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 in 2011 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
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' Iiiwiii ii mtrn. 
 
 TRAVELS 
 
 CONTINENT OF EUROPE; 
 
 IN ENGLAND, IRELAND, SCOTLAND, FRANCE, ITALY, SWITZER- 
 LAND, GERMANY, AND THE NETHERLANDS. 
 
 BY WILBUR FISK, D.D., 
 
 FKE8IDBNT OF THE WESLEYAN CNIYKKbiTY AT MIDDLETOWS, CoKN. 
 
 WITH ENGRAVINGS. 
 
 THIRD EDITION. 
 
 NEW-YORK: 
 HARPER & BROTHERS, CLIFF-STREET. 
 
 18 3 8. 
 
 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1838, by 
 
 Harper & Brothers, 
 in the Clerk's Office of the Southern District of New-York. 
 
 ige and Mrs. Isaac R. Hit* 
 Nov. 17,1981 
 
INTRODUCTION, 
 
 What ! another book of travels ! and that, too, describing the 
 ground over which so many have travelled before ! What good 
 reason can a man of principle and of sound judgment give for such 
 a publication ? The author of the following pages for some time 
 doubted whether he could give any good reason for bringing such 
 a work before the public ; especially so much of it as relates to 
 his travels on the Continent of Europe. He might plead the old 
 excuse, the wish of friends ; he might say, what every one is 
 aware of, that the rapid changes- in this, that has been justly char- 
 acterized the " transition age," constantly bring up new phases 
 of observation to the discerning traveller ; and he might strength- 
 en these considerations by the known fact, that the varieties of 
 tastes, and professions, and intellectual habits lead different obser- 
 vers to notice anil describe different aspects of the same ifcmg ; 
 and thus not only does each successive traveller give a new view 
 but the sketches of many are indispensable to complete the por- 
 traiture. All these might have some weight; but,' perhaps, not 
 sufficient to satisfy every one that the present publication was 
 strictly needed, or would compensate the well-read public for the 
 expense of purchasing and time of reading. Another considera- 
 tion, however, has influenced the author in this publication. It 
 is this ; if the subjects of discussion and the objects of description 
 are not new to a great portion of the public, they nevertheless are 
 to some, and very probably to many, into whose hands the follow- 
 ing sheets may fall. Almost every writer has his own circles of 
 association, greater or less, to which his personal or public influence 
 may be extended, when more distant influences, although superior, 
 might not reach them. It is only in this way that all classes and 
 
IV INTRODUCTION. 
 
 parts of society are made to share in the vast accumulations of 
 knowledge which characterize the age. If the religious associa- 
 tions, or professional pursuits, or extensive personal acquaintances 
 give the writer of the following pages any chance for extending 
 the knowledge of facts with which so many are already acquainted, 
 he will esteem it a pleasure to be the humble channel of such 
 communications. He is well aware that such an agency will be 
 attended with no posthumous reputation; that the production 
 must, from the nature of the case, be of only an ephemeral char- 
 acter ; and that, at best, after it has secured its temporary object, 
 it will fall into the great mass of transient literature, that passes 
 into oblivion with the age that gave it birth. Still it may produce 
 some good effects, that will remain after their origin is forgotten. 
 Especially some of the rising generation, to numbers of whom 
 the author, by his calling, holds an interesting relation, may receive 
 some favourable impressions and gain some additional knowledge, 
 which will not be lost on them, or those whom they, in their turn, 
 may influence. This is what the author ventures most to expect, 
 and it is certainly what he most desires. 
 
 The reasons just given for publishing the following Journal have 
 influenced the matter and manner of the composition. I have de- 
 sired to call my readers, and especially the young, not only to such 
 facts as will merely enlarge their knowledge of the existing state 
 of the world, physical and moral, but also to such facts and prin- 
 ciples as will more effectually prepare them for the great purpo- 
 ses of their being. The signs of the times clearly indicate that 
 the moral conflicts which have heretofore been conducted with 
 but partial success, because they have been conducted by but few, 
 and have been circumscribed in their sphere, must take a wider 
 range, and must be carried on with greater efficiency in the various 
 departments of political, moral, and religious reform. For this 
 great work our youth should be trained. But an essential part of 
 that training is an acquaintance with the present conditions of so- 
 ciety. By this one is taught not only what is to be done, but how, 
 
INTRODUCTION. T 
 
 and where, and when he may exert his influence, be it great or 
 small, in the common cause. If mere pleasure were to be com- 
 municated, I should not write on these subjects, which others can 
 adorn more tastefully than myself ; if mere description of foreign 
 objects were the design,' I should not delineate scenes which have 
 been so often delineated, and by pencils far more skilful than mine. 
 But if any important truths, any facts connected with politics or 
 morals, education or religion, can be wrought into the incidents 
 of a journal so as to make them readable or acceptable, this is 
 most that I can hope. 
 
 With respect to the truth and general accuracy of the state- 
 ments here made, I think I may pledge myself to the public ; but 
 still some errors will undoubtedly be noticed. When I see how 
 many mistakes the late foreign journalists who have travelled in 
 our country have made, and made, too, with an apparent desire to 
 tell the truth, I cannot but feel there is great danger that I also 
 should make similar mistakes with respect to the countries through 
 which I have travelled ; especially as I have had too little time to 
 accomplish all I desired in my investigations abroad, and too little 
 leisure since I returned to review and digest the materials which I 
 had so hastily collected. 
 
 In my notes on England, it may be thought, without a word of 
 explanation, that I have made the affairs of my own denomination 
 there too prominent. It should be remembered, however, that, in 
 connexion with other objects that claimed my attention abroad, I 
 was specially delegated by the General Conference of the Meth- 
 odist Episcopal Church in the United States to represent to the 
 Wesleyan body in England the state of the church here, and to 
 keep up that friendly interchange of Christian salutation and that 
 official intercourse between the two churches which has heretofore 
 existed. To Methodists this must be a matter of interest, because, 
 ecclesiastically speaking, it is with them a family concern. To oth- 
 ers, the subject may possess, to some extent, -.the interest of novelty. 
 The internal organization and practical working of this modiflca- 
 
VI INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tion of Christianity is but little known, I apprehend, in this coun- 
 ' try ; and yet it is a subject worthy the attention of the philosopher, 
 the philanthropist, and the Christian. Few communities are 
 wielding such an extended and efficient influence in our world at 
 the present day as the Wesleyan Methodists. As one of the ex- 
 traordinary features of the present age, therefore, this subject 
 should be understood ; and hence I have not hesitated to give it a 
 prominent place in that part of the following journal that relates 
 to England. 
 
 Many of the letters that are incorporated in the following work 
 were written at different times during my tour to the persons to 
 whom they are addressed ; but these covered but a smaller 
 portion of the topics which I wished to introduce. A question, 
 therefore, came up, in preparing the materials for the press, 
 whether these letters should be enlarged and multiplied so as to 
 place all the matter in the same form ; or whether, letting^ these 
 stand essentially as they were, with the necessary revision and 
 corrections, the additional matter should be thrown into the form 
 of plain narrative. The latter method, as will be seen, has been 
 adopted. This, I know, isTather out of the common course, and 
 may be the cause of a noticeable difference in the style ; but it has 
 occurred to me that this may be no objection ; nay, that perhaps 
 the monotony of one unvaried form may be relieved by the 
 change, and be, at least, no drawback upon the interest of the 
 work. I had much more matter which I might have inserted; 
 but I have made my book already too large, according to the fash- 
 ion of the day ; and fashion will have its influence in the size of a 
 book as well as in everything else. 
 
 I commit the work to the public not without some solicitude ; 
 but, such as it is, as it has been promised, the public must have 
 it. If it does little good, I trust, at least, it will do no harm ; and 
 that is more than can be said of all that falls from the press at the 
 present day. 
 
 Wesleyan University, January, 1838. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Incidents of the Voyage. — Packet Accommodations. — Letter on Sea-sickness. — Passage 
 from England to France.— Boulogne.— Journey to Paris.— Amiens.— Incidents of 
 Travel. — Arrival at Paris. — Lodgings. — Acquaintances formed . . . Page 9 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Paru-.— Avenue de Neuilly.— Elysian Fields.— Place de Concorde.— Views.— Bloody 
 Executions here. — Boulevards. — Faubourgs. — Seine. — Public Gardens. — Tuileries. — 
 Louvre.— Palais Royal— Palais of the Luxembourg.— Churches.— Hospitals.— Place 
 Vendome. — The Exchange 20 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Paris. — Markets. — Fountains. — Cemeteries. — Catacombs.— Pere la Chaise. — Manufac- 
 tories. — Gobelin Tapestry. — Porcelain. — St. Cloud. — Versailles. — Centralization of 
 France. — Government of France. — Galleries of the Louvre. — State of the Fine Arts. — 
 Mechanical Arts. — Philosophical Apparatus. — Surveillance of the Police. — Mode of 
 Building 36 
 
 CHAPTER IV, 
 
 Education in France. — University. — Literary Institutions and Schools. — Literary and 
 Scientific Associations. — Libraries. — Museums, &c 53 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 State of Religion. — Letter to the Students of the Wesleyan University, containing illus- 
 trations of French Infidelity. — Protestantism in France. — Missionary Meeting. — De- 
 cline of Romanism,— Proper Ground for American Missions.— British Missions. — Proper 
 Cause for establishing Missions in France. — Americans in Paris .... 68 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Departure for Lyons. — French Diligences. — Notice of several small Towns. — French 
 Landscapes.— Comfortless Villages.— Female Degradation.— Hotels.— Cookery.— Cha- 
 lons.— Arrival at Lyons.— Description of Lyons.— Departure for Mount Cenis and 
 Turin.— Pont de Beauvoisin — Passage of Eschelles.— Grotto.— Picturesque Winter 
 Scenery.— Aerial Exhibition.— Chamberry.— Appearance of the Villages and of the 
 Inhabitants.— Mountain Cottages.— Donkeys.— Goitrous Swellings.— Natural Aque- 
 duct.— Lans-le-bourg.— Passage of Mount Cenis.— Arrival at Turin ... 85 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Sketches of Italian History from the Fall of the Ancient Empire.— Conquest of the Ostro- 
 goths, of the Lombards, and of the Franks.— Feudal System.— Growth and Indepen- 
 dence of the Cities.— War of Investitures.— Papal Assumptions.— Origin and Decline 
 1 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 of the Italian Republics.— Frederic Barbarossa.— League of Lombardy.— Wars with 
 Frederic, and their Termination.— War of the Crusades.— Guelfs and Ghibelines.— 
 Cruelties of the Age.— Spanish Supremacy in Sicily and Naples.— Various Wars. — 
 Dawning and Progress of Literature.— Fall of the Mercantile Republics.— Reforma- 
 tion in Italy.— Its Progress.— Persecutions.— Final Extinction of the Reformation.— 
 French Revolution.— Conquest of Italy.— Cisalpine Republic— Kingdom of Italy. — 
 French Influence, and its Effects. — Dethronement of Napoleon, and consequent 
 Changes in Italy. — Present Political Divisions Page 102 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Further Particulars of our Entrance into Italy. — Roman Catholic Superstitions. — 
 Turin. — King of Sardinia. — River Po. — Route to Genoa.— Asti. — Allesandria. — Ma- 
 rengo. — Passage of the Apennines. — First View of the Mediterranean. — Reflections on 
 its Historic Associations, and the present Character of the Population on its Shores. — 
 Arrival at Genoa. — Its Location.— Military Defences. — Harbour. — Palaces. — Church- 
 es. — History. — Departure from Genoa. — Gardens and Orchards. — Mountain Scenes. — 
 Grottoes. — Splendid Views. — Sestri. — Passage of the Bracco. — Splendid Exhibition. — 
 Modena. — Vexations of Travellers from Health-officers and from Passports. — Lucca. — 
 Washwomen . 131 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Arrival at Florence. — Protestant Worship. — Description of Florence. — Royal Gallery. — 
 Venus de Medicis, &c— Reflections on Statuary. — Pitti Palace.— Gardens. — Picture 
 Galleries. — Museum. — Academy of Fine Arts. — Manufacture of Pietra Dura. — Chapel 
 of the Medici. — Cathedral. — Church of the Holy Cross, and its Monuments. — Educa- 
 tion in Tuscany. — Infant Schools. — Advantage of Travellers to Italy. — Grand Duke. — 
 His Superstition and uncontrolled Power 149 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Departure from Florence. — Route to Pisa. — Sickness of Mrs. F. — Arrival at Pisa. — Sepa- 
 ration of our Company.— My own Sickness.— M. Pevarada— Pisa.— Foreign Expendi- 
 tures in Italy.— Beggars.— River and Lung' Arno. — Cathedral. — Baptistry. — Leaning 
 Tower.— Mode of building their Houses.— Neighbourhood of Pisa.— Farm of the Grand 
 Duke.— Camels.— University.— Professor Foggi— Preparatory Schools.— Learned Pro- 
 fessions.— Romanism the Religion of the Natural Heart.— The Carnival . . 163 
 
 * CHAPTER XI. 
 Departure from Pisa.— Leghorn.— Its Business.— General Characteristics.— Steam- 
 boats.— Passage to Civita Vecchia— Arrival, and Incidents of Travel.— Route to Rome. — 
 Entrance into Rome.— Departure for Naples.— Appian Way.— Pontine Marshes.— The 
 "Three Taverns." — Fondi and Itri. — Incidents with Beggars. — Catholic Priest. — 
 Cenotaph of Cicero.— Mora.— Three Ancient Republics.— Reflections on their Down- 
 fall.— Capua.— Vegetation.— Arrival at Naples . 177 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 Situation of Naples.— Views from the Royal Observatory.— Reflections.— Population ©t 
 Naples.— Lazaroni— Beggars.— Army.— Public Garden.— Architecture.— Church of 
 St. Martin— Cathedral— Blood of St. Januarius.— Chapel of St. Severus, and its veiled 
 Statuary.— Royal Observatory.— Reflections.— Cemetery.— Funeral.— Literature and 
 the Arts.— Government.— Caprice and Fears of the Government.— History.— Museum. — 
 Different Halls and Galleries of Statuary and Bronzes.— Antiques from Pompeii.— An- 
 cient Manuscripts and Paintings 185 
 

 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Environs of Naples. — Route to Paestum. — Towns and Scenery on the Way. — Situation 
 of Paestum. — Ancient Temples. — Description of them. — Associations. — Pompeii. — 
 General Description of Pompeii. — Streets, Temples, Houses, Shops. — Tombs. — Villa 
 of Diomedes. — Torre del Greco. — Herculaneum. — Virgil's Tomb. — Grotto of Posolipo. 
 — Pozzuoli. — Donkey Riding. — Solfatara.— Lake d'Agnano. — Grotto of the Dog. — 
 Monte Nuovo.— Lake Avernus.— Grotto of the Sibyl. — Fables of the Sibyls. — Cimme- 
 rian Forests. — Baths of Nero. — Baiae. — Ruins of Temples. — Piscini Mirabile. — Ache- 
 rusia Palus. — Cuma. — Arco Felice. — Excursion to Vesuvius. — Mode of Ascent and 
 General Description. — Cone. — View from the Summit. — Appearance of the Crater. — 
 Inner Crater. — Descent to it.— Danger incurred in returning.— Former Characteristics 
 of the Mountain. — Descent from the Mountain. — Preparations for leaving Naples. — 
 Travelling in Italy .— Caserta Page 205 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Arrival at Rome. — Hotel Spilman. — Hired Lodgings.— Safety in Rome. — Letter to the 
 Editors of the Methodist Magazine. — Passion Week. — Palm Sunday. — General of the 
 Franciscans. — Pope. — Distribution of the Palms. — Procession. — Tenebrae. — Maundy 
 Thursday.— High Mass. — Procession of the Host.— Benediction. — Washing Feet. — 
 Dining of the Apostles.— Good Friday. — Offerings. — " Three Hours of Agony." — 
 Saturday before Easter. — Baptism. — Ordination. — Easter Sunday. — Procession. — 
 Tiara and other Robes of the Pope. — High Mass by the Pope. — Roman Courtesy. — 
 The Holy Relics.— Second Benediction.— The Flagellation.— The Pilgrims.— Wash- 
 ing Feet.— Supper.— Don Miguel. — Female Apartment. — Taking the White Veil. — 
 Conversion to Romanism of an English Lady.— Church of the Trinity.— Italian Music. 
 — Illumination and Fireworks. — Religious Processions. — Holy Staircase.— Second 
 Letter to the Editors of the Methodist Magazine. — Tendencies of Romanism to Idol- 
 atry. — Rev. Mr. Dewey. — Romanism incompatible with Freedom. — Tends to En- 
 courage Vice. — Impoverishes a Community 228 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Roman Antiquities. — The Forum. — Remains of Temples. — Triumphal Arches. — Columns. 
 — Colosseum.— Palatine Hill. — Capitoline Hill. — Velabrum. — Antiquities near the 
 Capitol. — Mamertine Prison. — Relative Position of the Seven Hills. — Trajan's Forum 
 and Pillar.— Pantheon. — Roman Baths. — Ancient Tombs. — Catacombs. — Aqueducts. 
 —Columns and Obelisks . 291 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Vatican Palace. — Different Galleries of Statuary. — Churches. — The Basilicse. — St. 
 Peter's.— St. John Lateran.— St. Maria Maggiore and other Churches.— Introduction 
 to the Pope.— Singular instance of Servants.— Palaces of Rome.— Picture Galleries 
 and Frescoes.. — Halls of Raphael.— Mosaics. — Professions. — Libraries. — Propaganda. — 
 Jews.— Dimensions of the City.— Bridges.— A Modern Hill.— Pincian Hill.— Piazza 
 del Popolo.— Borghese Villa.— Letter to G. P. Disosway, Esq.— Excursions to Tivoli 
 and Adrian's Villa.— Tartarean Lake.— Solfatara.— Cascades and Cataracts of the 
 Anio.— Different Views.— Villa of Horace.— Grotto of the Sibyl.— Grotto of Neptune. 
 —Temples of Neptune and Vesta.— Adrian's Villa.— Ancient Edifices.— Theatres.— 
 Barracks.— Palace.— Historic Reminiscences.— Solitude of the Place.— Departure 
 from Rome . . . „ 312 
 
CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Different Routes to Florence.— Embarrassments.— Nero's Tomb.— Campania, Shepherds, 
 and other Incidents.— Falls of Terni.— Different Views.— Mineralogical Formations. 
 — Donkey Driving.— Spoleto.— Perugino.— Lake Thrasymene— A Frenchman and his 
 Daughter. — Battle-ground of Hannibal and Flaminius. — View of Florence. — Revisit 
 of the Galleries.— Circumstances of our Departure from Florence.— A Consumptive.— 
 Incidents of Travel over the Apennines.— Bologna.— Arcades.— St. Mary of St. Luke. 
 —Leaning Towers.— Bologna School of Painting.— Picture Galleries.— University, 
 &c. — Ferrara. — Ariosto. — Library. — Tasso's Prison. — Discontent of the Citizens. — 
 Journey to Padua.— Different Objects on the Route.— Euganean Hills.— House and 
 Tomb of Petrarch.— Padua.— Church and Fete of St. Anthony.— University.— Hail- 
 storm.— Arrival at Venice.— Festival of St. Mark.— General Remarks on Venice.— 
 Canals and Bridges.— Architecture.— Public Squares.— Piazza of St. Mark.— Church 
 of St. Mark.— Bronze Horses.— Palace of the Doges.— Paintings.— Reflections on the 
 most appropriate Field for the Arts.— Venetian School of Painting.— Halls of the Secret 
 Tribunals.— Progress of Venice from Democracy to Tyranny.— Bridge of Sighs.— 
 Dungeons.— Imperial Palace.— Tower of St. Luke.— Tower of the Clock.— Mechan- 
 ical Procession.— Legacy to the Pigeons.— Churches.— Masses for the Dead.— Cano- 
 va's Monument.— Religious Character of the Venetians.— Decline of Venice.— Its 
 Causes. — Farewell to Venice. — Incidents of Travel. — Vineenza.— Verona. — Tomb of 
 Juliet.— Tombs of the Scaligeri.— Ancient Amphitheatre.— Mountain of Fishes.— Lake 
 Garda.— Brescia.— Face of the Country.— Incident.— Reflections on Italian Character. 
 —Arrival at Milan . Page 344 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Milan.— Improved by Napoleon.— General Description.— Triumphal Arch.— Cathedral. 
 —Feast of Pentecost.— The Ambrosian Church.— Business of Milan.— Education.— 
 Government, Manufactures, and Commerce.— Canals.— Climate.— Palace of the Brera 
 and its Various Institutions.— Libraries.— Last Supper of Leonardo da Vinci.— Church 
 of St. Ambrose. — St. Carlo Borromeo. — Departure from Milan. — Como. — Lake. — 
 Villa of Queen Caroline.— Passage up the Lake and Description of the Scenery.— 
 Lake Maggiore.— Borromean Isles.— Isola Bella.— Bovena.— Reflections on leaving 
 Italy 384 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 Fellow-travellers.— Bad Road.— Granite.— Dorreo d'Ossola.— Character of the Route.— 
 Grottoes.— Entrance to Switzerland.— Cascades.— Commingling of Winter and Sum- 
 mer.— Village of Simplon.— Obstructions from Snow.— Descent of the Mountain.— 
 Brigg.— Swiss Mountain Cottages.— Cascade.— Sion— Martigny.— Mountain Dis- 
 eases.— Swiss Love of Home.— Cascade.— Lake Leman— Vevay — Scenery.— Lau- 
 sanne.— Ny on. —Rev. J. William Fletcher.— Associations of Home.— Arrival at Ge- 
 neva .398 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Geneva.— Strictness of the Police.— Reason for this.— Intolerance of the Sardinian Gov- 
 ernment.— Evangelical Society.— Decline and Revival of the Evangelical Cause- 
 Promising Characteristics of that Cause.— Some unpromising Features.— General 
 Description of Geneva.— Schools and Learned Men.— Cathedral.— Sketches of His- 
 tory and Government.— Society and Scenery . . 409 
 
xm 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 Departure from Geneva.— Incidents and Scenery— Cottages.— Costumes— Friburg.— 
 Schools.— Site.— Suspension Bridge. — Linden-tree.— Canton of Berne.— City of 
 Berne.— General Description.— Curious Clock.— Institutions.— Hofwyl.— Notice of 
 Hofwyl School.— Mr. Fellenburg's Opinion of Religious Instruction.— Interspersed 
 Reflections.— Agriculture of Hofwyl.— Mr. Fellenburg's Family.— Soleure.— Passage 
 of the Jura.— Bale.— Division of the Canton.— Cause, and Reflections upon it.— Mis- 
 sionary Institution.— Early Christian Movements in Bale.— College.— Library, &c. — 
 Cathedral.— Manufactures and Trade.— Specimen of the Ludicrous.— Environs.— 
 Departure from Switzerland Page 420 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Duchy of Baden.— Country.— Peasantry.— Friburg Cathedral.— Stork's Nest.— Stras- 
 bourg.— Cathedral.— Telegraph, &c— Town of Baden.— German Baths.— Old Cas- 
 tle.— Secret Tribunal.— Older Castle.— Carlsruhe— Fair.— Coarse Females.— Scwhit- 
 zingue. — Heidelberg. — University. — Instruction and Discipline of German Universities. 
 —Castle.— Route to Darmstadt.— Sketch of the History of Baden.— Smokers.— 
 Darmstadt.— Town and Duchy 439 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Frankfort. — Jews. — Edifices. — Fine Arts. — Schools.— General Character of German 
 Schools. — English on the Continent. — Trouble with a Coachman. — Mayence. — Forti- 
 fications. — Hanseatic League. — Invention of Printing. — Troubadours. — Passage of the 
 Rhine. — Scenery. — Associations of Romance. — " Seven Mountains." — King's Stool.-— 
 Partition of the Rhenish States by the Allies. — Frederic William III. — His Religion. 
 — Religion of the State. — Prussian School-system. — Libraries. — Universities. — Per- 
 fidy of the King 454 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 Passage of the Rhine renewed.— Coblenlz.— Bonn.— Cologne.— Cathedral.— P. P. Ru- 
 bens. — Cologne Water. — German Princess, — Advantages of Female Company to the 
 Traveller. — Hydraulic Works. — Nimeguen. — Loevestein. — Dort. — Rotterdam. — Mad 
 Dog.— Cleanliness. — Canals and Hydraulics.— Churches.— Statue of Erasmus. — Com- 
 merce. — Belgic Question. — Excursion to the Hague. — Scenery of Holland. — Hague. 
 —Route to Leyden. — Notice of the University and Town. — Passage to London. — 
 Business of the Thames. — Parting with the Princess. — Reflections. — Feelings on 
 landing in London 473 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 Resumption of our Journal at Liverpool. — Letter to G. P. Disosway, Esq. — Introductory 
 Remarks.— Liverpool.— Docks.— Public Buildings.— Second Letter to G. P. Disosway, 
 Esq. — Chester. — Roman Bath. — " Rows." — Walls. — Bishop. — Cathedral. — Castle. — 
 Highland Regiment.— Excursion to Eaton Hall— Scenery.— Palace.— Gardens, &c. 
 Railroad to Manchester. — Rains. — Potteries. — Nocturnal Exhibition.— Reflections. — 
 Coventry.— Dunstable.— English Manufactures Sectional.— St. Albans.— Arrival in 
 London .................. 488 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 London.— Its early History.— Plague.— Great Fire.— Crowded Population.— Altera- 
 tions.— Size and Population.— Influences of these,— Places of Public Worship.— In- 
 
XIV CONTENTS. 
 
 temperance.— Temperance Movements.— London Police.— Literary Institutions.— 
 Fine Arts. — Other Institutions. — British Museum. — Colosseum. — Zoological Gar- 
 dens.— Regent's Park.— Hyde Park.— Green Park.— James's Park.— London Diet.— 
 St. Paul's.— Westminster Abbey.— Chapels.— City Road Chapel.— Dr. Clarke's 
 Tomb.— Tower.— Bridges.— Tunnel.— Docks Page 509 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 Parliament.— Principal Speakers.— Present Administration.— Reform.— O' Connell'9 
 Course.— Reflections on Popular Agitations.— Morbid Excitability of the English.— 
 Manner of conducting Public Assemblies. — Public Meeting of the " Protestant Asso- 
 ciation."— An Imposition.— Question of Church and State.— Agitation and Difficulties 
 respecting it. — Objectionable Features of the English Church. — Danger of sudden 
 Changes. — Impropriety of Foreign Interference. — Modes of Business in the British 
 Parliament. — Eloquence. — Influence of Irreligion in the Ranks of the Liberals. — Colo- 
 nial Policy 534 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 Excursion to Greenwich. — Royal Observatory. — Royal Hospital and Schools. — Wool- 
 wich. — Dover. — Situation.— Chalk-cliffs. — Barracks and Fortifications. — Castle. — 
 Shakspeare's Cliff. — English Watering-places. — High Charges. — Characteristics. — 
 Value of a Title. — Excursion to Bedfordshire. — Charity School of Bedford. — John 
 Bunyan's Birthplace, &c. — John Howard's Birthplace. — Lord John Russel's Election 
 to Parliament. — Missionary Meeting. — Missionary Tea.— Cambridge. — College Edi- 
 fices. — King's College Chapel.— Founding of the Colleges. — Sketch of the Constitu- 
 tion and Regulations of Cambridge University. — Reflections. — Excursion to Wind- 
 sor Castle. — Eton. — Fagging. — Windsor Castle. — Apartments. — Plate. — St. George's 
 Chapel. — Excursion to Birmingham. — Oxford. — Mr. Hill. — Episcopal Succession. — 
 Sketches of the University. — Libraries. — Museum. — Marbles. — Royal Honorary De- 
 grees. — Costumes. — Warwick Castle. — Stagecoach Conversation .... 553 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Wesleyan Conference.— Methodist Connexion in England.— Schism of Dr. Warren.— 
 Chancery Decision.— Mr. Wesley's Poll-deed.— Kilhamites.— Finances of the Wesleyan 
 Conference. — Order of building Chapels.— Missionary Operations. — Stationing of the 
 Preachers.— Opening of Conference.— Dr. Bunting.— Respect for Seniority and Office. — 
 Mr. Sturge's Circular.— Views of the Conference respecting the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church. — Ordination. — Public Breakfast. — Ministerial Character. — Theological Insti- 
 tution.— Manner of Preaching 582 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 Birmingham.— Manufactures, &c— Coal and Iron Mines.— Character of the Operatives.— 
 Bishop Asbury's Birthplace.— Anecdotes of Bishop Asbury.— Return to London. — 
 Irish Reapers.— Agricultural Products.— Landscapes.— Route to Bristol.— English 
 Stagecoach. — Dinner. — Bath. — Lodgings at Bristol. — " British Association." — Situa- 
 tion and General Description of Bristol. — Celebrated Men. — Wesleys in Bristol. — 
 Kingswood. — Voyage to Dublin . 603 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 Approach to Dublin— Incidents of Landing.— General View of the Town.— St. Patrick's 
 Cathedral.— Dean Swift.— Trinity College.— General Education.— Hatred of the Eng- 
 lish.— Difficulties in the Relations of the English Government to Ireland— Remedies.— 
 Methodists in Ireland.— Cars.— Departure from Dublin.— Drogheda.— Beggars.— Af- 
 
CONTENTS. XV 
 
 fecting Cases. — Wretchedness of the Peasantry. — Bogs. — Arrival at Belfast. — Route 
 to Coleraine. — Fellow-traveller. — Coleraine. — Dunluce Castle. — Giant's Causeway. — 
 Neighbouring Headlands.— Port Coon Cave.— Return to Belfast.— Balleymena Mar- 
 ket. — Loch Neagh. — Notice of Belfast, &c. — Presbyterian Church. — Passage to Scot- 
 land.— Ailsa Craig Page 620 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 Greenock.— Port Glasgow.— Clyde.— Glasgow.— Its Growth and Business.— Edifices. — 
 Morals. — Christian Charities. — Cathedral. — Cemetery. — University. — Other Institu- 
 tions. — Sir William Hooker and the Botanical Garden. — Tour to the Highlands. — 
 Dumbarton.-^Leven Water. — Loch Lomond.— Islands. — Effects of Highland Scene- 
 ry.— Ben Lomond.— Rob Roy.— Mountain Pass to Loch Ketturin.— Rob Roy's Fowl- 
 ingpiece. — Loch Ketturin. — Boatmen. — Trosacks. — Hotel. — Route down the Venna- 
 char.— Stirling.— Castle.— Route to Edinburgh.— Entrance into the City.— North 
 Loch. — Sabbath in Edinburgh. — Scottish Courtesy. — University. — Botanic Garden. — 
 Calton Hill. — Lord Melville's Monument. — Castle.— Holy Rood House. — Old and New 
 Town. — Incorporated Trades. — Magistracy.— Route to England. — Newcastle-upon- 
 Tyne. — Durham. — Races. — English Propensity. — York. — Cathedral. — Yorkshire. — 
 Route to Leeds. — Accident. — Lodgings at Roundhey. — Leeds. — Its Business, (fee- 
 Factory Children. — Yorkshire Dialect. — Ignorance of America. — Yorkshire Metho- 
 dism. — Dissenters. — Quakers. — Woodhouse Grove School. — Kirkstall Abbey. — Route 
 to Manchester. — Advertisements. — Musical Festival. — Cotton Manufacture. — Stock- 
 port.— Chimneys. — Derbyshire Peak. — Castleton. — Caverns. — Sheffield. — Mr. Mont- 
 gomery. — Manufactures of Sheffield.— Rodgers's Showroom. — Grinders. — State of 
 Religion. — Return to Manchester. — Missionary Meetings. — Departure for Liverpool.— 
 Chapels. — Church Service. — Mr. M'Neal.^-Reflections on English Character. — Fare- 
 well to England.— Passage Home.— Conclusion 643 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Isola Bella Frontispiece. 
 
 View of Naples 204 
 
 St. Peter's . 316 
 
 St. Mark's 372 
 
 Suspension Bridge 422 
 
 Tunnel 534 
 
 King's College Chapel 563 
 
 Edinburgh 662 
 
tft 
 
 JOURNAL, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Letter to the Editors of the Christian Advocate and Journal. 
 
 Liverpool, Oct. 28, 1835. 
 
 Reverend and dear Sirs, 
 
 I have at length arrived in Liverpool, after a short passage of 
 about eighteen days. And I hasten, according to promise, to give 
 you, and, through you, my friends generally, the information that, 
 through Divine mercy, we are all in health and good spirits. 
 
 Before giving you any account of the events of the passage, I 
 beg the privilege of acknowledging my obligations to the kind at- 
 tentions of my friends in your city, who manifested to the last such 
 kind offices of friendship as will not be easily erased from my 
 memory. One looks back with feelings which none but those 
 who have them can fully comprehend, to the expressions and acts 
 of friendship and sympathy which they have received from those 
 they love and honour in their own country, when in the land of 
 strangers they find themselves alone in the midst of multitudes. 
 Such is our present situation. As we approached the pier of 
 Prince's Dock, many of our passengers looked out, and hailed 
 some acquaintance or friend, some brother or sister, who stood 
 ready to clasp them by the hand, and welcome them on shore. 
 It was then that I felt the contrast ; the thought came over me 
 like the chill of winter, not one stands ready to welcome me ! We 
 left a land of friends, who attended us to the last — to the dock — 
 to the steamboat — to the ship — to the Hook ; nor did they leave 
 us till the last opportunity of returning ; but here all are strangers. 
 But enough of this. We shall doubtless find or make friends here 
 — and, if not, we may maintain an intercourse with those we have 
 
 B 
 
10 THE VOYAGE. 
 
 left, second only in its pleasures to the delights of a personal in- 
 terview. 
 
 I had heard much of the accommodations of the New- York and 
 Liverpool line of packet ships ; but, after all, my expectations did 
 not come up to the reality. Everything was arranged in the best 
 order. The fixtures about the ship are just such as they should 
 be. In fact, almost everything is & fixture. Your bed, your table, 
 your sofa, is made part and parcel of the ship itself, so that the 
 rocking and pitching of the vessel cannot disturb your accommo- 
 dations. The dining-table is not only firmly attached to the floor 
 of the cabin, but the leaf is divided into three parallel compart- 
 ments, with elevated mouldings on the outer edges and between, 
 so as to form three grooves — one for the public or common dishes 
 in the centre, and the two outer ones for the plates of the guests. 
 Thus prepared, with an immoveable support for the back and an- 
 other for the feet, you may bid defiance to the rocking of the ship 
 and eat on — provided, however, the motion does not rock you out 
 of your appetite, which was, in fact, my case most of the passage, 
 as you may learn by my letter to Dr. R . 
 
 As to food, we had an abundance, and of a great variety. We 
 had on board a cow for furnishing the ship with milk ; and for 
 fresh provisions we had an ample stock of live geese, turkeys, 
 ducks, hens, pigs, and sheep, besides the dressed meats brought 
 from New-York. These, with puddings, pastry, vegetables, and 
 fruits, were furnished us in suitable variety and appropriate ar- 
 rangement four times each day. 
 
 The Roscoe is a fine ship, and the commander, Captain Delano, 
 is not only an excellent commander and navigator, but he is a gen- 
 tleman of intelligence and politeness. He gave universal satisfac- 
 tion ,j the passengers, and is certainly entitled to our warmest ac- 
 knowledgments. The subordinate officers were also fine men, 
 the crew excellent, the servants remarkably active and attentive 
 to our every want. 
 
 One of the causes of the quick passages of the New-York 
 packet ships undoubtedly is the unwearied and incessant attention 
 that is paid to the management of the ship. Every veering and 
 varying breeze is not only noticed when it comes, but, it would 
 seem, anticipated also, so that nothing is lost. The whole of na- 
 ture's agency, as we may say, is used up to help us on our course, 
 
SCENERY OF THE OCEAN. 11 
 
 We had a pleasant company of twenty-five in the cabin, be- 
 sides about forty in the steerage. It will hardly be of sufficient 
 interest to you or your readers to give either a detailed account of 
 the passengers or of the events of the voyage. What is there in an 
 ordinary sea voyage worth journalizing and publishing ? We may 
 indeed rhapsodize upon the fathomless depths and the shoreless ex- 
 panse of old ocean; we may talk of its coral reefs and pearly 
 beds, which we cannot see ; we may descant upon the rising and 
 setting sun, ascending and descending like a globe of fire from 
 and into the mighty waters ; upon the phosphorescent glow of the 
 evening ripple, and of the white crest of the heaving billow — all 
 this, if it had not been worked up into poetry and prose a thou- 
 sand and a thousand times, might be very well ; but what ordinary 
 genius can give a new form or additional interest to these oft -re- 
 peated descriptions ? In viewing these scenes, the contemplative 
 mind finds much to admire, the devout mind much to excite his 
 veneration for the God of nature, and the imaginative mind much 
 to enkindle the fires of poetry. The whole, however, soon be- 
 comes monotonous, and a desire for a change seems to absorb 
 every other. Whether it will be construed into a deficiency of 
 imagination, a want of taste, or a lack of the spirit of devotion on 
 the part of our company, I cannot say; but sure I am, that nothing 
 we met with during the voyage seemed to diffuse such universal 
 pleasure over all minds as the sight of the light on Cape Clear, 
 which we made in about fifteen days : and best of all was the mo- 
 ment when we set foot on the pier of Prince's Dock in Liverpool, 
 near the close of our eighteenth day from the Battery in New- 
 York. So much for our voyage ; and let this suffice — with the 
 exception that, for variety's sake, and that those who are longing 
 for the opportunity of careering sublimely and poetically upon the 
 mighty ocean may know something of the pleasures of such a voy- 
 age, I have attempted a sketch of sea-sickness, which possibly 
 may meet you through another channel. 
 
 The letter alluded to was to an eminent gentleman of the med- 
 ical profession in New-York, and is here inserted. 
 
 My dear Doctor, 
 You will learn from other sources of my safe arrival, and other 
 circumstances connected therewith, particularly that we were 
 
12 THE VOYAGE. 
 
 highly pleased with the captain, the ship, the passengers, and, in 
 short, that we had nothing to complain of except that most un- 
 pitied, and, I may almost say, that most distressing of all diseases, 
 the sea-sickness. This lugubrious topic I have reserved for you, 
 partly to retaliate upon the faculty for not providing a remedy, 
 and partly because you will better judge than one of the uninitia- 
 ted in the mysteries of physiology whether or not what I may say 
 on the subject will be of any consequence to the untravelling 
 public — if there be any such in these stirring days. I say of any 
 consequence, by which I certainly do not mean for the enjoyment 
 of the reader, but for his information, and for the enlargement of 
 his sphere of sympathy, and possibly for the gratification of his 
 curiosity. If I supposed that any sketch of this disease would 
 produce even the premonitory symptoms upon my readers, I could 
 not find it in my heart to inflict the misery upon one of the sons 
 of Adam — except on the physicians ; nor even upon them, except 
 in hope that it would put them upon extra exertions to find a cure. 
 On board the steamboat which conveyed us to the Hook, you 
 suggested and sanctioned the theory, which I believe has gained 
 extensive authority with the faculty, and certainly seems very 
 plausible, and accords well with many of the symptoms, that the 
 disease is the inversion of the peristaltic motion of the digestive 
 muscles through the stomach and viscera. Alas ! what a .picture 
 of this distressing disorder ! Only conceive the unpleasant sen- 
 sation which this unnatural action must produce ! — the loathing, 
 the shrinking back, and the spasmodic action of all the digestive 
 organs ! And when this system of internal " agitation" is begun, 
 it is increased by its own action. The spasm increases the irri- 
 tation, and the irritation increases the susceptibility to spasmodic 
 action, until the coats of the stomach and all the abdominal viscera 
 are convulsed. The sensations produced, however, are not those 
 of pain, as we commonly use the term, but of loathing — of sick- 
 ness — of deathlike sickness, until nature is wearied, and the poor 
 sufferer feels that life itself is a burden. He is told he must not 
 give up to it — he must keep about, take the air, and drive it off. 
 At first he thinks he will — he believes he can — and, perhaps, after 
 the first complete action of his nausea, feels relieved, and imagines 
 that he has conquered ; but another surge comes on, and rolls him 
 and his vessel a few feet upward ; and again she sinks, and he 
 
SEA-SICKNESS. 13 
 
 with her — but not all of him ; his body goes down with the ves- 
 sel, as it is meet it should, according to the laws of gravitation ; 
 but that which his body contains cannot make ready for so speedy 
 a descent. The contained has received an impetus upward, and 
 it keeps on in this direction, while the container goes down with 
 the ship. The result may readily be inferred. 
 
 But even then the worst is still to come. When the upward 
 action, the distressing nausea, the convulsive retching continue, 
 the deeper secretions are disturbed, and the mouth is literally 
 filled with gall and bitterness. All objects around you now lose 
 their interest; the sea has neither beauty nor sublimity; the roar- 
 ing of the wave is like the wail of death ; the careering of the ship 
 before the wind " like a thing of life" is but the hastening and ag- 
 gravation of agony. Your sympathy, if not lost, is paralyzed; 
 your dear friend — perhaps the wife of your bosom — is suffering 
 at the same time, but you have not the moral courage, if you have 
 the heart, to go to her assistance. And even that very self, which 
 is so absorbing and exclusive, seems, by a strange paradox, hardly 
 so interesting as to be worth an existence. 
 
 If the theory already alluded to, of the inversion of the peristal- 
 tic motion, be true, it may yet be a curious, and perhaps not un- 
 profitable physiological inquiry, what are the intermediate links 
 between the motion of the vessel, which is obviously the primum 
 mobile of all the agitation, and this inverted action of the digestive 
 organs ? Is this latter the effect of a previous action upon the ner- 
 vous system ? Is it the effect of sympathy between the brain and 
 the stomach ? If a nervous derangement is a prior link, are the 
 nerves wrought upon by the imagination ? and, if so, through what 
 sense is the imagination affected ? Is it through the general feel- 
 ings of the frame, the entire system, or is it chiefly through the 
 organ of sight ? I have not skill or knowledge sufficient to answer 
 these questions. I cannot but think, however, that the eye has 
 much to do in this matter. If you look at the vessel in motion, it 
 seems to increase the difficulty ; and hence, while under the influ- 
 ence of the disease, you cannot bear to look on anything around 
 you, but are disposed to close the windows of the soul, and give 
 yourself up to dark and gloomy endurance. 
 
 One of the social, or rather antisocial concomitants of this dis- 
 ease is, that it excites but little pity in those around you who are 
 
14 THE VOYAGE. 
 
 not suffering. One tells you, " It will do you good" — this is the 
 highest comfort you get ; another assures you that it is not a mor- 
 tal disease, and that you will feel a great deal better when it is 
 over. (" Hope so" thought I.) Another laughs you in the face, 
 with some atrocious pleasantry about " casting up accounts," or 
 "paying duties to old Neptune." A " searching operation," this 
 paying custom to the watery king ! My friends forewarned me 
 of the vexations of the custom-house before I left America ; and 
 if this is a fair specimen, I shall beg to be excused from the fur- 
 ther prosecution of my tour. If his majesty demanded but a large 
 per centage of your wares, it might be tolerable ; but he takes all 
 you have ; he searches you through and through. 
 
 Wearied out at length, you throw yourself into your berth, 
 where, by keeping in a horizontal position, and sinking into the 
 stupor of a mere oyster existence, you find the only mitigation of 
 your suffering. But here, too, you have painful annoyances. Is 
 it cold, your extremities become numb and icy — the system, as 
 in the cholera, has all the heat and action within, while the entire 
 surface is torpid, and the extremities are cold as death. Is it hot, 
 you have a sense of suffocation for the want of air ; you open your 
 eyes, and see the white drapery of your bed waving, and in a mo- 
 ment you anticipate the fanning of the breeze. No, no ! that waving 
 motion is not from the zephyr — it is from the same baneful agita- 
 tion that is the source of all your distress. To this hour I can 
 scarcely think of the waving of that white drapery in the stagnant 
 air of my stateroom, without associating with it the idea of a 
 ghostly visitant in the hour of midnight, flapping his sepulchral 
 wing around the bed of agony, and boding evil to the sufferer. 
 Again you close your eyes ; you think of home — of land anywhere 
 — of the terra firma beds of the lower animals, even of the worst 
 accommodated among them — the horse or the swine — and you feel 
 their lodgment would be a paradise compared with your billow- 
 tossed couch. But all is in vain, and you find no other alterna- 
 tive but to give yourself up to passive endurance. And such en- 
 durance ! You listen to the bell dividing off the hours, and you 
 feel that time, like the slow fires of savage torments, has slackened 
 his pace to prolong your sufferings. 
 
 But I fear that my sketch will become tedious by its length, if 
 not otherwise. Suffice it to say, I have been describing what I 
 
ARRIVAL AT BOULOGNE. 15 
 
 have actually felt, in a greater or less degree, with occasional in- 
 terruptions, for fifteen days. But it is all over ; and, now that it 
 is past, it seems like a dream. I can hardly identify myself 
 with that being who so lately passed the painful process. The 
 recollection, however, is sufficiently vivid to lead me to pray that 
 I may be called to cross the Atlantic but once more. I cannot 
 go the full length with an English lady whom we met in America, 
 and who, in speaking of her sufferings on her voyage, said, " Dear 
 as is old England to me, I never can consent to recross the At- 
 lantic to visit her." No ; America — her institutions — my friends 
 there— and, above all, my duties, my delightful duties, are too dear 
 to me to be foregone to avoid fifteen, or fifty, or one hundred days 
 of suffering. 
 
 If, then, a kind Providence spares my life, I shall once more 
 throw myself upon the billows, and give myself to the tossing of 
 the merciless waves. If, in the mean time, you discover a spe- 
 cific for this horrible disease, the very thoughts of which give me 
 the hydrophobia, do not fail to let it meet me at Liverpool before 
 September next ; and believe me, in the mean time, 
 
 Yours in great respect, 
 
 W, Fisk, 
 
 We spent in England the remainder of September and the 
 whole of October ; but poor health and bad weather prevented 
 making as extensive observations as might otherwise have been 
 made in that time. However, we were not idle ; but shall reserve 
 for the present any and all matters that were there noticed, for 
 the purpose of preserving, as much as may be, a unity in the sub- 
 jects treated of, which is deemed of more consequence than 
 mere continuity in the journal. 
 
 There are three lines of steam-packets from Dover to the Con- 
 tinent : one for Ostend in Belgium, one for Calais, and one for 
 Boulogne in France. We chose the latter, because there was 
 but little difference in the sail, and Boulogne is four posts nearer 
 Paris than Calais. In about four hours we came to anchor in the 
 harbour of Boulogne — up to that time we had been comfortable ; 
 but now the increase of the swell, from the shallowness of the 
 water and the irregular motion of the steamer, from its being 
 hove to for casting anchor, brought on anew all the horrors of sea- 
 
16 FRANCE. 
 
 sickness, from which we had suffered so much in crossing the 
 ocean and in the trip from London to Dover. We had to be 
 landed in a small boat, for at low water the steamer cannot ap- 
 proach the wharf; the boatmen refused to take our baggage, be- 
 cause they said the swell was high, and after much contention we 
 at length were let down into the batteau, and with some difficulty 
 reached the shore : the breakers or rollers were so high, our boat- 
 men had to watch their opportunity and ride in upon the top of a 
 breaker. This, if it had not been for a little apprehension of 
 danger, would have been quite amusing, especially in connexion 
 with the blowing, whistling, and bluster of our boatmen. How- 
 ever, we were landed safe upon a wet, slippery beach, rendered 
 rough and difficult by rocks, water, and seaweed, over which for 
 a long distance we had to walk ; an undertaking for which Mrs. 
 F. was by no means fitted, debilitated as she was by her recent 
 illness, for she had been sick at Dover. But there was no escape ; 
 we must walk or stay where we were, and therefore pressed on. 
 It is a most surprising thing, that both on the French and English 
 coasts there are no accommodations for landing at low tide, but 
 in this inconvenient way, and at an expense, too, which is nearly 
 half of the entire passage-money besides. It is the more unbear- 
 able from the fact that such multitudes are crossing and recrossing 
 daily ; but I suppose all due allowance should be made for the 
 infancy and poverty of the nations concerned ; perhaps, when 
 they get more advanced, in age and improvements, they may have 
 accommodations by which, in their great thoroughfares, ladies and 
 invalids may pass with some decency and safety ; albeit that 
 America can have no allowance made for her on this score. 
 
 We passed on to the Hotel du Norde ; but, before we arrived 
 there, we found ourselves more emphatically than ever in a land 
 of strangers — a strange language saluted our ears — strange cos- 
 tumes, new customs — all seemed changed. A soldier met us at 
 the shore, and conducted us to the police-office, where our pass- 
 ports were taken, and sent on to Paris in advance, and provisional 
 ones were given us, by which, when we arrived at the capital, we 
 might recover our original passports. In this way every stranger 
 is advertised at Paris before he arrives himself; and, in addition to 
 this, he must be reported as soon as he arrives by the keeper of 
 the hotel where he stops, or the former is liable to a prosecution. 
 
BOULOGNE. 
 
 17 
 
 It is thus that the government is aware of all that come in or go- 
 out of the nation, and of all their movements and journeyings 
 while there ; for at every considerable town our passports are ex- 
 amined, and the names entered upon the registers. 
 
 Boulogne is rather an interesting town, pleasantly situated on 
 the mouth of the river Saone. It is one of the several places 
 which claim to be the Itius portus of Caesar, whence he embark- 
 ed for Britain. At any rate, the Romans were here, for they show 
 the vestiges of a Roman tower still remaining. It is fortified, 
 and contains about thirty thousand French inhabitants, besides a 
 great number of English residents, transient or more permanent * 
 more, probably, than are found in any other town of its size in 
 France. I inquired of the landlord for a Protestant church, of 
 which he seemed to know but little; but stated, if I wanted 
 amusement, the theatre was open that evening, as it would be also 
 on Sunday evening. I thanked him, and made inquiries of others, 
 by which I found the Wesleyan missionary, who preaches in 
 English to an English congregation, with whom we spent an 
 agreeable Sabbath, in a chapel that had been changed from a 
 theatre and consecrated to the sacred purposes of Divine worship. 
 I preached in the evening with some satisfaction, although one of 
 my hearers, at some remark bearing upon Roman Catholicism, 
 audibly pronounced, " That is a lie !" 
 
 During my stay at Boulogne I visited, at a little distance to the 
 north and east, the encampment of the army with which Napoleon, 
 during the early years of the present century, menaced England. 
 Many speculations have been afloat as to the question whether he 
 ever seriously intended to invade England, or whether this was 
 only a feint to cover some other design. There is every reason, 
 however, to suppose that he was serious in this project, and his 
 entire history, and especially his last and fatal enterprise, shows 
 that he <vas wild enough to design any extravagance of a warlike 
 character. Indeed, all great warriors, 
 
 " From Macedonia's madman to the Swede," 
 
 have shown clear indications of insanity on the subject of their 
 profession. The fact that Napoleon kept his position here so 
 long, and only left it when his fleet was destroyed, shows that 
 he was seriously meditating this invasion. But greater folly 
 2 C 
 
18 FRANCE. 
 
 never entered the heart of man. What could he have done if 
 he had even crossed the British Channel, and landed an army of 
 half a million upon the English coast ? But how was he to do 
 even this ? All the time the French army lay upon the coast, the 
 British lion was crouching upon the white cliffs of Dover, and upon 
 the martel towers that studded the coast, with a vigilance that 
 never slept, and a firm defiance that never wavered. 
 
 A magnificent column was commenced by Napoleon upon the 
 heights near Boulogne, to commemorate this celebrated intended 
 invasion. The column is now finished, and its history should af- 
 ford a salutary lesson to the princes of the earth. As Bonaparte 
 never accomplished his invasion, so he never finished his monument. 
 But when the Bourbons came back to the throne of France they 
 resumed the prosecution of this magnificent work, with a design 
 to make it a monument of their restoration ; but, before they could 
 complete it, they were driven from the kingdom, and Louis Phil- 
 ippe has finished the column, as a memorial of his elevation to 
 the throne from which both Napoleon and the Bourbons had been 
 banished. 
 
 On leaving Boulogne for Paris we passed the strongly-fortified 
 town of Montreuil, and beyond this the forest of Crecy, where 
 Edward the Black Prince gained his celebrated victory over the 
 French. Abbeville is the next town of note, situated on the river 
 Somme, and contains about 20,000 inhabitants. Here are found 
 Roman antiquities, and a mound is shown which they call Csesar's 
 Camp. 
 
 We reached Amiens the first night. The town itself is, for 
 the most part, uninteresting. The cathedral, however, is an in- 
 teresting specimen of Gothic architecture. It was commenced 
 early in the thirteenth century by Bishop Everard, and finished 
 by his successor Godefroy. In the interior there are one hundred 
 and twenty-six pillars, which are constructed on a scale & archi- 
 tecture at once grand and beautiful. They support a vault 132 feet 
 in height. Forty-four of these are detached pillars, and hence are 
 called, from the ringing sound they make when struck, sounding 
 pillars — Les Colonnes Sonnantes. One of them, especially, rings 
 like a piece of metal. The interior is 360 feet in length and 
 fifty in breadth. We were shown a case, in which is carefully 
 preserved, as they say, the head of John the Baptist. How He- 
 
A GALLANT FRENCHMAN. 19 
 
 rodias came to suffer it to find so honourable a deposite, I know 
 not. 
 
 Amiens contains about 40,000 inhabitants. It was in this 
 city, on the 10th October, 1801, that the first treaty of peace with 
 Bonaparte was negotiated and signed. A treaty that was not 
 kept a year, and that only served as a bait to draw numerous 
 British subjects on to the Continent, where, on the renewal of hos- 
 tilities, they were retained in confinement, some of them until the 
 peace of 1814. 
 
 After spending one day and two nights at Amiens, we took the 
 diligence for Paris, not, however, without experiencing a little of 
 that imposition and inconvenience to which travellers are, more 
 or less, always exposed. We had engaged particular seats 
 through from Boulogne to Paris, with the understanding that we 
 were to rest one day in Amiens, without prejudice to the arrange- 
 ment. When, however, we went to claim our seats at Amiens, a 
 Frenchman, who looked as though he might be a misanthropic 
 philosopher, demanded the place taken by Mrs. F. Neither the 
 claim which we set up, founded on a previous contract, nor yet an 
 appeal to the Frenchman's gallantry, could avail. The conduc- 
 teur said the waybill gave monsieur the seat, and monsieur said 
 he would have it, or not enter the diligence. And there he stood, 
 with all the firmness and patience of a philosopher, until, finding 
 remonstrance unavailing, we yielded the position to the gallant 
 Frenchman. 
 
 We arrived late in the evening at Paris, and took lodgings for 
 the night in a crowded and dirty part of the city, from which, 
 however, we were soon relieved by the kind offices of Rev. R. 
 Newstead, one of the Wesleyan missionaries in Paris, to whom 
 we had letters, and by whom we were introduced to delightful 
 lodginp-s on the Avenue de Neuilly, in an English family, whose 
 residence of twenty years in France had made our hostess as fa- 
 miliar with everything French as a native. With this knowledge 
 she united a kind disposition, an intelligent and a communicative 
 mind, and a readiness to conduct us to everything interesting in 
 this magnificent city. 
 
 To these advantages in our lodgings we added the acquaint- 
 ance with Rev. Mr. Newstead, already mentioned, and his amiable 
 lady and sister, to whose hospitality and kindness we were under 
 
20 FRANCE, 
 
 great obligations while in Paris ; as also the acquaintance of Rev. 
 Mr. De Jersey and lady, the other Wesleyan missionary family, 
 the Rev. Mr. Baird and lady, of the Presbyterian Church in the 
 United States, together with a number of other families, clergy- 
 men, and laymen, with whom, in various social interviews and 
 devotional exercises, we spent our intervals of leisure. Scarcely 
 ever have I, in the course of my life, spent six weeks of greater 
 social enjoyment, more refined and more satisfactory, than the 
 six weeks we spent in Paris—this in addition to the interest of 
 the city itself. By day, as our health and weather would permit, 
 we examined the greatest objects of interest in and about this 
 great city ; and, although the days were short, they were of suffi- 
 cient length to superinduce all the fatigue we could well endure ; 
 and we generally spent the evening in some delightful circle of 
 select friends, where, without the stiffness of formal etiquette, we 
 enjoyed that chastened, cheerful flow of soul which is followed 
 by no languor or depression. We closed our evening interviews 
 with reading and expounding a portion of Scripture, singing, and 
 prayer. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 I cannot discharge the duties of an itinerant journalist without 
 giving some description of this extraordinary city — and yet how 
 to begin, and what to say, I know not. The danger is of saying 
 too much — and, if not too much, of selecting what should be left 
 out in a brief sketch, such as mine must be, and of omitting what 
 should be inserted ; or, finally, the danger is, that what is selected 
 may not be so arranged and so delineated as to make a due im- 
 pression on the reader's mind. I will begin, however, with the 
 most prominent features of the city. 
 
 Paris is surrounded by a wall, which is only adapted to pur- 
 poses of police and for the collection of the city customs.* This 
 
 * It is a feature of taxation altogether unknown with us ; yet it is very common in Eu- 
 rope. At every gate of Paris is a guard and an officer of customs. All wines, meats, 
 and various other articles brought to market from the country are subject to duty. 
 
PARIS. 21 
 
 wall is a little more than six leagues, or about eighteen miles in 
 circumference,* and at convenient distances it is entered by gates, 
 which are called barrieres. 
 
 The Avenue de Neuilly, so called from its being the route 
 from the Tuileries to the Neuilly Palace, which is situated about 
 one or one and a half miles from the city, terminates at the Bar- 
 riere de VEtoile, and is the most ample and splendid outlet of 
 the city. Here is a triumphal arch, commenced by Napoleon to 
 celebrate some of his principal victories. I will not attempt to 
 describe it ; but believe that, when it is completed, as it soon will 
 be, it will be the most magnificent monument of the kind in Eu- 
 rope, ancient or modern. 
 
 Standing in front of this monument, and facing south by east, 
 you see at a distance of nearly two miles, through one of the most 
 splendid avenues in the world, the palace of the Tuileries. 
 From this point commence your walk — you go down the avenue 
 to the Champs d? Ely sees, or Elysian Fields. At the entrance is 
 a circle called Rond Point, in the centre of which it was pro- 
 posed to erect an equestrian bronze statue of Louis XV. ; but, as 
 the dynasty is passed away, so also is the design of the statue. 
 From the Rond Point the avenue passes into the Elysian Fields, 
 which are an extensive plain, lying each side of the avenue, 950 
 yards in length, and from 373 to 700 yards in breadth, planted 
 with trees arranged on geometrical principles, so as to appear in 
 straight lines in every direction. This is the place of fashion 
 and parade, of frolic and fun. Here, on public occasions, and al- 
 ways on a Sunday, if it be fair, you see all the fashion and fri- 
 volity of the city ; the avenue thronged with carriages, the spa- 
 cious sidewalk crowded with pedestrians, and the entire park 
 alive with sports and vocal with human voices. Here in 1814 
 the C^'sacks had their camp, and in 1815 the English army en- 
 camped here. As you proceed down this avenue you get a view 
 on the right, at a distance across the Seine, of the Hotel des In- 
 valides, with its gilded dome ; and still farther on, and just before 
 you enter the gardens of the Tuileries, you come to the Place 
 de Concorde. And here you must pause, not only to see, but to 
 think ; for you are now on one of the most remarkable spots on 
 
 * There are twenty-five French leagues to a degree, which will give 2.88 statute 
 miles to the league. 
 
22 FRANCE. 
 
 the globe— remarkable for its historic associations and for its 
 prospective beauties. Face to the south, and you have before 
 you, but just across the Seine, the fine edifice of the Chamber of 
 Deputies. This is approached across the bridge of Louis XVI., 
 a noble structure, adorned on each side with six fine colossal 
 statues, twelve in the whole, standing upon pedestals in the para- 
 pet walls, of such men as Conde, Sully, Richelieu, Colbert, and 
 other statesmen, and naval and military heroes of France. At 
 each end of the statuary colonnade, and in a line with them, is a 
 military trophy, four in the whole, which add to the imposing 
 perspective. Turning from this position so as to face to the 
 right, your eye rests upon the avenue with its Elysian Fields, and 
 terminating in its monumental barriere* Turning again, you see to 
 the north the new and splendid Magdalen Church, directly oppo- 
 site to the Chamber of Deputies, and at about the same distance 
 from you, presenting her imposing front of Corinthian columns. 
 This church is approached by the Rue Royale, which enters at a 
 width of ninety feet, between two noble edifices of 288 feet 
 in length each. The fronts of these have projecting pavilions, 
 and there are arcades on the ground floor. The entire fronts of 
 these edifices are finished in a fine style of architecture, and 
 present to the beholder an imposing view, beautifully heightened 
 *by the perspective of the Magdalen up the intervening street, as 
 already mentioned. 
 
 As you turn to the right, you are delayed by an oblique view 
 of the magnificent Rue de Rivoli, with its noble range of public 
 and other buildings, and its beautiful arcades. At length, as you 
 face the east, your eye rests upon the beautiful gardens of the 
 Tuileries, and the bold pavilions of the palace rising beyond them. 
 Such are the four cardinal points of view from this most extraor- 
 dinary spot. 
 
 But I said this spot was remarkable for its historic associa- 
 tions ; for this was the site of the revolutionary guillotine, and 
 the earth on which you now stand w r as so soaked and saturated 
 with plebeian, noble, and even royal blood, that for a long time, 
 
 * Just before you, at the entrance of the Elysian Fields, are two lofty pedestals, one on 
 each side of the street, surmounted by groups in marble, representing a restiff horse 
 held by his driver. The workmanship is by Coustace. They were brought to Paris 
 from Marly in 1794. 
 
PLACE DE CONCORDE. 23 
 
 it is said, it would not tread down and become compact like other 
 earth. 
 
 Here were slaughtered, from the twenty -first of January, 1793, 
 to the third of May, 1795, in the space of two years and four 
 months, 2800 persons, among whom were Louis XVI. on Janu- 
 ary 21, 1793; same year, October 16, Marie Antoinette, the 
 queen ; November 14, the Duke of Orleans ; and after them, in 
 rapid succession, as the different factions were succeeded and 
 overpowered by their successors, Herbert and his parly in March 
 25, 1794, and on April 8, Danton and his party ; April' 16, Bishop 
 Gobel and his faction, called the faction of the atheists ; July 28, 
 Robespierre and his faction, and the next day seventy members 
 of the Commune of Paris ; and on May 12, of the same year, 
 Elizabeth, sister of Louis XVL, with many others. This was 
 truly the year of slaughter, and this spot was the slaughter-house, 
 where licentiousness became its own executioner, and the mur- 
 derers in turn became the murdered. 
 
 This place, like most other places and streets in Paris, has 
 borne a variety of names. It was formerly called Place Louis 
 XV., and here was an equestrian statue of this king, which was 
 destroyed by the mob on the 12th of August, 1792. This statue 
 was forced from the pedestal with difficulty, and one foot of the 
 horse still remained in the socket, which gave occasion for a 
 Parisian wit to say, " Royalty has yet one foot in the stirrup." 
 It now took the name of the Place de Revolution. In 1800 it 
 was named the Place de Concorde ; after the restoration and 
 accession of Charles X., it was changed to the Place Louis XVL, 
 with a statue of that unfortunate monarch. Since the revolution 
 of 1831 the statue is removed, and the old name of Place de Con- 
 corde restored.* 
 
 In ascending up to the Madeleine Church from the Place de 
 Concorde, you enter the Boulevards of the North. Boulevard 
 signifies a bulwark ; and the wide streets, so called, which form so 
 important a feature in the city of Paris, received their character 
 and appellation from the fact that they are formed upon the site 
 
 * Since we were in Paris a splendid Egyptian obelisk has been erected there. This, 
 as it is a monument of no party or dynasty, but merely a work of art and an ornamental 
 monument, will doubtless be suffered to stand, let whatever changes be made in the gov- 
 ernment. It was brought from ancient Thebes, and is eighty feet in height. 
 
24 PRANCE. 
 
 of the walls and fortresses that formerly surrounded the city when 
 it was a fortified town. These fortifications were demolished in 
 the reign of Louis XIV., about 1670, and streets were commenced 
 by this monarch on the ruins of the fortifications, which have 
 been extended at different times, until they now form a line of 
 spacious streets, bearing different names in different sections, of 
 rather an irregular character, extending, with very little interrup- 
 tion, quite round the interior part of the city. I say interior, be- 
 cause the city has been extended in every direction beyond these 
 ancient bulwarks, so that not half of what is now the city of Paris 
 lies within the boulevards. This gives rise to the faubourgs, so 
 called, which are another feature of this city that all must have 
 noticed who have read much of Paris. The word faubourgs 
 means suburbs, and they are so called because they are exterior 
 to what was formerly the city. The sections against each of the 
 boulevards respectively constitute the faubourgs, which gener- 
 ally, though not always, take the name of the boulevard by which 
 each is bounded, as the Faubourg de Poissonniere, opposite the 
 Boulevard Poissonniere, and so of the rest. These general and 
 prominent localities and streets, although they seem to have been 
 rather accidental than from design, contribute very much to aid 
 the stranger in examining the city, and in forming a correct idea 
 of its parts and localities ; and the boulevards, from their ample 
 width, their splendid shops and thronging multitudes, especially 
 in some portion of the section north of the Seine, present perhaps 
 the gayest and liveliest aspect of the city. 
 
 The river Seine, by a bold sweep to the north, runs through the 
 city, dividing it into two unequal parts, leaving two thirds of the 
 territory, and perhaps three fourths of the population, on the right 
 or northern side ; and this has divided the boulevards into the 
 Northern and Southern.* I will not trouble myself or the reader 
 by giving the names of the different boulevards, but can hardly 
 refrain from noticing, as one of the striking incongruities in names, 
 as well as of many others in reality, which occur in Paris, that 
 the boulevards in the southern section, d'Enfer and du Mont Par- 
 nasse, literally the streets of Hell and of Mount Parnassus, run 
 into each other.! 
 
 * The northern are altogether 5067 yards in length, and the southern 16,100. 
 
 t It should be noticed, perhaps, in order to perfect accuracy, that all the city south 
 
PUBLIC WALKS. 25 
 
 In addition to these interior boulevards, a circle of streets quite 
 round the city, outside the present walls, has been opened, called 
 the Exterior Boulevards. These are planted with trees, and form 
 an interesting drive. They give an air of magnificence to the en- 
 virons, not readily conceived of unless seen, and the more so as 
 the uniformity is broken up by the successive barriers which form 
 the outlets of the city, and by the wide roads, many of them stud- 
 ded with lofty trees, which lead off in various directions to different 
 parts of the kingdom. 
 
 Another striking feature of Paris is the river Seine, especially 
 as it is adorned on either side through its whole length by fine 
 quays, and spanned at unequal distances by a score of bridges, 
 some of them very beautiful, and broken into an interesting 
 variety about the centre of the city by several islands, the largest 
 of which, called the Isle de la Cite, is crowned, in addition to other 
 public edifices, with the towering Cathedral of Notre Dame. 
 
 Another interesting feature of Paris is its public grounds and 
 gardens. The Elysian Fields and the gardens of the Tuileries, 
 stretching along on the north bank of the Seine, and extending to 
 the very heart of the city, have already been mentioned. The 
 principal, besides, are on the south side of the river, of which the 
 Champ de Mars and the Esplanade des Invalides in the west, 
 the gardens of the Luxembourg in the centre, and the Garden of 
 Plants in the east, are the most important. All these grounds are 
 open to the public, and the gardens of the Tuileries and of the 
 Luxembourg, the former of which contains nearly seventy acres, 
 are ornamented with elegant statuary, fountains, and pools, and 
 are laid out with gravel-walks, furnished with seats, and shaded 
 with trees. Here, in pleasant weather, the parks are filled with 
 lounging citizens, talking or reading the gazettes, and curious 
 strangers spying out the wonders of the place, and hundreds of 
 playful children, with their nursery-maids, sporting in the shade or 
 basking in the sun. The Camp of Mars is in front of the Poly- 
 technic or Military School, and is used, as its name imports, for a 
 parade-ground and military reviews. Of the Garden of Plants I 
 shall speak elsewhere. 
 
 Having given this general geographical view of Paris, I shall 
 
 of the Seine is divided into faubourgs. The Faubourg St. Germaine contains most of 
 the population in this part of the city, and is wholly within the interior boulevards. 
 
 3 D 
 
26 FRANCE. 
 
 proceed to mention briefly some of the most important edifices 
 and other objects of art in this extraordinary city. It ought, 
 however, to be said, by way of caution, here, that these splendid 
 features in the physical character of Paris are but magnificent 
 parts and points in a city, the greater part of which, after all, is 
 crowded together without order, miserably built on narrow and 
 crooked streets, which, for the most part, are uninteresting and in- 
 supportably dirty. 
 
 The architecture of Paris is decidedly Grecian, and much of it 
 Corinthian, and is of a character to excite much interest in all the 
 lovers of the art. Among the most interesting, of course, are the 
 royal and other palaces : of these there are ten or twelve noble 
 edifices, of which, however, it is impossible to speak particularly. 
 The palaces of the Tuileries and of the Louvre are the most prom- 
 inent, both on account of their situation and present use, the one 
 being the royal residence, and the other containing the galleries 
 of the fine arts, as also on account of their architecture and extent. 
 The palace of the Tuileries was commenced by Catharine de 
 Medicis in 1564, in a place then without the walls, and occupied 
 as tile or brick kilns ; hence the name, palace of the Tuileries, 
 or of the tile-kilns. 
 
 The front of the palace is 1008 feet in length and 108 in 
 breadth. The roof is relieved by three magnificent pavilions, 
 which give the whole an imposing appearance. On the side next 
 the river this palace is connected with the Louvre by a gallery 
 1300 French feet in length, the upper part of which is appropri- 
 ated to the collection of paintings. On the other side also a gal- 
 lery, to correspond with this, is commenced, but is as yet unfinished. 
 A court is thus formed between the two palaces, called the Place 
 du Carrousel, from a splendid tournament held there by Louis 
 XIV. in 1662. Fifteen thousand troops, it is said, consisting of 
 cavalry and infantry, can go through their exercises with ease in 
 this place. Here, and near to the Tuileries, is the triumphal arch 
 erected by Napoleon in 1806 to the glory of the French arms, 
 after the designs of Perrier and Fontaine. The arch was sur- 
 mounted by a triumphal chariot, to which were harnessed the 
 famous gilt bronze horses which Napoleon brought from Venice. 
 These were returned at the " restoration of all things" by the Le- 
 gitimates in 1815, but their places have been supplied by four 
 
THE PALAIS ROYAL. 27 
 
 horses in bronze after the same model, and, it is thought, equal to 
 them in form and attitude. These are by Bosio, and were placed 
 here in 1828. 
 
 This arch, however, is too small for its position, and the general 
 effect is not in accordance with surrounding objects. 
 
 The Louvre was commenced on the site of an old Gothic 
 structure by Francis I. in 1528, but it was never completed until 
 Napoleon, who accomplished almost everything, undertook it. 
 For fifteen years the work was conducted under his direction, 
 and finally completed in its present beautiful form. The eastern 
 front is 525 feet "in length and 85 in height. It is built in the 
 form of a square, enclosing a court with equilateral sides of 400 
 feet each. This court is a splendid exhibition of architectural 
 beauty. It abounds in sculpture of various kinds, in niches and 
 in bassrelief, and is ornamented with 538 Corinthian columns and 
 pilasters. 
 
 In passing up from the Place de Concorde you enter successively 
 the garden of the Tuileries, pass under or through the palace by 
 open arches — under the triumphal arch — through the Place du 
 Carrousel — through the east front of the palace of the Louvre — 
 by arches as before into the court, and thence through the western 
 front, beyond which you are speedily buried in an irregular built, 
 dirty, crowded part of the city. So true it is, here, as from almost 
 every other point of interest in Paris, " from the sublime to the 
 ridiculous there is but a step." But taking this whole route from 
 the Barriere VEtoile to the western front of the Louvre, where 
 can the like be found in Europe or in the world ? No localities 
 that I have ever seen or read of, in one contiguous succession, 
 present such a splendid variety of avenues, streets, parks, gardens, 
 bridges, monuments, statuary, triumphal arches, public edifices, 
 courts, and palaces, as this. 
 
 The Palais Royal is the residence of the king's eldest son, the 
 Duke of Orleans. It is very near the Tuileries, standing but 
 very little to the north of the Place du Carrousel — and yet it is so 
 shut in by crowded and narrow streets that it makes no show 
 until you get into it ; and when you enter it, your first impression 
 is that you have found a splendid edifice that had been lost. This 
 has been the scene of many fruitful events in the history of France. 
 The first revolutionary meetings were held in the gardens and 
 
 
23 FRANCE. 
 
 galleries of this palace in 1789. Here the pope, and afterward 
 Lafayette, were burnt in effigy. Here the tri-coloured cockade 
 was adopted. The splendid arcades, gardens, and galleries of 
 this palace are principally noticeable now as being the grand 
 central point of business, fashion, and pleasure of this most 
 pleasure-seeking and sensual city. Here are cafes, restaurans, and 
 estaminets (smoking-houses) of the highest and most refined 
 order. Here are shops containing everything that can be thought 
 of or desired, arranged in the most splendid manner. Here ladies 
 of easy virtue, it is said, resort in great numbers, and here are 
 some of the most noted gaming-houses in Paris, the extent of which 
 may be judged of by the fact that the owners pay to the city about 
 1,300,000 dollars annually, and that the sums staked here yearly 
 amount to about 60,000,000 dollars * 
 
 In short, if any one wishes to have a condensed view of Paris- 
 ian frivolity, sensuality, profligacy and debauchery, splendour and 
 fashion, let him go and spend an evening at the Palais Royal. 
 
 The palace of the Luxembourg is so called from the Duke of 
 Luxembourg, who owned and adorned these grounds and edifices 
 in the latter part of the sixteenth century. It has undergone 
 various changes since, and had different names, until, last of all, 
 since the restoration of the Bourbons, it has been devoted to the 
 sittings of the House of Peers. But notwithstanding a marble 
 slab placed over the entrance, announcing that it is henceforth to 
 be called the Chamber of Peers, yet its old name is still retained 
 in common language. A part of the interior is also devoted as a 
 picture-gallery, where is a collection of the finest paintings of 
 modern French artists. The edifice is built round a court, form- 
 ing a parallelogram of 360 feet by 300, and is beautifully pro- 
 portioned. The gardens are to me, on the whole, more interest- 
 ing in their general aspect than those of the Tuileries, for the 
 reason, I suppose, that the surface is more varied and uneven. 
 The statuary, however, shows the vandalism of revolutionary vi- 
 olence, being basely mutilated and disfigured. From this garden 
 through a spacious avenue may be seen in the distance the Na- 
 tional Observatory. 
 
 But I must have done with palaces — of churches I would say 
 
 * All the public gambling-houses of France have lately, since I left Paris, been discon- 
 tinued and prohibited by law. 
 
CHURCHES. 29 
 
 something ; yet I fear these details of description will prove tedious 
 to my readers, and I will therefore be brief. 
 
 The churches in France are generally badly kept, and bear 
 evident marks of neglect; and though they now, it is said, are 
 more frequented than at any former period since the revolution, 
 still it is evident, religion is not a prominent feature in the French 
 character. The French are Catholics three times in their lives, 
 viz., at christening, marriage, and death. In general, but few, es- 
 pecially in Paris, attend church. There are in Paris but about 
 fifty churches, including chapels of ease and churches attached to 
 convents, hospitals, &c. The average attendance on these would 
 not, probably, exceed three hundred ; and it is the opinion of those 
 whom I have consulted, and who have the .best opportunity of 
 knowing, that this would be a large calculation. This would 
 give an average attendance on church service of only about fifteen 
 thousand out of a population of not much short of a million of 
 souls, that is, one in sixty-six ; and I verily fear that this is giving 
 them more credit for attention to religion than is true. A 
 number of the churches included in the above are not used at all 
 for purposes of Divine worship. Among these is Ste. Genevieve, 
 or, as it is now called, the Pantheon — a church for " all the gods !" 
 and, in fact, for no god. Ste. Genevieve was buried here in 5 1 2, in 
 a church which had been built by Clovis, the first Christian king, 
 at her solicitation. She became the patron saint of Paris, and 
 the church took her name. On the .ruins of this church another 
 was commenced in 1764 by Louis XV. It is a magnificent 
 building. The dome shows at a great distance, and to great ad- 
 vantage. The appearance of the dome is that of a smaller temple 
 elevated on the top of a larger. It is surrounded by thirty-two col- 
 umns, and surmounted by a ball and gilt cross. The entire height 
 of the dome is 282 feet. The portico is adorned with twenty-two 
 fluted Corinthian columns, forty feet in height; above this the 
 workmen were engaged in forming some bassreliefs to take the 
 place of a former group, which was thought not in good taste. 
 The church is a Greek cross 340 feet long and 250 feet broad, 
 each branch of which is again formed into a cross, so that there 
 is-cne large cross which comprises four smaller ones. One hun- 
 dred and thirty fluted columns of the Corinthian order adorn the 
 interior, and the dome is supported by heavy colums, ornamented 
 3 
 
30 FRANCE. 
 
 with pilasters. In the latter part of the last century this church 
 was consecrated for a burial-place for the heroes of the illustrious 
 men of the French nation, for which the immense sepulchral vault 
 underneath was well suited. Divine service in it was discontin- 
 ued, and the remains of Voltaire and Rousseau were transported 
 here in great pomp. Mirabeau was also buried here. Here is 
 also the tomb of La Grange, and various others. The cicerone, in 
 conducting us round, put on a bombastic air, and said off his ora- 
 tion at each tomb with great pomposity. 
 
 In 1821, Louis XVIII. , in the plenitude of his zeal for Christi- 
 anity, restored this church to its original design. Since the last 
 revolution, however, it has been again dismantled interiorly of its 
 altars and shrines, and is nothing but a plain and naked monumental 
 edifice, with here and there a tablet recording the names of those 
 who perished in the revolution of July, 1830. The building cost 
 above three millions of dollars. 
 
 The church of the Hotel des Invalides is a beautiful edifice. 
 It may, in fact, be called a double church, divided by a high altar 
 m the centre, which faces both ways, and accommodates both 
 churches. The northern part is devoted to worship ; the other 
 seems to be, like the Pantheon, a mere monumental edifice ; it is 
 called the Dome, and is supposed by some to be the finest piece 
 of architecture in Paris. 
 
 The outside of the Dome has the rare ornament of being gilt. 
 I recollect to have heard it said somewhere that this was done by 
 Napoleon as an alterative, as the physicians would say, to the 
 type of a popular fever. Some indications were given among the 
 Parisians of a restlessness that did not argue well for the public 
 peace. " Go," said Napoleon, who well knew the temperament 
 of the patient under his treatment, " go gild the dome of the Hotel 
 des Invalides" It was done — and all the effervescence of public 
 feeling passed off in admiration of this new wonder. 
 
 The Magdalene Church has already been alluded to. I know 
 of nothing in France more beautiful than the external character 
 of this church. The interior not being finished, spectators were 
 not admitted. 
 
 A church was commenced on this site in 1764, under Louis 
 XV. The edifice was suspended at the Revolution, 1789 But 
 in 1808 Napoleon took down all that had been done, with the de* 
 
THE MAGDALENE CHURCH. 31 
 
 sign of erecting a Temple of Glory, dedicated to the grand army. 
 This edifice was commenced, and was suspended again in 1813. 
 But after the Restoration in 1816 it was resumed for a monu- 
 mental church to Louis XVI. and his queen, Louis XVII., &c. 
 This was again suspended by the Revolution of July, 1830, but 
 is now in a state of forwardness under Louis Philippe, to whose 
 lot it has fallen to complete more than one work designed and 
 commenced by preceding dynasties.* It is a parallelogram, and 
 is finished in the style of a Grecian temple, surrounded on three 
 sides by a splendid portico of Corinthian columns, resting on an 
 elevated basement, and surmounted by a beautiful entablature, 
 with an ornamented frieze of bassrelief. Over the front portico 
 is a magnificent bassrelief, representing either the Judgment, or 
 Paradise and Purgatory, I could not tell which — I should think it 
 was the former, only that Mary Magdalene is kneeling, apparently 
 to supplicate mercy for the wretched sinners who are at the left 
 hand of the judge — which would not be exactly in accordance, I 
 should think, with good taste and good theology, even with the 
 Catholics, who certainly cannot suppose the day of judgment a 
 day for showing mercy. There they are, however, the Saviour 
 in the centre, and a company of happy personages on the right 
 hand, and on the left wretched victims writhing in torment. 
 Among the latter Judas looks unutterable horror, as he holds up 
 by both his hands his gushing bowels. The figure of Mary 
 is out of all taste, being altogether too diminutive for the rest of 
 the group, But the countenance of the judge is above all praise. 
 It is enough to say of it that it is such a countenance as becomes 
 the Judge of the universe. 
 
 It has already been mentioned that, for purposes of worship, 
 the churches are comparatively deserted; they are still frequented 
 for marriages and funerals ; and, whether there be worshippers or 
 not, the ceremony of the mass still goes on. In one of the 
 churches we visited there were, at one and the same time, at dif- 
 ferent altars, the ceremonies of the mass, matrimony, and a funeral 
 service. This spectacle struck us, who were unused to such ex- 
 hibitions, as peculiarly incongruous. And yet it was but a con- 
 densed exhibition of what is constantly passing in society. The 
 
 * It is not to be presumed that its present destination is a monumental church, for the 
 Bourbons. 
 
32 FRANCE. 
 
 gay bridal party and the funeral procession, marriages and deaths, 
 make up the great portion of human history. We needed but. a 
 christening to have rendered the picture complete. 
 
 Of the theatres in Paris I will say nothing, save that, including 
 six small ones without the barriers, there are twenty-seven in the 
 whole, besides six or seven other places for rope-dancing, panto- 
 mime, and other comic performances ; and that these places, it is 
 said, are generally crowded, and most of them are open on Sun- 
 days. 
 
 Of the numerous hospitals and benevolent institutions I can 
 mention but a few, and those, chiefly, which may throw some 
 light on the French character and peculiar usages. 
 
