half of the century is due in part to the fact that a large share of the manufacturing was still per- formed in the household. While the factory- system of manufacture began to take the place of that of the household in England in the closing years of the eighteenth century, especially as related to textiles, it did not ob- tain a foothold in the United States until during the period of the embargo and the War of 1812 ; and it was not until about 1840 that it became general, and, as late as the middle of the century, a considerable share of the manufacturing was still carried on in the family or in the small shop by the aid of the family and apprentices, as distinguished from the factory with paid employees and the application of power. Hence, it is not surprising that the census of 1850 showed manufactures amounting to but one billion 238 The Manufacturing Industry dollars' value, wliile tlie chief cause for aston- ishment is the wonderful growth which has occurred since that time, a growth from $1,000,000,000 in 1850 to $13,000,000,000 in 1900. It is proper to add that the figures of the total value of manufactures are merely an ag- gregation of the values reported by all manu- facturers; and as the products reported by one manufacturer often become the materials for use by others, the figures of the grand total are to that extent duplications. For example, the leather reported as a manufac- ture by the tanner, becomes the material used by the manufacturer of boots and shoes, and is a second time reported by him in stating the value of the manufactures turned out. The yarn produced by one manufacturer be- comes the manufacturing material for the maker of cloth, and the cloth becomes the material used by the manufacturer of cloth- ing; the value of the yarn being thus re- ported three times and that of the cloth twice in the final statement of the grand total of manufactures produced. But as this custom has been followed in each census it does not 239 Expansion of Our Territory materially affect tlie value of the figures for comparative purposes in showing the growth of the manufacturing industry. On the other hand, the fact that the values of manufactures have greatly fallen since the earlier dates considered indicates that the actual increase in quantity produced is even greater than that indicated by the figures which, necessa- rily, deal with values only. The increase in production of manufac- tures, the increase in production of raw material, and the increase of transportation facilities, suggest that probably the manu- facturing industries have extended far into the interior of the country, and especially to those sections where the raw material or the coal is produced; and an examination of the census records shows that this is true. We are accustomed to think of the New Eng- land and Middle States as the chief seat of the manufacturing industries, and it is rather surprising to know that the center of the manufacturing industries has steadily moved westward until it is now located in the State of Ohio. It is equally surprising to know that Ohio 240 Centers of Industries ranks first of all the States of the Union in the manufacture of carriages and wagons and of clay products, and second in agricultural Chicago ILLINOIS ^Sprlngfleld 1900XJ N D I A N A Indianapolis igooOci ^^n:^ PENNSYLVANIA 1800 |Oo1870 I860 1900© *' A ©1860 OHyrlsburs 1860 ^<^: i87^18M h-3od/"^d\<,: Frankfort V"«»o ^n,*^^ / ^ .. ^ V V \ ^ r Riclimond^ -^ U C N T \ J a ^Center of Manufaoturec ■1 Population ■ A g rloultura CENTER OF POPULATION AT DECENNIAL YEARS FROM 1790 TO 1900 AND OF AGRICULTURE it MANUFACTURE FROM 1860 TO 1900. (Jrom U.S. Census.) implements, and in iron and steel manufac- tures. Illinois holds first rank in the manu- facture of agricultural implements, cars, bi- cycles and distilled liquors ; and, second, in men's clothing, furniture, musical instruments, and soap and candles. Wisconsin ranks first in lumber and timber production ; Minnesota first in flour manufacturing ; Missouri first in the manufacture of tobacco ; Texas first in the manufacture of cottonseed oil-cake ; Colorado 241 Expansion of Our Territory first in lead, and California first in explosives, wines, and preserved fruits. OUR AREA COMPARED WITH THAT OF OTHER COUNTRIES One other cause of our growth in produc- tion is the greatness, the physical greatness, of our country. We scarcely realize how big we have grown. We proudly compare the growth of our manufacturing or exports with that of the United Kingdom, for example; but do not, apparently, stop to consider that the area of England is less than that of the State of Kansas, and that of the entire United Kingdom less than that of Kansas and Nebraska combined. When we compare our own conditions with those of France, we forget that its area is less than that of our two Territories of Arizona and New Mexico combined. We look with complacency upon the figures which compare our growth in manufactures, commerce and population with that of Germany, but overlook the fact that all of the German Empire is smaller than our single State of Texas. The area of the thirteen colonies, as defined by the Peace 242 Comparative Areas Treaty of 1783, was equal to that of the present United Kingdom, France, Germany, Norway and Sweden, whose combined popu- lation to-day is 143,000,000. The area added by the Louisiana Purchase is greater than the present area of Spain, Portugal, Italy, Austria, Hungary, and all of the Balkan States, with a combined population of 125,- 000,000. The area added by the Florida Purchase is more than that of the present Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, and Switz- erland, whose population to-day is 18,000,000. The combined area of the Texas, Mexican, Oregon, and Alaska additions is nearly equal to that of all European Eussia, whose present population is 106,000,000. Thus, our pres- ent area, including Alaska, may be said to practically equal that of all Europe, whose population is in round terms 400,000,000 of people. 243 Appendix I— I o t-H P^ O |H P^ ;^ 2 So jftoTco i5 OO so" >0 Ci 00 to lO '^ c^ c^ -H OJ ^ i-H W* to 0> 1-1 Or> OO 00 00 00 00 t^ CO o F^ OD QO ^ « o >= d c '^ 5: 1-5 Q Q ,(?) 1-5 (-5 <; ,rfi < C^ <» to C5 O 00 tl lO arch 3, 181' ay 17, 188' ;b. 24, 186' arch 2,1811 }b. 28,186 riginal Stat( arch 3, 179 arch 3, 182 riginal State arch 3, 186J jb. 3, 1801 ay 7, 180( ily 3, 183^ ay 30, 185- i eo* 5= 2 gSftiS fi^o SgoSiJ^S»-jg g o Hs I O 03 1^ 50 «0 00 (>» , - „ • 00 >o to t^ 00 eo CO I w 1^ CO t^ t^ I ;'S5--5£^ on o 245 Expansion of Our Territory •.-lOOOOi-c — i^^ bD> U- C3 S p O 05 o CO t- CO CO t^ ii izi^ fe Ni-ia>«)Tt( nsss ;s4 o»co(M'^-*^a) o® »-i ■>*l CJ T-H to l« «£3 -w lO -M to oot--oo<»cococ42 cort;; oo ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ 'Im '^^^ '^^ 05t-OeDO(N cS ft, p. S3 oJ c3 'r m '2 .» ". ^ t- p=-i O CO o 05 TJ< *J CO CO e8: '^-^^^ o to te oo CO OS i-si-s t--oeooooofot^cocoo©< , to eo 00 i-H O IC icoto«oictotocot^oot^to< ll^OOOI:^tOCOOCO< I- <5 > n > 05 < < S^._ S »2 t«! ■ 05 a ^. ,- « 03 a a i-slSia 246 Appendix I Q W Ph B o o Q N O w O w o I H F^ O •antn 1 f2?;s?5 ^- 25g;:?s?^s « aj«nbs j'ad rfi ui (N O 00 O (m' iri r-i CO Tji o ui ■^ noi;B[ndO(j iH C-, ^rJ-THCCCSTj* rH^^-^ .2* . lOlCOUSOOIOlOOOlCOOlC in CM ^ SR ©«oo'1't^l'iMi--c<5cOr-.coooir: aq_ -*OOC01Cil0^1C030ilCO^ eo S :5 5 trO«MCO(MCn«0(MC0-1<'fl-CC O O in t- en t» ^„«5 CO o_M in^»-( cm »n ic ^■~ of — T "-T o' ^" — " o CO* Qo" oT c» -^'' CM 3 - 00- i-ieoCT>cot-coiooto,-050C5 CO lO CO CM t CO_l- r-. CM O CO CO ■* i-T CM^r-TrH T-i eo" T-T o I- 1 , •"J" r^ • •»!