 Among these, the Hospice des Enfans-tr olive's, or Foundling 
 Hospital, stands pre-eminent, for the reason that it designates, to 
 a great degree, the prevalence of illicit love. The first thing that 
 struck my attention in visiting this hospital was a box beside the 
 door, which communicates with the room within. Here the 
 mother or her friend, who wishes to be unknown, places her in- 
 fant and retires, without questioning or being questioned, and, in 
 fact, without being seen. The little stranger is immediately 
 pulled in and committed to the care of the nurse. Within, we 
 found some fifteen or twenty who were just rolled up in their 
 swaddling bands, and the nurses from the country were standing 
 by to take them. In other apartments were the sick, snugly laid 
 by in rows of neat little cots on each side, covered with snow- 
 white curtains. All the apartments were well arranged and very 
 cleanly. The Sisters of Charity were the attendants and nurses. 
 The number received into this hospice annually is six or seven 
 thousand, although it is not pretended that they are all born out 
 of matrimony, since legitimate parents may place their chil- 
 dren here if they find it inconvenient to take care of them ; but 
 the greater part are, doubtless, illegitimate. Indeed, it is ascer- 
 tained by the census and the records of births, that about one third 
 of all the births in Paris are of illegitimate children. And it can- 
 not be doubted but that the Foundling Hospital is an encourage- 
 ment to this, by affording such a ready opportunity for conceal- 
 ment, and so easy a method of disposing of the fruits of unlawful 
 intercourse. On the other hand it is pleaded, with truth, no doubt, 
 that this provision prevents, in numerous instances, the sin of in- 
 
INSTITUTION FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB. 33 
 
 fanticide. But is this a sufficient justification for the encourage- 
 ment of evil ? Not more of these children are raised, probably, 
 than would be without this provision ; for I think not more than 
 one third of all who enter here are raised to maturity. 
 
 The Hotel des Invalides, the church of which has been already 
 noticed, is a splendid building, the object of which is to support 
 the old and disabled soldiers and officers of the army. The pres- 
 ent edifice was commenced in 1670 by Louis XIV., whose nu- 
 merous wars had greatly increased the number of invalid soldiers, 
 and rendered an enlargement of the existing accommodations for 
 these servants of his ambition absolutely necessary. It is now a 
 very spacious edifice, presenting a northern front of six hundred 
 and twelve feet in length. Through this you pass by an elegant 
 columnar vestibule into a court, which some have supposed one 
 of the finest specimens of architecture in France, and, of course,^ 
 a Frenchman would say, "the finest in the world." It is sur- 
 rounded by four piles of buildings, projecting in the centre, pavil- 
 ioned at the angles, and ornamented with two ranges, one above 
 the other, of beautiful arcades. In these piles. are the various 
 rooms for the refectories, lodgings, public saloons, &c. One in- 
 teresting feature is the library, containing twenty thousand vol- 
 umes, founded by Napoleon, which is open daily, except on Sun- 
 days and festivals, for all the inmates of the hospital. This hos- 
 pice can accommodate seven thousand. But probably less than 
 one third of that number are now connected with the establish- 
 ment ; and, if peace continues, their number will, of course, con- 
 tinually diminish. 
 
 Time would fail to speak of the numerous charitable institu- 
 tions of Paris ; but I ought not to pass, without a slight notice at 
 least, the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb ; not because such 
 an institution is now a new phenomenon, but because to France 
 the world i3 indebted for the noble system of education which is 
 now so deservedly popular, and by which this unhappy class of 
 our fellow-beings are let into a new world of thought and useful- 
 ness. 
 
 The Abbe de VEpee formed the first school of this kind at his 
 own expense, and succeeded so well that he attracted the atten- 
 tion and patronage of government to his benevolent enterprise. 
 In 1785 it was endowed with an annual grant of 3400 livres, and 
 E 
 
 
34 FRANCE. 
 
 in 1 790, on the death of the abbe, it was put under the care of the 
 Abbe Sicard. Eighty are here supported gratuitously, besides 
 twenty others who are partly supported ; and then an indefinite 
 number is taken at a price of nine hundred francs per annum for 
 males and eight hundred for females. 
 
 The Place Vendome is of itself an elegant square of about four 
 hundred and fifty by four hundred and twenty feet, and surround- 
 ed by fine buildings ; but its principal interest is the column, or 
 triumphal pillar, erected by Bonaparte to commemorate his vic- 
 tories in Germany in the famous campaign of 1805. It is finished 
 on the same principle with the celebrated Trajan's Pillar in Rome, 
 but is one twelfth larger, being one hundred and thirty-five feet in 
 height, with a diameter of twelve feet. The pedestal is twenty- 
 two feet in height, and about twenty in breadth. The centre of 
 the shaft is of stone, but is covered throughout with bronze cast 
 in plates from twelve hundred pieces of cannon taken from the 
 Russians and Austrians during the campaign above mentioned, the 
 whole weighing about three hundred and sixty thousand pounds. 
 
 The bronze plates are ^cast and put on in such a manner that 
 the bassrelief winds round the pillar in a spiral form, from the 
 bottom to the top, covered with figures two thousand in number, 
 so arranged as to be a chronological representation of the entire 
 campaign, from the time the encampment was broken up at Bou- 
 logne, where Napoleon had so long encamped to menace England, 
 until the battle of Austerlitz, which gave him the power of dicta- 
 ting a peace on his own terms. The figures are three feet in 
 height, and the entire spiral band is eight hundred and forty feet. 
 At the top is a gallery, which is approached by an interior stair- 
 case, and surmounted by a colossal statue of Napoleon in bronze, 
 eleven feet in height. This was taken down during the last reign 
 of the Bourbons ; but, since their expulsion, it has been restored. 
 
 From this elevation there are not unfrequently suicidal leaps 
 upon the pavement below by those who, weary of life, wish never- 
 theless to die a sentimental death at the foot of Napoleon's column, 
 and under the very eye of the hero. 
 
 La Bourse, or the Exchange, is another splendid Parisian edi- 
 fice. It stands on the site of an ancient convent, so that where 
 the God of heaven was once worshipped, to the exclusion alto- 
 gether of worldly business, the god of mammon now holds his 
 
LA BOURSE. 35 
 
 palace and his court, and receives daily the homage of thousands 
 of worshippers. This edifice was commenced by Napoleon in 
 1808, after designs by Brogniard, but was left by him unfinished, 
 and was not completed until 1826. It is two hundred and twelve 
 by one hundred and twenty-six feet, and is entirely surrounded by 
 a peristyle of sixty-six Corinthian columns, surmounted by an en- 
 tablature and an attic. The principal room is one hundred and 
 sixteen by seventy-six feet, surrounded by a gallery, and lighted 
 from the roof. Into this gallery I entered during the hours of 
 business, and beheld a singular phenomenon of sound. It was 
 owing to the ring and echo of the edifice. The thousands below 
 were carrying on their noisy operations — for all business in Paris 
 almost must be vociferous — and the sounds echoing and re-echo- 
 ing from the arcades, and galleries, and dome, were as the sound 
 of many waters tumbling over the cataract of Niagara. Here, 
 too, another sense was deceived. The roof is ornamented with 
 paintings in chiaroscuro* of the colour of marble, and so finely 
 executed, and so favoured by the light, that I mistook them for 
 sculpture, after examining for a considerable time with great ad- 
 miration ; nor did I discover my mistake until I left, and was cor- 
 rected by one to whom I spake of the "beautiful sculpture" in the 
 roof of the Bourse. 
 
 The French are a gambling nation, and they are as fond of gam- 
 bling in stocks as in other games of chance and skill. This 
 makes the business of the Exchange a great business for high 
 and low. Even some females engage in this kind of speculation. 
 I was told of a lady in Paris with whom this kind of gambling 
 had become a sort of mania, by which she had ruined a splendid 
 fortune. 
 
 * This is a species of painting of only one colour, designed, like sculpture, to give 
 form only, which is done by the skilfulness of the shading. 
 
 
36 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 I am aware that it is impossible for me to describe all that ig 
 interesting in the public buildings of Paris of various kinds. If 
 my plan would permit, I might describe the various public offices 
 in detail, and the edifices where they are kept, some of which 
 are well worthy of attention and description. I might speak of 
 the markets, of which there are above thirty, some of which are 
 peculiar, as, for example, the wine-market, to which are often 
 brought 1500 casks per day, and the buildings of which will con- 
 tain 800,000 casks. In the front of this market is a garden, in 
 which there are scores of neat little cabins, not much larger than 
 large sentinel-boxes, which are the offices of the dealers in wine. 
 I might speak of the abattoirs, or slaughter-houses, five of which, 
 planned and commenced by Napoleon, have been fitted up with 
 great accommodations at different sides of the city and quite at 
 the extremities, so that no cattle are driven through the town — an 
 arrangement greatly to be commended, and which is felt the more 
 by the traveller recently from London, where, at times, and in 
 certain streets, it is almost impossible to pass for the crowds of 
 cattle that are urged through the town to Smithfield market, as 
 though there was a necessity of devoting life, either of heretics 
 or lower animals, on that ill-fated spot. 
 
 I might describe the fountains, of which there are nearly sev- 
 enty, conveying water through some 130 or 140 different ori- 
 fices. Many of these were the work of Napoleon, and some 
 were planned by him and not finished ; one especially, the model 
 of which still remains, on a most magnificent scale. It is situated 
 in the Place de la Bastille, a spot very celebrated in the history 
 of Paris, and rendered more notorious by the prison here having 
 been broken open by the revolutionists on the fourteenth of July, 
 1789, and demolished the next year by order of the National 
 Assembly. This fountain was to be erected on an arch to be 
 thrown over the canal St. Martin, which now passes through the 
 Place Bastille, and was to consist of a huge elephant, seventy- 
 
CEMETERIES OF PARIS. 37 
 
 two feet high, including a tower on his back, and his legs were to be 
 six feet in diameter, the interior of one of which was to contain the 
 staircase, and the water was to issue from his trunk. The model 
 still stands enclosed, but the work, it is feared, will never be com- 
 pleted. The unfinished colossal designs of Bonaparte can hardly 
 be grappled by his successors. 
 
 The water of the fountains of Paris is not generally conveyed 
 by pipes to the different streets and houses, as in Philadelphia 
 and some other cities, but is taken at the fountains by carriers, 
 and conveyed either in casks or in pails, by neck-yokes, to the 
 different houses, and sold. The water of Paris, it is computed, 
 costs the citizens nearly one million of dollars annually, without 
 reckoning anything for the cost and repair of the aqueducts. 
 
 The aqueducts and fountains are supplied with water from the 
 Seine, elevated by steam power ; by water from the river Ourcq, 
 which is conducted to Paris by a canal ; and by some natural 
 springs in elevated situations in the neighbourhood. 
 
 The water of the Seine is very thick and muddy, and has to 
 undergo a thorough filtration before it can be used, so that every 
 family is obliged to keep a filter. And even after this process the 
 water appears to possess a cathartic quality, which often affects 
 strangers seriously at their first residence in Paris. 
 
 I ought also to say something of the cemeteries of this renowned 
 city — not renowned the least for its receptacles of the dead. 
 The catacombs were originally quarries which had been worked 
 from time immemorial for the procuring of stone for architectural 
 purposes, extending quite under that part of the city which is in 
 the neighbourhood of the Luxembourg. These quarries were 
 fitted up in 1784 and 5 to receive the bones of an extensive cem- 
 etery in the centre of Paris, which had become a public nuisance, 
 and endangered the health of the citizens. After this, bones from 
 other suppressed burial-places were also deposited here ; and, 
 after the revolution commenced, the thousands who perished in 
 the popular tumults were thrown in here, as also the bones found 
 in the cemeteries of the suppressed convents and churches ; so 
 that here are gathered together, in one vast charnel-house, the 
 millions that have been swept away by the common destroyer 
 through scores of generations. One passage to this physical 
 Hades is near the Barrwre d'Enfer, literally the " Gate of Hell !" 
 
38 FRANCE. 
 
 What a fearful association ! alas, how many whose bones are 
 here deposited may have entered through that gate f for " wide 
 is the gate that leadeth to death, and many there be that go in 
 thereat." These catacombs are not now open to the public, on 
 account, it is said, of repairs that are in progress. 
 
 To prevent further inconvenience from burying the dead within 
 the walls, five spacious cemeteries have been provided without 
 the walls, the most celebrated of which, Pere la Chaise, we 
 visited — and although we had intended to give it but a passing 
 glance, yet the interest of the place held us there from morning 
 till nightfall ; and even then, but for the fatigue of the visit, its 
 interest would scarcely have been abated, much less destroyed. 
 
 This cemetery is situated on the slope of a hill, upon ground 
 formerly occupied by Pere la Chaise, hence its name, and after- 
 ward by an establishment of the Jesuits, and contains about one 
 hundred acres. It was laid out by Brogniard with a great deal 
 of judgment and taste, and has been ornamented with cypresses, 
 poplars, and other trees and shrubbery. It has some principal 
 thoroughfares, and numerous serpentine paths, and is adorned 
 with an immense number of most beautiful and expensive monu- 
 ments. Some of them are temples, others are pyramids and 
 obelisks. Here is a column, there an altar, and there a sepul- 
 chral chapel. These latter are numerous, and are frequently 
 fitted up in the interior with a little altar and seats, and furnished 
 with prayer-books, lamps, &c. Into these chapels we could look 
 through the windows, and there, in several instances, we found 
 we had intruded upon the solitude and grief of a widow or a 
 mother, who had shut herself in, clad in weeds, and perhaps suf- 
 fused in tears, to spend some hours of mourning and gloom in 
 close association with departed friends. Here, too, were little 
 enclosures of flowers, which are cultivated with great care — some 
 of the friends hire a gardener to keep their sepulchral plants 
 and blossoms in perpetual verdure. The monuments were al- 
 most all hung round with wreaths, either of artificial or natural 
 flowers,* which are duly renewed on "All Souls' Day," if 
 not oftener ; for this is a day which, in Catholic countries, is 
 sacred to the dead, and almost all Paris on this day pass out to 
 
 * The natural flower most in use is the Yellow Everlasting, or Gnaphalium Glomeratum y 
 originally from the Cape of Good Hope. 
 
EFFECTS OF A FALSE AND CORRECT VIEW OF RELIGION. 39 
 
 the cemeteries, to garnish their sepulchres and commemorate the 
 death of their departed friends. 
 
 In some of these little chapels where children were buried we 
 noticed, as an extremely common practice, that there were de- 
 posited and arranged all the little furniture, bawbles, and toys that 
 adorned their playhouses when alive, as gloomy, and yet expres- 
 sive and exquisite remembrances of the playful babes that had 
 been snatched away by death. 
 
 That kind of sentimental materialism which prevails in France 
 is well suited to prompt to this adorning of their sepulchres and 
 attention to the relics of departed friends. The reign of vulgar 
 atheism, such as led the revolutionary fanatics to declare death 
 an eternal sleep, and to worship reason in the character and per- 
 son of a harlot, was not sufficiently refined even for a decent re- 
 spect for the dead. Then, it is said, bodies were tumbled into 
 the pit without even the decencies of the rites of sepulture. A 
 correct view of religion and of revelation, on the other hand, 
 while it leads to a respectful interment of the body, and perhaps 
 the respectful erection of some monument to the memory of the 
 deceased, teaches us to remember, after all, that the entombed 
 body is not the friend we have lost — that all that is essential to 
 him or her we once loved has gone, leaving only the gross tene- 
 ment behind. But the refined skeptic, with some vague religious 
 feeling — mixed with much sentimentalism and materiality— 
 doubting of everything he cannot see and feel, hangs around the 
 mouldering dust of a departed friend as though this were all. It 
 is in this way I account for the excessive attention to the graves 
 and adorning of the sepulchres of the dead. It is an effort to 
 transform the valley of bones into a terrestrial paradise ; and al- 
 though there is an enchantment about it which for a moment al- 
 most takes away the gloom of the grave, and makes one willing, 
 he hardly knows why, to lay himself down in the marble temple 
 over which the honeysuckle wreaths its fragrant blossoms, and 
 around which the rose and the hyacinth diffuse their redolent 
 dew — where friends record their virtues on the enduring tablet, 
 and adorn their sepulchres with circling garlands, that at once 
 betoken the warmth and the perpetuity of their love ; yet it is an 
 earthly enchantment after all, and only tends to call off the mind 
 from the paradise above, and the awfully interesting realities of 
 the spiritual world. 
 
40 FRANCE. 
 
 In addition to the architectural beauty, and monumental mag- 
 nificence, and vegetable verdure and fragrance, and picturesque 
 scenery of Pere la Chaise, there is this one most interesting 
 and instructive feature in this marble city of the dead. It is a 
 biographical dictionary of the illustrious men of France of the 
 last generation — a dictionary whose pages combine all the excel- 
 lences of literal description and hieroglyphical representation, 
 set off with all the fascination of art, and enforced with all the in- 
 terest of most vivid and intimate association. This it is that 
 gives the charm to the spot, and holds the visitant spellbound in 
 the midst of an illustrious society, with whose character, and his- 
 tory, and works he seems to hold immediate communion, inde- 
 pendent of the forms and etiquette that embarrass living associa- 
 tions. The stranger here needs no introduction — the intercourse 
 is embarrassed by no harsh and unfamiliar accents of a foreign 
 tongue. And when he leaves the spot, it requires no effort of the 
 imagination to fancy that he has been in the society of a Four- 
 croy, a La Place, a Delille, a Talma, a Sicard, a Le Fevre, a 
 Massena — La Fontaine, David, and a host of others, whose names 
 are known not only to France, but to the world. With these 
 are others of various characters and professions, residing together, 
 as in the cities of the living, in the same neighbourhood. But 
 you are not obliged to be intimate with all ; you may select your 
 society, and converse only with such as are agreeable to your 
 own taste. 
 
 And here, too, among the moderns, you may find a few rare 
 associations of a former age, transported hither since the opening 
 of the cemetery in 1804. You will be especially struck at a 
 view of the sepulchral temple, with its five beautifully sculptured 
 steeples, and its fourteen columns, and ten arches exquisitely 
 wrought, of the celebrated sinners and penitents Abelard and He- 
 loise. This temple is formed out of the ruins of the Abbey of 
 the Paraclete, founded by Abelard, and of which Heloise was the 
 first abbess. Here, in monumental association, side by side, the 
 lovers lie in peace. Who that looks upon them can but sigh 
 for human frailty, at the same time that he feels compelled to 
 reprobate that feature of the Roman Church which, by unscrip- 
 tural prohibitions, lays a snare for the conscience, and, by enfor- 
 cing human enactments, does, more powerfully than Satan himself, 
 tempt to the violation of the law of God ! 
 
• ROYAL MANUFACTORIES. 41 
 
 But I must not stop to speak of particular monuments. In 
 discussing the subject of the cemeteries, however, it should be 
 mentioned that a part of the ground is devoted to the burial of the 
 poor ; and this part is broken up and used anew for the purposes 
 of burial every five years. Others, whose friends are not able to 
 purchase the land in fee, are buried on ground leased for six years 
 at a moderate fee. And others again are, for a still higher price, 
 favoured with a permanent and undisturbed resting-place for their 
 dust until the graves shall give up their dead. 
 
 There are topics enough in Paris to employ my attention and 
 my pen for months, but it is not my intention to dwell much longer 
 in this city. A few things more in and about Paris, and I must 
 leave it. 
 
 The government of France has formerly pursued a monopo- 
 lizing spirit, by which it has sought to draw manufactories and 
 merchandise into its own hands. Salt, tobacco, oil, &c, as mat- 
 ters of trade, have been royal monopolies ; so, in manufactories, 
 the government has always endeavoured to secure some of the 
 most important to itself. At present there are six royal manufac- 
 tories in and about Paris, viz. : tapestry, carpets, looking-glasses, 
 mosaic-work, snuff, and porcelain. Nowhere do you find look- 
 ing-glasses made so fine as in France. It is, in fact, a country 
 of mirrors ; the walls of the rooms, in some instances, are almost 
 lined with them, and they are framed into the walls of the build- 
 ings, and let with the apartments as regularly as the chimneys. 
 All experience, however, proves that government cannot man- 
 ufacture as cheap as private individuals. This, therefore, shows 
 the folly of any such government monopolies, and this, too, is a 
 doctrine now pretty well understood, even in France, as well as 
 elsewhere ; indeed, some of her political economists have been 
 the most decided in condemning and the most lucid in portraying 
 the evils of this system. Still the government holds on to 
 a few items of trade and manufacture, merely for the puposes 
 of revenue, such, for example, as the oil trade and the snuff manu- 
 factory. Others, again, are conducted by the government merely 
 for national pride, and for the purposes of court splendour or royal 
 munificence; and it cannot be doubted that, for perfection and 
 magnificence, nothing can excel some of these public productions, 
 4 F 
 
42 FRANCE. 
 
 I shall mention but two establishments, both of which are kept 
 up exclusively, I believe, for the purpose just mentioned. 
 
 The first of these is the Manufacture Royal des Gobelins. 
 This takes its name from a family of the name of Gobelin, who 
 owned the premises, and occupied them in dying wool ; afterward 
 they were used for tapestry ; and finally were, by the suggestion 
 of Colbert, whose policy it always was to make the government 
 an adventurer in business and trade, bought up by Louis XIV. 
 for a royal manufactory. It is now employed to furnish the royal 
 palaces, and for presents to foreign courts. We found the work- 
 men looking pale and sickly, and learned that they were poorly 
 paid. The work, however, is magnificent. We found a num- 
 ber of splendid pieces in the looms, and there many of them will 
 be for a long time to come, for some of the pieces are in the loom 
 for six years. They imitate, or rather work into the tapestry, 
 both the designs and the colours of the most celebrated pictures. 
 The weaver frequently has his model or copy behind him, and he 
 turns around occasionally to see the figure and the colour, which 
 he most perfectly and beautifully transfers to his web. One of 
 these pieces of tapestry, when finished, will sell for between three 
 and four thousand dollars. They are, however, not often sold, and 
 the whole concern is a tax upon government, and so far it may be 
 considered a dead loss in a pecuniary point of view ; but how 
 much is gained in point of refinement and the improvement and 
 gratification of taste is another question. The pecuniary loss to 
 the nation is certainly not so great as where government monop- 
 olizes an article for general consumption at an extravagant price, 
 such as it always must be if manufactured by government. It 
 is not the paying for a comparatively few articles of luxury at an 
 extravagant price, so much as the high price of the necessaries of 
 life, that impoverishes a nation. In addition, it may be said also 
 in favour of manufactures of this kind, that as they do not readily 
 pay in market for the extraordinary expense of manufacture, they 
 are not likely to be sustained at all, or, if sustained, not carried to 
 so great a state of perfection by individual enterprise or private 
 munificence. The Gobelin Tapestry, probably, never would have 
 been carried to its present state of perfection but for the govern- 
 ment, and the same may be said of the looking-glass factory ; per- 
 haps, at least, individual enterprise would not at so early a period 
 
SEVRES PORCELAIN-FACTORY. 43 
 
 have produced an article so perfect as is now manufactured at 
 the Manufacture Royal des Glaces. So early as 1688, the art 
 of casting the glass was discovered, and of polishing it by ma- 
 chinery. Now plates are cast and polished nine feet long by seven 
 wide, and sell for 2500 dollars. 
 
 But you will think I am giving an account of the Glass-factory 
 instead of the Gobelin. To return to them : at the Gobelin Fac- 
 tory they not only manufacture tapestry, but carpets also, of a 
 most splendid character, resembling the Persian carpets. Some 
 were in the looms when we were there for the royal palace, which 
 are thought superior even to the carpets of the East. The expense 
 of a moderate-sized carpet made here is 7 or 8000 dollars.* 
 
 The Sevres porcelain of France obtains its name from the 
 village where it is manufactured. This is a small village two 
 leagues west of Paris, and near the town and palace of St. Cloud. 
 The museum of the manufactory contains a collection of foreign 
 china, together with specimens of all the porcelain and earthen man- 
 ufactures of France, and also a collection of all the different wares 
 which have been made here since its first establishment in 1755. 
 Here we saw splendid and ample specimens from almost every 
 civilized country except our own. From the United States a saucer 
 only, I believe, was seen ; one of our company, an American, took 
 the director's address, and promised to send him specimens on 
 his return home. He said he had had many such promises, but 
 they had all failed. 
 
 This director, by-the-way, is M. Brogniard, the great naturalist, 
 to whom the unfinished labours of Cuvier were left at his lamented 
 death. He possesses as fine a physiognomy as I have seen in 
 France, and is in his manners a most complaisant gentleman. 
 
 I cannot pretend to give an account of the different steps in 
 the process of this manufacture, although they were all pointed 
 out to us, nor yet of the most splendid articles which were exhib- 
 ited in the show-rooms. Here were vases, cups, pitchers, urns, 
 figures, statues, table sets, toys, chimney ornaments, all of the 
 most splendid and costly character. The ware itself is of the 
 most perfect kind, and then the painting and the gilding, and the 
 
 * Some of the workmen were engaged in altering some of the old Bourbon carpets 
 which had in them the fleur-de-lys, because the French were unwilling that this former 
 national emblem should be seen in the palace. 
 
44 FRANCE. 
 
 setting of brilliants and precious stones, add immensely to the ex- 
 pense. M. Brogniard has added much to the painting department 
 by his discoveries and improvements in the art of painting glass. 
 He is said to have ascertained the means of equalling all the an- 
 cient colours in glass except the red. 
 
 In connexion with our visit to Sevres, we made the tour of 
 the palaces St. Cloud and Versailles. The former is a sweet 
 chateau, possessing more beauties and comforts than magnificence ; 
 such a residence as I should suppose royalty might delight in 
 when it retired from the cares of government and the pleasures 
 of the capital. But it has at some times been so much the resi- 
 dence of the court, that it has given to it the appellation of the 
 Court of St. Cloud. It has a splendid park, of two leagues in 
 circumference, diversified by hill and dale. The palace itself is 
 delightfully located on the slope of a hill, and below it are most 
 beautiful water-works, consisting of basins and canals, cascades 
 and jets d'eau. These only play at particular times, and these 
 times are usually on the Sabbath, so that a man who conscien- 
 tiously and strictly observes the Sabbath must, of course, deny 
 himself the pleasure of these water-works. The grand jet d'eau 
 here is said to throw the water to a perpendicular height of 125 
 feet from the centre of a marble basin covering an acre of space. 
 This consumes 600 hogsheads of water in an hour, and all the 
 works in full play consume 3700 hogsheads. We visited the in- 
 terior, which was neat, and enriched with paintings, statuary, &c. 
 The town contains about 2500 inhabitants, and is miserably 
 built. The place, however, is one of some historic notoriety, es- 
 pecially the palace. It was here that Henry III. was assassinated in 
 1 589. It was here that Napoleon was placed, or rather placed him- 
 self in the supreme power as first consul on the 10th of November, 
 1799. In 1815 the palace was plundered by the Prussians, those 
 pure instruments of a pure legitimacy, who made war upon Na- 
 poleon because he had plundered Europe ; and here Blucher had 
 his headquarters during his stay in the neighbourhood of Paris. 
 
 Versailles is four leagues from the metropolis. It never was 
 of much note until Louis XIV. conceived an idea of building a 
 magnificent palace here, and then he undertook, contrary to all 
 natural principles, to force a large town into existence, and, by his 
 power and by an immense waste of money, he produced a hot- 
 
PALACE OF VERSAILLES. 45 
 
 bed population of about 100,000 souls, which now has declined to 
 25 or 30,000. 
 
 The palace was commenced in 1664. It is a magnificent edi- 
 fice, and surrounded by splendid grounds. The expenditure on 
 this palace and the grounds, the outer enclosure of which is said 
 to be twenty leagues in circumference, has been estimated at 150 
 millions of dollars, and some estimates make it 200 millions. 
 Louis, it is said, burnt the accounts to prevent the world from 
 knowing the extent of his extravagance. It was here, in fact, that 
 the foundation of the French revolution was laid ; for these expendi- 
 tures brought on such national poverty, such exactions on the one 
 side, and such distress and resistance on the other, as terminated 
 finally and fatally in the bloody scenes of 1789. So much 
 seemed necessary to convince the French, and the world even, 
 that the prodigality of the rich is not the wealth of the poor. It 
 was a maxim of Louis XIV., that the profligacy of princes was 
 the wealth of their subjects ; that what he took from the people in 
 one form he returned in another. Strange that this shrewd prince 
 did not perceive that he took from the people the same amount 
 twice ; once in the form of taxes, and once in the form of services 
 and materials to build his palace, and that he restored them the 
 amount but once, and that in the form of compensation or pay 
 for these services and materials ; and that the entire amount, 
 therefore, of this expenditure was a dead loss to the people, 
 an entire annihilation of so much of the productive capital of the 
 nation. But this is not more strange than some prevailing senti- 
 ments of the present day, that the capitalist who spends annually 
 his entire income, although it be in luxuries and pleasures, is the 
 great benefactor of the labouring classes. Nor yet is it more 
 strange than that a most celebrated doctor of divinity should 
 write a treatise on political economy to prove that the luxuries of 
 the rich are the means of supporting the greatest population in 
 a given section of the country ! Such systems may move round 
 the economic cycle in theory, but in real life there is too much 
 friction and resistance to give practical and perpetual play to the 
 machinery. Like the numerous machines for illustrating perpet- 
 ual motion, the practical working of this system will exhibit a 
 constantly diminished and enfeebled action until its motion ceases. 
 In the gardens and parks are innumerable streets and avenues, 
 
46 FRANCE. 
 
 with the bordering trees trained by art, and multitudes of other 
 trees trained and sheered into various shapes, regular and fan- 
 tastical. The water-works are splendid ; the basins and cascades 
 are of great extent and variety, filled with sea-horses, crocodiles, 
 turtles, frogs, and fishes spouting water, and performing their va- 
 rious parts in the grand exhibitions which take place here on 
 special occasions, when all the water-works are in operation. In 
 the park are two smaller palaces, called Le Grand Trianon and 
 he Petit Trianon, which are elegantly fitted and furnished. 
 
 Of the interior of the principal palace we can say nothing. It 
 is undergoing repairs and improvements, and spectators are not 
 admitted. The object is to make it a splendid national gallery, in 
 which not only are the paintings to be by national artists, but the 
 subjects are to be of a national character, embracing a consecu- 
 tive series of the most important historical events, to be arranged 
 in chronological order. This, if carried through with taste and 
 skill, will form one of the most interesting, and, I might say, useful 
 collections in existence. 
 
 I had intended to give some account of an excursion to St. 
 Denis, and some other places ; but I perceive I am detaining you 
 and myself in Paris and its environs too long; and yet, if it be 
 true, as is often remarked, that Paris is France, we might afford 
 to dwell a while in and about the metropolis. And that Paris is 
 France to a great extent is very true. This is the concentration 
 of all influence and of all government. The political influence is 
 here. Here are the controlling influences and moving springs of 
 religion and education. What other extensive country is there in the 
 world, in which, if you revolutionize the capital, you revolutionize 
 the whole country ? But Paris is the heart; all besides in France 
 are but subordinate organs of circulation, which beat slow or quick, 
 weak or strong, just as the central influence and impulse act 
 upon them and through them. Of this it is difficult, without a 
 close attention to the past history and present social organiza- 
 tion of France, readily to conceive. The very geography of the 
 country, however, favours this ; it is intercepted and .-separated by 
 no strong natural barriers, while it is itself separated from the 
 rest of the world, on almost every side, by strong natural barriers. 
 Imbosomed by the Mediterranean and British seas, by the Alps 
 and the Pyrenees, it seems formed by nature to be" one and indi- 
 
POLITICAL STATE OF FRANCE. 47 
 
 visible. For centuries there have been no clans or parties that 
 have talked of anything more limited than France, the whole of 
 France ; and the seat of all the organization of its social institu- 
 tions has been, by common consent, at Paris. If, therefore, a 
 traveller wishes to see France or become acquainted with the 
 French, he must go to Paris. If the government would sustain 
 itself in the country, it has little else to do but to control Paris ; 
 and if a faction wish to overthrow the government, it has only to 
 excite Paris. Of this the present government seems to be well 
 aware ; and, therefore, it keeps a strict watch over the metropolis ; 
 an armed police holds the city in subjection — this, and this only. 
 It is true, the present king has the National Guard on his side, and 
 why ? Is it because they prefer the present government to any 
 other 1 How can they do this, when they were the very men 
 who expelled the Bourbons for doing only what the present king 
 has done ? Did the Bourbons render themselves obnoxious by 
 trammelling and restricting the press ? Louis Philippe has done 
 this ; nay, he carries all his measures through by the strong arm 
 of law, enforced by the bayonet. But the National Guard sustain 
 it because such a government is to them more desirable than 
 revolution and anarchy. They are the middling classes, the thri- 
 ving tradesmen, shopkeepers, and mechanics of the city, and they 
 know that public commotion is sure to operate against their inter- 
 est, whatever may be the final result. By public quiet they have 
 everything to hope, and by commotion everything to fear. So 
 long, therefore, as the measures of the present government are 
 tolerable, it will be sustained. If there be a medium of tolerable 
 severity, by which the restlessness of a fickle populace can have 
 a salutary restraint thrown over them on the one hand, and yet on 
 the other hand the state of things be so far bearable in the view 
 of the National Guard as to make it preferable to a change, then 
 may the present king be sustained. But to do this he must balance 
 himself on a pivot, a mere point. Thus far he has done it to ad- 
 miration, and far beyond what was anticipated. Schooled in ad- 
 versity, and instructed in the science of human nature by a free 
 intercourse with men, Louis Philippe is better prepared for his 
 position than almost any other existing sovereign. No regularly 
 educated legitimate who was trained to be a king could sustain 
 himself on the throne of France. The exigences of the case are 
 
48 FRANCE. 
 
 such as he would not be prepared to meet ; but hitherto the present 
 sovereign has met them, and, perhaps, if they do not assassinate 
 him, he will maintain his ground. He seems hardly disposed, 
 however, to trust himself wholly to the National Guard, and the 
 arrangement now is for one of the national militia and one of the 
 regular soldiers to mount guard together. Thus they may strength- 
 en each other if united, and may watch each other if they should 
 have contrary views and designs. It is, on the whole, I think, 
 greatly to be desired that the life of the king be spared, and that 
 the government be sustained. It is true, we, as Americans, might 
 feel better pleased to see a republican form of government in 
 France, especially when it is seen that Louis Philippe adopts now 
 a course of policy which is in direct violation of all the leading 
 principles which were the conditions of his elevation to the throne. 
 But France cannot bear a republican form of government ; this 
 Lafayette fully understood, or he never would have been instru- 
 mental in placing another king on the throne of the Bourbons ; and 
 yet there is so large a portion in France that are favourable to a 
 republican government, that they will not cease to agitate the 
 public mind and undermine the government unless they are re- 
 strained by a strong hand. This makes France one of the most 
 difficult nations to govern in the world. So liberal in their views 
 are the people that they will not tolerate an absolute monarchy, 
 and yet they are unprepared for a republican government; they 
 are not sufficiently enlightened and virtuous to sustain it. Thus 
 a constitutional monarchy, with a representative legislature, seems 
 the best suited to them ; and still this spirit of liberty and rage for 
 republicanism is so strong, that this constitutional monarch can 
 hardly sustain himself without becoming unconstitutionally se- 
 vere and arbitrary ! and if he is unconstitutionally arbitrary and 
 severe, the general voice of an indignant people will dethrone him. 
 Can any one conceive of a more difficult government than this ? 
 And if this be the true state of the question in France, will any 
 government be likely to meet the case better than the present ? 
 And if the present order of things be broken up, have we not rea- 
 son to fear that the consequences will be melancholy ? Now 
 not only is France advancing in wealth, but the public mind is be- 
 coming informed ; the way is prepared for the spread of the gos- 
 pel, and the physical, and moral, and religious interests of that 
 
THE LOUVRE. 49 
 
 great nation are verging to a state of promise which indicates not 
 -only much good to the French nation itself, but a healthful influence 
 also for our dark and sinful world. Let another revolution roll over 
 the political institutions of France, and who can calculate the extent 
 of the evils that may follow ? But, on the other hand, let France 
 remain at peace at home ; let her pursue that peaceful policy in 
 the aifairs of Europe which her best statesmen are now so anx- 
 ious to pursue ; let those moral and intellectual influences operate 
 which have been, and may, for half a century to come, be brought 
 into operation, and what an influence may she not exert in our 
 world ? The resources of this nation are immense ; she is not 
 aware herself, probably, of their extent. If she has had power and 
 resources to sustain herself when hundreds of millions were wasted 
 in ambitious wars, and in extravagant palaces, and in the gratifica- 
 tion of the most profligate of courts, and yet, after a few years of 
 respite, finds herself so flourishing and vigorous as she is at this 
 moment, what may we not expect from her hereafter ? 
 
 One of the most encouraging features in the policy of France at 
 the present day, and the same is true of the civilized world, is 
 her desire to cultivate peace. This is, in part, the reaction of that 
 bloody period which terminated at the expulsion of Napoleon; 
 and in part the effect of increasing light on the utter unprofitable- 
 ness of war. It is true, the faint rumblings of the storm that des- 
 olated Europe are still thrown back from the northern shores of 
 Africa, and mutter among the mountains of Spain, but peace, 
 peace is the watchword of the government ; peace is the desire 
 of the best of the nation. So long as this policy has the ascend- 
 ency, so long will France prosper, and so long will she be a bles- 
 sing to the world. 
 
 Before leaving Paris you may expect I shall say something of 
 the state of the fine arts, and especially of the galleries of the 
 Louvre. 
 
 The Louvre, all are aware, has lost much of its interest since 
 the Restoration. Napoleon had brought many of the finest pro- 
 ductions of the arts, ancient and modern, to enrich his capital. 
 The Louvre then possessed the richest galleries in the world. 
 But these have mostly recrossed the Alps, where I hope to see 
 them in their own domiciles. 
 
 There are many elegant specimens of the arts, however, in the 
 5 G 
 
50 
 
 royal museums of the Louvre. The grand gallery of pictures, 
 extending from the Louvre to the Tuileries, is a single room, 
 1332 feet in length, containing, perhaps, about 1300 pictures of 
 the French, German, Flemish, Dutch, Italian, and Spanish schools 
 of painting. There are also the Museums of Design, containing 
 engravings, drawings, models, &c. ; and of Antiquities, containing 
 ancient statuary, inscriptions, vases, &c, to the number of be- 
 tween eleven and twelve hundred. Besides, a gallery for modern 
 sculpture, an Egyptian gallery, &c. In the ancient gallery Napo- 
 leon had placed the Apollo Belvidere, the Laocoon, the Venus de 
 Medicis, and numerous other chefs-d'oeuvre of ancient art ; but 
 they have all gone back to their legitimate owners, not to say 
 rightful ; for, if their history were traced back, many of them 
 would be found to have been the fruits of robbery when origi- 
 nally placed in their present positions. This, however, was no 
 justification of Napoleon. It only shows that, from the beginning 
 until now, the law of war has been that the " victor is entitled to 
 the spoils," against which our indignation should rise and manifest 
 itself, not merely against Napoleon because he was a robber, but 
 against all the legitimate and illegitimate robbers of the earth. 
 
 There are many other museums and galleries of the fine arts in 
 Paris, not less than twenty in the whole. There are also thirt) r - 
 five schools for the cultivation of the fine arts, and 1385, artists, 
 of whom 773 are painters. The total number of artists who sent 
 works to the last annual exhibition was 2231, of whom 1096 were 
 painters, 150 sculptors, 113 engravers, 263 architects, and 309 
 draughtsmen. There are, it is reported, throughout France, 
 eighty-two museums and one hundred and sixty schools of the 
 fine arts. From this it will appear that quite a sufficient portion 
 of the public talent is devoted to these branches. Whenever 
 works of imagination and taste preponderate over the sober coun- 
 terbalancing influences of a more solid character, the effect is de- 
 cidedly bad. It enervates the intellect and corrupts the heart. 
 It is the concurrent testimony of all who have the best opportunity 
 of judging, however, that the French character is becoming more 
 sedate and thoughtful. As the great mass of society is elevated ; 
 as politics come to be talked of and judged of by the multitude 
 as well as by the few ; and as business of various kinds is in- 
 creased, and draws more into its engrossing, cares and labours, we 
 
THE ARTS. 51 
 
 may well suppose the former proverbial frivolity and inconstancy 
 of the nation will disappear. We see among our French emi- 
 grants to the United States so many dancing-masters, fiddlers, 
 barbers, &c., that we are apt to think a great portion of the 
 French must be of this stamp. Here we undoubtedly misjudge ; 
 at the same time it must be conceded that of some of these char- 
 acters Paris has, after all, quite a competency. There are, for 
 example, between three and four hundred actors and actresses, 
 and between twelve and thirteen hundred dancing and music 
 masters. But, then, it must be recollected, that to balance these 
 there are about 50,000 students, and about 1200 who are mem- 
 bers of the Institute and of the University. Where there is so 
 much of science and literature there must be solidity and gravity 
 of mind. 
 
 With the fine arts the useful mechanical arts have an impor- 
 tant place in Paris. Perhaps nowhere is apparatus for philosoph- 
 ical and astronomical purposes manufactured better and cheaper 
 than in Paris. It has been supposed by some that their work is 
 not so firm and lasting as that of English manufacture. There 
 may be some force in this in regard to some instruments ; but it 
 is possible, after all, that it is partly owing to a sort of general 
 prejudice, that a Frenchman and his works are more showy than 
 solid, whereas an Englishman is more solid than showy. As it 
 was a part of my business in Europe to purchase apparatus for 
 the Wesleyan University, I had occasion to examine the merits of 
 this question both in London and Paris, and was surprised to find 
 the great difference in price between the two places, insomuch 
 that if it were not for the English duties, the English artisans 
 would have very little custom, I believe, even for home consump- 
 tion ; and in a great majority of cases, if the English article was 
 superior in point of workmanship or adaptation to its design than 
 the French, I could not discover it.* In my inquiries on this 
 
 * I made my greatest purchase of Pixii. Different artists, however, are best for dif- 
 ferent instruments : as Gamby for theodolite, Lerebours for telescope, Gerrelet for tran- 
 sit instrument, Pixii for physics. His instruments for electro-magnetism have an excel- 
 lent and a deserved reputation. He generally keeps a large assortment on hand. I 
 ought to say, for the information of whom it may concern, that I preferred, after due in- 
 quiry, to purchase an astronomical clock of Molyneux in London, and a most elegant 
 instrument for altitudes, azimuths, and transits of Mr. Simms, of the old firm of Trough 
 ton and Simms, Strand, London. 
 
52 FRANCE. 
 
 subject I was very politely aided by General Bernard, long and 
 favourably known in the United States in the engineer department, 
 and now holding an honourable office under Louis Philippe. 
 
 You are under a very strict surveillance while in Paris. Who- 
 ever takes you to lodge must report you to the police. The po- 
 lice also know where you take your dinner, when you visit the 
 Royal Museum, &c. A singular circumstance occurred with a 
 man who had forgotten his lodgings, and was obliged to go to the po- 
 lice-office to obtain the necessary information. They informed 
 him who he was, where he lodged, and where he took his din- 
 ners ! Indeed, if a man should forget his own identity in France, 
 the police would set him right. 
 
 The houses are built in courts opening into the streets. Around 
 these courts, on three, and sometimes four sides, are tenements, 
 so fitted up that all the rooms of each family are generally on the 
 same floor. Thus the families live one above another, to the 
 height of five or six stories. In one court there may be twenty 
 respectable tenements. The entrance admits of carriages, and is 
 closed by a strong gate. Within the gate is a porter's lodge, 
 where one or more porters or gatekeepers lodge, whose duty it 
 is to notice all that pass in or out, and, if they are strangers, to 
 speak to them, direct them, &c. Of these porters there are above 
 1200 in Paris. These make up a part of those inspectors and 
 spies who watch a man in all his movements. But I must stop 
 abruptly, or I never shall have done. 
 
EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 53 
 
 CHAPTER IV, 
 
 To the Professors of the Wesleyan University. 
 
 Paris, Dec. 12, 1835. 
 
 My esteemed Friends, 
 
 Permit me, by way of keeping up our friendly intercourse, to 
 give you a sketch of the established system of education in France 
 — a system which, in many respects, is not excelled by any other in 
 the world ; and from which we in America might derive many 
 hints by which to improve our own. It is true, the difference in 
 the two forms of government would prevent our adopting the sys- 
 tem, either as a whole, or perhaps in its leading features ; but 
 there are nevertheless features in it which ought to form a part 
 of every system of education ; and if our views of liberty are 
 such as to lead us to revolt against the most wholesome regula- 
 tions for the training of the young, then have we become ultra in 
 our notions of liberty, and are in danger of becoming so free as 
 ultimately to abandon those principles by which alone freedom 
 can be perpetuated. The system of education in France is truly 
 national — it is entirely under the direction and management of 
 the state. It is true, some individuals are permitted to establish 
 private schools, but not until they have been officially examined 
 by officers appointed for the purpose ; after which, if they are ac- 
 cepted, by presenting the authenticated certificate of acceptance 
 and testimonials of a good character, they receive a license to 
 teach in those branches on which they are examined, but in no 
 other. These private schools also are visited by appointed com- 
 mittees and inspectors ; and the places and rooms where they 
 are kept are subjected to inspection and condemnation if they 
 are not found suitable. And, on the contrary, if the schools 
 are approved of, and the teachers do well, they are fostered by 
 government in various ways ; such as the distribution of rewards 
 and the selecting of the most promising of the pupils for promo- 
 tion to the privileges of some of the higher institutions. 
 
 But the great system itself is directly under the government of 
 5 
 
54 FRANCE. 
 
 the state, and constitutes an integral and important branch of pub- 
 lic administration, at the head of which is the " minister of pub- 
 lic instruction and religion." He is aided in his duties by a 
 " royal council," consisting of six members, of which the minister 
 is president. The various duties are subdivided among these 
 counsellors ; and perhaps it may give you a general idea of the 
 kind of supervision which the government takes of the schools, to 
 give the official apportionment of those duties as established by 
 law since the revolution of 1830. 
 
 The first counsellor, who is also vice-president, has charge of 
 all matters of general interest in the administration of the facul- 
 ties of the colleges, and of all that appertains to the instruction in 
 languages, general literature^, and history. 
 
 The second performs the duties of chancellor, and has special 
 charge of all that relates to primary instruction. 
 
 The third is treasurer, and superintends the instruction in the 
 mathematical sciences. 
 
 The fourth is secretary, and has charge of all that relates to 
 philosophical studies, to the instruction in the normal schools (the 
 schools for preparing teachers), and of the faculties of theology. 
 
 The fifth has charge of the royal colleges, and of the instruc- 
 tion in the natural sciences. 
 
 The sixth has charge of instruction in the faculties and second- 
 ary schools of medicine, and of the pensions, and the* institu- 
 tions, &c. 
 
 The minister of public instruction has, of course, a general 
 supervision over all the literary, scientific, and professional sem- 
 inaries ; and, in addition, has charge of the public libraries, of the 
 national institute, of the schools for the deaf and dumb, the poly- 
 technic school, &c. He and the council attend to and direct the 
 entire machinery of education, from the highest to the lowest, in 
 accordance with the existing statutes, and aided by inspectors, 
 subordinate councils, &c. They fix the courses of study, author- 
 ize the text-books, judge of impeachments, confirm nominations 
 to various grades of instruction, transfer teachers from one insti- 
 tution to another, regulate the prizes, decide upon the degrees, 
 and direct the discipline of the whole. Hence you will perceive 
 there must be great uniformity as well as efficiency in the entire 
 system. This entire system is called the " University of France." 
 
EDUCATION IN PRANCE. 55 
 
 The functionaries of the University are, the minister and his 
 council, the inspectors of the University and of the several acade- 
 mies, the rectors, deans, and professors of the faculties, and of the 
 lyceums, provisors and censors of the lyceums, principals, fellows, 
 and regents of the colleges, chiefs of the institutions, masters of 
 the pensions, and masters of the studies. All these various 
 grades of officers throughout the kingdom, bound together and 
 regulated by the code univer sat aire, constitute the " Royal Uni- 
 versity of France." You are not to suppose, however, that the 
 names above indicate in all cases the same offices as with us. 
 These will be understood by noticing the grand subdivisions of 
 the University. These are called academies, each of which not 
 only embraces all the higher branches, but also comprehends all 
 the lower and subordinate institutions in a given geographical sec- 
 tion of the kingdom ; to govern and direct which academical 
 councils are formed, which have a jurisdiction over these sections 
 respectively, subordinate to the royal council. 
 
 These academies, therefore, are rather to be considered as sub- 
 divisions of the University, having their distinct though subordi- 
 nate jurisdictions in their own prescribed limits. They generally 
 embrace three of the civil divisions of France called departments, 
 although some embrace more and some less. The law is, that 
 there shall be as many academies as there are courts of appeal, 
 of which there are at present twenty-six. 
 
 Such is the arrangement for the general organization and juris- 
 diction of the system. Then follow the division and organization 
 of the schools themselves. The highest of these are the schools 
 for the most 'profound sciences and for the professions. In these 
 schools there are five faculties, so called, viz., of theology, of law, 
 of medicine, of the mathematical and natural sciences, and of let- 
 ters. In these faculties the various degrees are conferred; the 
 conditions of which are, that the students shall have attended upon 
 the lectures (for in the faculties the instruction is all given in set 
 lectures) a given number of terms, and shall have passed an ac- 
 ceptable examination. 
 
 The second order of schools are the lyceums, now included un- 
 der the general name of royal colleges. These are for the an- 
 cient languages, history, rhetoric, logic, and the elements of the 
 mathematical and natural sciences. 
 
56 FRANCE. 
 
 Then follow the communal colleges, which teach the first 
 principles of the branches taught in the royal colleges. 
 
 Next the "institutions," which give nearly the same instruc- 
 tion with the last, but are smaller schools and more restricted in 
 their operations.* After these the " pensions" or boarding-schools, 
 which are also small schools, and of a lower character than the 
 preceding. 
 
 Finally, the primary schools, which are divided into two grades^ 
 " elementary and superior." This division of the schools may be 
 made more simple by restricting them to schools of three grades 
 — the primary instruction, which corresponds very nearly with 
 our common district schools ; the collegiate, which answers essen- 
 tially to that given in our academies, and is preparatory to the 
 "faculties ;" and the faculties, or the schools for conferring the 
 degrees, which correspond with our universities. To these may 
 be added the normal schools, or the schools for the training of 
 teachers (which, however, have not, I believe, been very efficient 
 as yet), and the polytechnic school, which is scientific and mili- 
 tary, like ours at West Point. The normal schools promise 
 much for the nation. There are now fifty-six, supported at an 
 expense of about 300,000 dollars. 
 
 A particular description of all these grades of schools would be 
 tedious to you and to me. I will notice several things in the dif- 
 ferent grades, however, and bring into view several important 
 facts, which may be interesting and profitable. 
 
 The schools of theology have professors of history, doctrines 
 (dogme), and evangelical morals ; and some of them have profes- 
 sors of Hebrew and of sacred eloquence. Of these faculties of 
 theology two are Protestant, viz., one at Strasbourg and one at 
 Montauban. It is worthy of special notice that France, though a 
 Catholic country, has extended her liberality so far as to incorpo- 
 rate into her religious establishment the Protestant religion. 
 Instead of abolishing her establishment, she has enlarged it ; so 
 that Protestants as well as Catholics share in her public provis- 
 ions for the institutions of learning and religion. 
 
 * These two schools (institutions and pensions) are by private teachers, but the teach- 
 ers are obliged to pay a certain sum to the colleges, and take their pupils to these col- 
 leges for a part of their instruction, in those places where there are colleges. 
 
EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 57 
 
 There are nine faculties of law. The number of professors in 
 each differ in the different schools ; that at Paris is divided into 
 two sections, in each of which there are seven professors, and 
 the number of students is said to be over 2,000. There are 
 three principal schools of medicine, viz., at Paris, Montpelier, and 
 Strasbourg, and eighteen secondary schools in different towns in 
 the kingdom. Besides, there are schools of apothecaries, and no 
 man is allowed to engage as a druggist without having attended 
 a three years' course in one of these schools, and without having 
 been three years in a druggist's shop. And even after this prep- 
 aration provision is made by law for the regular visitation of the 
 druggists' shops, and an examination of all their drugs by a com- 
 missioner appointed for that purpose ; nay, shops cannot be opened 
 for selling medicinal herbs without a license and a strict official 
 supervision. 
 
 With all this strictness, however, it is not necessary for a can- 
 didate to attend one of the medical schools, in order to a license 
 for practising physic, provided he have studied six years with a 
 doctor in medicine, or have had five successive years of instruc- 
 tion in the hospital practice. It is said, however, that this provis- 
 ion has led to " enormous abuses." 
 
 One peculiar feature in the French system is, that females at- 
 tend regular courses of lectures in obstetrics, and, after examination 
 and acceptance, have a regular diploma to practise in that depart- 
 ment. 
 
 The medical school at Paris is probably the largest in the 
 world. The number of students is about 4,000. The buildings 
 are fine and extensive, with a splendid anatomical cabinet of 
 specimens natural and artificial, and a company of professors, 
 some of whom are among the first men of the age. Their dis- 
 secting rooms are as public as a butcher's shambles. They are 
 in an open court, where the public have free ingress and egress ; 
 some of them on the lower floor, with windows and doors open. 
 I walked into the court, and passed from room to room, where I 
 saw scores perhaps of human bodies and parts of bodies in all the 
 different stages of dissection ; and the students were poring over 
 them with as much apparent interest and intellectual gust as if 
 they were analyzing a beautiful flower or an elegant mineral. 
 
 In addition to the lectures on the subjects directly con- 
 H 
 
 
58 FRANCE. 
 
 nected with the medical profession, there are very extensive 
 courses in comparative anatomy, both at the Sorbonne and espe- 
 cially at the Jardin des Plantes. At the Sorbonne I saw the 
 celebrated St. de Hilliear lecturing upon a fish's head ; and at the 
 Jardin des Plantes another professor was discussing the head of 
 one of the reptiles that are supposed to have had their day many 
 hundreds of thousands of years before the first Sabbath ! The 
 botanical and chymical lectures are also very fine. 
 
 "When a student does not design to propose himself for an ex- 
 amination or a degree, he is at liberty to attend the lectures gratu- 
 itously ; and for this purpose all the lectures are open and public. 
 The buildings of the ancient and renowned schools of Norman 
 theology, called the Sorbonne, are now occupied by the three 
 faculties of theology, science, and letters of the academy of Paris. 
 The buildings of the medical and law schools are in opposite di- 
 rections from these, but near ; all in the southeast part of the city, 
 in the Faubourg St. Germaine. This renders Paris exceedingly 
 favourable as a resort for students from all parts of the world. 
 Many students from abroad are here. It is said there are thirty 
 or more from the United States in the medical department, 
 besides some in the other departments. In general, however, 
 students from the United States are not of the class that come out 
 on account of the cheapness of the instruction, but for the supe- 
 rior advantages. But from the British isles many come to attend 
 the medical course here on account of its comparative cheapness. 
 Even when they take out their regular inscriptions, as they are 
 called, and prepare themselves for examinations, the expense is 
 comparatively trifling. Here, too, are libraries, where the students 
 may enter at given hours, and freely consult various authors ; and 
 here they have the privilege of inspecting some of the finest mu- 
 seums of natural history in the world, of specimens organic and 
 inorganic, living and dead. The Jardin des Plantes is a noble 
 programme to the text-book of nature, spread out in extended 
 beauty and in scientific arrangement. The cabinet of minerals 
 and geological specimens is inconceivably splendid ; it is magnif- 
 icent, as also is the museum of comparative anatomy. To all 
 these advantages for the medical student should be added the 
 hospitals, which in Paris are very extended and very various, and 
 seem to me to be kept more for scientific purposes than for any 
 
EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 59 
 
 other. I have heard it stated, and I believe by professional men 
 who had a good opportunity of knowing, that they lose many 
 more patients at the hospitals, in proportion to their numbers, than 
 die in the hospitals of the United States ; but that is not of much 
 consequence, so long as science is advanced ! and for the ad- 
 vancement of science they afford pre-eminent advantages. What 
 I have said of the superior advantages in the faculty of medicine 
 is, in the main, true of the other faculties. "With splendid appara- 
 tus, and professors now lecturing, whose works have given them 
 a reputation all over the scientific world, how can their lecture- 
 rooms be other than interesting ? There is, however, a great dif- 
 ference in the popularity of these lecturers ; some are thronged, 
 and others are comparatively deserted. Some are clapped and 
 applauded, while others are hissed. You will see very little 
 order and decorum in many of these lecture-rooms ; from one to 
 two thousand, perhaps, will be crowded into a lecture-room, all 
 with their hats on, some standing on the seats, and others pas- 
 sing in and out at their leisure, and according to their caprice. 
 
 The professors in all these faculties, and the same is true, in 
 fact, of all the other schools in all the different grades, are sup- 
 ported at the public expense. They have a fixed salary, and also 
 a contingency.* The salaries in general are not large, but they 
 have various privileges and exemptions, as well as numerous hon- 
 ours ; and if they continue a given time in the corps universataire, 
 they are permitted to retire on a pension, and their widows also 
 are pensioned after their death. 
 
 Whenever a vacant chair is to be filled in any of the three fac- 
 ulties of law, medicine, or theology, they form what is called Le 
 Concours to fill the vacancy. That is, notice is given through all 
 the different academies to those who are proper candidates that 
 such a vacancy is to be filled, and that there is to be a concourse 
 at a given time and place for that purpose. As many as de- 
 termine to try for the appointment send in their names and the 
 proper testimonials ; and, on the day appointed, present them- 
 selves for examination before a commission of professors of the 
 
 * There is a maximum amount for the salaries of the professors and other officers in 
 all the different schools, beyond which they cannot go. The salaries are proportioned to 
 some extent according to the number of students ; the highest that I have noticed is 
 7,600 francs, or about 1,387 dollars. 
 
60 
 
 same department, when they enter the lists and struggle for the 
 ascendency in a powerful intellectual conflict ; and before the com- 
 missioners appointed to set and judge upon their merits. After the 
 examination is over, the judges retire and decide. This is sup- 
 posed to give an opportunity of judging not only of their actual 
 attainments, but also of their aptness to communicate, which is 
 very important in a teacher. It was found, however, that favour- 
 itism, rather than merit, too frequently governed the decisions — 
 and now, although part of the faculties are filled as above, the 
 faculties of science and of letters are filled in another way, viz. : 
 in the academy where the vacancy occurs, the academic council 
 nominates two and the faculty two, and from these the royal 
 council selects and appoints the professor. 
 
 It is universal also to distribute the prizes in the different fac- 
 ulties and colleges by this method of the concourse. All who 
 contend for the prizes, presenting themselves at the time and 
 place appointed, and before the appointed judges, where they 
 strive for the mastery according to the prescribed forms. This 
 business du concours is a great matter in the French schools, and 
 occupies no small part of their machinery. 
 
 There are in France forty-one royal colleges, besides the com- 
 munal colleges, or secondary schools, as they are sometimes called. 
 Of the communal colleges, so called because they are supported 
 by the communes where they are located, there are above three 
 hundred. The royal colleges are supported chiefly by the gov- 
 ernment. Boys are admitted into these at the age of nine years, 
 and are only required to be able to read and write. The discipline 
 in these colleges is as strict as that of the faculties is lax. The 
 boys are literally imprisoned ; their different apartments, in some 
 of those which I visited, were divided off and separated from 
 each other by grated doors of iron ; and the professor who con- 
 ducted us round locked the doors after him, as if he was taking 
 us over a penitentiary. The French appear to me to trust nothing 
 to the young until they arrive at a given age, or are placed in cer- 
 tain relations, and then all restraint is thrown off. This is verified 
 in their management of daughters as well as sons ; the former, for 
 instance, not being permitted before marriage to leave their 
 mother or protectress on any account by night or by day ; but 
 
EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 61 
 
 after marriage they are at full liberty to go anywhere, and, I like 
 to have said, do anything, without mother or husband. 
 
 The professors and masters of study of the royal colleges, and 
 the regents of the communal colleges, are appointed by the min- 
 ister of instruction. The principal is called the provisor, and is 
 "held responsible before God and man for the proper adminis- 
 tration of the college," and is directed, when the students are not 
 Catholics, to " afford them every possible facility for the study 
 and practice of their own religion." 
 
 The college of Louis le Grand of Paris has one or more pro- 
 fessors, who are Protestants, and a number of Protestant boursiers 
 or free scholars. I mention these circumstances to show that one 
 trait in the plan of education in France is religious liberty and 
 toleration. Indeed, this might be inferred from the fact that the 
 present minister of instruction, Monsieur Guizot, is a Protestant. 
 The colleges are not, like the faculties, open for public and gra- 
 tuitous instruction. The annual expense is, I think, about 700 
 francs ; but there are bourses, or, as we should say, perhaps, schol- 
 arships, on which poor but meritorious scholars are placed for gra- 
 tuitous education. The salary of the highest officer in the colleges 
 is about 1,000 dollars in Paris, and 800 dollars elsewhere. The 
 professors have from four to six hundred dollars. These salaries 
 are certainly very low,'but they are permanent, and are aided by 
 various advantages, which make amends in part for the deficiency. 
 At any rate, the profession of instructer in France is highly hon- 
 ourable, and is the high road to preferment. In no government, 
 perhaps, is the man of letters and of science more honoured and 
 patronised than here. A number of the peers of France are the 
 professors in the different schools, and it is their science that has 
 raised them to this peerage.* And although now peers of the 
 realm, you may see them every week in the lecturer's chair, elu- 
 cidating the great principles of science. This is noble and 
 worthy of all admiration. It is placing science on its proper 
 basis, and giving the cause of education its appropriate promi- 
 nency in the state. Always excepting religion, education is of the 
 first importance ; and to it, with the preceding exception, the state 
 must look chiefly for its elevation, pecuniary, intellectual, and po- 
 
 * Every member of the French Institute who faithfully attends the meetings of the 
 society is paid by the government the annual salary of 1500 francs. 
 
 6 
 
62 FRANCE. 
 
 litical. And religion itself never elevates the state, only as it car- 
 ries with it an influence upon the intellect as well as the heart, 
 and is, therefore, identified with education in the same manner as 
 the whole embraces all the parts. You will see, too, in this 
 sketch of the higher schools in France, that there is none of that 
 narrowness of view, which too greatly prevails in our country, by 
 which the colleges and professional schools are condemned as 
 aristocratical monopolies. They are supposed by many with us 
 to be altogether useless, nay, dangerous to the country, and it is 
 thought that all public patronage should be transferred from them 
 to the common schools for the people at large, as though the 
 common schools could exist without the higher institutions ; or as 
 though the latter and the former had no natural alliance and re- 
 ciprocal influence upon each o^ber. The fact is, as I believe, if 
 the higher schools should be annihilated now, the healthy action 
 of the lower schools would naturally and necessarily reproduce 
 them ; *or, in default of this, the lower schools would dwindle, be- 
 come sickly, and die. And, on the other hand, if all the subordi- 
 nate and elementary schools should be annihilated at a stroke, the 
 higher institutions would produce them again as naturally and as 
 certainly as the young shoot springs from the seed or the root of 
 the mature plant. In proof of this, the present extended system 
 of education in France is a standing and a triumphant argument. 
 
 That the argument may have its full force, let it be understood 
 that at the commencement of the present century France had no 
 extended system of primary education ; let it also be understood 
 that the genius of her government and the habits of her people 
 have been rather aristocratical than otherwise ; and especially if 
 there could be produced such a thing as a literary aristocracy 
 that would trample upon the people and keep them in ignorance, 
 the honours that have ever awaited the learned of France would 
 have produced this spirit ; and yet the very reverse of all this 
 has been the fact. The higher institutions have extended and 
 multiplied the lower. From the high places of science the seeds 
 of knowledge have been disseminated over the entire kingdom, so 
 that the nurseries of education are now planted in every depart- 
 ment, and, I might almost say, in every commune. 
 
 The University was first established in 1806. Although there 
 were as early as 1793 and 4 some efforts made by the govern- 
 
EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 63 
 
 merit to extend the system of education to all classes, yet nothing 
 very efficient seems to have been accomplished until the estab- 
 lishment of the University. In 1808 the foundation was laid and 
 the general plan was struck out by Napoleon and his ministers, 
 which has remained essentially the same in its general features up 
 to this hour. 
 
 It is indeed one of the unaccountable characteristics of this un- 
 accountable nation, that in the midst of the storms and convulsions 
 which have swept over her in successive tornadoes, her social and 
 literary institutions have in many respects been striking a deeper 
 root. Her system of education was commenced during the re- 
 public, reduced to order and greatly advanced under Napoleon, 
 held on its course at the Restoration without being either altered or 
 retarded ; at the last revolution it was only aided ; and under the 
 present king, by the law of 1833, the primary education especially 
 has been materially improved and enlarged. By that ordinance 
 every commune is to be provided with primary instruction. And 
 in default of existing provisions for the localities of the schools 
 and the salaries of the teachers, the municipal council is autho- 
 rized to lay a tax for these purposes, and, in default of their action, 
 a royal ordinance is to be issued for the assessment and laying 
 of the authorized contributions. So fully has this been carried 
 into execution, that more than 15,000 communes which neglected 
 to enforce the contributions have been compelled by the royal 
 ordinance to raise the necessary means of education. Besides 
 this, the government provides the means for establishing suitable 
 libraries throughout the realm, and expends annually 1,600,000 
 francs for providing schoolhouses, distributing schoolbooks to the 
 poor, for multiplying the normal schools, &c. Suitable men are 
 employed and paid by government to compose and print books 
 proper for elementary instruction.* 
 
 The course of elementary primary instruction embraces read- 
 ing, writing, the elements of the French language, arithmetic, and 
 the legal system of weights and measures. That of superior pri- 
 
 * There has been some difficulty, it is said, in some of the communes, of obtaining the 
 attendance of the children, because the parents think more of gaining by the labour of 
 their children than of benefiting them by instruction. This is natural where parents 
 are themselves ignorant ; but this evil will grow less every year, as public sentiment be- 
 comes corrected and the public miud instructed. 
 
64 FRANCE. 
 
 mary instruction embraces, in addition, the elements of geometry 
 and its various applications, especially in linear drawing and sur- 
 veying, some of the most useful ideas of natural history and the 
 physical sciences, singing, the elements of history and geography, 
 and especially the history and geography of France. The ele- 
 mentary schools are divided into three parts, according to the age 
 and studies of the pupils. They are to commence and close with 
 prayer; the Holy Scriptures are required to be read, and por- 
 tions of them committed to memory ; and when the school has 
 pupils of different religions, care is to be taken that each receives 
 the instruction preferred by the parent. 
 
 Children are admitted into the primary elementary schools be- 
 tween the ages of six and thirteen years. But that those younger 
 than six years may be provided for, a plan has been adopted for 
 the establishment of infant schools, private or public, which also 
 are to be under the supervision of the government. 
 
 A system of special inspection of all the primary schools has been 
 adopted and prosecuted at an expense of 240,000 francs per annum, 
 which is said to have had a very great and most happy influence 
 upon the schools. In short, not to dwell upon the details of this 
 system, who, let me ask, can survey this entire plan of education, 
 from the highest to the lowest grade ; who can look at its extent, 
 its unity, its efficiency, its liberality, and its almost certain ^magnifi- 
 cent results, without the greatest admiration and applause ? Well 
 may our own boasted republic come to France for lessons of im- 
 provement in her plans of education. Do you ask how any part of 
 this system can be adopted among us ? On this part of the subject 
 I must not dwell long, for I have already extended this communi- 
 cation to a wearisome length. I will, however, say a few things. 
 
 In the first place, let the republicans of America dismiss the 
 jealousy of the higher institutions ; it has its origin in a narrow- 
 ness of view and an ignorance of cause and effect utterly unwor- 
 thy of a citizen of the United States in the nineteenth century ; 
 and when they have laid aside this prejudice, they will be pre- 
 pared to sustain their respective state governments in making lib- 
 eral donations to their institutions. I do not insist upon state 
 colleges and universities like those of France, and like those of 
 some of our states. Whatever may be said in favour of such in- 
 stitutions in France, they are found, by all past experience, not to 
 
EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 65 
 
 succeed well in the United States. The genius of our civil and 
 religious institutions does not chime in well with government 
 seminaries. They become an arena where political partisans and 
 sectarian bigots conflict for personal and party purposes, at the 
 expense of the sacred cause of education. Better, perhaps, that 
 the different religious denominations manage these institutions, 
 subject to a visitation of a commission of the state, if need be, to 
 prevent abuses, and making their annual report the basis of grant- 
 ing or withholding such an annual stipend as may, when granted, 
 make the incorporated institutions successful and efficient in the 
 cause of education. 
 
 Every state, however, should make provision by law for pri- 
 mary schools. It is a strange anomaly that, in a republican gov- 
 ernment at the present day, a single state should be found without 
 this provision. And, next to that, it is most strange that those 
 states which have made this provision should suffer it in numer- 
 ous, if not in all cases, to be so comparatively inefficient, and all 
 for the want of some such provision as exists in France for pro- 
 viding and licensing teachers, inspecting the schools, regulating 
 their division, arrangement, and studies, selecting their text-books, 
 and prescribing the character and accommodations of their school- 
 houses. All this should be done. Will it be said the democracy 
 of the United States will never submit to compulsory measures 
 of this kind? I answer, I would not attempt to compel them. 
 Republicans, I know, are as unwilling to benefit themselves even, 
 by compulsion, as the redoubtable philosopher of Shakspeare, Sir 
 John Falstaff, was to give a reason upon compulsion. But there 
 are motives that will induce republicans as well as other men to 
 adopt measures for their own benefit. Suppose, for example, the 
 state of Connecticut, with her school fund of more than two mill- 
 ions, should establish a law that no school society should draw 
 its proportion of that fund until it had built and furnished suitable 
 schoolhouses, and made the necessary preparation for keeping up 
 the school a given proportion of the year. Suppose, as a further 
 condition, the course of study, the character of the text-books, the 
 proper division of the schools, and suitable qualifications of teach- 
 ers should be insisted upon. And suppose that the fulfilment of 
 these conditions should be carefully secured by an efficient com- 
 mittee of supervision established in the several counties, and paid 
 6 I 
 
66 FRANCE. 
 
 by the state. Would not the several societies comply with 
 these conditions rather than lose their part of the money ? 
 Doubtless they would. And if a few were obstinate, let them 
 take their own course ; there would be the more for those who 
 complied. I doubt whether all would not speedily comply, and 
 in ten years the entire state would be ready to erect a monument 
 to the man who should be instrumental of introducing these im- 
 provements. 
 
 Before closing my letter I will give you a brief sketch of some 
 other literary and scientific institutions of France, and especially 
 of Paris. 
 
 I have already alluded to the French Institute. This is in sub- 
 stance and design the same as the old French Academy or Acad- 
 emies, being, in fact, the combination of learned men in the dif- 
 ferent departments of the arts and sciences, and the union of these 
 respective combinations under one general organization for literary 
 and scientific purposes. The original institution was dissolved by 
 the revolutionists of '89, who, in their zeal for change, laid their 
 sacrilegious hands both upon the altars of religion and the temples 
 of science. Of this latter, however, they soon repented ; and on 
 October 20, 1795, by a decree of the Convention, the Institute 
 was founded. Since that it has undergone some changes need- 
 less to mention ; but it now consists of five academies, viz. : 
 
 1. The French Academy, which seems to have charge more 
 particularly of French literature. The dictionary of the French 
 language published by this academy is well known. This de- 
 partment consists of forty members. 
 
 2. The Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres. The field 
 of literature more especially belonging to this academy is, as its 
 name imports, ancient classics, antiquities, and monuments, and 
 history with its cognate branches. This also has forty members. 
 
 3. The Academy of Sciences, embracing mathematics, physics, 
 and the natural sciences, including also surgery, medicine, and ru- 
 ral economy. This academy has eleven sections, ten of which 
 embrace six members each, and one three, making sixty-three in 
 the whole. 
 
 4. The Academy of the Fine Arts, with forty members. 
 
 5. The Academy of Moral and Political Science. This has 
 been created, or rather restored by the present king in 1832, with 
 
EDUCATION IN FRANCE. 67 
 
 thirty members, divided into five sections — on philosophy, morals 
 and legislation, international law and jurisprudence, political and 
 statistical economy, and general and philosophical history. 
 
 These academies have secretaries, whose salaries are paid by 
 government ; and they also award prizes, &c. They meet once 
 each week for various discussions, reading essays, &c. Each 
 academy nominates to fill its own vacancies, which nomination has 
 to be confirmed by the king. The design is, that the most emi- 
 nent men in the nation should be elected to membership in the 
 respective departments. Every member that attends all the. 
 meetings of the year receives from government 1500 francs. 
 For each absence ten francs are deducted. 
 
 The Mazarin College, as it was formerly called, a fine edifice 
 standing upon the left bank of the Seine opposite the Louvre, and 
 now called the Palace of the Institute, is devoted to the accom- 
 modation of this noble literary and scientific association, the no- 
 blest, perhaps, in the world.* 
 
 There are various other societies, literary, scientific, &c, which 
 I cannot now mention. 
 
 Of the libraries of Paris, however, I should say something. 
 The principal of these is the Royal Library, in the Rue Richelieu. 
 The number of volumes in this splendid collection is commonly 
 estimated at about 900,000. The Mazarin Library is in the 
 Palace of the Institute, and contains 100,000 volumes. The library 
 of St. Genevieve contains 250,000 volumes. The library of the 
 Arsenal 180,000. Besides several other smaller collections, such 
 as the library of the Hotel des Invalides, already mentioned, the 
 City Library of 45,000 volumes, the library at the Garden of 
 Plants, &c. One valuable arrangement of these libraries is, that 
 they are open to the public without expense. 
 
 With all these encouragements and facilities, is it surprising 
 that Paris abounds in men of science and literature ? 
 
 I will close this letter by glancing at the Garden of Plants and 
 the Museum of Natural History connected with it. This institu- 
 tion has an extensive botanical garden, now under the direction of 
 Professor Jussieu, to whom I had a letter by the politeness of 
 Professor Torrey of New- York. The collection of living plants 
 
 * The number of volumes published by this society from the beginning, as reported by 
 Rev. Mr. Baird, is 372. See American Quarterly Register, January, 1837. 
 
68 FRANCE 
 
 is extensive and well arranged. One part is uneven, and devoted 
 to forest-trees and shrubbery in such a form as to give it the ap- 
 pearance of a rural landscape and park with serpentine alleys. 
 Here, on the slope of the hill, is a cedar of Lebanon, the first, it 
 is said, that was brought to Paris, from which, however, other 
 grounds have been supplied. Two of these beautiful trees spread 
 out their elegant tops just under the window of our lodgings, and 
 they are found in other parts of the city. 
 
 At the Garden of Plants there are twelve courses of lectures 
 each year on the various branches of natural science, and all gra- 
 tuitous. To aid in this, there is a collection for comparative anat- 
 omy, the most splendid in the world, mostly the fruit of the skill 
 and labour of Baron Cuvier. There is also a fine menagerie of 
 living animals, and an extensive museum of birds, beasts, fishes, 
 and reptiles, as well as a splendid cabinet of minerals and geolog- 
 ical specimens ; all arranged and kept in beautiful order. Here 
 are those monstrous reptiles that bear upon their hoary skeletons 
 the records of matter, which, in the opinion of Cuvier and most 
 modern geologists, was undergoing its various transformations 
 thousands on thousands of years before the world was ! That is, 
 before it existed in its present form, and was fitted up for the hab- 
 itation of man. 
 
 It would be pleasant to give a more particular detail of this in- 
 teresting and extensive Museum of Natural History ; but I must 
 forbear. 
 
 Yours, &c, 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The preceding letter will show that, in point of education, 
 France is taking a stand equal, if not superior, to any nation in the 
 world. Her higher branches and seminaries have for a long time 
 stood deservedly high in the estimation of all Europe ; but her 
 present system of primary instruction is taking hold of the public 
 mind in its early and elementary character, and is diffusing, it is 
 
INFIDELITY IN FRANCE. 69 
 
 to be hoped, a salutary influence through the entire population. 
 One feature of this education is particularly promising, viz., that 
 which connects religious instruction with intellectual culture. 
 Indeed, Monsieur Guizot, the present minister of instruction, has 
 issued an ordinance requiring the Bible to be used in all the 
 schools, and the government has made a very liberal provision to 
 carry that order into effect. Had France always cultivated Bible 
 religion with her instruction, and especially had she, during the 
 last century, had a diffusive system of instruction on that principle, 
 she would neither have waded through those scenes of bloody rev- 
 olution which have marked her modern history, nor would she 
 now have in her bosom a generation of infidels, which give an 
 anomalous character to the nation, and render all her political and 
 social institutions unsettled and precarious. So true is it, that, 
 however extensively science and literature may be cultivated in 
 any nation, it avails nothing to the safety and happiness of the 
 people, unless it be connected with a course of moral and religious 
 training. But I cannot better illustrate this principle than by in- 
 serting here a letter written from Paris to the students of the Wes- 
 leyan University. 
 
 To the Students of the Wesleyan University. 
 
 Paris, Nov. 27, 1835. 
 
 Young Gentlemen, 
 You doubtless distinctly recollect how often he who now ad- 
 dresses you, as well as others, has insisted upon the importance 
 of cultivating the heart at the same time with the intellect ; in 
 other words, that religion and the sciences ought always to be 
 united. The state of society in France at the present time illus- 
 trates, I think, pretty clearly the truth of this doctrine, especially 
 the state of society among the young. The minds of most of the 
 young, particularly the male sex, are deeply poisoned with infi- 
 delity, and this infidelity is, in a great measure, the result of edu- 
 cation. I will not say that religion has been wholly left out of 
 the account in the French system of education, although it must 
 be acknowledged, I believe, that it has been, in the main, neglect- 
 ed, especially in the higher institutions ; that it is the same thing 
 
70 FRANCE. 
 
 in its practical results, whether the duties and obligations of reli- 
 gion be entirely neglected, or such a religion be inculcated as is 
 inefficient in its influence on moral character, and repulsive, in all 
 its rites and devotions, to men of thought and intelligence. To 
 one or both of these causes we are doubtless to attribute the pre- 
 vailing infidelity of the French youth, and of the French nation 
 generally. Indeed, this spirit of infidelity is more prevalent than 
 I expected to find it. I knew the French were a God-forgetting 
 nation, and that infidelity had been taught by their philosophers, 
 and that reason had been deified by their legislatures; but I had 
 hoped a better day had actually risen upon France. I fear, how- 
 ever, this is not the case. I am told, by those well acquainted, 
 that you can rarely meet with a young man who does not scout 
 at the very idea of revelation, and many of them at the idea of a 
 God. Their greatest infidels are the men whom the nation seems 
 most delighted to honour. Voltaire has been recently enthroned 
 in bronze in the very centre of the Royal Library ; public worship 
 is very generally neglected, and the Sabbath is a day of universal 
 merriment and business. But my principal object now is to show 
 the unfavourable influence that this heartless infidelity has upon 
 personal happiness and social institutions ; and if in the picture 
 you see additional cause to adhere to the religion of the Bible, I 
 shall have gained my end in writing at this time. One of the most 
 prominent effects which are caused by infidelity is a tedium of 
 life, and a criminal haste to get out of it. It seems to be acknowl- 
 edged by all that suicide is increasing in France. I have heard 
 of several instances since I have been here. They have a public 
 place called the Morgue, where those who are found dead each 
 day are brought and deposited ; and the bodies are exposed to pub- 
 lic view in large trays, inside of a palisaded partition. Here 
 those whose friends or acquaintances are missing come, and if 
 they can recognise the bodies, they claim them for burial. As the 
 Seine is the more common resort for those who are tired of life, a 
 net is stretched across it below the city, by which all the bodies 
 not taken out are stopped and recovered. True, neither the 
 Morgue nor the net for the Seine can be supposed to have been 
 prepared exclusively for suicides, but for any accidental or violent 
 deaths ; yet the greater portion, probably, of those taken from the 
 Seine, and of those, from whatever sources, which are deposited 
 
SUICIDES. 71 
 
 in the Morgue, are the victims of this infidel practice. I say in- 
 fidel, for I consider suicide the practical consummation of infidel- 
 ity. Indeed, when once " the fool has said in his heart there is 
 no God," he needs only to become a little chagrined or dispirited 
 by disappointment, and he is ready at once to bury all in the 
 oblivious sleep of death. 
 
 That gloomy, insupportable state of mind^which is superinduced 
 by a disbelief in revelation, a special Providence, and future exist- 
 ence, as naturally leads to suicide, when associated w r ith the ills 
 that "life is heir to," as any effect follows its legitimate cause. 
 
 This of itself shows both the importance and truth of religion, 
 for certainly our Creator would not have left us without that, 
 which all experience teaches is so important to our safety and 
 happiness. Another method of destroying life which is becoming 
 quite popular, is by the fumes of charcoal in a close room. Some- 
 times more horrible and revolting methods are resorted to. It is 
 but a short time since one young man, who had become weary of 
 life, threw himself from the top of Notre Dame upon the pave- 
 ments below ; and another quite lately* from the top of Bona- 
 parte's column, an elevation of 135 feet. 
 
 Another proof of the little influence- of religion upon the public 
 mind, is the morbid sensibility which predominates, in many in- 
 stances, over correct sentiment ; begetting a strange and anoma- 
 lous kind of sympathetic feeling and action, a most surprising 
 mixture of sentimentality and cruelty, of affection and hatred, of 
 refined tenderness and savage barbarity. I can best illustrate what 
 I mean by an example or two. The instances are all recent. 
 
 The present mode of filling the ranks of the army is by conscrip- 
 tion. A young man, who was greatly beloved by his father, had at- 
 tained the age at which he was liable to be draughted for the pub- 
 lic service. This of course afflicted the father; and he anxiously 
 desired to find some method of saving his beloved son from the 
 conscription. On inquiry he learned that the oldest son of a ividow 
 was exempt from serving in the army. Of course it was now in 
 his power to secure his object ; he kills himself, by which the 
 boy's mother becomes a widow, and he is saved from the con- 
 scription ! ! Another case. A man and his wife not living hap- 
 
 * Viz., 24th inst. This is the fourth who has leaped from the column since its erec- 
 tion. It is quite sentimental to die at the base of Napoleon's pillar. 
 