< to to CO t^ C5 CO C5 • 00 ift 4Srt§2BPi iS • »- CM • ri o lo c>i ic lo o i4 : o d ^ lU »c co_ ; cM_^CM__io_o io_,-._^ci_i^ ; CC t^ Popi tiou ceus next lowi adu] - c3 tC-f" • CM-r-'g^CM'tO CM'ofcM" -OO'C D-S 0505 .oot-i^eococMoo 'Cjtc z« TH.^i-l i-H r-,r-(i-(»CO _^ a eoK -i^SS^'^^^^o^ .Si . cooo ;oo^ooooooq6ooco -ooa jo'm" ; Co'"croo'"»^"cM''cM"crM" icm'c '-' ■ e^_'^ CM cm:cmth opula- ion at ;ensus next ollow- ig Ter- itorial lOt^ .CMtOOl-^lClC-i -^ OC >C t^ ■ l-H O lO t^ -f C5 rf< CO ■.- CO 'p" 1.-5 CM__CM_ ; l-H CM lO O CO lO OO _^00 ^^■r- ^^ l-H CO .T)o ■ 1 ill CO i i sis 1 coco : »^2 • 2 --0 : cc^'gT : gf l-'.t' : ^^^ : «• ^3 . = O « . « g^^ . Hjfet. • ft Popula- tion at census next follow- ing Ter- ritorial organi- zation. ■^ co^ ?5 Date of act of organiza- tion as Territory. GO i lo to ic • CO "f lo ! ! 00 oo CO ; 00 CO CO HI i III M STATES AND TERRITORIES. o i y 1 <: > 1 3 ^ ftJt-H O i o 1 D H 05 >< H 1 a t 1 '3 1 a 1 ii as '3 o u t2 o a to a^ 8l 248 Appendix O— ' o ;iot--?o«ooc<»eOTt<>o«oic»oiocO'oca— ic^u:>ococo3;cooo-- tH C^ CO CO ^TTT^^^Tj^^^^f 'OOOa>0«OW>«£>- CO CO C^ lO CO cc o o C^ < ■^ t^ t-- 00 CO «0 (M O) -1< 05 05 to t^ CO c» IC -H_cO__eO_t~.__rt_^ »O_0>_ . . ^ ^ . — ^'S^ r. "r-To't-'oT lO 1^ «P CO 0» lO O lO T-1 t^ iM t~ I^ CO -- t^ CO c CO O Tf< CO c CO ira -^ oj < 0)COCOOTf<1^050^ icr>^co-^co«Dcot^co^< t-» to to l^ Ol -^ CO !£> < CO C5 1^ OJ CO 1 n-^>-ii-ioic<>oc'"< ESfc)Ol004 10 0r^-iOJC!0«0 tOCO'*ICOOOt^OOaOC0000505CT)050000^^^-^, ijOtOOOOOOOOC 'lor-oooooooc •0000--000 _ lOOOOt^OOO ;_ao_o__o_o__o__o_o__o^o_^o__fo_^o_o__c>^o o o o c o__co o_^o^o_ co^jTco^o'c^'^-rrn'o^^o eo"co~co~o"oo'-o"co"--r"-t<~ic"to'co~crr^"co~to"oo"io~to''t^" o:oiO'-ocooi050'-icoiC'»T-(ioc5-fcooco'*"*o — t^iniomot^ . „ ^. I^ lO -^ O r~ CO O t— ^-^ Ol^OS^t^ IC LO IC CO I --^ - - , .• ^-^ -I- ■-^' '.w » - ^.»^ ■--J w- ■—^ T— ^,>* U-* -.'^ ^r ^ lO CO CO t^ CO C5 O T-* T-CT-(COiC>ClCO< ■ " ' 1 o <~ oooooooooooo _ _ oooooooooooo t^ 0^0_0_OS_05_35_C5_CS_C5_C5_C5_Cr5_0_CO__CO__CO C0_C0_C0__O_C0__C0 CO CO__CJ_CO^O_ g ^~'o^o^cT^cf o"o~o"o'o"o"o~o~o"o'io"o"w"ic ic^ic io''io'"l'5"io'io"io'i.o'io" 0)05lOir5 10COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOQO'MC^C4 01C^C')OI010>010]010^0J (^co 05_o o_o a 05_05 05_05 crs_c5 a> o__o^_o o_^o o o_o o o o o_o o o__o ^ TH'o^"orc^'o^"e^~c^'ofororofeoo5iftiCfOOCJOr-t^iocofocsciic^oot^^o ci ® ^.^.* '^-t-.s^-l^.^ =^.«_w_S c» 3,S S 2 J5 S ^ i 5 g So « c^ In ^ te ^.-A^J^A^A^A^AK^J^.^ - ^ ^ - -JJ i 1 g § i i i Cjt-ioc^fNc^— li^l-lt-c■:-t1 i-H rt' -rH r-< CO CO UO (N C^i — ; M ^ O d ^-^ CO t-i t-' ,^'^'-i'^c^'ST*inTti_in co^S S^SlnSmtncoSoo^o >:co-^cci^«ococor^T)ic»r--tc-^'n<^ma5^icritoilHi^ "S (N Ti<_co_-^__cc 'I'^so co_in Qq_in ^_in i-;__o^ ^corhc CO _t-__«>_inC5_0_CO_^i-<^l-~_-H_«0_Tj<__,-i_^__05_tD_0^_^tD_-^co~d'l--^^-^lr^t^c^'~■^'~co'^^^-"ln"c^"co"^s^Ci'Tf"^-^o'■^~-^o'■^~«o'~^~'o^c^^ ^gg|!§^^-3g2gigln2§^^si53SS^[^SSSSSg3§i .-2 Popu- lation per square raile.2 2 .3 § 1 to' ^' t-T co" «« in o" o co' .-' co' -* o" ^^ cf 2 cj Tf' in o ^-' t» c> d ^ c^i CO M" »n to t-^ CO CT5 d -h' cC5cr5Cic?3CT>oc5C^oooo oooOcocoooaococcoDcocococooooococoooocGOoocooooOcocociC-. cnoa 1 250 Appendix Agricultural and Manufacturing Interests op THE United States. 1850 to 1900 (United States Census Figures.) Farms. Years. Number of farms. Persons engaged iu agri- culture. Value of farms aud farm property. Value of products. 1850 1,449,073 2,044,077 2,659,985 4,608,907 4,564,641 5,739,657 Number. Dollars. 3,967,343,580 7,980,493,060 8,944,857,749 12,18(1,501,538 16,082,267,689 20,514,001,838 Dollars. I860 "* 5,922,47i 7,713,875 8,565,926 10,438,219 1870 1,958,030,927 2,212,540,927 2,460,107,454 3,764,177,706 1880 1890 1900 Years. 1850.. I860.. 1870.. 1880.. 1890.. 1900.. Total manufacturing industries of the United fcstates. Num- ber of estab- lish- ments. 123,025 140,433 252,148 253,852 355,415 512.734 Average number of em- ployees. 