72 FRANCE. 
 
 pily together, separated — a frequent, very frequent occurrence in 
 France. One son was greatly attached to the father, another son 
 and a daughter took sides with the mother. The mother and the 
 two children attached to her were a great annoyance to the father 
 in various ways. The other son, for the love he bore his father, 
 conceived and executed the plan of murdering his mother, and 
 brother, and sister. When arraigned for his crime, he pleaded in 
 excuse the love he bore his father ; and although he had destroyed 
 three lives and forfeited his own, he pleaded as authority the nu- 
 merous instances on record of men who had nobly sacrificed them- 
 selves for the happiness of others, and especially our Saviour, who 
 sacrificed himself for the good of mankind. Another. A physi- 
 cian came from some provincial town in France with another 
 man's wife, with whom he lived in criminal intimacy. They 
 found, however, that their felicity was not equal to their anticipa- 
 tions ; and not succeeding in their plans to their wishes, it was 
 thought best to cut the whole matter short by cutting the thread 
 of life. For this the female was specially anxious, and requested 
 her paramour, who of course could do it scientifically, to bleed 
 her to death, and then operate upon himself. He proceeded ac- 
 cordingly ; and having succeeded with her, he stabbed himself, 
 but not mortally. He was found, and recovered. He was tried 
 and acquitted by the French court, on the ground that the lady's 
 death was not homicide, but suicide ! ! And now mark the good- 
 ness, to speak ironically, of the doctor's heart. He finally dis- 
 missed the idea of destroying himself, and concluded he might be 
 of some service to the world by going into the districts infected 
 with the cholera or the plague, and prescribing for the sick. In 
 this way he could make a noble sacrifice of a life of which he was 
 weary, by administering, while he might survive, to the necessi- 
 ties of others. What a philanthropy was this! What a morbid 
 sensibility ! What a romantic and philanthropic adulterer and mur- 
 derer ! A fine specimen this of refinement in educating the intel- 
 lect, and especially the imagination, while the heart is neglected. 
 Another evidence of the effect of irreligion in France is the 
 pleasure the French take in strong excitement, and especially 
 that excitement which is produced by scenes of cruelty and mur- 
 der. The painters of the modern French school are all in proof. 
 Go to the Luxembourg palace, where the paintings are mostly 
 
LOVE OF EXCITEMENT. 73 
 
 new, and by French artists, and you may see a striking illustra- 
 tion of this fact. One is chilled and horrorstruck in going from 
 picture to picture, and finding death and agony, in all their horrid 
 shapes, meeting him at every turn. For example, in represent- 
 ing the scene of the elder Brutus and his two sons, most artists 
 fix upon that point of time in which the father gives command to 
 the lictors to take his sons to execution. This I remember to 
 have seen a number of years since, and the view of it, at this 
 stage of the tragedy, was more than I could well endure. But 
 this is not the point in the tragedy that will satisfy the French 
 artist. You have it at the Luxembourg. There lies the bleeding, 
 headless trunk of one son, and the dripping head itself is held up 
 in the hands of the lictor, while the other son, in view of the scene, 
 is just being subjected to the same operation ; and the father sits 
 and looks on, without relaxing a muscle of his stern, unpaternal 
 countenance ! How horrible is the exhibition ! ! And yet it re- 
 quires such an exhibition, it seems, to meet the views of a French 
 artist and his admirers. 
 
 There is a greater indifference to death among the French than is 
 found among other nations — an indifference which has already been 
 illustrated by a reference to the subject of suicide. It was shocking- 
 ly illustrated during the revolution of 1789, when thousands jested, 
 and danced, and sang amid flowing torrents of blood ; even when 
 their own was just ready to flow. This also is illustrated, perhaps, 
 in the character of the French soldier, and it may be one cause of 
 the success of the French armies. Certain it is, however, that this 
 contempt of death does not arise from any correct view of a here- 
 after, or any realizing sense of what it is to die, but it is rather the 
 result of that sensual infidelity which says " Let us eat and drink, 
 for to-morrow we die." This strong feeling, partaking of the na- 
 ture of cruelty, this recklessness of life so prevalent among the 
 French, may be seen in the repeated attempts which have been 
 made upon the life of the present king. Fieschi, who was the 
 chief agent in the infernal machine of July last, has, in the course 
 of his examination, given some striking proofs of the little value 
 he set upon human life ; and although he is a desperado, and 
 ought not by any means to be held up as a proper specimen of 
 the French character, yet it ought to be remembered that each 
 age and nation produces its peculiar desperadoes. Every grade 
 7 K 
 
74 FRANCE. 
 
 of character takes its peculiar cast from the mass in which it was 
 developed, and I doubt not that the history of the criminals of any 
 age or nation would exhibit the leading characteristics of the peo- 
 ple from among whom they sprang. But to return. Fieschi is 
 said to have declared, on his late examination, preparatory to his 
 trial, that at one time, while the procession was passing, his heart 
 had wellnigh failed him, for he saw in the group near the king a 
 friend to whom he was under special obligations. However, he 
 recollected that he was bound in honour to his accomplices, and 
 therefore he must not shrink ! Bound in honour to kill the chief 
 ruler of the nation, at the expense of many others : one of whom 
 was his friend and benefactor ! ! However, fortune favoured him 
 in this particular, for a movement of the procession threw his friend 
 in another position, and he had a fine opportunity of destroying a 
 score without harming him. Another instance of a desperate 
 murderer, who has just had his trial, will exhibit a similar spirit. 
 This wretch treated the court with the utmost contempt and their 
 sentence of death with the most perfect ridicule. They told him 
 he had the privilege of an appeal, by which his life might be pro- 
 longed three months. He at first refused ; but when he learned 
 that his accomplice in crime, against whom, it seemed, he cher- 
 ished, for some cause, the most rancorous, diabolical hatred, had 
 appealed, and would therefore outlive him, he decided to appeal 
 also ; because it would afford him such high gratification to see 
 this object of his hate die first. 
 
 Now although I would not have you judge, from the instances 
 given, that the French are all a cruel, murderous race — for I pro- 
 test against ranking a community in the same class with the most 
 exceptionable individual cases — still I must think that in these il- 
 lustrations there are some striking marks of national character. 
 We must always take the strong cases when we give an example, 
 in order to make clearly visible the lineaments and features we 
 design to bring into view. And here, if I mistake not, we have 
 very strongly marked, in the instances given, lines of character 
 that to some extent distinguish the French nation. And, if cir- 
 cumstances required it, I might carry out these illustrations further 
 in smaller matters ; I might allude to the extraordinary circulation 
 of the Journal des Tribunaux, in which are published all the horrid 
 crimes and suicides that are committed in the country ; the stock 
 
LOVE OF EXCITEMENT. 75 
 
 for the capital of which, I am told, has increased, since the first 
 investment, fifteen hundred per cent. — so great is the circulation of 
 this record of passion and crime.* Whence originates this mor- 
 bid appetite for these horrid recitals but in the causes already ex- 
 plained ? In further proof of the irreligion of this people, I might 
 mention their disregard of serious things ; the universal prostitu- 
 tion and desecration of the Sabbath ; the frequent and undisguised 
 disregard of conjugal relations, by which domestic quiet and do- 
 mestic happiness are prevented ; but I forbear. Enough is seen, 
 I think, in the entire history and present character of modern 
 France, to warn all against the dangerous experiment of training 
 up a generation to disregard " the only true God and Jesus Christ 
 whom he has sent." 
 
 France has many noble qualities ; she is chivalrous and brave, 
 and courtly and refined; she fosters, beyond any other nation, 
 yes, I hesitate not to say, beyond any other nation, the sciences 
 and the arts. But there is a worm at the root, and the gnawings 
 of that worm wither equally the tree of national prosperity and 
 the humbler plant of individual and domestic enjoyment. In 
 vain shall France change her form of government ; in vain shall 
 she multiply her sources of gratification, either of sense, of ima- 
 gination, or of intellect ; in vain shall she swell the song and lead- 
 down the dance ; in vain shall she strive to keep up her excite- 
 ment by the strongest stimulus of tragic representation ; in vain 
 shall she measure out the heavens, and weigh the earth, and ana- 
 lyze the productions of nature. She has revolted from her God— 
 the " hope, like an anchor to the soul, big with immortality," she 
 does not possess. In short, the entire national mind is cast loose 
 f rom its appropriate moorings, and tossed upon a restless sea of 
 excited feeling and unsanctified passion. In such a state, the in- 
 tervals of excitement must be gloomy, and press the soul down to 
 despair and loathing of life ; and the periods of excitement must 
 be maddening and licentious. 
 
 And now, young gentlemen, since I have not been drawing any 
 doubtful fancy-picture, but one of reality and notoriety; and since 
 the causes and effects are not traced out by dim and ambiguous 
 
 * Recently, a second gazette of a similar character, called Le Droit, has been estab- 
 Jished. The ground of public patronage of this character is so extensive that another 
 gunilar periodica] seemed desirable. 
 
76 PRANCE. 
 
 lines and connexions, but by striking and obvious associations, 
 permit me to inquire whether there is one of you who would 
 wish to see such a state of feeling in America ? Nay, is there 
 one of you who can for a moment forget how much you are in- 
 debted, individually, to the influence of religious truth upon your 
 minds ? Although some of you may not be particularly and pro- 
 fessedly religious, yet, however little you may realize it, it is the 
 influence of religion, silently thrown over you by the power of as- 
 sociation and education, that checks your excesses, which other- 
 wise might prove ruinous. It is this that keeps you from despair 
 in the hour of discouragement. As you value your own happi- 
 ness, then, I entreat of you, respect the institutions and principles 
 of our holy religion ; and as you love your country, encourage, by 
 all means, that course of education which improves the heart, 
 while, at the same time, it invigorates and improves the intellect. 
 Yours, in the kindest sentiments of affection and esteem, 
 
 I W. Fisk. 
 
 To the Corresponding Secretary of the Missionary Society of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church. 
 
 Paris, Nov. 12, 1835. 
 
 Rev. and dear Sir, 
 
 I am the more prompted to trouble you with a letter at this 
 time from the circumstance of my having attended, last evening, 
 a missionary meeting in this city, and from my having at that 
 time increased to some extent my little knowledge of the state of 
 things in this great and interesting nation on the subject of Prot- 
 estant missionary operations. This will enable me to comply in 
 part with the request of the Missionary Board, that I would, in 
 my tour, make such inquiries respecting the openings for mis- 
 sionary labour, especially in France, as my circumstances would 
 permit. 
 
 The meeting to which I allude was held in the place of wor- 
 ship occupied by the Rev. Robert Newstead, formerly Wesleyan 
 missionary in Ceylon, but now stationed by the same society in 
 Paris, in connexion with the Rev. Mr. De Jersey, who preaches 
 in French. Mr. Newstead preaches in English to a congregation 
 
A MISSIONARY MEETING. 77 
 
 made up of English and Americans, but mostly of the former. 
 The chapel is a private tenement, rented and fitted up for the 
 purpose in the Faubourg St. Honore. One circumstance which 
 rendered the place very interesting to me was, that the apart- 
 ments were those of our highly-venerated Lafayette at the time 
 of his last sickness and death. Yes, in those very apartments 
 where the " patriot of two hemispheres" breathed his last, I had 
 the pleasure of preaching to a Protestant congregation last Sabbath, 
 and of assembling with others last evening to celebrate a Prot- 
 estant missionary anniversary ! The meeting was not large, but 
 interesting. Mr. Newstead, who is much esteemed here, and who 
 is deeply devoted to his work and indefatigable in his labours, 
 had enlisted several clergymen of other denominations to assist on 
 the occasion. The pecuniary result of the meeting was a collec- 
 tion of about 320 francs (not far from $62). One of the speakers 
 was Rev. John Hartly, who was formerly missionary from the 
 Church Missionary Society to Greece, but who, for two or three 
 years past, has been residing in Geneva. Mr. H. gave it as his 
 opinion that the whole of France was open for Protestant mis- 
 sionaries ; and publicly entreated me, in the course of his ad- 
 dress, to make myself acquainted with the facts in the case, and 
 urge the American churches to interest themselves in this very 
 important field of labour. He said there was not a town in 
 France, except perhaps the very largest, such as Paris and 
 Lyons, where, if a Protestant missionary should go, and, having 
 obtained the required license, should give out that Protestant 
 worship was to be attended, there would not be crowds to hear 
 him.* He stated, moreover, that there was a great readiness, and, 
 indeed, eagerness, to receive religious publications and the Bible. 
 He gave an interesting sketch, in which the late great and gra- 
 cious revival of religion in the Pays de Vaud commenced and was 
 carried on. In the first place, some humble individuals, called 
 cotyorteurs, were employed to carry round on their backs and 
 distribute religious tracts, written in a form to attract attention, 
 and also the Bible. These were cheerfully received ; and, by 
 
 * Mr. De Jersey, who has laboured a number of years in Normandy and Picardy, says 
 this does not accord with his experience, although he finds much encouragement. The 
 fact is, some parts are more accessible than others, but there is more or less encourage- 
 ment in all parts. 
 7 
 
78 FRANCE. 
 
 means of them, together with the pious conversation of the colpor- 
 teurs, a number were converted. This opened the way for send- 
 ing regular ministers among them, and in this way the work 
 has been extended in a very interesting manner in the eastern 
 part of France. It seemed to be the opinion of Mr, Hartly that 
 the same might be done throughout the kingdom. And if nothing 
 else were done at first but the circulating of the Bible and reli- 
 gious publications, this would of itself produce glorious results. 
 It is true, there might be some sections of the country, and some 
 classes or individuals, so much under the influence of the Catholic 
 priests as to reject the Bible ; but this would not, it is believed, 
 be generally the case. There is probably not a Catholic country 
 on the globe where the priests have so little power over the great 
 body of the people of all ranks as in France. They will think 
 for themselves, and, in thinking for themselves, they become more 
 and more dissatisfied with the mummery, and bigotry, and yoke 
 of bondage of the Catholic superstitions ; and the danger now is, 
 that they will go over en masse to infidelity; as, indeed, the 
 greater portion of the higher classes have done already. Infidel- 
 ity is the boast of by far the greater portion of the younger citi- 
 zens of France ; they scout the very idea of revelation, and not a 
 few of them of a God — so those say who have resided long in the 
 country, and are best prepared to know the true state of things. 
 The churches are in a manner deserted by the younger men, and 
 religion is left chiefly to the women and to the old men. In this 
 state of things, what can save the nation but the Bible, and a de- 
 vout and faithful exhibition of Bible truth, independent of the dis- 
 gusting mummeries and hypocrisies with which the people have 
 heretofore seen those truths associated ! The Catholic power 
 here is crippled, never, I trust, to rise again. Its partial resurrec- 
 tion after the restoration of the Bourbons, and especially at the 
 accession of Charles X. to the throne, has served to make its 
 second downfall but the more fatal and irrecoverable. That infat- 
 uated prince gave himself up to the dictation of the priests, and 
 vainly thought to charm the people back again to the passive obe- 
 dience of the old regime by religious ceremonies and processions. 
 It was thus that he was induced by the Jesuitical influence of the 
 clergy to venture upon those measures that drove him from the 
 throne into banishment. The people see this ; they see that the 
 
OPENING FOR RELIGIOUS EFFORT. 79 
 
 priests are not to be trusted ; that no one under their influence 
 can be trusted : and hence the priests are less likely to dupe them 
 than formerly. No religious parades have been seen in the 
 streets of Paris since the memorable revolution of July, 1830, 
 and the present king has carefully refrained from committing 
 himself on the subject of religion in any form. It has been said, 
 that the only intimation he has ever given in public of his believing 
 in any religion, was at the instant after the discharge of the infer- 
 nal machine, in July last, on the Boulevard du Temple ; when a 
 score were dying around him, and himself wounded, he faced the 
 side whence the discharge had proceeded, drew his sword, and 
 then crossed his arms upon his breast. And even this small sig- 
 nal might be the result of the agitation of that awful moment 
 rather than the indication of any religious faith. 
 
 Such is the religion of the king, such is the religion of most of 
 his principal men. One of his cabinet, M. Guizot, is a Protestant 
 — the wife of another, the Due de Broglie, notwithstanding the 
 duke is himself a nominal Catholic, is a Protestant, and is said to 
 be a pious lady, although the daughter of an infidel mother, the 
 late celebrated Madame de Stael. All these circumstances show 
 how little power the priests have in the government ; add to this 
 the fact that the Roman Catholic religion in this country is no 
 longer exclusively the state religion, and that free toleration is se- 
 cured to all religious sects, and you will see how the Catholic in- 
 fluence in the great body of the nation is diminished.* For every 
 one who knows anything of the Catholic Church knows that 
 the priesthood would never give up their hold upon the govern- 
 ment if they could retain it. But this power has departed from 
 them for ever in France. And yet there is not inherent Protest- 
 antism in the nation sufficient to raise and sustain the standard of 
 Bible Christianity, nor sufficient inherent piety to save the na- 
 tion from infidelity. Here there is a field for Protestant labour 
 from abroad, vast in extent, ripe for the harvest, rich in promise — 
 
 * This may need some qualification. There are two different ordinances which seem 
 to be susceptible of, and have received, in some instances, opposite constructions. How- 
 ever, it may be said that the prevailing principle in France is altogether in favour of tol- 
 eration ; and although the present government maybe uncertain and unsettled, yet there 
 can be little doubt that whatever changes may occur, and that there will not be changes 
 can scarcely be hoped, every successive change or revolution must settle down in favour 
 of an equal or greater degree of civil and religious liberty. 
 
80 FRANCE. 
 
 a field where thirty-two millions of souls are actually famishing 
 for the sincere milk of the word, with but perhaps 200 evangeli- 
 cal, spiritual Protestant preachers among them. Here is an oppor- 
 tunity for Protestants to get a noble, a Gospel revenge, if I may 
 so say, for the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and for all the 
 bloody persecutions that the scarlet beast has perpetrated upon 
 the defenceless Protestants of France throughout its past history 
 — and here, methinks, Protestant America may pay back to Cath- 
 olic Europe an ample compensation for all the supplies of men 
 and money gratuitously sent over to subject American citizens to 
 the Roman yoke ; and here, too, the United States may find an 
 opportunity to refund to France to some extent the debt of grati- 
 tude we owe her for the services she as a nation, and some of 
 her sons as individuals, especially the illustrious Lafayette, have 
 rendered us. They helped us to gain our national liberty and 
 independence, and shall we not aid them to the attainment of the 
 liberty of the gospel ? 
 
 There may be some special reasons, perhaps, why America 
 should engage in this enterprise. It is true the neighbouring 
 kingdoms, and especially Great Britain, are more advantageously 
 situated for this work than America. But missionaries from most 
 of these kingdoms would be looked upon with suspicion, especially 
 where those missionaries were connected with the state religion 
 of their respective countries. Great Britain, at the present time, 
 would be the least suspected ; but the fact is, there is work enough 
 for all ; and, humanly speaking, much more than all can do. Per- 
 haps, taking all things into the account, the most efficient mission- 
 ary institution in the world at this time is the Wesleyan Mission- 
 ary Society of England; but they have a vast work on hand. 
 The extent of the British empire ; the number, and geographical 
 extent, and pressing wants of the British colonies, and of the 
 pagans under the government and in the neighbourhood of those 
 colonies, are so great that they claim and receive most of the 
 patronage of that society ; and still the society can furnish for that 
 field only a very partial supply. It is true, they at present furnish 
 twelve missionaries for France ; but three of these preach in 
 English, to supply the English emigrants at Calais, Boulogne, and 
 Paris. They have, in addition, on the Calais and Boulogne cir- 
 cuit, two who preach in French ; one also in Paris, and six in 
 
DUTY OF AMERICAN CHRISTIANS. •» 81 
 
 Normandy and the south of France. How much they will be 
 able to enlarge and strengthen this department of the missionary 
 work, I am unable to say ; evidently, however, in no degree ade- 
 quate to the wants of the country. 
 
 Missionaries from America would be received, it is believed, 
 by a great portion of the people of France more readily than 
 from almost any other part of the world. The habits, especially, 
 of the ministers of the Methodist Church in America, are pecu- 
 liarly suited to that kind of work that is the most needed in France. 
 Whoever undertakes the evangelization of this country must come 
 down to the drudgery, if such it may be called, of the missionary 
 work. He must be a hewer of wood and a drawer of water ; a 
 colporteur, a burden-bearer, in the work of the gospel. How many 
 such are now wanted ! If scores of prudent young men were 
 now employed in all parts of the kingdom, carrying round tracts 
 and Bibles, taking up their lodgings with the poor, and entering 
 freely into conversation with them on the concerns of their souls, 
 what might they not effect ? 
 
 In my opinion, moreover, that form of worship the freest possi- 
 ble from all external parade and mechanical form will be the 
 best suited to the present condition of the French, not only as it 
 would commend itself to those who revolt at the excessive display 
 of the prevailing religion, but also because the most simple form 
 of religious instruction and worship is necessary to call off the 
 senses of the multitude from images, ceremonies, and external 
 pomp, to their own hearts, and to the one God and one Mediator. 
 Such especially is American Methodism. Our British brethren 
 have judged it best, for reasons which have weight with them, to 
 retain in their service in the missionary stations the practice of 
 reading prayers ; and what struck me as very remarkable, they 
 carry their nationality so far as even here in France, and in a 
 missionary station, to pray in due form for " our most gracious 
 sovereign lord King William." The better way, doubtless, for a 
 missionary in this country would be to divest himself of everything 
 that wears the aspect of foreign associations, and to come to the 
 people as one whose sole object is to benefit Frenchmen, as such, 
 in the great interest of their souls. And such, I doubt not, is the 
 method our British ministers pursue in their preaching to the 
 French. It is not good policy, however, as it strikes me, since 
 L 
 
82 FRANCE. 
 
 the missionaries all come out under the same auspices, and ulti- 
 mately for the same object— the benefit of France— not to identify 
 themselves with the French government as much as they may, 
 and avoid all national distinctions. I do not by this, however, 
 mean to intimate that the English in France are unfriendly to the 
 existing government. So far as I have seen, Louis Philippe has 
 no warmer friends in the French nation than are the great body 
 of the English residents. 
 
 But I am wandering ; to return. The British Protestants will, 
 if the present kind feelings continue between the two nations, un- 
 doubtedly do this country great good. But, as I said before, there 
 is more work than all can do, and there are some reasons why 
 America might be, equally with any other nation, and perhaps in 
 a greater degree even, beneficial to the cause of Christ here, if they 
 would enlist in the enterprise. 
 
 It is true, the present political misunderstanding (for so I must 
 call it) must first be settled. Should the present small disagree- 
 ment ripen into war, which may Heaven forbid, it would blast all 
 our hopes of benefiting France, and might serve to increase the 
 bigotry on the one hand, and the infidelity on the other, of this in- 
 teresting nation. I. cannot, however, believe that a question of 
 mere etiquette, for such it really has become, will be suffered to 
 produce nonintercourse, enmity, and bloodshed between two na- 
 tions which have such strong reasons for mutual friendship.* 
 
 It might also be necessary to use some precaution as to the 
 manner of operation and as to the number sent. The political 
 elements of France are far from being settled. The Carlists and 
 republicans, though the antipodes of each other, have met on the 
 same meridian to oppose the present government. This renders 
 the government extremely jealous of the republicans, and, by as- 
 sociation, they might be jealous of Americans, if they appeared to 
 be engaging in any extensive work in this country just at this 
 moment ; a jealousy which the Jesuits, for obvious reasons, would 
 be disposed to increase. So that while the people might prefer 
 Americans, the government might be suspicious. This, however, 
 
 * Since writing the above, intelligence has arrived of the proffered mediation of Eng- 
 land to settle this unhappy dispute, and it is said France has accepted it. America 
 doubtless will accede to this mediation, and thus this affair will be settled in a way hon- 
 ourable to both parties. 
 
DUTY OF AMERICAN CHRISTIANS. 83 
 
 would be easily avoided, I think, by prudent management. If 
 men came here with the sole and honest purpose of doing good to 
 the French, by preaching unto them the gospel of Christ, their 
 character would be ultimately understood and their motives ap- 
 preciated. 
 
 Finally, if I might be permitted, with my short acquaintance, to 
 make a suggestion on this subject, it would be this. That, as soon 
 as the political relations of the country will permit, a judicious 
 man should be sent out to France as a pioneer, who should survey 
 the field, fix upon the points and manner of approach, and, if cir- 
 cumstances should justify, to be followed by others, by Bibles, and 
 by tracts. And especially that, as soon as circumstances would 
 authorize it, a small religious periodical should be established to act 
 upon the public mind. This, if prudently conducted so as not to 
 alarm the government, would, I think, do wonders. A proper un- 
 derstanding of the French character and of the state of the Prot- 
 estant cause in France, and especially in Paris, would lead to the 
 conclusion, I believe, that a house of worship should be built at 
 once in Paris, and I seriously doubt whether any attempt to make 
 an impression on the Parisians will avail without this. It does 
 not comport with the regulations of the British Wesleyan Mis- 
 sionary Society to build chapels or churches. They say, collect 
 congregations, raise up societies, and they will build you houses ; 
 all this may be very correct for most countries, but I am persuaded 
 it is not the true doctrine for Paris, and it seems to me that a long 
 trial in that city ought to have satisfied them of this. If we should 
 commence amission here, this should be our first object. Another 
 important consideration : France is a scientific and literary nation ; 
 and any attempt to evangelize her should be connected with a 
 native agency, and a native agency properly fitted for the work. 
 That the natives of France should be chiefly depended upon for 
 this great work, there can be no doubt. This should always be 
 the reliance in all efforts to evangelize the world. The longer an 
 efficient native ministry is delayed, the more the work will be re- 
 tarded. But a civilized country — a proud country — a nominally 
 Christian country, will have her national pride excited to be con- 
 sidered under the charitable protection and instruction of foreign- 
 ers, and thus access to the public ear and heart might be cut off. 
 The evangelical course, therefore, should be commenced and 
 
84 FRANCE. 
 
 aided by Christians abroad ; but all possible aid should be secured 
 in the nation, and to this end a school should be opened in Paris. 
 Here, with a little expense — for the lectures of a scientific and 
 literary character, which are open to all in Paris, would greatly 
 diminish the expense — young men might be trained for the good 
 of France. And if at first they were mostly American youth, yet 
 if educated here, so as to preach in the French language without 
 a foreign accent, it would greatly facilitate the work. And as 
 Paris is France, such an establishment in the capital, aided by the 
 press, would, by the Divine blessing, soon enable us to speak of the 
 French Methodist Church. 
 
 As an additional consideration, it should not be forgotten that 
 Paris contains a great many Americans ; probably there are from 
 the United States, in the city of Paris, continually from two to 
 three thousand, and this number is yearly increasing.* A good 
 house of worship, conveniently situated, would accommodate, at 
 different hours, both Americans and Frenchmen, in the English 
 and French languages. How many might in this way be induced 
 to attend worship on the Sabbath, and perhaps saved from dissipa- 
 tion and sensuality, who are now drawn into the vortex of pleasure, 
 because they lack those restraints to which they have been accus- 
 tomed at home ! It is a general remark in Paris that Americans 
 are more licentious than the Parisians themselves. Many youth 
 of both sexes, doubtless, finding themselves unrestrained and sur- 
 rounded with temptation, break over all bounds, and run the race 
 of pleasure with the more greediness, because it is new.f Shall 
 we not try to save them ? Shall we not endeavour to form an 
 American Society, that shall have a public opinion of its own in 
 Paris to restrain the young and aid the erring ? But how shall 
 we do- this without the gospel ? and are we not especially bound to 
 follow, with the means of grace, our own wandering children, 
 wherever they go, more particularly when they gather in any 
 one place in sufficient numbers to make it practicable and easy to 
 do this ? 
 
 An influential minister of the gospel, therefore, might superin- 
 
 * At the late introduction of our new minister Gov. Cass at the court of France, 1700 
 American citizens called to pay him their respects and welcome him to Paris. 
 
 t One young lady of decided piety, as it was supposed at home, left one of our first 
 cities to reside a while in Paris. The first Sabbath she wept at the desecration of the 
 Lord's day ; but in three or four weeks she herself was at the opera on Sunday evening. 
 
ARRIVAL AT LYONS. 85 
 
 tend the mission, the school, and the press, and at the same time 
 be usefully employed both as a preacher and a pastor to his 
 own countrymen. How long, then, shall a work of this kind be 
 delayed ? Suppose it require an outlay at the first of 50,000 dol- 
 lars; suppose it require an annual expenditure of 10 or 15,000 
 dollars to sustain it, how could American Christians devote that 
 sum to better advantage ? Where is there a. field that promises a 
 better harvest, or that claims our attention by stronger obligations ? 
 But I must close this long letter. You may hear from me again 
 on this subject. In the mean time, I beg the privilege of saying to 
 you, and, through you, to my friends in America, that my health 
 and that of Mrs. F. are much better. 
 
 Most affectionately yours, 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Left Paris in the diligence, December 17, 1835, and contin- 
 ued without stopping, except to eat, for four days and three nights, 
 when we arrived at Lyons. 
 
 The road from Paris to Lyons was excellent — contrary to all 
 expectations and to all information, and the diligence was remark- 
 ably convenient. Indeed, I know of no public carriage in any 
 country more comfortable, especially in the winter, than the French 
 
 diligence. Mr. , who is now travelling in Europe, has said, 
 
 in a letter published just as I was leaving America, that England 
 was a century in advance of America in stagecoaching. The 
 correctness of this I have never been able to discover. I think 
 England is in some respects behind France. Indeed, although 
 the French diligences have been a subject of ridicule to almost all 
 tourists, and the English stagecoaches a subject of praise, I con- 
 fess, for myself, that I prefer the diligence altogether. The Eng- 
 lish, it is true, on some of their principal routes, exceed all others 
 for speed. This is owing, in part, to their excellent, unrivalled 
 roads. They have also good horses. But what, besides their 
 « 8 
 
86 FRANCE. 
 
 speed and punctuality, have the English stagecoaches to boast of? 
 They have but four seats under cover, or inside, as they term it, 
 and these four inside passengers are wedged in with a compact- 
 ness beyond all comfort, not to say beyond all endurance. The 
 outside passengers are exposed to heat, and cold, and rain, have a 
 hard oak plank generally for their seat, and an iron rod to their back. 
 The guard and coachmen are ever and anon tipping their hats to 
 you, and saying, " Please remember the coachman," " Please re- 
 member the guard," both of which must be regularly feed. You 
 are so hurried on every moment that they will neither give you 
 time to satisfy hunger nor anything else. Now the very reverse 
 of all this is true of the French diligence. It is the opposite of 
 the English stagecoach in speed. It travels at the rate of about 
 one hundred miles in twenty-four hours, always going night and 
 day. Indeed, they seem rather to prefer the night to the day; for 
 if they have a journey of thirty-six hours to accomplish, they will 
 start at night, so as to be out two nights and one day, instead of 
 starting in the morning, so as to be out but one night. But, then, 
 they give you ample time to eat, and you are comfortable in your 
 seat by day and by night. I was astonished at the comfort with 
 which we endured the ride of three successive nights ; we slept 
 tolerably, and were well defended from the cold, although the 
 ground was covered with snow and hardened by frost.. But a 
 French diligence, with all its rigging, is truly, to look at, a laugha- 
 ble affair. It is a moveable edifice of three rooms. The first or 
 foremost is called the Coupe, and holds three. This is very 
 pleasant in comfortable weather, as it has glass in the front and at 
 the sides, and, for the accommodation of such as may wish to see 
 themselves, many of them are fitted up with a looking-glass, be- 
 sides huge pockets in which to stow away your roast chicken and 
 other eatables, of which the traveller does well to lay in a good 
 stock, especially in particular sections of the route, as good hotels 
 are scarce. But in cold weather the coupe is rather airy, and there- 
 fore less comfortable than the Interior, which is the next apart- 
 ment, with accommodations for six, three on a seat, vis-a-vis. 
 The next apartment, and the least honourable, is the Rotond, which 
 is generally entered behind like an omnibus, and the seats run, as 
 the sailors say, fore and aft. This also will hold six. The prices 
 
A FRENCH DILIGENCE. 87 
 
 vary in each apartment, being highest in the coupe, and the next is 
 the interior ; all these are separated by thick cushioned walls. 
 
 To this huge machine four or six horses are tied, generally by 
 rope traces, with immense collars and hames covered with skins 
 on the shoulders. The straps of the harness are wide and awk- 
 ward ; the headstalls are heavy, and covered with nobs of faded ar- 
 tificial flowers, almost as big as teacups, or hung over with tas- 
 sels and bows, until the poor animals look as though they were 
 half blinded and suffocated in their own ornaments ; and now the 
 postillion with his livery, his long boots armed with wood or 
 iron on the interior leg, mounts his nigh wheel-horse, and if they 
 have six, another similarly equipped mounts the next, and then 
 such cracking of the whips and rumbling of the machine follows 
 as would deafen one not accustomed to such noises. There were 
 six of us Americans in company, viz., Mr. J. H. and lady and little 
 son from New-York, Rev. Mr. H. from Boston, and Mrs. F. and 
 myself; with this company we enjoyed social life, as well as the 
 novelty of the scenes through which we passed. Our road lay 
 through a number of small towns, which it will be hardly worth 
 while to enumerate, although most of them are associated with 
 some important event in past history. The traveller leaves Paris 
 on the left bank of the Seine ; soon crosses the Marne, which is 
 a branch of the Seine, and follows up the valley of that river 
 until he reaches the Yonne, twenty leagues from Paris, and thence 
 up the Yonne, or near its course, to its head waters, and thence 
 across to the waters of the Saone. The principal towns passed are 
 Melun, Sens, Auxerre, Sauliere, Autun, to Chalons-sur- Saone, 
 or Chalons on the Saone. The distance from Paris to Chalons 
 by this route is eighty-nine leagues, in a southwestern direction. 
 Melun has a population of 7000. Between Melun and Sens is 
 Montereau, where, in 1814, a severe battle was fought between the 
 French and the allies. Sens has a population of 1 1,000. Auxerre 
 is on the river Yonne, and has a population of 13,000. Autun 
 was anciently called Augustodunum, in honour of Augustus Caesar. 
 The inhabitants were the ancient iEdui, and are said to have as- 
 sisted Caesar in his conquest of Gaul, on which account they were 
 greatly honoured by the Romans, and were admitted into the Roman 
 Senate. Ancient Roman remains are still found here, but we had 
 not time to examine them. One feels a melancholy interest in 
 
88 FRANCE. 
 
 traversing these countries, and passing the very places where 
 ancient heroes lived and fought, and where the very monuments 
 of their deeds are crumbling to dust. 
 
 The geology of the country seemed mostly very similar, so far 
 as we had an opportunity of examining it, to what it was from 
 Dover to Paris — a chalky soil with limestone. The products of 
 the soil are grain and grapes. The vineyards were abundant, 
 but were different in their appearance from the images of my 
 own fancy. I had anticipated that I should see all the vineyards 
 hanging in festoons, and running in extended vines over trees and 
 rustic arcades ; instead of which, the vines were short and 
 scrubby ; not higher, perhaps, than four or six feet, some of them 
 supported by stakes, and others, when the stock was sufficiently 
 strong, supporting their own weight. Sometimes the vines would 
 be in rows so near that the intervening soil was not cultivated for 
 other crops ; but at other times they would be planted in rows at 
 two or three rods distance, and the space between was ploughed 
 and tilled ; thus dividing the face of the country into lovely lawns, 
 with intermediate hedges of clustering grapes, which, in the proper 
 season, must be very picturesque and delightful. 
 
 The public roads in France are wide, and generally ornamented 
 with rows of lofty trees on either side, which give them a grand 
 appearance. The French are peculiarly fond of trees planted in 
 regular rows ; not only is this the style of their public gardens, as 
 is seen in Paris and other towns, and of the public roads, as men- 
 tioned above, but their more private lanes and their meandering 
 watercourses are often lined with a range of trees on either side. 
 These trees are not like the shade-trees that are planted in our 
 country, with low and branching tops, but rather high and com- 
 paratively slender. 
 
 In all the northern and central parts of France through which 
 we passed there were no hedgerows like those of England, nor 
 walls and fences like our own country; but the whole country 
 appears in one common field of extended magnificence. Let the 
 reader imagine himself on an eminence, where nothing but the 
 distant mountain or the arch of the sensible horizon bounds his 
 vision ; let him fancy an agreeable variety of extended but gradual 
 slopes of hill and dale spread out before him, over which he be- 
 holds the surface of one boundless and undivided plantation, except 
 
FRENCH SCENERY. 89 
 
 the long and straight lines of various colours from the different 
 crops and different modes of cultivation; and here and there 
 double ranges, as far as the eye can follow, of these leafy col- 
 onnades of lofty trees already alluded to, and he will have, I think, 
 a tolerable idea of a French landscape. It is not so beautiful as 
 it is magnificent. It was to me, however, particularly pleasant, 
 the more so, I suppose, because I had just come from England, 
 where the mind is cramped and straitened by the minute chess- 
 board divisions of the rural scenery of that country. The English 
 think there is nothing so dull and insipid as the scenery of France. 
 How much we are, even in our taste, the creatures of habit ! 
 
 It is proper here, however, to observe, that, as you go farther 
 south, there are more hedges and walls between the different 
 estates and fields. The American traveller, when he first enters 
 France, cannot but be struck with the entire absence, apparently, 
 of what we call comfort, in the cabins of the lower classes. They 
 live almost universally in villages. You may travel several miles 
 over well-cultivated fields, but see no dwelling; at length you 
 come to a petty town or village, and here you find herded together 
 in one dirty place the labourers for several square leagues of land. 
 Their houses are generally built of stone, more frequently than 
 otherwise in a low vale, where, of course, the ground is moist ; the 
 floors are as low or lower than the streets, "and generally of stone, 
 or tiles, or earth. They are placed, moreover, as near the street as 
 it is possible to place them ; and on the same line with the house, 
 and most always under the same roof, are their barn and stable. 
 With these appendages, and in this locality, with a soil naturally 
 clammy and adhesive, and with the most slovenly habits, the 
 reader may readily conceive how much mud and manure will be 
 likely to be carried into the house upon the wooden shoes, or 
 sabots, as they call them, of a French family. When the dirt has 
 accumulated so as to be uncomfortable to the inmates, you may 
 see them sometimes scraping it out, as a farmer his stable ; add to 
 this, these cottages are badly lighted and poorly furnished. Can 
 there be anything like comfort here ? 
 
 Another circumstance which cannot fail to strike the American 
 
 traveller unfavourably is the drudgery and exposure of the 
 
 women. The women of France, thought I, when w r e first landed 
 
 at Boulogne, and saw females bending under heavy loads in bas- 
 
 8 M 
 
90 FRANCE. 
 
 kets, and wooden frames fitted to their backs, and strapped to their 
 shoulders, the women of France are beasts of burden. You are 
 further impressed with this sentiment as you travel through the 
 country, and see the women engaged in all the drudgery of the 
 field and of other out-door labour. You see them with their 
 spades, their teams, and their market-carts ; they are porters and 
 common carriers in some instances, they are street-scavengers in 
 others. Indeed, in many respects, the order of labour between the 
 sexes is inverted in France • for while females are engaged as 
 above, males are very generally employed in various departments 
 of household labour; they are sometimes cooks, and in most 
 public-houses you have men for chambermaids. It is perhaps 
 owing to their employment that the countrywomen appear to me 
 so much more rustic and unrefined than the men. The latter 
 were very much like the yeomanry of our own country. But to 
 see by the side of a man, who with us would be taken for a de- 
 cent and intelligent labourer, a woman with a pair of wooden shoes, 
 a very short striped petticoat, and a short loose gown or jacket, 
 with a tanned skin and rough features, standing, if not at work, 
 with both hands in her pockets on either hip, seemed to me, at 
 any rate, a very great incongruity. The man looked like other 
 men of his standing and employment in the nineteenth century, 
 but the woman was so unlike the decently dressed, comparatively 
 soft, and feminine wife of an American peasant, that I am, without 
 a moment's hesitancy, led to the conclusion, that in the one case 
 the woman is honoured as becomes her condition, and in the other 
 she is degraded. 
 
 The foregoing remarks, however, do not apply to a great por- 
 tion of the common women of Paris, who are certainly a neater, 
 better dressed, and a more cheerful class than I have ever seen of 
 the same grade elsewhere. 
 
 Neither do these characteristics at all mark the relations of the 
 two sexes in the higher grades of society. There the relations 
 are reversed ; woman is placed too high. In the one case she is 
 an idol, and in the other a mere drudge. But to return to my 
 narrative. The general style of building in France, especially in 
 the country, is heavy and uninteresting. This is owing in part to 
 the material, which is a soft limestone, and in part to the style of 
 the country edifices ; stone is plenty, brick and wood are scarce* 
 
KILLING TWO BIRDS WITH ONE STONE. 91 
 
 Hence everything is built of stone ; the humble cottage and the 
 stately mansion ; the stable and the palace. The character of 
 the stone is dull and soft, and the external surface is generally 
 covered with a coarse, dull stucco. If you pass a gentleman's 
 chateau, you will find it of the same character, and it will be en- 
 closed, and, to a considerable degree, hidden by a high stone wall 
 of heavy masonry and coarse stucco. Such an edifice, with its 
 enclosure, has with it, to my mind, associations of anything but 
 comfort. It is a convent, a stable, a prison; anything but a 
 convenient, pleasant residence for domestic enjoyment. 
 
 Many of the public hotels are miserable hovels ; and they are 
 at the same time so constructed as to give the traveller a view of 
 the worst parts of the concern at his first entrance. Not unfre- 
 quently they are entered through the kitchen ; and such a kitchen ! 
 I will not undertake to describe it. Suffice it to say, I tried, in 
 one or two instances, for the sake of the female part of our com- 
 pany, whose taste in these matters was rather delicate, to avoid 
 this entrance ; but it was unavoidable ; we must pass to our di- 
 ning-room through the cookshop, and be initiated into, the gen- 
 eral aspect, at least, of the mysteries of French cooking. How- 
 ever disadvantageous this might be to us, it was certainly for the 
 interest of the innholder ; for one must feel pretty keenly the 
 bitings of hunger to eat very voraciously after such an initiation. 
 In one instance, one of our company undertook to regulate the 
 boiling of some eggs, for which purpose he found it necessary to 
 watch the process in person. To his surprise, the eggs were put 
 into a soup-pot that was boiling over the fire. After the process 
 was finished, the broth that had served to cook the eggs was 
 served up for another company that was dining in the same room. 
 
 The French, and the same is true of the Italians, have the art 
 of disguising their meats in such a variety of forms and dressings, 
 that it is difficult to tell what the original substance was. This 
 enables them to dress over and serve up indefinitely the same old 
 dish, until, by the friction of the process, and the picking and tast- 
 ing of the traveller, the whole is exhausted. It would be a hope- 
 less task to undertake to trace the various transformations the 
 article before you has undergone before it appears on your dish. 
 It was boiled for soup, perhaps ; then it was roasted ; it was fric- 
 aseed ; it was smothered in garlics ; it was warmed over, and 
 
92 FRANCE. 
 
 dressed in parsley ; and now it appears to you in a new form ; 
 and if you do not like this, here is another dish, and yet another, 
 and another still ; but, alas ! they are all nameless, and their his- 
 tory can only be traced out by remote tradition ! 
 
 These remarks do not so much apply to the best inns in the 
 large cities ; here you often find a good table, and, in some re- 
 spects, a very superior cookery. 
 
 The chill of the rooms, from the thick stone walls and the stone 
 or brick floors, almost invariably destitute of carpets, renders 
 travelling in France, especially in cold or damp weather, very un- 
 healthy. Whatever may be thought of the climate of France, I 
 could never recommend it as a favourable winter resort for invalids. 
 But to return to our journey : Chalons sur Saone appears, from 
 the imperfect view we had of it, to be a pleasant town ; its streets 
 were cleaner, and its buildings were better than those of the towns 
 through which we had passed ; at any rate, it afforded us a very 
 * good -dinner, which was no small luxury after what we had ex- 
 perienced. This town is situated on the right bank of the Saone, 
 and has a water communication with the interior by means of the 
 Central Canal, which extends twenty-four leagues across to the 
 waters of the Loire ; thus giving a water communication between 
 the two extremes of the kingdom. 
 
 The route from Chalons to Lyons, being a distance of thirty- 
 two leagues down the valley of the Saone, was, for the most part, 
 very interesting, especially the lower section. Unlike what we 
 had before seen in France, the country generally appeared to be 
 inhabited. Country seats and cottages were sprinkled over the hills 
 and through the vales, and an appearance of general wealth and 
 prosperity cheered the scene. These were multiplied as we ap- 
 proached Lyons. As you draw near this city, you first ascend, 
 and afterward descend, a high hill. The view from the top is fine, 
 and gives to the public house on the height the appellation of 
 V Hotel de la Belle Vieu. Lyons itself, according to our exam- 
 ination and estimate of it, is only fine in its surrounding eminen- 
 ces, which are covered with villas, and gardens, and churches, 
 and castles. They are, in general, high and picturesque, rising 
 some two, three, or four hundred feet above the town, and cannot 
 fail, I think, in summer, of being highly beautiful. We had a 
 fine view of these environs as we approached the city. The town 
 
LYONS. 93 
 
 itself is situated on the point of land formed by the junction of the 
 Saone and the Rhone. The former, coming from the chalky re- 
 gions of France, is said to be discoloured, like other French rivers, 
 with the soil through which it passes ; but the latter, coming from 
 the limpid Lake of Geneva, and replenished by the numerous 
 streams of the Alps, preserves its transparency up to the point of its 
 junction with its compeer ; and even then, as if reluctantly yield- 
 ing to the polluting amalgamation, crowds the turbid stream to its 
 own shore, and for a long time maintains its own purity and iden- 
 tity. So we were informed ; but, when we saw it, both streams 
 were of the same colour, being bridged over with ice. With the 
 exception of the bridges and the quays, Lyons is an uninteresting, 
 I might almost say a disagreeable town. The streets are narrow 
 and dirty. We walked through several of the streets where they 
 had their drygoods-shops, in dark, narrow, dirty lanes, that se.emed 
 altogether unfit for the business of a shoeblack. The Place Belle 
 Cours, we were told, is thought by the Lyonese to be splendid ; 
 we were so unfortunate, however, as not to see its beauty. The 
 Hotel de Ville and the museum are worth visiting. The stranger 
 will find some tolerable paintings, and a great variety of ancient 
 tombstones, sarcophagi, and other antiquities, and ancient inscrip- 
 tions.* We visited a grand hospital which fronts on the Saone, 
 and is said to have no rival in France. The number of inmates 
 was at that time 2000. The building appeared to be only toler- 
 ably kept. Near the hospital is a royal college. The public 
 library has 100,000 volumes and 800 manuscripts. 
 
 Lyons has a population of 180,000, and is a city of great com- 
 mercial importance. The principal staple of commerce for ex- 
 port is silk stuffs of various kinds. The manufacture of silk is, 
 for the most part, in a private, domestic way, although there are 
 some large establishments in the vicinity. 
 
 For some cause, Lyons has given the most trouble to the pres- 
 ent king of any city of France. There appears to be a spirit in 
 favour of the old dynasty which requires the strong arm of law 
 and the power of the military to restrain. This city is, in fact, 
 an exception to the general centralization spirit that prevails in 
 the French nation, and which concedes everything to Paris. 
 
 * These are from the site of the ancient Lugdunum, founded on a hill just above Lyons 
 forty-two years before the Christian era. 
 
94 FRANCE. 
 
 Rousseau is to Lyons what Voltaire is to Paris, the presiding 
 deity of the city. Here are his residence, his gardens, his walks, 
 &c., &c, all of which must be visited by the traveller if he would 
 not be accounted a heretic in taste and a Vandal in respect to 
 genius ; and yet we all had the hardihood to leave the city without 
 visiting any of the associations of his history. 
 
 We had been in Lyons only two days, but were quite satis- 
 fied to leave it. The weather was cold ; the hotel cheerless ; 
 wood high, being about four or five sous or cents for each small 
 stick. On Tuesday evening, therefore, December 22d, we took 
 our seats for the Alps, by the way of Chamberry and Mount Cenis. 
 We arrived the next morning early at a little town called Pont de 
 Beauvoisin, which is the line town between France and Savoy. 
 A small stream, called the Guieres, passing through the village, 
 forms the boundary. On the centre of the bridge is a cross, and 
 here the two sentinels, one of either kingdom, meet and part in 
 their constant walk on their respective positions each side of the 
 cross. Here, too, passports are called for and baggage is exam- 
 ined, and not only baggage, but persons. Our ladies had to sub- 
 mit to have their cloaks opened and their persons slightly exam- 
 ined by the officers, w r ho, poor fellows, seemed mortified at the 
 necessity they were under of performing this part of their duty. 
 They let us off very easy, giving even our trunks but a slight ex- 
 amination, and some of them they passed without opening. While 
 the remainder of the diligence freight was being examined, we went 
 back to the bridge, with the design of crossing oyer to the other 
 part of the village ; but the custom-house officer gave us to under- 
 stand that we could not go without a guard, lest we should bring 
 back some contraband goods ; so, after amusing ourselves a little 
 by seeing the officers take hold of every villager that passed and 
 repassed the bridge, and stroke down his or her sides to detect 
 any concealed goods, we returned. After a detention of three or 
 four hours we again took our seats. And now the mountain sce- 
 nery commenced. The trees were covered with a most beautiful 
 winter foliage of crystallized silver. The mountain sides were 
 covered with vines and with orchards on one side, and on the 
 other the noisy Guieres fretted along, or shot in cascades down 
 a deep yawning gulf. Over this gulf the road formerly hung with 
 a hazardous and defenceless approximation to the precipice below ; 
 
PASSAGE OF THE JURA ALPS. 95 
 
 but now the gulf side of the road is defended by a strong parapet 
 wall breast high. 
 
 After passing through the gorge of the mountains, which was 
 quite romantic and sublime, we wound round into a pleasant val- 
 ley, which, after a little while, seemed to come to an end ; the 
 road turned short over a beautiful bridge of one stone arch, and 
 nestled along under a high, abrupt mountain, which hung in proud 
 defiance, like an impassable barrier, over the approaching traveller. 
 Vain defiance ! What will not the ingenuity and industry of man 
 accomplish ? Look across the valley at that little pigeon-hole 
 that opens into the side of the precipice four hundred feet below 
 its top. You cannot decipher its design. You advance up the 
 mountain side ; you enter the opening, and find, to your admira- 
 tion and delight, a grotto, with a fine lofty arch, extending about 
 300 paces through the limestone rock to a gorge on the opposite 
 side. When we had passed through, and turned back to view the 
 scene, the exhibition was stupendous ; the superincumbent mount- 
 ain over the arch ; the deep gorge through which the road passed 
 after it debouched from the grotto; the high craggy rocks on 
 either side towering above the clouds, together with the associate 
 emotions arising from the contemplation of the power of human 
 skill and industry in overcoming the greatest obstacles of nature, 
 produced a train of emotions that I have seldom felt and never 
 can describe. 
 
 This road and the tunnel through the mountain was executed 
 at the first by Charles Emanuel, duke of Savoy, in 1670, but was 
 greatly improved by Napoleon. The mountain here is called the 
 Echelles, and is the southern part of the Jura Alps. 
 
 It was at first spoken of as a matter of regret by our party that 
 we had to pass the mountains in the winter, as the scenery, it was 
 supposed, would be much more interesting in the summer. But 
 we had occasion afterward to doubt the propriety of that regret. 
 A mountain passage like this savours at any time more of the 
 sublime than of the beautiful; and winter, with his fleecy clouds 
 wreathed round the mountain-top ; with his white mantle of sleet 
 covering the broad shoulders of the giant hills, and congealing 
 into belts of silver, studded with pearl, the numerous rivulets and 
 cascades that wind round and fall down their hoary sides, gives 
 to the natural exhibition a heightened sublimity ; and when the 
 
96 SAVOY. 
 
 winter scene is rendered peculiar, as in the present instance, by 
 reason of the crystalline hoarfrost already alluded to, it is not only 
 grand, but gorgeous. It was this combination of circumstances 
 that heightened the general effect of the present passage. 
 
 But, in addition, there was a peculiar occurrence, which gave a 
 most splendid feature to the scene ; an aerial exhibition, which I 
 can never describe so as to give a mere readxr any adequate con- 
 ception of it ; but I will attempt a sketch of some of its principal 
 parts. The heavy veil of rack and mist which was spread out 
 upon the mountains associated gloom and obscurity with the 
 other characteristics of sublimity. This mist, however, as it after- 
 ward appeared, only extended part way up the mountains ; for a 
 rent in the curtain disclosed, as through a window, fax, far upward 
 in the blue ether, the silver turrets of the mountain- top, throwing 
 back the bright beams of a cloudless sun. The mountain was 
 high, very high; but the apparent height was doubtless magnified 
 by the narrowness of the aperture and by the darkness of the fore- 
 ground contrasted with the intens° light of the distant prospect. 
 The world around us was indeed a world of shadows, but that 
 world of which we gained a distant glimpse was one of unearthly 
 brightness. It seemed like a sight of the most excellent glory — 
 a distant yet bright vision of the 
 
 " House of our Father above,. 
 The palace of angels and God." 
 
 We watched for some time this splendid palace of the skies ; and 
 the shifting of the misty veil without closing up the aperture 
 served but to give new aspects to the celestial vision. At one 
 time it hung in festoons around the cylinder of light, and at an- 
 other it shot upward in a twisted wreath around the outbeaming 
 glory, exhibiting a spiral column of light and shade. I have often 
 read descriptions of that heavenly city whose walls are of jasper, 
 whose streets are of gold, and whose gates are of pearl, and whose 
 heavenly turrets throw back the glory of God and the Lamb. 
 But of this I never had so vivid a conception as now flashed upon 
 my mind and kindled upon my imagination ! It is all but reality ! 
 It is the upper world ! 
 
 ?' By faith I already behold 
 
 That lovely Jerusalem here ; 
 The walls are of jasper and gold, 
 As crystal her buildings are clear. 
 
CHAMBERRY. 97 
 
 " Immoveably founded in grace, 
 
 She stands as she ever hath stood, 
 And brightly her Builder displays, 
 And flames with the glory of God." 
 
 The road, after we passed the tunnel into the deep valley allu- 
 ded to, followed down the pass of the mountains by a long and 
 gentle descent until it reached Chamberry, the capital of Savoy, 
 ten leagues from Pont de Beauvoisin, where we arrived at dusk, 
 and stopped for dinner. 
 
 The situation of Chamberry is pleasant, in a valley watered by 
 two small rivers, Albano and Leisse, and apparently surrounded 
 by mountains. Its population is estimated at 15,000. It has 
 extensive barracks and a garrison of soldiers, made up mostly 
 of recruits from Piedmont and the more distant parts of the Sar- 
 dinian government, as Savoyards cannot be trusted to garrison 
 their own cities ; a plain proof that the government is not accept- 
 able to the people. And why .should it be 1 The father of the 
 present King of Sardinia was indebted to the allied sovereigns, at 
 the dethronement of Napoleon in 1814, for his present kingdom. 
 This is a kind of barrier kingdom of mountains, as it embraces 
 the greater portion of the Southern Alps and the Northern Apen- 
 nines. Thus, between France, and Switzerland, and the Italian 
 states, the natural mountain barrier is committed to a dependant 
 king, who can at best serve the purpose of a picket-guard to his 
 more powerful eastern neighbours ; and who, as he has little to 
 do with the politics of Europe further than to obey his masters, 
 has the more time to perform the part allotted him. And as this 
 kingdom is his little all, he will feel, doubtless, a great interest in 
 guarding and defending it. But his subjects are mostly mount- 
 aineers, and unaccustomed to the yoke ; and some of them, in 
 fact, in their former history, republican in their form of govern- 
 ment. It requires, therefore, the more care to keep them in sub- 
 jection, and this again increases their burdens, and, of course, their 
 opposition to the power that oppresses them. What have they to 
 hope ? Time was when, if they had nothing else, they had their 
 liberty ; but now they have a master imposed upon them ; they 
 have poverty and oppression. 
 
 In passing from Chamberry to Lans-le-bourg at the base of 
 Mount Cenis, a distance of thirty-six leagues, the road follows up a 
 9 N 
 
98 SAYOY. 
 
 valley, or a succession of valleys, of varied width, but growing nar- 
 rower as it advances, until it becomes simply a pass of the mount- 
 ains. Through its whole course the valley seems well cultivated, 
 and on either side shut in by lofty mountains. There are no 
 towns of particular interest, and the villages generally are miser- 
 able collections of miserable dwellings. The inhabitants appeared 
 ragged, dirty, and sickly, great numbers of them being afflicted with 
 the goitres or swelled necks ; are rather dwarfish in their stature, 
 and many of them deformed. Like those in France, their houses 
 are of stone, many of them thrown up in a very rough way, and 
 slated over with flat stones rough from the quarry. Their dwel- 
 lings were very generally, with the exception of the occasional vil- 
 lages in the valleys, built high up the steep, and, to appearance 
 from below, the inaccessible sides of the mountain, hanging on the 
 precipices as if waiting the first motion of the avalanche to slide 
 down into the vale below. By cutting steps and following zigzag 
 courses, they not only climb these steeps themselves, but in most 
 cases their donkeys also find foothold up and down their devious 
 and dangerous pathways. On these donkeys they fix pack-sad- 
 dles, with side straps fastened to either end of a bent stick, which 
 passes round the thighs of the little animal, by which the saddle 
 and the burden are kept in their proper position on the back. 
 These animals are of great service to these mountaineers ; for 
 they will live on a very little, travel where no other beast of bur- 
 den can, endure great hardships, and perform much labour. It 
 was amusing of a morning to see groups of these donkeys, with 
 their drivers, collecting in every direction from the mountains to 
 one of their little market towns, bringing what they may to market. 
 The more common article at this season of the year is wood, such 
 as it was, fagots, panniers of roots, and little bundles of catsticks, 
 bound up and placed upon the backs of the asses. And even 
 these little loads were too great for the purses of many of the 
 villagers, who appeared to live without fire, or went themselves 
 and gathered upon the mountains some small combustibles, which 
 they brought upon their backs, and thus, if in no other way, they 
 gained some heat from the exercise. 
 
 The cause of the swellings upon the necks of these Savoyards 
 (and the same disease prevails more or less on the side of Pied- 
 mont also) it is difficult perhaps to determine ; at any rate, there 
 
ASCENT OF THE ALPS. 99 
 
 seem to be different opinions on the subject ; probably it is owing 
 to the water, which is very highly impregnated with lime. 
 
 The passage of the Echelles, and, in fact, all the mountains to 
 the Piedmont barrier, are of limestone, although the eastern side 
 of the mountain and the valley of Suza become in a great measure 
 granite and slate. In one place, beyond a little town called St. 
 Jean de Maurienne, a rivulet comes down the mountain, which 
 has, from the quality of the water, formed for itself a natural cal- 
 careous aqueduct through its whole course. The appearance 
 is singularly interesting. The water, by its petrifying qualities 
 and calcareous depositions, has raised itself many inches above 
 the ground on either side of it, and formed for itself an artificial 
 spout or aqueduct, as far as the eye could follow it up the side 
 of the mountain. If such an effect may be produced by the water 
 in one case, where the calcareous solution is of a strong character, 
 why may not the constant use of the water injure the channels of 
 the human system ? 
 
 We arrived at Lans-le-bourg in the evening, which, as the mount- 
 ain could not be safely passed in the night, gave us an opportunity 
 not unwelcome, after spending two nights in the diligence, of pas- 
 sing a few hours of the third in bed. It was, however, a short 
 night, and on the next morning before the dawn we were climb- 
 ing up the sides of the Alps on one of the sublimest roads in the 
 world, for which, as for many other enterprises that have printed 
 his name indelibly upon the everlasting mountains, the world is 
 indebted to the genius and perseverance of Napoleon Bonaparte. 
 Although the ascent to Lans-le-bourg 'was very gradual, and 
 without a mountain except the Echelles, which was descended 
 as well as ascended, yet this village is said to be 4332 feet 
 above the level of the sea; and we were now to rise in one 
 or two miles, I should judge at farthest, if we could have gone 
 in a direct line, 1566 feet higher before we could reach the 
 plain of St. Nicholas, the summit level of the pass. To ac- 
 complish this it was necessary to take a zigzag course up the 
 mountain. The scene was too magnificent to allow of a confine- 
 ment in the diligence, and, in defiance of the cold and the fatigue, 
 a number of us walked most of the distance to the summit. "When 
 we had been travelling about three hours, at a particular turn of 
 the road, a little village, in a very deep valley just under our feet, 
 
1 
 
 100 
 
 presented itself to view; what it was, or how it could be so near 
 and not be observed before, I could not devise. On inquiry, how- 
 ever, I was surprised to learn that it was the very village from 
 which we had started that morning ! In less than another hour 
 we reached the top. The weather was extremely cold, and the 
 air had become exceedingly rarefied, so that I had to pant for 
 breath, and seemed never able to inhale enough to supply the 
 purposes of life. It was, therefore, with no small pleasure that I 
 found the labour of the ascent completed. Here the conducteur 
 dismissed his five extra mules by which we had been drawn up, 
 and with one pair of horses commenced the descent. The top of 
 the pass is by no means the top of the mountain, for it is itself a 
 valley, and the heights on either side reared their snowy and 
 barren crests still higher into the clouds. On this mountain plain 
 is the barrier between Savoy and Piedmont. Here, too, is a 
 mountain-lake and a fortification, where a small garrison is sta- 
 tioned, who, if they can do nothing else, have an opportunity of 
 examining travellers' passports ; a great and leading business, one 
 would think, in the governments of Europe. 
 
 The morning was as fine, perhaps, as ever mirrored back the 
 rays of the sun from the snowy sides and crystal glaciers of 
 Mount Cenis, and the entire passage, although the frost was 
 severe, was most delightful. Indeed, we could not see why the 
 passage may not be perfectly safe and easy at any season of the 
 year. The ascent is so gradual, and the road is so hard and so 
 well defended with parapet walls, that a horse can trot in a light 
 carriage with ease and safety in any part of the distance. There 
 are avalanches, however, in some places in the spring of the year ; 
 one in 1831 killed a number of persons and horses; and the 
 snowstorms and winds are said to be at some times very severe 
 and dangerous. To prevent any serious difficulty or delay, how- 
 ever, Napoleon had " houses of refuge" established at short dis- 
 tances, to the number of twenty-five, where reside families whose 
 sole business is to succour travellers ; some of them are fur- 
 nished with bells to ring in a dark night or during a storm for 
 the direction of the bewildered travellers. There are stationed 
 here also, to clear the roads of snow, avalanches, &c, two com- 
 panies of men called cantonniers, to the number of twenty-six each, 
 who reside in these refuges, and on either side of the mountain, 
 
DESCENT OF MOUNT CENIS. 101 
 
 and are therefore always at hand for the objects proposed. With 
 such a road and with such helps, it has been well said, " There are 
 no longer any Alps from Lans-le-bourg to Suza." While Napoleon, 
 as an ambitious conqueror, broke through the lines of states and 
 kingdoms, and united numerous small sovereignties under one 
 government, he also, as a man of genius and enterprise, broke 
 through the barriers of nature, and joined together, by the greatest 
 facilities of intercommunication, countries that had been separated 
 ever since the flood. I can hardly refrain from saying, as I pass, 
 that as, in the latter, all will give him due credit, so every traveller, 
 I think, who sees the withering influence of these petty govern- 
 ments, and who has experienced, as I have every few miles, the 
 interference and examination of the agents of some petty prince, 
 will wish that he had been equally successful in the former. One 
 could hardly desire to see another Bonaparte ; but a breaking up 
 of these contemptible duchies and principalities is a most desira- 
 ble event. But more of this hereafter. 
 
 The descent of Mount Cenis, in our way to Turin, was much 
 more magnificent than the ascent on the other side. Leaving the 
 plain of St. Nicholas, you descend an almost perpendicular mount- 
 ain by several stupendous galleries cut in the solid granite. 
 These galleries are guarded by strong walls, and the road is 
 spacious and of easy carriage. You see it not winding, but doub^ 
 ling below you, stage after stage, upon the steep precipice ; a cas- 
 cade from the mountain is constantly crossing your course, but 
 conducted under you by beautiful arches ; and on the right and 
 left of the scene, as you look into the valley of Cenis below, are 
 Mount Genevre and Rochemelon piercing the clouds. After pas- 
 sing into the valley of Cenis and through it, you again descend 
 and descend till you reach the valley of Suza, which is watered 
 by the Doria Riparia, a tributary of the Po. You see below 
 delightful valleys, checkered with villages, and laid out into vine- 
 yards, and at such a distance beneath you that at first you are in 
 doubt whether the houses of the villages be not the stones of the 
 valley ; and the vineyards, with their straight lines, look like the 
 marks of a chessboard. On the sides of the mountains, wherever 
 it is practicable, terraces are formed and planted with vines ; and 
 the mountain cottages are hung out upon the verge in the manner 
 already described. W T e were quite as long descending to Suza 
 9 
 
102 ITALY. 
 
 as we were ascending from Lans-le-bourg. The distance was 
 greater, and these postillions are remarkably careful and moderate 
 in descending. Our coachmen in America drive down the Al- 
 leghanies in a comparatively narrow road, and with little or no 
 guards on the precipice side, upon a fast trot ; whereas here they 
 put their drag upon the wheel, and drive down scarcely faster than 
 a man can walk. Indeed, for about one hour of the descent, Mr. 
 H. and myself walked ahead of the diligence. We arrived at 
 Suza, situated at the base of the mountain, in a beautiful valley, a 
 little after midday. From Suza we followed down the Doria 
 through a delightful valley, and the most of the way very fruitful 
 apparently, to Turin, fourteen and a half leagues from Suza, making 
 the entire distance from Lyons to Turin eighty-one leagues. 
 
 It was evening before we reached Turin, but the approach was 
 beautiful. The ground was covered with a light snow, or rather, 
 perhaps, a thick hoarfrost, which clad the trees also with a foliage 
 of silver. The road, for miles before we reached the city, was 
 beautified on either side with a proud colonnade of trees. But 
 the beauty of the scene did not make us regret the close of the 
 journey, and we entered Turin gratified with our passage, thank- 
 ful, I trust, to the kind Providence which had preserved us, and glad 
 to find a resting-place. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 To the Students of the Wesleyan University. 
 
 Turin, December 26, 1835. 
 
 Yotjng Gentlemen, 
 Having now entered Italy, the land of classic story and of ancient 
 renown, I pause for a few moments to contemplate the scene be- 
 fore me. These mountains and valleys are the same that they 
 were in the days of ancient Rome. But all else is changed; 
 political, social, and religious society is changed. This change 
 has been the work of centuries, the result of successive conquests 
 by foreign barbarians, and of numerous revolutions by internal 
 discord and civil war. 
 
 I 
 
SKETCHES OF ITALIAN HISTORY. 103 
 
 With the ancient history of Italy you are made acquainted by 
 your daily studies ; but I have good reason to suppose that you, 
 and, in fact, a great portion of the youth of our country, are com- 
 paratively ignorant of the intervening history of Italy, from the 
 fall of the empire to the commencement of the present century. 
 I have therefore thought it desirable to draw your attention, and 
 the attention of the American youth generally, to this subject, by 
 prefacing what I may hereafter write of the present state of this 
 country by a brief sketch of its history since the latter part of 
 the fifth century. 
 
 After a succession of emperors and the general deterioration 
 of the ancient Roman spirit, in 476 Odoacer assumed the su- 
 preme government under the title of king, having conquered and 
 deposed the reigning emperor. This was followed in about sev- 
 enteen years by the invasion and conquest of the Ostrogoths, 
 who inhabited the country north of the Euxine Sea. These sub- 
 dued the country in 493 ; and, in their turn, were overthrown in 
 553 by the Roman emperors, so to call them, of Constantinople.* 
 Soon after, viz., in 568, followed the invasion of the Lombards, a 
 fierce and cruel race from the north of Germany. These subdued 
 and held possession of Northern Italy from 568 to 774, with the 
 exception of the section around the head of the Adriatic Sea, where 
 the brave inhabitants maintained their independence, and estab- 
 lished the Venetian republic. That part of Southern Italy situa- 
 ted on the shores of the Adriatic still continued under the empe- 
 rors, and was governed by an exarch from Constantinople. Rome, 
 however, was at this time gradually receding from under the 
 power of the emperors, and falling more and more under the 
 temporal, as well as spiritual, control of the Archbishop of Rome, 
 who was already assuming that authoritative jurisdiction which 
 was afterward claimed to such an extent and exercised with such 
 arrogancy and tyranny. Naples also, with all the southern coun- 
 try known by the name of Magna Graecia, maintained its in- 
 dependence under something like republican forms of govern- 
 ment. In 774 the Franks, allured by the wealth of the country, 
 invaded and desolated the Lombard kingdom ; and, finally, Charles, 
 the king of the Danes, afterward called Charlemagne, subdued 
 the whole of Italy. But instead of pillaging and destroying it, 
 
 * The seat of the Roman empire had been transferred to Constantinople, 
 
104 ITALY. 
 
 like the preceding conquerors, he conceived the plan of uniting it 
 into one vast empire, in connexion with his other possessions, 
 calling it the western Roman empire. He himself was declared 
 emperor by the pope and the Roman people under the title of 
 Charlemagne in 800, and governed Italy as emperor fourteen years, 
 and his dynasty continued through eighty-eight years, when the 
 last of the race, Charles the Gross, was deposed. For seventy 
 years following the crown was worn by different kings, and was 
 finally settled on the German emperor Otho I. in 961. 
 
 In the mean time the feudal system was formed, the process and 
 character of which have been so often described that a detail is 
 not necessary. Suffice it to say, that the system grew very 
 naturally out of the conquests of the country, and the division of 
 the property thus acquired among the higher and lower grades 
 of officers in the victorious army. Each general leader had di- 
 vided to him a portion of the conquered territory, with the sole 
 condition that he should pay homage to his superior, and furnish 
 men for his wars. These general leaders again subdivided their 
 territories among their subordinate officers, under the same con- 
 ditions. Thus the tillers of the ground became mere serfs or 
 slaves, and each chief, in his sphere, maintained a kind of in- 
 dependent military establishment and government of his own, not 
 unfrequently making war in his own right upon a neighbouring 
 chieftain, and sometimes, when he felt himself strong, or when 
 several were disposed to make common cause, opposing the 
 king or emperor himself. This made it necessary for every 
 chief to have his own castle and guard. Thus every high hill be- 
 came a military fortress, and the country and the mountain-tops 
 were covered with ranges of military castles, which remain in 
 multitudes even unto this day, the eloquent mementoes of that 
 tremendous system which reduced the world to slavery, rolled 
 back civilization to barbarism, divided the human race into clans 
 of warlike, bloodthirsty desperadoes and robbers, whose prac- 
 tical motto was, "Might makes right." Unfortunately, too, just 
 at this juncture, as though Heaven had withdrawn its favour 
 and left man an unrestrained prey to his own vile passions, that 
 religion which is our only hope had undergone that corrupting 
 process by which it was made to chime in with the spirit of the 
 times and aggravate all the existing evils. Enough of religion 
 was maintained to work upon the superstitious ignorance of the 
 
SKETCHES OF ITALIAN HISTORY. 105 
 
 multitudes who were led on to private and public crimes, all for 
 the love of God and the hope of paradise. 
 
 It is, however, specially worthy of remark in all the tracing of 
 historical events — in the changes and corruptions, modifications 
 and reformations of society — that, while there are numerous oc- 
 casions and means of deterioration, so out of some of the most 
 unpromising conjunctures and features of the social disorder and 
 derangement arise frequent occasions of amelioration and means 
 of renovation to the social system. We have seen that the fre- 
 quent invasions and inundations of the barbarians had almost 
 effaced civilization from what had been the brightest spot on the 
 dark disk of the world ; hence it was to be inferred that a contin- 
 uance of these irruptions would put out the lights of civilization 
 for ever. The reverse, however, was the fact. While the Danes 
 and the Normans ravaged England and France, and the Hungari- 
 ans Germany and Upper Italy, and the Saracens, having become 
 masters of Africa, made frequent incursions upon the shores of 
 Middle Italy for purposes of pillage and plunder, the necessity 
 of self-defence induced the cities and small towns to urge with 
 such earnestness and such show of reason the request of the priv- 
 ilege of city walls and city guards as secured success to their 
 importunities. These defences, made at their own expense, and 
 for the imperious necessity of self-defence against foreign robbers, 
 soon gave the villages and cities an importance and an influence 
 by which they secured themselves more and more against the en- 
 croachments of their domestic oppressors, the feudal chiefs. This 
 greater security, moreover, encouraged, and, of course, increased 
 enterprise and industry ; laid the foundation, by consequence, of 
 wealth, of individual and social elevation, of intellectual improve- 
 ment, and all the moral, political, and physical advantages con- 
 nected with these improvements. This, in the end, had a decided- 
 ly advantageous collateral action upon the condition of the peas- 
 antry in the country. For as the citizens and villagers grew more 
 independent and less obsequious to the nobility, these latter be- 
 took themselves more to their country residences ; and, that they 
 might secure the affection and loyalty of the yeomanry, and, withal, 
 to prevent tLeir flying to the cities for advantages denied them 
 without, they granted them increased privileges, armed them, and 
 in various ways meliorated their condition. 
 
 O 
 
106 ITALY. 
 
 From Otho I. the western empire was kept in the same line, 
 through the successive reigns of Otho II. and III., Henry II. 
 called the Saint, Conrad II. the Salick, Henrys III., IV., and V., 
 to the year 1125. In the latter part of this period was the great 
 struggle between the emperors and the church ; or, as we may 
 more properly say, the pope, commonly called the war of the 
 investitures. The question was simply who should invest the 
 church dignitaries with their powers ; the church itself, or the 
 secular authorities 1 To understand this fully, it should be recol- 
 lected, that at first the Bishop of Rome, and the same was true 
 of the other bishops, was appointed or elected by the clergy, the 
 senate, and the people of his diocess. As this office, however, be- 
 came a greater object of ambition, great scandal and disorder 
 arose in the election, and the divisions became so bitter and ir- 
 reconcilable that the emperors were obliged to interfere and take 
 the appointment into their own hands. This, in time, led to great 
 abuses. As in all cases where the secular power has the disposi- 
 tion of the affairs and emoluments of the church, these offices, 
 which ought to be kept for pure hands and honest hearts, became 
 the rewards of court favourites and government partisans ; the 
 most unholy became the nominal ministers of the most holy voca- 
 tion. So great were these abuses, that there was a universal voice 
 almost for a reform. This afforded a most favourable Occasion 
 to the church for the greatest stride towards supreme power that 
 ever was made by mortal man. And this was accomplished by a 
 single individual, born in Soana, Tuscany, of the most obscure 
 parentage, but of illustrious talents ; I mean Hildebrand, who was 
 better known in after life by the title and name of Pope Gregory 
 VII. His talents were early discovered, and he was sent by his 
 convent to Cluny, in France, for his education. Here he con- 
 ceived the plan, which he afterward executed in great part, of 
 making the pope eligible to office only by the cardinals, and 
 of making the pope's sanction necessary for all the other prelates ; 
 to enable him,. by his sole power, to make and depose bishops ; as- 
 semble, preside over, and dissolve councils ; to be absolute mas- 
 ter of princes, with power to absolve their subjects from their oath 
 of allegiance ; and, in fine, to be the vicegerent upon earth of God 
 himself. He was made pope in 1073. His success in humbling 
 Henry IV., and making him wait three days and three nights, 
 
SKETCHES OF ITALIAN HISTORY. 107 
 
 doing penance in the open court of the Chateau de Canossa in 
 the winter, barefooted and fasting, is a piece of history well 
 known, and is but an illustration of Gregory's spirit, his doctrine, 
 and his success. 
 
 This power, however, was resisted, and was the fruitful source 
 of numerous and bloody wars. The question was finally settled 
 in the Diet of Worms, 1 122, by a sort of division of claims. The 
 emperor conceded to the pope the right of investing the bishops 
 with the ring and the cross, that is, with their ecclesiastical power, 
 but reserved to himself the right of conferring or withholding the 
 royal rights which appertain to each office. This war had lasted 
 above sixty years, and was finally settled in consequence of the 
 people's becoming wearied with the contest. During its continu- 
 ance, the different cities and duchies took part either with the em- 
 perors or the popes, according to their different affinities, and this 
 laid the foundation for two characteristics, which strongly mark 
 almost all the subsequent history of the Italian states ; and which, 
 therefore, ought to be here particularly noted by all who wish to 
 trace causes and effects in the history of this country. The first 
 is, the divisions, the irreconcilable animosities and jealousies 
 which were thereby begotten between the different cities and 
 states; animosities and jealousies that continue, to some extent, 
 up to this hour, preventing all concert of counsel and action 
 for the restoration of their independence and liberty, even as they 
 prevented the union which was so necessary to their liberties 
 when they were free. And the second is, what may seem para- 
 doxical when viewed in connexion with the other, so true as it 
 that results, in their different stages of development, are by va- 
 rious collateral combinations opposite to each other, viz., that 
 these very divisions, and the spirit of independence produced by 
 them, were probably hastening causes of the freedom and inde- 
 pendence of the several states. I do not say that these states, if 
 they had kept united, and moved in harmony in -attempting a com- 
 mon advancement, would not have become free ; but they would, 
 to all human appearance, have been far less likely to arrive, 
 in this way, to any favourable result. And this will appear the 
 more evident, if it is remembered that the idea of a represent- 
 ative republic had never, at that day, dawned upon the world. 
 Search ancient history ; trace through the republics of Greece and 
 
108 ITALY. 
 
 Rome, and of the more modern Italian states, and you will never, 
 I believe, find the idea hinted at ; at any rate, never experimented 
 upon, or proposed even for experiment. Hence all the republics 
 were small, or, if they became possessed of large territory, the 
 powers that governed that territory were concentrated in one prin- 
 cipal city, and all without were rather held in subjection, as de- 
 pendances upon the concentrated power of the democratic cap- 
 ital. We shall see in the sequel, as, indeed, we might judge a 
 'priori, how this circumstance of itself was a sufficient occasion 
 for the dissolution of a flourishing republic. It is alluded to here 
 merely to show that the dissociating influence of the civil wars 
 probably hastened to maturity the republics of Italy in the elev- 
 enth and twelfth centuries. Each city became patriotic for itself ; 
 it thought and acted for itself. If it sent an army to the com- 
 mon cause, that army had a distinct character; was officered 
 by fellow-citizens; fed and paid by them. The cities met in 
 common council, elected their officers, civil and military, appointed 
 their official councils, &c. Here, too, they provided for their own 
 defence by increasing their fortresses and strengthening their 
 city guards. Thus, while kings, emperors, and popes were en- 
 gaged in their great enterprises, to which, according to custom, 
 perhaps, these cities were contributing their share, they were 
 rapidly advancing in wealth, strength, and knowledge, and thus 
 becoming prepared, at the first favourable opportunity, to assert 
 their entire independence, or, at any rate, to deliver themselves 
 by degrees from the oppressive policy of their chiefs, and gain an 
 increase of privileges for the citizens at large. This is the origin, 
 in general principles, of the more modern free states of Italy. 
 Local causes, of course, hastened or retarded these states in their 
 progress towards maturity, some of which may be traced cursorily 
 in glancing at the several leading republics of Italian history. 
 
 It has already been intimated that, in the Lombard conquests, 
 some of the Italian cities were not subjected permanently to the 
 yoke of the conquerors ; some of them still retaining their rela- 
 tions to the eastern empire of Constantinople: among these 
 were Genoa and Pisa in central Italy, western coast, Venice on 
 the Adriatic, and Naples, Gaeta, and Amain in the south. These, 
 however, were so distant from the parent government, and the 
 eastern empire became so inefficient in affording them protection, 
 
SKETCHES OF ITALIAN HISTORY. 109 
 
 that they grew up into independence, and became inured to self- 
 defence, in the same manner that the neglected orphan often gains 
 a hardy and an enterprising character by being early thrown upon 
 his own resources. 
 
 Venice, however, could hardly be said to belong to any empire 
 or state. It was a retreat of low marshy islands in the Adriatic 
 gulf, to which certain citizens of neighbouring cities had, at the 
 time of the northern invasions of the barbarians, betaken them- 
 selves as a protection from these foreign robbers. Here they 
 were secure from robbery, as their enemies had no water craft to 
 follow them ; and this became their permanent residence. They 
 enacted their own laws, chose their own magistrates, and by in- 
 dustry of various kinds, and especially by commerce, they grew 
 up to be the most wealthy and powerful state of Italy. This was 
 the origin of the Venetian republic. 
 
 The southern republics had a shorter history. The adventur- 
 ous Normans, that had penetrated into almost every part, seeking 
 adventures, like knights-errant, even before the days of chivalry, 
 penetrated to the south of Italy under Roger II., and between the 
 years 1131 and 1138 subdued, these three republican cities, which 
 had heretofore successfully resisted, for the greater part, the bar- 
 barian invaders. 
 
 Pisa, however, and Genoa continued to prosper as independent 
 states. Like Venice, they owed their wealth and improvement to 
 commerce, which they conducted in every port of the Mediter- 
 ranean ; and like Venice, also, they had escaped being plundered 
 by the northern invaders, either because they were under the 
 nominal protection of the eastern empire, or because, accustomed 
 to self-defence, they were better able to secure themselves against 
 any successful attack from a foreign foe. It is true the Saracens, 
 in 936, succeeded in taking and pillaging Genoa, and subsequently 
 made two unsuccessful attempts to take Pisa, viz., in 1005 and 
 1012. But afterward these two cities combined to attack their 
 common enemy, and in 1050 they conquered Sardinia from the 
 Saracens, and, not long after, the Balearic islands. 
 
 As a proof of the affluence and power of these three little mar- 
 itime republics, Venice, Pisa, and Genoa, we are told that at the 
 commencement of the crusades, at the close of the eleventh cen- 
 tury, they had more vessels in the Mediterranean than all the rest 
 10 
 
110 ITALY. 
 
 of Christendom. They seconded with enthusiasm this enterprise 
 —Venice sent two hundred vessels, the Pisans one hundred and 
 twenty, and the Genoese twenty-eight galleys and six vessels. 
 
 Such was the advance of freedom, and wealth, and enterprise 
 of society in Italy, that during, and a little after the eleventh cen- 
 tury, were produced some of the most magnificent works of mili- 
 tary and civil architecture ; works that remain until this day mon- 
 uments of admiration and taste. The Duomo, or cathedral of Pisa, 
 is said to have been finished before the close of this century — 
 that of Florence was commenced in the twelfth, and the Basilica 
 de St. Marco of Venice was finished 1071. 
 
 As wealth and power increased, however, ambition and a love 
 of domination came in to annoy the peace and check the pros- 
 perity of the states. These were heightened by the war of the 
 investitures, not only as that war had increased the military spirit, 
 but also because it had divided the cities into opposing parties, 
 and had begotten jealousies and prejudices that, in a warlike age, 
 were easily kindled into a belligerent spirit. This state of feel- 
 ing, added to an ambitious desire on the part of the more power- 
 ful cities to subdue the smaller ones under their authority, so far 
 at least as to compel them to make common cause with them in 
 their party wars and in repelling their enemies, led to numerous 
 contentions and wars between the different cities. The two great 
 parties, to one Or the other of which belonged almost every city 
 of Europe, which were formed by the war of the investitures, 
 came afterward to be called Guelfs and Ghibelines ; the former 
 designating the party which was opposed to the pretensions of 
 the German emperors, and the latter those who were of the em- 
 perors' party. Indeed, it is rather difficult to trace all the differ- 
 ent causes of division between these violent parties. One general 
 distinction was that already mentioned, viz., the supporting or re- 
 sisting the claims which the German emperors set up over the free 
 cities of Italy and over the ecclesiastical authority ; but another 
 mark of difference seemed to be the supporting or resisting the 
 claims of the feudal chieftains upon the free cities of Italy, the 
 Guelfs rallying on the side of the liberty and independence of 
 these cities, and the Ghibelines sustaining the claims of the feudal 
 lords. As the popes were always struggling to maintain their 
 power and influence, secular as well as spiritual, and as the em- 
 
SKETCHES OF ITALIAN HISTORY. Ill 
 
 perors were the principal obstructions to their wishes, the former 
 found it good policy to unite with the free cities in their resistance 
 of the latter. In this way, anomalous as it is in the history of 
 the Roman hierarchy, all the power of the holy see was exerted, 
 for a number of years, in a common cause with those cities who 
 were defending their freedom against their imperial tyrants and 
 feudal lords. It is true Arnaud di Brescia was burnt alive by 
 Pope Adrian IV. in 1155 for venturing to broach to the Romans 
 the political heresy, as the pope called it, of republican liberty ; 
 but what was heresy at Rome was, a little after, both at Rome and 
 elsewhere, good policy with his holiness when it would subserve 
 the claims of the church. Hence the popes favoured the Guelf 
 party. 
 
 The latter half of the twelfth century is rendered illustrious, in 
 Italian history, by the ambition of one man, and by that combina- 
 tion to resist that ambition called the League of Lombardy. Fred- 
 eric Barbarossa, duke of Swabia, of the house of HohenstoufFen, 
 so far as the spirit and intelligence of the age will allow of the com- 
 parison, may be called the Napoleon of his day. Brave, skilled in 
 war, born to command, enterprising, and ambitious, he began his 
 career with a determination to add to the crown of silver with 
 which he was invested, as Emperor of Germany, by the German 
 Diet of Frankfort in 1152, the iron crown of Lombardy and the 
 crown of gold of Rome. And not only this, but he determined 
 to reduce to obedience the Milanese, and others of the free cities 
 of Italy, whom he claimed as fiefs of the empire, and who had 
 proved refractory in opposing the wishes and claims of the em- 
 peror. To this end he entered Italy in 1154 at the head of a 
 powerful army. He marched through the country and the towns, 
 exacting from the people, as he passed, forage, food, and lodging ; 
 and where these were not furnished, he ravaged the country, and 
 gave the cities up to pillage and fire. He burnt Asti and Chieri. 
 He reduced Tortona by famine, after a siege of sixty-two days, 
 and sacked and burnt the city. The army, however, grew impa- 
 tient of delay, and compelled the emperor to hasten on to Rome 
 without stopping to chastise all the rebellious cities in his way. 
 On this occasion, therefore, the cities found the advantage of their 
 walls. They would not suffer the army to enter their walls, but 
 generally submitted to the exactions of forage, &c, according to 
 
112 ITALY. 
 
 the long-established principles of the feudal system. In short, he 
 arrived at Rome, was crowned by Adrian IV. with the crown of 
 gold as Emperor of Rome and of the western empire, and then 
 marched back to the mountains, as it was in the heat of summer, 
 to avoid the consequences to his army. But the malaria had in- 
 fused the poison already, and escape was impossible. After he 
 had taken and burnt the city of Spoleto, because it did not furnish 
 as speedily as he desired the supplies for his army, the sickness 
 broke out in his camp. He hastened to return, but desertion and 
 death thinned his ranks ; and by the time he had led his barbari- 
 ans back to Germany he had but a remnant left him. He had 
 spread desolation in his track, and had ruined, in a single year, 
 one of the most formidable armies that Germany had ever sent 
 into Italy. 
 
 Barbarossa, never discouraged by his losses, soon returned 
 with another army, and invested Milan, which was compelled by 
 famine to capitulate, but obtained, as she supposed, honourable 
 terms, by a treaty signed in 1158. The citizens soon discovered, 
 however, that the emperor determined to deprive them of their 
 liberties, and so construe the treaty as to give him the entire con- 
 trol, almost, of the rights and property of the citizens. Upon this 
 they dismissed the emperor's judge, called a podesta* which, ac- 
 cording to the treaty, he had a right to appoint, and prepared anew 
 to defend their rights by their walls and their arms. Enraged at 
 this, the emperor announced that he would never cease to exert 
 his power until he had reduced the rebellious city. Instead of a 
 regular siege, he devastated the country, destroyed the crops, cut 
 off supplies, and, in the mean time, followed up his plan by redu- 
 cing the smaller cities of Lombardy. As a specimen of his char- 
 acter and of the resistance made to him, the case of the city of 
 Crema, besieged by him, might be mentioned. After the former 
 pacification, he had required Milan and Crema to give hostages. 
 Several of these hostages of Crema he hung in front of their walls, 
 and others, who were children of some of the first families, he 
 placed upon a moving tower, which he caused to be moved to- 
 
 * After the submission of Milan and other Italian cities, a general diet was held at 
 Roncaglia, in which, among other things, it was decided that the emperor had the right 
 to appoint a judicial magistrate in each town, called a podesta, who was in no case, how- 
 ever, to be a native of the city over which he presided. This was a measure most dis- 
 astrous to liberty. 
 
SKETCHES OF ITALIAN HISTORY. 113 
 
 wards the walls. Thus the besieged were reduced to the alterna- 
 tive of either not repelling the enemy, or, by defending their 
 walls, of killing their own children. The fathers cried to their 
 fellow-citizens to do their duty and defend their city, and to their 
 children not to hesitate to die for it, and only asked to be excused 
 from being witnesses of their children's agony. The tower was 
 repulsed and driven back, covered with the dead bodies of the 
 nine young hostages. 
 
 Crema, however, was reduced by famine, and the city, after a six 
 months' siege, sacked and burnt. Milan also, after three years of 
 struggle, in an unequal contest with the enemy, and after losing 
 part of her stores by an accidental fire, was reduced by famine to 
 the necessity of surrendering at discretion, and the enraged em- 
 peror razed the city from the foundation, so that not one stone 
 was left upon the top of another, and scattered the wretched in- 
 habitants throughout the different cities of Lombardy. Thus the 
 capital of Lombardy, and the leading city in the free states of 
 Italy, was annihilated by the power of the victorious tyrant. But 
 it was not as easy to annihilate principles as it was cities ; wher- 
 ever the inhabitants went they carried with them their love of 
 liberty, and, by the story of their wrongs, excited an abhorrence 
 of Frederic. This odium was increased by the rigour with 
 which the other cities of Lombardy, now mostly in the hands of 
 the emperor, were taxed and oppressed ; their rights were vio- 
 lated, their liberties taken from them, their property taxed until 
 two thirds went to the state. 
 
 About this time, 1159, the death of Adrian IV. opened a door 
 for a singular contention respecting the infallible head of an in- 
 fallible church, which finally resulted in favour of the cause of lib- 
 erty. In electing a new pope, the cardinals were divided between 
 two candidates, both of which were declared elected by their re- 
 spective parties, one under the title of Alexander III., and the 
 other of Victor III. Frederic declared for the latter ; but the 
 church, generally, for the former. After mutual excommunica- 
 tions, Alexander, to strengthen his cause, espoused that of 
 liberty, and sustained the Guelf party in opposition to the em- 
 peror. He was, however, obliged to flee to France, and Frederic 
 visited Rome in the year 1163, to strengthen the opposing pon- 
 10 P 
 
114 ITALY. 
 
 tiff. In his absence the cities of Verona, Padua, and others 
 sent their consuls to a congress to consult upon the common 
 cause, and the means of defence against the common foe. Fred- 
 eric heard of the combination, and returned to suppress it. But 
 he soon found that the popular voice was against him, and that 
 the Italian army, with which he had undertaken to chastise the 
 Veronese, could not be trusted ; and he therefore precipitately re- 
 turned to Germany. In the mean time the antipope, Victor, 
 died, and Pascal III. was appointed his successor ; but his cause 
 became unpopular, and Alexander III. was invited to Rome, and 
 generally acknowledged pope. 
 
 The emperor marched another army from Germany into Italy, 
 laid siege to Rome, and took it ; the pope, however, making his 
 escape. But while these things were going on, the combination 
 of the free cities of northern Italy against the tyrant, under the 
 name of the League of Lombardy, continued to gain strength. 
 They bound themselves to each other by oath ; they rebuilt Milan ; 
 and, that the two cities, Pavia and Montserrat, which still ad- 
 hered to the emperor, might have no intercourse with each other, 
 they built a new city between them, which, after the name of the 
 pope, they called Alexandria ; and so rapidly did this city increase 
 that, in one year after its foundation, it sent into the field' an army 
 of 15,000 men. While this was in progress the emperor's army 
 in Southern Italy was again attacked by disease, which swept off 
 such multitudes, that he was constrained to hasten back to Ger- 
 many as secretly as possible, that he might not be intercepted by 
 the army of the league. 
 
 The emperor made another attempt to subdue Lombardy, but 
 without success. The army that was brought from Germany for 
 that purpose was completely routed and dispersed, and finally a 
 truce was concluded for six years, which was followed in 1183 
 by the Diet of Constance, in which a general peace was agreed 
 upon, the basis of which w T as an acknowledgment of the rights 
 and liberties of the free cities and states of Italy. 
 
 Previous to this, to wit, in 1096, commenced the famous war 
 of the crusades. This war, if it had no other good effect, pro- 
 duced, at intervals, a suspension of hostilities among the Christian 
 states in Europe ; and Frederic himself at this time, as if to atone 
 for his crimes, and wash from his crown and his arms the stain 
 
SKETCHES OF ITALIAN HISTORY. 115 
 
 of the blood of thousands, girded himself in his old age, and, at 
 the head of an army little short of 100,000 strong, marched 
 against the infidels. In this expedition he died in Armenia, 
 while bathing in the river Salef, tenth June, 1190. 
 
 After these events various wars occurred between the cities 
 of Italy and the successor of Frederic, aided by some Italian 
 cities, and the King of Sicily ; in all of which the pope managed 
 to increase his own power against that of the emperor ! This 
 was the time in which the Roman see ascended to its highest 
 pitch of arrogant assumption. Hungary, France, Portugal, Spain, 
 and England acknowledged the papal supremacy ; and the same 
 might be said of Italy, with the exception of Pisa and a few other 
 cities, which sustained the cause of the emperor. At length a 
 Guelf prince, Otho IV., was chosen emperor, and crowned by the 
 pope at Rome in 1209. But soon the seeds of discord sprung up 
 between him and Innocent III., who was then the sanguinary and 
 ambitious reigning pontiff, which involved all Italy in war, arming 
 the different cities against each other. In 1215, however, Otho 
 was supplanted by Frederic II. of Naples, whose cause the pope 
 had espoused, but who, in turn, became afterward obnoxious to 
 the holy see ; nevertheless, while under excommunication, he in- 
 vaded Palestine and procured an honourable peace with the Sultan 
 of Egypt, and restored Palestine to the Christians. During 
 which service for the church, the head of the church, who then 
 was Pope Gregory IX., was fomenting treason in his empire at 
 home. Frederic returned and quelled it ; but the pontiff was too 
 strong for him, and procured his excommunication by a general 
 council at Lyons, under the patronage of St. Louis of France. 
 After many vigorous efforts to resist the current of opposition 
 raised against him, the detail of which would be but a history of 
 blood and slaughter, of cruelty and revenge, he died of a dysen- 
 tery at Florence. 
 
 It should be noticed by the reader, that to be emperor of Ger- 
 many was one thing, and emperor of the whole western empire 
 another. This will account for the historical fact, that, for sixty 
 years after the death of Frederic II., there was no assumption of 
 the imperial power in Italy, for the reason that the German em- 
 perors had no leisure or security to leave their own dominions, 
 which were at this time torn by internal dissensions, to come, after 
 
116 ITALY. 
 
 the manner of their predecessors, and claim their imperial corona- 
 tion. During this period of exemption from German interference 
 the Guelf and Ghibeline war raged as much as ever, assuming 
 almost exclusively, as the ground of contention, the opposition be- 
 tween the nobles and the people. It Was, in fact, the natural con- 
 vulsions and efforts of an oppressed people to shake off the un- 
 natural pressure of feudal domination ; and the name of Guelf and 
 Ghibeline being retained, the people were either the one or the 
 other, as the circumstances of the case required. If the nobles 
 were Guelfs, they were Ghibelines, and vice versa. These wars 
 were marked with all the desolation, horror, and cruelty of a bar- 
 barous age. And that the reader may form some idea of the hor- 
 rors of those times, it may not be deemed inconsistent, perhaps, 
 with this brief historical sketch, to notice more particularly the 
 character of one of the feudatory tyrants of this age — Eccelino 
 Romano of Padua. He was a monster of cruelty even in this 
 dark period of cruelty and blood, not only on account of the num- 
 ber of his victims, but also by reason of the various and infernal 
 tortures which he invented to torment his prisoners. On account 
 of his cruelty, as also because he was a prominent Ghibeline 
 chieftain, Alexander IV., who had succeeded Innocent IV. in the 
 pontifical chair, preached a crusade against him. An army was 
 collected, which attacked Padua and took it, and released from 
 the dungeons more than one thousand of the wretched victims of 
 Eccelino's tyranny. The army which accomplished this was in 
 part made up of refugees which had fled from the city to escape 
 his cruelty. To revenge himself on the city for this, the tyrant, 
 who was then absent, took about 1 1,000 of the citizens of Padua, 
 who were serving in his army, and put them to death. Scarcely 
 200, it is said, escaped. He then captured the castle of Friola, 
 and caused the garrison, together with the women and children, to 
 be horribly mutilated by tearing out their eyes and cutting off 
 their noses and their legs. Soon after, however, having filled up 
 his measure of iniquity by a bloody reign of thirty-four years, he 
 was conquered, wounded, and taken prisoner. He refused medi- 
 cal aid and food, tore open his wounds with the same ferocity 
 with which he had been wont to torment others, and died. Very 
 soon his brother was also taken, and the. whole family, men and 
 women, were put to death ; and their mangled limbs were sent 
 
SKETCHES OF ITALIAN HISTORY. 117 
 
 to all the cities that had endured the cruelty of the tyrant ! a hor- 
 rid visitation ! and as strikingly illustrative of the bloody charac- 
 ter of the times as the cruelty of Eccelino himself. The instru- 
 ments of torture of this sanguinary monster are still preserved in 
 the arsenal at Venice. In my visit to that city I saw them, and 
 the very sight was enough to chill one's blood. His jealousy 
 was as great as his cruelty ; and they still show at Venice a most 
 extraordinary memorial of this tormenting passion, the character 
 of which delicacy forbids me to detail. So true is it that tyrants 
 are themselves tormented in the same proportion as they torment 
 others. Eccelino died September 16, 1259. 
 
 This triumph of the Guelf party in northern Italy, and the sub- 
 sequent strength and ascendency of the popular cause, did not long 
 afford the promised advantages to the people. What they had so 
 violently and perseveringly resisted in their hereditary feudal chief- 
 tains they yielded willingly or by constraint to demagogues from 
 among themselves. The commanders who led their armies suc- 
 cessfully against their hereditary enemies turned the power of the 
 same armies against the liberties of the very cities for whose freedom 
 they had waged successful war. And this they were enabled to 
 do the more readily, because these armies were mostly mercenary 
 troops which the cities had hired into their service, because their 
 own militia, being infantry, were unable to combat with the well- 
 trained, heavy-armed cavalry of the nobility. In this way Milan 
 and several other cities fell into the hands of self-constituted sov- 
 ereigns and emperors. These were at length subjugated by the 
 Archbishop of Milan, Otho Visconti, who defeated and took pris- 
 oner Napoleon delta Torre, who, like his namesake of later date, 
 had become a sovereign by being the man of the people ; and 
 thus was established the Visconti dynasty, which long swayed the 
 sceptre of Lombardy. 
 
 Nor was the cause of liberty any more successful in the south 
 of Italy. By the intrigues and influence of Pope Urban IV., the 
 successor of Alexander IV., Charles of Anjou, one of the Guelf 
 party, brother to Louis IX., commonly called St. Louis of France, 
 was invested with the crown of the two Sicilies and Naples. 
 Clement IV., Urban's successor in the papal chair, pursued the 
 same policy, and, after much hard fighting, Charles triumphed 
 over Manfred, who held the crown before, and who was slain in 
 
118 ITALY. 
 
 battle. His successor, Conradin, was also conquered, captured, 
 tried, and executed, with many others. Charles, the Guelf leader, 
 in short, proved himself a cruel tyrant, to the disappointment 
 and enslaving of his own friends. 
 
 The death of Conradin, which took place 1268, was soon fol- 
 lowed by the death of Pope Clement ; whereupon the succession 
 of St. Peter's representatives was interrupted three years, because 
 the conclave of cardinals could not agree upon his successor. 
 How strange it is that the apostolic succession, so much insisted 
 on by Catholics, and so strongly claimed by some Protestants, 
 should have been intrusted by the great head of the church to in- 
 triguing politicians, whose mutual jealousy and party spirit some- 
 times gave the church two heads, and at other times kept it from 
 having even one head, for several successive years ! Is this the 
 boasted unbroken apostolical succession? This the only true 
 church ? whose head, when it had one, was constituted and ap- 
 pointed by political intrigue, and who was himself, when consti- 
 tuted, a political intriguer? 
 
 At length Gregory X. was chosen, and he, and his four imme- 
 diate successors, the pontifical lives of three of whom were, uni- 
 tedly, only of one year's duration, applied themselves to heal, 
 rather than foment, as their predecessors had done, the divisions 
 between the Guelf and Ghibeline factions. These efforts were 
 attended with considerable success. 
 
 Charles of Anjou was finally deprived of his dominions in Si- 
 cily by the interposition of Spain, and the sovereignty of that 
 island continued in the family of Peter of Arragon until Charles 
 died, 1285; and, by a subsequent treaty and marriage, not only 
 was this acquisition confirmed to the royal family of Arragon, but 
 the kingdom of Naples was reunited with it ; and this laid the 
 foundation for the subsequent influence from that time possessed 
 by the court of Spain in the government of Naples and the two 
 Sicilies. 
 
 It would be contrary to the design of this sketch to follow out 
 the various wars and contentions, the intrigues and massacres of 
 the following years. One pope was poisoneo^ another resigned 
 through imbecility. Different states and cities went to war with 
 each other, and at length Henry, count of Luxembourg, came 
 from Germany, and was crowned at Milan with the iron crown, 
 
SKETCHES OF ITALIAN HISTORY. 119 
 
 and at Rome with the crown of gold ; defied Florence, was going 
 to attack Naples, when his career was suddenly terminated by 
 his death. 
 
 The republics of Northern Italy, except Venice, were now 
 mostly swallowed up in the manner above explained, but those 
 of Tuscany and Genoa were still in a flourishing condition, and, 
 but for their jealousies of each other, might long have contin- 
 ued so. Their mutual jealousies and wars, however, kept the en- 
 tire country in a state of alarm, and gave an opportunity for com- 
 panies of marauders to prowl about the smaller villages, and 
 live by plunder, while two visitations of the plague, in one of 
 which Florence alone lost 100,000 persons and Pisa seven tenths 
 of her inhabitants, seemed to threaten the country with utter des- 
 olation. At length, in a war between Florence and Pisa, the latter 
 was conquered, ninth November, 1406, and added to the sover- 
 eignty of Florence, and from this first war of conquest Florence 
 began to decline. A warning this to other republics not to seek 
 conquests and accessions of territory by this means ; for this is 
 the high road to their own decay and ruin. The ambition that 
 prompts to such a course will not fail to lead to an abandonment 
 of those principles by which alone a republic can be sustained. 
 
 While these things were passing the holy see was divided be- 
 tween rival claimants for the tiara. There was a pope at Rome, 
 and another at Avignon in France. They mutually excommuni- 
 cated each other; and finally a general assembly of the cardinals, 
 prelates, &c, at Pisa, declared the holy see vacant, and another 
 pope was elected under the name of Alexander V. At his death 
 John XXIII. was elected, Gregory and Benedict still claiming 
 to be popes. John called together the famous Council of Con- 
 stance, by which John Huss and Jerome of Prague were mur- 
 dered, although the former had had his safety guarantied to him 
 by the emperor. This council deposed John and his two rivals, 
 and elected a member of the Colonna family pope under the name 
 of Martin V., and Martin, when elected into office, dissolved the 
 council. Here are several paradoxes in the Roman hierarchy. 
 1. There were three claiming to be the successor of St. Peter, 
 and one of these, by virtue of his office, called a general council, 
 and presided in it. 2. The council he called deposed him, as 
 
120 ITALY. 
 
 well as his rivals. 3. The successor elected by the council dis- 
 solved the council itself that made him pope ! 
 
 But it is unnecessary, for my present purpose, to dwell longer 
 on the general affairs of Italy. We have traced them far enough 
 to show, in a very brief and general way, the rise of some of the 
 principal republics and governments of Italy. The downfall of 
 those of northern and southern Italy ; the proximate symptoms of 
 the decline of the central republics, together with some general 
 features of the Roman hierarchy in its assumptions of secular 
 power and ecclesiastical authority, and in connexion have sketched 
 some of the characteristics of the iron age of darkness and blood. 
 
 These events have been traced up to the period in which we 
 are called to notice three striking and eventful features in the his- 
 tory of Italy, viz., 1. The dawning of literature. 2. The de- 
 cline of the mercantile republics. 3. The breaking out, spread, 
 and final suppression of the reformation. A few thoughts on each 
 of these will prepare the way for a brief statement of the events of 
 the French revolution and conquests, so far as they affected Italy 
 and the situation of the country as settled by the Congress of Vi- 
 enna in 1814 and 15. 
 
 With respect to the literature of Italy, little can be said of it 
 after the decline of the ancient Roman literature until .the four- 
 teenth century. How the Italian language became what it is — 
 whether it is the natural deterioration of the Augustan Latin, or 
 whether it is the result of foreign influences by means of the suc- 
 cessive conquests of Italy by the barbarians, is not agreed. The 
 greater probability is, that it is the concurrent result of these two 
 causes. It appears that so late as the seventh century the Latin 
 language was spoken in Rome, and that the ordinary religious ■ 
 discourses to the common people were delivered in that tongue. 
 But in the ninth century the clergy began to preach in the vulgar 
 tongue, which was called rustica Romana lingua. The earliest 
 inscription in this language now known is said to be on the front 
 of the cathedral in Ferrara, bearing date 1135. And there are, 
 it is said, some written specimens of obscure authors as early as 
 the beginning of the next century. But still the language can 
 hardly be said to have had a character, or modern Italy to have 
 had a literature, until the time of Dante, who was born in 1265, 
 and died in 1321. He made the language ; that is, polished and 
 
REFORMATION IN ITALY. 121 
 
 elevated it, and gave it a classical character. Immediately fol- 
 lowing him were Boccaccio and Petrarch, the one in prose and the 
 other in poetry. These were Tuscans as well as Dante, and they 
 raised the language to its zenith. 
 
 During the latter part of the fourteenth and the earlier part of 
 the fifteenth centuries the classical literature of ancient Greece and 
 Rome was greatly cultivated ; and the savans of that period gave 
 themselves so exclusively to the literature of antiquity, that the 
 modern Italian was neglected, and actually declined. It was con- 
 sidered vulgar to write in Italian, and all the poets and writers of 
 that age studied the idiom, taste, and style of the ancients. In 
 the latter part of the fifteenth century, however, Italian literature 
 again revived, and, under the patronage of the family of the Med- 
 ici, may be said to have enjoyed its Augustan age. It was du- 
 ring this period that Ariosto, Tasso, Alfieri, Metastasio, Machia- 
 velli, and a host of others flourished and wrote. 
 
 With respect to the fall of the mercantile republics of Italy, es- 
 pecially of Genoa, Venice, and Florence, I will speak something 
 when I give an account of these respective cities. Suffice it to 
 say here, that the most wealthy of the citizens gained, by degrees, 
 such an influence as to give them the control over the liberties of 
 the people, and finally to secure that control as a hereditary right 
 in their families. Such were the Doria family in Genoa and the 
 Medici family in Florence. Pisa, as we have- seen, was con- 
 quered by Florence, and a great portion of the principal citizens 
 immediately left the city, so that its population, with its wealth 
 and glory, faded away never to be restored. To some extent the 
 same result happened to Lucca and Sienna, which were also 
 conquered by the Florentines. 
 
 From a work of Dr. Thomas M'Crie, of Scotland, the English 
 reader has now the facts respecting the reformation in Italy 
 brought within his reach to a much greater extent than at any 
 former period. This work had its first edition in 1827; and in 
 1833 the author published a new edition, revised and improved.* 
 
 * This learned and industrious historian is now dead. His death is the more to be 
 regretted, as he had designed, as intimated in the preface of the history referred to, to pub- 
 lish a history of John Calvin. This work, however, it is hoped, may not be deserted. 
 His amiable and intelligent son, with whom I became acquainted at Rome, was employed 
 by his father in Geneva to collect materials for the work. In this he was very success- 
 ful, and found, as he informed me, many documents hitherto unpublished, that throw much 
 
 11 Q 
 
122 ITALY. 
 
 It is from this edition, chiefly, that the few facts here presented 
 have been taken. 
 
 The churches of Northern Italy were among the last to submit 
 to the high claims of the Bishop of Rome. It was not until the 
 eleventh century that the popes succeeded in establishing their 
 authority over the Bishop of Milan. The Ambrosian ritual, as it 
 is called, prevailed there until that time, and the Ambrosian 
 Church was independent of all others. 
 
 In the twelfth century the Vaudois Christians, or Albigenses 
 and Waldenses, those ancient, and, as Mr. M'Crie calls them, 
 "hereditary witnesses for the truth against the corruptions of 
 Rome," penetrated the Alps, and established themselves in Lom- 
 bardy, and in the thirteenth century were found in Rome. Nay, 
 it appears that they were dispersed through Sicily, Naples, Tus-^ 
 cany, and the Venetian states. They were subject to various and 
 bitter persecutions ; but still they continued to spread, and had 
 not only established congregations, but in the fourteenth century 
 they had academies in Lombardy for the education of their young 
 men. A colony of these were settled in Calabria, in southern 
 Italy, in 1370, which existed for two centuries, and was then ex- 
 terminated by persecution. 
 
 These scattered adherents to the faith, once delivered to the 
 saints, were prepared to give aid and influence to the first general 
 struggle that was made to reform the impurities of the church. 
 
 To aid them, there went out a collateral influence from the re- 
 vival of ancient literature in the fifteenth century. Although 
 many of the most learned were most profligate and heathenish in 
 their views, as might be shown from the character of the Pope 
 Leo X., and most of his court, yet there were others who were 
 led, by the study of the Scriptures and the ancient fathers, to see 
 and deplore the corruptions of the church. And some of the 
 early poets, even Dante himself, appeared to have very correct 
 views of many of the prevailing dogmas of the Roman Church, 
 and wrote against them with great severity. The same also is 
 true of Petrarch, of Boccaccio, Berni, and Ariosto. These wri- 
 tings, from the pens of Catholics themselves, undoubtedly pre- 
 pared the way for the graver writings of the subsequent reform- 
 light upon the life and times of the great reformer. It is to be hoped he may sooner or 
 later be able to complete his father's design. 
 
REFORMATION IN ITALY. 123 
 
 ers. Among them was Jeronimo Savonarola, who flourished the 
 latter half of the fifteenth century. He appears not to have 
 sought a change in doctrine so much as a reform in manners, for 
 which he wrote and preached with great influence. He effected 
 a great reform in the morals of the Florentines, and was doubtless 
 one of the instruments of restoring the republic at the time of the 
 expulsion of the Medici from Florence. He was, however, sub- 
 sequently condemned as a heretic, and burnt by Pope Alexan- 
 der VI. 
 
 But the writings of Luther, Melancthon, and Zuinglius were 
 extensively circulated through Italy, sometimes Under fictitious 
 names ; for, after the rupture between Luther and the holy see, 
 denunciations ano^ calumnies of him and his coadjutors were so 
 industriously propagated among the people, that their works could 
 not circulate under their own names. 
 
 Copies of the Scriptures also, at this time, began to be multi- 
 plied, not only in the oriental and ancient languages, but also in 
 the vernacular tongue, and thus served as great helps to the dis- 
 semination of light. 
 
 During the early part of the sixteenth century Charles V. 
 marched an army of Germans into Italy, among whom were 
 many Protestants, who boldly proclaimed their views among the 
 people, and disseminated much Protestant influence, even in 
 Rome itself, which, by Charles's general, the Duke of Bourbon, 
 was taken and sacked. 
 
 There is one subject particularly worthy of remark here, that 
 many, not only of the satirists and poets, such as Dante and Pe- 
 trarch, but also some of the bishops and priests of the Roman 
 Church, publicly taught, that the woman upon the scarlet beast, 
 and Babylon, described in revelation, indicated Rome in her ec- 
 clesiastical character. This was publicly taught by Staphylo, 
 bishop of Sibari, in a public oration before the apostolical Rota 
 held after the sacking of Rome by Bourbon. 
 
 About this time, through the influence of a Protestant French 
 princess, who married one of the Este family, Duke of Ferrara, 
 that city became a great resort for Protestants. Even Calvin 
 himself, under a fictitious name, resided there for some time. 
 
 Somewhere between 1530 and 1540 a Protestant church was 
 formed at Naples, under the patronage and guidance of some of 
 
 
 
124 ITALY. 
 
 the best men of the age. Here was Ochino, whose eloquence, un- 
 rivalled in his day, according to the testimony of Cardinal Bembo 
 himself, had filled all Italy with his praise. Here were Valdez, 
 and Marco Antonio Flaminio, and Pietro Martire Vermigli; all 
 men of renown. This latter afterward went to Lucca, and was 
 so instrumental in spreading the reform doctrines in that city, that 
 it reckoned more converts than perhaps any other city in Italy. 
 Churches were also formed at Pisa, Sienna, Modena, &c. At 
 Venice also there were many of the reformed, but were not organ- 
 ized into a church. 
 
 Indeed, so extensively had these sentiments of the reformers 
 prevailed in Italy, that one eminent papist, Sadolet, declares, in a 
 letter to the pope, that there was " an almost universal defection 
 of the minds of men from the church, and an inclination to exe- 
 crate ecclesiastical authority." Cardinal CarafTa said that the 
 " whole of Italy was infected with the Lutheran heresy, which had 
 been extensively embraced both by statesmen and ecclesiastics." 
 
 What, then, checked the progress of this work ? 
 
 "In 1542 the court of Rome first became seriously alarmed at 
 the progress of the new opinions in Italy," and in -1543 new life 
 and power was given to the Inquisition. This ecclesiastical 
 court was established in Italy in the twelfth century; but the 
 free states, which at that time covered the most of this country, 
 refused to sanction it in all its claims. . It was circumscribed in 
 its power and limited in its jurisdiction, so that it did not answer 
 the designs of the papal court. Already, in consequence of the 
 favour shown to heretics by the civil authorities, many heresiarchs 
 had made their escape, and the prospect of soaking the soil of 
 Italy with the blood of its victims was very unpromising, un- 
 less some more efficient measures could be adopted. Paul III., 
 the reigning pontiff, therefore established a court consisting of 
 six cardinals, under the title of inquisitors general, with power, on 
 both sides of the Alps, of trying all cases of heresy, and of appre- 
 hending and incarcerating persons of whatever rank, and of ap- 
 pointing all inferior officers and tribunals. With papal manage- 
 ment and hypocrisy the system was submitted to by the different 
 Italian states, although some for a considerable time resisted. 
 The history of this whole affair, however, shows how false the 
 representations of some are at the present day in reference to this 
 
REFORMATION IN ITALY. 125 
 
 subject. It has been pretended that this court was a civil tribu- 
 nal, and that the church should not be made responsible for it. 
 Whereas it had its head at Rome ; its subordinate tribunals were 
 of the appointment of the supreme court at Rome ; and the secu- 
 lar power was only called into requisition to execute the bloody 
 decisions of this sanguinary, dark, and capricious tribunal. Nay, 
 many of the states were reluctant to admit the court within their 
 borders, and yielded the point only to the influence and manage- 
 ment of the papa] court. And, indeed, as many of the accused as 
 possible were procured to be sent to Rome for their trial, that 
 the inquisitors general might be more sure of their prey. 
 
 With this bloody organization the papal court prepared herself 
 for the extirpation of heresy from Italy ! For, as dead men tell 
 no tales, so dead men can propagate no heresies. Heresy can be 
 extirpated in any land, if all its heretics are burnt and butchered. 
 " The erection of the Inquisition," say the Catholics themselves, 
 " was the salvation of the Catholic Church in Italy." The work 
 of blood went on. But it was twenty years before the movement 
 in favour of reform could be got under in Italy. Nor probably 
 would it even then have been subdued, if the retreat from perse- 
 cution had not been so near. Germany and Switzerland were 
 thronged with the refugees. Had they stayed and endured the 
 most their persecutors could have heaped upon them, it would 
 have kindled such a fire in Italy, doubtless, as would have con- 
 sumed the papal palace, pope, conclave, and all. But retreat 
 gave their enemies new courage, and not only thinned the ranks 
 of the reformed, but, being deprived of their leaders, multitudes 
 grew dispirited, and, yielding to the importunities of friends and 
 the threats of authority, renounced their adherence to their new 
 views. 
 
 One means of discovering who those were that were tainted 
 with new opinions, adopted by the inquisitors, was to furnish to 
 certain accomplished instruments of cruelty letters of recommend- 
 ation to numerous respectable families in the different Italian 
 states, under various characters, and with a variety of pretexts, 
 who, by their address, insinuated themselves into the confidence 
 of their hosts and associates, and thus drew from them their pri- 
 vate opinions, and then, by turning informers and witnesses, caused 
 the dupes of their diabolical hypocrisy to be dragged before the 
 11 
 

 ► 
 
 126 ITALY. 
 
 Inquisition. Here they were imprisoned, tortured, banished, and 
 executed in great numbers. 
 
 Inquisitors were sent out in every direction; informers were 
 liberally paid for their accusations, until suspicion and jealousy 
 in some places broke in sunder all the bonds of social and domestic 
 life. Many fled ; others were banished. From the town of Lo- 
 carno, on Lake Maggiore, two hundred, with their wives and chil- 
 dren, were expelled in a body. These settled in the country of 
 the Grisons and in the canton of Zurich. From Lucca some of 
 the principal families fled to Geneva, where their descendants 
 unto this day are reckoned among their most distinguished citizens. 
 
 The colony of Waldenses, already spoken of in Calabria, had 
 increased to the number of about 4000. These, about the mid- 
 dle of the sixteenth century, were exterminated in the most hor- 
 rid manner by the bloody inquisitor Panza and others. 
 
 The horrid details of torturing, burning, and butchering men, 
 women, and children are shocking almost beyond endurance, even 
 at this distant period ! "What, then, must the amount of suffering 
 have been to those on whom it fell ? 
 
 It was in these times also, and in reference to the same object, 
 that the Roman Index Expurgatorius was formed by that infa- 
 mous pope Paul IV. It was a list of authors and books that were 
 prohibited to be imported, published, or even owned and read. 
 Thus every measure was taken to obstruct free inquiry, and to 
 bind in ignorance, and in entire dependance upon the dictates of 
 the priests, the public mind; a system which is, to some extent, 
 kept up even at the present day. The Index Expurgatorius, with 
 all its authoritative prohibitions, meets the traveller on his ap- 
 proach to Italy, and trammels the press in all its operations ; the 
 Catholics thereby acknowledging that their system cannot endure 
 the ordeal of free inquiry. Thus, if the Inquisition, as the Cath- 
 olics themselves claim, saved Italy from Protestantism, then it has 
 only been saved by hypocrisy, by cruelty, by oceans of blood, 
 by stifling free inquiry, and by cutting off or obstructing all the 
 great channels of mental and moral improvement. 
 
 It was thus that the bloody church succeeded in stopping the 
 progress of reform ! 
 
 What must at the present day be the state of a country which 
 was under such an influence, and which applied itself with such 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 127 
 
 success, and by such sanguinary instrumentality, to the Stirling of 
 free inquiry and of religious reform in the latter part of the six- 
 teenth century, may be easily conjectured, especially when it 
 is known that the same church maintains the same doctrines, and, 
 in point of principle, the same policy, and the same views of what 
 she calls heresy up to the present hour. 
 
 What we might suppose a country would be under such cir- 
 cumstances, we find Italy is at the present moment; a country 
 enervated, broken-spirited, unenterprising, and superstitious. 
 
 And yet let it not be supposed that Italy has yielded herself up 
 without a struggle ; that, from the close of the sixteenth century 
 until now, she has calmly and stupidly slumbered over her politi- 
 cal and ecclesiastical degradation and chains. This would be 
 entirely contrary to the known laws of the human mind. The 
 people groaned under -their burdens, and sighed for deliverance. 
 Many of them, too, became as incredulous to the religion which 
 had imposed her dogmas by the torture and by fagots, as they 
 were restless under the political tyranny that had consented to be 
 the partner and the instrument in this unholy work. And this 
 was the general state of the public mind when the French Revo- 
 lution broke, like a tornado, over the Alps. This prepared the 
 way for giving vent to the smothered fires that had long burnt in 
 concealment in the bosom of society. And it was this, chiefly, 
 and not the power of the French armies, that crippled and finally 
 broke the power of Austria in Lombardy, and Tuscany, and some 
 other smaller states ; it was this that threw open the watery gates 
 of Venice to Napoleon ; that enabled him to take Genoa, and 
 Rome itself, so as to humble the haughty pontiff at his feet, and 
 make him his servile tool. And, finally, it was owing to the same 
 cause that the Neapolitan government was overthrown, and a 
 brother of Napoleon's first, and, after he was transferred to Spain, 
 Joachim Murat, were made sovereigns of Magna Graecia. Anx- 
 ious for a change, trusting to the promises of the French and to 
 the sweet sound of liberty, which was the watchword at the gates 
 of Milan and Genoa, Rome and Naples, as it was in France, the 
 Italians thought the deliverers of the world were come, and that a 
 day of universal jubilee was proclaimed. They were deceived. 
 The French had neither virtue nor intelligence enough to sustain 
 the cause of liberty at home, and, of course, when they submitted 
 
 . 
 
128 ITALY. 
 
 to a second despotism tinder a victorious military chieftain, the 
 way was prepared for an extension of the same power over Italy. 
 It is true, Italy need not have yielded to Bonaparte because 
 France did, but the same causes were followed by the same re- 
 sults on either side of the Alps. The Italians were no more pre- 
 pared for liberty than were the French. Nor had they as much 
 unanimity and energy among themselves. Paris was France ; 
 but what city — what ten cities were Italy ? And what bond of 
 union between Milan and Venice, Florence and Genoa, Rome 
 and Naples, to say nothing of the score of other separate and in- 
 dependent governments and states ? 
 
 Besides this their weakness, arising from divided strength and 
 internal jealousies, another foe was at the door. Austria was 
 waiting to return to her original prey, and this, in fact, she did 
 while Napoleon was in Egypt, in 1799. The Austrians swept 
 victoriously over Lombardy, took Genoa, and recovered Florence, 
 all of which had before submitted to the republican army. 
 
 When Napoleon returned from Egypt, and broke down the Di- 
 rectory, and assumed the supreme power under the appellation of 
 First Consul, he prepared himself to recover the lost conquests 
 in Italy ; and to this end he crosses the St. Bernard, and throws 
 himself upon the plains of Lombardy before his enemy could ex- 
 pect him, gains the great battle of Marengo, by which he has 
 control of Northern Italy. He reorganizes the Cisalpine republic. 
 
 Of this republic Bonaparte by his arts first procures himself 
 to be chosen president. Then, after he becomes emperor, he 
 changes the name from " Cisalpine Republic" to " Kingdom of 
 Italy," of which Milan was the capital, and Eugene Beauharnais, 
 the son of his wife Josephine, was the viceroy. Central Italy • 
 becomes a kingdom under the name of the Kingdom of Etruria ; 
 and Genoa and Piedmont, Parma and Placentia, are formally 
 united to France. Ferdinand is driven from Naples, and Joseph 
 Bonaparte at first, afterward Joachim Murat, made king; and, 
 finally, the states of the pope are united to the French empire, 
 and Rome itself is annexed to France as an imperial city. 
 
 Such was the state of Italy during the reign of the Emperor 
 Napoleon ; and during this time, although the sovereigns of these 
 respective states might take occasion to complain, yet, on the 
 score of justice, what rights had they more than the Emperor of 
 
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 129 
 
 the French ? Was he a usurper ? So were they. By what 
 right did Austria claim Lombardy ? or Tuscany ? What was 
 the government of Genoa but a usurpation ? The states of the 
 pope were no more his, nor did Magna Graecia any more belong 
 to Ferdinand by virtue of any right of lawful origin, than did all 
 Italy belong to Napoleon. There was as much real justice in 
 Bonaparte's absurd claim to Rome on the ground of being suc- 
 cessor to Charlemagne, as in any of the claims of the legitimates 
 of Europe to that country. And certainly the Bonapartean era 
 was of service, to wake up from the sleep of centuries this op- 
 pressed country. Napoleon's government was a despotism, but 
 it was a stirring, rousing despotism, that shook the public mind 
 into action, and drew out the slumbering energies of the people. 
 Every traveller in Italy must see this. The records of the 
 French upon Italy, after all, whether you speak of the physi- 
 cal aspect of the country and of the cities, or of the impress upon 
 her institutions and upon the public mind generally, are, on the 
 whole, records of improvement and of mental elevation. In say- 
 ing this I am not to be understood to approve of Napoleon's 
 ambition; of his violated faith; of his bloody wars and high- 
 handed acts of authority. But, if I must have a despot, give me 
 a man who has a capacious and energetic mind ; who plans great 
 things ; who aspires to great things ; who wakes up all the ener- 
 gies of the country in attempting to move heaven and earth to en- 
 sure his own aggrandizement, rather than that heavy and torpid 
 incubus who suffocates me with his immoveable weight upon my 
 vitals, and fattens, like the vampire, by sucking my curdled and 
 sluggish blood. 
 
 But the ambition of Napoleon drove him from the throne ; and 
 the allied sovereigns, legislating for Europe — or rather, I should 
 say, legislating for themselves upon Europe — restored Italy, I will 
 not say to the status ante bettum — to the precise political rela- 
 tions she was in before, but so meted it out that the influence of 
 Austria was increased, and the rights of legitimacy were strength- 
 ened, while the rights of the people were totally disregarded. 
 England herself, in this partition, proved recreant to her own prin- 
 ciples, without gaining much for herself either in point of territory 
 or continental influence. What a glorious time was this for her 
 to have secured liberty to Genoa, which her own general, Lord 
 
 R 
 
130 ITALY. 
 
 William Bentinck,* had promised the Genoese, under the most 
 solemn pledges, if they would unite in the league against Napo- 
 leon ! What an opportunity to have secured, by guarantees that 
 could not have been violated, a constitutional form of government, 
 essentially like her own, to Lombardy, the states of Venice, and 
 the other states of Italy, to all of whom the most specious and 
 encouraging promises had been made, on condition that they would 
 help put down the tyrant ! What a favourable opportunity to 
 have secured toleration, to the true and full extent of that term, 
 to Protestantism in Italy ! But, alas ! she who had fought the 
 battles of the continental sovereigns by sea and land; she who 
 has been and still is the stanch defender of constitutional liberty 
 and the grand bulwark of Protestantism, threw all the prizes she 
 had won into the continental box, to be hustled for by civil and 
 ecclesiastical despots. If the memory of any man that has held 
 power and office for the last half century in Europe ought to be 
 held in utter detestation, Castlereagh, the betrayer of liberty, of 
 British honour, and of the rights of man, is that individual. t 
 
 By the congress of the allied sovereigns the arrangements for 
 Italy were as follows : — Victor Emanuel was restored to the throne 
 of Sardinia, with a dominion embracing Savoy, Piedmont, Genoa 
 city and territory, Nice, and a part of the Duchy of Milan. The 
 greater part of the Duchy of Milan, and, in short, the great whole 
 of ancient Lombardy and Venice, including the Venetian territo- 
 ries, were adjudged to the Emperor of Austria, then Francis II. 
 This kingdom is governed by a viceroy, and its capital is Milan. 
 Maria Louisa, the ex-empress of France, had assigned to her the 
 Duchies of Parma and Placentia. Modena is a separate sover- . 
 eignty, under a grand duke of the house of Austria. Tuscany 
 was allotted to the house of Austria, and is now governed by the 
 second son of the emperor, under the title of grand duke. The 
 pope has all the states on the Adriatic from the river Po to the 
 
 * Bentinck went to Sicily at first with full power to say to the queen, " Either a Con- 
 stitution or a Revolution;" and his proclamation to the Italians, and his restoring to Genoa, 
 after he got possession of the city, the original form of government, all held out the prom- 
 ise of liberty to the Genoese. Well might the historian Carlo Botta say, " It was well 
 to put down Napoleon ; it would have been better still not to have imitated him." 
 
 t So early as the year 1808 the Prince Moliterno went from Naples to England to en- 
 deavour to persuade the British government to declare for the union and independence 
 of all Italy under a constitutional government. But they would not listen to it. 
 
GENOA. 131 
 
 Kingdom of Naples, together with Perugino, Spoleto, Rome, &c, 
 across to the Mediterranean. The Neapolitan states were re- 
 united with Sicily, forming one kingdom, which was restored to 
 Ferdinand IV. 
 
 Such are, essentially, the present political divisions of Italy. 
 It may be proper to add that there is no constitutional government 
 in Italy, if we except the little republic among the mountains, San 
 Marino* The hereditary or appointed chief of each state, whether 
 he be pope, grand duke, viceroy, or king, is absolute. He makes 
 the laws, levies the taxes, and executes the laws according to his 
 own sovereign will and pleasure, save that, such at the present day 
 is the influence of public sentiment, the reigning prince is afraid to 
 do too great violence to public opinion, lest he drive them to in- 
 surrection and outrage. This is the only influence the people 
 can exert over the government ; and this is not great where the 
 cities are filled with an armed soldiery, as is the case very gen- 
 erally in this country. 
 
 I remain, as ever, young gentlemen, 
 
 Yours in sincere affection, 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 To the Editor of Zion's Herald, Boston. 
 
 Genoa, Jan. 3, 1835. 
 
 My dear Sir, 
 
 From this distant land permit me to salute you, and, through 
 you, the many readers of the Herald whom I love and honour in 
 my own native New-England. 
 
 I am now, as you see, in the far-famed city of palaces. Our 
 route hither was from Paris to Lyons, and thence through Savoy, 
 over Mount Cenis to Turin, the capital of Piedmont, and the prin- 
 cipal residence of the King of Sardinia. We were in the public 
 
 * This little republic seems, by its poverty and obscurity, to have maintained its inde- 
 pendence among the mountains of Urbino for many centuries. Its population is 7000, in 
 a territory of twenty-two square miles. 
 
132 ITALY. 
 
 diligence from Paris to Turin, which took us, exclusive of two 
 days' delay in Lyons, six days and nights, during which time we 
 were in bed but about five hours. The weather also was severe, 
 the earth and the streams being locked up in frost, and the Alps 
 covered with snow. Our carriage, however, was comfortable, 
 and we performed the passage much better than we anticipated. 
 Your old friend, the Rev. R. B. H., of Boston, was in company, 
 and Mr. J. Harper and lady and little son, from New- York (of the 
 firm of Harper & Brothers). With this company we were ena- 
 bled to charter the whole of the interior of the diligence, which 
 made it the more pleasant 
 
 The passage of the Alps was magnificent, such as I cannot de- 
 scribe, and, as I have sketched it elsewhere, I will not attempt it 
 again here. The population, to a great degree, is made up of 
 priests and other ecclesiastics, and soldiers, and beggars. To 
 support these and the royal splendour of the court, the proportion 
 of the industrious, labouring population have, you may be sure, a 
 grievous burden. The wretchedness and hardships of the people 
 are great, and painful to the spectator. They hang their huts 
 upon the sides of the mountain, and wall up little patches for cul- 
 tivation upon steeps and among rocks where, to appearance, no 
 human foot, at the first, without artificial supports, could find a 
 safe resting-place. Here poverty holds her court, and here she has 
 erected her throne, vying with the Sardinian king in her empire. 
 Some of the valleys and the plains of Piedmont look better ; but 
 even here poverty and want prevail. Beggars beset you on every 
 side ; some of them will sit in a cold winter's day, from morning 
 to night, upon the cold stones of the street, exposing a naked foot 
 or limb, distorted or ulcerated by disease. 
 
 The number of churches and chapels, even in the poorest part 
 of the country, is immense. We entered Italy on Christmas day, 
 and the priests and people were everywhere engaged in the mass 
 and other religious ceremonies. Some of their churches and chap- 
 els we entered, and in most cases were struck with the apparent in- 
 attention with which the worshippers would say over their prayers 
 — gazing at us, and at whatever else might strike their attention, 
 while they muttered over, with the greatest haste, their allotted 
 task. Wherever the Virgin had an altar or a shrine, there I no- 
 ticed was the greatest throng. In some instances, where there 
 
ROMANISM. 133 
 
 •was an image, I observed the worshipper would approach very- 
 near, and get his mouth close to the ear, that he might be sure 
 of being heard. Will it be said that this is not praying to an 
 idol ? We passed one house among the Apennines, over the door 
 of which, as is very common here, was a Madonna with her babe, 
 and underneath the following inscription : Me Custodem posue- 
 runt — " They have placed me here as a keeper." Is not this 
 trusting to graven images ? In the same region we passed a 
 church, on the front of which was a miserable daub of an angel, 
 and underneath the following inscription : Adsit nobis sanctus 
 Michael Archangelus — " Holy Archangel Michael, favour us, we 
 pray thee, with thy presence." Is not this consecrating a temple 
 to the worship of angels ? Is it not making a god of a creature ? 
 I say not these things captiously, but I ask in candour, and I ap- 
 peal to the good sense of the world, how the conclusions can be 
 avoided. If, then, the Roman Catholic Church is one, as its sup- 
 porters boast, in every age and place ; if its decisions and conse- 
 quent usages are infallible, and therefore immutable, be it re- 
 membered, and let the sentiment be inscribed upon the canopy of 
 heaven in letters of light, and in the face of the world — Whoso- 
 ever countenanceth Romanism, transgresseth the second command- 
 ment. 
 
 It is a favourite practice of the Catholics to unite military pa- 
 rade with their worship. They perform mass by the aid of mar- 
 tial music, and elevate the host under the deafening roll of the 
 drum. I know not how it may strike others, but I confess this 
 associating the symbols of the Prince of Peace with the clarion 
 of war and the implements of death strikes me as very incon- 
 gruous. I am always led to ask, is this the way the apostles and 
 primitive Christians worshipped ? Notwithstanding the Pied- 
 montese are in some respects so religious, they appear to have 
 less regard for the Sabbath than for some of the feast-days of their 
 traditional calendar. We arrived on Friday night, too late for 
 banking business, and as we needed something in this line to 
 settle up our diligence fare, we proposed calling the next morning 
 to get accommodated. We were informed, however, that the 
 next morning was the feast-day of some saint, and therefore they 
 could not do business ; but if we called the next day (Sunday), 
 12 
 
134 ITALY. 
 
 they would wait upon us ! As this, however, did not suit our hours 
 of business, we made other arrangements, 
 
 Our party had the curiosity to go into the grand saloon of the 
 palace at Turin, to see his majesty come out on Sabbath morning 
 to go to church. After waiting a long hour with the rabble — fre- 
 quently crowded forward by the mob behind, and crowded back- 
 ward again by the military guard before, during which time some 
 three or four hundred officers, in full dress, entered — we had the 
 pleasure of beholding the pageant. Here were the hundreds of mil- 
 itary officers, with their shining gold and silver trimmings and ep- 
 aulets ; here were the pages of the court, dressed in small clothes, 
 white silk stockings, and red coats ; here were also the grooms, 
 in court dress, mostly flaring red ; and here was the queen, in a 
 splendid white satin dress, inwrought with silver, with a page be- 
 hind holding up her trail, strutting like a lord, as if conscious of 
 his high calling ; and here was the king himself, who was so 
 much like other men that it was difficult to identify him until we. 
 were told it was " that great man" — for, as it happens, he is of 
 uncommonly large size. The train passed on; the pageant van- 
 ished; and nature kept her wonted course. I was led to exclaim, 
 " What is a king !" and the empty echoing hall responded, " What 
 is a king !" 
 
 Turin is, on the whole, a pleasant city ; it contains about 
 80,000 or 90,000 inhabitants, has a university, founded in the 
 fifteenth century, a cathedral, a palace (such as it is), and some 
 fine public squares. The streets are at right angles, and some 
 of them accommodated with fine arcades. The Strada del Po 
 is fine, and by some supposed to be one of the most beautiful 
 streets in Europe. We pass out through this when we leave for 
 Genoa, at the end of which we cross the Po over a splendid 
 bridge, beyond which is a fine church, built in the form of an an- 
 cient temple. The city is in the centre of a beautiful plain, sur- 
 rounded at a distance with picturesque highlands, and washed 
 on two sides by the rivers Doria and Po. In leaving Turin we 
 followed, for a time, the Po, or ancient Padus. This is the river 
 into which Phaeton was hurled by Jupiter for his careless driving 
 of the chariot of the sun, by which the world was set on fire. 
 The waters of the Po, however, were not dried up, as we had an 
 opportunity of testing by actual observation. The poplar-trees 
 
WINTER FOLIAGE. 135 
 
 into which his sisters were changed by the wrath of the same 
 god have, since that time, been greatly multiplied, I should think ; 
 for these or some other trees form beautiful lines of leafy columns, 
 stretching along the roads and the streams. I say leafy columns 
 — their only leaves, however, at this time, were those of silver 
 crystals, formed by the joint action of a damp atmosphere and a 
 severe frost. These resplendent crystals, indescribably more gor- 
 geous and magnificent than the artificial tinsel of the Sardinian 
 court, threw back the rays of a bright Italian sun in such dazzling 
 beams of quivering, waving light, as were never painted by hu- 
 man pencil or described by human language. I took my seat 
 outside of our voiturier alone, that I might enjoy unmolested this 
 unrivalled exhibition of nature's imagery. For a time, the chill 
 of the atmosphere neutralized the heat of the sun's rays, and they 
 were mirrored back as cold as they were bright. At length, how- 
 ever, the latter prevailed ; the enchantment was dissolved, and the 
 foliage of winter melted away. 
 
 We passed the ancient but now miserable town of Asti, famous, 
 however, for its wine, and containing about 10,000 inhabitants. 
 Also Allessandria or Alexandria, which, as already mentioned, was 
 built expressly for warlike purposes. And well does its history 
 correspond with the military character of its birth, as it has suf- 
 fered the horrors of many a siege. It has a strong citadel, a mag- 
 nificent covered bridge over the Tanaro, which runs through it, 
 and contains about 18,000 inhabitants. 
 
 After leaving Allessandria we passed the plain and village of 
 Marengo, where Napoleon, in 1800, gained one of his most de- 
 cided victories over the Austrians, and where the brave Dessaix 
 lost his life. 
 
 The plain is remarkably favourable for the strife of mighty ar- 
 mies, being extensive, level, and unobstructed. When we passed 
 it was covered with a wheat crop just shooting from the ground. 
 Thus death supports life; the field enriched with human gore 
 teems with nourishment for the living race. Alas, how many of 
 the rich fields of Lombardy have been fattened by the blood of 
 the slain ! 
 
 The passage of the Apennines was uninteresting, especially 
 the ascent from the northern side. It was gradual, and wound 
 its way through bald, barren mountains, which excited emotions 
 
136 ITALY. 
 
 neither of sublimity nor beauty. The descent, however, was 
 more rapid and picturesque, and an intense interest was excited 
 in my own mind when I first caught a glimpse, from the gorge 
 of the mountains, of the Mediterranean : " The sea ! the sea !" I 
 vociferated, as my eye for the first time lighted upon those classic 
 waters. Oh ! what is there of interest to man; what is there of 
 science, of literature, of art, of history, of religion, that is not as- 
 sociated with the waves and the shores of the Mediterranean Sea ! 
 From the Pillars of Hercules, round every bay, and gulf, and sub- 
 ordinate sea, in all the sinuosities of the indented coast, to the 
 Pillars of Hercules again, there is not a league in the distance 
 which has not its classic associations. The trough of the Medi- 
 terranean is the centre of the world ; and on its shores or in their 
 neighbourhood all the great transactions of the world's drama 
 have been beheld. Not far from this man was at first created 
 — and here, too, he was redeemed. The patriarchs, some of 
 them at least, saw these waters, and on their eastern boundaries 
 the tribes of Israel had their inheritance. Here literature was 
 cradled ; and the arts were not only born here, but here they 
 were matured and perfected. On this inland ocean navigation 
 was so advanced, and the mariner so trained, as prepared the way 
 and prompted to the effort to traverse the Atlantic, and find a new 
 hemisphere. I cannot look upon these waters without enthusi- 
 asm. As the waves break at my feet, I fancy it may be the same 
 billow that laved the side of the ship Argo, in which Jason sailed 
 for the golden fleece ; or one which had kissed the ship of Cad- 
 mus while he was conveying the alphabet to Greece ; or perhaps 
 it is the treacherous surge that broke over the ship of old Palinu- 
 rus, and washed him into the sea ; or, if none of these, it may 
 have danced beside the ship of the Apostle Paul in his passage to 
 Rome. 
 
 What has not the Mediterranean beheld. She is the chroni- 
 cler of the world, and on her shores the history of the nations is 
 recorded. Egypt and Carthage, Tyre and Sidon, Greece and 
 Rome, all, all have had their day, and printed their indelible his- 
 tory upon these shores. Even Jerusalem, the city of the great 
 king, could almost look from the heights of Zion into the " Great 
 Sea." Here, too, is the birthplace of republicanism, where those 
 models of government and principles of jurisprudence were ad- 
 
REFLECTIONS ON THE MEDITERRANEAN. 137 
 
 vanced which have been the admiration and study of all succeed- 
 ing ages. 
 
 But what is the Mediterranean now ? In point of literature 
 and science, far brighter light shines upon other parts of Europe 
 and America than shines on any part of those lands which once 
 enjoyed the only spots of sunshine on the face of the earth. In 
 a great part, indeed, semi-barbarism prevails ; such is Africa on 
 the south, such is Asia on the east, and Turkey on the north. 
 What can we find of civil liberty on the Mediterranean coasts? 
 Nothing worthy of the name. There are the seven specks of isl- 
 ands called the Ionian Republic, besides which there is nothing, 
 I believe, that bears the name of republicanism in the entire 
 length and breadth of the Mediterranean coasts. Two thirds of 
 the coast is under a despotism ; not one fourth of it has even a 
 constitutional government, and not one league of its entire shore 
 enjoys, in the true import of the term, civil liberty.* And what 
 shall we say of religion ? This is the region where the gospel 
 was first proclaimed ; wafted on these seas, it spread out over the 
 islands and along the coasts in every direction ; and yet, now, alas ! 
 " how is the gold changed, and the most fine gold become dim ?" 
 With the exception of a little sprinkling of the Greek church in 
 Greece, and some part of Turkey and Asia Minor, there is nothing 
 to be found but Mohammedanism and Romanism. All the south- 
 ern, eastern, and part of the northern coasts are under the undis- 
 puted sway of the false prophet ; and Italy, France, and Spain are 
 either infidel or Catholic. The Beast of the Apocalypse, it is said, 
 rose up " out of the sea." How literally has that been fulfilled I 
 how fatally to the interests of the church ! 
 
 Such being a brief outline of the past and present, the Mediter- 
 ranean affords a picture to the man of literature and science, to 
 the republican and the Protestant Christian, of melancholy interest. 
 The sight begets feelings indescribable. We ask of every object 
 we meet for some intelligence from the ancients, and everywhere 
 we meet with objects that discourse eloquently of the past ; of 
 heroes and of statesmen, of philosophers and of republics, of 
 apostles and of evangelical churches. We ask, Where are they 
 now ? and echo answers, " Where are they now ?" 
 
 We entered Genoa by moonlight, and found comfortable ac, 
 
 * San Marino is too small to be taken into the account. 
 
 12 S 
 
138 ITALY. 
 
 commodations in the Hotel de Quatre Nations. Here we spent 
 four days, and devoted what time and strength we had to seeing 
 the lions of the city. There are many points in which all cities 
 are similar ; and many of those smaller things in which any one is 
 peculiar are not worthy of detail, at least such details come not 
 within the scope of my present design. After stating, however, 
 generally, that Genoa contains about 75,000 inhabitants ; that it 
 is situated at the bottom of the gulf of the same name; that it 
 was once immensely rich, and abounding in commerce and navi- 
 gation ; that it was the capital of a powerful republic, which con- 
 tested the control of the seas with Venice, which city it on 
 one occasion had wellnigh subjugated ; and that it bears in the 
 walls of its arches and public edifices to this day large iron chains 
 and hooks, as trophies of its subjugation of Pisa, I will proceed 
 to state, briefly, some of the peculiarities of this city. 
 
 Its location is peculiar ; the country immediately about the Gulf 
 of Genoa has a bold, mountainous character, leaving no room for 
 a city of any size on level ground ; what land there was of this 
 description was in the form of a crescent, circling round the 
 bay. This, of course, is the shape of the town ; but as this affords 
 but little room for building, most of the city has been crowded 
 back upon the hills around in singularly romantic elevation; 
 hence the town shows to the best advantage from the water, 
 outside of the mole. Here you see it spread out before you and 
 rising above you like a beautiful and magnificent amphitheatre. 
 The steepness of the site is probably one reason that the town 
 is built with such narrow lanes that carriages cannot pass. Never 
 before did I see so few carriages of any kind in so large a city. 
 The streets are mere foot-lanes. I believe carriages pass in but 
 three or four principal streets. Sedan chairs are a substitute for 
 coaches, and donkeys with pack-saddles for drays and wagons. 
 You will see these little animals climbing up the steep streets, 
 loaded on their backs with bricks, stones, and timber for building, 
 or with firewood, furniture, &c, for the houses already built. 
 One great inconvenience of these narrow streets is the want 
 of lights in the houses ; and yet this is not so great as it would 
 be if the houses were on the same level, since the upper range is, 
 in part at least, lighted over the tops of the next lower. Another 
 is the unhealthiness of these confined streets. It is this, 
 
GENOA. 139 
 
 probably, that aggravated the cholera, which proved so fatal the past 
 season. 
 
 Genoa is a place of remarkable strength, yet it has been taken. 
 The Austrians took it, in 1799, from the French general, but 
 this was by starvation. Again it was taken, in 1714, by the Brit- 
 ish general, Lord W. Bentinck. It appeared to me to be a disad- 
 vantage rather than a safeguard to the place, that there are so 
 many fortifications in the neighbourhood of the town, rising, as 
 they do, one above another, on each successive height and more 
 distant mountain. If one of these, say the highest and farthest, 
 was taken by an enemy, I see nothing to prevent his commanding 
 the fortress next below him, and so of the others in succes- 
 sion. I suppose, however, those who planned these fortresses 
 understood the subject much better than I do ; certainly there are 
 enough of them, and they are strong enough to repel a mighty 
 army with a small force. In addition to the external fortresses, 
 there are round the city two impregnable walls, with occasional 
 fortresses and towers; and, on the side of the harbour, the entire 
 city is walled, and defended by strong batteries, at which cannons 
 are kept constantly mounted. This is the more necessary, as his 
 Sardinian majesty has very little naval strength, not exceeding, 
 perhaps, fifteen or eighteen vessels of every description. 
 
 The harbour is defended from the wind on the side that opens 
 into the sea by an artificial mole, without which vessels in south 
 or southwest winds would not be safe. There are no wharves, 
 and all the merchandise has to be brought from the ships by fe- 
 luccas to one place of entrance, where is the custom-house ; and 
 the wall around the harbour is a safeguard against all smuggling, 
 which appears to be its only present use, except as a public 
 promenade. All travellers notice the fanale, or lighthouse, which 
 is a tower on an insulated rock at the west end of the town. I 
 can hardly see, however, why it should be so worthy of special 
 notice, unless it be from the fact that it is the only one either here 
 or anywhere on the coast, a deficiency that appears very singular 
 to those who have been accustomed to see their coast studded 
 with lights. But not more so than another fact, which strikes me 
 with great force, viz., the fewness of the ships in these waters. 
 The Genoese were once the greatest navigators in the world, and 
 behind no others in commerce ; but now, neither they nor any 
 
140 ITALY. 
 
 one else appear to have much business on these waters. On 
 our coasts and in the British seas, we see the waters whitened 
 with canvass ; but here — " Naves natantes rari in gurgite vasto" 
 — a ship is comparatively a rare sight. 
 
 Genoa is situated in the ancient Liguria, and is mentioned in 
 Livy and Strabo, the latter describing it as furnishing fine timber 
 from the neighbouring mountains, all of which might be true in 
 his day ; but the mountains are quite naked of timber at this time, 
 and the scarcity of wood shows that there is very little in the 
 neighbourhood. It cost us about two dollars a day to keep one 
 poor fire, although we were most of the time abroad. The wea- 
 ther, however, was on this occasion extremely cold ; so much so 
 that many of the fountains in the town were frozen into hanging 
 icicles, to the great admiration of the citizens. As we were return- 
 ing from church on the Sabbath, we saw hundreds going in and 
 out at a court of one of the palaces ; we turned in to see the great 
 sight ; when lo ! we found a little cascade from a fountain frozen 
 into hanging ice spars ; and this is so rare it was a wonder of the 
 Genoese. The greatest wonder with me was how, with the 
 thermometer several degrees below the freezing point, the oranges 
 and citrons in and about the city should remain uninjured.* 
 
 Another peculiarity of Genoa is the number and richness of its 
 palaces. It is said there are above fifty of these palaces that are 
 worthy of notice. Indeed, the rich Genoese appear to have 
 thought that they could in no other way display their wealth and 
 vindicate their rank so well as by building a splendid palace, and 
 furnishing it in a princely style. We visited a number of these 
 palaces as specimens of the whole, but deem it not necessary to 
 go into a detail of the apartments. Suffice it to say, they were 
 elegantly finished and furnished, not only with marble floors of 
 various colours and workmanship, and of gilt and frescoed ceilings, 
 and marble and mosaic tables, but they were also furnished with 
 paintings and works of art by the first masters. The edifices are 
 generally of marble, walls, floors, and all. We saw, among other 
 palaces, a splendid one of Paganini, the Italian fiddler, who appears 
 to be more splendidly lodged than his Sardinian majesty himself. 
 
 * In some parts the citrons were injured, and the olives almost ruined. In Pisa 
 they were lamenting greatly the injury of their olive crop by the frost. The olive 
 yields a biennial crop, and the fruit is ripe in December. 
 
SUCCESSIVE CHANGES IN THE GOVERNMENT OF GENOA. 141 
 
 Our lacquey de place amused us as much as the sights we 
 saw. He was a remarkably intelligent and active Frenchman, 
 who could speak all languages with his eyes and gestures. He 
 took us into one palace, where we saw one of the noble family 
 sitting over a kettle of coals, deranged ; and showed us the estate 
 of another nobleman who was in the same situation. We asked 
 him how many mad noblemen they had. " Oh !" said he, " eight, 
 ten, or twelve ; a great many of them have their heads disordered !" 
 
 Some of the churches of Genoa are elegant, and are furnished 
 with some splendid paintings and statuary. In one, the Cathedral 
 of St. Lorenzo, they have the mortal remains of John the Bap- 
 tist, although I must believe they cannot have his head, be- 
 cause we saw that in the cathedral of Amiens, in France ; unless, 
 indeed, the head of the saint has been miraculously multiplied, 
 like the wood of the true cross. Several of the pictures of the 
 churches here were carried to Paris by Napoleon, and were at his 
 dethronement returned to their places. 
 
 Genoa, as we have seen, gained its ascendency by its wealth ; 
 and, we may add, by its wealth it fell. Had not its citizens been 
 corrupted and enervated by luxury, they never would have sub- 
 mitted to the domination either of a foreign yoke or of a native 
 lord. They were weakened also by foreign wars, and were di- 
 vided into factions among themselves. This last was, in fact, the 
 principal cause of their downfall. They were conquered by the 
 French in 1458, and, after shaking ofT this yoke, they submitted 
 voluntarily to the Duke of Milan in 1464; after several changes 
 Genoa was taken and pillaged by the Spaniards in 1522. By 
 this wanton act of the Spaniards the interests of all the merchants 
 of Europe were affected, so extensive was the trade of this city. 
 It again passed into the hands of the French. In 1528, however, 
 by the intervention of Andre Doria, liberty and independence were 
 restored to Genoa ; but, availing himself of his wealth and power, 
 he established an aristocracy, against which the people revolted. 
 After several conspiracies and various internal and external com- 
 motions, they fell under the power of the Austrians in 1746. Here 
 followed the last struggle of the Genoese worthy of their ancient 
 character ; oppressed and insulted by the Austrians beyond all en- 
 durance, a trifling circumstance led to the expulsion of their op- 
 pressors. A sergeant, attempting to cane one of the citizens, was 
 
142 ITALY. 
 
 resisted ; the citizens rallied at the commotion which followed, and, 
 although they had no arms, they used stones and various missiles, 
 filled the narrow streets and many of the houses with the dead 
 bodies of the Germans, and finally expelled them from the city. 
 This was the last glorious event in their history. The events of 
 the French revolution affecting Genoa have already been al- 
 luded to. 
 
 The Dorian palace remains ; some of the ancient families still 
 have a name in Genoa ; her marble palaces and churches still 
 tower one above another up the sides of the mountain in one mag- 
 nificent amphitheatre, but the Ligurian republic is no more. 
 " The soul of the city is fled." It is subjected to a foreign yoke, 
 and its glory is departed. 
 
 Our healths have been kindly preserved and improved. We 
 start to-morrow morning for Florence, which is distant five days' 
 journey, according to the slow travelling of the veturino, which 
 carries us through, finding everything on the road, for fifty francs 
 each, or about ten dollars. 
 
 My kind regards to all friends. Peace be with you and with 
 the churches of Christ. W. Fisk. 
 
 On Tuesday, January 5, we took our departure from Genoa 
 to Florence. 
 
 Genoa, as you are aware, is called the native city of Columbus. 
 He was born, however, a little out of the city, where his paternal 
 house is still standing ; to our regret, our time and circumstances 
 did not permit us to visit it. 
 
 The gardens and orchards of the sloping hills and sunny vales 
 which we passed the first few miles out of Genoa were yellow 
 with the golden orange and citron. This, being the first scene of 
 the kind we had seen, had novelty as well as its own rich beauty to 
 recommend it. Here also, in great abundance, far up the mount- 
 ains, even in most cases to their very tops, the ever-green olive 
 spreads out its branches, laden, just at this moment, with ripe 
 fruit. Each of these mountains might be called Mount Olivet, 
 for their entire slopes, in most cases, were terraced, cultivated, 
 and planted with the olive. Fig-trees, too, were frequent, but 
 " the time of figs was not yet," nay, nor yet of fig-leaves, and the 
 tree in its undress is not interesting, except in its associations. 
 
MOUNTAIN SCENERY. 143 
 
 Its branches are crooked, clumsy, and terminating so suddenly, 
 and in such large blunt stems, that you may say of it, what can be 
 said of few other trees, it has no twigs. 
 
 In addition to the interesting foliage and fruits of these mount- 
 ains, they are spotted with isolated dwellings, with clustering vil- 
 lages, with churches and castles, to their very summits ; and these 
 summits themselves, in numerous instances, capped with fortresses 
 and towers. The mountain scene also is infinitely varied, by 
 reason of the sea in its various bays and indentures upon the 
 coast. At one time it throws in its watery arm, as if exulting in 
 its power to invade the possessions of terra Jirma, and subjugate 
 the land to its watery dominion ; and at another time retreating 
 before a jutting promontory of the mountain, which comes down 
 upon the domains of the watery god with abrupt and frowning 
 aspect, threatening, as has often been done, to take possession of 
 a part of his kingdom by colonial avalanche. These frequent 
 processions and recessions of the land and water, in their apparent 
 strife for dominion, add nothing to the facilities of the traveller's 
 advancement, however much they may vary and beautify the 
 scenery. It is, in point of direct advancement, like travelling up 
 the doubling galleries of the Alpine roads ; for, after travelling most 
 of the day, you look back upon Genoa, and find it still in your 
 own neighbourhood. Of the city, and of the entire coast, studded 
 with villages and indented with bays, and of the mountains, clothed 
 with olives and sprinkled with dwellings, you have an elegant view 
 as you look back through one of the three grottoes that you pass 
 on the first day's journey from Genoa. The first of these grottoes 
 is cut through under the top of the mountain, to avoid going over 
 it, and is much shorter than the grotto of the Echelles before spoken 
 of; it is also arched with masonry, which renders it less rustic 
 and imposing than the Alpine grotto. The other two are near 
 each other, and are cut through the side of the mountain as it 
 hangs over the sea. It seems ps easy to cut the road inside of the 
 surface as to cut it through on the outside and build the necessary 
 protections against the precipice ; and, in addition, the danger and 
 obstruction of avalanches are in this way avoided. 
 
 At length we once more descended to the seashore, along which 
 we passed two or three miles, the most of the way bordered on the 
 water side by the flowering aloe, that lives and grows for a cen- 
 
144 ITALY. 
 
 tury only that it may blossom to die ; and, on the other side, by high 
 perpendicular precipices, to Sestri, the ancient Segeste. Here 
 we took lodgings for the night in the Hotel de la Belle Europe, 
 a house of no great claims, whatever may be its pretensions. 
 One of our company was so displeased with the wine, that, on 
 leaving, he offered the landlord to be at the expense of repainting 
 his sign if he would have it painted with the appropriate name 
 of the Hotel de Vin-aigre (Vinegar). There are, however, more 
 than one Hotel de Vin-aigre in France and Italy ; for, although 
 they are imbowered with vines which yield the finest of grapes, 
 yet they manufacture the wine so badly that it is often miserable. 
 The next day we ascended the Bracco, said to be one of the 
 loftiest passages of the Apennines. Much of the way the road, 
 which is as fine as can be conceived of, being hard and smooth, 
 and of gradual ascent, is hewn in the sides of mountains of marble 
 and slate, and carried by magnificent galleries over what seem to 
 be impassable eminences. What will not the industry and perse- 
 verance of man accomplish ? One gazes at these stupendous sta- 
 gings up and down these barriers of the world, at a loss which most 
 to admire, the power that " Ossa on Pelion piled," or the Heaven- 
 inspired enterprise by which these pigmies of the earth construct 
 their thoroughfares over these desolate and cloud-capped mountains. 
 I say cloud-capped mountains ; but perhaps I should have said, 
 rather, the cloud-girded or cloud-mantled mountains ; for our obser- 
 vation led us to conclude that these mountains oftener wore the 
 clouds around the waist as a zone, or around the shoulders as a 
 mantle, than over the head as a crown. At first we were dis- 
 posed to regret that we made this pass in a foggy morning, as it 
 interrupted our distant view, and diminished the interest of the 
 passage ; but we afterward found that this loss was more than 
 compensated in another way. We kept rising until we penetrated 
 the misty veil, and found it no poetic fiction that mountains might 
 " wear sunshine on their brow, while tempests waste their fury at 
 their feet." The mountain top was bright, the cloud hung midway 
 in the air below us, and such an exhibition was made to our de- 
 lighted vision as neither poet nor painter has ever delineated. It 
 was not a sea of glass, nor yet of water, and still we could make 
 nothing of it but a sea, an unruffled, distant sea, somewhat blanched 
 by a low mist hovering over the even surface, softening the light 
 
IMPOSITION ON TRAVELLERS. 145 
 
 of the sun into a mild whiteness, and checking the intenseness of 
 the reflected rays. There, too, were the islands, for so the mount- 
 ain tops, which occasionally rose above the surface, appeared, and 
 there were the bays, and even rivers of that sea, winding up be- 
 tween the distant heights. And the depths below ! Here ima- 
 gination had full play. How deep might be the suh-nubian caverns 
 in that white sea, over which we hung on our mountain galleries, 
 who could tell ? But the lowest of them we were destined to 
 fathom, not by plummet and line, but in our own proper persons. 
 In our descent we left the region of light, plunged into the sea of 
 mist, and, after hours of descent, found ourselves underneath in- 
 stead of above the fairy sea ; its dark side hung over us, excluding 
 the rays of the sun, having, previous to our descent, according to 
 appearances, moistened the earth with a gentle shower. Here we 
 breakfasted, at 1 P. M., at a village called Borghetto; thence 
 over another mountain to La Spezia, to lodge. 
 
 Without, however, tiring the reader with dry detail of each 
 day's labour and travel, I will conduct him to Florence in much 
 less time than it took us to accomplish the course ; not, however, 
 without mentioning one or two incidents of the remainder of the 
 journey. In passing thus far from Pont de Beauvoisin, on the 
 line between France and Savoy, we had travelled all the way 
 through the possessions of the King of Sardinia, thus making the 
 entire tour of his dominions, I might almost say, from east to west* 
 and from north to south, travelling in it, small as it is, between 
 four and five hundred miles. But now we were destined to pass 
 through two other sovereignties before we reached the empire of 
 the Grand-duke of Tuscany, those of Modena and Lucca. We 
 were to pass through but a corner of Modena, but enough of it for 
 the puissant monarch to show his power over unarmed and defence- 
 less travellers. At the line, not only were our passports demanded, 
 according to custom, but we were also required to present our 
 carte de sanite — our bill of health. We had none. " You cannot 
 pass." Remonstrance was useless ; we had to go back five miles to 
 Sarsana, where, by buying a dinner of the landlord, and paying his 
 lacquey de place six or seven pauls, they procured for us from the 
 police-officers of the town (who, by-the-way, neither by themselves 
 or by the medical board, felt our pulse nor saw our faces) a cer- 
 13 T 
 
146 ITALY. 
 
 lificate that we were in good health, and free from the infection 
 of any contagious disease. With this humbug we went back, 
 when, after plumbing our baggage without looking at it, another 
 fee of a few pauls gained us a passage through the plantation of 
 the Grand-duke of Modena ! This is the only obstruction, on the 
 ground of health regulations, that we have met with ; and whether 
 this was anything more than a concerted scheme to get a few 
 pauls out of us, I am unable to say. One thing is very clear in 
 my mind, and that is, that this whole business of examining pass- 
 ports and baggage, and the like, is but a miserable, despicable device 
 of these petty governments to support their half-starved emissaries. 
 In travelling from Paris to Florence, including the two places, my 
 passport has received twenty-four official endorsements, and it has 
 been examined, I think, a still greater number of times without 
 being stamped. Sometimes it is done gratuitously, but in most in- 
 stances custom, if not law, requires a fee for proving to your jailer, 
 as you enter his prison-house (for so all these military governments 
 have been appropriately called), by official documents, that you 
 are an honest man ; and you are not only to prove it when you 
 enter the kingdom, but you must prove it over and over again. 
 When you enter a city, your name, the gate, and hour of passing 
 it, must all be entered ; and when you leave the same ceremony 
 must be gone through with ; and if, through ignorance or other- 
 wise, you happen to fail of getting all the signatures at any place, 
 you are sent back without ceremony, perhaps scores of miles ; 
 nay, you may think yourself well off if you escape thus. One 
 of our countrymen recorded, in one of those public books kept in 
 almost every hotel in this country in which travellers write their 
 names and their commendations of the house, that, for one of these 
 mistakes in obtaining a proper signature, he was arrested and con- 
 ducted away as a prisoner; and, after much delay and expense, 
 succeeded in obtaining his liberty by applying to higher authority. 
 The traveller will meet with nothing more annoying than these in- 
 terruptions; and the more insignificant the petty state through 
 which he passes, the more he is harassed by these public robbers. 
 The entire system is an outrage upon civilized society, and ought to 
 be made a subject of international negotiation, until this refinement 
 on feudal tyranny shall be banished. It is to be hoped that France 
 will see the propriety of shaking off this mean, despicable, sus- 
 
POLICY OF AMERICA. 147 
 
 picious, guilt-convicting practice, and set a noble example of re- 
 form to the other nations of Europe. As I am now in the spirit 
 of complaining, I will say a word respecting our own government 
 as connected with this system. As things now are, it becomes 
 necessary for our consuls, in different places, to vise or endorse 
 the passports, and for this they are obliged to charge the poor trav- 
 eller two dollars each ; I say obliged, for this, in some instances, 
 is all the compensation the consul gets for his official services. 
 He is obliged to pay every attention to his fellow-citizens (or to 
 citizens of the United States, for the consul is not always our f el- 
 low -citizen), and for all this official protection, protection that 
 government owes its citizens, whether at home or abroad, he is 
 obliged, much to his own mortification, to charge for the signa- 
 ture of his name a paltry fee. He is unable frequently to con- 
 ceal his mortification when exacting this fee. This is a shame to 
 the American government. With an overflowing treasury, by 
 which she might allow a fair compensation to all her officers, she 
 nevertheless sends her agents abroad to unite with and keep in 
 countenance the execrable policy of other governments, by picking 
 the pocket of every passing traveller. Who will see to this thing, 
 and correct our beggarly policy in this matter ? 
 
 The custom-house regulations have more plausibility for their 
 existence than this passport system, and yet they are executed 
 with far less exactness. Any man may buy his peace of the officer 
 of customs for a few pauls. Our trunks were not opened by an 
 officer from the French line to Florence, although we travelled 
 through three sovereignties and entered a fourth. Indeed, the of- 
 ficers did not hesitate to tell us that for two, three, or four pauls, 
 as the case might be, we might pass unmolested ; otherwise we 
 must be delayed, perhaps one or two hours, and have our baggage 
 unpacked and rummaged, and even then they would be very sure 
 to light on a book, or some trifle by which they would still exact 
 their fee. 
 