957,050 1,311,246 2,053,996 2,732,595 4,712,622 5,719,137 Wages and salaries paid. Dollars. 236,755,464 378,878,966 775,584,343 947,953,795 2,283,216,529 2,735,430,848 Value of products. Wealth. Total. Dollars. Dollars. 1,019,106,616 7,135,780,000 1,885,861,676 16,159,616,000 4,232,325,442 30,068,518,000 5,369,579,191 42,642,000,000 9,372,437,283 65,037,091,000 13.039.279.566 194.300,000.000 Per capita. Dollars 307.69 513.93 779.83 850.20 1,038.57 1,235.86 251 Expansion of Our Territory Additions to the Territory of the United States from 1800 to 1900 TERRITORIAL DIVISION. Year. Area added. Purchase price. LouisiEDii PurcUase 1803 1819 1845 1846 1848 1850 1853 1867 1897 1898 1898 1899 1899 1901 Square miles. 875,025 70,107 389,795 288,689 523,802 36,211 599,446 6,740 3,600 175 143,000 73 Dollars. 15,000,000 1 6,489,768 Florida Texas . Mexican Cession 2 19,250,000 10,000,000 10,000,000 7,200,000 Purchase from Texas .• Alaska . Porto Rico (juam •••• . . •••• Philippine Islands 20,000,000 Total O Q"« TQI 1 C7 r»QQ 7^8 ' ' ' Includes interest payment. 2 Of w.hich $3,250,000 was in payment of claims of American citizens against Mexico. 8 Area purchased from Texas, amounting to 123,784 square miles, is not included in the column of area added, because it became a part of the area of the United States with the admission of Texas. 252 INDEX Addition of territory by treaty of 1783, 77. Additions of territory, dates, area, price paid, 252. Agriculture and manufactures in United States, 1850 to 1900, 251. Alabama Territory organized, 142 ; admitted as State, 142. Alaska Purchase, 204. AUeghanies, early settlement west of, 42. America, population of , when dis- covered, estimate of, 8. Area of the original thirteen States, 2. Area of United States, 1800 to 1903, 249. Area, growth of, 228 ; comparison with other countries, 243. Arizona, Territory organizefl, 202. Arkansas, Territory organized, 147 ; admission as State, IGO. Balance of power between slave and free States, 156. Boundaries of Louisiana Pur- chase, 123. Boundaries of Union, determined by treaty of 1783, 76. Boundaries of Union in 1782, 74. Boundary dispute between Michi- gan and Ohio, 159. Brazil, Portuguese in, 17. Burr, his attempt to establish a government in the West, 128. California, settlements by Span- ish, 14 ; admitted as State, 179. Carolinas, history of settlement, 37. Cession of Western lands to Union, 82. Civil War, the, 190. Colonies, confederation of, 73. Colonization, early attempts by English, 20 ; begun by Colum- bus, 11. Colonizing methods of English, French, and Spanish compared, 22. Commerce, 1800 to 1903, 249. Commerce, growth of, 228. Compromises on slavery question* 152, 183, 196. Confederation of colonies, 73. Congress, meeting-places of, 222. Connecticut, establishment of colony, 35. Constitution, adoption of, 74-92. Coronado, explorations north of the Rio Grande, 13. 25J Expansion of Our Territory Cortez, exploration of Mexico, 12. English colonization, early at- Court of France and division of North America, 78. Cuba, captured by British and exchanged for Florida, 65. Dakota, Territory organized, 199 ; divided and admitted, 210. Dare, Eleanor, story of, 20. De Ayllon plants Spanish colony on site of Jamestown, 14. Delaware, Dutch claims in, 36. De Soto, wanderings in Missis- sippi Valley, 13. Discovery, claims by reason of. 23. District of Columbia, history, 222 ; government, 225. District of Louisiana, 126. Division of Western territory, Jefferson's plan, 88. Dom Pedro and Brazilian Govern- ment, 17, *' Dred Scott case," 186. Dutch colonies on the Hudson, 29. Dutch, their claims in America, 31 ; their claims in New Jersey and Delaware, 36. Dutch territory, captured by English, 36. Eleanor Dare, story of, 20. English and French, a war for control of Mississippi Valley, 49. English colonies, how they dif- fered from French and Spanish, 22 ; in West Indies and at the North, 43; relations of, prior to 1750, 4S. tempts, 20. Enghsh, explorations in America, 19. Expansion begun by Louisiana Purchase, 117. Explorations of French and Eng- lish, 19-44. First child of English parentage born in America, 20. First European settlement in America, 1 1. First Territorial government in common territory, 91 . Florida, exploration of, by Ponce de Leon, 12 ; obtained by Brit- ish in exchange for Cuba, 65 ; admission as State, 162 ; pur- chase of, 144. Formation of States described, 107. Fort Duquesne, battle of, 53. France, plans for division of North America, 78. Frankland, Lidependent State of, 86. French and English claims in Mississippi Valley, 43. French and English, war for control of Mississippi Valley, 49. French colonies, how they dif- fered from English and Span- ish, 22. French colonization begun, 26. French exploration, routes of, and claims resulting, 27. French explorations in America, 18,44 254 Index French Government and treaty of 178o, 76. French withdrawal from Conti- nent of North America, 55. Gadsden purchase, 179. Georgia, colonization of, 39 ; ces- sion of western lands, 108. Gold discovery in the Rocky Mountains, 196. Growth of area, population, com- merce, and manufactures, 228. Hawaii, annexation, 216 ; made Territory, 217. Idaho, Territory organized, 202 ; admitted as State, 210. Illinois, Territory organized, 131 ; admitted as State, 141. Independence and union of colo- nies, 57. Independent State of Frankland, 86. Indiana,Territory organized, 114; Territory divided, 133 ; admit- ted as State, 141. Indian Territory, 314. Iowa, admission as a State, 163. " Island of New Orleans," its control of Mississippi naviga- tion, 118. Jamestown, Spanish as first set- tlers, 14; planting of colony, 25 ; on site formerly occupied by Spanish, 26. Jefferson's plan for division and government of Western terri- tory. 88. Joliet, routes of exploration, 27. Kansas, organized as Territory, 181 ; admitted as State, 20'.». "Kansas-Nebraska Bill," 185. Kentucky, admission to Union, 103 ; solicited to organize as in- dependent republic, 104. Land policy of the United States described, 229. London Company, organization of, 34. Louisiana, territory of, 126 ; dis- trict of, 126; admitted as State, 126; Purchase, 117; causes of, 118 ; area and cost of, 122 ; boundaries defined, 146. Maine, as a part of Massachu- setts, 150 ; history of, 1 50 ; ad- mission as a State, 150. Manufactures and agriculture in United States, 1850 to 1900, 251. Manufactures, growth of, 238. Marquette, routes of exploration. 37. Maryland, establishment of colony, 35. Meeting-places of Congress, 232. Mexican cession, 175. Mexico, establishment of repub- lic, 15, 165 ; war with, 175. Michigan and Ohio, boundary disjjute, 159. Michigan, Territory organized, 1 37 ; admission as State, 1 60 ; its large and varying area as a Ter- ritory, 161. Minnesota, organized as Terri- tory, 170; admitted as State, 181. 255 Expansion of Our Territory Mississippi, Territory established, 107 ; admitted as State, 141. Missidsippi River, its control the cause of Louisiana Purchase, 122. Mississippi Valley, French and English claims to, 43 ; struggle for control of, 49. Missouri, admission as a State, 151. Missouri Compromise, 196. Money in circulation in United States, 1800 to 1903, 249. Montana, Territory organized, 210 ; admitted as State, 210. Mormons in Utah, 212. National growth, causes of, 226. Nebraska, organized as Territory, 181 ; admitted as State, 209. Nevada, Territory organized, 198; admitted as State, 203. Nevs^ Amsterdam, Dutch colonies on Hudson, 32. New England, colonies estab- lished, 34. New Hampshire, establishment of colony, 35. New Jersey, Dutch claims in, 36. New Mexico, organized as Terri- tory, 180. New York, capture from Dutch by English, 32, 36. North Carolina, settlement of, 37. North Dakota, admitted as State, 210. Northwest Territory, organiza- tion of, 90 ; non-compliance with act requiring division into five States, 171. 