 Lucca, which was the next empire we passed after Modena, is 
 a miserable place ; not that the soil is poor, for this is rich and 
 fertile all the way from Sarsana to Florence ; but the inhabitants 
 look wretched, and seem to be subjected to great hardships for a 
 miserable existence. What can it mean, that here is a land like 
 the garden of Eden, and yet teeming with such a wretched popula- 
 

 b 
 
 148 ITALY. 
 
 tion ? There is guilt somewhere. Who has taken the bread from 
 the poor, and filled the land with beggary and squalid poverty 1 
 Let those concerned see to it, for the day of retribution is at hand. 
 Beggars constantly assailed us in the public road, and many others 
 looked as though they might with propriety be furnished with a 
 carte de pauvrete to beg. One special exhibition met us frequently 
 in this ride. The weather was extremely cold for Italy, so that 
 the streams were freezing at the edges, and the still ponds of 
 water were frozen over ; the wind was cold and piercing, and yet 
 the females were everywhere, almost, on the road, washing in the 
 cold streams ; scores of them might be seen standing in the running 
 water up to their knees, remaining probably for hours in this sit- 
 uation. I had seen the poor women of France washing in the 
 Seine, in a cold winter day, reaching over the sides of long 
 scows, fitted up with a roof and moored in the stream for the pur- 
 pose, and this I thought was at least uncomfortable ; but to be 
 turned into the stream feet and hands, at this inclement season, 
 appeared unsafe, if not insupportable. It is not the fashion of the 
 country, either in France or Italy, to wash in warm water, and there 
 is for this a very good reason ; they cannot afford fuel to heat it, 
 and therefore they wash in the rivers and brooks. These poor 
 creatures, after washing all day in this situation, and after wring- 
 ing out their clothes, and carrying them home in a tub upon their 
 heads, some of them, perhaps, a mile up a steep mountain, have 
 no fire to sit down by, and spend a winter evening in thawing the 
 rheumatism out of their chilled and almost frozen limbs. They 
 have a stone hovel, perhaps ; oh, how many of these wretched, 
 cheerless lodges have I seen — a stone hovel ! The lower story 
 is a stable for the cow or the donkey, if they have one, surrounded 
 and filled with filth at any rate, and the upper story covered with 
 rough flat stones, floored with the same, without fire, without glass 
 windows, and filled with dirty, ragged children. 
 
 In the city of Lucca, which is the capital of the duchy of the 
 same name, we were surrounded with beggars ; and 5 wherever we 
 went, were watched and followed by soldiers and spies, who 
 seemed suspicious that we had come to take away their place and 
 nation. If we went into a church, they would enter and kneel 
 near us, but were w r atching us rather than saying their prayers ; 
 if we went into the street, they followed us thither; and if we 
 
FLORENCE. 149 
 
 walked about the town, they followed us still. In short, we were 
 glad to leave this ancient city, which is said to have been honoured, 
 in the days of Julius Caesar, with his taking up his winter-quarters 
 there ; and thither most of the Roman nobility came to visit him, 
 insomuch that there were said to have been two hundred Roman 
 senators in the city at one time. Subsequently, and for many cen- 
 turies, it was a free city, and had " Libertas" inscribed upon its 
 gates. But the name has been effaced, and the thing itself lost. 
 Upon her gates Ichabod should now be inscribed, for her glory is 
 departed. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 To Professor D. D. Wheden, of the Wesley an University. 
 
 My dear Professor, 
 
 On entering Florence we found lodgings at the Hotel de Ville 
 de Londresj an excellent house, and reasonable in price. The 
 next day was Sabbath, and we were glad to find Protestant wor- 
 ship in English. A doorkeeper requested a fee of three pauls 
 for each seat ; a fee which, however revolting the charge might 
 seem at first, we, on a moment's reflection, paid most cheerfully, 
 and were glad in this way to contribute our mite towards the sup- 
 port of divine worship, for English and American Protestants, in the 
 heart of a Catholic country. That such worship is permitted in 
 these states is a triumph over old prejudices which augurs well 
 of the future ; especially when I add that, not only in English, 
 but in Italian also, Protestant worship is maintained here in Flor- 
 ence. "We found, also, Protestant service in Genoa ; and it is 
 held, we were informed, in the other principal cities of Tuscany, 
 as well as in Naples, and Rome itself. 
 
 We devoted the following week to seeing the wonders of art in 
 this interesting city, sometimes styled the Athens of Italy. I say 
 interesting, but not for what the city is so much as for what it 
 contains* The general character of the city, like other Italian 
 
 * There is much of historical interest connected with the various palazzi, &c. of 
 Florence ; but an allusion now to these would be tedious, and, for my purpose, useless. 
 13 #1 
 
150 ITALY. 
 
 cities, is not very pleasant ; the streets are narrow, and the houses 
 high, which renders the rooms dark ; and, as if eager to shut out 
 what little light there is, it is usual to extend the eaves, or jet of 
 the roofs out four or six feet from the wall. This, in a narrow 
 street, almost brings the opposite eaves together. This practice 
 of narrow streets, high houses, and projecting roofs, appears to 
 be common throughout Italy; and, although it transforms their 
 houses into gloomy prisons, and seems, to a resident in a more 
 northern and healthy climate, an outrage upon all taste and pro- 
 priety, yet in this climate it has its advantages. The houses in 
 summer are much more comfortable, and, so far as the malaria is 
 concerned, much more healthy, for they interrupt the death-bear- 
 ing vapour, and protect the inhabitants from its fatal contact. In 
 winter, also, the tramontane winds, which are piercing and un- 
 healthy, are measurably shut out. On the other hand, certain 
 kinds of diseases are greatly aggravated by these close, pent-up, 
 dirty cities ; the cholera, for instance. It is on this account, in 
 part, doubtless, that this latter disorder was so fatal in Genoa and 
 some other Italian cities the past season. Indeed, I cannot con- 
 ceive how Florence can escape being visited with frequent conta- 
 gious epidemics. Every warm day while we were there a most 
 offensive effluvia saluted our olfactory nerves as we walked the 
 streets ; and,, if the smell was not sufficient to make one's stomach 
 heave, the sight of the eye, one would think, might produce that 
 effect ; all kinds of nuisances are committed in the street, and that 
 in open day, without any apparent shame or attempt at conceal- 
 ment. One cannot but laugh at his own misconceptions, when 
 the sober reality dissipates the delusions with which poesy and 
 romance have invested Italy. He comes with an imagination 
 glowing with blue skies, and spicy breezes, and ambrosial sweets, 
 and he finds his room so dark at midday, frequently, that he needs 
 a lamp, and the air around him highly impregnated, it is true, but 
 with anything rather than an agreeable fragrance. I speak now 
 of the cities and villages. Well may one writer have said that 
 Cloacina, the ancient Roman goddess of cleanliness, or rather of 
 filth and odour, had fled the country, and taken up her residence 
 at the North ; he says, the other side of the British Channel ; but 
 
 Any one wishing details of this kind will find them spun out to their heart's content in 
 Lady Morgan's Italy, 
 
 I 
 
THE ROYAL GALLERY. 151 
 
 I would say, the other side of the Atlantic ;* for although the 
 cities of England have not generally so much of the most offensive 
 kind of dirt that abounds in Italian cities, still my observation 
 thus far has inclined me to the opinion that the English cities 
 bear no comparison with ours for cleanliness. I think, however, 
 in England, it is more the fault of the soil and the atmosphere than 
 of the people. 
 
 Florence is encompassed by a wall of six miles in circumfer- 
 ence, contains about eighty thousand inhabitants, and is the capi- 
 tal of Tuscany (which was the ancient Etruria), and the residence 
 of the grand-duke. It is divided into two parts by the river Arno, 
 over which are four very good bridges. It contains various 
 churches, palaces, piazzas, and public statues, which are worthy 
 of the notice of a traveller, but which, if described in detail, would, 
 at best, be a dry story, unless one had a greater skill at this kind 
 of delineation than I have. A general notice, however, of what 
 is most interesting, cannot fail to be desirable ; and if but tolerably 
 executed, must, to one unacquainted, be interesting. 
 
 The Royal Gallery. This is a collection of statuary and paint- 
 ings, ancient and modern, made by the successive sovereigns of 
 Tuscany, and especially by the Medici family. The princes of 
 this family, who appear to owe their first elevation to wealth ac- 
 cumulated in the commerce of the Levant, applied a portion of 
 their vast means to the encouragement of the arts and of literature, 
 and to the collection of the most rare specimens of the ancient 
 artists that had survived the wreck of the northern barbarians. 
 The works of the most celebrated artists of modern times, together 
 with the antiques, are arranged in three long corridors, two of 
 four hundred and thirty feet each, and one of ninety-seven feet, and 
 numerous side cabinets and halls, making in the whole, I think, 
 about twenty-two. The ceilings of most of these apartments are 
 painted with elegant frescoes by the first artists. Here are ar- 
 ranged ancient busts of the most eminent men ; here also is a 
 great number of ancient sarcophagi, statues, and bronzes ; here are 
 medals, inscriptions, gems, Egyptian antiquities, vases, and paint- 
 ings. The paintings are of all the different schools, viz., Tuscan, 
 Italian, Dutch, Flemish, French, and Venetian, and are arranged in 
 
 * The reader will bear in mind that I had not yet seen Holland nor the south of Italy. 
 Compared with the former, our cities are filthy ; and compared with the latter, the cities 
 of Tuscany are cleanly. 
 
153 ITALY. 
 
 separate cabinets. Here are portraits of nearly three hundred 
 painters, mostly executed by themselves. The cabinet of gems 
 is most splendid, and it seems, in the various ingenious forms into 
 which they have been wrought, that much time of the greatest 
 artists has been employed on these splendid baubles. Millions, 
 perhaps, of value are concentrated in this one cabinet. 
 
 But the great centre of attraction is the cabinet called the Trib- 
 une. Here, among other ancient statues and elegant paintings, 
 is the famous Venus de Medici, that chef d'ceuvre of art, the 
 beau ideal of beauty, the wonder of the world. This statue was 
 found in Adrian's villa at Rome, and is very generally attributed 
 to Praxiteles, the Greek artist, and, if correctly, it has been in be- 
 ing between twenty-one and twenty-two hundred years, as Prax- 
 iteles flourished more than three hundred years before the Chris- 
 tian era ! This goddess has not passed down the stream of time, 
 in some of the most troublous eras of history, without loss. It 
 is indeed wonderful that she could have escaped with only the 
 loss of one arm and part of the other, and some small fractures 
 in other parts. These all, however, have been restored with 
 great care and skill, so as not to mar the general appearance of 
 the statue ; though, perhaps, the restorations are not equal to the 
 original. The position is modest, if a female figure in a state 
 of perfect nudity can have that epithet applied to it, and the 
 body and limbs are most beautifully fashioned ; but the head is 
 too small, and phrenologists say she has every indication of 
 being a fool. Although I have no great faith in phrenology, I 
 must confess there is nothing in the countenance or head of 
 this Venus that would lead me to admire her if she was flesh 
 and blood ; as a work of art, however, it is undoubtedly admi- 
 rable. This would accord with my own judgment; and this I 
 must concede, at any rate, because all the world have so decided. 
 I confess I am not as enthusiastic an admirer of statuary as some, 
 especially of imitations of the human frame. As forms alone are 
 the province of the sculptor, he is limited in his sphere. He can- 
 not portray those workings of the immortal mind in the counte- 
 nance, and those flashings of intellectual fire in the eye, which out- 
 weigh every other visible attribute of the " human form divine." 
 However, I have no objection to marble men and women ; they 
 certainly have their interest; but long may the time be before 
 naked human figures shall be exhibited on the American shores* 
 
THE PALAZZO PITTI. 153 
 
 At present, such an exhibition would not be tolerated ; and it is 
 at first one of the objects that surprise us, that men and women 
 can mingle together, and examine, without embarrassment, these 
 undraped works of art : yet so it is ; and American ladies, who, 
 like the rest of their sex, readily fall into the fashions of times . 
 and places, soon become familiar to such exhibitions. 
 
 Another Venus has risen up at Florence, in modern days, from 
 the chisel of Canova, which, in the opinion of some, rivals the 
 antique. Although this Venus is not in the gallery, but in the 
 Palazzo Pitti, of which I shall speak presently, yet, as these 
 two editions of the goddess of love are generally spoken of to- 
 gether, I will here say that Canova's Venus evidently has the ad- 
 vantage of the other in that she has a drapery thrown around 
 her, which, instead of concealing, rather heightens her charms ; and 
 also, that she has, in the judgment of many, a better head and a 
 nobler countenance ; but the limbs and general form are in other 
 respects inferior. But to be only inferior to the former is great 
 merit; and to be superior in any respect is more meritorious 
 still. Canova was a great artist, and it may be long before another 
 will rise up to fill his place. 
 
 In this same Cabinet of the Tribune are various other admi- 
 rable statues and paintings, such as Apollo, the Knife-whetter, 
 &c., of the former ; and of the latter, two Venuses by Titian, St. 
 John by Andrea del Sarto, another St. John and two other pictures 
 by Raphael, and several others by Rubens, Vandyck, and other 
 celebrated masters. One can form but an imperfect conception 
 of this gallery of the arts until he has seen it, or one similar. 
 Months might be spent in it without exhausting the subjects. 
 
 Palazzo Pitti. This palace is so named after a noble Floren- 
 tine, who began to build, but was not able to finish it. It is now the 
 palace of the Gran-duc, who, however, does not reside here, but 
 has a more domestic palace near by for his family residence. 
 The building itself has been compared, in its external aspect, to a 
 prison ; but to me it has a grand and an interesting appearance. 
 It is an imposing structure, with a rusticated basement, and the 
 whole finished after the Florentine style of the fifteenth century. 
 It is connected with beautiful gardens, which are laid out on a 
 plan very different from the public grounds called gardens which 
 we had seen in France. The growth was principally shrubbery 
 
 U 
 
154 ITALY. 
 
 of evergreens, and hence, through the winter, it is dressed in beau- 
 tiful foliage. The day we were in it was remarkably warm for 
 the season, which, together with the verdant appearance of the 
 grounds, served to transport us suddenly from the severe winter 
 we had been experiencing the preceding days into the delights and 
 verdure of summer. The grounds are on a side hill, from the 
 upper part of which we had a most splendid view, not only of the 
 city, but of the environs, the neighbouring villas, the luxuriant 
 plains, and the more distant mountains ; a view which, in our 
 country, would be perfect enchantment, but which, from what I 
 have seen of Italy, is here attended with such associations as de- 
 tract greatly from the charms of vision. These plains, methinks, 
 are rife with a beggarly population ; and that dazzling array of 
 glowing white walls, throwing back the rays of an Italian sun, is 
 nothing but coarse stucco, daubed upon coarser stone walls of 
 cheerless and dirty edifices. 
 
 But let us go inside of this palace ; and why should I take the 
 reader within ? for I cannot go round these splendid apartments 
 in my description. Through a large suite of rooms the eye rests 
 continually on the first paintings of the first artists ; such as Ra- 
 phael, Rubens, Titian, Andrea del Sarto, Carlo Dolci, Salvator 
 Rosa, Guido, and numerous others. The best of them, in my 
 humble opinion, is Mars escaping from the arms of Yenus, by 
 Rubens. There are also two or three unrivalled Madonas, espe- 
 cially one by Raphael. One of these rooms, the largest, if I rightly 
 remember, in the suite, is the most splendid, on the whole, that I 
 ever beheld. The ceiling has a magnificent fresco painting of 
 Homer's Council of the Gods, the walls are entirely covered with 
 the most splendid paintings, and the room set off with elegant 
 marble tables, with mosaic work of pietra dura. The mouldings 
 were gilded, and the wainscoting of the room was rich silk tapes- 
 try, and all the furniture in corresponding style. One gazes with 
 ceaseless wonder at the triumphs of genius and of art. 
 
 Much of interest is lost in these galleries of Italian paintings 
 by the constant repetition of the same subject: Christ on the 
 Cross, and Christ taken down from the Cross, the Madona, the 
 Holy Family, Mary Magdalen, John the Baptist, &c, are re- 
 peated and repeated until one is weary of the sight. Indeed, I 
 cannot conceive that the artist himself is entitled to so much 
 
MUSEUM OP NATURAL HISTORY. 155 
 
 credit for success in these oft-repeated subjects ; for he has 
 copies before him from which, by selection and combination, he 
 may make an excellent picture without any originality of genius. 
 There is also so much quaintness and fiction in many of these 
 designs, that one cannot but be disgusted. The Holy Family, for 
 instance, is generally painted with a little boy, designed for John 
 the Baptist ; but how he became a member of the family of 
 Joseph it is difficult to determine. The Virgin is often gorgeously 
 attired ; sometimes represented as a queen ; and, in a great ma- 
 jority of cases, whether in births, or crucifixions, or circumcisions 
 (for there are a number of these latter), there are numerous celes- 
 tial beings, in the form of cherubs, peeping through the clouds, 
 and bearing wreaths and crowns. In addition to the paintings in 
 these apartments there are most costly and splendid mosaic tables, 
 elegant clocks and cabinets, and, finally, the Venus of Canova al- 
 ready mentioned. 
 
 Adjoining the Pitti palace is the Museum of Natural History. 
 This has a most splendid collection of anatomical preparations in 
 wax. Dr. Johnson says, in his work on Change of Air, &c, that 
 although these preparations are not "particularly correct," they 
 are sufficiently so for general scientific purposes. They are not 
 so much, however, a collection of the system diseased as of all 
 parts of the healthy subject, in every possible aspect of dissection, 
 and at every possible age, before and after birth. The spongy 
 and thick-leafed plants also, that cannot be preserved, are here all 
 formed in wax ; and, in addition to this, and what excels all the 
 rest, is the representation of the plague, which is so perfect and 
 so horrible, that the sensation produced by looking at it is exces- 
 sively painful. Here are dead bodies in all the different stages 
 of putrefaction, with rats, and bugs, and other vermin rioting upon 
 the unburied carcasses, It is horribly true to the life, or rather, I 
 should say, to the death. There is also a fine and extensive col- 
 lection of stuffed birds, beasts, and reptiles, with an equally fine 
 cabinet of minerals and petrifactions. 
 
 The Academy of the Fine Arts, in an opposite part of the city, 
 is interesting, especially as it shows the history of the art of paint- 
 ing, from its rude character in the twelfth century up to the pres- 
 ent time. To this collection each of the proteges of government, 
 who are supported at Rome at the public expense, are obliged to 
 

 156 ITALY. 
 
 furnish a picture for each of the two years they are thus supported. 
 The fine arts are cultivated in Tuscany at the expense of common 
 education and general comfort ; nay, I may say, at the expense of 
 food for the poor. The government can do very little for common 
 schools or colleges even, but it can send every promising young 
 artist to Rome, to be educated two years at the public expense, 
 and it can build a royal chapel which costs millions. 
 
 In the same building with the Academy of Arts is the manufac- 
 ture of pietra dura, or hard stone. It is a mosaic, which, instead 
 of being wrought and shaded with painted glass, like ordinary 
 mosaics, is wrought in a tablet of slate or marble, with precious 
 stones of the natural colour ; the only manufacture of the kind, 
 it is said, in the world ; and, like that of the Royal Gobelin tapes- 
 try in Paris, it is wholly in the hands of the sovereign, and the 
 artists are allowed to work for no one else. This seems a hard 
 case too, for the poor fellows only receive, we were informed, a 
 half a crown a day for labouring at one of the most extraordinary 
 arts in the world, without the most distant hope of promotion, or 
 even the slightest public reputation. So much for absolute au- 
 thority. This is state slavery. 
 
 The great difficulty in this work is to match the stones with 
 the requisite shades. To this end all the variegated colours of 
 * the most beautiful stones and gems are procured and arranged for 
 the use of the artist. To give some idea of the expense of this 
 kind of manufacture ; one table, which was pointed out to us, and 
 which was nearly finished for the altar of the royal chapel, had 
 employed twelve persons for eight years, and would cost twenty 
 thousand crowns. Indeed, a great portion of the industry of this 
 manufacture is now, and has been for many years, devoted to this 
 chapel, generally called the Chapel of the Medici. Hence, in 
 this connexion, it may be in place to speak of this chapel. It is 
 designed not so much for a place of worship as for a public mon- 
 ument. It was commenced at the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century, and is still far from being completed. Three hundred 
 workmen were at one time employed upon it. It is an octagon 
 figure, and is literally encased with marble and precious stones, 
 and much of the lower part of the walls is covered with the Flor- 
 entine mosaic. It is thus that for mere purposes of pride and 
 show princes empoverish their subjects, and so exhaust the re- 
 
 j 
 
CHURCHES OF FLORENCE. 157 
 
 sources of the country, that they have no means of alleviating the 
 sufferings or enlightening the ignorance of their subjects. 
 
 But I hasten to glance at one or two other subjects, and leave 
 Florence, for I feel that I have delayed here already too long. 
 The Cathedral, or Duomo, a majestic building, was finished in 1445, 
 , said to be four hundred and twenty-six Paris feet in length. The 
 building is cased externally by white and black polished marble, 
 and beside it is a Campinile, or tower of a quadrangular form, two 
 hundred and eighty Paris feet in height, of black and red polished 
 marble. It is counted the finest in Italy, but to me both edifices 
 have a very quaint appearance ; nevertheless, they are magnifi- 
 cent. The Baptistry, in the same group, corresponds with the 
 Duomo and the Campinile, and is covered with a dome. The 
 doors are of bronze, and are so fine that Michael Angelo said 
 " they deserved to have been the gates of paradise." 
 
 The Chiesa di St. Croce, or Church of the Holy Cross, is partic- 
 ularly interesting for the tombs of the great men who are buried in 
 it. First and foremost is that of Michael Angelo himself, one of 
 the sublimest geniuses of his or any age, and a noble champion for 
 the independence of his country. He died at Rome in 1563, m 
 the eighty-ninth year of his age, but his body was removed to 
 Florence and buried here. Here also is the tomb of Alfieri, the 
 great Italian tragedian, who left his native country, Piedmont, in 
 disgust at the arbitrary character of the government, and went to 
 Florence to live and die ; this is by Canova. Here also is the 
 tomb of Machiavelli, whose memory is honoured, although all 
 kinds of opprobium have been heaped upon him, until Machiavel- 
 lian policy has come to be an epithet of proverbial reproach.* 
 Here, too, is a monument of Galileo, the great astronomer, who 
 was at first buried in unconsecrated ground because a supersti- 
 tious age thought his philosophical discoveries savoured of heresy ! 
 And here is a monument of Dante, the father of Italian poetry and 
 the great advocate of Italian liberty, All these, and many others 
 which I cannot mention, have splendid monuments, some of them 
 
 * Machiavelli distinguished himself more than once in opposition to the Medicean tyr- 
 anny. This brought him to the torture in one instance, and left him to live unpatronised 
 and die in poverty ; and yet, in his work called " The Prince," he is accused of favour- 
 ing tyranny, and reducing it to a diabolical science ! Grant it. But why did he write it ? 
 Was it not for reasons and for purposes that more properly show his abhorrence of tyranny 
 rather than his approbation of it ? 
 
 14 
 
158 ITALY. 
 
 designed by the first masters. It is a rich feast to visit such a 
 church as this ; there is something in the association with the 
 mighty dead, whose names have sounded over the earth, and 
 whose immortal genius has contributed to elevate the human 
 race, that far excels any other monuments, however splendid. 
 It is but their ashes that slumber here, we grant ; but there is 
 a propriety in honouring them, and treating their remains with 
 respect. Who can gaze upon the tombs of such men, whatever 
 may be the character of the mausoleum itself, without strong 
 emotions ? It is this feeling of our nature which, carried to ex- 
 cess, has led to that superstitious and idolatrous veneration for 
 relics and images so common in Catholic countries ; and it is 
 the excessive cultivation of this principle that makes the Italians 
 more tenacious than perhaps any other people of the remains and 
 ashes of their great men. Although, in their lifetime, their Pe- 
 trarchs, and Dantes, and Boccaccios, and Machiavellis, and Gali- 
 leos were persecuted, banished, and tortured, yet the tyranny, 
 the caprice, or the bigotry which led to this passes away with the 
 age, and the immortal geniuses that have shone forth in their works 
 brighten after their death, until rival cities, who vied with each 
 other in discarding the living, are ready to claim the honour of 
 affording a resting-place for the dead, and of enforcing that claim, 
 as they have sometimes done, even at the expense of -a national 
 war. Abused, however, as this is — as what law of our nature 
 may not be abused ? — still, to a certain extent, this veneration for 
 whatever has been associated with such minds, and especially for 
 their mortal remains, is in accordance with the best feelings of 
 our nature, and has a tendency both to improve the heart and to 
 encourage genius. 
 
 During our stay at Florence I made such inquiries as time and 
 circumstances would permit into the state of education in Tus- 
 cany, and I am sorry to be able to make but a poor report for this 
 important cause in this Athens of Italy. Some twelve or fifteen 
 years since the Lancasterian mode of instruction was introduced 
 here by some of the Tuscan nobility ; it has not advanced, I be- 
 lieve, beyond a school or two in some of the principal cities. In 
 Florence there is one school of about two hundred boys. This is 
 particularly patronised by a young nobleman, the Marquis Tor- 
 rigiani. He is a commendable instance of a young nobleman's de- 
 
EDUCATION IN FLORENCE. 159 
 
 voting himself assiduously to the cause of education in a country 
 where the government looks on with apathy, and sometimes with 
 jealousy ; where but comparatively few of the men of standing 
 and ability are active, and where the ignorance and degradation 
 of the poor imperiously claim commiseration and aid. I visited 
 this Florentine school, and met the marquis there, encouraging by 
 his presence both teachers and pupils. The school is exercised 
 in reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing, and music. On my ex- 
 pressing surprise that geography was not taught, I was given 
 to understand that it was feared, by giving these boys an extensive 
 knowledge of the world, their ambition might be excited to raise 
 them above their station ! ! What an argument ! The very es- 
 sence of aristocracy, legitimate and hereditary * I took it to be 
 the objection, not of those who particularly patronised the school, 
 but of the government ; the government, it is true, was not ?ia?ned, 
 for the Italians speak with great caution on any subject that re- 
 lates to government influence, especially to strangers .f 
 
 The boys of this school were bright, active-looking children, 
 more so, I think, than the same number, promiscuously collected, 
 from the lowest classes of our great cities. One only leading 
 physical defect was noticed, that of sore eyes ; a very prevailing 
 disease in Florence. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 * The principle of society here, generally, seems to be, that every one must keep hia 
 own level. An illustration of this was noticed in a tavern between Florence and Pisa, 
 where a man told us that he had been garcon (waiter) in that hotel forty years. This, 
 with us, would be a phenomenon. 
 
 t Their names, in connexion with their observations, have sometimes been published 
 by travellers, and these have been reported to the authorities at home, who have forth- 
 with put them under the espionage of the police. There are many government spies and 
 informers ; and many a man watches his words and guards his breath, lest the feelings 
 of the heart should flow out at his lips. It is said Lady Morgan's work on Italy, in which 
 she has certainly made very free use of names and personalities, operated most cruelly 
 against the interest and personal liberty of numbers with whom she had been intimate. 
 
160 
 
 To Professor Holdkh of the Wesleyan University. 
 
 Florence, January 16, 183& 
 
 My dear Sir, 
 I am now, as you see by the date, at the capital of Tuscany, 
 and in the celebrated city of the fine arts — in Italy. We arrived 
 here one we-ek since, have seen most that is worth seeing, and 
 have made our arrangements to leave on Tuesday next, 19th inst., 
 for Pisa ; shall probably go thence to Leghorn, near by Pisa, and 
 either embark on board a steamboat for Naples,, or go on by land ? 
 according to the accommodations we meet with. The winter has 
 been quite severe for Italy, and we feel anxious to get south as 
 soon as we may ; we can then take our course up the peninsula 
 leisurely, and as the season advances. I begin already to feel 
 weary of my peregrinations, and look forward to the time when I 
 may return to my own native land. I have seen nothing that will 
 compare with America for a comfortable residence. I see much 
 of splendour, much of superstition, much of art • and, at the 
 same time, much of poverty and of sin. Poor, wretched Italy I 
 She may have a blue sky, a fruitful soil, elegant paintings, and 
 unrivalled statuary ; but she has a feeble heart,, a stinted intel- 
 lect, a despotic government, a miserable peasantry, and a corrupt 
 religion. When and how shall she arise from her degradation ? 
 Some few streaks appear in her dark horizon, and one of the 
 brightest is the commencement of educating the indigent children. 
 I have this day visited a school on the Lancasterian plan, under 
 the patronage of a young Florentine nobleman, the Marquis Tor- 
 rigiani, who has travelled in America, and become well acquainted 
 with our language and our institutions, and has imbibed liberal 
 and philanthropic views, and is now devoting his time to the youth 
 of his country. He has also been active with others in getting 
 up two infant schools in Florence, for one of which they have 
 obtained a grant of a public room from government.* This insti- 
 tution of infant schools is a new thing for Tuscany. It was com- 
 menced in Pisa by an excellent lady from Geneva, whose acquaint- 
 ance I have had the pleasure of making. She commenced a school 
 
 * The leading patron of the infant schools in Florence is another young nobleman, 
 Count , who, it is said, has made himself rather unpopular at court by his ac- 
 tivity in* this cause. 
 
EDUCATION IN FLORENCE. 161 
 
 of six poor children in Pisa, in January, 1833, with no other re- 
 sources than sixty Tuscan crowns, the gift of a generous foreigner, 
 with which she hired a room, and purchased a little furniture, and 
 threw herself upon the enterprise. With the aid of donations from 
 foreigners mostly, assisted and sustained by a Mr. Frassi, who was 
 with her from the first, and who has done and sacrificed much in 
 the cause, she persevered and won upon the prejudices and op- 
 position of the people and of the government so far, that, in the 
 autumn of 1834, an association had been formed, and money 
 pledged sufficient to support the school, and a commodious build- 
 ing was obtained from government for its accommodation. The 
 school is now very flourishing, and is divided into three divisions 
 — one for children between two and four, one for those between 
 four and six, and a primary school for those above six. The 
 grand-duke himself condescended to visit it, and expressed great 
 satisfaction at the progress of the children, &c. ; but observed 
 that it would be necessary to watch it closely, for, said he, " We 
 must not forget that this was introduced among us by heretics ! !" 
 Only think of a sovereign who not only will do nothing, or next 
 to nothing, to educate the children of his subjects, but looks upon 
 the attempts of others to do this with suspicion ! Poor, contempt- 
 ible policy ! and that, too, in the nineteenth century, and in the 
 country of Dante, and Tasso, and Petrarch, and Boccaccio, and 
 Americus Vespucius of more modern days, and in the land 
 where the ancient Latin historians and poets wrote and sung. 
 Indeed, this poor satellite of Austria, who is herself but a second- 
 ary of that northern autocrat that threatens " to oppose a will of 
 iron to the march of liberal principles," finds enough to do to keep 
 his subjects in submission, and watch with the utmost vigilance 
 and jealousy all foreigners. I doubt, in fact, whether foreigners 
 would be admitted here at all if the Italians could live well with- 
 out them. But if all foreign expenditures should be withdrawn 
 from Italy, they would find their poverty insupportable. As it is, 
 with millions of foreign money distributed among them yearly, 
 they have wretchedness and pauperism in abundance ; . and it must 
 all be owing to the government and to. their religion. The valley 
 of the Arno is a second paradise. Its grapes, and its citrons, and 
 its olives, its corn, and its wine, and its oil, are sufficient, one 
 would think, to cheer every hearty and render a far more numerous 
 population contented and happy.. As it is, the streets abound with 
 >4 X 
 
162 ITALY. 
 
 beggars, and the residences of thousands are squalid and miser- 
 able.* 
 
 The present grand-duke, who, as you know, is of the house of 
 Austria, is said to be a very good sort of man, although extremely 
 bigoted and superstitious. An instance of his bigotry I have al- 
 ready given you in his suspicion of the schools, and I might have 
 added, that, at first, his suspicion was so operative, that he sent 
 his soldiers, in more than one instance, and shut up the schools. 
 A case of his superstition I will now give. You must know a 
 new saint has, within a few years, been discovered in Italy. It 
 is a damsel of the time of the Emperor Domitian, who was mar- 
 tyred at about the age of fifteen, of whom there is a long story 
 which I cannot now repeat ; but which, however, must be correct, 
 because, after the bones were discovered, the history was revealed 
 in the visions of the night, and has been published for the edifi- 
 cation of all good Catholics. This saint has done great marvels ; 
 and, among the rest, in answer to the prayers and the vows of the 
 grand-duke, raised up his sick child from a most dangerous ill- 
 ness ; whereupon the duke has performed a procession in her hon- 
 our, and made, I am informed, some valuable presents to her shrine. 
 
 The only guarantee the people have for their life, liberty, or 
 property, is the will of a single individual. I can hardly realize 
 it when I reflect that I am in a land where the caprice, or igno- 
 rance, or misinformation of one individual might put me beyond 
 the reach or knowledge of countrymen or friends ; and the spies 
 of that individual are continually looking after us. We were ex- 
 amined when we entered the duchy, we were examined when we en- 
 tered the city, and the very gate and hour of our entry were mat- 
 ters of record. We had our passports taken from us, and tempo- 
 rary ones sent in their stead ; we reclaimed them, and the place 
 of our exit must be specified, and we can leave in no other way. 
 We have, since that, stayed over three days, and we must apply to 
 the police again, for any vise over three days' standing will not an- 
 swer for a permit to depart. Thus, when we come, while we 
 stay, and when we go, we are watched with a sleepless vigilance, 
 and kept under a most offensive surveillance. Nay, in some 
 cities where we have been, the police-officers or gendarmes have 
 followed us from place to place when we have been visiting the 
 
 * Tuscany was once much more populous than at present. The city of Pisa, it is 
 said, once had a population of 200,000, now it has 18,000. 
 
GREENOUGH's STATUE OF WASHINGTON. 163 
 
 churches or other public sights. Where there is so mucli fear 
 there must be guilt. And what security have this people that the 
 present duke, who, in his way, and for one of the old divine-le- 
 gitimacy school, is a very good sort of man, will not be succeeded 
 by an unprincipled tyrant ? And if so, what can save them from 
 oppression ? Nothing but the spirit of the age, and, thanks to an 
 overruling Providence, that is secretly working wonders, and 
 the more so from foreign influence. The thousands from Eng- 
 land and America are disseminating sentiments and feelings that 
 have already questioned, in language that made thrones tremble, 
 the jure-divino of kings and tyrants, and the march of these sen- 
 timents is irresistible. They may throw around their governments 
 and territories their political cordon sanitaire as much and as 
 strictly as they please ; light is a subtile fluid, and it will circulate ; 
 and happy will it be for these absolutists, great and small, if they 
 foresee the evil, and hide themselves by voluntarily adopting those 
 meliorations that the spirit of the age requires before that spirit 
 clamorously and violently seizes, in the whirlpool of a bloody 
 revolution, what has been denied to the calm remonstrances of en- 
 lightened reason. 
 
 Our countryman, Mr. Greenough, is proceeding rather slowly 
 with the statue of Washington which government has ordered for 
 the rotunda of the capitol, owing, as he informed me, to his not hav- 
 ing had the preparations necessary to complete the work furnished 
 him. These preparations, however, have now been made ; the 
 plaster mould is finished, and the cast in plaster will be completed 
 in about a fortnight. It may, however, be two years before the 
 statue is complete. Doubtless it will do the artist and the nation 
 honour. Mr. G. is well spoken of here as an artist. 
 
 Affectionately yours, 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 We left Florence on the 19th of January, and arrived at Pisa 
 on the 20th. Our route was down the valley of the Arno, in which 
 we saw nothing worthy of journalizing in detail. The ancient 
 relics of feudal castles, as usual, in Italy and most of Europe, were 
 
1 64 ITALY. 
 
 scattered along the way. The valley is rich, and highly culti- 
 vated ; indeed, the whole of Tuscany is like a garden. The or- 
 chards and vineyards are abundant and beautiful. I had occasion 
 to remark that the vineyards of France did not come up to my 
 expectations ; but I cannot say this of Italy. The vines are gen- 
 erally trained on trees planted at convenient distances for the 
 purpose, and they run from tree to tree in continued and luxuriant 
 garlands. The entire country, in fact, is a vineyard; and be- 
 tween the ranges of vines, every foot of land is economically 
 cultivated, and mostly by the spade. The plough is seldom used 
 (and, in fact, the Tuscan plough is an awkward thing, make the 
 best of it) ; even their extensive wheat-crops spring out of ridges 
 thrown up by the spade. 
 
 The only drawback upon the pleasure of the ride from Flor- 
 ence was the illness of Mrs. F., which had been more or less 
 afflicting for several days before we left, and which now increased 
 every hour. When we arrived at that best of traveller's homes in 
 all Italy, the Hotel de V Hussar d, kept by Senior Pevarada, she 
 was obliged to call in a physician and take to her bed. We 
 were gratified, however, to learn from the physician that the 
 disorder was only the chicken-pox, enraged and aggravated by ex- 
 posures in the cold galleries of Florence just at the time when 
 nature, in its regular course, was making an effort to throw the 
 disease to the surface. Connected with this sickness, however, 
 was another painful circumstance. Ever since we left Paris 
 there had been five of us, all Americans, in company, by which 
 we had been able to form a society of our own, and almost forget, 
 at times, that we were in a land of strangers ; now, however, our 
 company, unwilling to be detained, deemed it necessary to leave us. 
 Their departure, for the moment, oppressed me with an indescri- 
 bable sense of loneliness. To be left with a sick companion in a 
 land of strangers, whose language I did not understand, far from 
 my country and friends, in the hands of a strange landlord, a 
 strange nurse, and a strange physician ; all these considerations 
 swept over me like the gloom of the grave ; and could I have 
 foreseen my own sickness also, the intensity of the feeling would 
 doubtless have been greatly increased ; for, immediately upon Mrs. 
 F.'s convalescence, I was taken ill with a severe, and, for a time, 
 painful attack of local inflammation, by occasion of which illness, 
 
pisa. 165 
 
 in addition to that of Mrs. F., we were detained four weeks in Pisa, 
 a great part of which was a season of mental solicitude and bod- 
 ily suffering. But a kind Providence restored us, and, what is 
 more, raised us up friends when most we needed them. The 
 reader will excuse this allusion to our personal affairs, which is 
 made with a belief that, if he has followed us thus far, he will not 
 object to sympathize a little with our afflictions ; and, at any rate, 
 this will give me an opportunity of bearing testimony, as becomes 
 me, to the kindness of Mr. and Mrs. Hoadley, of New-York, who 
 were then in Pisa for her health, and of Mr. Laughton, their trav- 
 elling companion, and an adopted American citizen, in whose 
 sympathy and kind attentions we daily shared during our stay ; 
 as also in favour of several English and Italians, to whom we had 
 introductions, and who were unexpectedly kind and attentive ; 
 our landlord also, Mr. Pevarada, and his domestics, were uncom- 
 monly kind and attentive. We found more comforts than at any 
 other hotel on the Continent; everything we needed was kindly 
 and speedily furnished, and the whole account was closed with a 
 very moderate charge. For eight days' detention and sickness at 
 the Ship Hotel in Dover, England, we paid nearly as much as for 
 four weeks at the Albergo delV Ussero of Senior Pevarada. I 
 can recommend all travellers visiting Pisa to call upon mine host 
 of the Hussar. In addition to keeping, as almost all travellers 
 acknowledge, and as accords with my own experience, all things 
 considered, the most comfortable hotel in Italy, he acts as banker 
 for all the banking and exchange business of Pisa, on the most 
 honourable terms. 
 
 On the history of Pisa I have said what may be necessary in a 
 work of this kind, in the sketches of Italian history with which 
 this part of my journal has been introduced. Suffice it to say 
 now, it is greatly fallen from its former opulence, population, and 
 strength. It is an ancient city. It is reported to have been built 
 soon after the siege of Troy, and was certainly a place of some 
 note early in the history of Rome ; and although, in the days of its 
 independence and glory, it contained two hundred thousand in- 
 habitants, the number is now reduced to eighteen thousand ; its 
 trade is comparatively nothing, and a great portion of the citizens 
 seem to have little employment. Like many other Italian cities, 
 its chief dependance seems to be upon foreigners who travel 
 
166 ITALY. 
 
 through or transiently reside here, and especially the English. 
 I was informed by an intelligent Italian gentleman, -who has trav- 
 elled more extensively in Italy, and has a more extensive personal 
 acquaintance with its general business character than perhaps 
 almost any other man living, that a great portion of the Italian 
 cities, under the existing policy, would be unable to sustain them- 
 selves but for the money spent among them by foreigners. They 
 must otherwise sink into beggary, and the population rapidly waste 
 away. 
 
 As a specimen of what is spent here by strangers, take the fol- 
 lowing fact, given me by Mr. Pevarada, the banker of Pisa, viz., 
 that last year, from the first of October to the last of February, 
 the average foreign draughts through his office alone were four hun- 
 dred and thirteen crowns per day. These draughts must have been 
 almost exclusively for money spent in the country, since commer- 
 cial draughts are almost all executed at Leghorn, the principal place 
 of trade for Tuscany, and even for all this part of Italy. The fact 
 of Leghorn's being but fourteen miles from Pisa, and of its be- 
 ing the chief business place for the country, will also make it the 
 point at which most travellers will negotiate their draughts. This 
 consideration, together with the fact that the London and Paris 
 bankers, from whom travellers usually take their bills of credit, 
 do not generally name Pisa, but insert only the bankers of Flor- 
 ence, Rome, Naples, Venice, Milan, and the other larger cities, 
 will show that Pisa gets but the gleanings of the vintage, the drops 
 of the passing bucket. If, then, Pisa draws sixty-three thousand 
 three hundred and sixty-three crowns during five months, what 
 must be drawn annually in all Italy ? I venture to say, several 
 millions. Now when it is remembered that most of this money 
 is spent by the English, whose liberal, dashing manner of throwing 
 out their change is well known, connected with the fact that every 
 traveller in Italy soon learns, that most of the Italians will get 
 double the worth of their articles, if they can, by asking it, 
 something of an idea may be formed of the portion contributed 
 by foreign capital in support of Italy. The beggars which throng 
 her cities get their greatest harvest from foreigners. They know 
 a foreigner as soon as they see him, and, passing all others, they 
 select him as the object of importunity ; they follow his carriage, 
 they watch round the door of his hotel, they pursue him in the 
 
FOREIGNERS THE CHIEF SUPPORT OF GOVERNMENT. 167 
 
 streets* crying, in the most piteous tones, sono miserabile, signore ! 
 sono multo miserabile ! " I am miserable, sir, I am very misera- 
 ble." And who that sees them can doubt it? These appeals and 
 importunities the stranger cannot well resist.* In short, the trav- 
 eller, and the country is full of them in ordinary seasons, is con- 
 stantly throwing out his money, thus giving direct employment 
 and livelihood to tens of thousands, and indirect aid to all the rest. 
 He supports the custom-house officers, the passport-examiners, 
 the veturinos, the innkeepers and their servants, the gate-senti- 
 nels, the police-officers, and furnishes cash and activity for the 
 limited business of the country. 
 
 The present season, Italy generally, and Pisa especially, suffer 
 seriously in consequence of the nonarrival of the usual number 
 of strangers. This is owing to the cholera the past autumn, and 
 the consequent quarantine and sanitary regulations. Almost all 
 the English stopped short of Italy, some in Belgium and Germa- 
 ny, and many, very many, in France. The whole country, in 
 consequence, feels the effect ; and I have been informed that the 
 government of Rome has found it necessary to double the num- 
 ber employed on the various public works, to prevent suffering 
 and death, or the increase of thefts and robberies occasioned by 
 the pressure of want. But the government could not sustain itself 
 long if this supply of foreign patronage were cut off. Thus in- 
 terest clashes with interest. If the pope and the cardinals mean 
 to maintain their religious supremacy, they must not suffer so 
 much Protestant and liberal breath to be exhaled in their atmo- 
 sphere ; but if they exclude these, they will be thrown upon the 
 other painful alternative. There is no doubt which policy, there- 
 fore, will prevail. The powers that be think the poison will not 
 work in their day, at least not seriously, much less fatally ; hence 
 they will keep open the avenues by which they receive their daily 
 bread, and leave the several religious and political results to be 
 provided for by their descendants. This the priesthood can do 
 the more readily, as they have few ties to bind them to posterity. 
 They are barren and solitary trees, that fatten on the soil in their 
 generation, and leave no shoots behind (at least none that are rec- 
 
 * On one occasion, being pressed by two of these beggars, I directed them to a pair of 
 full-fed priests that happened to be passing. "Ah prete ! prete !" they exclaimed, and 
 immediately turned away. 
 
168 ITALY. 
 
 ognised by family ties) to subsist on the moisture that may be 
 left. They have every prospect of an increase of foreigners in- 
 stead of a diminution. England will doubtless continue to sup- 
 ply her quota, and America is increasing her Italian envoys annu- 
 ally. This year, since the first of December, more than double 
 the number of Americans have entered their names in the stran- 
 ger's book in the hotel of the Hussar, in Pisa, to that of all oth- 
 ers. Indeed, the landlord said, but for his American company, he 
 should be almost destitute of patronage the present season. The 
 Americans, having crossed the Atlantic with a view of visiting 
 Italy, were not to be deterred from their object, although it was 
 late before they were permitted to pass ; they entered the barriers 
 as soon as they were passable, preferring a winter's journey, either 
 by sea from Marseilles, or over the Alps and Apennines by land, 
 to the relinquishment of their object. 
 
 Pisa is beautifully located on each side the Arno, which is 
 crossed in the city by three fine bridges. The river sweeps round 
 through the city in the form of a crescent, from east to west near- 
 ly. This makes the Lung' Arno, or street on the right bank of 
 the Arno, which is the principal street in the city, a convex mirror, 
 gathering in and concentrating, through the whole day, the rays 
 of the sun. On this side, therefore, in a sunny day, you have, 
 even in winter, almost a summer heat, while, perhaps, -on the op- 
 posite side the thermometer may be considerably below the freez- 
 ing point. This, together with the fact of the city's being very 
 much defended from the tramontane winds by the neighbouring 
 mountains, is what has given to Pisa the credit of a fine winter 
 residence for invalids. But the poor consumptive has to keep in 
 the focus, or at least within the perimeter of his concave lens on 
 a winter's day, or he will find the sudden transition from summer 
 to winter as pernicious as the mountain wind of Florence. On 
 the one side you need a parasol to defend off the sun, and on the 
 other you require a cloak lined with flannel. This leads to the 
 singular exhibition, frequently, of a parasol spread over a thick 
 winter mantle. 
 
 Pisa is of more cleanly appearance than almost any other city 
 in Italy we have visited. Its principal works of art interesting to 
 strangers are all comprised in a very small compass, consisting of 
 the Duomo, or Cathedral, and its contents, the Baptistry, the Lean- 
 
PUBLIC EDIFICES Op PISA. 169 
 
 ing Campanile, and the Campo Santo. These are all in one clus- 
 ter, and are so situated as to be taken in at one view. The Du- 
 omo was built principally of the spoils of the Saracens of Palermo, 
 taken in the expedition of 1063. The columns, of which there are 
 seventy-four in the interior of the church, of different materials, 
 and different styles, and unequal lengths, and yet so arranged by 
 the architect that the inequality is not noticed as a deformity, were 
 all brought from Palermo. Many elegant marbles adorn the edi- 
 fice, besides the verde antique, lapis lazuli, bronze gilt, and por- 
 phyry, &c, which adorn the twelve altars, all of which were built 
 after the designs of Michael Angelo. The church contains also 
 some beautiful paintings. The external walls are adorned with 
 various marbles and columns ; the front, especially, has six mag- 
 nificent columns of Grecian marble, oriental granite, and porphyry. 
 The style is singular. It is a mixture of Grecian and Arabic, 
 and the splendid ancient materials are so mingled in with each 
 other, although differing among themselves both in style, mate- 
 rial, and magnitude, and so contrasted with the modern materials, 
 which are again peculiar from all the others, that you feel amused 
 as you gaze upon it ; and yet the incongruity is not ludicrous, but, 
 on the contrary, you are charmed to see with what skill this vari- 
 ety is blended and harmonized. 
 
 The Baptistry is an octagonal edifice, of white marble,- built in 
 the twelfth century, at which period it is said Pisa was so popu- 
 lous that one florin from each citizen built it. 
 
 The Campanile is the celebrated leaning tower of which almost 
 every one has read. This also was built in the twelfth century. 
 It is circular, one hundred and ninety feet high, and leans thirteen 
 feet from a perpendicular position. This is undoubtedly occa- 
 sioned by the settling of the foundation on one side, although no 
 record of the fact is preserved, and some have supposed that it 
 might have been by design. It is a beautiful tower, divided into 
 eight stories, and adorned on the outside in the successive stories 
 with two hundred and seven columns of granite and marbles, 
 connected together by intervening arches. The ascent on the in- 
 terior is not difficult to a person in health ; but to me, who under- 
 took it while yet feeble with my late sickness, it was very tedious, 
 notwithstanding I was carried by friends a part of the distance. 
 In this case I fell into the temptation that many invalids fall into 
 15 Y 
 
1 70 ITALY o 
 
 in Italy, that of gratifying curiosity at an expense of labour that 
 the system could not easily endure.* 
 
 The Campo Santo, or Cemetery, is a most singular affair. The 
 Crusaders, in their veneration for the Holy Land, brought home 
 from Jerusalem a quantity of earth from Mount Calvary. This 
 was holy dust, and peculiarly efficacious and appropriate for pur- 
 poses of sepulture. Here, therefore, it was deposited, and around 
 it was built a rectangular structure, with sixty-two Gothic arcades, 
 open in the interior of the rectangle, and presenting exteriorly a 
 dead wall. These arcades are covered in the walls with frescoes 
 of the fourteenth century, and are well stored with sarcophagi, tab- 
 lets, and various monuments, with their appropriate inscriptions. 
 
 In the other parts of this ancient city, although there are some 
 things worth the traveller's notice, if he have time to attend to 
 them, yet there is little that is deemed sufficiently important to 
 detain the reader at this time. There are one or two features in 
 the edifices generally which are worth noticing, as indicative 
 of the spirit of the age in which these buildings were erected; 
 these, however, are not peculiar to Pisa, but are common to most 
 of the Italian cities, and are the relics of that period when " might 
 gave right" — of those rough and troublous times when every man 
 felt the necessity of self-defence, not only against robbers, but 
 personal enemies. One of these features is, that all the houses, 
 especially the more ancient, are strongly barricaded with iron ; 
 all the windows of the lower story, and sometimes of the higher, 
 are defended by strong iron grates. My first impression on en- 
 tering these cities was, that they were full of prisons. When I 
 saw they were too numerous for this supposition, I then concluded 
 that the inhabitants must be extremely vicious, and that no dwel- 
 ling was safe from plunder without being thus guarded. This, 
 however, I find, is not true. I doubt whether there is any part of 
 the world where there is less danger from personal violence, or 
 from thefts and robberies, than the northern and middle parts of 
 Italy. I never travelled with my property and person so much 
 exposed, by night and by day, as since I have been in this coun- 
 try ; and everything I have seen has convinced me of the gen- 
 
 * Possibly it was owing in part to this that my legs were for months afterward subject 
 to a peculiar numbness and dull sensation of internal pain, which complaint was not a 
 Kttle embarrassing in my subsequent sight-seeing. 
 
A CAMEL RIDE. 171 
 
 eral honesty of the people. In one sense they are not honest ; 
 in all matters of trade they will cheat you if they can. This 
 seems to be no violation of their moral code ; but I wish every 
 country was as free from theft and robbery. This guarding and 
 barricading of the houses, therefore, is rather the remains of a 
 rougher age, and what was introduced by necessity seems to be 
 retained by habit and fashion. The same may be said of the 
 towers which shoot up all over the city, from a great portion of 
 the principal dwellings, some of them still remaining entire, but 
 many levelled to the roof, showing only the foundation of what 
 they were. 
 
 There are baths in the neighbourhood of Pisa, supposed to be 
 on the same site with baths of Pisa mentioned by ancient Roman 
 writers. There is also a noble aqueduct, conducting on arches a 
 supply of most excellent water into the city, from four miles' dis- 
 tance. The grand-duke, who resides here two or three months in 
 the winter, has a large farm or plantation in the neigbourhood, 
 called the Cascina. Here camels are bred, and employed in car- 
 rying burdens ; the first, it is said, that have been bred in Europe. 
 Formerly, writers have described the number as amounting to 
 three hundred ; we saw but about fifty. That I might enter more 
 fully in my associations into the oriental and patriarchal habits, I 
 begged the privilege of one of the workmen to permit me to mount 
 one of them. He ordered the animal to kneel ; this he did, not, 
 however, without some reluctance, by which I was reminded of 
 Abraham's servant, who made his camels to kneel by the well of 
 Padanaram. The fact is, these animals are so high, they are all 
 taught to kneel to receive their burdens ; they get down first upon 
 their knees, and then upon their hams. Indeed, they seem to 
 have knees before and behind, and both pairs of legs are doubled up 
 under their bodies, and this is the position in which they always 
 rest when they recline for that purpose. When I mounted the 
 animal I was directed to sit close by the upright part of the frame- 
 work or saddle that receives the burden, and hold firm, the 
 necessity of which I soon felt ; for, as the camel raised himself 
 one end at a time, and that, too, by rather a sudden jerk, I was 
 wellnigh being pitched first over his head, and then backward. 
 Alter a turn or two, he kneeled again with the same sudden pitch, 
 and I dismounted. They are extremely slow and awkward in 
 
172 ITALY. 
 
 their movements, and would never have been used for burden- 
 bearers and travelling caravans, I think, but from necessity. 
 Their feet are large and soft, like a bag of sand ; this makes them 
 suited to travel sandy deserts, where the hard-hoofed animals could 
 not travel ; but I should think it would be utterly impossible for 
 them to travel in a rough, stony country, 
 
 I must not leave Pisa without noticing its ancient and celebrated 
 university. This institution was among the earliest of Tuscany, 
 and long sustained a high reputation ; although it has greatly de- 
 clined from its original eminence and popularity, yet it still has 
 about eight hundred students, and perhaps forty professors. There 
 are departments of theology, law, medicine, literature, and sci- 
 ence. I was introduced to one of the professors, Professor Foggi, 
 of the department of mathematics, who was remarkably courteous 
 and attentive. He accompanied me to the principal university 
 edifice, which is built, according to the common form of all these 
 institutions in Catholic countries, around a quadrilateral court, 
 with the entire interior surrounded by an open arcade, forming a 
 spacious portico both on the lower and upper floor. The building 
 is old, damp, and gloomy ; and, like all other public places in Italy, 
 destitute of fire. The professor mourned over their poor building, 
 and lamented that their funds, diminished as they had been by 
 their various revolutions, would not enable them to rebuild. The 
 rooms, he said, were gloomy, and, by their character and sombre 
 appearance, served to depress the spirits of the best men. I sug- 
 gested to him that an application to the government might perhaps 
 be successful ; he shook his head. I told him I thought it would 
 be better to take some of the money that was being expended on 
 the royal chapel at Florence, and lay it out for a new university 
 edifice. " Ah, but that," he said, " was a national monument, 
 which it would be much to the honour of the nation to complete." 
 How unfortunate must be that country,, when princely incomes 
 are laid out upon physical monuments, and the cause of education 
 languishes for the want of support !* As we walked round the 
 portico of the court, " This portico," said the professor, " was 
 the stable for the French cavalry at the time they invaded Italy ; 
 I have seen it full of their horses. Poor Italy !" continued the 
 
 * The grand-duke, however, pays the professors mostly out of the public chest. Theij 
 salary is each about five hundred dollars annually. 
 
UNIVERSITY OF PISA. 173 
 
 professor, and I never shall forget the feeling manner in which he 
 expressed himself, " poor Italy ! you do not see her as she was. 
 The inhabitants were once buoyant and happy, full of joy and 
 music ; but they have been robbed, and plundered, and trodden 
 down, until they are broken and dispirited." Poor Italy surely. 
 She suffered, doubtless, under the pressure of the French despo- 
 tism, and especially in consequence of the repeated wars grow- 
 ing out of that invasion and conquest ; but alas ! while there was 
 some life and stirring energy in the despotism of France, which 
 would, in time, I doubt not, if it had continued, have raised and 
 reanimated the country, the present leaden Gothic despotism 
 presses upon the people like a suffocating incubus, curdling the 
 blood and paralyzing the system. But to return to the University. 
 It has a library of about forty thousand volumes ; and I was 
 gratified to see among them the works of the most eminent reform- 
 ers, as well as those of Catholic authors. They have also a very 
 good museum of natural history, both in the mineral and animal 
 kingdoms, very well arranged and kept, and a botanical garden. 
 The library is free, and the lectures, like those of France, are 
 open and free to all who may choose to attend. The intercourse 
 between the students and professors is of a familiar and paternal 
 character, and such as is well calculated to secure mutual affection 
 and confidence. The students go into the lecture-room w r ith their 
 hats on, as in France ; but if a professor goes in while another 
 is lecturing he has to stand uncovered until he obtains leave to 
 put on his hat. I mention this trifling circumstance to show the 
 minuteness, inflexibility, and capriciousness of the rules of these 
 ancient institutions. 
 
 There are seven preparatory schools, answering very nearly 
 to the French pensions, or our higher academies, where the boys 
 are instructed in the more elementary branches ; being obliged, 
 however, a part of the time, to attend upon the lectures of the Uni- 
 versity. These schools are without funds, and charge, if I rightly 
 remember, one hundred crowns annually. Many of the scholars, 
 however, take a canonical dress, and officiate in the service of the 
 cathedral, for which they receive twenty crowns per annum, and 
 thus gain so much assistance towards their education. Not more 
 than perhaps five or six percent, of the number, however, Professor 
 Foggi assured me, ever became priests, it being perfectly optional 
 15 
 
174 ITALY. 
 
 with them afterward to study theology or not. This information 
 explained to me what before was a matter of great surprise, that 
 so many young ecclesiastics should throng the streets of the city. 
 
 I tried to obtain an account of the regulations, &c, of the Uni- 
 versity, but was told they were out of print. 
 
 A great portion of the students who attend this, and, in fact, all 
 the other universities of Italy, are pursuing the study of medicine. 
 In a despotic government but few lawyers are needed. Theology 
 presents a more extended field, but extensive attainments are not 
 necessary for men who seldom preach, which is true of a great 
 portion of the priests, and all of whose other duties are stereotyped 
 for them in the Roman ritual. And as for pursuing an education 
 for mere literary and scientific investigations and improvements, 
 this, compared with other civilized countries, is not so common in 
 Italy. Literature is cramped by the restrictions upon the press. 
 It is also poorly paid, as may well be inferred from the smallness 
 of the professors' salaries, and from the fact that the governments 
 are so limited in territory, that the privileges of a copyright are 
 of little avail. In a ride of one hour in some cases, and of a few 
 hours at farthest, the book that is copyrighted in one sovereignty 
 may be published free of that encumbrance in another. Add to 
 these obstructions the intellectual torpor that must necessarily 
 result from the present social and political condition of the country, 
 and the poverty which oppresses the greater part, and we may 
 readily account for the fact that so few are giving themselves to 
 literature and science. 
 
 Our detention at Pisa disappointed us in our hope and design 
 of being at Rome for the Carnival. We had an epitome of it, 
 however, at Pisa, and quite enough to satisfy us on this head. 
 
 This institution of masquerades, feasting, dancing, frolic, and 
 fun, is one of the many papal observances that have been trans- 
 planted from heathenism into the Christian church. Its principal 
 object seems to be to give the people a satiety of feasting and 
 amusement, that they may be the better prepared to endure the 
 penance of Lent, which immediately follows. And here it may 
 be proper to remark, that the fasts and penances of the papists are 
 admirably contrived for sensual enjoyment. No man who wished 
 to enjoy the most sensual gratification possible in this life would, 
 if he adapted the and to the means, pamper the senses to the fiU 
 
THE CARNIVAL. 175 
 
 continually. He would have his changes and restraints at inter- 
 vals, by which he would court the appetite, and keep alive and in- 
 vigorate his desire and zest for pleasure. It is thus artfully that 
 Romanism has mingled her cup, and meted out her indulgences 
 and prohibitions ; and when to this are joined her ecclesiastical pa- 
 geantry and splendid ritual, a system of religion is formed the 
 best possible to gratify the pleasure-seeking man of the world. 
 In short, Romanism is practically — I will not say a religion merely 
 — but emphatically, the religion of the natural heart ; for in this 
 respect there is nothing to be compared with it. It is true, to say 
 this we must presuppose, what is generally true, that men have 
 consciences that are troubled about sin and its consequences, and 
 that they wish to get rid of those consequences at the same time 
 that they are not denied their earthly pleasures. Romanism 
 promises them the wished-for relief in the wished-for way. Its 
 ceremonies may be tedious from their length and repetition, but 
 they are showy, and impose no great tax upon the attention ; and 
 although its penances and fasts may be frequent, they are so 
 mingled with pleasures that, like the lights and shades of a picture, 
 they cast a delightful charm over the whole. There is much of 
 the cross, but it is a physical cross, exhibited, but not felt ; played 
 with, but not endured. There is something of penance and self- 
 denial, but only enough to wind up the physical machinery, that 
 it may be prepared to start afresh in the race of sensual enjoyment. 
 An important feature in this system is the Carnival. It lasts for 
 a number of days, but becomes more intense until the Tuesday 
 before Ash "Wednesday, which last is the beginning of Lent. 
 Among the other merry-makings on the occasion is a public mas- 
 querade. This takes place in the public street that is used for 
 the course* Here the carriages, and sidewalks, and public 
 squares are filled with masked personages, representing all kinds 
 of characters, and the costumes of all nations, together with a 
 great number of fantasticals, who belong to no race or order. 
 The masks, as well as the costumes, have not only every variety 
 
 * The Course, or Corso, is a public street in most of the principal Continental cities in 
 Europe, where all that are able to keep their carriage go at a given hour to take their 
 fashionable ride. Here extended trains of carnages move round in procession, going to 
 the prescribed termine, and then returning, so that part of the procession is moving in one 
 direction and part in the other, and thus they continually pass and repass each other. 
 The sidewalks are crowded with foot-passengers. 
 
176 ITALY. 
 
 seemingly of complexion and features belonging to our regular 
 race, but every variety also of deformity. The more out of charac- 
 ter they can appear, the better ; and hence a very common device 
 is for the sexes to change costumes. Here are very delicate forms, 
 either dressed as pages, or perhaps as sailors ; and female attire 
 on large, awkward frames, with clumsy gaits and enormous feet, 
 with cigars in their mouths.' There goes a carriage with a com- 
 pany of maskers, taking refreshments of cake and wine, pledging 
 the health of the company as they pass ; the next carriage has a 
 Turk for a footman, and a lady for a postillion. Here is a learned 
 doctor, with his wig and red coat, giving out his oracles ; there is 
 a beggar, yonder a prince. A very common disguise for the 
 poorer class, who, perhaps, can get nothing else, and especially for 
 young females, is a white shirt put on over all the other clothes. 
 Anything, in short, for change and variety. 
 
 The employments, too, are various ; some are making love, 
 some are playing tricks upon each other; and a very common 
 employment, especially for the higher classes, is to pelt each other 
 as they pass with sugarplums, and, what is worse, with little 
 missiles in the form of sugarplums made of lime or plaster. 
 These are not always harmless ; and one who engages in the sport, 
 especially if he be unmasked, must look out for his face and eyes. 
 This childish amusement closes with a grand masquerade ball, 
 in which all who can pay the fee may mingle. 
 
 At Rome, in addition to the other amusements, they have horse- 
 races without riders. This takes place in the Cor so ; the horses 
 are urged on by self-inflicting spurs, which are so fitted that the 
 faster the horse goes the more they urge him forward. Large 
 sails or curtains are stretched across the farther end of the street, 
 which bring up the racers without injuring them, and they are 
 caught by persons standing ready for the purpose. 
 
 On Ash Wednesday a dark curtain falls, and the gayeties and 
 hilarity of the comedy are at an end. A solemn service is per- 
 formed at the church, with the ceremony of putting ashes on the 
 head to indicate man's frailty and mortality. 
 
 Before leaving Pisa I will add that I have been particularly 
 pleased with the Italian gentlemen with whom I have become ac- 
 quainted. They are very courteous and intelligent. It is true, 
 they appear not to be in the habit of inviting strangers to their 
 
177 
 
 "houses to dine or to share in their domestic hospitalities. This, 
 perhaps, in many instances, they are not able to practise on a very 
 extensive scale, but in other respects they show themselves cour- 
 teous to strangers. 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 We left Pisa February 19, and rode over a level country four- 
 teen miles by a crooked road, which ought to have been but ten, 
 to Leghorn, or, as it is called in Italian, Livorno, and found a 
 kind reception and comfortable quarters in the Hotel St. Marc, 
 kept by a Scotchman, Mr. D. Thompson. 
 
 Leghorn, although an ancient port, was nevertheless an incon- 
 siderable village until purchased by Cosmo I., grand-duke of Tus- 
 cany, by exchanging for it the city of Sarsana, and by him made a 
 free port. It is now, perhaps, the most commercial port of Italy, 
 and the best known to our countrymen, because with it we have 
 considerable commerce. There are few objects here to attract 
 the notice of strangers ; but the observing traveller, if he visits 
 this town after seeing other towns in Italy, will be struck to see 
 what a difference circumstances make in the character and appear- 
 ance of a community. In most of the Italian towns you see hun- 
 dreds of idlers moving about the streets and principal places at a 
 snail's pace, or lounging as though life was a burden. You begin 
 to think man is not the same in Italy as elsewhere ; that the cli- 
 mate, or something else, has rendered him physically incapable of 
 spirited exertion and enterprise. But in Leghorn you find him 
 like the man of business in other places : an erect figure, a prompt 
 manner, a lively gait, make you almost believe you are in New- 
 York or Liverpool. Such might all Italy be if her rulers knew 
 their duty, and would. do it. It is true, it might take time to bring 
 her up from her lethargy, but much less time, probably, than most 
 would imagine. The constitution of man has an elasticity about 
 it that soon elevates him if the weights that press him down are 
 removed. Now, it is said, the beggars cannot be induced to 
 work ; and, if employment is furnished to them, they soon grow 
 
 Z 
 
178 ITALY. 
 
 weary of it, and think they can make more money, and make it 
 easier, by begging. But this is the effect of habit and of long deg- 
 radation. Let, however, a general elevation be felt ; let an up- 
 ward impulse be given to the public mind by a proper stimulus, 
 and soon there would be few that would not be ashamed to beg, 
 and few that would not be able and willing to dig. 
 
 Leghorn is supposed to contain eighty thousand inhabitants, 
 and is increasing. They are enlarging the walls for the purpose 
 of taking in all the suburbs, principally as a defence against smug- 
 gling. The city is penetrated by canals in different directions, 
 by means of which the merchandise is brought to the doors of the 
 warehouses. There is in this city an "English factory," or a 
 kind of incorporation of English citizens, of which there are sev- 
 eral in the Mediterranean, with certain priviliges thereunto belong- 
 ing. The English, in fact, next to the Jews, however widely 
 scattered and distantly removed, are the most remarkable for pre- 
 serving their nationalities and attachment to their own usages and 
 clanship. They are contented anywhere but at home ; but, wher- 
 ever they are, they are nothing but Englishmen still. However 
 long they may have resided in the country, they never say we, but 
 ihey y when speaking of the citizens of the country where they re- 
 side. Here they clan together ; worship together ; pray for their 
 "most gracious Lord and Sovereign King William," and their 
 "most gracious Queen Adelaide ;" transport English horses, car- 
 riages, and dogs ; eat roast-beef and drink wine a-la-mode V An- 
 glais the world over,* and, if they find anything very good abroad, 
 they say it is almost equal to Old England.t 
 
 Steamboats, although at first objected to, are becoming common 
 on the Mediterranean. They are specially very frequent from 
 Marseilles, by Genoa, Leghorn, Civita Vecchia, to Naples ; and 
 thence there are lines extending to Sicily and Malta. In one of 
 the steam-packets from Marseilles to Naples we embarked on the 
 
 * This does not apply so fully, however, to Englishmen in America. Here they find 
 the same language, and, for the most part, congenial institutions ; they mingle with our 
 citizens, and soon take part in our political concerns. Indeed, our naturalization laws 
 are so easy, and our citizenship so inviting, that most strangers, from all parts of the 
 world, like the Paddy, when they get among us, take the first opportunity to become 
 natives. 
 
 t Under a remark of this kind, recorded by a person of rank in a book for strangers 
 in an excellent hotel in Italy, I noticed some wit had added, in pencil mark—" This is 
 almost English modesty." 
 
A TRAVELLER S FEES. 
 
 23d of February, but were so ill from the rough sea that we were 
 glad to land at-Civita Vecchia, under a determination to travel by 
 sea no more ivhen we can travel by land. This, of course, led 
 us to Rome first instead of to Naples, as we had proposed. 
 
 Civita Vecchia is the seaport of Rome, although forty-eight 
 miles from it ; is a free port, with an artificial harbour ; and a dirty, 
 comfortless place it is. The inhabitants appear to live chiefly 
 upon the plunder of travellers. When you arrive, you go ashore 
 in a boat ; a set of hungry cormorants seize your baggage, and 
 contend who shall have it ; having settled that point by agreement 
 or force, they distribute it among as many as they conveniently 
 can, and carry it to the police, where you slip it through by pay- 
 ing a fee ; you then order your baggage to the hotel, and pay each 
 ragamuffin for his service, who always wants more. You must 
 then send it to the custom-house to get it plumbed, for which a 
 fee is demanded ; another for carrying it there ; another for taking 
 it from the office to the coach ; another for fastening it on the 
 coach ; another for opening the coach-door for you to get in ; an- 
 other for the man who tended the horses that are to carry you to 
 Rome, ever so long before you arrived, while he was waiting for 
 you, or somebody else, to come and hire them ; and I know not 
 how many other demands, besides beggars in abundance. You 
 escape from the wretched place with empty pockets and exhausted 
 patience, unless you have a good store of both. 
 
 The route to Rome is very dull. A sight here and there, of a 
 shepherd with his flock, diversifies the scene, which is barren, and, 
 in a great part, uncultivated. Neither did I see any shepherd that 
 reminded me of Damon or Tyterus, or any other of the classic 
 rustics of antiquity. 
 
 The horses are generally small, but numerous. We saw scores 
 of them in herds. The horned cattle, however, are very fine. 
 They are generally of a mouse colour in Tuscany, but in Roma- 
 nia they are frequently a light brindle, made up of a singular mix- 
 ture of white and black, constituting a colour altogether different 
 from anything we have. Farther south they are oftener a beauti- 
 ful pure white. Ancient heathen gods might well be appeased 
 by such an offering, if they were at all delighted with the sacrifice 
 of beasts ; for these, doubtless, are the regular descendants of the 
 Albus Taurus of antiquity. 
 
180 ITALY* 
 
 The sheep were very numerous ; but the wool, except for the 
 coarsest wear, is sold out of the country to be manufactured and 
 repurchased again, with all its accumulation of profit, while thou- 
 sands of the inhabitants are suffering for the necessaries of life, 
 and with no means of procuring them. 
 
 We entered Rome on the side of the magnificent structure of 
 St. Peter's. It was night, but there was light enough to exhibit 
 the splendid piazza, with its quadruple rows of Doric columns. 
 But I must forbear. Rome must be passed for the present. It 
 is true, we spent a number of days in the " Eternal City," viewing 
 its unrivalled antiquities, especially its ancient ruins and works of 
 art, and taking a general survey of the modern city. But, as all 
 this was only preparatory to a more thorough and extended exam- 
 ination, any description that may be attempted of the inspiring 
 topics of ancient and modern Rome will be postponed, and the 
 reader will first be requested to visit Naples, according to our 
 original purpose ; and let me congratulate him, whoever he may 
 be, that, however little he may be able to glean of the pleasures 
 and instruction of this Italian route, he is happily relieved from 
 its embarrassments, fatigues, delays, disappointments, and extor- 
 tions. A traveller, if he pleases, might fill up a volume with ac- 
 counts of this kind, without relieving himself or profiting his reader. 
 Suffice it to say, that after the usual routine of the passport, first 
 to the police, thence to the American consul, thence back to the 
 police, and then to the Neapolitan minister ; after some demur 
 respecting my prescribed quarantine, which was settled finally by 
 showing a bill of health, signed by the consul-general of his Si- 
 cilian majesty resident at Leghorn, &c, &c, we embarked on 
 board a post-coach, for fourteen dollars each person, leaving 
 Rome at nine o'clock in the evening, March 3. Our egress was 
 by the mighty Colosseum, whose vast proportions, partially dilap- 
 idated by eighteen centuries, towered in gloomy grandeur as 
 it reflected back the soft beams of moonlight. We passed the 
 Porta San Giovanni to Albano. The route from Rome to Na- 
 ples is part of the way the same as that of the old Appian Way, 
 so often spoken of by the ancient Romans, and that over which 
 St. Paul travelled in his journey from Puteoli (near Naples) to 
 Rome. Every mile of this road, almost, is connected with the 
 history of ancient Rome and the biography of her illustrious 
 
THE PONTINE MARSHES, 181 
 
 men.* But it will not comport with my plan to enter minutely 
 into the historic associations of the route. We struck the Appian 
 Way just before we reached Albano, fourteen Roman miles. The 
 entire road to Naples is excellent. 
 
 Beyond Velletri commence the Pontine Marshes^ which ex- 
 tend back from the sea from six to twelve miles, and reach to 
 Terracina, twenty -four miles in length. These are at some sea- 
 sons partially covered with water, and anciently were almost 
 wholly so, at least a part of the year. Great and successive ef- 
 forts have been made to drain this pestiferous pool, from the days 
 of Appius Coscus, by emperors, princes, and popes, down to Pius 
 VII., who, in addition to what the French had done before him, 
 nearly accomplished the object, so that a great portion of it is 
 now used for agricultural purposes. Immense herds of cattle 
 graze here. This region, however, must be very unhealthy ; and 
 this is clearly indicated by the sallow countenances of the few poor 
 wretches who inhabit it, or who roam about these miasmatic fens 
 watching their grazing flocks. Through these marshes ran the 
 Appian Way, on which, as a foundation, Pope Pius VI. con- 
 structed the present elegant road. 
 
 Here were the Tres Taberncs, or the " Three Taverns" men- 
 tioned by St. Paul. If the appearance and condition of these 
 taverns were not better than those of the present day, I should 
 almost wonder that a sight of them by St. Paul was a cause of 
 thanksgiving. The gratitude of the apostle could only be ac- 
 counted for on the principle of his own gospel maxim, " in every- 
 thing give thanks." 
 
 The two towns of Fondi and Itri, which were the first we 
 passed through after entering the Neapolitan States, were the 
 most filthy, wretched, and poverty-struck we had yet beheld ; 
 and it is sincerely hoped we may never look upon the like again. 
 At the former place we had to undergo the " searching operation" 
 of the custom-house, during which time we were surrounded by 
 hundreds of miserable-looking objects of want and wo ; scores 
 of hands were stretched out for charity, and almost all looked as 
 though they should be tenants of the poorhouse. Some of them, 
 
 * The classical reader will find the ancient localities of this route, as far as Brundu- 
 sium, in the Diary of Horace, 
 t They took their name from an ancient town in the vicinity. 
 16 
 
182 ITALY* 
 
 however, made shift to purchase, or retain, perhaps, as an inherit- 
 ance from their ancestors, earrings and other ornaments, which 
 hung in strange discordance over dirty rags, that scarcely covered 
 their nakedness. A sallow-looking young woman at Terracina 
 with large dangling jewels in her ears, apparently of gold, was 
 urgent in her importunities for alms. I took hold of her earrings, 
 and told her to sell them for bread before she asked charity ; this 
 turned the laugh upon her, and freed me from her importunities. 
 Another ludicrous circumstance occurred after we had left the 
 town ; our horses were in a full trot, when we were attracted by 
 a stifled vociferation at the coach window; on looking out we 
 saw a man upon the full run, at our side, vociferating for alms, 
 holding out his greasy cap with one hand, and cramming the 
 other into his mouth, to indicate his extreme hunger, which, with 
 his running, so stifled his voice as made him put forth " strange 
 sounds ;" these, with his gesticulations, diversified by his haste to 
 keep up with the carriage, formed an exhibition so ludicrous, that 
 even the cries of suffering could not restrain our risibilities. If 
 we sinned by smiling " in the venerable presence of misery," as 
 the sentimental Sterne would say, I hope we shall be forgiven. 
 We never know, in fact, when these beings are starving ; for, hun- 
 gry or not, to get a bioc they will play their part to admiration ; 
 they are starving, they have dying bambinos, a sick sposa, or they 
 are without father or mother, and the like. Our present appli- 
 cant, from the strength of his voice and his speed in running, 
 seemed neither faint with hunger nor weak with disease ; Mrs 
 F., however, threw him a piece of copper, for which he gave 
 the usual " grazia." We went on at the same rapid rate, I 
 should judge, nearly a mile, when, having occasion to stop the 
 carriage a moment, who should arrive but our beneficiary, in a 
 foaming agony to get his piece of money changed, for it was not 
 current in the country ! I mention this case to show the condi- 
 tion and perseverance of these beggars, as also because it was to 
 us, at least, a scene painfully amusing. 
 
 In the interior of our coach we had a Catholic priest and his 
 brother, with whom we formed, of course, a stagecoach acquaint- 
 ance, to which they seemed by no means averse. We found them 
 pleasant and polite, and the priest was remarkably strict at his 
 devotions twice a day, viz., morning and noon. These consisted 
 
MORA. 183 
 
 of long portions read out of a devotional book carried in his pocket, 
 which he had practised upon so much that he could repeat whole 
 pages out of the book. Whether he read or repeated from mem- 
 ory, he hurried them over with the greatest possible rapidity ; a 
 rapidity to which I am sure one could not attain but by long 
 practice, crossing himself at the name of Christ, and repeating 
 the whole in a loud whisper when the carriage was moving very 
 still, and a little above his breath when it rumbled. I cannot 
 judge his heart, but the whole seemed like a mere form. It re- 
 minded me of my childish days, when every night I hurried over 
 the prayers and hymns that my mother had taught me, merely 
 because I dared not go to sleep without performing my task ; the 
 whole merit of which was in repeating the sum total. 
 
 Before we entered Mora we passed the spot where Cicero was 
 overtaken and beheaded, on which stands, to the memory of the 
 immortal orator, an ancient and splendid cenotaph. It consists 
 of three stories, and has inside of it a shaft extending from the 
 top to the bottom. But this monument, stately and massive as it 
 is, has already suffered from the corroding tooth of time, and will 
 soon crumble back to dust, while the intellectual monuments 
 erected by himself preserve their virgin freshness, and will carry 
 down the name of their illustrious author, loaded with undimin- 
 ished honours, to the latest posterity. Mora occupies the site of 
 the ancient Formia, where was Cicero's Formian villa ; and upon 
 the seashore, five miles distant, within sight of Mora, is Gaeta, 
 which has been already mentioned in the sketches of Italian his- 
 tory as being a flourishing republic. This is the most northern 
 of the three important republics in Magna Graecia, that sprung so 
 early out of the ruins of the Roman empire. Alas ! that repub- 
 licanism should ever be supplanted by such a stupid, tyrannical 
 government as that of the present day. These three repubhcs 
 are on three successive gulfs. First, Gaeta, on the gulf of the 
 same name, which gulf is separated from that of Naples by the 
 Island of Ischia and the promontory of Misenum ; and this again 
 is separated by the promontory of Tarento from the Gulf of Sa- 
 lerno, on which was situated Amalfi. It is also worthy of remark, 
 that they are all situated on the same parts relative to their re- 
 spective bays, viz., on the northern sides or shores. They rose 
 up together, under the same circumstances, like children of 
 

 184 ITALY. 
 
 ©ne family ; and they fell by the same ruthless destroyer, the 
 warlike Norman. With their liberty and independence, the im- 
 portance, trade, and population of the northern and southern fell 
 also ; Gaeta having now but little trade, and only about ten thousand 
 inhabitants ; and Amalfi, which in the ninth century was perhaps 
 the greatest mercantile community in the world, is dwindled down 
 to an unimportant village. 
 
 The American citizen feels a gloomy foreboding as he almost 
 involuntarily asks, Will some future traveller have occasion to 
 record the same sad history of the lovely, prosperous, and popu- 
 lous cities that now stud the shores of the Atlantic from Maine to 
 Florida V Yes, doubtless, unless America learn wisdom by the 
 historic lessons of the past. If, like Italy, the states or sections 
 of the Union should divide themselves into independent govern- 
 ments, there will come jealousies and wars, and ruin will be in 
 the train. If popular phrensy and illegal assemblies assume the 
 reins of government, then will some aspiring demagogue rise up, 
 applauded by the multitude, even as they will be flattered and 
 pampered by him, until the foot of the conqueror is on their neck, 
 America ought to know enough of human nature and of history to 
 avoid the rocks on which others have been wrecked ; but alas ! 
 how few consult the records of the past or the dictates of reason 
 in these matters. Would that the past history and present con- 
 dition of Italy could be hung up before the American citizen in 
 all places of public resort, and especially at the polls, and in the 
 capitols of the states and of the nation. This is the most I desire 
 from Italy. I have seen her antiquities, her statuary, her paintings, 
 her unrivalled edifices, her picturesque scenery, her olive mount- 
 ains, and her vine-covered vales ; but all these, in view of the im- 
 portant interests I am now contemplating, are for America compar- 
 atively nothing. If from the deep-stained frescoes of her historic 
 page, coloured by the blood of her once free and intelligent sons, 
 some vivid and striking pictures could be hung up in view of the 
 American public, methinks it would be worth more to us, ten thou- 
 sand times, than all the works of art of which ancient and mod- 
 ern Italy can boast. And yet who thinks of this ? Who, of the 
 hundreds of American travellers that visit Italy, will even imbue 
 their own minds with these subjects, much less carry back these 
 important lessons to their countrymen ? 
 
NAPLES. 185 
 
 But to return to our journal. At Capua we were reminded of 
 the siege and capture, by Hannibal, of Casilinum, which stood 
 on the site of this more modern city. From this city to Naples 
 the road was remarkably level, and led through a rich and highly- 
 cultivated country. The vineyards seemed to have added magnifi- 
 cence to beauty. The trees on which the vines hung, and which 
 were planted in regular ranges, had grown to the size and height 
 of forest-trees, and the vines that hung upon them, some of which 
 were stretched from tree to tree, were themselves as large as 
 small trees. Between the rows the soil was cultivated like a 
 garden, and, though it was but the beginning of March, the surface 
 was covered with a green and flourishing vegetation. Not only 
 were the wheat-fields luxuriant, but fields of flax, which had at- 
 tained to half its growth, and various articles of horticulture 
 in surprising forwardness, some of which, indeed, seemed to have 
 been vegetating during the whole winter, interspersed and varied 
 the scene. At length we arrived at the gate of Naples ; here, 
 although, on entering the Neapolitan domains, our baggage was 
 examined and receipted, yet we were required to pay a piastre 
 at the Dogana (custom-house) to prevent a second examination. 
 In this matter of custom they are more jealous of Italians than of 
 foreigners. Our priest's baggage was again rummaged, although 
 it had been thoroughly turned up and taxed once before. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 There is something peculiarly lively and gay in the appearance 
 of Naples. Its location is fine. The bay itself is a beautiful 
 sheet of water, of about thirty miles diameter, protected at its en- 
 trance by the Island of Capri, which rises up, like a mighty break- 
 water, to resist the force of the waves. The town is like an am- 
 phitheatre around the bay ; at one end it has some picturesque em- 
 inences, on one of which is the king's palace and the royal ob- 
 servatory, and on the other the Castle of St. Elmo. These are 
 ascended by zigzag roads, to make the ascent gradual and pleas- 
 16 A a 
 
186 ITALY. 
 
 ant, presenting at every turn new aspects of the beautiful scenery 
 around; and, when you arrive at the top, the entire panorama 
 is like an enchantment. 
 
 From the Royal Observatory you look down upon the city, the 
 bay, the harbour, and thence the eye glances speedily over the 
 vale spread out beyond the opposite side of the town ; a vale that 
 can scarcely be described. It is spotted all over with cottages, 
 appearing in the distance like so many little bird-cages, almost 
 thick enough to be called a continual village. To the right, nearer 
 the bay, is Portici, under which lies the buried city of Hercula- 
 neum. Beyond is Vesuvius, covered perpetually with his wreath 
 of smoke or flame. The associations of this exhibition add greatly 
 to the interest of the scene. The very mountain you stand upon 
 is a volcanic formation ; so is the entire foundation of the city of 
 Naples, and, in fact, all the surrounding country ; while at the 
 base of Vesuvius, a few miles distant, are cities buried, with their 
 inhabitants, sixty and eighty feet below the present surface of the 
 earth by successive floods of molten minerals and showers of 
 cinders and earth. To the like fate the population of the modern 
 cities are continually exposed ; nay, it would be no new thing in 
 this neighbourhood if the troubled elements of the earth should 
 burst forth in the very centre of the city of Naples, and bury its hun- 
 dreds of thousands under a huge mausoleum of a Monte Nuovo, 
 such as was thrown up in 1538 but a few miles distant from the 
 city. Yet the inhabitants live without the least apparent appre- 
 hension, fully believing, if fatal eruptions of this kind should ever 
 happen, it will not be in their day ; just as we travellers believe 
 it will not be while we visit the city and its environs, and even 
 the very crater of Vesuvius itself. One cannot but feel peculiar 
 sensations when seriously contemplating the scene around him, 
 viewed in connexion with past history. This whole region, in- 
 eluding, perhaps, the entire peninsula of Italy, is voleanic, and vol- 
 canoes have been active here from time immemoriaL The sub- 
 terranean fires which some suppose are entombed and rage con- 
 tinually in the centre of the earth, seem here to have found vent, 
 and the craters of Etna on a neighbouring island, and of Vesuvius 
 have for many centuries been natural safety-valves ; and though 
 in some instances destructive to the insects that sport around 
 them, may be instrumental of saving extensive portions of the 
 
STATE OF SOCIETY IN NAPLES. 187 
 
 earth from destructive earthquakes and ruinous convulsions 
 But although the subterranean fires seem to concentrate in this 
 neighbourhood, it does . not follow as certain, or most probable, 
 that the crater of Vesuvius will always be the outlet. Naples 
 itself is as likely, in process of time, according to all human ap- 
 pearances, to be the crater of a volcano as Vesuvius once was. 
 It seems, in the time of Diodorus Siculus, about half a century be- 
 fore Christ, and in that of Strabo, who flourished about the period 
 of the Christian era, that there was no appearance in Vesuvius 
 of an active volcano ; but, from the appearance of the mountain, it 
 was judged it had once been subject to irruptions, in an age so re- 
 mote that the period was to them unknown. In the seventy-ninth 
 year of the Christian era, however, the great irruption took place 
 which buried Herculaneum and Pompeii. Since that time, on the 
 other side of Naples, Monte Nuovo has been formed in a few 
 hours, and the earth in the neighbourhood still burns beneath, 
 sending up streams of heated sulphureous gas, and throwing out 
 rivulets of hot water; an evidence that not in Vesuvius only, 
 but all under these green hills and verdant vales, the fabled forges 
 of Vulcan are in active operation, and where next they may burst 
 forth in torrents of fire and showers of molten cinders is altogether 
 unknown. 
 
 But I wander, perhaps, from my purpose, which was to give 
 some general view of Naples. It is in population the third city 
 in Europe, containing, as the most rational estimate, from three 
 hundred and fifty to four hundred thousand inhabitants. Some Ne- 
 apolitans say half a million ; but this is evidently erroneous. The 
 size of the city, which is only nine or ten miles in circumference, 
 hardly admits of such an estimate. It is true, Naples, from the 
 great portion of the inhabitants who constantly throng the streets, 
 appears to be immensely populous. In no city, I think (even 
 London is not an exception), have I seen greater throngs in the 
 streets; but nowhere besides do the inhabitants live in the streets, 
 as in Naples. To say nothing of the lazaroni, many of whom, it 
 is said, have no home, but sleep at night in the open air, or under 
 the public courts, in the doors of the churches, and wherever they 
 can find a resting-place, there are very many who do a great por- 
 tion of their business in the streets ; here is cooking, spinning, 
 shoemaking, blacksmithing, carpentering, and trading of all kinds 
 

 188 ITALY. 
 
 in the streets. It is this doing everything out of doors which 
 adds much, doubtless, to the apparent populousness of Naples. 
 But it is, in fact, full of people ; many of them busily occupied, 
 but many others miserably idle, and very many wretchedly poor. 
 The lazaroni (the ragged ones) seem to be a distinct class, and 
 the lowest we could well conceive of in the bosom of a civilized 
 community. It has already been stated that many of them are 
 without any regular lodgings ; they live upon a trifle ; the mildness 
 of the climate and their habits enable them to subsist without fire 
 and with but little clothing. When they can obtain employment 
 they work (for they appear more active than the poorest classes in 
 other parts of Italy); they act as porters, or fachinos, as they are 
 called in Italian, whenever they can find employment, for which 
 purpose they have a basket that serves them in their labours by 
 day and as a bed by night. They sing and sport, play the harle- 
 quin, or attend upon those who do so, listen to the public street- 
 readers of Orlando Furioso, in which they seem greatly instructed, 
 or attend to the harangues of the street declaimers, play at cards 
 on a stone or a stool on the side of the street, stretch themselves 
 out upon the pavements in the sun, gather the quids of tobacco 
 and the ends of cigars that have been thrown away, and expose 
 them for sale, beg when necessity requires, and attend to whatever 
 else inclination prompts to, and circumstances allow of,. or nature 
 requires, without embarrassment or shame. But the most impor- 
 tant business is hunting heads, which seems with them not only 
 to be a matter of necessity, but also of luxury, and hence you will 
 pass scores of them in the streets performing this kind office for 
 each other ; an employment, by-the-way, which is not to be sneered 
 at, since it is consecrated by genius, and identified with the fine 
 arts in Italy. One of the standard paintings of the Pitti Palace, 
 in Florence, was a Cupid having his head looked by, if I rightly 
 remember, Psyche. But in Naples they attend to it in a way that 
 saves time and blesses the blesser ; for while one is serving another, 
 he or she is, at the same time, served by a third, and so on in an 
 indefinite series. In many instances, too, you may see the colo- 
 nists or emigrants from the head picked off from other parts of 
 the body. In short (for this is not a subject to be dwelt upon 
 further than is necessary to give some just description of the 
 state of society here , these lazaroni are a dirty, squalid, poverty^ 
 
 
POVERTY OP THE INHABITANTS. 189 
 
 smitten race, amounting, according to some, to thirty or forty 
 thousand. It is doubtful, however, whether there are so many. 
 Indeed, it is generally said, their number is diminished of late 
 years. Happy would it be for the city if they could be entirely 
 removed by putting them into workhouses, or employing them 
 in some way to improve their condition and elevate their char- 
 acter. It is said they are willing to work when they can find 
 it ; but they have been so long degraded that their condition is not 
 very irksome to themselves. They are, in general, a merry race, 
 living on macaroni and vegetables, and in their habits but little 
 removed above bestiality. 
 
 The beggars in Naples are numerous and annoying, but less so 
 in the city than in the country and provincial towns in the neigh- 
 bourhood. The other two unproductive classes of society here- 
 tofore alluded to in other cities are also very numerous here, viz., 
 the ecclesiastics and soldiers. Of the former it is difficult to as- 
 certain the precise number, but they are abundant, and well dressed 
 and well fed. They have " fulness of bread and abundance of 
 idleness," both of which are indicated by their fresh visage and 
 portly appearance. Indeed, what have they to do ? They have 
 no families to provide for, they seldom preach, most of them never, 
 and their pastoral duties, masses and confessions, are an easy 
 task, divided among from ten to twenty, perhaps, in each church. 
 In addition to these, there are the monastic orders hanging like 
 leeches upon the social body, devouring much and producing 
 nothing. 
 
 It is said the King of Naples has an army in actual service in 
 and about Naples amounting to about thirty or forty thousand. 
 These, too, appear well dressed and well fed. Some thousands 
 of them are hirelings from Switzerland and Austria. With all 
 these unproductive consumers living on her limited commerce and 
 her slender revenues, what can be expected but that depression 
 and poverty should pervade the whole nation? The wonder is 
 that Naples sustains herself as well as she does ; nor could she, 
 in fact, survive long, but that she is surrounded by a country rich 
 and productive almost beyond conception, which, if nothing more, 
 yields at least the necessaries of life, bread-stuffs and common 
 vegetables, in great abundance, as well as great quantities of fruit 
 for exportation. 
 
190 ITALY. 
 
 Naples is unrivalled in the beauty of its location and surround- 
 ing scenery. The Quarters of Chiajah, St. Lucia, and Chiatamone, 
 on the bay, are delightful ; stretching along by the first of these 
 streets are the public gardens, extending, I should judge, a mile, 
 from the Victoria almost to the Grotto of Posilipo, ornamented 
 with trees, shrubbery, plants, statuary, and fountains, with the bay 
 on the one side and a splendid street on the other. This is a 
 favourite and fashionable resort. Another important street is the 
 Toledo, running through the heart of the city. At the north, with- 
 out the city, is the Campus Martius, an extensive and fine military 
 parade-ground, surrounded by trees. For this last, as well as for 
 the gardens, and for additions to the palace, and great improve- 
 ments to the grounds about Capo di Monti, and various other 
 things useful and ornamental to the city, Naples is indebted to 
 Murat and the French. 
 
 The architecture of Naples is not much admired. The churches 
 are numerous, amounting to from three to four hundred, and a few 
 of them have some interest within, for the costly finish, paintings, 
 &c, ; but, in general, they are indifferent. The Church of St. 
 Martin, near the Castle of St. Elmo, has a lofty location, over- 
 looking the town and the bay, and is attached to what used to be 
 the Certosini convent. The church is splendid, and contains some 
 good pictures. The convent was converted by the French into a 
 hospital for military invalids ; but it is now, I am sorry to say, 
 undergoing repairs, in view of being restored to its original use. 
 It is thus that the present reigning family are endeavouring to 
 bring everything back to the superstitions of former days. The 
 present king often makes superstitious vows, as did also his father 
 before him. The former, it is said, recently made vows of various 
 religious performances, charities, &c, provided he could be fa- 
 voured with the birth of a son, but forgot to stipulate, it would 
 seem, for the safety of the queen ; the result is, the son is born, 
 but it cost the queen her life. The present king's father made a 
 vow, when he was last driven from his kingdom by Murat, that 
 he would build a magnificent church if he could be again restored 
 to his throne. To fulfil his vow a church is nearly completed 
 in the grand square opposite to the palace, which, in its circular 
 colonnades, its rotunda, and its location in a circular piazza, has 
 some little resemblance to St. Peter's at Rome. This will be a 
 
A MARVELLOUS SAINT. 191 
 
 fine church when finished ; but, doubtless, a vow to give his sub- 
 jects a constitution that would guard them from the encroachments 
 and oppressions of despotism would have been much more ac- 
 ceptable to God, and beneficial to his people, and, I may add, 
 much more honourable to himself, and more conservative of his 
 family dynasty, than the building of an additional church in a city 
 where churches and priests were already multiplied far beyond 
 the wants of the people. 
 
 The Cathedral, which is called the church of St. Januarius, is 
 noted for being incrusted with white marble externally, for being 
 supported internally by something more than one hundred columns 
 of Egyptian granite, African marble, &c, taken from ancient 
 heathen temples, for containing the body of St. Januarius, and 
 two vessels of his blood, which is in a solid state, but is liquefied 
 miraculously three times a year. We were shown the silver tab- 
 ernacle where the head of this saint, together with these vessels 
 of blood, are deposited, but were not permitted to see the blood. 
 The tabernacle is locked by four keys, two of which are with the 
 king and two with the cardinal, and it cannot be opened but by 
 the joint action of these two personages, which only takes place 
 on occasion of the ceremony of liquefying the blood. It is seri- 
 ously believed by the Neapolitans that the ready liquefaction of 
 the substance in these vials, which, no doubt, is a chymical com- 
 pound, that either liquefies by the warmth of the priest's hands or 
 by some other common chymical process, is indicative of prosper- 
 ity, and, if it fails readily to become a liquid, it is accounted ominous 
 of some approaching calamity. The last time the ceremony was 
 performed there was some delay and difficulty, it is said, and the 
 result has been the death of the queen ! ! Another marvel con- 
 nected with this affair is, that the stone on which the saint was 
 beheaded, and which is kept some miles distant, sweats fresh blood 
 at the very moment that in the vial becomes a liquid. So the 
 priests teach, and so the people believe ! This saint has several 
 limes protected the city from the irruptions of Mount Vesuvius, 
 hence it is not wonderful that he should be in such high estimation. 
 His chapel cost one hundred thousand ducats.* This cathedral 
 also contains the body of Januarius in a subterranean chapel, which 
 is supposed to be the remains of a temple of Apollo, and has an ele- 
 
 * A ducat is worth about eighty cents. 
 
192 ITALY. 
 
 gant altar and shrine in an adjoining chapel, on which is a splendid 
 bassrelief in massive silver, representing the entrance of the saint 
 into Naples in 1526, at a time when the plague was raging there, 
 and which was stayed by his miraculous interposition. This, of 
 course, has secured to him the honour of being the tutelar saint 
 of Naples. Here also are thirty-six splendid silver busts, which 
 are exhibited on festal days, but at other times kept stored in 
 closets in a private room, and shown to strangers by the custode 
 for a fee. 
 
 The Chapel of St. Severus, erected in 1590, has been almost 
 ruined by an earthquake, and is in some parts only kept from 
 falling by walling up the arches with strong masonry. It is no 
 longer used for worship, and is only remarkable as a repository 
 of sepulchral monuments of the Sangro family. The monuments 
 are fine, and have additional interest from the fact that the tomb 
 and monument of each nobleman or prince of the family is also ac- 
 companied by a monument for his wife, which is a rare occurrence. 
 The monument for the wife is generally a symbolical figure, per- 
 sonating some virtue of the deceased. One is a female figure of 
 modesty, by Corradini ; she is clothed with a transparent veil from 
 head to foot, exhibiting through it the entire form. It is a most 
 extraordinary piece of art, in a form entirely unknown to the an- 
 cients, and rarely attempted by the moderns. The lady was the 
 wife of Prince Don Raymond. There are two other similar works 
 of art in this chapel : one is a symbolic representation of vice un- 
 deceived, and is designed to designate the change in Don Raymond 
 himself, who, after the death of his wife, renounced his secular 
 pursuits and became a priest. The symbol is a man escaping 
 from a net, assisted by another figure beside him, called the Ge- 
 nius of Common Sense. The net is already partly thrown off, and 
 although it is sculptured from the same piece of marble with the 
 statue itself, seems scarcely to touch the body. It is inconceiva- 
 bly fine, but not more so than the other, which is a dead Christ, 
 veiled, by Joseph San Martino. The form and the very muscles 
 are seen through the veil, and the whole looks as if moistened by 
 the clammy sweat of death, while the sublime resignation of our 
 Saviour's last hour seems lingering still upon the lifeless counte- 
 nance. This is a sublime triumph of genius. In my opinion, 
 sculpture is nowhere so perfectly at home as in the representa- 
 
THE ROYAL OBSERVATORY. 193 
 
 tion of death. The colour of animation, from the necessity of the 
 case, is always wanting to the sculptured representation of the liv- 
 ing figure ; a defect which, however it may be with others, I can 
 never lose sight of when looking at the finest statuary ; hence I al- 
 ways feel that something is wanting, and this feeling detracts so 
 much from the pleasure, and mars the whole exhibition. But 
 death has no animation ; it has no colour ; its very expression, its 
 very associations are marble, cold marble ! Here, therefore, the 
 works of the chisel are perfect, and its triumphs are complete. 
 Let no one who visits Naples fail of visiting the Chapel of the 
 Veiled Statuary. 
 
 I cannot dwell upon the other churches and public edifices of 
 Naples. We visited one of the two royal palaces of Naples, viz.; 
 that by the grand or royal piazza. It is a large building, finely sit- 
 uated, and containing a suite of spacious staterooms, in which are 
 some fine paintings and rich furniture.* The palace at Capo di 
 Monte we were not permitted to see, because the king was at that 
 time staying there. The situation of this palace is very fine, as has 
 already been stated. The Royal Observatory near by was not 
 closed like the palace ; this, therefore, we entered, and examined 
 every part. The observatory building, fixtures, and instruments 
 are certainly very creditable to the government of Naples ; all the 
 necessary instruments were there, and well mounted and arranged ; 
 and the only mortification that I had in examining it was the re- 
 flection which here, as in other places in Europe, I was constrained 
 to make upon the deficiency of our own country in this and simi- 
 lar institutions, and the stinted economy, or local and state jeal- 
 ousy, which keeps the boasted republic of America from affording 
 that patronage to science which is so liberally extended by not only 
 the constitutional monarchies, but even the unrestricted despotisms 
 of Europe. This consideration is extremely mortifying, and the 
 more so because many of our citizens imagine, and this feeling is 
 increased by those ephemeral politicians and demagogues who 
 pander to the notions of the ignorant for the sake of temporary 
 popularity and office, that these high institutions are not necessary ; 
 that they savour of aristocracy, and have no relation to the general 
 
 * While I am reviewing this part of my journal (March, 1837), I learn by the public 
 papers that all that was combustible of this edifice, together with the rich gallery of 
 pictures and the furniture, has been consumed by fire. 
 
 17 Bb 
 
194 ITALY. 
 
 interests of the community and of the labouring classes ; where- 
 as, if they were only able or willing to trace the relation between 
 science and the most useful arts, they would see that the former, 
 in her highest flights and widest range, was only gathering golden 
 treasures for an entire people ; and nowhere is the distribution 
 so complete as in a republic. Although, in a monarchy or an 
 aristocracy, there may be a monopoly of these advantages, as there 
 is, more or less, of everything else, yet nothing is more diffusive 
 in its tendencies than knowledge, and, where there are no artificial 
 obstructions to interfere, it is sure to spread out over the whole 
 land ; and the larger and better supplied the grand reservoirs, the 
 more abundant and extended will be the diffusive and refreshing 
 streams. When will all our citizens be undeceived on this impor- 
 tant point ? 
 
 The burial-place of the Neapolitans is the very opposite, of those 
 of Paris. It is a large square, enclosed on every side by a high 
 wall, of sufficient extent to contain as many separate pits as there 
 are days in the year. These pits are twelve feet square and 
 eighteen deep y and are walled up and permanently covered over, 
 except one square opening in the centre, of perhaps fourteen or 
 eighteen inches, into which a stone is fitted and plastered air tight. 
 This stone has a staple and a ring, by which a machine, kept for 
 the purpose, on the principle of the lever, can break.it up and 
 open the pit. One of these is opened in this manner every day, 
 and the dead are thrown in without coffin or clothing ; quick lime 
 is then thrown in, and the pit is sealed up, and the next receptacle 
 in order is broken up, so that there is a year for the decomposi- 
 tion of the bodies before the pit is again disturbed. We looked 
 into the one which was open the day we visited it, and saw some 
 half dozen of infants just thrown in, perfectly naked. But this is 
 the charnel-house of the poor. These recent deposites were sink- 
 ing down into the putrefied mass of former years. The spectacle 
 may be conceived of by the reader, but it is too repulsive to be de- 
 scribed. If any man wishes to take a deep lesson in the frailty 
 and loathsome corruptibility of these pampered and idolized bodies, 
 let him go to the Campo Santo of Naples. These pits for the 
 burial of the poor are also common at Rome and other cities of 
 Italy ; and, not unfrequently, rats and other vermin are seen rioting 
 on the putrid mass. 
 
FUNERAL CEREMONIES OF THE NEAPOLITANS. 195 
 
 Those who can afford the expense of a funeral are generally 
 buried by fraternities, who are associated together for this pur- 
 pose. The different societies are dressed in long loose robes 
 of various colours, according to their respective regulations, and 
 all of them wear masks, or, rather, a sort of close hood, with 
 openings for the eyes. These bodies walk in procession, bearing 
 lighted wax candles, and are frequently followed by a number of 
 Franciscan and Capuchin monks, who are dressed in black or 
 brown mantles, with cowls hanging back upon their shoulders, ex- 
 posing their naked heads sometimes half shaven ; and whose feet 
 are shod with a kind of sandal, or a shoe having only a sole and 
 straps to bind and fasten it to the foot. We followed a procession 
 of this kind one evening, just as the shadows of approaching night 
 were beginning to cast a gloom upon the city, which is the usual 
 hour for their sepulchral ceremonies. They led us into an upper 
 room, where the corpse was lying in state, in full dress and with 
 painted face : after a little ceremony and religious service, the body 
 was taken and borne off to the church in solemn procession. The 
 scene was heightened by the hour, by the long ranges of lights 
 streaming upon the darkness, and the deep chant of the monks, 
 "Requiem ceternam dona eis, Domine, et lux perpetua luceateis?* 
 "When we arrived at the church another more extended service 
 was performed, and the coffin, in an unaccountable manner, disap- 
 peared. I suppose it must have been lowered down through the 
 floor of the church ; for we went down into the vault below, and 
 found they had just been engaged in the burial. 
 
 My stay at Naples was not long enough to enable me to become 
 much acquainted with the schools and colleges. Of course there 
 is no general system of primary education. This would be rais- 
 ing the people too much for the purposes of such a government. 
 There are, however, several schools for the gratuitous education 
 of poor children of both sexes, and there are also several colleges ; 
 one is appropriated exclusively to the education of the nobility. 
 I could not learn that literature or science was advancing at all 
 in Naples, although this city once took a high stand in the lit- 
 erary world. The great rage now here, as in other parts of It- 
 aly, is for the belle arte. I tried to get access to one of the col- 
 
 * " Give them eternal rest, O Lord, and let perpetual light shine upon them." 
 
196 ITALY. 
 
 leges without a formal introduction, and the custode or porter not 
 conceiving that I could wish to see anything but pictures and slat- 
 uary, took me into a back hall, where were piles of rubbish in the 
 form of old paintings, which he began to elevate and arrange for 
 my inspection and gratification ! ! After informing him that I had 
 not come to see pictures, but the libraries, apparatus, and differ- 
 ent accommodations of the college, he gave me to understand I 
 could not be admitted, on account of its being the hour when the 
 professors were hearing their classes. I left disappointed, but not 
 a little amused at the mistake of the porter. It appeared to me 
 to be a characteristic indication, if not of what the Neapolitans 
 most thought of, at least of what they supposed foreigners most 
 thought of who visited them. 
 
 Having made several allusions to the Neapolitan government, 
 it may not be amiss here to say a few words on that subject. It 
 is absolute ; that is, the king is restrained by no constitutional 
 laws and by no legislative authority. The property, lives, and 
 liberties of his people are all at his disposal, checked and con- 
 trolled, however, as he must be, more or less, at this age, by 
 public opinion. Hence this idea of public opinion and fear of dis- 
 affection is constantly haunting the Neapolitan government ; and 
 the principal dependance to restrain any secret disaffection is 
 placed upon the military. The king keeps a large standing army, 
 amounting, it is said, to thirty or forty thousand. Every part of 
 the city is guarded by sentinels, and companies of foot, and squad- 
 rons of horse. Cannons are kept constantly mounted, and pointed 
 into the public squares and other places where any numbers might 
 be rallied to oppose the powers that be ; all indicating that the 
 army is kept, not for foreign enemies, but for the king's own sub- 
 jects. From abroad he has nothing to fear, but at home every- 
 thing ; nor dare he trust his own subjects for his guards, but 
 keeps foreigners in his pay, principally Swiss, and some Germans 
 as his more immediate body-guard, who have no other interest in 
 /he government than to accomplish, like a hireling, their task, get 
 their pay, and go home. Their interest, of course, will be wholly 
 on the side of the government; and, therefore, they are thought 
 to be the safest guards. How miserably must that government 
 estimate its own authority which cannot rely upon its own sub- 
 jects for defence ! Certainly such a government must act contin- 
 
SUSPICION OF THE GOVERNMENT. 197 
 
 ually under the conviction of its own weakness ; and such, evident- 
 ly, is the conviction of the present king and ministers of Naples. 
 They are afraid of every breath. This is illustrated by a recent 
 occurrence. A young Frenchman at Rome, having occasion to 
 visit Naples, and finding it difficult, for some reason, to get a pass- 
 port, took a passport of another, and travelled all through the 
 kingdom, and spent some time at Naples under a fictitious name. 
 The joke took so well, it was too good for the Frenchman to 
 keep. He boasted of his exploit, and it was soon reported to the 
 government. This threw them into a great fever. They feared 
 some terrible Carbonari plot, or something else, was ready to 
 produce an explosion ; and every foreigner, and especially every 
 Frenchman (for the French are the most suspected), fell under 
 suspicion. Their consular and ministerial agents abroad were di- 
 rected to examine foreigners very closely as to their standing and 
 object in visiting Naples before giving an official sanction to 
 their passports. It was requested, when I was in Leghorn, that 
 I should appear before the consul-general, and answer to an ex- 
 amination on the subject of my character, object in visiting Na- 
 ples, &c. ; but, on being informed that I should not choose to 
 subject myself to such a catechism, and that he must learn my 
 character from my passport, the subject was waived. We were 
 informed, however, from an official source while in Naples, that 
 it was in contemplation to pass an edict speedily by which all 
 foreigners would be obliged to give security for their good be- 
 haviour, especially that they would engage in no political object 
 on visiting Naples. Be it so. For my part, although I admire 
 the scenery of Southern Italy, yet I never shall desire to enter the 
 kingdom of Naples again until the capricious tyranny that now 
 sways its destinies shall be broken or restrained. 
 
 The weakness and meanness of this government are also seen 
 in another fact, and that is, that they frequently break open letters 
 sent or received through the medium of the postofnce. This is 
 done, doubtless, to detect any lurking conspiracy which their 
 guilt and their fears lead them always to think is on the eve of 
 breaking out. 
 
 Little or no encouragement is given to manufactures or to ag- 
 ricultural enterprise : and as for commerce, it seems to be the 
 17 
 
198 ITALY. 
 
 policy of the government to embarrass it as much as possible. 
 Their quarantine laws, founded in ignorance and executed in ca- 
 price, are of themselves sufficient to paralyze their commercial 
 operations. Take this, which occurred while I was at Naples, as 
 a specimen. A steamer arrived from Marseilles ; previous to its 
 arrival, report had reached the government that a vessel from 
 New-Orleans, United States, had been admitted into Marseilles 
 after only five days' quarantine ; and this was sufficient to order 
 the steamer back upon the quarantine-ground, with all her freight 
 and passengers ! and it was seriously proposed to subject her to 
 a quarantine of twenty days. They, however, thought better of 
 it, and permitted her, after thirty- six or forty-eight hours, to come 
 into the harbour. The letters which are brought by steamers and 
 ships are received into sacks at the end of long poles, and are 
 thoroughly steamed and perfumed before they can be touched ; 
 after they are made tangible on the outside,' they are pierced 
 through with a knife, so that the perfume may have an opportu- 
 nity to circulate in the interior, and then they undergo another 
 fumigation. A letter that I received while there was pierced 
 with a slit of about an inch in length in some twelve or sixteen 
 places. 
 
 After all, perhaps, Naples is doing as well as it has done for 
 many centuries, with the exception of the reign of Don Carlos 
 and that of Murat. For two centuries after the government passed 
 into the hands of the royal family of Spain, Naples was governed 
 by viceroys, whose principal object was to plunder the people as 
 much as they could while they were in office. These exactions 
 were so intolerable in some cases that the people revolted, and by 
 popular violence claimed redress of their grievances. Such was 
 the famous insurrection under the fisherman Thomas Anniello, 
 which was excited in 1647 on account of the tax on fruit. 
 
 In 1736, by the treaty of Vienna, the contention which had ex- 
 isted for several preceding years respecting the sovereignty of 
 Naples and Sicily was adjusted by confirming Don Carlos, Duke 
 of Parma and son of the King of Spain, on the throne of Naples 
 and Sicily. He was a wise and a liberal monarch, but was called 
 to the throne of Spain, in 1759, on the death of his eldest brother, 
 Ferdinand VI. He left Naples to his third son, who took th@ 
 
EXECUTION OF MURAT. 199 
 
 throne under the name of Ferdinand I. This monarch was a man 
 of a very weak mind ; indeed, the intellect of the entire family 
 was none of the best. The eldest son of Don Carlos was non 
 compos mentis, and, therefore, incapable of being his father's heir 
 to the throne of Spain, on which account the second son was re- 
 served to succeed his father, and the third left at Naples. Ferdi- 
 nand's wife, Queen Caroline, of the house of Austria, ruled her 
 husband and the court. She was a cruel tyrant ; and, while she 
 kept the king himself under her sway, she made him the tool of 
 her cruelty and tyranny. This hastened the revolution which 
 was commenced by the Neapolitans for the sake of liberty, but 
 which, like all the other revolutions in the Italian States, ended 
 in the domination of the French. In 1806 Joseph Bonaparte was 
 made king. He was succeeded by his brother-in-law, Joachim 
 Murat, who held the crown until, in 1814, he was compelled to 
 yield it to the Austrian power, when it was bestowed again by 
 the Emperor of Austria, Francis II., upon the old King Ferdinand 
 I* Again the feeble old king was driven from his capital and 
 kingdom by Murat in 1815, but was restored by the failure of 
 Murat's effort to recover his government. This effort was fol- 
 lowed by a second, in which the restless and ambitious spirit of 
 this brother-in-law of Napoleon drove him upon the rash enterprise 
 of sailing from Toulon with six barks, with the expectation of 
 being joined by his partisans in sufficient strength to recover his 
 crown. His fleet was dispersed in a gale, and he was driven on 
 shore at San Lucida, where he was taken prisoner, and afterward 
 tried by a court-martial and sentenced to be shot. This sentence 
 was executed October 13, 1815. Ferdinand was so excited by 
 his fears of Murat, that he could not rest until the sentence of 
 death was executed upon him. The old king himself died in 1825, 
 and was succeeded by his son Francis I. This monarch has 
 more intellect than his father, but possesses a share of his illiber- 
 ally and bigotry. If this part of Italy ever rises from its present 
 condition, it must be by a gradual melioration ; there is little hope 
 from revolution; any change from this source will only be a 
 
 * Fortunately for Naples and for the world, the queen in the mean time had died at 
 Vienna, where she had been sent by the English to prevent her intrigues against the 
 constitutional government which they had established at Sicily. 
 
200 ITALY. 
 
 change of masters, A great portion of the people in Calabria are 
 but half civilized ; and these, with the lazaroni of Naples, always 
 join the nobility in favour of monarchy. To this they are led 
 by their ignorance, their superstition, and the influence of their 
 priests. 
 
 If a monarch should arise who, understanding his own interests 
 as well as the interests of the people, would establish a constitu- 
 tional government, and provide the means of instruction for the 
 people, they might, in time, be elevated; but, as there is little 
 hope of this, so there is every reason to suppose that Magna Grae- 
 cia will be the last corner of Italy that will be enlightened and 
 refined. 
 
 The principal object of interest to the stranger in Naples still 
 remains to be noticed. I allude to the public museum called 
 the Museo Borbonico ; a name, by-the-way, which has more of 
 pride in it than appropriateness ; but this is of no consequence. 
 The museum itself is equalled by none in the world for interest, 
 "chiefly because it contains the spoils of those buried cities which 
 have been preserved for seventeen centuries in all the freshness 
 and perfection of their original character. As soon as any new 
 object of interest is uncovered in the excavations which are made 
 in the subterranean cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, it is re- 
 moved to this museum. You are here introduced, therefore, to 
 historical records, more expressive than description, of what these 
 cities were at the moment they were inhumed. I do not now 
 speak of the fine arts ; for, although some very good frescoes* have 
 been excavated, with all the freshness of their original colouring, 
 as well as a great many indifferent ones ; and although some very 
 beautiful mosaics of a coarser kind, such as are found in the pave- 
 ments of courts and floors of rooms, have been exhumed ; and even 
 although some most splendid sculpture has been found, such, for 
 example, as the equestrian statues of the Balbi and the statue of 
 Aristides, both found at Herculaneum, yet these have their 
 equals, perhaps, in the specimens of ancient statuary found else- 
 where. But to enter into a museum containing all the kitchen 
 utensils, the toys of the toilet, the instruments of agriculture, 
 
 * Perhaps I ought to say, for the information of some of my youthful readers, that, 
 properly speaking, a fresco is a painting upon a damp plastered wall. 
 
THE MUSEO BORBONICO. 201 
 
 the contents of the shop, the furniture of the private and public 
 apartments, the sacred implements and vessels of the altars and 
 the temples, all, in short, that relates to war or peace, to public 
 or private life, to business or pleasure, to arts or literature, to 
 the licentiousness or the religion of a refined, licentious, luxu- 
 rious, and superstitious people, existing two thousand years ago; 
 this is to see one of the most surprising exhibitions the world 
 has ever beheld, and is owing to one of the most extraordinary 
 occurrences that has marked the history of the earth since the 
 flood. 
 
 I cannot describe these articles minutely, but must glance at 
 the most general division of the objects. 
 
 1. A hall devoted to ancient paintings, consisting principally of 
 pieces of the plastered walls, with frescoes on them, containing pic- 
 torial representations of almost every important event in ancient 
 history and mythology ; the paintings themselves, independent of 
 their story, are generally indifferent. 
 
 2. Gallery of Ancient Sculpture. Of this there are something 
 like twelve divisions, or different halls and cabinets, containing five 
 or six hundred specimens of ancient sculpture. These are not all, 
 however, from the two cities mentioned, but all antiques from 
 every quarter are deposited here. Among these, the finest I ever 
 saw for a single figure is the statue of Aristides, already alluded 
 to. The philosopher stands with his arms folded in his cloak, in 
 all the dignity and integrity of his character. It is a work as near 
 perfection, I think, as human art can ever achieve. This is the 
 kind of statuary I covet for my country. I had much ado to re- 
 frain from a violation of the command, " Thou shalt not covet" 
 when looking at this matchless figure. Could I have it, thought I, 
 to exhibit to the youth of America, to the young men of our uni- 
 versities, such a dignified personification of integrity, in the person 
 of Aristides the Just, might greatly aid in elevating their charac- 
 ters and strengthening their principles ; although I might well be re- 
 minded that they have not only Moses and the prophets, but Jesus 
 Christ and the apostles, whom, if they hear not, neither would 
 they believe, although Aristides should rise from the dead. And 
 yet I think it would be no disadvantage to see the old philosopher 
 even in marble ; I should like to look at him two or three times a 
 day as long as I live. But why do I dwell so long upon one figure 
 
 Cc 
 
202 ITALY. 
 
 among so many ? Because I would give more for him than for 
 a score of naked Venuses whom I saw in an adjoining hall, ak 
 though one of them, at least, is thought to rival the famous Venus 
 de Medicis. 
 
 3. The Egyptian and Etruscan Gallery. This contains Egyp- 
 tian hieroglyphics, the instruments for the Egyptian worship, 
 statues of their gods, vases, &c, besides many Etruscan vases 
 and antiquities. The Romans and other Italians were accustomed 
 to adopt all the respectable deities they could meet with ; for in 
 this way heathenism endeavours to satisfy itself, and make up for 
 the cfefect of its individual divinities by worshipping multitudes. 
 The Egyptian deities, especially, seem to have been in high re- 
 pute. All the ancient cities of any importance appear, as far as 
 can be traced by history or remaining ruins, to have one Egyptian 
 temple or more. Many of the images, vessels, and implements 
 of these temples show the licentiousness and impurity of their 
 worship. 
 
 4. The Gallery of Ancient Bronzes. A splendid collection, 
 mostly from Herculaneum, some from Pompeii, and other places, 
 to the number of between one and two hundred. 
 
 5. A suite of apartments containing kitchen furniture, glass 
 lamps, weights and measures, agricultural implements, gems, and 
 ladies' ornaments, &c, &c. 
 
 In these relics of a former age we are surprised to see, in a 
 great many instances, the very implements over again with which 
 we are conversant at the present day ; the same pans, the pots 
 and kettles, the gridirons, the ladles, the steelyards, the stoves, 
 stamps for printing letters on bread, nay, some of the bread itself 
 stamped, inkstands with remains of ink in them, pens or styli, 
 opera tickets, door trimmings, bits for bridles, musical instruments, 
 dice, spinning-wheels, distaffs, locks and keys, surgical instru- 
 ments almost equal to the modern, moulds for pastry, skimmers, 
 grates, stocks for the feet of prisoners,* andirons, mirrors, rouge, 
 and other paints for the face — for ladies, it seems, improved upon 
 nature in those days as well as now — combs, curling-tongs, and 
 other requisites for ladies' toilets. In short, you seem here to be 
 
 * The skeleton of a man was found in a pair of these stocks which we saw in the mu- 
 seum, showing that the prisoner in his cell and the lady at the toilet shared a common 
 lot in this dire catastrophe. 
 
THE MUSEO BORBONICO. 203 
 
 translated back two thousand years, and led into all the familiar 
 scenes of domestic life. And worse than this ; there is a reserve 
 room, which none are allowed to enter without a special permit 
 from the director. As the contents of this room are not decent to 
 be publicly exposed, even in an Italian museum, of course they 
 are not proper to be described, even if one could make up his 
 mind to describe them. They are only mentioned here as proof 
 of the extreme licentiousness of those cities. If one of our great 
 cities, New-York for example, were to be buried suddenly, with 
 all concerns just as they now are, and should be excavated two 
 thousand years hence, there would be found, undoubtedly, in'some 
 parts of the city, the unequivocal memorials of a gross licentious- 
 ness ; but to judge of the general character of the city by these in- 
 dications would be incorrect. But the great evidence of universal, 
 or, at least, general corruption in Pompeii, is the fact that some 
 of these impure indications were taken from the houses of the 
 first citizens, and from the toilets of the ladies of those families. 
 Diomedes, whose suburban villa just out of the gates of Pompeii 
 will be noticed hereafter, appears to have been a man of consular 
 dignity ; and yet his ladies, his daughter, as is supposed, had such 
 forms of jewelry and toys of her toilet as may not be described, 
 and as no virtuous lady could expose on her person. No wonder 
 these cities were overwhelmed by the visitation of Divine provi- 
 dence. It is but the providential exemplification of the Divine 
 abhorrence of sin, and an early and unequivocal intimation of that 
 coming day when this entire polluted earth shall be destroyed by 
 the agency of the same element. 
 
 Time would fail me to speak of the ancient pottery ; the lamps, 
 almost innumerable ; and of the glassware, tolerably clear, con- 
 sisting of vases, cinerary urns, &c., together with some speci- 
 mens of window glass from Diomedes's villa, the only house where, 
 as yet, glass windows have been discovered. 
 
 But I must not neglect to notice the papyri, or ancient written 
 parchments, dug principally from Herculaneum, and found in one 
 library about the middle of the last century, amounting to 1730 
 scrolls. When discovered they looked like black cinders; but 
 there were so many of them, and in such regular order, that they 
 attracted attention ; and it was discovered, on close examination, 
 that these were no other than scrolls of papyrus, rolled up in the 
 
204 ITALY. 
 
 manner of the ancient works, and containing treatises, poems, 
 music, &c, in Latin and Greek. An Italian, Antonio Piaggio, has 
 invented a machine for unrolling them ; and, although they are 
 perfectly charred through, still, by the process adopted and the 
 preparation applied, they are unrolled, and so far kept from falling 
 to pieces that most of the contents of these ancient books are de- 
 ciphered. The process is slow, but the work is still going on. 
 Several volumes of the above works have been published ; but, as 
 yet, little has been found that will add to our knowledge of ancient 
 literature. 
 
 In the Gallery of the Toro Farnese are two very extraordinary 
 specimens of statuary. The one gives name to the gallery, and 
 is a group of a female tied to the horns of a raging bull, which is 
 held by two young men, and another matronal lady standing by. 
 It is supposed to be a representation of Dirce fastened by her 
 hair to the horns of the bull by the two sons of Lycus, king of 
 Thebes, Amphion and Zethus, and that the other female is their 
 mother, commanding them to release her. There is a youth also, 
 supposed to be Bacchus, seated in the same group, together with 
 a dog, and various figures of snakes, and other reptiles, and 
 smaller quadrupeds. The whole, it is supposed, is cut out of one 
 block of marble, executed in Greece before the Christian era. 
 It was carried from Rhodes to Rome, and found there in the baths 
 of Caracalla, much mutilated, but now beautifully restored. In 
 the same room, and found also in the baths of Caracalla, is a co- 
 lossal statue of Hercules, judged by most to be one of the finest 
 achievements of the chisel. It is a representation of Hercules 
 resting on his club after he had accomplished his labours, and 
 just before his apotheosis. It is, as an. inscription on it indicates, 
 the workmanship of Glicon the Athenian. Both this and the 
 Toro are very magnificent productions of the artist ; the latter, 
 especially, is indescribably sublime. 
 
 In addition to the galleries already mentioned, there are, in this 
 museum, two galleries of pictures which I cannot dwell upon. 
 In taking leave of this interesting museum, however, I must say, 
 in behalf of the custodes in the different apartments, that they 
 are as gentlemanly and accommodating men as I have ever met 
 with in a similar condition and office. 
 
ENVIRONS OF NAPLES. 206 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Some of the greatest, perhaps I may say the greatest, objects 
 of interest to the traveller in Southern Italy are in the environs 
 of Naples. I shall give a sketch of three excursions, which will 
 embrace the principal objects of interest among these environs. 
 
 The first was to Passtum, fifty-four miles in a southerly direc- 
 tion from Naples. We started in a carriage in the morning, with 
 two young Englishmen and an American in company. Beyond . 
 Pompeii, for we passed this ancient town, we followed up a very \ 
 fruitful valley, with magnificent vines climbing up lofty trees, 
 and the soil teeming with verdure. It was like a summer's day, 
 although it was still March. 
 
 Near the old town of Nuceria we stopped to visit an ancient 
 and singular church, said to be built in the time of Constant 
 tine ; beyond this we crossed a most romantic country by the- 
 town of La Cava, built with porticoes on each side of the street, 
 and by Vietri to Salerno. This magnificent scenery was worth 
 the time and trouble of the excursion, if we had seen nothing else. 
 It was the first I had seen which came fully up to my beau ideal 
 of Italian scenery. We slept at Salerno, which is beautifully 
 situated on one of those delightful bays that indent this coast, and 
 is environed with hills. The next day we proceeded through a 
 country much of the way as dreary and desolate as the former 
 part had been delightful. It was a new road, cut through a low 
 swampy country, which was only peopled by immense herds of 
 buffaloes. Occasionally we passed some wretched-looking beings 
 in human shape, who were tending their flocks or wandering over 
 the marshes ; nor could we fully forget that we were in that land 
 of semi-barbarians which, but a few years ago, was filled with 
 robbers. Of this we were more especially reminded in passing 
 the spot where, but a few years since, an Englishman and his 
 wife were shot in their own carriage by some banditti who had 
 concealed themselves in a little thicket, still standing, near the 
 18 
 
206 ITALY. 
 
 road. The object was plunder. The gentleman and his lady had 
 been to Paestum, where, in taking their refreshment, they injudi- 
 ciously made an ostentations display of considerable silver plate 
 which they had taken with them. But these days of robbery 
 have passed away. The rigorous measures adopted by govern- 
 ment, and the stationing of soldiers on the highways, have broken 
 up and scattered the organized bands that used to infest the 
 country. 
 
 We passed the river Silarus, and at length came in sight of the 
 objects of our pursuit. 
 
 Paestum is no longer a town. Its site is discovered by the 
 ruins of its walls, in the midst of a desolate and unhealthy plain ; 
 desert almost it may now be called. It was anciently called Pos- 
 idonia, and its history runs back to an age too remote to be defi- 
 nitely described by the historian. It was among the most splen- 
 did towns of a remote antiquity. Here Ulysses landed when he 
 was sailing in the Posidonian Gulf; Jason, with his Argonauts, 
 it is said, landed here, and Hercules himself was here ; and, per- 
 haps, all three worshipped in the temples now standing, for these 
 temples, we are told, were looked upon as antiquities in the days 
 of Augustus. Posidonia was subdued by the Romans, and be- 
 came a Roman colony ; and finally, in the ninth century, it was 
 taken by the Saracens and levelled with the ground,, all except 
 these massy Doric temples, which fire could not destroy nor great 
 strength readily demolish, and on which time with his corroding 
 tooth has been gnawing for perhaps three thousand years with 
 but little success. These are the objects of our curiosity ; objects 
 which stand in melancholy grandeur, in desolate sublimity, in the 
 desert marshes of Calabria. Let him who can, conceive of our 
 feelings as we stood in these monuments of remote antiquity, and 
 thought of those who, three thousand years ago, worshipped at 
 these altars and thronged these temples. 
 
 The cause of their long endurance is, first, the massiveness of 
 the masonry and of the architecture, but especially and chiefly, 
 the character of the material. It is the hardest kind of Travertina 
 marble, which is a peculiar formation from water. It is harder 
 than flint, although as porous as a buhr-millstone. There were 
 holes in the pillars into which I could insert a stick to the depth 
 of twelve inches, but still the sides of the orifice were hard al- 
 
RUINS OF PjESTUM. 207 
 
 "most as the adamant * These columns are formed of separate 
 blocks of marble, put together without any cement. The largest 
 of them are in the centre edifice, and are six feet nine inches in 
 diameter, and the height, including the capitols, twenty^eight feet 
 eleven inches. They are fluted, each pillar having twenty chan- 
 nellings, and the dimensions of this edifice are one hundred and 
 ninety-four by seventy-nine feet. The centre, or nave, is divided 
 into three parts by two ranges of central columns, each range hav- 
 ing seven in number, crowned with an architrave, above which 
 are orders of smaller columns, which are supposed to have been 
 the support of the roof. Some of these small columns, also, are 
 still standing. The number of external columns forming the en- 
 tire peristile is thirty-six ; that is, six on each front and twelve on 
 each side. The other two edifices have, the one fifty columns, 
 the other thirty-four. The smaller is supposed to have been a 
 temple of Ceres ; but the other has no indications of a place of 
 heathen worship, such as altars, cella, &c, and has therefore 
 been supposed to be a basilica, or hall for the civil and judicial 
 administration of the city. These, considered as mere architec- 
 tural ruins, are the grandest, and, for their age, the most perfect 
 of anything, perhaps, now in existence. It would be in vain if I 
 should attempt to describe them with a view of conveying an ad- 
 equate conception of them. Their proportions, their situation, 
 their age, the firmness with which even now they brave the as- 
 saults of time, their historic associations, their lonely grandeur ! 
 But why should I mention these things ? I cannot carry the 
 reader with me in the tide of feeling that rushes in upon the ac- 
 tual spectator. Could he be led to the spot itself, and there call up 
 all the historic associations of the place, then, as he gazed, im- 
 agination would be quickened into action, and would fill these 
 temples with the sweet-mouthed Greeks, rehearsing and listening 
 to the numbers of Homer ; he would see the priests officiating at 
 these altars a thousand years before the coming of the Great High- 
 priest of the Christian church ; these pillars would be hung round 
 with garlands, and the open courts would be filled with the heroes 
 and sages of olden time ; among them is the adventurous Jason, 
 
 * The appearance of the stone is very much like cork. There are models of these 
 temples in the museum made of cork, which are a very good resemblance both of th© 
 form and of the material 
 
208 ITALY. 
 
 with his followers ; the wandering Ulysses ; and, above all, the di- 
 vine Hercules, of whom no one can form an adequate conception 
 until he has seen him in the hall of the Toro Farnese. See, he 
 enters with his lion-skin upon his arm, his club in his hand, fol- 
 lowed by the admiring populace, while the divine hero himself 
 looks round upon the temples and the people, admiring, in his turn, 
 that enterprise and skill which could rear edifices of such strength 
 and durability as would lose nothing in a comparison with some 
 of his own mighty achievements. This, you say, is rhapsody. 
 Well, then, let us return to reality. We must acknowledge these 
 to be splendid ruins, but their situation is most uninviting. A few 
 wretched inhabitants lodge here, in poor dirty dwellings, living 
 upon the liberality of strangers. Your cicerone is a ragged beg- 
 gar ; you are surrounded by beggars on every side, who seem ready 
 to devour you, from whose annoyance you get no relief but by 
 buying them off at as good a bargain as you can. It is the re- 
 gion of death ; the malaria holds its court here, and its realm is 
 desolation. We carried our own refreshment and our own water 
 even ; for here you may not drink, and here you can find little to 
 eat except from your own stores. Well may the traveller shun 
 the waters of this neighbourhood ; they turn everything to stone. 
 We brought away, among other petrifications, a bunch of petrified 
 macaroni, which, by a six months' submersion in the waters of 
 the Silarus, had been transformed into travertina, as hard almost 
 as the pillars of the temples themselves. The material of these 
 temples is undoubtedly the production of these waters. We re- 
 turned to Salerno to lodge, and early next morning started back 
 as far as Pompeii, where we spent the day. 
 
 Where there is so much to be described as is found in the ruins 
 of Pompeii, it is difficult to know where to begin or what order to 
 pursue. I have determined to relieve myself of this embarrass- 
 ment, however, by not entering into the details of a systematic 
 description, and shall content myself with such general and par- 
 ticular remarks as will give the reader some tolerable idea of this 
 partially-excavated city. 
 
 Pompeii was not buried by lava, but by a shower of cinders, 
 ashes, and stones, which were thrown from Vesuvius for four suc- 
 cessive days and nights. In this time the inhabitants had time 
 to escape ; and, from the fewness of the skeletons found, it has 
 
EXCAVATION OF POMPEII. 209 
 
 been presumed that most of them did escape, carrying with them, 
 or recovering afterward by excavation, a large portion of their 
 most valuable property.* The roofs of their houses, being flat, 
 fell in under the accumulated weight, and the whole was so com- 
 pletely buried that its exact position was not known until acci- 
 dentally discovered by some peasants in the middle of the last 
 century. A little more than one third of the city has been exca- 
 vated, and these excavations have been prosecuted by following 
 the direction of the streets, of which the Appian Way seems to 
 have been the principal thoroughfare. This, as well as the other 
 streets, is paved with lava, and the channels worn by the wheels 
 are seen in the pavement, showing that the wheels of the ancient 
 Roman vehicles were about four feet apart. The public buildings 
 which have been excavated bear an unequal proportion to the oth- 
 ers, which shows that the excavations have been through the most 
 public parts of the city. The ruins of their temples, theatres, and 
 basilicas are splendid; many of them bear marks, however, of 
 being injured by the destructive earthquake which took place six- 
 teen years previous to the great eruption that buried the city. In 
 one of the temples, the Temple of Isis, several skeletons were 
 found of priests, who appear to have been at their dinner when 
 the suffocating tempest buried them alive. Another skeleton of 
 a priest was found, with two or three hundred pieces of silver 
 money in his hand. In this temple, too, you may see the secret 
 staircase, and the passage through which, and the position to w T hich, 
 the priests ascended when they gave the oracles that were sup- 
 posed to come from the god. Italy, it seems, commenced and 
 has grown old, in holy frauds. 
 
 One street is occupied by shops, the contents of which were in 
 so good a state of preservation that the business of each could be 
 readily designated. Most of the private buildings were one story, 
 although some of the best houses were- two or three stories. The 
 stories themselves, however, are low, the lodging chambers small, 
 and generally without lights, except at the doors. The construc- 
 tion of the houses shows how little comfort was found in the do- 
 mestic domicil. The ancient Romans lived mostly at the forum 
 
 * Money and plate, however, have been found, as well as gems and jewelry. Since I 
 was at Naples I learn that the excavaters have discovered a dining set of silver plate, 
 embracing, among other things, forty-four dining plates in a good state of preservation. 
 
 IS Dd 
 
210 ITALY. 
 
 and in the public places. The best houses were built round 
 quadrangular courts, which are paved with mosaic work of small 
 pebbles, surrounded with alcoves, dining and drawing rooms, cham- 
 bers, &c, and generally furnished with a cistern and a fountain. 
 The kitchen and the dining-room seem to have been the apart- 
 ments most regarded and best furnished. Here is a hotel, a coffee- 
 house also, as it is called, containing a marble counter or dresser, 
 in which little circular impressions are visible, evidently occasioned 
 by the cup or glass, and probably from medicated liquids, which 
 were used in those days instead of the toddy of the moderns, the 
 corrosive qualities of which affected the marble. 
 
 For some distance before the Appian Way enters the city, it is 
 lined by double rows of tombs on each side, in which were found 
 urns containing ashes and bones. These tombs also contained 
 tablets and inscriptions. Just before you enter the gate is the villa 
 of Diomedes, already alluded to. This seems to have been a fine 
 three-story edifice, and elegantly furnished. This house has nu- 
 merous apartments, and, among others, a court, around which is a 
 subterranean corridor, which seems to have been a wine-cellar. 
 To this place, it appears, the family had retreated for protection, as 
 seventeen skeletons were found here, one of them richly orna- 
 mented, and supposed to have been the wife of Diomedes ; near 
 the back door were found two skeletons, one with keys, and wear- 
 ing a gold ring, supposed to be Diomedes himself; and near the 
 other were silver vases, and a wrapper containing eighty pieces 
 of silver money, ten of gold, and some of bronze ; probably this 
 was the servant bearing away these treasures after his master ; both 
 of whom, however, were arrested and buried alive. 
 
 But, as I hope enough has been said to give some idea of this 
 ancient city as it was, and of the awful calamity that overwhelmed 
 it, I will refrain from further details. The site is now a mile 
 from the sea, although, formerly, the water of the harbour washed 
 the walls. 
 
 Curiosity grows impatient under the slow operations of the 
 present excavations. We are anxious to know what new disclo- 
 sures remain to be made in the buried records of this ill-omened city. 
 The greatest part of the excavations were made under the admin- 
 istration of the Bonapartists. Something is still doing, however, 
 and, as fast as any new discovery is made, the object is not allowed 
 
HERCULANEUM. 211 
 
 to be removed until visited by one of the royal family, and, if ad- 
 judged worthy, it is transferred to the museum. 
 
 We took some refreshment in one of the ancient temples, and, 
 after nearly exhausting the day, which we found quite too short 
 for our curiosity, we started for Naples, passing over in our way 
 the site of Torre del Greco, a town of about eighteen thousand in- 
 habitants, which was buried by an irruption in 1794. This ir- 
 ruption burst out from the western side of Vesuvius, and about the 
 middle of the mountain. From this orifice, which was only five 
 miles from Torre del Greco, the molten contents of this immense 
 caldron were poured out in an overwhelming torrent, which buried 
 the town, and invaded the territories of the sea, driving it back and 
 taking its place for the space of one third of a square mile. 
 
 We stopped, as we passed, to visit what could be seen of Her- 
 culaneum. This city, although buried at the same time with Pom- 
 peii, was covered by a different material ; by the lava instead of 
 the cinders. When the molten lava becomes cooled, it is extremely 
 hard, and becomes more indurated by time ; hence the excava- 
 tion of Herculaneum is extremely difficult and expensive. There 
 is also another obstruction; the more modern towns of Resina 
 and Portici are built immediately over it ; this latter, especially, 
 is a town of some importance, and has a royal palace ; and ex- 
 tensive excavations cannot be made without undermining these 
 towns. The first discovery of Herculaneum was at the beginning 
 of the last century, by sinking a well ; subsequently different parts 
 of the city were laid open, the buried channel of a river discovered, 
 the temple of Jupiter, a forum, various specimens of statuary, &c., 
 and especially a splendid theatre, which latter is the only part 
 of the excavations now shown, all the others having been filled up. 
 We descended to this with torches, and examined the corridors, 
 stage, &c. Here were found the two equestrian statues of the 
 Balbi in the Museo Borbonico. The depositions upon the top 
 of this buried city are from sixty to one hundred feet deep. 
 
 It is worthy of remark, that the houses, walls, pavements, &c, 
 of both Herculaneum and Pompeii, are of lava, so that this must 
 have been a volcanic region from remote antiquity ; and how many 
 cities have been built upon the top of cities through successive 
 periods of our world's existence, none can tell ; nor shall we 
 know until these buried generations shall burst from their sub- 
 
212 ITALY. 
 
 terranean prison-houses, to meet the collected millions at the great 
 day. 
 
 Highly gratified with our excursion, but wearied with our la- 
 bour, we returned to our lodgings. 
 
 The second excursion was westerly, through the Grotto of Po- 
 solipo to Baiae, Cuma, &c. This is the most celebrated region 
 of the ancients. It is the land of enchantment, the region of fable 
 and of song, the ancient seat of luxury and licentiousness. 
 
 The first object in this direction of special interest is Virgil's 
 tomb. The situation is a most romantic one, quite elevated, and 
 yet in a sequestered dell, near the mouth of the Grotto of Poso- 
 lipo. It is just such a spot as I should suppose the poet would 
 have chosen for his resting-place. The place itself is most charm- 
 ing, and it is near the scene of some of the most interesting events 
 of the iEneid. 
 
 The Grotto of Posolipo is cut through a hill, above two thousand 
 three hundred feet in length, twenty-two feet wide, and in some 
 places eighty-nine* feet high ; oblique apertures are cut in the cen- 
 tre to let in light ; lamps are also suspended for the same purpose. 
 It is, however, a gloomy pass. By whom this magnificent work 
 was accomplished is not known. It seems, from the early ac- 
 counts we have of it, however, to have been very ancient. Its 
 object was, undoubtedly, to facilitate the intercourse between an- 
 cient Puteoli and Neapolis, or Naples. Passing through this 
 grotto you next come to Pozzuoli, or, as it was anciently called, 
 Puteoli.* This was St. Paul's first landing-place in Italy, and 
 where, as he says, he found brethren, and tarried seven days, and 
 then proceeded to Rome by land, Acts xxviii., 14. It was formerly 
 a city of note, with one of the finest harbours on the Italian coast. 
 Here some of the wealthiest Romans had villas ; for, in addition to 
 its pleasant site and interesting surrounding scenery, it was fa- 
 voured with celebrated mineral waters, which rendered it a desi- 
 rable watering-place. These mineral waters still have a reputa- 
 tion for their healing properties. The place, however, has suffered 
 by the hand of pillage and violence, and by earthquakes and vol- 
 canoes, until it is reduced to a miserable village. Some of its mag- 
 
 * Another magnificent way from Naples to Pozzuoli has been constructed within a 
 few years, at a great expense, around the abrupt point of this promontory next to the sea; 
 but, when we were in Naples, it was out of repair and impassable. 
 
SOLFATARA. 213 
 
 nificent ruins have been disinterred, and show, by what remains, 
 some mournful proofs of its former glory ; among others, the temple 
 of Serapis. This was discovered in 1750, and excavated. It 
 then had all its furniture in it, and the edifice itself was entire ; 
 but it has been despoiled, not only of its ornaments and furniture, 
 but of its material. The foundation is there still, and the lower 
 floor, with three of its noble columns of Cipollino marble. Its di- 
 mensions were one hundred and thirty-four by one hundred and 
 fifteen feet. There are other ruins of interest in the place. 
 
 « We obtained donkeys here, and proceeded to Solfatara. This 
 donkey-riding, by-the-way, is rather a small business. The little 
 animals are quite lazy and obstinate, but you are assisted in this 
 matter by the drivers (for each animal has an attendant), who 
 guides, and drives, and beats. The uncomfortableness of the 
 conveyance is increased by the sympathy for the animals. Of all 
 domestic beasts, the ass is most abused ; and the race must cer- 
 tainly be made of different materials from other animals, or they 
 never could endure their labour and pounding ; but, with all his 
 beating, his obstinacy, and stupidity, and inertness will not depart 
 from him. In this, however, he differs not materially from the 
 biped that beats him, of whom a wise man has said, " Although 
 you bray a fool with a pestle in a mortar, yet will not his foolish- 
 ness depart from him." The wise conclusion in both cases, there- 
 fore, is, that it is useless both to bray the fool and beat the don- 
 key ; acting upon this principle, I generally take the staff or club 
 from the fool, and let the little quadruped crawl along in his own 
 instinctive way, which, on the whole, is as safe, nearly as expedi- 
 tious, and far more pleasant than any other. 
 
 Solfatara is a singular spot, evidently the crater of an extinct 
 volcano,* and yet not so extinct but the internal fires are still send- 
 ing up their smoke, and steam, and flames of sulphur, which lat- 
 ter are precipitated in some places in a pure state. Pits are dug 
 in different directions for the purpose of using the materials, to 
 obtain from them sal ammoniac, alum, and sulphuric acid, or vitriol, 
 as it is commonly called. These materials are leached, and then 
 evaporated in kettles bedded in the bottom of this basin, which 
 has sufficient heat to carry on the operation. The plain of tho 
 
 * There was an irruption here A. D. 1198. 
 
214 ITALY. 
 
 basin is about eight hundred and ninety feet long by seven hun- 
 dred and fifty-five broad, and is surrounded by hills. The an- 
 cients called it Forum Vulcani, or Vulcan's shop. Our guide 
 raised a large stone and let it fall upon the ground ; and, from the 
 report, it appeared that the earth here is hollow, and that some 
 reservoir below, of fire or water, is crusted over with a ceiling of 
 no great thickness. It is one of Nature's laboratories, where she 
 is compounding and analyzing in her own original way. 
 
 "We next passed the villa of Cicero, which he called Academia t 
 because here he composed his famous academic questions. No- 
 thing, however, now remains but his wine cellar. 
 
 Thence we passed to the Lake oVAgnano. This is a body of 
 water about three miles in circumference, imbosomed in the midst 
 of volcanic hills, having fresh water at the top, but salt water, it 
 is said, at the bottom. This is not at all improbable, inasmuch 
 as salts abound in these regions ; and the lower strata, becoming 
 impregnated with them, would not rise on account of its increased 
 specific gravity. The water also sometimes boils, by reason, 
 doubtless, of the passage of gas from the bottom. Here, also, 
 are vapour-baths, which are warmed from hot vapours that issue 
 from the ground. In a very few moments after entering them 
 you feel the perspiration starting out all over you; indeed, the 
 heat is almost insupportable. 
 
 The Grotto del Cane is also by the side of this lake. , This is 
 so called — the grotto of the dog — because a dog is generally used 
 for exhibiting to spectators the effect upon animal life of the me- 
 phitic air which escapes here. From a kind of cave under the hill, 
 on the bank of the lake, a stream of warm water issues, together 
 with vapour and smoke. On the surface of the water rolls out 
 a stratum of sulphuric acid gas ; this, being specifically heavier 
 than the atmospheric air, does not rise, and, therefore, a man may 
 walk into the cave and experience no inconvenience ; but for a dog 
 to go in is speedy death. Hence the original idea seems to have 
 been that the air of the cave was fatal to dogs, but harmless to 
 men. Many philosophical theories have been formed on premises 
 equally fallacious. I felt inclined to spare the poor dog the pro- 
 cess of suffocation, as he stood trembling by, expecting his des- 
 tiny, held by a string in the hand of the cicerone. Some of our 
 company, however, desired it, and the poor fellow was forced in. 
 
THE RIVER STYX. 215 
 
 He soon fell with a convulsion or two, and then appeared to be 
 dead. He was taken out, however, before life was extinct ; and, 
 after lying a few moments on the bank, he came to, but with 
 much apparent agony, together with a good deal of ill-nature ; 
 his master rewarded him with a crust. This man farms the priv- 
 ilege of showing this cave from government, for which he pays a 
 high price ; to meet which, and for his own support, he taxes 
 every visiter. It is curious to measure the depth of this stratum 
 of invisible gas by the volume of smoke that rolls out upon the 
 top of it, marking so exactly the surface, that, wherever any ine- 
 quality of the ground produces an undulation in the stratum of gas, 
 the smoke above it also undulates as distinctly as if it were floating 
 upon the top of undulating water. 
 
 Our next object was the Lake Avernus, and the interesting 
 scenes around it. In passing thither we left at our right a mount- 
 ain called Monte Nuovo, or the New Mountain, four hundred and 
 twenty feet high, and one and a half miles in diameter, formed in 
 thirty-six hours by a volcanic eruption in 1538. We first came to 
 the Lucrine lake, which Agrippa connected, by means of a canal, 
 with the Lake Avernus. This latter is the same as that described 
 by Virgil, in the sixth book of the ^Eneid, under the name of Tar- 
 tarus, and the waters of which were said, in ancient times, to be 
 deadly, so that fish would not live in it nor birds fly over it. All this, 
 however, is changed. There are now fish in it, and birds over it 
 and on it. Probably the deleterious vapours that here found vent 
 are either no longer generated, or have been changed into other 
 channels. Here are also the ruins of a temple to Pluto, and a 
 little farther is the fabled descent to old Pluto's realm, down 
 which, according to Virgil, JEneas descended when he visited his 
 father Anchises in the shades below. Thither, being supplied 
 with torches by our guide, we followed him about one hundred 
 and fifty paces, when we came to the river Styx : farther than 
 this our ladies chose not to go ; having found a ferryman, how- 
 ever, or rather several, for, whether the business is increased 
 now, or what, may be the cause, I know not, there certainly ap- 
 pears to be much more competition than formerly, we made our 
 arrangements for the passage. In Virgil's days old Charon 
 had the monopoly of this ferry, and, like all other monopolists, 
 he was captious and unaccommodating. These modern Cha- 
 
216 ITALY. 
 
 rons, however, only desired to get the job and the fee, which lat- 
 ter was fixed beforehand in order to avoid imposition. When all 
 was settled, we embarked, not in a boat, but on the ferrymen's 
 backs. It was dark as midnight, and the water was so deep as to 
 make the passage slow and rather dangerous ; not to life, but the 
 danger was, that a misstep might submerge us into the water ; 
 and if we might thereby, like the renowned Achilles, have been 
 made invulnerable, we would readily have forgone the inconve- 
 nience ; but, as the modern Avernus has lost its power to kill 
 birds, so this modern Styx has lost its power to immortalize men. 
 We were conducted safe, however, and landed on the other side, 
 where we had an opportunity to examine the sibyl's bath and her 
 bed-chambers, and this was the end of our voyage. The Descen- 
 sus Averni having been closed up, we returned again to the light 
 of the day. Hie labor est. 
 
 There have been recorded two Cumean sibyls. One was 
 named Cumea, and the other Amalthea. The former flourished 
 about the time of the destruction of Troy. She was born in Eu- 
 bcea, but came afterward and settled in Cuma. The fable is, 
 that Apollo, who was enamoured of her, promised her whatever 
 she desired; whereupon she requested she might live as many 
 years as she had grains of sand in her hand. It was granted, and 
 she found the grains to be one thousand. When Virgil consulted 
 her near this place, she had lived seven hundred years, but she 
 had become withered and skinny ! for, although her life was se- 
 cured, she showed all the effects of decrepitude and age. This 
 was about eleven hundred and seventy-five years before the Chris- 
 tian era. This was the sibyl, probably, that used to sleep in these 
 dreary chambers and bathe in these subterranean waters. It is 
 said that there was formerly a subterranean passage extending 
 from this to the town of Cuma and the temple of Apollo. The 
 other sibyl appeared five hundred and fifty years later, and is said 
 also to have dwelt here. She it was that sold the sibylline books 
 to Tarquin the Proud. 
 
 Around this lake also were those dark grottoes, and forests im- 
 pregnable to the rays of the sun, where dwelt the Cimmerians, 
 those famous soothsayers of antiquity. This has given rise to the 
 poetical expression, " Cimmerian darkness" The darkness of 
 these forests, the mephitic and poisonous character of the waters, 
 
THE BATHS OF NERO. 217 
 
 the numerous caverns and grottoes, and the wild unearthly char- 
 acter and profession of the inhabitants, are the origin, doubtless, 
 of all the fables that are referrible to these localities. Virgil, like 
 what Sir Walter Scott has done in our own day with Scotland, vis- 
 ited these places, made himself acquainted with all their fabulous 
 and historical associations, and then made them the basis of some 
 of the most inimitable scenes of his unrivalled poem. Octavius 
 Augustus cut down these forests, and the terror and superstition 
 of the places are no more. 
 
 We next visited the baths of Nero. There are in the sides of 
 a hill various outward apartments and accommodations such as 
 appertained to the ancient baths, and from these, leading into a sub- 
 terranean hot spring, is a corridor through which they pass to get 
 the water. The water is hot enough to boil eggs, of which we 
 had proof, although, it must be owned, ours were rather " under 
 done." Having made our bargain with the water-bearer (for you 
 must always bargain with these fellows beforehand if you do not 
 wish to be cheated), we sent him in to boil the eggs and bring the 
 water. I also undertook to accompany him, but could proceed 
 only a few paces ; the hot steam met me with such force as al- 
 most took my breath away. After waiting a few minutes, until 
 we began to feel anxious for the poor fellow who had gone in, 
 we heard him coming, panting like a race-horse at the end of his 
 course. He was stripped to all but a pair of thin pantaloons, and 
 completely bathed in sweat, and apparently all but exhausted. 
 Although it must be a serious adventure to go down the steam 
 orifice of this boiling caldron, still we could not but think there 
 was some acting in all this panting and exhaustion, for the sake 
 of getting an additional fee, for which he did not fail to apply, 
 with most piteous importunity. The same trick was tried upon 
 us at the river Styx, where our guides shuddered and chattered 
 with the cold as though they had been immersed in a Greenland 
 bath, chattering out, at the same time, their request for buono 
 mano.* 
 
 From Pozzuoli to Avernus is about three miles, thence to the 
 baths of Nero one, and now, in another mile, we come to Baiae, 
 
 * Buono mano is a gratuity over and above the regular or stipulated price. Every- 
 body in Italy, almost, expects buono mano. Nay, if you agree with them at a price 
 which shall cover buono mano and all, they will, at the close, want a little buono mano ! 
 
 19 E e 
 
218 ITALY. 
 
 This town was so named, because Baius, the companion of Ulys- 
 ses, was buried here. It was the great seat of luxury and volup- 
 tuousness among the Romans, and served more than anything else 
 to corrupt and destroy them. Seneca was of opinion that no man 
 ought to dwell here who meant to control his passions. Juvenal 
 and Horace both moralize on the corruptions and luxuries of the 
 place ; and a modern poet, in apostrophizing Baise, has truly said — 
 
 " Thy conquests all before thee lie, 
 Man's courage — woman's modesty." 
 
 Could these ruins speak and tell the story of their past associa- 
 tions, what a revolting delineation of luxury, impurity, perfidy, and 
 cruelty would be disclosed. It is well for the credit of human 
 nature, and, perhaps, for the morals of the present and all coming 
 ages, that a great portion of this history is buried by the same ru- 
 inous and oblivious waves that have swept over the edifices and 
 arts of that licentious age. The God of Providence, in a retribu- 
 tive justice, has visited these haunts of ancient luxury; earthquakes, 
 volcanoes, and pestilences have all united to devastate this spot. 
 So eager were the principal men of Rome to have their villas upon 
 the seashore, that they built moles into the sea for their dwellings 
 (see Odes of Horace) ; but their moles and their palaces are swept 
 away, and the ruins may be seen under the water, as well as down 
 to the very edge of the water, all around on this side of the bay. 
 Lucullus, and Julius Caesar, and Horace, and Piso, and,Domitia, 
 and I know not how many more, had their splendid palaces here. 
 The coast was fine, the soil fruitful, the mineral and hot springs 
 abundant, the climate delightful, and the seas abounded with 
 fish ;* all these considerations made Baiae a kind of earthly para- 
 dise, which attracted the rich and luxurious from every direction, 
 and all, or almost all, when they came, did not hesitate to take of 
 the forbidden fruit of sensuality and criminal pleasure ; whereupon 
 God, in his displeasure, drove them from the garden, and cursed 
 the earth here for their sake. 
 
 We passed the ruins of three beautiful temples, viz., of Venus, 
 Mercury, and Diana. That of Mercury is a rotunda one hundred 
 and forty-six feet in diameter, and is still entire. We visited 
 also what is supposed to be the tomb of Agrippina, the wicked 
 
 * Fish seem to have been counted a great luxury by the ancient Romans. One rich 
 citizen, Vidius Pollio, had here large reservoirs for fish, which he used to feed with hu- 
 man flesh ! 
 
OSES OP A LAKE. 219 
 
 mother of the wicked Nero, and who was sacrificed here by the 
 command of that same wicked and unnatural son. Not far off is 
 the Cape of Miseno, so named, according to Virgil, because Mise- 
 nus, ^Eneas's companion, was buried there.* We entered the 
 Piscina Mirabile, a splendid reservoir, constructed by Lucullus, 
 and designed to contain a supply of fresh water. It is a massy 
 structure of bricks, covered with a plaster as hard as marble, and 
 supported by huge pillars. The reservoir is two hundred and 
 twenty-five feet long, by seventy-six in breadth and twenty in 
 height. Although it has stood near two thousand years, it bids fair 
 to stand as much longer, if the world should continue. But I must 
 not stay to mention, much less describe, all these ruins. A mile 
 farther on we came to the modern lake of Fusa?-o, which is the 
 ancient Acherusia Palus, called by Virgil Palus Tenebrosa. This, 
 it was supposed by the ancients, was connected with Avernus by 
 the grotto already mentioned, and was the place of torment for the 
 reprobates ; while at a little distance is the spot which was fabled 
 also to be the Elysian Fields, to which the souls of the just passed 
 after crossing the Acheron, or Palus Tenebrosa. This lake is 
 now only celebrated for oysters, and for being a locality for steep- 
 ing flax and hemp, hence its name ; and the Elysian Fields, I 
 believe, are now chiefly a vineyard. What a utilitarian age is this 
 in which we live ! How are the mystery and glory of these 
 scenes of song and fable turned into the most unpoetic and vulgar 
 haunts of oysters and pools for steeping hemp f Well may it be 
 said, the age of poetry is gone ! 
 
 We returned by the way of the ancient Via Domitiana ; had a 
 distant view of Linterno, the city to which Scipio Africanus retired 
 from the persecutions of his ungrateful countrymen, and where he 
 died. This town, too, as well as the more populous one of Cuma, 
 the site of which we passed, is now in utter desolation. We 
 passed under an arch, however, which is supposed to be the gate 
 of the ancient town of Cuma, and it is a magnificent indication of 
 what the city was. It is called Arco Felice. The wall is sixty- 
 one feet high, and the arch is nineteen feet wide ; the top served 
 also as an aqueduct. 
 
 * It was in the harbour of Misenus that Pliny the Elder had command of the Roman 
 fleet at the time of the fatal irruption of Vesuvius in '79. Thence he crossed over the 
 bay to have a nearer view, and fell a victim to his curiosity in Stabia. 
 
220 ITALY. 
 
 After accomplishing this entire circuit in one day, we returned 
 home through Pozzuoli and the Grotto of Posolipo, wearied with 
 the labours of the day. Indeed, this sight-seeing, as a business, 
 followed up day after day, and pressed, too, as in our case, for the 
 want of time, to the very end of our strength, is a most laborious 
 exercise. But the retrospect is delightful. When the fatigue is 
 gone, and the facts, with all their historical and poetical associa- 
 tions, remain, then comes the enjoyment. Happy for us, in our 
 present situation, that man is a ruminating animal ; that he can 
 crop and devour, as it were, his intellectual food at one time, and 
 masticate and digest it at another. 
 
 Our third excursion, and the last which I shall describe, was 
 up Vesuvius. This mountain is about eight miles from Naples. 
 To visit it we took carriages to Resina, five miles, and there, ac- 
 cording to custom, we made a bargain with One man to furnish 
 the guides, the mules and donkeys, the chaises a porteurs, and 
 whatever else was necessary for the undertaking. Thence we 
 proceeded on mules to the bottom of the cone, three miles, which, 
 exclusive of a stop made at the Hermitage, so called, a sort of 
 Hospice, not far from the base of the cone, took about two hours 
 and a half. 
 
 The country around the base of this mountain, except where 
 the lava has covered the soil, is very fertile, and covered with vine- 
 yards, which produce grapes of an excellent quality, from which is 
 made the celebrated wine called Lacrymce Christi* The cin- 
 ders and ashes are, after a while, very favourable to vegetation, 
 producing a rich and vigorous growth; but, wherever the lava 
 comes, the land is cursed with perpetual barrenness, at least until, 
 by the accumulations of time, a soil shall have been formed upon 
 the steril rock. The surface over which the lava has rolled is 
 left rough, like the convolutions of a molten mass in a semi-liquid 
 state. Down the sides of the lower mountain, or base of the cone, 
 as well as around a portion of the foot of the base itself, this once 
 molten but now petrified mass is spread out in a dark dreary 
 waste, sublime in its desolation. It indicates to you, in its silent 
 but impressive eloquence, the intensity of those internal fires that 
 could melt down and simmer together, into one homogeneous sea, 
 
 * The tears of Christ » 
 
ASCENT OF VESUVIUS. 221 
 
 the crude and heterogeneous materials of this earth; and the 
 mighty energies which could force this sea of molten fire from 
 the depths below through the crust of the earth, and spread it out 
 to cool upon its surface. It is in contemplating such operations 
 as these that man feels his impotency and nothingness. 
 
 The general colour of the lava is a dark brown ; almost all the 
 varieties of colour, however, are found. The compounded mate- 
 rial becomes extremely compact, insomuch that it is susceptible 
 of a very high polish, and is wrought into boxes and toys, and 
 even into necklaces, bracelets, and other ornaments. 
 
 To understand the course of ascent, the reader should be in- 
 formed that there are three mountains having a common base, 
 namely, So??ima, Ottajano, and Vesuvius. The entire circuit of 
 this base is about thirty miles, and the height of the base, to the 
 bottom of the cone of Vesuvius, is about twenty-five hundred feet 
 perpendicular, while the length of the plain of elevation is about 
 three miles. Up this distance we ride on mules or donkeys. 
 The way is rough, and, at intervals, rather steep ; but, on the whole, 
 not very uncomfortable. Most of the way is somewhat elevated 
 above the adjacent regions, by reason of which the lava in the va- 
 rious irruptions which take place is turned from it to the right or 
 left, and leaves it unobstructed, and covered more or less with veg- 
 etation. It is on this ridge that the hermitage before alluded to 
 is situated. This house has been often threatened, but the cir- 
 cumstance just mentioned has, as yet, been its protection. 
 
 We had made up quite a company for this excursion, and if 
 we could have been exhibited, at the time of our ascent, to our 
 friends at home, the sight would have amused them. There we 
 were, male and female, gentlemen, lackeys, and guides, mounted, 
 some on mules, some on asses ; and our ladies faced, in their high- 
 armed side-saddles, some to the right and some to the left, just as 
 caprice or accident had fashioned the saddle ; one guide would be 
 pulling the donkey by the halter or bridle before, another was 
 whipping up behind, and another walking by the side to hold 
 the saddle from turning or slipping ofT; and others, again, hold- 
 ing on by the tail, for the double purpose of guiding the ani- 
 mal and supporting themselves ! In this way we worked our 
 passage up the mountain side, Indian file, with tolerable facility. 
 -When we arrived at the foot of the cone we had to dismount 
 19 
 
222 ITALY. 
 
 and commence our labour. This cone is of different heights at 
 different times ; its general estimate, however, has been put, I be- 
 lieve, at from ten to twelve hundred feet. Its angle of ascent is 
 very great ; it looks, indeed, almost perpendicular and inaccessible. 
 However, we had ocular evidence, before we commenced the as- 
 cent, that it was accessible, for several parties were in advance 
 of us, and were seen at different distances, hanging, like moving 
 mites in an anthill, and crawling their way up to the summit. I had 
 engaged one chaise-a-porteurs for myself and Mrs. F. Ambitious 
 of the achievement, however, she started in advance, but with too 
 much haste for endurance, so that she soon found it necessary to 
 stop for respiration and rest. By alternating, however, between 
 the chair and our feet, we both succeeded in accomplishing the 
 ascent in about one hour, and with less fatigue than we had feared. 
 The ascent is made more wearisome from the fact that the foot 
 at every step sinks into the ashes and cinders up to the ancles, 
 and these ashes continue to give way under your tread as you 
 raise your advancing foot to take the next step, so that, by the time 
 you set it down again, you find yourself nearly as far back as be- 
 fore you raised it. To aid you, one end of a strap is fastened 
 round the body, and a strong guide goes forward with the other 
 end, and pulls you up. It is no small assistance both to him and 
 yourself that occasionally there are scoria, and blocks of lava 
 bedded in the cinders, which serve as steps and supports for the 
 feet. The chairs are nothing more than a common chair lashed 
 between two poles, and borne on the shoulders of four or six 
 men. These reel and stagger under their burden ; and, as one or 
 the other mounts a block of lava, they turn you in different di- 
 rections, and sometimes appear ready to fall backward under 
 their load. We all arrived, however, in safety, and soon forgot 
 our fatigue in the grand scenes around us. Below us, spread out 
 in picturesque beauty at some points, and in grandeur and mag- 
 nificence in others, we had Naples and the surrounding villages, 
 the beautiful bay and its neighbouring islands, the far-off mount- 
 ains and the nearer hills, the surrounding plains and more distant 
 ocean. 
 