25 Ohio, admission to Union, 113. Ohio and Michigan, boundary dispute, 159. " Ohio Company," 113. Ohio Valley annexed to Canada, 61. Oklahoma Territory organized, 213. Ordinance of 1787, Northwest Territory, 91. Oregon, Territory, boundary dis- pute and settlement, 172 ; ad- mitted as State, 181. Orleans Territory organized, 126. Pacific Railway, 196. Penn, his colony in America, 38. Pennsylvania, settlement of, 38. Peru, conquest of, by Pizarro, 12. Philippines, annexed, 218 ; gov- ernment described, 219. , Pizarro, conquest of Peru, 12. Plymouth Company, organiza- tion of, 24. Plymouth, history of, 28. Ponce de Leon, exploration of Florida, 12. Population, 1800 to 1003, 249. Population, growth of, 229. Population of America when dis- covered, estimates of, 8. Porto Rico annexed, 218 ; gov- ernment described, 219. Portugal, colonization in Amer- ica, 17. Quebec, first permanent French colony, 26. Readmission of seceding States, 206. G Ind ex Reconstruction after Civil War, 20G. Relations between English colo- nies prior to 1 750, 48. Relinquishment of Western terri- tory by original States, 8*2. Representation of slave popula- tion in Congress, 207. Revolution, causes of, 58 ; Eng- lish territory in America at beginning of, C5. Revolution, story of War of, 67. Rhode Island, establishment of colony, 35. Samoan Islands annexed, 220. San Miguel, Spanish colony on site occupied by Jamestown, 4. Seceding States readmitted, 20G. Settlement in America, first, 11. Slave and free States admitted alternately, 137-155. Slave population, representation in Congress, 207. Slavery excluded from territory northwest of Ohio, 90-95 ; per- mitted in territory south of Ohio, 95 ; its relation to the admission of States, 137, 150- 152 ; abolition of, in Northern States, 155-196; balance of power between slave and free States, 156 ; its extension to Western Territories discussed, 183 ; its origin in the United States, 195; terminated by Civil War, 195. South Carolina, settlement of, 37 ; history of ita Western ter- ritory, 97. South Dakota, admitted as State, 210. Spain, war with United Spates, 15. Spanish colonies in America, date of, 12 ; how they differed from French and English, 22. State-making described, 107. States, admitted without Ter- ritorial apprenticeship, 107 ; how organized and admitted, 107. Statistics of area, population, etc., 249. Taxation without representation, opposition to, 59. Tennessee, admission as State, 105. Territory northwest of Ohio, or- ganization of, 90. Territory of Missouri, name given Louisiana Purchase, 140. Territory south of Ohio, organi- zation of, 94 ; slavery in, 95. Territory relinquished to Union by original States, 82. Texas, withdrawal from Mexico and admission as State, 1 65 ; agreement that it may be di- vided into five States, 169 ; pur- chase of its northern area by United States, 170. Transylvania, application for ad- mission to Union, 103. Treaty of 1763, withdrawal of French, 56. Treaty of 1783, its addition to Union, 77. Tutuila, island of, annexed, 220. 257 Expansion of Our Territory Union of colonies and independ- ence, 57. United States, war with Spain, 15. Utah, organized as Territory, 179 ; admitted as Territory, 213 ; admitted as State, 213. Vermont, history and admission to Union, 100. War between States, 190. War of 1812, 133. War of Revolution, story of, 67. Washington, organized as Terri- tory, 180; admitted as State, 210. West Florida, history of, 135 ; added to national area, 138. Western lands ceded to Union by original States, 82. Western territory, Jefferson's plan for division and govern- ment, 88. West Indies, English colonies in, 43. West Virginia, organization as State during