 But the beautiful and extended prospects without do not so 
 much interest the spectator, for the reason that somewhat similar 
 prospects may be frequently obtained from other elevations, as 
 
CRATER OF VESUVIUS. 223 
 
 the novel and terrible scene within. I say novel, because, unless 
 he has seen a volcanic crater before, he has never seen anything 
 like it. He finds himself on a rim or edge, which extends around 
 the top of the cone, in circumference above three miles. This 
 forms the edge of the crater ; and, although the general descent in- 
 teriorly is not as rapid as that of the exterior part of the cone, 
 still you look down from a narrow rim into a yawning and horrid 
 gulf; horrid from its black, rugged, and occasionally precipitous 
 surface ; from the streams of smoke and sulphuretted gas that 
 issue from ten thousand crevices and fissures in the concave sur- 
 face of the crater; horrid also from the heat that scorches your 
 shoes and burns your feet ; from the sulphur that not only im- 
 pregnates the air, but gathers upon the prominent points of the 
 broken surface, in a coating of varied colour, from the pale yellow 
 and white to the orange and red ; and especially horrible, because 
 below, far below, in the centre of the crater, a yawning mouth is 
 disgorging columns of fire and smoke. Following our guides, we 
 took a sweep round to the south, in order to obtain a point to the 
 windward, by which we could, with more comfort and safety, ap- 
 proach the centre. In this way we succeeded in going down to 
 the inner crater, as it is called. This is an orifice of perpendicular 
 sides and of uncertain depth. It was so full of smoke we could not 
 see far down it ; but we could stand on its very brink, and drop in a 
 stone, and, after some seconds, hear the report of its fall below ; oc- 
 casionally, too, we could hear the boiling of the molten mass 
 within this gigantic caldron. 
 
 It is difficult to understand the ever-varying accounts of differ- 
 ent travellers and naturalists who have examined and described 
 this crater ; for the reason, doubtless, that it so frequently changes 
 its form. Most of them, however, agree in saying the crater is 
 from fifteen hundred to two thousand feet deep; and many of 
 them speak of the possibility of approaching to the bottom. All 
 this, to a visiter of the mountain in its present form, would seem 
 utterly at variance with the truth. You go down, perhaps, fop 
 half a mile, a pretty rapid descent, over cliffs and yawning chasms, 
 and through smoke and heated gas. Here you arrive at the 
 inner crater ; at the hole, for such it seems, which has been 
 made through the bottom of this gigantic vase, and into which 
 is inserted the cylindrical tube, that seems to extend quite down 
 
224 ITALY. 
 
 to the lambent flames and fiery pool of Tartarus. Of the depth 
 of this cylinder you have very imperfect means of judging ; and 
 whenever, by a favourable action of the wind or a temporary sus- 
 pension of the smoke, you approach a little nearer, and attempt a 
 more satisfactory examination, a heated puff of sulphureous gas 
 and smoke drives you back, all but suffocated, to get a breath of 
 purer air. 
 
 We had travelled over this rough way until we were quite 
 weary, and resolved to run the hazard of a more direct route back 
 to the ridge of the crater. This was a rash decision, and was 
 wellnigh followed by serious consequences. We tied up our 
 mouths to keep out the smoke, but that did not give the necessary 
 respirative qualities to the sulphureous gas that issued from below. 
 The wind took this directly upon us, until we were almost breath- 
 less. The ascent was steep and difficult; the longer we were 
 in ascending, the more we were exposed to the suffocating effects 
 of the mephitic vapour; and the more we hastened, by quicken- 
 ing respiration and shortening the breath, we increased the diffi- 
 culty. Those of our company who had weak lungs and shortness 
 of breath suffered the most; this was my own situation. But, 
 bad as I felt my own condition to be, I was roused from solicitude 
 for myself by the crying out of another of our company, our friend 
 Mr. L., who found himself unable to proceed, and was seriously 
 alarmed, as he could not get breath ; a little rest, however, and a 
 more favourable turn of the wind, gave the necessary relief, and 
 we at length reached the top. 
 
 How unlike its present form this crater must have been previ- 
 ous to the great irruption of 1631 ! It had then been quiescent 
 for centuries. The crater was one deep valley, thickly wooded, 
 and abounding in game. It might then be descended by a cir- 
 cuitous route of three miles to the depth of one thousand paces, 
 and at the bottom were one or two small lakes. But at the time al- 
 luded to it burst out anew, and carried desolation before it, destroy- 
 ing four thousand lives, devastating the country, and ruining sev- 
 eral villages. In 1755 the crater is described in another form. 
 The plane of the top of the cone is said to have been but twenty- 
 three feet deep, forming a kind of rim or staging, in the centre of 
 which rose up another cone eighty or ninety feet high, having its 
 own interior crater. 
 
 
RIDING POST. 225 
 
 In the great irruption of 1 822, eight hundred feet of the top of 
 the cone was removed, so that it is now much lower than for- 
 merly. The immense mass of lava then thrown out is still seen, 
 and pointed out by the guides. Indeed, the lavas of different ir- 
 ruptions are distinguished from each other by their different shades 
 of colour, and other characteristics. 
 
 Having satisfied our curiosity as far as time and strength would 
 permit, we prepared to descend ; and, in five or six minutes from 
 the time of my leaving the top, I found myself at the foot of the 
 cone, although it had taken me an hour to ascend the same dis- 
 tance. We then mounted our donkeys and returned. 
 
 It is always a serious business in Italy, unless one rides post, 
 to make arrangements for moving from one city to another ; for 
 the reason that you have to negotiate a special bargain with a set 
 of men who have no other settled principle of business but to 
 cheat you if they can. There may be exceptions, but we had 
 not the good luck to meet with them. There are, in all middle 
 and southern Italy, few or no regular diligences.* The mal-post 
 or mailcoach takes but two or three passengers, and travels night 
 and day. This, therefore, is not convenient, especially for inva- 
 lids or ladies. 
 
 To drive post, as it is called, you must have your own carriage, 
 and depend upon the postmasters to furnish you with the neces- 
 sary relays of horses. This is by far the pleasantest way of 
 travelling ; you can stop when and where you please, and as long 
 as you please, without any additional expense of horses. The 
 prices are all established and regulated by government, and the 
 entire system is arranged with as much regularity as the carrying 
 of the government mail. And this system exists throughout all 
 the governments in which we travelled, not only on the Continent, 
 but in the British Isles ; with this advantage in the latter, that 
 you can always get post-coaches as well as post-horses. On the 
 Continent you cannot always hire a coach ; or, if you can, it is not 
 on any regular principle, as it is no part of the posting system to 
 furnish coaches, and it is done, therefore, at an extravagant price. 
 
 The disadvantages of posting are the expense, and the difficulty 
 of the traveller's furnishing himself always with a coach. The 
 
 * The only exception which came to my knowledge south of the Apennines was a 
 diligence from Bologna to Rome. 
 
 Ff 
 
226 ITALY. 
 
 I 
 
 expense is much greater, more than double, besides the use of the 
 coach ; and, in addition, all who ride post are charged much 
 higher at the post-houses for their food and lodgings than other 
 travellers. 
 
 The cheapest way is to hire a veturino to take you through in 
 his carriage at a given price and in a given time, he furnishing 
 you on the road with food and lodgings. The whole agreement 
 is to be reduced to writing, the stopping-places and lodging-places 
 specified, the fare and the treatment all delineated, and everything, 
 in short, put down in black and white, and then a condition made 
 to allow him buono mano if he gives satisfaction. When a party 
 of five or six are travelling together, they may in this way travel 
 and bear all their own expenses cheaper than they can live at the 
 hotels in the principal cities. 
 
 In making our arrangements to leave Naples we had a com- 
 pany of six Americans. Our friends Mr. and Mrs. Hoadley, and 
 Mr. Lawton, already mentioned, had joined us from Pisa, and we 
 also most unexpectedly met, in Naples, with our nearest neigh- 
 bour when at home, William Webb, Esq., who had visited Italy, 
 in a ship direct to Naples, for the purpose of finding a warmer 
 climate as a winter residence, to restore him from a serious attack 
 upon the chest, from which he supposed himself already conva- 
 lescent. But he had fallen into bad hands, and perhaps, I ought 
 to say, upon a bad climate. Gn arriving at Naples he was put 
 into the lazaretto for eleven days, in a cold stone room, with a 
 stone floor, like all the floors of Italy, without any fire. After he 
 got on shore the winter proved exceedingly bad, and his complaint, 
 from which he had supposed himself rapidly recovering, seemed 
 to have returned upon him with a deathly grasp. Refreshed, how- 
 ever, with, the cheering warmth of the spring, and buoyant with 
 hope that travelling would restore him, he joined our company. 
 With a melancholy pleasure at being able to afford him what as- 
 sistance we might in his wearisome and hitherto disastrous pur- 
 suit of the greatest of earthly blessings, we took him, to some ex- 
 tent we may say, under our friendly charge. 
 
 With this company we chartered a berlin, with a long, lank, 
 green-looking veturino, with tight buckskin unmentionables, and 
 large stiff-legged boots, the foreparts of which came considerably 
 above his knees, so that when he sat they stood up in front above 
 
PALACE OP THE KING AT CASERTA. 227 
 
 the horizontal plane of his lap some six or eight inches. Although 
 he had expressly agreed to take no other passengers, yet he con- 
 trived, before he got out of the city, to get one on forward with 
 him, and one behind upon our trunks, by which the tops were 
 broken in. We could not readily get rid of them, because one, 
 he said, was his brother, and the other was along to feed and clean 
 his horses, and they positively were not going but twenty miles ; 
 all of which we found to be falsehoods. They continued with 
 us to Rome ; and, as we had no other method of indemnifying our- 
 selves or teaching him better manners, we refused him his buono 
 mano at the end of the journey. 
 
 For the first day we turned aside to visit the magnificent pal- 
 ace of the king at Caserta, thirteen miles from Naples. This 
 palace, as well as that at Portici and at Capo di Monte, was built 
 by Don Carlos, commonly called Charles III. The architect was 
 the Chevalier Louis Vanvitelli, of Rome. The palace itself is, 
 perhaps, the most magnificent in Italy. It is a rectangle, eight 
 hundred and three feet in length, and six hundred and twenty- 
 three in breadth, and one hundred and thirteen in height. It is a 
 noble pile ; but what journalists in Italy can afford to write, or 
 who will have patience to read, a detailed description of 
 palaces ? Suffice it to say, that it possesses one of the finest stair- 
 cases I ever saw ;* that it is still unfinished, though commenced 
 in 1752; that it is meanly furnished, or rather, to a considerable 
 extent, unfurnished ; and that we saw them finishing off one room, 
 which is to cost two millions of dollars ; and that, as a contrast to 
 this royal prodigality, as we went down to enter our carriage, we 
 found it surrounded by seventeen miserable beggars. And here I 
 take leave of the kingdom of Naples. Beggars saluted us when 
 we entered it, surrounded us while we were in it, and impor- 
 tuned us till we left it. 
 
 * On reflection, and after all the edifices I have since seen, I am inclined to believe 
 this staircase not only among the first, but the first in magnificence and general beauty, 
 in materials and architecture, that 1 ever saw or expect to see. 
 
228 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Near the close of the last chapter I noticed some difficulty 
 with our veturino, as a specimen of the troubles travellers have 
 to encounter, and of the faithlessness of this people. I must com- 
 mence this chapter with another instance still more vexatious. 
 We had lodged, when in Rome before, at the Hotel Spilman, in 
 the Via delta Croce ; and as Rome is generally crowded during 
 Passion Week, I engaged lodgings at the same place for myself 
 and lady when I should return ; and conditionally for our friends, 
 whom we expected from Pisa. From Naples I wrote to secure 
 all the apartments ; and at the gates of Rome I met a letter, sta- 
 ting that all things were arranged as I desired ; but, when we 
 arrived at the hotel, my Lord Grosvenor (from Eaton Hall, Eng.) 
 had arrived in Rome, and taken all my apartments, and we were 
 provided for, miserably enough, in another house near by. We 
 stayed over the Sabbath, for it was late on Saturday when we ar- 
 rived. We then engaged other lodgings ; upon which the landlord 
 brought in his bill for five weeks (the time which we had pro- 
 posed for the apartments first engaged), and refused to settle with 
 us on any other principle than that we should pay the bill. We 
 called in our consul, Mr. Cicognani, who gave Spilman a thorough 
 lecture, whereupon he altered his bill to the just demand for the 
 time we had been there ; and, when we left, very courteously re- 
 quested us to have the kindness to recommend his hotel. I can 
 only, however, recommend Carlo Spilman, of the Via delta Croce 
 in Rome, as a man who will consult his own interest at the ex- 
 pense of his word, and then endeavour, if possible, to make you 
 pay for being deceived by him. It is a matter that strikes every 
 stranger, I believe, with surprise, that these Italians will wrangle 
 with the greatest vociferation, so that you would think they were 
 right mad, and all but ready to fight ; and yet, when they see it 
 will avail nothing, they yield the point, and are as submissive 
 as you could desire. Often have I seen individuals scolding 
 each other with such vehemence as in our country or in England 
 would be immediately followed by blows ; but here it all ends in 
 
CHEAPNESS OF LIVING AT ROME. 229 
 
 smoke. So much the better, certainly, that they do not fight, but 
 it is not so much the better that they fall to wrangling so readily. 
 It gives a harshness and a most unlovely aspect to much of the 
 intercourse of the lower classes with each other, and is a source 
 of much that is disagreeable to a stranger. 
 
 Before dismissing this subject, it becomes me to say we were 
 much indebted to our consul, both on this and on other occasions, 
 for his politeness and professional services to us, for all of which 
 he refused to take any fee except the two dollars for the vise to 
 our passports, which is his perquisite. Mr. C. is an Italian, but 
 he is a gentleman, and a kind friend to the Americans. 
 
 We were now to live in an independent manner. We had hired 
 lodgings all furnished with everything necessary for housekeeping ; 
 had our breakfast and tea prepared in the house, but our dinner was 
 brought in hot and ready prepared from the traiteur's.* A din- 
 ner for six, consisting of three kinds of meat, soup, vegetables, 
 macaroni, and a pudding, and enough to spare for the servants, 
 was about two dollars. Strangers in Rome are obliged also to 
 keep a carriage, if they would visit the city to any advantage, es- 
 pecially if they are not in robust health or have ladies in their 
 company. The whole expense for our establishment, including 
 the cost of the public places visited, and the coach hire, cicerone, 
 lodgings, &c, was about two dollars a piece per day. This will 
 give the reader an idea of the cheapness of living in Rome, which 
 is one cause why so many strangers, and especially English, resort 
 here. Many an impaired English fortune has been restored and 
 disencumbered by the removal of their domestic establishment to 
 Italy, when a respectable residence at home would have involved 
 them deeper in debt. At Naples, living is still cheaper than at 
 Rome, as also in many of the provincial towns of central Italy. 
 But Rome is the principal centre of attraction, because of its an- 
 tiquities, and its concentration of so much that is interesting in 
 modern art, and literature, and religion ; and so accustomed is 
 Rome to a great influx of strangers and residence of foreigners, that 
 there is not another city in Italy where strangers attract so little 
 attention, and pursue their own course so perfectly unmolested and 
 unobserved. The government is mild and paternal, the people 
 
 • The traiteur is one who keeps an eating-house, and furnishes meals in his own 
 place or at his customers' lodgings, as they prefer. 
 20 
 
230 ITALY. 
 
 courteous, and the city itself of that grave and quiet Cast which 
 cannot fail to be congenial with the feelings of a man of thought 
 and sobriety. The stiletto and assassination, which were once so 
 common, are now scarcely known. The French did much to re- 
 form this and other cities of Italy in this respect. They prohib- 
 ited the carrying of instruments of death ; they lighted the dark 
 lanes of the city, where the nightly stiletto used to pierce its unsus- 
 pecting victim. Now one may feel as safe, I think, in the streets 
 of Rome in the night as in any other large city in Europe. Indeed, 
 it might be well if some parts of our own country would adopt the 
 course enforced by the French police, and prohibit sword-canes, 
 Bowie-knives, pistols, and dirks. When these instruments are 
 worn or carried, they will be used ; and every paroxysm of anger 
 and every trifling dispute is in danger of ending in bloodshed. 
 It is this that has multiplied homicides, especially in the south- 
 western parts of the United States. But to return to Rome. 
 We had hastened back to this metropolis of the Catholic Church 
 for the purpose of being present at the religious festivities of Holy 
 Week ; an account of which will be found in the following let- 
 ters. 
 
 To the Editors of the Methodist Magazine. 
 
 Messrs. Editors, 
 Thinking it may gratify your readers to be informed of some 
 of the most prominent ceremonies of the Roman Church at the 
 fountain-head, I have determined to communicate some sketches 
 of what passed under my notice during Passion Week. The ex- 
 ercises of this festive occasion commenced with 
 
 PALM SUNDAY. 
 
 Palm Sunday is instituted as a celebration of our Saviour's tri- 
 umphant entry into Jerusalem. It happened the present year on 
 the 27th of March. The public performances were in a small 
 chapel called the Capella Sistina, which may be considered an 
 appendage of St. Peter's. Why the capacious church of St. Pe- 
 ter's should be passed by, and this splendid ceremony be crowded 
 into a small chapel, no good reason, I believe, can be given ; it 
 is, however, on the principle, I suppose, by which so many things 
 are directed in Rome, viz., the tradition of the fathers ; what has 
 
PALM SUNDAY. 231 
 
 been must be. The custom, however venerable for antiquity, is 
 certainly very inconvenient. In the first place, one half of the 
 church is reserved for the functionaries of the day. Then a kind 
 of side gallery is allotted to the ladies, into which they are admit- 
 ted until it is full ; the filling of which does not take long, as it 
 holds only from two to three hundred. The remainder, reserving 
 something for alleys and guards, was appropriated to the gentlemen. 
 The crowd was insupportable ; every man had to fight almost for 
 his stand, and then endure such a pressure as was painful and 
 suffocating. There was crushing of hats, there was elbowing, 
 and crowding, and scolding, and laughing, and sometimes swear- 
 ing, to an extent that rendered the scene anything but a place of 
 Divine worship. In this jam I was particularly unfortunate in 
 my position, which was just in the direction of access to a reserved 
 section of the chapel, into which none seemed to get admitted but 
 British uniforms, ecclesiastics, and such favourites as they might 
 introduce. Frequently some bustling favourite of this description 
 would come elbowing and pressing his way, by mere physical 
 force, into this place. Of course, as the space where we stood 
 was entirely full } there was no introducing a. foreign body without 
 either crowding out or compressing some portions of the matter 
 already there. As none of us chose to yield our position, we had 
 to undergo the compression. This compression, when once made, 
 was keyed up by some individual or individuals following up the 
 wake of the man who pressed his way through, and remaining 
 after the other had passed out. In this way we had for some 
 time been growing smaller and smaller, with a fair prospect of 
 testing experimentally Sir Isaac Newton's doctrine of the indefinite 
 compressibility of matter. As I felt myself, however, to be some- 
 thing more than inert matter, I thought a just regard to my own 
 comfort, as well as a desire to retain my original dimensions, re- 
 quired me to face a short, plump priest, who had been out two or 
 three times to conduct persons in, and give him to understand he 
 could not pass. He crowded forward, and commanded me to give 
 place ; my answer was " non possibile ;" he threatened, but I kept 
 my position ; he crowded back to the Swiss guard, but the Swiss 
 would not interfere ; he came back with his eye flashing from ap- 
 parent passion, and again threatened and raised his hand ; " non 
 possibile" was the only reply, until the eyes of the whole com- 
 
g32 ITALY. 
 
 pany around were fixed upon us, and I found myself sustained by 
 the surrounding crowd, who pressed closer and closer, to stop the 
 farther progress of the priest. At length a good-natured Irish 
 ecclesiastic leaned over and whispered in my ear that perhaps it 
 might be better to let the gentleman pass, for he was the general 
 of the Franciscans. I replied, that might be, but he had already 
 incommoded us several times by passing and repassing, and it had 
 become insufferable. Behind him were two other Irish ecclesi- 
 astics, whom the general was convoying in, and who said they 
 had a place assigned them by his holiness, and they thought it a 
 hard case they could not be permitted to enjoy it. But, to end 
 this occurrence, after holding .the Franciscan at bay until it was 
 thought he would not undertake another excursion through the 
 crowd, he was permitted to pass on with much difficulty, but w r as 
 glad, doubtless, to return no more. "We w 7 ere now permitted 
 to behold the entry of the pope and the commencement of the 
 functions of the day. First of all, however (as is common on 
 such occasions), the cardinals, bishops, &c, must pay their respects 
 to the pope ; which was done by going up to his throne, bowing 
 to him, and kissing his hand by the cardinals, and his feet by the 
 other church dignitaries. This ceremony, together, in fact, with 
 all that followed, seemed to me a clear indication that the pope 
 was more an object of worship than any other being. All eyes 
 were turned towards the pope ; all ceremonies seemed to' centre in 
 the pope. When he entered all kneeled before him. His robes 
 were of the richest character, inwrought with gold and silver ; the 
 one worn outside was of a purple colour, with a silver plate finely 
 gilded, embossed, and encircled with precious stones. On his head 
 was a mitre of silver. On each side of his throne stood a cardinal 
 deacon, whose business it was to open and fold his robe ; to wait 
 upon him in rising up and sitting down ; others held a book, bound 
 in gold or silver, for him to read the service ; another held up his 
 train ; another offered incense before him ; and ever and anon 
 cardinals, bishops, and other church dignitaries left their seats, 
 came down into the centre, which was left vacant for the purpose, 
 and bowed the knee. Such a scene of man-worship I never 
 before beheld. Often during the exercise was I reminded of 
 2 Thess., ii., 4 : " Who opposeth and exalteth himself above all 
 that is called God, or that is worshipped ; so that he, as God, sit- 
 
HIGH MASS. 237 
 
 ence of the pope, the procession into the Pauline Chapel with the 
 host, the benediction from the balcony of St. Peter's Church, the 
 washing of feet, and the waiting upon the pilgrims at dinner by 
 the pope. All these, with much difficulty, through the pressure 
 of the crowd, I succeeded in personally seeing. I will take them 
 up in their order. 
 
 High Mass. 
 
 This was celebrated in the Sistine Chapel. Early in the gath- 
 ering I approached the door of the reserved section, and, informing 
 the doorkeeper that I was an ecclesiastic from America, he very 
 politely admitted me into the interior, which at once relieved me 
 from the crowd, and gave me a more favourable opportunity to be- 
 hold the ceremony. The cardinals came in, dressed in purple 
 robes, each attended by a chaplain. The robes had a train several 
 yards in length, which the chaplain, as soon as he entered the 
 door, very adroitly unrolled and spread out in full length and 
 breadth, and supported it till they arrived to the seat ; after placing 
 it properly on the seat behind his eminence, he unrolled the cape 
 and arranged the front in flowing style. The chaplain then placed 
 himself on a seat at the foot of the cai'dinal. The bishops and 
 other dignitaries entered ; each, as he came in, paid a reverence to 
 the place and the occasion, by kneeling, not only at the altar as 
 he passed, but also by his seat before he sat down. I was struck, 
 however, on this occasion as on many others, how much these 
 external acts of reverence were a mere form. One man, a bish- 
 op, as I judged, came in and kneeled by his seat ; another, who 
 seemed pleased to see him, took out his snuff-box, and offered him 
 a pinch of snuff ; this he took, making some passing remark while 
 yet on his knees, accompanied also with a smile ; and, after a little 
 time, he crossed himself and arose. This talking when on their 
 knees, and when some of the most important functions are. per- 
 formed, is very common. In most cases, I will not say always, 
 the whole appears to be attended to as a task ; and a tedious one 
 it must be, considering the tiresome length and monotonous rep- 
 etition of the Catholic forms. Never, in any forms of worship, 
 have I seen more yawning and apparent inattention, especially 
 among ecclesiastics, than I beheld frequently among the Catholic 
 
238 ITALY. 
 
 clergy. Snuff-taking also seems to be an almost universal prac- 
 tice among the ecclesiastics of Italy, and especially of Rome. 
 
 High mass is distinguished from common mass merely in re- 
 spect to the number of the celebrants and the attendant ceremo- 
 nies. Common mass is by a single priest and an attendant — that 
 being sometimes a mere boy — as also without any music, either 
 vocal or instrumental. The mass is the ordinance of the commu- 
 nion, or the Lord's Supper. The nature and design of the ordi- 
 nance, however, are viewed very differently by Catholics and 
 Protestants. The latter consider it a mere remembrancer, and a 
 help to faith, agreeable to the command, " This do in remembrance 
 of me ;" while the Catholics, to use the words of Bishop England, 
 believe it to be an " unbloody sacrifice, in which, by the power of 
 God, the institution of Christ, and the ministry of the priest, the 
 body and blood of our blessed Saviour are produced upon the altar 
 under the appearance of bread and wine, and are there offered to 
 the Almighty as a propitiation of the sins of mankind, and in tes- 
 timony of the adoration or homage which is his due." Hence, the 
 more masses there are the more sacrifice is offered for the propi- 
 tiation of sin, and hence, too, the reason why, in the mass, there 
 is not always, nor commonly, a distribution of the consecrated el- 
 ements to the faithful. In a great proportion of cases there are 
 none but the priest who partake of the consecrated elements. 
 " The nature of this," says Bishop England, " is fully understood 
 and appreciated by those who assist, even though they should not 
 hear a word that is spoken, or, if hearing, should not understand the 
 exact meaning of the language that is used." On this account the 
 priest takes no pains to be generally heard or understood. The 
 service is in Latin, and the whole performance almost is either 
 muttered by the priest or chanted. In either case it is equally 
 unintelligible ; yet, strange to tell, while the Catholic Church is 
 so very perfectly indifferent as to the intelligence of the language, 
 she is very careful as to the pomp and extent of the ceremony of 
 the mass, both as it respects the number of the performers in 
 high mass, and the variety and exactness of the gesticulations 
 and ceremonies. I will briefly notice each of these. First, 
 then, is the celebrant, or the priest or bishop, who leads in the 
 consecration, then the deacon, the sub-deacon, the priest, who is 
 gtyled master of ceremonies, two acolyths, who carry lights, and 
 
HIGH MASS. 239 
 
 another, who is the thurifer, or censor-bearer, the sacristan, who 
 has charge of the sacred vestments, besides the musicians, &c. 
 Each of these has a peculiar dress, most of which are derived 
 from the robes of state among the Romans, or from the robes of 
 the ancient Roman priests. The author already quoted acknowl- 
 edges that the " antiquarian will discover the greatest portion to 
 consist of the ancient Roman robes of state." They are chiefly 
 the toga, or robe ; the trabea, which is thrown over4he shoulders, 
 with an aperture for the head, and a cross generally on the back ; 
 the amyct, for the neck; the alb, or white garment, and the 
 cincture, or girdle. When a bishop officiates, he has a tunic and 
 a dalmatic ; he also wears a hollow gold cross hanging down in 
 front, which is filled with sacred relics, in imitation of the bulla, or 
 golden ball, which the ancient Roman patricians used to wear. 
 He must celebrate mass fasting; he washes his fingers before he 
 commences, and then they put a pair of gloves upon his hands, and 
 a ring with a precious gem upon his finger. They put upon him 
 the sacrificial vestments ; a mitre is placed upon his head with 
 two fillets hanging down behind. He has a golden crosier, which 
 is a staff, with a turn at the upper end like a shepherd's crook. 
 Thus habited and thus attended, he proceeds to his duties. The 
 ceremony is very complicated, and the master of ceremonies stands' 
 by to give directions and to see that everything is performed in 
 due order. The acolyths hold the lights to illumine the book, al- 
 though it is midday ! the thurifer attends toahe incense, which is 
 used sometimes by him, and sometimes by the celebrant, in differ- 
 ent parts of the service ; the sacristan attends to the vestments, 
 and to the wine and bread for consecration, &c. ; the assistants 
 hold the book, change it from side to side, hold up the vestments 
 of the bishop, take off and put on his gloves, change his mitre for a 
 cap, and again replace the mitre, &c, &c. The celebrant reads 
 the service, chants, turns round, waves his hand, kneels, rises, 
 prays to himself, sometimes faces the altar, sometimes the people, 
 kisses the altar, the book, and other things, performs a variety of 
 genuflections, and manipulations, and ceremonies, which, it seems 
 to me, require a long study and practice to understand or per- 
 form. At length, when the entire transformation of the bread and 
 wine is effected, and the body and blood of Christ is supposed 
 to be produced, follows the elevation of the host, as it is called ; 
 
240 ITALY. 
 
 that is, due notice being given, the celebrant raises up the wafer 
 as an object of worship, whereupon all the people fall upon their 
 knees in profound adoration, and then in like manner the cup, be- 
 fore which, as before the wafer, the people bow. The priest di- 
 vides the wafer, and puts a part of it into the wine, that the blood 
 and body of Christ may be commingled ; he then eats one part, 
 and afterward drinks the entire contents of the chalice. This in 
 most cases closes the mass ; for, as before remarked, it is not 
 common, compared with the number of masses celebrated, to dis- 
 tribute the elements to others ; when this is done at all, which I 
 saw in only one instance, the bread only is given, no one parta- 
 king of the wine but the priest. 
 
 In the present instance, to wit, on Maundy Thursday, the cele- 
 brant was a bishop, although the pope was present and took some 
 part of the ceremony. The customary honours were paid to him 
 when he came in and opened the exercises. There were on 
 this occasion, also, two portions of the elements consecrated ; one 
 being consumed by the celebrant, as usual, and the other reserved 
 to be disposed of as will be seen in the following description of the 
 
 Procession. 
 
 Twelve esquires, dressed in red, came from the sacristy with 
 candles : these are distributed to those who are to join the proces- 
 sion, and are lighted. The procession consists of the same per- 
 sons as on Palm Sunday, but the pope is not now carried in 
 state ; he walks with his head uncovered. The choir sings beau- 
 tifully ; incense smokes ; the pope, wrapped in a veil, and cover- 
 ing the host, which is the wafer just consecrated, with the same 
 veil, follows the cross that is borne before him, and proceeds to 
 the Pauline Chapel, which is in a different part of the Vatican, to 
 deposite the consecrated wafer in a kind of sepulchre which is 
 there prepared for it. The multitude all fall upon their knees as 
 it passes, for it is their god. It is desired, also, that all spectators 
 should bow in like manner ; but, for myself, I could not conscien- 
 tiously prostrate myself before what I believed to be as truly and 
 literally a wafer as it was when it came from the hands of the 
 manufacturer. 
 
 This place of deposite is called a sepulchre, though the cere- 
 mony is more properly an anniversary of the passion in the garden 
 
WASHING THE FEET. 241 
 
 than of Christ's death, the anniversary of which is the next day. 
 This disregard, however, of the unities of time and place is not 
 uncommon in Italy, either in the ceremonies of the church or in 
 the exhibitions of the arts. Here the host reposes in state until 
 the next day ; the altar in which it is deposited is splendidly 
 adorned, and lighted up in a beautiful manner with six hundred 
 wax candles. 
 
 Benediction. 
 
 After the procession our ladies were hastened into the Church of, 
 St. Peter's, to secure good places for seeing the washing of feet, 
 while most of us went to the front of that church to behold the 
 benediction. This is a splendid exhibition, to form any correct 
 conception of which one must have some idea of the place and of 
 the multitudes present. The pope is in a lofty gallery of this 
 magnificent church, opening into the great area of the matchless 
 piazza in front. This piazza, vast as it is, seems but a moving 
 mass of living men and women. Every eye is turned upward to 
 watch the coming of the pope. At length, borne in state, he ap- 
 proaches the gallery from the interior, attended by his liveried 
 retinue and the waving fabelli, which are a pair of magnificent 
 fans of peacock's feathers. A short service is read, and the 
 pope spreads out his hands ; the multitude fall upon their knees 
 while he pronounces the benediction. The vast height of the 
 pope ; the devotion with which he gives and the people receive 
 this blessing ; the multitudes that compose the assembly, from 
 every nation, and of every description of character ; the prostra- 
 tion of the people upon their knees ; the sounding of the bells, and 
 the firing of the cannon of St. Angelo, altogether make this a 
 very imposing ceremony. 
 
 Washing of the Feet. 
 
 From the balcony the pope retires to prepare himself for the 
 ceremony of washing the feet of persons selected for that purpose, 
 in imitation of Christ's washing the feet of the disciples ; for in all 
 things practicable by him, it behooveth the pope, it seems, to act 
 the part of Christ, whose vicegerent he professes to be. 
 
 Here another scene of running and crowding occurred to secure 
 21 Hh 
 
242 ITALY. 
 
 good positions to behold this ceremony, which was to be per- 
 formed in St. Peter's. 
 
 On a staging, elevated for the purpose, thirteen persons were 
 placed who had been selected to participate in this honour. It is 
 not necessary, I believe, that they should hold any office in the 
 church,* but they are admitted or selected in an honorary way, to 
 act a part, for the time being, in this ecclesiastical drama. It has 
 been a question, which has been answered in various ways by 
 Catholics themselves, and the subject is still unsettled, why there 
 are thirteen instead of twelve, which was the number of those 
 whom our Saviour washed. Some say the thirteenth represents 
 St. Paul, others St. Matthias, others the host at whose house Christ 
 celebrated the passover. But the more plausible conjecture is, 
 that this thirteenth person was introduced to commemorate a re- 
 markable event in the life of St. Gregory the Great. He was in 
 the habit of feeding twelve poor persons daily ; and on a certain 
 occasion an angel appeared and seated himself in the company. 
 On the Ccelian Hill, in one of the chapels of the Church of St. 
 Gregory, we were shown a table at which these poor persons were 
 fed, on which was the following inscription : — 
 
 " Bissenos hie Gregorius pascebat egenos, angelus et decimtis 
 lertius accubuit." 
 
 "Here Gregory fed twelve persons, and an angel, the thir- 
 teenth, came and seated himself with them." 
 
 It is in commemoration of this event, it is supposed by many, that 
 the thirteenth individual was introduced into this ceremony, and 
 into the one that follows, of being fed and waited upon by the pope. 
 It is not necessary or profitable, however, to inquire too critically 
 into the reason for all the Catholic ceremonies. 
 
 The selection of these is made in the following manner, viz. : 
 " By the ambassadors of Austria, France, Spain, Portugal, and 
 Venice, each one ; one by each of three cardinals, by the major- 
 domo, by the captain of the Swiss guard ; the cardinal prefect of 
 the propaganda names two, and an Armenian priest is selected by 
 the cardinal protector of that nation."! The stockings were cut 
 so as to admit of laying the foot bare with ease. The pope de- 
 scended from his throne, robed gorgeously, and girded with a towel 
 trimmed with lace, attended by various officers, to hold the golden 
 
 * Bishop England calls them priests. f Bishop England. 
 
DINNER. 243 
 
 basin and ewer, to bear up his train, to hold up the foot that was 
 to be washed, to bear the book and the lamps, to incense the pope, 
 &c. The pope knelt, poured on the water, and rubbed the foot 
 with the towel ; after which he kissed the foot, and it was again 
 covered. The treasurer followed, and gave a purse and medals 
 of gold and silver to each. Each also was presented with a towel 
 and a nosegay. Thus the exercise, with a concluding prayer, 
 &c, was ended. 
 
 Dinner. 
 
 This was in the Sola Clementina, a part of the great Vatican 
 palace, up two or three flights of stairs from the portico of St. 
 Peter's, and at some distance round a balcony. Desirous to see 
 the whole, we left our ladies to the care of some friends, and 
 threw ourselves into the current of the moving thousands who 
 were pressing upward and onward to the place of feeding. Here 
 was a scene of crowding and pushing which exceeded all that 
 I had before experienced. Several times my courage wellnigh 
 failed me ; and, indeed, I believe I should have given up the en- 
 terprise at last, but that, when the severest part of the pressure 
 came, I found it too late to repent, and I had no other alternative 
 but to give myself up to the moving current, and be carried on- 
 ward by volitions and muscular energies other than my own. To 
 give the English credit for all they do, I must say they played the 
 principal part in this drama. On the whole, they are the most 
 famous performers in a jam I ever met with ; and what surprised 
 me the more was to see many English ladies in the crowd, some 
 with their shawls and Vandykes torn off, others with their bonnets 
 crushed, and all with their fashionable shoulder balloons well flat- 
 tened. For myself, being naturally weak at the chest, I began to 
 fear dangerous consequences from the compression, as I found 
 my breath nearly suspended, and my breast wedged up as in a 
 vice, the screws of which were gradually turned closer and closer. 
 I found, however, by a little management, I could turn myself so 
 as to take the pressure laterally, and thus relieve my chest. With 
 this precaution I succeeded in gradually working my way up very 
 near the table, where, for two very tedious hours (so long at least 
 the time seemed to me), I had the gratification of seeing — what ? 
 Why, of seeing those symbolical apostles eat their sweetmeats 
 
244 ITALY. 
 
 and drink their wine, while the pope served them in person. His 
 holiness, however, did not see the end of the meal ; he only moved 
 round the table a few times, being himself waited upon by pre- 
 lates, who took the dishes, and, kneeling, handed them to the 
 pope, and he passed them to the guests. After giving them some- 
 thing to eat, he gave them drink, blessed them, and retired. They 
 seemed, however, determined, whether served by popes, prelates, 
 or other servitors, to finish their meal, which they did at good 
 length, and apparently with a good zest. At the close they took 
 the remainder of the refreshments in sacks, and their serviettes, 
 all of which, it seems, were their perquisites, and retired; not, 
 however, without having first distributed some of their consecrated 
 flowers to their friends and others, a few of which, as a stranger, 
 I solicited and obtained. They were given with that usual cour- 
 tesy which the Italians, to their credit be it spoken, generally 
 show to strangers. 
 
 The remaining exercises of the day were the repetition of the 
 " Tenebrcv" and " Miserere" the latter by Bai, and a ceremony 
 called " the washing of the altar," which is done by pouring wine 
 and water upon it, and rubbing it with brushes, and wiping it with 
 sponges and towels ; all of which is to represent the blood and 
 water which flowed from the Saviour's side, and the bloody sweat 
 with which he was bathed in the garden. Of this ceremony, how- 
 ever, I cannot speak from personal observation, as I was too much 
 fatigued with the preceding ceremonies to be able to attend the 
 concluding observances of the day. 
 
 Good Friday, 
 
 Some of our friends attended on the functions of the pope on 
 this day, but, as I was informed nothing very different was to be 
 transacted from the ceremonies of the preceding day, I did not 
 attend at the Sistine Chapel. I learn, however, from their report, 
 and this also agrees with Bishop England's account of the day, 
 that the principal ceremony consisted in the pope's going, with all 
 his ecclesiastical court and prelates, to bring back from the Pau- 
 line Chapel the body of Christ that had been deposited there the 
 day before. A procession was formed as before ; the host was 
 taken from the tomb, and given to the pope, who carried it covered 
 with a veil, himself walking under a canopy back again to the 
 
SATURDAY BEFORE EASTER. 245 
 
 Capella Sistina. After this was performed what is called the 
 mass of the presanctified, so called because the wafer was con- 
 secrated before. It might h ve been remarked, however, that, 
 previous to this procession, his holiness goes through the cere- 
 mony of worshipping the cross. This ceremony is in the Sistine 
 Chapel. The cross is presented, before which the pope kneels 
 repeatedly ; he then has his shoes and his mitre taken off. He 
 then goes to the cross, bows before it with the profoundest rever- 
 ence, kisses it, &c., after which the attendant knight throws into 
 a silver basin a red purse of damask silk trimmed with gold, which 
 contains the pope's offering for the occasion ; for on Good Friday 
 all the devotees throw in their offering, more or less, into a basin 
 placed to receive it. It seems, indeed, to be a general collecting 
 day. We visited numerous churches, and found in each a cruci- 
 fix, generally with the image of the Saviour upon it, and placed 
 in such a position as to be accessible by all. To this cross a 
 crowd of worshippers of men, women, and children were con- 
 stantly pressing, bowing before it, and kissing the image. The 
 more common course was to kiss the five wounds on the feet, 
 hands, and side, and sometimes the temples ; and as they withdrew, 
 for they were continually coming and going, they threw into the 
 basin, which was always placed under the cross, apiece of money. 
 The most solemn ceremony, however, which we beheld on this 
 day was at the Jesuits' Church. It was called the " Three hours 
 of Agony." Here a great multitude were assembled, and attend- 
 ing alternately to reading and extempore addresses. The read- 
 ing was a kind of service which seemed to be specially prepared 
 for the occasion, descriptive of the Saviour's sufferings. As the 
 officiating priest read, he was occasionally interrupted, perhaps in 
 the middle of a paragraph, by the extempore orator or preacher, 
 who rose up, as it would seem, at some thought which struck him 
 at the time, and gave an impassioned address on some point con- 
 nected with the service and with the solemn reminiscences of the 
 day. The audience appeared solemn; some of them affected; 
 and the whole ceremony was impressive. 
 
 Saturday before Easter. 
 
 On this day, at the Basilica of St. Peter's, were a number of un- 
 important functions, the principal of which were the extinguishing 
 21 
 
246 ITALY 
 
 of all the old lights, and the striking of new fire from a flint to re* 
 kindle them, to represent the resurrection.* Then followed the 
 blessing of the paschal candle. The paschal candle is very large, 
 sometimes, I should judge, three inches in diameter, and has 
 somewhere about the centre certain knobs or protuberances so ar- 
 ranged as to be an imperfect representation of the cross. One 
 of these candles, of greater or less dimensions, according to the 
 character of the church, was found in almost every church and 
 chapel we visited. 
 
 But the most interesting ceremonies of the day were at the 
 Church of St. John of Lateran. The first was a baptism of such 
 Jews as had been converted to Christianity. We arrived just at 
 the conclusion of this ordinance, which, however, was of less in- 
 terest on account of the fewness of the converts ; only two or 
 three, I believe, presented themselves for this Christian ordinance. 
 The disciples of Moses at Rome seem very obstinate in their 
 rejection both of the Messiah and of his assumed successor and 
 vicegerent ; judging, perhaps, that the Messiah has no more claim 
 upon their faith than his supposed representative. Few, however, 
 as was the number of converts, we found, on going into the church, 
 that the agents of conversion were being multiplied abundantly. 
 The ordination service was a splendid function, on account of the 
 richness, and variety, and changes of the vestments, the pomp of 
 the ceremonies, and the number of the candidates. 
 
 After some delay on the part of one of the sacristans, who 
 promised to admit us into a temporary gallery which had been 
 erected for spectators, and which delay seemed to be for the pur- 
 pose of getting a higher fee, we at length obtained a position which 
 gave us a near and distinct view of all the performances. The 
 service was led by a bishop of middle age and fine personal ap- 
 pearance, with a countenance that expressed more of heaven than 
 of earth. His mitre was splendid, his robes rich and gorgeous, 
 and his whole manner devout. The candidates, nearly, if not 
 quite one hundred in number, all clad in their peculiar vestments, 
 according to their standing and destination, on entering the choir, 
 threw themselves upon their faces in solemn and devout prostration. 
 All of them had their heads shaved, for they had a vow. Some 
 
 * The flints used for this purpose at Florence are said to have been brought from tha 
 Holy Land, which gives, of course, a greater sacredness to the fire. 
 
EASTER SUNDAY. 247 
 
 only had a small spot shaved upon the crown ; but the greater 
 part had both the top and the lower part shaved, leaving only 
 a ring or belt of hair passing round the centre of the head. They 
 were ordained in four or five classes, according to their different 
 grades. The ceremony consisted in prayers and music, in a 
 multitude of incensings, genuflections, prostrations, manipula- 
 tions, and benedictions. The bishop's vestments were changed, 
 his mitre was taken off and put on, so also were his gloves and his 
 ring ; he clipped a lock of hair from the candidates, bound their 
 hands with a napkin, caused them to be devested and zVivested 
 in a variety of changes and by a variety of garments, and per- 
 formed upon them and to them many other rites too numerous 
 to mention, in all which he was assisted by numerous bishops 
 and other ecclesiastical functionaries, who took their part in the 
 service. 
 
 Like most other Catholic observances, however, the thing was 
 quite overdone, both as to the number of the rites and also the 
 length of the entire service. All parties, both spectators and 
 actors, seemed heartily weary of the scene, and great portion of 
 the former had withdrawn long before the ceremonies closed. The 
 bishop himself, who appeared to be a feeble man, seemed quite 
 exhausted ; and yawning and snuff-taking round the ecclesiastical 
 benches showed that much form and ceremony were a weariness 
 to the flesh. After the conclusion of the service we recreated our 
 minds a little by taking another view of this splendid Basilica 
 church, and then returned to our lodgings. 
 
 Easter Sunday. 
 
 This is the great day of the feast, being one of three days 
 during the year in which his holiness himself celebrates high 
 mass. The other two instances are Christmas and the festival 
 of St. Peter and St. Paul. We were at our places before the 
 hour, in order to obtain good positions to behold the ceremony ; 
 for, in general, a Catholic church is of all places the worst for 
 seeing and hearing. The functions are generally performed but 
 a little above the dead level of the floor of the church, and there 
 are for the most part neither galleries nor seats. Some temporary 
 galleries, however, had on this occasion been thrown up, into 
 which our ladies had the good fortune to find access ; and I took 
 
248 ITALY. 
 
 a position directly at the side of the gate into the altar ; where, 
 not without some difficulty, I was permitted to stand, and some- 
 times to sit, in a free and close view of the ceremony, and directly 
 in the way where all the vestments and sacred elements and 
 vessels were carried past by the sacristan, who was constantly 
 passing and repassing in the performance of his part of the service. 
 
 The procession formed in the Sala Regia, or Royal Saloon, 
 passed down the royal staircase, and through the porch of the 
 church into the front door, where the chapter ranged in two lines, 
 and the military guards awaited its entrance. The pope came in 
 state, borne in his pontifical chair upon the shoulders of his twelve 
 " supporters," and canopied, as on Palm Sunday, by a splendid 
 screen, elevated upon long poles, and carried over his head by 
 eight referendaries. As he entered the church the choir chanted, 
 " Tu es Petrus, et super lianc petram cedificabo ecclesiam meani" 
 — " Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church," 
 &c. As he passed up he stopped at the Chapel of the Holy 
 Sacrament, to descend and worship the sacred host. The stool 
 where he knelt, like the chair from which he had descended, was 
 covered with crimson velvet and gold. He reascended the chair, 
 and was borne to his throne, where he was seated to receive the 
 homage of the cardinals and prelates before the worship of the 
 great God above was allowed to commence ; but, as this man- 
 worship was similar to that explained already, I need not repeat it 
 here. The pontifical prince wore upon his head the tiara or triple 
 crown. This is a crown with three cinctures or coronets, to rep- 
 resent the pontifical, imperial, and kingly offices united. This 
 crown, it is said, had at first a single cincture, and it was thus 
 worn in the time of Constantine. In about 1300, Boniface VIII. 
 added another, and in about 1360, Urban V. completed this triune 
 emblem of all civil and ecclesiastical power, by giving it the form 
 of the present tiara. The large splendid fabelli of peacock's 
 feathers waved before him, together with a large golden cross 
 called the vexillum. 
 
 The pontiff had to pass through the operation of robing prepar- 
 atory to the celebration of mass ; and, in addition to the robes 
 worn by other bishops already alluded to, he had a striped silk 
 scarf-like cincture over his shoulders, called a fanon, a sort of 
 maniple hanging on the left side, and called a succinctorium, and 
 
EASTER SUNDAY. 249 
 
 a band round the neck, hanging down in pendants before and be- 
 hind. This is made of wool shorn of lambs blessed on St. Agnes's 
 day ; and, after it is fabricated, it is again blessed by the pope at 
 the festival of St. Peter and St. Paul. With this double blessing 
 it becomes a badge of great sanctity and honour. 
 
 Having been vested, the pope entered upon the solemnities of 
 his official function for the day. He was attended by the thurifer 
 or incense-bearer, the cross-bearer, four accolyths or light-bearers, 
 deacons, patriarchs, archbishops, bishops, priests, &c. Three 
 cardinal priests approached him, and, after bowing profoundly, 
 embraced him, to represent the homage of the three wise men 
 to the Saviour. The mass was then celebrated. The form being 
 essentially the same as already described, I will not repeat it. 
 His holiness certainly performed the service with a great deal 
 of solemnity ; and, just at the moment when the transmutation was 
 about to take place, when the inert wafer was to become a god, 
 before which, or whom, the whole multitude were to fall prostrate, 
 he gazed at it with an intensity which seemed to indicate his full 
 belief in the fable of transubstantiation. The language of every 
 feature was 
 
 " A god, a god appears ;" 
 
 and as he elevated the host at the given signal — I was very near 
 him, and I think could not be mistaken — as he elevated it for 
 the adoration of the multitude, tears gushed into his eyes, and he 
 seemed to be melted down before the imaginary god of his own 
 creation. Indeed, all that I saw of Gregory XVI. led me to think 
 favourably of his sincerity and piety. Respect for a venerable 
 old man, as well as a tender regard for the feelings of the wor- 
 shippers near me, would have induced me, if principle had not 
 been involved in it, to bow with the thousands that were pros- 
 trate around me. But believing, as I verily did, that that same 
 piece of wafer was only a wafer still, a voice from Sinai thun- 
 dered in my ears, " Thou shalt have no other gods before me." 
 One circumstance in the celebration shows that, after all, Catho- 
 lics themselves do not believe in the reality of the change of the 
 elements into the actual body and blood of Christ. Before the el- 
 ements of consecration were received by the pontiff, the sacristan, 
 in order to guard against poison, ate two of three particles which 
 
250 ITALY. 
 
 were brought forward for the mass, and drank some of the wine. 
 It is hardly supposable that, at the present day, the pope fears 
 being poisoned ; but there was a time when such fears were en- 
 tertained, and hence originated the custom, which is now kept up 
 merely as an established usage. But this shows that, when there 
 was danger of poison, even popes were afraid to trust to transub- 
 stantiation to change the poisoned wafer into the real body of 
 Christ. What? The body of Christ poisonous, and producing 
 death ! Christ says, " My flesh is meat indeed, and my blood is 
 drink indeed. I am the bread of life." But Catholics either be- 
 lieve that Christ's body and blood may be poison indeed, and the 
 bread of death, or they do not believe that a poisoned wafer is, by 
 the celebration of the mass, changed into the real body of Christ. 
 Whichever alternative they take proves fatal to their system. 
 
 And here let me say that the courtesy of the Romans far ex- 
 ceeds that of some blustering Catholics of our own country, who 
 have assumed to themselves the liberty of knocking off hats, if not 
 of knocking down those who do not choose to conform to what is 
 verily believed to be their superstition. The military behaved on 
 this occasion with great propriety. I was specially struck with 
 the pontiffs noble guard. They are a volunteer corps, who tender 
 their services gratuitously to their sovereign pontiff, and are made 
 up from the noble families of Rome. They were well dressed, 
 and as fine looking men as I ever saw in the ranks of a military 
 company. This guard were all around me ; and, although they 
 could not but see that I was a decided nonconformist in the ceremo- 
 nies of the occasion, they let all pass without censure or apparent 
 notice. 
 
 The pope, together with the deacon and subdeacon, communi- 
 cated on this occasion ; the two latter, which is not practised on 
 other occasions, taking the wine as well as the wafer, and taking 
 it, too, in a very peculiar way, by sucking it through a pipe or tube, 
 his holiness also drinking in the same way. 
 
 After mass, the pope returned in state, as he came, stopping, 
 however, at a kneeling stool by the way to venerate 
 
 The Holy Relics. 
 
 As you face the high altar of St. Peter's, you see on the left a 
 shrine consecrated to a damsel called St. Veronica. Here is a 
 
THE HOLY RELICS. 251 
 
 statue of the saint, and high above it is a balcony, where, on great 
 occasions, three most sacred, and, if we may believe the reports 
 of several special courts that have been appointed to examine into 
 their history, most veritable relics are exhibited. They are, 1 . A 
 part of the lance with which the Saviour's side was pierced ; 2. 
 Parts of the true cross ; and, 3. A napkin or handkerchief, on which 
 the Saviour wiped his face, covered as it was with blood and 
 sweat, as he was going up Calvary. The outlines of his visage 
 were thus miraculously left upon the napkin, which continue unto 
 this day. With respect to the authenticity of these relics, every 
 one, of course, must judge for himself. Even Catholics do not 
 require a belief in them as essential matters of faith. The same 
 subdeacon that whispered in my ear at the time of the con- 
 troversy with the Spanish general of the Franciscans on Palm 
 Sunday, stood by me on Easter Sunday, as I, with thousands of 
 others, stood gazing at these relics ; and perceiving, as I suppose, 
 by my remarks and looks, that I was somewhat incredulous, ob- 
 served, " These are not articles of faith ; a man may believe them 
 or not, and in either case be a good Catholic." With respect to 
 the handkerchief, it appears that its identity and history can be 
 traced as far back as the year 707, at which period it was an ob- 
 ject of veneration. What its former history was, I believe even 
 Catholics cannot definitely trace. Tradition says, however, that 
 this St. Veronica was one of those daughters of Zion who accom- 
 panied their Lord and Master to the scene of his tragedy, and that, 
 being near him as he was sweating under his cross, she kindly 
 wiped his face, or permitted him to wipe it on her handkerchief — 
 and the miracle followed. It was taken back with the bloody 
 portrait indelibly impressed upon it. It was, of course, preserved 
 as an object of attention and veneration, and where else should it 
 be preserved but at the great capital of the Christian world ? 
 With respect to the cross, the history is, that it was found at Je- 
 rusalem by St. Helena, the mother of Constantine. She placed 
 the larger portion of it in a case at Jerusalem, but sent some pieces 
 to Rome. The portion left at Jerusalem was carried away by 
 Chosroas, king of Persia, in his war with Phocas in the year 624. 
 It was afterward retaken and brought back to Jerusalem, and car- 
 ried thence to Constantinople ; and, during the crusades, portions 
 of it were brought to the west of Europe, at different times and 
 
252 ITALY 
 
 by different persons, insomuch that it has been sarcastically said 
 that there were pieces of wood in different places of Catholic 
 countries, which are called parts of the true cross, sufficient to 
 build a seventy-four. This is doubtless hyperbolic ; but that there 
 are and have been many cords of such wood there can be no 
 doubt. We were shown, at the Church of the Holy Cross in Je- 
 rusalem, situated near the church of the Lateran in Rome, that 
 portion which was brought or sent to Rome by St. Helena. One 
 of the pieces now exhibited, for I believe there are two of them, 
 is from the portion first sent over by the empress, and the other, 
 probably, is from Constantinople. They are enshrined, as are 
 also the other relics, in a rich silver case, with rock crystal and 
 precious stones. The lance is also said to have been found at 
 Jerusalem by the mother of Constantine, and this was carried to 
 Constantinople in the sixth century, and was there, as the ac- 
 counts say, divided. The point was pledged to the Venetians in 
 the thirteenth century, in pawn for the payment of money bor- 
 rowed, and the shank was kept still at Constantinople. St. Louis 
 of France redeemed the pledge, and took the relic to France. 
 The part kept at Constantinople was sent to Rome by a special 
 embassage in 1492. At Ancona two bishops met the ambassador 
 and received the relic ; at Narni two cardinals met the bishops 
 and received it from them ; and at the Flaminian gate of Rome 
 the pope himself received the relic, and carried it in solemn pro- 
 cession to the Vatican. So much for the history of these sacred 
 remains ; and I have dwelt the longer on this, that the reader 
 might know something of the ground on which so many sacred 
 relics in Rome are authenticated. These relics are supposed to 
 be the most unquestionable of any. What credit, then, is to be 
 given to others, each must judge for himself. Where were these 
 relics when Jerusalem was ploughed as a field ? They are now 
 kept in a chapel made on purpose to receive them, and are al- 
 lowed to be approached by none but the canons of the church.* 
 The height and distance from which we were permitted to view 
 them, as they were successively exhibited in their crystal cases 
 from the high balcony, made the view very indistinct. We could 
 
 * Don Miguel, the ex-king of Portugal, has obtained the favour of the pope of being 
 made honorary canon of St. Peter's, for the purpose of being permitted to examine these 
 relics. 
 
THE FLAGELLATION. 253 
 
 discern, however, the outlines of a human face faintly imprinted 
 upon the handkerchief. The pope kneeled to behold the ex- 
 hibition, and to venerate these sacred relics ; and the vast multi- 
 tudes that thronged St. Peter's fell also upon their knees. And 
 there they were, in one devout mass, gazing with upturned eyes, 
 and with the same apparent intensity and adoration, until the 
 relics disappeared, as that with which the disciples gazed upon 
 their ascending Lord, until " a cloud received him out of their sight." 
 The pope reascended the chair, and was borne out of the 
 church, to appear once more at the front gallery to bless the 
 people. This benediction was more splendid than that on Maundy 
 Thursday, inasmuch as the crowd w T as larger, and there was a 
 greater display of the military. Even the horses, it is said, were 
 made to kneel at the spreading out of the papal hands. The 
 pope prayed, and, although he was too high and distant to be 
 heard, yet the form is written, as is every part of the Catholic 
 service, and from this form we learn that the pope " asks, through 
 the prayers and merits of the blessed Mary, ever virgin, of the 
 blessed John the Baptist, of the blessed apostles Peter and Paul, 
 and all the saints, that the Almighty God may have mercy upon 
 them, and that, all their sins being forgiven, Jesus Christ would 
 bring them to eternal life. Amen." A truly Catholic prayer ; 
 sins are to be forgiven through the merits of the saints ! ! The 
 blessing was then pronounced, and plenary indulgence imparted 
 to penitents, which, on printed notices, is thrown down among the 
 people, all of whom seemed eager to catch them. Once more 
 the bells rang, and the cannons of St. Angelo thundered, and the 
 multitudes, which were variously estimated at from thirty to eighty 
 thousand, moved off and were dispersed to the four winds. 
 
 There were several other features and events connected with 
 Holy Week, or occurring a little before and after, which are wor 
 thy of notice. I have omitted some of them in the order of time, 
 that I might not interrupt the account of the great ceremonies of 
 the church. These I will now notice. 
 
 Hie Flagellation. 
 
 Some friends informed us that a ceremony of no small interest 
 was to be seen every night at a particular church, which they de- 
 22 
 
254 ITALY. 
 
 scribed to us. We mentioned the subject to our valet de place, 
 and requested him to conduct us to the spot. He gave that pecu- 
 liar shrug of the shoulders which, to be understood, must be seen, 
 and which none but an Italian, I believe, can fully enact ; and 
 said he was there once, and never wished to go again. It seems 
 that some of the professedly self-inflicted penance had been mis- 
 directed, and had fallen upon poor Luigi, the bare recollection of 
 which made him cringe. However, he consented to conduct us 
 to the door, and wait for us there till the fearful devotion was over. 
 "When we arrived we found one single light glimmering near 
 the altar; the church itself seemed badly kept, compared with 
 most Roman churches, and the worshippers appeared coarse and 
 squalid. None but males were admitted, for a very good reason, 
 as the reader will presently slfe. Everything around looked sus- 
 picious ; and, if some of our countrymen had not been there before 
 us and described the scene, we might have supposed ourselves in 
 dangerous circumstances. For myself, I passed back of some 
 broken forms that lay near the wall, behind which I intrenched 
 myself at a little distance from the theatre of action. The door 
 was then bolted. The single candle was carried to a small tem- 
 porary platform, beside which stood a crucifix, and a palmerlike 
 gloomy ecclesiastic ascended and commenced an impassioned 
 harangue, the tenour and burden of which were the sufferings of 
 Christ, and an exhortation to the people to be willing to suffer 
 with him ; that, as Christ was chastised, and suffered for their 
 sins, much more should they be willing to chastise themselves for 
 their manifold transgressions. The solitary light was removed, 
 and in the midst of Egyptian darkness the tragedy commenced. 
 It was as though you had been suddenly ushered into one of the 
 chambers of Pandemonium. The first thing we heard after the 
 extinguishing of the light was the cracking of whips or thongs, 
 and the sound of scores of simultaneous lashes well laid on. Then 
 followed the most bitter groans and wailings, as from miserable 
 wretches writhing under the torture. The sounds became com- 
 mingled ; the strokes fell thick as hail ; and groans and howlings 
 filled the temple. It was an awful scene ! After it had contin- 
 ued for several minutes there was a pause, and the same voice 
 resumed the exhortations to the assembly. It was perfect dark- 
 ness still, and the sharp voice of the preacher, keyed up almost to 
 
THE PILGRIMS. 255 
 
 a falsetto, rung through the invisible arches of the church, and 
 died away in the distance. He paused, and again the flagellation 
 and the howlings were resumed. At the second pause the light 
 was restored ; a person went around and collected the thongs or 
 ropes, to preserve them, I suppose, for future penance, and the as- 
 sembly broke up. Whether they lashed themselves, or each 
 other, or the floor, I cannot say. I had intended, when the flog- i 
 ging commenced, to have put myself in a situation to receive 
 some of the blows, being willing to run some risk of a lash or two, 
 to determine for myself whether the blows were laid on with ef- 
 fect or otherwise. But the light was extinguished unexpectedly, 
 and I had made no arrangements that would enable me, situated 
 as I was, to make the experiment satisfactorily. I can only say 
 that there were blows enough, and they were sufficiently loud 
 to have done good execution ; and they were accompanied by 
 enough of wailing and of wo to have indicated an indescribable 
 amount of suffering ; and this is religious worship ! in a Christian 
 assembly, and at the very seat of the infallible church. 
 
 The Pilgrims. 
 
 The Hospital of the Trinity is a place for the entertainment of 
 the pilgrims who visit Rome on great festive occasions for religious 
 purposes. Here they are washed, fed, and lodged for a term of 
 time not exceeding three days for the greater portion, although those 
 who come from a great distance, as from Spain, Portugal, &c, are 
 entertained four or five days. The institution is a charitable one, 
 and supported chiefly by donations and contributions from the more 
 wealthy. A long list of names of the more prominent benefactors 
 are recorded on public tablets at the hospital. There are two grand 
 divisions to the apartments of the hospital, one section being set 
 apart for the females, and the other for the males. In the male 
 apartments alone they make up, as we were informed by one of the 
 attendants, two thousand beds. On Holy Week especially, great 
 numbers of both sexes are expected at this hospital, and ample 
 provision is made for their entertainment. One of the rules of the 
 institution is, that all who come in the course of the day must 
 have their feet washed at night, which washing is performed partly 
 by the regular attendants and partly by the nobility of Rome and 
 of other countries, who volunteer their services on this occasion 
 
256 ITALY. 
 
 as a kind of voluntary humility, as well as a sort of religious rite, 
 showing by this their readiness to " wash the saint's feet," and to 
 serve their poorer brethren in the humblest offices of life. The 
 pope himself, we were told, sometimes officiates in this menial 
 service. The evening we were at the hospital, however, the high- 
 est dignitary that officiated at the tub was the ex-king of Portugal, 
 Don Miguel. We had also Lord Gifford, of England, and a 
 number of the Roman nobles. 
 
 As we brought no tickets we had a little difficulty at first in 
 getting admittance. This being settled, I left Mrs. F., whom I 
 conducted to the entrance of the female apartment, and went 
 down into the bathing-room of the males, where a number pre- 
 sented themselves to be washed, not as many, however, as on 
 former occasions, for it was approaching towards the last of the 
 week. There was a range of foot baths quite around the room, 
 with pipes to conduct hot and cold water, and a rail extending 
 quite around in front of the baths, to prevent spectators from 
 crowding upon them. After standing until we were weary, the 
 ceremony commenced by a short religious service, read as usual. 
 What followed was no more of an exhibition than any other case 
 of washing dirty feet, except as to the number and quality of the 
 actors and spectators. There was a large room full of gentlemen, 
 from all parts of the world, to see kings and noblemen perform the 
 work of ablution upon the lower extremities of some of the dirtiest, 
 roughest looking subjects that Italy can produce. Some of them 
 had sore feet from the badness of their shoes and their pedestrian 
 journey ; for these, plasters were prepared and applied. The 
 thick rough boots of some were drawn with great difficulty ; and 
 ther stockings, when they wore any, looked as though they needed 
 washing as much as the feet they covered, without which, to wash 
 the latter would be of little avail. The don had a hard case ; 
 however, he scrubbed away with might and main, and when he 
 got to the skin he wiped it, kissed the foot, and ensconced it again 
 in its former sheath. All kissed the feet when they had finished 
 washing them. 
 
 After the washing we ascended to the Salle a manger, to see 
 the feeding. Here the crowd of spectators was still greater, and 
 here, too, were assembled all the pilgrims that had been congregated 
 for several days. Truly they were a motley group, some with 
 
THE PILGRIMS. 257 
 
 their long pilgrim's staves, some with shells of scallops and other 
 shellfish fastened upon their breasts and shoulders, many of them 
 ragged and wo-begone, although the greater part are supposed to 
 come from cities of Italy not far distant. They gathered around 
 the long tables, and those who washed their feet prepared to serve 
 them. I got a position near the ex- king. He is a middle-aged 
 man, of rather small stature, and possessing a countenance by 
 no means indicative of that cruelty and thirst for blood which 
 seem to have marked his public life. He is as great a stickler 
 for Romanism as his brother, Don Pedro, was an opposer. Their 
 course in this matter has undoubtedly been shaped very much by 
 their political interests. While Don Pedro was thwarted and op- 
 posed in all his plans by the priests, these have been the partisans 
 of Don Miguel, and sustained his course, and he, in his turn, has 
 sustained theirs. It is this that has led the pope to patronise the 
 don in his exile, by giving him a refuge and a salary of three 
 thousand dollars per annum ; and this, on the other hand, has led 
 the ex-king to be very officious in matters of religion, and specially 
 active during Holy Week in all the self-denying duties of the oc- 
 casion. At this time he was very active in helping the pilgrims, 
 in cutting their bread, and serving their fish, vegetables, and wine,* 
 and, at the same time, was very social, now with the pilgrims, and 
 now with one of the attendants, and then again with some of his 
 fellow- servitors. He left, however, in time to be introduced into 
 the ladies' apartments. When the company had satisfied their 
 appetites, and some of these poor fellows ate as if they had eaten 
 nothing for a long time before, they began to fill their handker- 
 chiefs and sacks with the fragments and remains, and to pour the 
 wine into their leather bottles. These were their perquisites, and 
 they laid in liberally ; sufficiently so, I should think, to last L.em 
 a considerable distance in their homeward journey. They then 
 all rose, and in single file, chanting or singing as they went, 
 marched up to their lodgings. 
 
 Mrs. F. found the ceremonies in the female apartments much 
 the same as above described, except that the ladies who waited 
 upon the pilgrims were more minute and assiduous in their atten- 
 tions than the gentlemen. The noble ladies, as they entered the 
 room, went to a table on which lay a quantity of red and white 
 
 * It was still Lent. 
 
 22 K k 
 
258 - ITALY. 
 
 aprons, the former with waists and the latter without waists. 
 The red apron was first put on ; and then the other, which was 
 furnished with two large pockets, to hold their napkins, &c, was 
 tied on over the former. They then proceeded to wash the feet, 
 after which each lady took a pilgrim by the arm and led her to 
 the table, and waited upon her as before described, filling her 
 wallet and her wine-sack with what remained, and taking, as they 
 retired, a large pile of plasters up to their lodging-rooms to dress 
 their sore feet, &c. One old woman, who had the appearance 
 of extreme old age, and was bowed down with the weight of years, 
 had nevertheless walked fifty miles to see this festival. For her, 
 the ladies in attendance made up a purse to cheer her heart and 
 relieve her wants. 
 
 In all this there is certainly much of kindness and Christian 
 courtesy exhibited that were well worth the imitation of Protest- 
 ants. In the ceremonies before us, however, there is a drawback 
 upon the credit we might otherwise be disposed to give to the 
 parties concerned, from the consideration that the whole is a set 
 form, or kind of exhibition, and a stated public observance, which 
 has in it much of show and ostentation, much of fashion, and per- 
 haps of superstition. 
 
 There is much more of the spirit of our holy and benevolent 
 religion where the meek Christian, unobserved and unattended by 
 the pomp of form and ceremony, seeks out the poor and the 
 squalid, and with his or her own hands washes the saint's feet, 
 and cheers the heart of the fainting ; a spirit which, to the reproach 
 of our common Christianity, is too little prevalent both in the 
 Catholic and Protestant churches. I cannot, however, but con- 
 cede that, in my opinion, the Catholic takes the lead in charities 
 of this kind ; and perhaps ceremonies, such as those I have al- 
 ready described, may have kept alive among them a sense of duty 
 on this point ; for such ceremonies cannot but have their influence, 
 especially upon the young, who are thus trained, at times at least, 
 to think of and feel for the poor and the wretched. Here young 
 girls of ten or fifteen years of age are seen bounding along, with 
 laughing eyes and mantling cheeks, bearing the large trays of re- 
 freshments to the tables, while their mothers and older sisters dis- 
 tribute those refreshments to the hungry and weary pilgrims. 
 The impressions of one such scene upon the mind of the young 
 
TAKING THE WHITE VEIL. 259 
 
 might be as lasting as life, and such scenes repeated might do 
 something at least towards moulding permanently the character of 
 the heart. 
 
 It should be observed that males are not usually admitted into 
 the female apartments during these ceremonies except the priests, 
 some of whom are present to lead in the religious observances, 
 and to see, I suppose, that all things are done " decently and in 
 order." Don Miguel, however, was on this occasion escorted 
 in by four priests with lighted candles, for the purpose,- 1 suppose, 
 of showing himself to all the guests, and also, as it would seem, to 
 be introduced to a princess, who was present and assisting at the 
 supper. 
 
 Taking the White Veil. 
 
 The Church of St. Cecilia in Trastivere is situated on the 
 south part of the city, on the right side of the Tiber, and is sup- 
 posed to be built on the site of the house of St. Cecilia. This 
 saint suffered martyrdom at the time of the Lombard invasion in 
 a bath appertaining to the house. For s^me time there was a 
 doubt about the identity of the body, but at length she appeared 
 in a supernatural way to St. Paschal, and gave him such instruc- 
 tion as enabled him to find and identify the body. Whereupon 
 it was taken and deposited in a sepulchre under the high altar of 
 this church, which was erected to her memory and for the edifi- 
 cation of the faithful. All this I learned from a copy of a Latin 
 letter sent to the pope from Paschal, and inscribed on a marble 
 tablet in the wall of the church. Here over the sarcophagus is a 
 beautiful horizontal statue of marble, with the head turned under, 
 in the very attitude, it is said, in which she was discovered after 
 her martyrdom. Connected with this church is a nunnery, in 
 which are the order of St. Cecilia. Thither on Tuesday after 
 Holy Week we went to see the assumption of the white veil by 
 two young females. On our arrival, we were invited into a private 
 apartment adjoining the convent, where we and many others were 
 generously treated with refreshments furnished by the friends of 
 the candidates. This room was connected with the convent by 
 doubly grated windows. The two sets of grates were distant from 
 each other about eight inches, and the rods were so close as to 
 render it impossible for persons to touch each other through them. 
 
 V 
 
260 ITALY. 
 
 We could see the sisters of the order, however, and also the can- 
 didates for the sisterhood. After refreshment we went into the 
 church, and soon an aged bishop, with locks whiter than wool, en- 
 tered with his attendants. A golden crosier was borne before 
 him. He was then clad with his sacerdotal vestments, the prin- 
 cipal of which was a robe of silver tissue bordered with gold, and 
 a mitre studded with brilliants. Soon the candidates entered, 
 dressed like princesses, followed by little girls with wings from 
 their backs in the character of angels, holding up their trains. 
 After some ceremony by the bishop and the candidates, a discourse 
 was delivered by a priest, which seemed to be a defence of per- 
 petual virginity, and a reference to the advantages of the monastic 
 life. The novices then retired, and directly appeared at a grate 
 communicating with the church. This grated window had an 
 altar on each side, within and without, and a communication be- 
 tween them about eight or ten inches square. Here, with the 
 bishop and priests on one side, and the young ladies with their 
 attendants on the other, the appointed service was performed. By 
 the kindness of the brother of one of the candidates, I was accom- 
 modated with a favourable position near the altar, and near the 
 new vestments with which they were about to be clothed. These 
 lay in two separate piles, with the name of each upon her parcel. 
 After a portion of the service, the candidates placed their heads by 
 the window of the grate ; and the officiating bishop, with a pair of 
 golden scissors, taken from a plate of gold, cut off a lock' of their 
 hair. They then underwent a complete transformation as to their 
 garments. The rich headdress and ornaments were taken off, 
 the hair turned back, the fine tresses straightened, and a plain tight 
 cap without a border put upon the head. The ornaments were 
 taken from the arms, the ears, the neck ; the rich dress, in short, 
 was removed, and left the candidates modestly blushing with only 
 a close white underdress to cover them. The whole of this gay 
 attire and these princely ornaments were loosely rolled together 
 and put into the hands of the wearer, who, with some sentence 
 which I could not understand, but which was undoubtedly ex- 
 pressive of her abdication of the world and its vanities, as if she 
 should say, 
 
 " I bid this world of noise and show, 
 With all its flattering smiles, adieu," 
 
TAKING THE WHITE VEIL. 261 
 
 cast them from her. Her new attire was then brought forward, 
 and article after article was received through the grate, affection- 
 ately kissed and put on, an official nun standing by each candi- 
 date and assisting in the investment. The order of the clothing 
 was, as nearly as I can recollect, as follows : first, a scarf, with an 
 opening for the head, was thrown over the shoulders, and hung 
 down, perhaps, as low as the knees, before and behind ; around 
 this a white sash ; over the whole a robe, which, like the other 
 garments, was of fine white stuff like worsted ; then a peculiar 
 collar for the neck, which was turned down before, but turned up 
 behind, and pinned at the back of the head ; and, finally, the white 
 hood or veil, which was made stiff and fashioned somewhat, in 
 the part for the head, like a peasant's sunbonnet in our country, 
 without, however, being gathered behind, for it extended down 
 like a stiff veil over the shoulders. A crucifix, rosary, and prayer- 
 book, together with a lighted candle, were given to each ; all of 
 which, as they were received one by one, were kissed by the 
 candidates, as also was the priest's hand who presented them. 
 Last of all, the head was surmounted by an armillary crown, 
 either of silver, or tinsel resembling silver. The whole of this 
 transformation was sudden, and the contrast most striking. It 
 was as if a princess, by the touch of a Roman wand, had been 
 metamorphosed into a meek-eyed, modestly-apparelled sister of 
 charity. 
 
 Thus habited, the two novices threw themselves again upon the 
 altar, with their faces buried in the velvet cushions before them, 
 when the venerable bishop, assisted by other priests, performed 
 the most solemn part of the service, which consisted of short sen- 
 tences and brief responses, in which all seemed to join with a good 
 deal of spirit. The new sisters then arose and kissed their as- 
 sistant officials, the other attendant nuns, their attending cherubs, 
 and their female friends who were within the grate. Up to that 
 moment the friends of the buried alive* seemed to be cheerful ; 
 but, now that the final separation was come, there was more ap- 
 parent difficulty in concealing the emotions which, doubtless, they 
 had all along felt ; and I now noticed that the sister of one of them, 
 
 * I say buried alive, because, although these had only taken the white veil, and there- 
 fore may, it is pretended, at their option, come out at the end of a year, still, I believe, is 
 most cases, having taken the first step, they are made willing to proceed. 
 
262 ITALY. 
 
 who had been remarkably gay, drew back with swimming eyes. 
 The candidates, on the contrary, through the whole scene mani- 
 fested little emotion either of devotion or of excited sensibilities for 
 friends, but seemed to pass through the ceremony with a self-pos- 
 session and firmness that to me indicated either deep principle of 
 duty or the indifference of disappointment. Undoubtedly many 
 persons take the veil from both of these causes ; others from pov- 
 erty ; and others, again, and perhaps of these there are not a few, 
 from the solicitation of parents or brothers, who, not being able or 
 willing to make genteel provision for the supernumerary female 
 members of their family, find this a convenient and respectable 
 way of disposing of them. What may have been the cause of 
 the seclusions in the present cases I of course am ignorant of; 
 but I have left upon my mind the deep and indelible conviction, 
 that the church which offers facilities and holds out motives for 
 such moral suicides has greatly mistaken her duty to the world, 
 and must be held responsible for encouraging a system wholly 
 unsanctioned, either by the Old or New Testament, and against 
 the principle of which the entire economy of man's nature throws 
 back the denial through every law of his physical and moral 
 constitution. 
 
 A number of sonnets were composed on this occasion and dis- 
 tributed to the spectators, and possibly some of them were sung ; 
 for the exercises were occasionally and pleasantly varied by the 
 sound of sweet music. At the commencement we not only had 
 the deep-toned organ, but the sweet notes of female voices dropped 
 down in melting strains from the lofty latticed galleries, behind 
 which the sisterhood were concealed. Here, " through the loop- 
 holes of their retreat," they were permitted to look out upon the 
 ceremonies below; a place which they doubtless often occupy at 
 the time of public service in the church, and which so far screened 
 them that nothing was seen, even when they stood the nearest to 
 the network screen, but some undefined forms robed in white, 
 which a lively imagination in this land of visions might easily 
 transform into celestial visitants, who had come down to chant a 
 dirge for the departing spirits, and then to accompany them to their 
 future abodes of rest. And their sweet voices, softened by their 
 passage through the lattice, fell gently down upon the company 
 below, as if to say, in all the winning witchery of melody, 
 
TAKING THE WHITE VEIL. 263 
 
 ' Sister spirits, come away.' 1 
 
 From the sonnets distributed on the occasion, we learned that 
 the name of one of the initiated was Teresa Gauttieri Romana, 
 daughter of Signor Vincenzo, but her neiv name (for all take a 
 new name on entering the sisterhood) was Donna Marianna. 
 The name of the other was Teresa Gauttieri, but her assumed 
 name was Donna Maria Benedetta. Their respective ages were 
 apparently about twenty-three and twenty-eight. They seemed 
 to depart from this world in peace. May kind Heaven grant that 
 no bitter disappointment blight their expectations, and no passion 
 or oppression pollute or disturb the quiet of their prison-house ! 
 
 It may be proper to notice in this connexion that, a day or two 
 after this, a lady belonging to one of the noble families of England 
 took the veil in Rome. Her conversion to Catholicism — for, until 
 recently, she had been a Protestant — had, with the attendant ^cir- 
 cumstances, been a subject of considerable interest in the city, and 
 was considered by the Catholics not only as a great triumph of 
 truth, but as a great confirmation also of their faith. It seems, 
 strange and simple as the circumstance may appear, that the first 
 thing which staggered her Protestantism was that phrase in the 
 creed, " I believe in the holy Catholic church." How could she 
 repeat this in sincerity, being a Protestant ? For it seems she 
 understood by this, not the universal church, but the Roman 
 church ! This put her upon an inquiry, which resulted in her 
 conversion to Romanism, followed by an earnest desire to become 
 a nun of the order of St. Theresa. But, as the regimen of that 
 order was rigorous, and her own health very delicate, her friends 
 were unwilling she should come under the vows of the order. 
 She then prayed to the Virgin, who, in answer to prayer, miracu- 
 lously healed her not only as to her general health, but, as was 
 affirmed, a lameness, which had rendered one of her limbs useless, 
 was suddenly healed and entirely cured. This miracle not only 
 satisfied her friends as to her duty in the case, but was the occa- 
 sion also of converting her mother to, and confirming her in, the 
 Catholic faith. She accordingly took the veil. We passed the 
 place of the ceremony, where we saw an immense number of 
 coaches and a great gathering ; but, as the crowd was great, and 
 the ceremony not new to us, we did not attempt an entrance, 
 
264 ITALY. 
 
 She appeared at the grated window for a number of successive 
 days afterward to converse with her friends. We saw some who 
 conversed with her, and they represented her as appearing very 
 cheerless and agitated. Indeed, it seems, from all the information 
 I could gain, that her mind, as well as her body, was of a sickly 
 cast, and her temperament visionary and fanciful. It was a case, 
 however, that gave great joy to the papists, insomuch that the 
 Jesuit priest hereafter alluded to made it a subject of one of his 
 public addresses to a popular assembly in Rome, to confirm their 
 faith and confidence in the " Holy Catholic Church." 
 
 Chiesa Delia Trinitd de Monti. 
 
 This church stands on the Pinchean Hill, situated in the north 
 part of the city, near the Porta del Popolo, and east of the Piazza 
 di Spagna. It is one of the most prominent points in the modern 
 city, and is rendered still more magnificent in its western aspect 
 by the splendid staircase by which it is approached from the 
 Piazza di Spagna. 
 
 Connected with the church is a convent, all the inmates of which 
 are said to be ladies of quality. The regulations of their order are 
 in some respects peculiar, especially in that they take upon them 
 no vows of perpetual seclusion, but hold themselves at liberty to 
 leave whenever they choose. And yet it is mentioned, as a most 
 extraordinary fact, that no one has ever been known to leave the 
 sisterhood after she has once entered. If this be a fact, there is 
 at least one conclusion to which we may safely come, viz. : that, 
 if it is not a violation of a positive vow to leave the convent, and, 
 therefore, an infraction of no written law, it nevertheless is a vio- 
 lation of common law and of an implied engagement, to break 
 which would show a disregard of all that is sacred in religion and 
 all that is respectable in character. These are considerations, 
 therefore, that undoubtedly operate strongly and effectually to 
 guard the egress from these monastic walls. In addition, the 
 rules of the order, it is presumed, are not rigorous ; their privileges, 
 both social and religious, are great ; and their company abundant 
 and most respectable. At least, I have noticed that priests and 
 ecclesiastics of a most respectable appearance were among their 
 visiters. 
 