Civil War, 200. Wisconsin, admission as State, 170. Wyoming, composed of parts of four Territorial additions, 21 2. Wyoming, Territory organized, 210 ; admitted as State, 210. "Yazoo Frauds" in Georgia lands, 112. (1) THE END 258 EXPANSION OF THE REPUBLIC SERIES. In this series the purpose is to show what have been the great devel- oping forces in the making of the United States as we now know them. ]Not only will territorial subjects be dealt with, but political, racial, and industrial. It is an important series, and the reception already accorded to it gives promise of real distinction for the entire set. Each volume i2mo, Illustrated, $1.25 net. Postage, 12 cents additional. NO IV READY. The History of the Louisiana Purchase. By James K. Hosmer, Ph.D., LL.D. Ohio and her Western Reserve. By Alfred Mathews. The History of Puerto Rico. By R. A. Van Middeldyk. With an Introduction, etc., by Prof. Martin G. Brumbaugh. Steps in the Expansion of our Territory. By Oscar Phelps Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department. IN PREPARATION. Rocky Mountain Exploration. By Reuben Gold Thwaites, Superintendent of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin. The Conquest of the Southwest. By Cyrus Townsend Brady, Author of "Paul Jones," in the Great Commanders Series. The Purchase of Alaska. By Oscar Phelps Austin, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department. PROPOSED VOLUMES. The Settlement of the Pacific Coast. The Founding of Chicago and the Development of the Middle West. John Brown and the Troubles in Kansas. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. THE STORY OF THE WEST SERffiS* Edited by RIPLEY HITCHCOCK. The Story of the Trapper. By A. C. Laut, Author of "Heralds of Empire." Illustrated by Heming. i2mo. Cloth, $1.25 net ; postage, 12 cents additional. "A delightfully spirited hook/'— Brooklyn Eagle. "A rarely instructive and entertaining book." — New York Wold. "Unexpectedly good." — Boston Herald. " Instructive and carefully prepared." — Chicago News. "Excellent reading wherever one dips into it." — Cleveland Leader, OTHER VOLUMES. Illustrated, lamo. Cloth, each, $1.50. The Story of the Soldier. By General G. A. Forsyth, U. S. Army (retired). Illustrated by R. F. Zogbaum. The Story of the Railroad. By Cy Warman, Author of "The Express Messenger," etc. With Maps and many Illustrations by B. West Clinedinst and from photographs. The Story of the Cowboy. By E. Hough, Author of " The Singing Mouse Stories," etc. Illustrated by William L. Wells and C. M. Russell. "Mr. Hough is to be thanked for having written so excellent a book. The cow- boy story, as this author has told it, will be the cowboy's fitting eulogy. This vol- ume will be consulted in years to come as an authority on past conditions of the far West. For fine literary work the author is to be highly complimented. Here, cer- tainly, we have a choice piece of writing." — New York Times. The Story of the Mine. As illustrated by the Great Corastock Lode of Nevada. By Charles Howard Shinn. "The author has written a book not alone full of information, but replete with the true romance of the American mine." — New York Times. The Story of the Indian. By George Bird Grinnell, Author of "Pawnee Hero Stories," •' Blackfoot Lodge Tales," etc. " Only an author qualified by personal experience could offer us a profitable study of a race so alien from our own as is the Indian in thought, feeling, and culture. Only long association with Indians can enable a white man measurably to compre- hend their thoughts and enter into their feelings. Such association has been Mr. Grinnell's." — New York Sun. D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, NEW YORK. -' * -ft s \ ^ ■^-'^" \ ^°\>*,> .,"->• '"V^ss •.-.%' "-°\>^'V 'A /J% o '^ V ^^^' :s.,4> .. ■^^'i' ;, '"o. -- .S. - ■'-■ "'- s '^ ■ 0-