 Hearing that they had most enchanting music there at vespers, 
 
CHIESA DELLA TRINITA DE MONTI. 265 
 
 on Sabbath evenings, we made several attempts to get admittance, 
 in all of which we failed save in one instance, in which I had 
 wandered to the church alone at an early hour, and happened to 
 approach the private door just at the same time with two or three 
 priests. The door on this, as on all other occasions, was locked, 
 and, as the priests were pulling the bell, I informed them that I 
 was a stranger, which they doubtless would readily perceive by 
 my bad Italian ; that I had a great desire to be present at the 
 vespers, and, if they would pass me in, I should be greatly obliged 
 to them. They bowed assent with the usual frankness and cour- 
 tesy of the Italians, and especially of the priests. The door was 
 opened by a nun of a most angelic countenance ; who, at the in- 
 timation of the priests, admitted me, and, showing me a side door 
 into the church, conducted the clergymen into the convent. 
 
 It was early, and the church, as I thought, was perfectly empty. 
 This gave me an opportunity of examining it leisurely. The 
 chancel was separated from the nave by a very high and magnif- 
 icent screen, consisting of beautiful iron balusters. This was to 
 separate the nuns who chant the service from the congregation 
 in the church. As I looked through the balustrade, I saw to the 
 left a solitary priest, with his prayer-book in his hand, and so deeply 
 intent upon his devotions that he did not observe me. I immediately 
 recognised him to be the Count of , to whom I had been intro- 
 duced a few evenings before at Mr. C 's, in the Corso. Al- 
 though a count, he was also a priest, and a gentleman of soft and 
 winning address and kindly manners. And here he was alone, in 
 this lovely church, where silence reigned, where the sacredness of 
 the place, the beauty of the edifice, the sweet breath and sweet 
 light of an evening in which the setting sun gleamed faintly through 
 the remaining mists of a recent shower, all conspired to melt the 
 heart and mould the spirit into devout veneration of the God of 
 the sanctuary. This it was, perhaps, which prepared me the more 
 to enjoy what followed. 
 
 There is always a church, I believe, connected with every con- 
 vent; and in every such instance there are private entrances to 
 it from the convent. So it was with the Chiesa delta Trinita. K 
 
 As soon, therefore, as the vesper bell rang, the nuns began to 
 enter. Those who led the music came into the high gallery by a 
 private passage, and seated themselves around and near an organ. 
 23 Ll 
 
266 ITALY. 
 
 Below, within the chancel, entered first the young ladies of the 
 school connected with the nunnery, two and two, paired according 
 to their size, first bowing towards the high altar, and then seating 
 themselves facing it; then followed the nuns. They were all 
 neatly dressed, and had heavenly countenances beaming with 
 cheerfulness and devotion. Indeed, it was evident that an habitual 
 frame of mind of this kind had produced a permanent effect upon 
 the features of the face and the expression of the countenance. 
 The services commenced ; they consisted chiefly of music from 
 the voices of the nuns and from the organ. And such an organ ! 
 and such voices ! The organ seemed to have been constructed 
 on purpose to symphonize with the sweet voices of the sisters ; 
 and sweet were those voices ! sweet was that organ ! The music 
 was rather of a lively, cheerful cast, and was set to a hymn or 
 song of praise, which, to the number of some twelve verses, I 
 should think, was performed and sung on the occasion. I cannot 
 describe it, much less can I describe the effect on my own feel- 
 ings. It was not so overwhelming as the Tenebrce at St. Peter's, 
 but it seemed to trickle down into the sentient chambers of the soul, 
 and there diffuse itself to the extremities through all the con- 
 ductors of feeling, until the whole system was exhilarated and 
 enchanted. To this hour, whenever my mind reverts to the 
 Church of the Trinity, I seem to hear those ravishing notes 
 anew, "like the memory of joys that are past, pleasant, and 
 mournful to the soul." Never, perhaps, before or since, have I 
 felt so much devotion in a Catholic church as on that occasion. 
 The benediction was pronounced, and I reluctantly retired from a 
 spot that had afforded me delight as unexpected as it was refined. 
 While on the subject of music I will add, that the common 
 music in Italy fell far short of my expectations. I had supposed 
 that in that musical country there would be much interest in the 
 music of the streets and of the peasantry of the country. On the 
 contrary, it is absolutely horrible : the braying of an ass is scarcely 
 more repulsive. You will hear, especially in the evening, com- 
 panies of young men walking the streets and singing ; you will 
 hear songs in the country, and your vetturino will sing to you 
 perhaps from morning till night, but it is all utterly destitute of 
 music. The same may be said of much of the music of the 
 churches. As I did not attend the operas, of course I cannot 
 
ILLUMINATION AND FIREWORKS. 267 
 
 speak of the music there. Doubtless it is of the most scientific 
 kind ; but, so far as my opportunities of observing go, much of the- 
 music of Italy is bad. I heard one amateur in a private party in Na- 
 ples, whose singing was admirable ; and on a few public occasions, 
 such as that at St. Peter's, and this at the Trinity, and some 
 others, the music was splendid. Farther than this I cannot com- 
 mend. Neither can I account for it that the popular airs and 
 common singing are so bad, when those of other countries are 
 often so superior. Switzerland, and Wales, and Scotland are 
 not celebrated for their scientific music, and yet the native airs 
 are the very melody of nature, and the singing of their peasantry 
 is absolutely enchanting. Italy, on the other hand, is celebrated 
 for music the most scientific and most refined, and yet the singing 
 of her peasantry is rivalled by the braying of her donkeys. The 
 inference seems to be, that the greatest refinements in scientific 
 music avail to destroy the simplicity of nature in all classes ; but 
 as it is possible for only a few to become successful scientific 
 performers, the great whole are left unskilled in the melody of 
 sweet sounds. 
 
 Illumination and Fireworks. 
 These usually conclude the exhibitions of the splendid festivities 
 of the Passion Week ; and, if I had seen them, I might describe 
 them. Unfortunately for us, however, the exhibition did not take 
 place this year. The disappointment was felt the more because 
 it was given out that it would take place ; the fixtures were all 
 placed upon the dome of St. Peter's ; the rockets and other pre- 
 paratives were all made for the fireworks ; and the time appointed 
 for the exhibition. The first night was rainy, and it was post- 
 poned ; another excuse was given at another time, and thus the 
 subject was delayed and suspended, till at length the report was 
 circulated that the whole was indefinitely postponed, and that the 
 money which it would have cost would be given to the poor. 
 Whether the poor ever got the money I cannot say ; I can only 
 say we lost a fee, which we paid in part in advance for our win- 
 dow, where we were to behold the exhibition, as doubtless did 
 many others ; for it is usual on these occasions for all who have 
 houses advantageously situated to rent their windows for the 
 night for from five to perhaps twenty, or even fifty dollars each, 
 
268 ITALY. 
 
 according to their situation and accommodations. Some of them 
 have balconies and curtains over head. For a number of days 
 the windows in the neighbourhood were dressed and curtained, 
 waiting for an exhibition which was finally suspended. The rea- 
 son for the disappointment we could never learn. If there was 
 any good reason, it ought to have been announced ; for, as it was, 
 there was much of surmising and hard sayings against the Romans 
 and against his holiness. By holding out the expectation and 
 postponing it, day after day, many persons were induced not only 
 to rent their stands for the night, but to postpone their departure 
 from Rome, some of them a week or ten days, waiting for the 
 great sight, and were finally disappointed. Thus thousands of 
 dollars were spent in the city by travellers which would not 
 otherwise have been spent ; and some expressed their conviction 
 that there might be some design in all this. For myself, however, 
 I would not readily give credit to such an imputation ; but I con- 
 fess there was a kind of injustice in the procedure, which nothing 
 but an important reason could excuse. If such a reason had ex- 
 isted, one would think it would have been made public. As to 
 the plea that the money would be given to the poor, that was 
 worse than nothing ; the situation of the poor was known before 
 any such expectation was raised ; and much more might have been 
 saved for the poor if no arrangements had been made for the ex- 
 hibition. There is a great difficulty, however, not only in Rome, 
 but throughout all Italy, of getting before the public the desired 
 information on subjects of general interest. Instead of numerous 
 periodicals and public newspapers, as in our country, they have 
 nothing scarcely that deserves the name of a public periodical 
 press. They have in Rome one or two little papers, published 
 perhaps weekly, about twice the size of a man's hand, containing 
 some account of the functions and ceremonies of the cathedrals, 
 the movements of the cardinals, &c, together with some of the 
 leading events of Europe, provided these events do not savour too 
 much of liberalism ; and that is the extent, I believe, of Roman 
 newspapers. It is, in fact, the most difficult thing to get informa- 
 tion on subjects of public interest ; and this may serve in part, 
 perhaps, as an apology for the Roman court for leaving the public 
 in the dark in this instance, in respect to the reasons for the course 
 adopted. 
 
ILLUMINATION AND FIREWORKS. 269 
 
 It may not be amiss to give a general idea of the proposed ex- 
 hibition, such as it has usually been.* Heretofore it has been 
 usual to have this exhibition both on, or rather immediately after 
 Passion Week, and also at the festival of St. Peter. 
 
 The illumination is on the dome and other parts of the outside 
 of St. Peter's. It is effected by lamps, flambeaux, and various 
 combustible matter, so arranged that every part of the church, to 
 the very summit of the cross over the dome, appears in a blaze. 
 The forepart of the illumination is mild, and gleams like the light 
 of the moon ; but at seven o'clock it changes suddenly into a uni- 
 versal blaze, as if by magic ; and, it is said, nothing scarcely can be 
 conceived of more splendid than this transition, and the brilliant 
 spectacle which follows. There are between four and five thou- 
 sand lanterns used in this illumination, and seven or eight hundred 
 flambeaux. The lighting is effected by men on the outside, sus- 
 pended by ropes, who are moved with pulleys by men within ; 
 and so hazardous is the enterprise, that the performers receive the 
 sacrament before they commence, that they may be prepared for 
 sudden death. 
 
 At eight o'clock the fireworks commence at the castle of St. An*- 
 gelo, formerly Adrian's Mausoleum. The commencement is an 
 explosion called the Girandola, which is effected by such an ar- 
 rangement and discharge of four or five thousand rockets as to be, 
 it is said, a very good representation of an eruption of a volcano. 
 This is followed by various other modifications of pyrotechnical 
 display, grand and beautiful ; and the whole is closed by another 
 magnificent Girandola. 
 
 I have thus just sketched this grand exhibition for the sake of 
 those of your readers who may not have been made acquainted 
 with its character, although we did not see it. The pope himself 
 gave us an animated description of it in an interview we had with 
 him, but I should have abundantly preferred that he had let us see 
 it ; but fearing it might be contrary to court etiquette to question 
 the sovereign pontiff on this subject, I did not inquire his reasons 
 for disappointing us. 
 
 * And sueh as it was indeed this year, at the festival of St. Peter, which took place 
 since we left Rome. 
 
 23 
 
270 
 
 Religious Processions. 
 
 In describing the ceremonies of this festive occasion at Rome, 
 it might be well to notice that religious processions were at this 
 time unusually frequent. Companies of ecclesiastics and various 
 religious orders marched through the streets, chanting religious 
 services, and bearing a crucified Christ, or the image of some 
 saint, before which the multitudes bowed. This is more or less 
 common, in fact, at all seasons throughout Italy. 
 
 The consecrated host also, especially the day after Easter, was 
 borne in procession through the streets in various parts of the city. 
 The object, we were told, was to convey it to the sick, for their 
 sanctiflcation and comfort. Whenever it passed, the people pros- 
 trated themselves ; and why should they not ? For this material 
 substance, thus supported like any other portion of matter, was be- 
 lieved to be verily and truly God ! 
 
 Holy Staircase. 
 
 I may not have a better opportunity than the present to mention 
 the religious ceremony or penance of the holy staircase. This is 
 not peculiar to Holy Week, although it happened more particularly 
 to strike our attention at this time ; and perhaps, on account of the 
 many strangers present at this festival, there may have been 
 more votaries engaged in this penance than on other or common 
 occasions. 
 
 This staircase is called " holy," because it is that up which, if 
 we may believe the tradition, the Saviour passed pending his trial 
 at Pilate's bar. How it was preserved at the destruction of Jeru- 
 salem, especially as the Christians, who alone would be interested 
 with its preservation, had previously left the city ; or why even 
 Christians should be solicitous to preserve a staircase belonging 
 to the palace of a weak and wicked ruler, who gave sentence 
 against their Lord, are matters which neither I, nor, I presume, 
 any one else, can satisfactorily account for. However, it is believed 
 to be that very staircase, and, as such, is not only an object of ven- 
 eration, but is made meritorious in the forgiveness of sins ; up it 
 no one is allowed to pass except upon his knees; and every 
 time any one thus ascends it, lie has remitted to him two hundred 
 years from the fires of purgatory ! This, of course, makes its 
 
CHARACTER AND TENDENCIES OF THE CATHOLIC RELIGION. 271 
 
 ascent an object of great interest ; insomuch that the marble steps 
 have been so worn away by penitential friction as to make it 
 necessary to cover them anew, to save them from complete 
 destruction. Almost any time of day you may see more or less 
 of these poor deluded votaries climbing up these steps, some of 
 them upon their bare knees ; the females dividing their attention 
 between their devotions and the decent adjustment of their ap- 
 parel ; and all kissing the steps and muttering their prayers as they 
 ascend ! 
 
 When I first approached these steps, not knowing their sanctity, 
 I started to ascend them to see what there was above ; the cicerone 
 pulled me back with horror, and informed me of its character. 
 Not choosing to ascend on our knees, we went up an adjoining 
 flight of stairs, and surveyed them above and below with no other 
 emotion than that of astonishment and disgust at this new illus- 
 tration of the deep-rooted and all-pervading superstitions and 
 idolatries of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 To the Editors of the Methodist Magazine. 
 
 Messrs. Editors, 
 Having given an account, in the preceding letters, of the more 
 prominent ceremonies of the Catholic Church, it may not be un- 
 profitable, in the present letter, to make some reflections upon the 
 character and tendencies of the Catholic religion. This is a sub- 
 ject that is, at this moment, attracting to itself intense interest, and 
 especially in the United States. The time having passed by, we 
 hope for ever, in which the advocates of this religion can, as for- 
 merly, enforce their dogmas by the sword and by the authority 
 of the secular power, they now find it necessary to try the strength 
 of the question on moral grounds. This is a position to which the 
 opposers of Romanism have long wished to press the question, 
 and they have partially succeeded ; and, in the United States par- 
 ticularly, the question presents itself exclusively upon this ground. 
 As, in the despotisms of Europe, the old ground of propagation is 
 abandoned, the experiment is now to be tried whether the senti- 
 ment can prevail in a country of free discussion. Here, and on 
 these principles, we ought to be prepared to meet it. Let us, 
 
272 ITALY. 
 
 then, examine some of its claims and tendencies by what we see 
 and know of its character. For Romanism, to be known and 
 judged of, must be seen and scrutinized where no motives of policy 
 force it into unnatural positions or concealments. In short, in 
 Italy, and in Rome itself, this system can best be tested. Against 
 this Catholics cannot object; for if, as they teach, Christianity 
 has a grand central capital, and that is Rome ; if it has one single 
 head on earth to whom, as the vicegerent of Christ, the keys of 
 the kingdom of God have been committed, and the pope is that 
 head, then here, certainly, under the influence of the pontifical 
 court, and under the very droppings of the pope's sanctuary, we 
 may hope to find concentrated all the excellences of this church. 
 Here, if anywhere, impurities will be discarded and abuses dis- 
 countenanced. 
 
 ROMANISM HAS A STRONG AND DIRECT TENDENCY TO IDOLATRY. 
 
 I will not say that a Roman Catholic must necessarily be guilty 
 of idolatry ; nor will I now argue from the fact that the Catholics 
 have left out the second commandment from many of their editions 
 of the commandments, because it speaks so directly against their 
 image worship, which seems to be a tacit acknowledgment by 
 themselves that they must, if judged by the light of Scripture, be 
 convicted of idolatry. 
 
 Neither will I now insist upon the glaring idolatry of- worship- 
 ping a wafer in the form of a consecrated host ; because, if a Cath- 
 olic can really believe that this wafer is converted into a god, as 
 some of them perhaps do, he does not worship the thing that is, 
 but the thing which he believes it to be ; and, therefore, he may, 
 even in this^worship, be held, in the sight of God, innocent of 
 idolatry. But whatever some of strong faith, or, more properly, 
 of irrational credulity, may believe on this subject, there are many, 
 doubtless, who are led into this worship, following the example of 
 others who, as the apostle expresses himself on a somewhat anal- 
 ogous subject, "with conscience to the idol unto this hour," bow 
 down to it as to what their senses tell them it really is, a portion 
 of matter, and yet a portion of matter which, like the gree-gree or 
 the amulet, has some peculiar charm and talismanic virtue ; and 
 thus their " consciences are denied," and their minds are sensual- 
 ized. Indeed, every one, it appears to me, who attempts to be- 
 
TENDENCY OF ROMANISM TO IDOLATRY. 273 
 
 lieve in transubstantiation, lays a snare for his conscience ; and the 
 church which inculcates this doctrine lays a broad foundation for 
 materialism. And this the Catholics do, not merely in this doc- 
 trine, but in their veneration for relics. Rome and all Italy is full 
 of sacred relics ; they are considered as possessing in themselves 
 peculiar virtue. Here are stones that sweat blood ; here are mar- 
 tyrs' bones that raise the dead, and pieces of the cross, and scour- 
 ges, and pillars of stone, and holy staircases, and a thousand things 
 which have wrought more miracles than were ever wrought by 
 Christ or his apostles. 
 
 When an ignorant African pagan talks about the virtue of his 
 gree-gree, and relies upon it for his protection, we call him an 
 idolater, and so he is. But is he more so than the Catholic, who 
 believes in the virtue of his crucifix or other trinket because it has 
 been blessed by the pope, or because it has been shaken in the 
 porringer which, as is pretended, contained the pap from which 
 the holy child Jesus was fed ? 
 
 But another source of idolatry is the numerous subordinate me- 
 diators that enter into the machinery of the Catholic religion. In 
 my former letter an instance is given in a very solemn and impo- 
 sing service, performed by the pope himself, in which pardon was 
 supplicated through the merits of saints. Angels are prayed to. 
 Saints, male and female, are prayed to, and especially, and above 
 all, the blessed Virgin is an object of universal veneration and 
 worship. It is in vain for Catholics to plead that they only so- 
 licit the aid of these personages to present their suit to God ; for, 
 in the first place, many of the prayers are direct, and imply that 
 these saints have power in themselves to give the necessary aid. 
 Besides, the very idea that the Virgin, or that the angel Gabriel, 
 or St. Peter can hear the prayers of Catholics, praying, as they 
 do, in different and distant parts of the world, clothes these saints, 
 in the opinion of the worshippers, with omnipresence ; one of the 
 attributes of the Deity. Nay, to show that many of the people 
 do directly worship these saints and the blessed Virgin, this one 
 fact is sufficient, that they will sooner swear by the name of Jesus 
 Christ, or of God the Father, than by the name of the Virgin. 
 Hence it appears that they either consider it greater blasphemy 
 to profane the name of the Virgin than that of God, or else they 
 think she stands in a more intimate relation to them, and has it in 
 Mm 
 
274 ITALY. 
 
 her power to avenge any insult offered to her. If the latter be 
 the idea, as perhaps in many instances it is, even this shows that 
 they consider the Virgin as everywhere present to take cogni- 
 zance of their insults to her character, and as having power, either 
 directly or indirectly, of dispensing blessings and curses. That 
 this is the idea of the greater portion of the people of Italy there 
 can be no doubt. No man can travel through Italy v without noti- 
 cing that the great whole of the worship of Italy is the worship of 
 the Virgin. If there is one shrine in any of the churches more 
 popular than another, it is, as a general thing, that of the Virgin. 
 Nay, it is worse than this. The strongest features in the idolatry 
 of the Catholics are not in the worship of the saints, but in the 
 worship of images and pictures. The image of a saint is more 
 . worshipped than the saint himself ; the picture of the Madonna 
 more than the Virgin in heaven. It is said by Catholics that 
 these images are destined only as helps to fix the attention ; but, 
 whatever may have been their design originally, it is notorious 
 that they are now actually worshipped, and this some Catholics 
 are candid enough to own. This the priests countenance. I 
 have seen a priest himself praying to an image of the Virgin. 
 They carry around the images in procession, and encourage the 
 people, in times of calamity, to try different Madonnas, because 
 some have more virtue than others. Nay, the devotees of differ- 
 ent cities and churches claim superior power and merit, for their 
 respective Madonnas. The inhabitants of Pisa, for example, the 
 summer before we were there, attributed their escape from the 
 cholera, while it raged most fearfully and fatally at Leghorn, less 
 than twelve miles from them in a straight line, to the superior vir- 
 tue of their Madonna. All these facts, and a thousand others 
 that might be mentioned, show that it is not the Virgin in heaven, 
 but this or that particular image or picture that is supposed to 
 have the virtue and the power of saving and blessing. They are 
 taught this, or why is it so prevalent? Is it not taught by the 
 example of the pope himself, when he worships the cross, when 
 he bows down before the relics at St. Veronica's shrine ? when 
 he goes, as he did on Holy Week, to the bronze image of St. Pe- 
 ter in the church of St. Peter's, and kisses it, and rubs his face 
 against it, and kneels before it ? Nay, is not this countenanced 
 in the very homage paid to the pope himself, before whom the 
 
TENDENCY OF ROMANISM TO IDOLATRY. 275 
 
 prelates and people prostrate themselves as to a god ? If a sys- 
 tem had been formed for the express purpose of calling off the at- 
 tention of the people from the Creator to the creature, from things 
 spiritual to things material, could anything more appropriate to 
 the object have been formed? What feature is there in the en- 
 tire system of the most splendid and fascinating forms of pagan 
 idolatry that is not equalled or excelled by the various parts of the 
 Roman Catholic machinery ? While the institutions of the Sa- 
 viour were few, simple, and the very opposite of anything like ex- 
 ternal show or parade, for the express purpose of turning the mind 
 from sensible objects to God, who is a spirit, the entire system of 
 Catholic forms and rites is formed to dazzle the senses and cap- 
 tivate the imagination. What else than an extended and an abun- 
 dant harvest of sensuality, materialism, and idolatry could we ex- 
 pect from such a religion ? And what might be expected is seen 
 m staring capitals throughout the country ; starli staring idolatry 
 prevails in every direction. They have become vain in their im- 
 agination, and their foolish heart is darkened, and they have 
 " changed the glory of the incorruptible God into an image made 
 like to corruptible man." 
 
 And, what is worst of all in this and every other unholy fea- 
 ture of Roman Catholicism, they cannot alter without destroying 
 the only claim of that church by which she enforces her authority 
 — her infallibility. Wherever infallibility is supposed to exist, 
 whether in the pope, in general councils, in tradition, or in all 
 these, it is evident that all have united to sanction these idolatrous 
 features of their religion. The very moment, therefore, that these 
 usages are forbidden, the groundwork of the whole system must 
 fall; infallibility will be arrayed against itself, and, when once 
 this charm is broken, the whole system is laid open to investiga- 
 tion ; the decrees of popes and councils, which have been venera- 
 ted for centuries, are brought into discussion, and the entire sys- 
 tem will crumble to the dust. It is only by crying, procul, O pro- 
 cul este profani — let not the unbelieving presume for a moment 
 to question our authority — that Catholics can keep their system 
 in countenance. Hence this church has entailed upon herself the 
 errors and abuses that corrupt her whole system, by incorpora- 
 ting those errors into her very framework, and making them an 
 integral part of her very identity. There is no removing one of 
 
276 ITALY. 
 
 them without removing the very substratum in which they all in- 
 here, and thereby unsettling and dissolving all its constituent parts. 
 Before dismissing this objection to Romanism, I cannot per- 
 suade myself to omit noticing, with decided disapprobation, the 
 views of Rev. Mr. Dewey, who, under the title of the " Old 
 World and the New," has lately given to the public the result of 
 some of his observations in Europe. He approves of images and 
 paintings in churches, and of many of the forms, ceremonies, and 
 festivals of the Catholic Church, and expresses a wish that simi- 
 lar practices might be introduced into our own country, and into 
 Protestant churches. I know not whether his Unitarian brethren 
 will generally respond to his sentiments ; but, if they should, it 
 might solve what has been unaccountable to many in America, 
 viz., the favour which they, as a religious sect, have manifested 
 towards the introduction and spread of Roman Catholicism in the 
 United States. For myself, I have generally accounted for it on 
 the principle that they are stanch advocates of free discussion 
 and liberty of religious opinion. They have seen that there has 
 been the appearance of something like an intolerant spirit towards 
 the Catholics, and this, as I have supposed, has led them to en- 
 list their sympathies and influence in their favour. But Mr. 
 Dewey's book has, I confess — and I express my opinion with the 
 greatest kindness, although I do it with all frankness — led me to 
 fear that there are between the two religions some points of har- 
 mony and coincidence which may have been overlooked hitherto 
 by their Protestant brethren. It has been the opinion of many 
 Protestants that Unitarianism has a decided leaning towards mate- 
 rialism ; that, as a religion, it has in it less of spirituality and more 
 of formality, especially as the supernatural influence of the Holy 
 Spirit upon the heart is denied. May there not be principles of 
 affinity here which will enable the two religions to symbolize to- 
 gether to some extent ? And especially since the Unitarians be- 
 lieve in only a created Mediator, and that those strong expres- 
 sions in the Scriptures authorizing veneration and worship to this 
 Mediator are only expressive of such a homage as may be con- 
 sistently paid to a creature, what objection can they have to the 
 homage paid by Catholics to their numerous mediators, real and 
 symbolical ? If Christ is only a mere man, as some Unitarians 
 hold, he is but a saint at best. Why, then, should not his sainted 
 
ROMANISM INCOMPATIBLE WITH RELIGIOUS FREEDOM. 277 
 
 mother, and Sts. Peter and Paul, and the thousands of martyrs, 
 male and female, that have been canonized, come in for an equal 
 share, or, if not an equal share, at least for a similar kind of hom- 
 age with Jesus Christ ? I deeply regret these suggestions of Mr. 
 Dewey : they commend a most repulsive and dangerous feature 
 of Romanism, and thereby strengthen, so far as his influence goes, 
 the system itself; and, if I mistake not, they show, at the same 
 time, how extremes in error may meet in the same diameter of 
 the circle, and how a departure from the truth in one form may 
 push us ultimately into the very errors we have been accustomed 
 to oppose. 
 
 ROMANISM IS INCOMPATIBLE WITH CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS 
 FREEDOM. 
 
 I say civil and religious freedom, because I think these two 
 generally go together. They, in fact, imply each other, and the 
 very power which, in any government, exists in sufficient strength 
 to take away one, can also infringe upon the other. Hence, how- 
 ever there may have been occasional and transient exceptions, the 
 general rule is, civil and religious freedom flourish or fall together. 
 If Romanism, therefore, be opposed to either, it is incompatible 
 with both. 
 
 It is no argument against the above proposition, that, both in 
 England and America, as well as in some other places, there are 
 found Catholics who are strong advocates for liberty. The known 
 policy of the Jesuits, who are the principal movers in the popery 
 of the United States, is to harmonize with the popular current, in 
 order to make proselytes and gain influence. Indeed this is, to a 
 great extent, the policy of Romanism in all its forms ; for it is 
 this policy which has made it so like the idolatrous worship of 
 paganism, both in its forms and in its images. Especially would 
 Papists advocate toleration in a Protestant country, where, as the 
 majority is against them, they cannot even gain a foothold but for 
 toleration. It is not surprising, therefore, that Catholics should 
 be clamorous in America for civil and religious liberty : nor is it 
 at all surprising that the pope himself should say, as he did in 
 conversation with me, that he " liked America, because there 
 were many Catholics there, and they were all tolerated and in- 
 vested with equal rights and immunities with others." Nor yet, 
 24 
 
278 ITALY. 
 
 when I told him that this was in accordance with the genius of 
 our government, for we had no established religion, all being 
 equally tolerated, is it very surprising that he should say in reply, 
 as he did, that he considered " true toleration to consist in leaving 
 every one to worship God according to his own choice." From 
 such sentiments, uttered under such circumstances, we can form 
 no definite opinion of the tendency of a religious system. To as- 
 certain this we should inquire, " What are the fundamental doc- 
 trines and usages of this system?" and "What has been, and 
 what is now, the practical working of the system ?" 
 
 A leading and a fundamental doctrine of Romanism is, that one 
 man is the keeper of another's conscience. This doctrine is es- 
 tablished by the principle of ecclesiastical supremacy and author- 
 ity, pervading the entire body from the sovereign pontiff down- 
 ward ; and is especially enforced through the system of auricular 
 confession. A part of the same system is the withholding of the 
 Scriptures from the common people, and the strict prohibition — a 
 prohibition enforced with the severest anathemas — forbidding the 
 people to judge for themselves in matters of faith and practice. 
 This is, of itself, a spiritual and religious despotism ; nothing else 
 can be made of it ; and, therefore, its natural and certain operation, 
 where it is not counteracted by extraneous and powerful barriers, 
 is against civil liberty. All the machinery of the monastic orders 
 is a part also of the same system. So also is the doctrine of 
 penance, which, of course, is a sort of sanction and enforcement 
 of ecclesiastical authority. To this same end, also, the power of 
 the keys, and the cognate doctrine of absolution, contribute pow- 
 erfully ; for by these the priesthood get the power over the purse 
 as well as over the conscience. Such power is exerted even in 
 our own country. Instances have been known in which the poor 
 have given all their earnings to the priest, to obtain absolution for 
 themselves, or indulgence for some deceased friend, to get him 
 out of purgatory, and have applied to Protestants for bread to feed 
 themselves and families. Now look at this power in its accumu- 
 lated form : power over men's faith ; power over their conscience ; 
 power over their souls in this life to forgive or to condemn ; power 
 over their souls in another world to bind in purgatory or to loose 
 from purgatory ; and, by virtue of this power, a control over the 
 wealth of the rich and the pittance of the poor ; can its tendency 
 
ROMANISM INCOMPATIBLE WITH RELIGIOUS FREEDOM. 279 
 
 be other than subversive of both civil and religious liberty ? How 
 soon will the power of the sioord follow ? How soon will this 
 ecclesiastical authority associate itself with the secular power, 
 and both be exerted to bring the multitude into the most abject 
 subjection ? It is thus that Romanism ever has tended, and ever 
 will tend, to the subversion of liberty, " in all the appropriate cir- 
 cumstances of its being." And this has been its uniform character. 
 Nay, the decrees of councils and of popes have arrogated the right 
 and duty to the Catholic church of punishing incorrigible sinners 
 for their heresy and impenitency. This has kindled the fires of 
 the martyrs, excited the bloodiest persecutions, and arrayed all the 
 tortures, and perpetrated all the cruelties, of the Inquisition. 
 
 Even now, although the spirit of the age has literally forced the 
 church to the abandonment of their cruelties and enormities, yet 
 we see still in operation the same opposition to liberty. Every 
 advance that England has made in liberty she has made in oppo- 
 sition to Romanism, until Romanism was thrown into the minority ; 
 since which, papists in England and Ireland have been great stick- 
 lers for toleration. France has advanced only in opposition to the 
 same influence ; and, if this religion had been able to maintain its 
 sway over the nation, it would have remained in thraldom until 
 this hour. And who are at this moment the greatest opposers of 
 constitutional liberty in Spain and Portugal ? Who are the Carl- 
 ists and Miguelites of the day ? The Roman Catholic priests 
 and those under their influence. 
 
 And what, after all, is the boasted toleration of Gregory XVI. ? 
 His definition does not come up to the true definition of toleration. 
 It is not enough to " allow others to worship as they choose." 
 True toleration gives the privilege of propagating as well as en- 
 joying. But what is the true state of the case at Rome ? From 
 the time of the dispersion of the Vaudese congregations and the 
 Reformers in the latter half of the sixteenth century, although 
 there were numerous little churches extending through Italy, there 
 was no Protestant worship allowed in Rome until the peace of 
 1814. Up to 1770, or near that time, all Protestants who died in 
 Rome were obliged to be carried outside of the city wall, and be 
 buried under the muro torto, opposite to the ancient entrance of 
 the Borghese villa, among the malefactors who died without 
 penitence. About this time permission was obtained to bury a 
 
280 ITALY. 
 
 young German nobleman, on account of his wealth, in the open 
 iield of Testaceous, near the pyramid of Caius Sestus. Very- 
 few other examples were known until the time of the French 
 domination. "When the Continent was open for the English, after 
 1814, the part they had taken in the general struggle, and the in- 
 fluence they had in Europe, gave the English emigrants a claim 
 for some degree, at least, of religious toleration, and could not, 
 with any show of propriety, he denied them. They assembled 
 first in a room near Tiajan's Forum ; but, in consequence of some 
 unfavourable impression upon the mind of Pius VII., or, more prob- 
 ably, perhaps, in consequence of a hope on his part of being able 
 gradually to return to the old exclusive policy, especially as France 
 and Spain seemed to be encouraging such a .hope, the worship 
 was removed without the Porta del Popolo, where it still re- 
 mains. In 1819, also, the King of Prussia set up worship, con- 
 nected with his embassy in Rome, which is still continued, and 
 where all Protestants who understand the German language can 
 attend and hear the gospel faithfully preached, in accordance with 
 the Protestant faith. 
 
 In the mean time a Protestant burying-ground has been estab- 
 lished in the field above alluded to, near the tomb of Caius Sestus, 
 which is pleasantly situated and walled in. A Protestant hospital 
 is also in progress, and will soon be completed, on the Tarpeian 
 Rock ; so that the spot once celebrated for popular violence or 
 public executions will be transformed into a house of refuge and 
 a hospice of mercy for those who need the charities of their fellow- 
 Christians. These are evidences that public opinion is making 
 advancement on the intolerance of popery ; but the very reluctance 
 and obstinacy with which this subject has been treated show what 
 is the spirit of popery. 
 
 Look at another fact : — The Rev. Mr. Burgess, the English 
 Protestant minister in Rome, has published a volume of discourses, 
 preached in his own congregation, which the Catholics consider an 
 attack upon the supremacy and infallibility of the pope, insomuch 
 that this volume has been put upon the Index Expur gator ius by 
 the Roman government ; still they dare not, if they would, expel 
 Mr. Burgess from the country, for he is too highly respected.* 
 
 * This worthy and able clergyman has now left Rome, having accepted of a call to a 
 parish in Chelsea, England. 
 
ROMANISM INCOMPATIBLE WITH RELIGIOUS FREEDOM. 281 
 
 And yet, instead of making him answer for his heresy at the tri- 
 bunal of the Inquisition, which was the former summary process 
 against heretics, they have to resort to the Protestant method of 
 settling the controversy, viz., to argument. Two pamphlets have 
 already been issued against Mr. Burgess's book. One step more 
 is necessary, however, before the improvement in the spirit and 
 course of the government can be very much commended, and that 
 is, to permit Mr. Burgess and any other Protestants to defend their 
 own views through the medium of the press. Until the Catholic 
 church is willing to risk herself in the open field of controversy, 
 she voluntarily concedes her own weakness, and virtually records, 
 in the face of the world, her own consciousness that her dogmas 
 and her practices cannot bear the test of a fair investigation ; a 
 concession this which ought of itself to make every intelligent 
 Catholic suspicious of his faith. What a contemptible position 
 is that of the Roman pontiff and his advisers at this moment, in 
 reference to this very question ! Here is a Protestant clergyman 
 who is tolerated, and whose lectures to his own people, when 
 published, are prohibited ; they are, nevertheless, in circulation, 
 and to meet them the dignitaries of the Roman church take up 
 the defence, and endeavour to evade the force of the well-aimed 
 arrow at the supremacy of the Roman pontiff, by argument; but,, 
 in doing it, they are careful to throw around them the shield of the 
 government, so that they are in little danger of a return fire, 
 which, if they had expected, doubtless they never would have 
 provoked, or, at least, they would have guarded against it by 
 better arguments than those with which they seem to have man* 
 aged this affair. 
 
 The subverters of liberty are always afraid of the press, for the 
 reason that, when the press is free, liberty flourishes ; but, when the 
 press is shackled, in the same proportion is liberty infringed. 
 And what is the practice of the Roman court with respect to the 
 press, we have seen. Indeed, the government has still in full op- 
 eration the Index Eocpurgatorius, which is a list of such books 
 as are prohibited and of such as are allowed. The luggage of 
 travellers is liable to examination to see whether they have any 
 of these prohibited works. So strict is the surveillance and cen- 
 sorship of the press, that not even a sonnet can be published 
 for a special occasion, like that of taking the veil already mei*~ 
 24 Nn 
 
282 ITALY. 
 
 tioned, without getting it vised by the proper officer, with a con 
 permesso. 
 
 The government and the priesthood are so fearful lest that pub- 
 lic opinion, which has already done so much towards resisting the 
 encroachments of Romanism, should finally wrest from them the 
 censorship of the press, that they make this a part of their public 
 preaching. During the forty days of Lent, a popular Jesuit priest 
 from Lucca visited Rome, and preached every day. On one oc- 
 casion he took this for his text, "Whom the Son makes free is 
 free indeed." His object was to show the difference between true 
 and false liberty ; and, in order to this, he drew a lively picture of 
 what he called the liberals of the day, whose liberty, he said, con- 
 sisted in a claim to " think what they pleased," " say what they 
 pleased," and " publish what they pleased." After showing the 
 inconsistency and danger of such a claim, without making any 
 distinction between legal and moral right, or between men's polit- 
 ical and religious opinions, and by adroitly connecting with this 
 liberty individual slander, blasphemy, and treason, he swept the 
 whole claim away by a popular harangue, and then burst out into 
 gratulations of " happy Italy ! that was saved by the paternal care 
 of government from this licentiousness." This shows how Roman- 
 ism hangs upon despotism as her only hope. 
 
 And to what is the prevailing ignorance of the populace to be 
 attributed but to this same spirit of despotism ? If the mind of 
 the populace were enlightened, it could not be enthralled. Hence 
 ignorance is perpetuated. How easy it would be for the eccle- 
 siastics that swarm all over the land, like the locusts of Egypt, to 
 take hold of the rising generation and elevate them at once ! There 
 are enough, who are now worse than idle, fed upon the public in- 
 dustry, to educate the entire population. Why do they not do it ? 
 Because this would be the death-warrant to their own usurped au- 
 thority over the public mind. View this system, then, as you 
 may, in every possible aspect — in its doctrines, in its theory of gov- 
 ernment, in its ecclesiastical claims, and in its practical operations 
 — and you find everywhere, and at all times, that the spirit of Ro- 
 manism is incompatible with civil and religious liberty. That it 
 is incompatible with free inquiry is evident not only from what 
 has just been said of the prevailing ignorance of the day, but also 
 from the present intolerance of the papal government. If Catho- 
 
 ;:s 
 
 
TENDENCY OF POPERY TO ENCOURAGE VICE. 283 
 
 lies deny what is here declared, and, I think, proved to be the 
 tendency of this religion, let them at least unshackle the press, let 
 them permit Protestants to enter the states of the pope, yea, 
 Rome itself, with the Bible, and with free liberty to disseminate 
 Protestant doctrines, and establish Protestant churches and schools. 
 Let the field of argument be thrown open. If the pope likes Ameri- 
 can toleration, let him adopt it. We permit his missionaries to 
 propagate their religion among us, to work the press and fill the 
 pulpit, to erect ecclesiastical edifices and establish churches, and 
 until we in turn are permitted to do this in Rome, what confidence 
 can we place in a bustling officiousness in the cause of liberty by 
 Catholics in Ireland or America ? What can we think of it but 
 that it is a species of Jesuitism, designed merely as a feint to 
 blind our eyes, until strength and numbers enable them to adjust 
 their political course to a more perfect accordance with their own 
 system ? 
 
 Let not Catholics in this country say this is persecution, and 
 try to shelter themselves under the sympathies of the people. It 
 is truth, and they know it to be, and every thinking mind must 
 believe it to be truth until Catholics alter their course. Nor will 
 even this avail them if the powers that be wait until public opin- 
 ion forces them to change. Let the pope now issue his bull, and 
 let it come sanctioned by his cardinals, declaring that he has full 
 confidence in the power and stability of his religion, built, as it is, 
 upon " this rock ;" that he challenges the world to meet it in the 
 field of argument ; that Protestants may preach and publish their 
 views of religious truth in the very seat of the Roman See. Let 
 Rome be missionary ground for Protestants, as the United States 
 are missionary ground for Catholics. When he does this, then 
 may Catholics talk about liberty in this country with some plau- 
 sibility ; but, until this is done, and done voluntarily, we are bound, 
 by all past experience and by present doctrines and practice, to 
 believe the spirit of popery utterly incompatible ivith civil and 
 religious liberty. 
 
 THE TENDENCY OF POPERY IS RATHER TO ENCOURAGE THAN TO 
 RESTRAIN VICE. 
 
 This might not strike the superficial observer, when, for the first 
 time, he was introduced into a Catholic country, and saw all the 
 
284 ITALY. 
 
 array of devotional exercises and religious associations, together 
 with all the terrors that are hung out as motives of alarm and fear 
 to the ignorant populace. If, therefore, at this time, he should 
 be informed that the history of the church shows her to have been 
 very corrupt in the great whole, both in her laity and clergy, and 
 that the history of those nations which have been the most fully 
 under the influence of popery shows them to be among the most 
 notorious for moral corruption, this would lead to an inquiry 
 for the reason; and a little investigation would show that there 
 are various causes which produce this, and causes, too, that exist 
 in the very constituent principles of popery. In the first place, he 
 would see that the law of celibacy, which is binding on so many 
 priests and monastic orders of both sexes, has a direct tendency 
 to licentiousness. 
 
 In the second place, the doctrines are not suited to eradicate 
 sin. The doctrines of penance, and of works of supererogation, 
 and of clerical absolution, and of purgatory, and of masses for the 
 dead, and of transubstantiation, not only leave the passions of the 
 heart unsubdued, but do, in fact, substitute something else for per- 
 sonal holiness. Spread such doctrines as these over the world, and 
 give them the ascendency in every heart, and you have gained noth- 
 ing towards the moral renovation of man. Let a man believe that 
 a priest can procure absolution, and that he will do it for money 
 or for penance, and will he give himself the trouble to forsake his 
 sins ? Let him believe that he can be prayed out of purgatory 
 if he goes there, and will he be very anxious about his course of 
 life ? Let him believe that, by partaking of the sacrament, he eats 
 the body of Christ, and that whosoever eats it shall live for ever, 
 and will he not trust to this rather than to personal holiness? 
 Nay, Romanism being true, it is difficult to see how any one 
 dyino- within the pale of the church can be finally lost. He may 
 have to do penance in purgatory a long time, but he will sooner 
 or later come out. And when he sees on a church door or over 
 an altar, " Indulgences given here daily" (or every Tuesday and 
 Friday, &c, as the case may be) "for the living and the dead— pro 
 vivis et defunctis f and over another altar, " Two souls are released 
 from purgatory every time mass is celebrated here ;" or when he 
 learns that, " by climbing the holy staircase on his knees, he may 
 reduce the period of his purgatorial pains two hundred years f 
 
ROMANISM OPPOSED TO POLITICAL ECONOMY. 285 
 
 when he becomes acquainted, in fine, with the various ways of 
 escaping from the punishment of sin without forsaking sin, he will 
 be very likely to sin on, trusting to his membership in the only 
 true church for ultimate and final deliverance, and to some of these 
 various devices for an early escape from the flames of purgatory. 
 In this way a man may be very superstitious and religious, and 
 yet very wicked ; he may fear he shall hazard his salvation by 
 neglecting his Ave Maria, although he rises from it to go and 
 commit robbery and murder without compunction. Our vetturino 
 would swear most blasphemously, and the next moment you might 
 see him raising his hat to a madonna rudely painted by the way- 
 side. In short, while I am far from thinking that the present 
 race of Italians are sinners above all ; nay, while I believe there 
 is as little danger of personal violence or theft in Italy as in most 
 other countries, yet I think licentiousness prevails and dishonesty ; 
 and my decided convictions are, that the tendency, on the, whole, 
 of the Catholic religion is to encourage vice rather than restrain 
 
 it J and, "while I give duo credit to individual character for morality 
 
 and piety wherever found, still I believe a careful examination of 
 the morals of Christendom will show that Protestant communities, 
 other circumstances being equal, have the decided advantage in 
 point of moral character. 
 
 THE ROMAN CATHOLIC RELIGION HAS A DIRECT TENDENCY TO 
 EMPOVERISH A NATION, AND IS DIAMETRICALLY OPPOSED TO 
 THE SOUNDEST PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL ECONOMY. 
 
 If it were true that there is no salvation out of the Catholic 
 church, this objection would be of little weight, for " what shall it 
 profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul V 9 
 But we are examining its exclusive claims, and in this examina- 
 tion we find ail these considerations against it. Nor is it a small 
 objection to any system of religion that it empoverishes a nation. 
 There is more connexion between pecuniary thrift and moral 
 character than most are aware of, and a more close alliance be- 
 tween mere worldly prosperity and intellectual and moral eleva- 
 tion of character than any who have not examined this subject 
 have conceived of. I speak now as well of that general diffusion 
 of wealth, and of that kind of worldly thrift that opens the way 
 for competency, and something more than competency, for the 
 
286 ITALY. 
 
 great mass of the people, as also of the amassing of larger fortunes 
 by the more enterprising and more favoured. Now it is obvious, 
 I think, that Roman Catholicism is prejudicial to this increase of 
 wealth in any form, and that, so far as wealth is accumulated in 
 Catholic countries, the tendency of their institutions is to a very 
 unequal distribution of wealth, making some very rich and others 
 beggarly poor. We have already seen that this system encour- 
 ages ignorance in the multitude, and is opposed to civil liberty ; 
 and this, of itself, is sufficient to show its influence upon the ac- 
 quisition and diffusion of wealth ; for when a great portion of the 
 people are kept in ignorance and in thraldom, they will, of course, 
 be wretchedly poor. This, therefore, is one argument to show 
 the tendency of popery ; and we might draw another from the 
 past history and present condition of Catholic countries, and we 
 should find the same truth established. France, while she was 
 under the exclusive experiment of Catholic ascendency, felt the 
 force of this truth. It must, indeed, be granted, that her court as 
 well as her religion was extravagant and prodigal, but boih causes 
 united to press her down beyond endurance ; and, since the power 
 and influence of her clergy and of her monastic institutions have 
 been shaken off, notwithstanding her numerous and expensive wars, 
 she has been advancing in wealth, while Spain, and Portugal, and 
 the Brazils, and Italy herself, all of which have remained under 
 the influence of the priesthood, have remained, also, .compara- 
 tively poor. Go to Ireland, and there you will see Catholic Ire- 
 land most miserably degraded and poor, even to a state of starva- 
 tion, and Protestant Ireland comparatively wealthy and comforta- 
 ble. Go to Switzerland, where all have equally enjoyed the ad- 
 vantages of liberty and the fruits of their industry, and mark the 
 difference ; a difference visible upon the very surface between the 
 Catholic and Protestant cantons and towns. But, leaving other 
 countries, let us confine our views to Italy. Italy is full of beg- 
 gars. Italy is oppressed with poverty. It is not merely because 
 wealth is very unequally divided, although that is true so far as 
 wealth exists, but the real truth is, comparatively speaking, the 
 whole community is poor, high and low, rulers and ruled. With 
 the exception of some public edifices, religious and others, you 
 are struck with the poverty of the country ; I speak more espe- 
 cially of Southern Italy, Now why is this 1 It might be said, I 
 
ROMANISM OPPOSED TO POLITICAL ECONOMY. 287 
 
 know, that it is owing to wars and public robbery ; that, under 
 all circumstances and in every event, poor Italy is the prize con- 
 tended for and the country that is plundered. Grant that this 
 has been to a great extent true ; still it is no more applicable to 
 Italy than to many other countries. Besides, it has now been 
 twenty-two years that she has enjoyed freedom from public plun- 
 der and from foreign invasion. How ought a country with the re- 
 sources of Italy to have risen up from her poverty in this period 
 of peace and security? But the torpor of death is upon her still. 
 Nay, it may be safely assumed that the wars and changes of the 
 Bonapartean period were, in point of wealth, after all, beneficial to 
 Italy. Certain it is that during that period the national debts of 
 Florence, and Rome, and Naples were mostly paid off.* Public 
 works that had long been neglected were recommenced and per- 
 fected ; roads and bridges were made, cities were adorned, anti- 
 quities were excavated from the accumulated rubbish of centuries, 
 and the spirit of enterprise and industry was waked up in every 
 direction, insomuch that the old King of Naples, it is said, hardly 
 knew his kingdom when he returned to it after the pacification of 
 1814. Grant, if it is required, that much of this was done by the 
 confiscation of ecclesiastical property, still that only favours my 
 argument, for it shows that, under the Catholic influence, a vast 
 amount of wealth was accumulated in the hands of the church in 
 various forms which w r as dead capital, and it was by breaking 
 down this policy of the Roman church that not only were all the 
 expenses of these wars refunded and foreign rapacity satiated, 
 but the public debts w T ere discharged and the aggregate of availa- 
 ble wealth increased. The plea of exhaustion from war and for- 
 eign plunder, therefore, cannot avail to account for the present 
 state of the country. 
 
 This poverty cannot be from the country's being overstocked 
 with inhabitants ; for Tuscany, for example, has but about one 
 hundred and thirty-five to a square mile, while France has one 
 hundred and fifty, and England about two hundred and sixty. 
 
 It cannot be for the want of resources, for the soil of the plains 
 and valleys is very rich, producing two crops a year ; the hills are 
 
 * The Roman states were relieved of a debt of about one hundred and thirty-six mill- 
 ions ; seventy millions of this, however, was a paper currency, which had greatly depre- 
 ciated in value, and which the French never recognised ; and it must also be acknowl- 
 edged that they did not pay the full value of the balance. 
 
288 ITALY. 
 
 fruitful in vines, olives, and other fruits ; and the mountains 
 abound in minerals. There is also abundant water-power for 
 machinery, and the entire country is a peninsula surrounded with 
 navigable waters, and indented with innumerable bays and har- 
 bours. 
 
 Will it be said the people lack enterprise ? This is grant- 
 ed ; but what has destroyed their enterprise ? The climate ? 
 But when and where was there a more enterprising race than the 
 ancient Romans who inhabited the same country ? The spirit of 
 popery has broken down their enterprise, and never will they be 
 restored to activity and enterprise until this incubus be removed 
 from them. It takes away the key of knowledge from the great 
 mass of the people ; it shrouds their minds in superstition, and 
 superinduces an intellectual torpor. 
 
 But, above all, the Catholic religion absorbs the great whole of 
 the fruits of the industry of the people in a barren consumption. 
 Never before, I believe, was there so costly a religion as this. 
 Look at some of the principal items : First, notice the expense of 
 the churches ; the traveller is astonished at the multitude of the 
 churches that he sees in Italy, both in town and country ; in the 
 vales and on the mountains ; where there are inhabitants and 
 where there are none ; for it is often the case that some saint will 
 have a church and a shrine at a distance of one, two, three, or 
 more miles from the habitations of men, which is used* perhaps, 
 once or twice a year on some fete day, on which a company make 
 a pilgrimage thither to celebrate mass. Every little town and 
 village will have a number. Rome, for example, has one hundred 
 and fifty thousand inhabitants, and three hundred churches. Many 
 of these are splendid and extravagantly expensive. St. Peter's 
 alone, with all its fixtures, furniture, paintings, mosaics, and stat- 
 uary, cost from fifty to fifty-five millions of dollars ; and although 
 there are no other churches to be compared with this, yet there 
 are a number of churches in Rome that must have cost several 
 millions each. I should judge it a moderate calculation to esti- 
 mate the cost of the churches and ecclesiastical edifices of Rome 
 at one hundred and fifty millions. And what does all this expend- 
 iture return for the outlay ? Nothing ; for the most part worse 
 than nothing, because it only furnishes occasion for the employ- 
 ment of an army of sinecures. It is true, an adequate number of 
 
ROMANISM OPPOSED TO POLITICAL ECONOMY. 289 
 
 churches of reasonable expense, and a competent supply of reli- 
 gious teachers, are an advantage to a nation even in a pecuniary 
 point of view ; but how trifling the necessary amount compared 
 with this 1 
 
 Secondly, look at the number of ecclesiastics, monks, and nuns 
 of every grade. It would be interesting to know the proportion 
 that the priests, monks, and nuns bear to the whole population. 
 I was told, with how much accuracy I cannot say, that in Florence, 
 which has a population of about eighty thousand, there were five 
 thousand priests and other ecclesiastics. Probably this was a 
 high estimate, but certainly there are very many. It seemed as 
 though every fifth or eighth man we met in the street was a priest. 
 I tried to ascertain from the priests themselves the number of 
 their profession in Rome. They were either ignorant or unwill- 
 ing to tell. Their answer was, Molto ! molto ! There are, how- 
 ever, according to the best information I could get, from one thou- 
 sand five hundred to two thousand priests and bishops, and about 
 double that number of monks and nuns. These monastic estab- 
 lishments were almost wholly suppressed by the French, but have 
 been restored by the pope. Not so many of the provincial mon- 
 asteries, however, have been restored in the Roman states ; and 
 in the Austrian dominions in Northern Italy none of the orders or 
 religious houses have been restored. In the kingdom of Naples, 
 before the revolutions there and its subsequent subjugation to the 
 French, the whole number of ecclesiastics was about one hundred 
 thousand, which was supported at an expense of about nine mill- 
 ions of dollars annually. Some of the religious houses of this 
 kingdom have been restored, and it is not for the want of a good 
 will in the pope that all have not. 
 
 By this multitude of priests and other ecclesiastics it is seen 
 that not only is there a direct tax upon the country for their sup- 
 port, but there is also subtracted from the industry of the country 
 the amount of what these ecclesiastics might have contributed to 
 it if they had been engaged in some industrious calling. This is 
 a great tax, certainly, upon the income of a nation. 
 
 Some of these orders live upon incomes of certain estates at- 
 tached to them ; others, and a very considerable portion, are of 
 the mendicant orders. They possess no property, and live upon 
 charity. We" had hardly got settled in our lodgings in Rome be- 
 25 Oo 
 
290 ITALT. 
 
 fore one of these licensed beggars called on us, with his creden- 
 tials, stating that their monastery supported many of the suffering 
 poor, &c. It is said there are ten convents in Rome that employ 
 public beggars constantly. 
 
 The frequent feasts and religious days in this country are a 
 great tax upon the industry of the people ; at the same time they 
 cultivate indolent habits, and thus prove a double loss to the com- 
 munity. To this we might add the processions and the pilgrim- 
 ages, which are all a tax of a similar nature, and they also en- 
 courage idleness. 
 
 In short, the wax candles that are burnt in Roman Catholic 
 countries, most of them in broad daylight, would of themselves 
 make a handsome revenue. I have seen large processions mo- 
 ving through the streets of Rome and Naples, with their large wax 
 candles flaring away in the wind ; and so valuable was the drip- 
 ping wax to the poor, that the boys, one at each candle, running 
 by the side, caught it in a piece of paper as it fell. I have seen 
 five or six hundred of these burning at a time in one church. 
 Eighty are kept constantly burning before the shrine of St. Peter 
 in St. Peter's Cathedral. 
 
 When all these enormous expenses are taken into the account, 
 can any one wonder at the poverty of the people, or doubt that 
 this system is at direct variance with the soundest principles of 
 political economy ? 
 
 These are some of the objections that have occurred to me as 
 operating decidedly and fatally against the character and claims 
 of the Roman Catholic Church. And, however little they may 
 avail with such as are Catholics, they ought to have their weight 
 with Protestants, as well to guard their own minds against the 
 plausible insinuations of the system, as also to keep up the influ- 
 ence of an enlightened public sentiment on this subject. Let Ro- 
 man Catholics have full liberty to exercise and propagate their re- 
 ligion ; but let Protestants ever bear in mind what have been and 
 what are now the essential features of a church that must always 
 maintain the same character in all its parts, or cease to be what 
 she claims to be — the infallible and only Church of Christ. 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 Rome, March, 1836. 
 
THE CAPITOL AND FORUM. 291 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 I have much to say of Rome if I mention but a tithe of the in- 
 teresting objects found here. I am aware, however, that the limits 
 prescribed to myself in this journal will not permit a very minute 
 description of even the most prominent of these objects. But I 
 must make a selection, and briefly notice a few. 
 
 The first thing that the stranger thinks of, in starting out from 
 his lodgings when once he gets settled in Rome, is its antiquities. 
 At least such were my feelings, and I could not be satisfied until 
 I was taken in medias res. I desired to commence my observa- 
 tions just as the great Roman poet began his ^Eneid — in the very 
 centre of affairs. I designed, indeed, ultimately to follow out each 
 episode, and learn all the circumstances, direct and collateral ; 
 but who could endure to begin with these 1 Take me to the Fo- 
 rum ; to the focal point of interest ; not only because it was the 
 theatre of most of the great public events of ancient Rome, but 
 also because here and in this neighbourhood remain in greatest 
 abundance and perfection the columns, the temples, the triumphal 
 arches, and other monuments of the ancient city. Take me to 
 the Capitol ; to the Via Sacra ; to Nero's Golden House ; to the 
 Tarpeian Rock ; to the amphitheatre of Titus. Take me to some 
 pinnacle where I can see the " seven hills" of the ancient city, 
 and whatever of ancient objects which, though now in ruins, still 
 cluster around their classic brows, or have been excavated from 
 the intervening valleys. It was done ; and the first week we spent 
 in Rome, which, the reader will recollect, was before our visit to 
 Naples, we took a general view of most that was to be seen of 
 these ancient ruins. The first day — the first morning, we were 
 at the Capitol and in the Forum. Full many a time afterward 
 we revisited this spot, and hung around these relics of an ancient 
 world, but the charm never wore off. Indeed, the more we vis- 
 ited and gazed, the more I found my feelings clustering around 
 these ruins ; just as you often see the modern ivy insert its fibrous 
 root into the walls of the ancient tower, or cover with its fresh and 
 recent foliage the crumbling capital of an ancient column.* 
 
 * " In Contemplating antiquities the mind itself becomes antique."— Livy. 
 
292 ITALY. 
 
 The ancient Roman Forum was a space of very considerable 
 extent, between the Capitoline and Palatine Hills ; or, more prop- 
 erly, extending from the foot of the former on the east, along the 
 base of the latter on the north. This was surrounded with tem- 
 ples, basilicas, and various public edifices and monuments. At 
 the west was the Capitol, the foundations of which still remain, 
 and on which the modern edifice called the Capitol is built. 
 Near to this are the remains of a temple supposed to have been 
 dedicated to Fortune. There are still standing eight columns, six 
 in front and one each side, of granite, and of the Ionic order, hav- 
 ing an entablature and a pediment. Near this are three columns 
 of the portico of a temple, built by Augustus to the honour of 
 Jupiter Tonans, or Jove the Thunderer, in commemoration of 
 and gratitude for his escape from lightning. A part of the entab- 
 lature and frieze also remains. The order is Corinthian, and the 
 workmanship and proportions very fine; such as might be expect- 
 ed to be built in the Roman Forum in the Augustan age. Near 
 this also was the Temple of Concord, the base of which has been 
 excavated. Farther down is the triumphal arc of Septimus Sev- 
 erus, erected in the beginning of the third century to commemo- 
 rate his victory over the Parthians. It stands directly over the 
 Via Sacra. These triumphal arcs or arches are all built in a 
 fine style of architecture, and generally have embossed upon them 
 symbolical representations of the battles fought and victories won 
 by the heroes they are designed to honour, together with appro- 
 priate inscriptions. The top, for the most part — such, we are in- 
 formed, was the case with this of Severus — was surmounted with 
 a triumphal car and horses, and sometimes other figures. They 
 spanned the road or street in architectural grandeur and beauty, 
 and through them the processions moved in triumph. Passing 
 east from this arch you come to that erected in honour of Titus 
 after the taking of Jerusalem. The bassi relievi on one side of 
 this arch represent the spoils of the temple, viz., incense vessels, 
 the golden candlesticks, the table of show-bread, and the jubilee 
 trumpets. As it is natural to suppose that these are an exact rep- 
 resentation of the original, we have in this manner handed down 
 to us, through the pride of a Roman hero, the models of these an- 
 cient vessels, planned by the Divine Architect himself. This 
 arch has been so much restored and repaired that most of the 
 
THE VIA SACRA. 293 
 
 structure is modem, the interior part of the arch being the chief 
 that appears of the ancient structure. Still farther east, and bear- 
 ing to the south, you come to the noblest monument of the kind 
 now remaining in Rome — the arch of Constantine. This has two 
 side arches and a grand central arch ; the whole in a fine state of 
 preservation. 
 
 But, in following out the triumphal monuments, we have left 
 the Forum, and must go back to notice a few other objects a little 
 more particularly. The Via Sacra, or Sacred Way, which we 
 traversed to visit these arches, was so called because here sacri- 
 fices were offered at the time peace was confirmed, between those 
 ancient chieftains Romulus and Tatius. Its pavements are still 
 firm ; and well they may be, for, like another Pompeii, they have 
 but recently been excavated from the oblivious tomb of centuries. 
 It has never been satisfactorily accounted for. that there has been 
 such an accumulation of earth in the Forum as to bury the streets 
 and the temples to the depth of twenty and thirty feet. On this 
 point history is silent, and conjecture is vague and unsatisfactory. 
 Nor is this accumulation in this spot only, but all over the ancient 
 city, especially the lower parts, while the hills seem lessened ; so 
 that, by the lowering of the hills and filling up the vales, the seven 
 hills have lost much of their prominency and distinctness. 
 
 Much still remains to be excavated from the ruins of Rome, 
 and, at present, the work goes on slowly. While Rome was an 
 imperial city of the French empire, most was done that has ever 
 been done, and, unless times alter, that ever will be done, by way 
 of exhuming these buried relics of ancient art. There were quite 
 a number of state prisoners, with their wheelbarrows and spades, 
 in the Forum ; most of them, however, basking or sleeping in the 
 sun. From their appearance and idleness, I should judge that 
 the state criminals of Rome were better provided for, and with 
 less labour, than most of his holiness's labouring poor. 
 
 A modern street runs at oblique angles across the Via Sacra, 
 and a little east of the arch of Septimus, from which you have to 
 look down some twenty feet upon the pavement of this ancient 
 street and the ruins around it. On the side opposite, that is, east 
 of the modern street, is a beautiful column still standing, with a 
 square base, ascended on every side by steps, called Phocas's 
 Column, erected in honour of the emperor of that name ; farther 
 
294 ITALY. 
 
 east, and near the Palatine Hill, stand three other fluted Conn 
 thian columns, surmounted by a broken entablature. These are 
 conjectured to be the remains of the Temple of Jupiter Stator, 
 or Jupiter who maketh to stand or stop, so called because, when 
 his soldiers were fleeing from the Sabines, Romulus, by praying 
 to Jupiter, was enabled to arrest their flight at this spot, and turn 
 the battle against their pursuers with such success as to gain the 
 victory ; in devout gratitude for which this temple was erected. 
 We cannot so much wonder at the superstition of the ancient pa- 
 gan Romans, who built temples to the gods who had favoured 
 them, when the modern Christian Romans pay their religious ob- 
 ligations in the same way. How hard for man to learn, that the 
 only way of discharging his debt of gratitude to God, his creator 
 and preserver, is to consecrate to him his heart and his life. 
 
 Near the last-mentioned spot, and some suppose that these 
 columns are a part of the architectural adornings of the place it- 
 self, was the Comitium, where the public curiae were held. Here 
 formerly grew the fig-tree called Ruminalis, under which, ac- 
 cording to tradition, Romulus and Remus were suckled by the 
 she-wolf. Not far from this were the Curia Hostilia, where the 
 senate used to assemble, so called because erected by Tullus Hos- 
 tilius. On these ruins now stands the Church of St. Theodore ;* 
 for it is the practice in Rome, and, indeed, throughout Italy, to 
 build churches on the sites of ancient temples and other edifices. 
 Where any part of the ancient edifice stands, it is incorporated 
 into the modern structure ; or, if the ancient building is entire, it 
 is metamorphosed into a church ; such, for example, is the Pan- 
 theon, hereafter noticed. 
 
 In this part of the Forum was the Rostra, where the public or- 
 ators harangued the people. On the north side of the Forum was 
 the Temple of Antoninus and his wife Faustina, than which latter 
 there has scarcely lived a more scandalous and worthless woman ; 
 and yet to her, conjointly with her husband, the Roman senate 
 erected a temple, some parts of which, the columns of the portico 
 and an ancient frieze, remain, and are incorporated with the 
 Church of St. Lorenzo en Miranda. Then come the Temple of 
 
 * Some think this church, which is itself an ancient edifice, is on the site of the an- 
 cient Temple of Romulus. There is a difficulty in fixing the precise locality of some of 
 these edifices. 
 
THE COLOSSEUM. 295 
 
 Remus, the Temple of Peace, and here the stranger is especially 
 attracted by the extensive ruins of the Basilica of Constantine, 
 said to have been three hundred feet in length and two hundred 
 in breadth. Three immense arches remain almost entire, and 
 one of the columns may be seen at the Church of Maria Maggi- 
 ore, sixteen feet in circumference and forty-eight feet high, one 
 entire fluted shaft of white marble. 
 
 But we must advance again to the east, and, keeping to the left 
 of the road that leads you to the arch of Constantine, leaving on 
 either hand the ruinous indications at every step of the splendid 
 edifices which once crowded this region of the city, you come 
 soon to the gigantic Colosseum, the most magnificent ruin, I doubt 
 not, in the world. Ruin I call it, and yet, if the hand of man had 
 not been employed in its demolition, it would have remained 
 almost entire until now. The materials of which it is composed 
 are principally the travertina marble, already described in the ac- 
 count of the temples at Psestum. It is here sometimes called 
 Lapis Tiburtinus, because the stone is formed and found in great 
 abundance at Tivoli, the ancient Tibur. In addition to the imper- 
 ishable nature of the material, the blocks are so immensely large 
 that they bid defiance to the assaults of centuries ; so large, in 
 fact, that it seems almost incredible how, in the then existing state 
 of the mechanic arts, they could have been raised to their places 
 in the elevated parts of the building. In addition to the character 
 and size of the material, the form of the edifice, an oval, was the 
 best to endure. It can hardly fail to strike all who examine an- 
 cient edifices, how much more general and entire are preserved 
 structures of a circular form and finished with arches, than those 
 of a rectangular form. The reason, however, is most obvious ; 
 the former are constructed on those principles by which every 
 part strengthens a part in the most perfect manner possible. 
 Hence, in a great many of the structures where one portion was in 
 one form and the other portion in another, we find the circular 
 and arched parts remaining, while the others are gone. Much 
 more remains when all is circular. Then, whether the edifice 
 have to endure the assaults of war, the shocks of earthquakes, 
 the strokes of lightning, or the more gradual corrosions of time, 
 it is best prepared to resist. The Colosseum has endured all 
 these, and would have withstood all these, but that, by the vio- 
 
296 ITALY. 
 
 lence of a siege and the shock of an earthquake, some of the stones 
 were loosened, and then it became the vast quarry from which 
 popes, cardinals, and princes obtained their materials for their 
 palaces and churches, so that a good share of modern Rome was 
 erected out of the ruins of this wonder of the world. This work 
 went on for centuries, so that on one side this amphitheatre is 
 greatly diminished and deformed. At length the place was con- 
 secrated for religious worship, and, what good taste could not 
 protect, superstition has effectually defended, so true is it that in 
 many of their tendencies 
 
 " E'en our failings lean to virtue's side." 
 
 If, in the providence of God, some follies and evils did not coun- 
 teract others, this world would long since have been a howling 
 wilderness. Now the interior is filled with shrines and altars, 
 crosses and images, presenting to the mind of the spectator, as he 
 sees the devotees bowing, and praying, and crossing themselves in 
 this once bloody arena, a pleasant reflection on the contrast between 
 the present and former use of this theatre. 
 
 On the parts where the most injury has been sustained, repairs 
 have been made, and buttresses built to stay the progress of dis- 
 solution and dilapidation. 
 
 It may not be unnecessary for some of my readers to state that 
 this stupendous work was reared under the direction of Vespasian 
 and Titus, and opened by the latter in the year eighty of the 
 Christian era. At its consecration (desecration) gladiatorial sports 
 were celebrated for one hundred days, during which time it is 
 said five thousand wild beasts and many thousands of gladiators 
 were sacrificed. So eager w r ere the ancient Romans for these 
 cruel sports, that this amphitheatre, capable as it was of contain- 
 ing in the seats and galleries above one hundred thousand, 
 could by no means furnish room for all who crowded to the 
 bloody scene. The seats began to be filled at midnight in order 
 to be in time to see the morning games. Twice a day the sen- 
 ators and principal citizens came to the spectacle. A virgin gave 
 the signal to commence, and, when a gladiator was wounded, 
 it depended upon this class of the auditory to decide whether he 
 should be spared or despatched ; sometimes they gave the signal to 
 spare, and sometimes to complete the work of death. If the vic- 
 tim died gracefully, he had the satisfaction of hearing the whole 
 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE COLOSSEUM. 297 
 
 amphitheatre ring again with applause ! What a comfort ! what 
 a triumph ! must this be to the dying slave ! And, after the butch- 
 ery was over, while the arena was smoking in blood, the refined 
 and polished ladies of Rome went down into it and partook of a 
 feast ! And, finally, the water from two aqueducts was poured 
 into the theatre, to wash out the blood and cleanse it for another 
 exhibition. Such was the character of polished Rome ! Such the 
 morality of the most improved and cultivated city of its day ! Such 
 is human nature at its best estate, unaided by the light and grace 
 of the gospel. 
 
 This amphitheatre is one thousand six hundred and forty-one 
 Paris feet in circumference, and one hundred and fifty-seven in 
 height ; the arena is two hundred and eighty-five Paris feet in 
 length, by one hundred and eighty-two in breadth. This part was 
 surrounded by a wall to protect the spectators against the wild 
 beasts. Here first sat the emperor, and other officers of govern- 
 ment and Roman nobles, and then the seats, range above range, 
 falling back in wider and sublimer circles, were divided to the 
 citizens according to their respective ranks. To each section 
 there were separate entrances, opening by exterior arches, all of 
 which were numbered, to direct each one to his appropriate place, 
 and approached by flights of stairs in due order. There were, in 
 all, seventy-six entrances for the people, besides two for the em- 
 peror and two for the gladiators. Quite round each story, within 
 the outer wall, was a wide covered corridor leading to the different 
 staircases. These were rightly called Vomitorii, for thence were 
 poured out the hundred thousand spectators when the exhibition 
 was ended. But I feel little inclined to pursue this description 
 further, as I am conscious of being unable to give any adequate 
 conception of it. While in Rome I visited it by day and by night ; 
 I saw it by the light of the sun and by the light of the moon, and 
 it was, under all circumstances, the same magnificent, wondrous, 
 awe-exciting monument of human art. Near it stood that colos- 
 sal bronze statue of Nero, one hundred and twenty feet high, 
 which is supposed to have given name to the edifice — Colosseum. 
 
 Now cross again to the Palatine Hill, noticing, as you pass out, 
 the luins of an ancient fountain called Meta Sudens ; Meta, be- 
 cause it was shaped like the meta or bound of a circus, and Su- 
 dens, sweating, because it had a jet-d'eau of water at the top. 
 
 Pp 
 
298 ITALY. 
 
 Entering upon the Palatine Hill through the gates into the pleasure 
 gardens surrounding the residence of an English gentleman, you 
 find yourself upon the site of the ancient palace of the Caesars, the 
 ruins of which skirt the hill, and are found, indeed, under the mod- 
 ern gardens.*' Here are subterranean arches and apartments in 
 successive stories. These ruins are too multiform and irregular 
 to be described, but they are well calculated to excite mingled and 
 vivid emotions in contrasting the present remains, connected as 
 they are with modern improvements, with the grand edifices that 
 made up this splendid palace of the Caesars. This mount once 
 contained all the Romans ; afterward it held but one tyrant and 
 his household ; so true is it that refined tyranny as well as savage 
 independence both produce desolation. Here were numerous 
 temples to the gods ; among others, more common, was one dedi- 
 cated to Moonlight, one to that monster of sensuality Elagabalus, 
 one to the goddess Viri-placa, or the man-pacifier, where domestic 
 broils were settled, and quarrelling husbands and wives became 
 reconciled. Would not such a temple be important in every 
 country ? Here, too, in this splendid palace, were baths, to sup- 
 ply which, as well as to furnish water for the other purposes of 
 the palace, the Claudian aqueduct was constructed, some arches 
 of which -still remain. It was brought over the Coelian Hill, 
 which is situated directly to the east of the Palatine, between 
 which and the latter is a modern street passing under the tri- 
 umphal arch of Constantine, and this, too, was the course of the 
 ancient triumphal way. They still show a bath in which it is said 
 the philosopher Seneca opened his veins and died at the command 
 of Nero ; for these ancient tyrants, when they wished to get rid of 
 a man in a respectable way, and with as little offence as possible, 
 used to inform the devoted person officially that it was their wish 
 he should die, and then gave him the privilege of getting out of the 
 world the best way he could. The more common way was to 
 open a vein in a warm bath. Poor Seneca's bath of death is now 
 overgrown with a luxuriant vegetation, and flowers bloom, spring- 
 ing out of the sides and bottom of the bath itself. The golden 
 house of Nero extended quite across from this to the Coelian Hillj 
 
 * These gardens are in the centre, but they cover only a small portion of the hilL 
 The ruins extend to the east and west, but the most interesting are in the eastern ex- 
 tremity of the mount. 
 
THE TARPEIAN ROCK. 299 
 
 and, it is said, from one extremity of the hill to the other. All 
 these splendid edifices are no more, but one extended pile of ruins 
 instead. The terrace, however, of the Casa di Augusto, and 
 other apartments of this palace, are tolerably preserved. This is 
 near the eastern extremity of the mount. From this place you 
 have a splendid view in almost every direction. To the south, 
 between this and the Aventine Mount, which is the most southern 
 of the seven hills, and lies just beyond the valley at your feet, is 
 the site of the ancient Circus Maximus, or the great circus, cele- 
 brated as a place of magnificent games from a remote antiquity. 
 Romulus instituted these games, and it was during their celebra- 
 tion that the Sabine women were seized by the Romans. This 
 circus, it is said, would contain two hundred and sixty thousand 
 spectators. To the south of this circus are seen the magnificent 
 ruins of the Baths of Caracalla. 
 
 From the west end of the Palatine you might once have crossed 
 over the Forum to the south part of the Capitoline Hill by Caligu- 
 la's bridge ; but, as that exists no longer, I will just translate you, 
 by the magic power of a journalist, who is always able, or should 
 be, to make his readers pass rapidly and safely by an air line, if 
 need be, over every obstruction, to the south part of the Capitoline, 
 and place you on the top of the Tarpeian Rock, where many have 
 perished either by the hand of the executioner or by popular vio- 
 lence. You will be surprised to find it so low, but you must re- 
 member that time has scraped the brow and filled up the vale. 
 One part of it is still high enough, however, for a place of execu- 
 tion, if that method were still practised. Passing now down the 
 declivity to the north, through a dirty, crowded street, beset with 
 beggars, you find yourself in the region called Velabrum. What 
 gave rise to this name is not agreed upon, but it was evidently 
 an important part of the ancient city, for here are still standing 
 some fine monuments and temples ; among the former is an arch, 
 erected by the bankers and tradesmen of Forum Boarium, which 
 was also situated here, to Septimius Severus, and, to distinguish it 
 from the other, it is called Arco di Septimio in Velabro ; here 
 is also the arch of Janus Quadrifrons, composed of large blocks 
 of white marble. It has, as its name implies, four fronts, with an 
 arch in each, and an area in the centre which might have been a 
 market. Of temples, here is a beautiful one of Vesta, in a good 
 
 
300 ITALY. 
 
 state of preservation, having, however, a modern roof; and here, 
 also, is a temple converted into a modern church, containing some 
 beautiful architectural remains, built by Servius Tullius in grati- 
 tude for his elevation from the condition of a slave to that of a sov- 
 ereign, and dedicated to the goddess Forluna Virilis. But a great 
 object of interest here is the remains of the Cloaca Maxima, or 
 the great sewer of Rome, which came down from the Roman 
 Forum, conducting off through this immense artery all the filth 
 of the ancient city, and emptying it but a little distance from this 
 into the Tiber. The masonry by which this sewer is constructed is 
 gigantic, and must endure while the world standeth. Many of the 
 branches of the Cloaca Maxima are choked up, and are supposed 
 now, by breeding miasma, to produce pestilence. Now, facing 
 the north, we may take a sweep round the west side of the Capi- 
 toline Hill, and pass in the way some splendid ruins, of which the 
 theatre of Marcellus is the most magnificent ; and we again ascend 
 the mount by a flight of steps in front of the modern Capitol, which 
 is the opposite side of the Forum. This flight of steps was planned 
 by Michael Angelo under Pope Paul III. On the tops are two 
 antique colossal statues of Castor and Pollux, with their horses, 
 together with a number of beautiful ancient trophies, and two an- 
 cient mile-stones, one of which, marked I, was the first stone on 
 the ancient Appian Way ; and in the square above is a splendid 
 equestrian statue of bronze of Marcus Aurelius. This as said to 
 be the only ancient bronze equestrian statue now known to be in 
 existence. Passing by this and to the south of the Capitol, you 
 may call at the left at a little church called the Church of St. Jo- 
 seph, under which is the ancient state prison of Rome, called the 
 Mamertine Prison. This prison is of an early date, and consists 
 of two stories ; the lower, supposed to have been built by Servius 
 Tullius, is the one in which Jugurtha was starved to death, and 
 where St. Peter and St. Paul were imprisoned. As we went down 
 the staircase to these prisons, our attention was called to an indent- 
 ation in one of the massy stones that compose the walls, about the 
 size of a man's head, and one or two inches deep, screened by an 
 iron grating. This was produced by St. Peter's head. When he 
 was going into the prison, the jailer knocked his head against the 
 wall, and the concussion made this impression in the solid rock ! 
 Such is the fable. We descended into the lower prison, and there 
 
 
THE SEVEN HILLS OF ROME. 301 
 
 they showed us the stone pillar to which the apostles were bound. 
 Here they preached the gospel to the two jailers and forty-seven 
 of their fellow-prisoners, all of whom were converted. It was then 
 desirable to baptize them, but what should they do for water ? A 
 miracle supplied this ; water gushed up from the bottom of the 
 prison ! and there the spring is unto this day, quite a fountain 
 of water in the centre of the prison. These converts were then 
 all baptized, and subsequently suffered martyrdom. How the 
 apostles, who were chained, could baptize them, we did not in- 
 quire, for these custodes do not like to have their stories ques- 
 tioned. This one affirmed most gravely that all these things were 
 true. 
 
 This lower prison is called Tullianum, after Tullius, who built it, 
 and is about six feet high and eighteen square. It is built of heavy 
 blocks of stone, arched over without cement, and bids defiance to 
 the assaults of time. A small hole at the top, big enough to let 
 down a man, is supposed to have been the only opening ; through 
 this aperture the prisoners were let down, and here also they re- 
 ceived their food. 
 
 The position of four of the seven hills of ancient Rome in their 
 relations to each other have already been alluded to. Three of 
 them, the Capitoline, Palatine, and Coelian, forming an arc of a cir- 
 cle opening to the east of north, the Palatine forming the centre 
 of the arc, and the Capitoline and Coelian the west and east ex- 
 tremities. In a tangent with the west extremity, and lying south 
 of the Capitoline, is the Aventine, as already described. The 
 western base of this is washed by the Tiber, which, by a bold 
 sweep to the left, at this point almost obtrudes itself between the 
 Capitoline and Aventine mounts. But, having looked into this 
 valley either for the purpose of spying out the wonders of the place, 
 or else to tender his services to bear off the spoils of the Cloaca 
 Maxima, for all antiquity unites in giving the Tiber personality, 
 he shoots away again to the southwest in his rapid passage to the 
 sea. 
 
 The three other hills lie almost opposite to the concave of the 
 
 three first named, viz., a little to the west of north, so that, if they 
 
 had been a little nearer, they would have formed the cord of the 
 
 arch ; and are arranged, beginning at the west, in the following 
 
 26 
 
302 ITALY. 
 
 order : Quirinale, Viminale, and Esquiline. Of these only the 
 Capitoline and Quirinale are much built upon by the moderns. 
 The other hills are covered chiefly by the ruins of the former city. 
 The modern city lies chiefly to the west and north. Some, how- 
 ever, of the most splendid and interesting ruins are found in the 
 very heart of the modern city. A few of them must be noticed. 
 
 Passing down from the Roman Forum, between the Capitoline 
 and Qurinale hills, you come to Trajan's Forum. This must have 
 been a splendid collection of porticoes, basilicas, temples, and other 
 structures, in the centre of which stands that beautiful and majes- 
 tic monument, Trajan's Pillar. It is a Doric column one hundred 
 and thirty-two Paris feet in height, including the statue, and consists 
 of thirty-four blocks of marble, covered from bottom to top with 
 bassi-relievi, representing the victories over the Dacii and others. 
 This, as has been remarked, was the model for the column of Bo- 
 naparte, in the Place Vendome in Paris. Originally, the column 
 was surmounted with a bronze gilt statue of Trajan ; but, at the 
 command of Pope Sextus V., St. Peter took his place, just as 
 St. Paul has mounted the column of Antoninus. 
 
 Trajan's Forum is but partially excavated, nor can it be further 
 without undermining churches and palaces of more modern date. 
 What is laid open, however, shows a succession of columns and 
 porticoes which indicate the former grandeur, of the place. The 
 public are indebted to the French for this excavation. ' Following 
 down to the ancient Campus Martius, which lies in the bend of 
 the Tiber formed by a bolder and more extended sweep to the 
 right than the one lower down to the left already described, we 
 came to the Pantheon, or the temple erected to all the gods. This 
 is the most perfect of all the ancient edifices. 
 
 The temple itself is a rotunda, with an interior diameter of 
 one hundred and forty-nine feet, and with walls eighteen feet thick, 
 making an entire diameter of one hundred and eighty-five feet. 
 It is lighted from the top of the dome by an aperture of about 
 twenty-seven feet diameter. From the floor to this opening the 
 distance is one hundred and forty-nine feet. Here, in this temple, 
 were assembled all the principal gods of antiquity, supernal and 
 infernal, terrestrial and marine. The vestibule is indescribably 
 magnificent. It is supported by sixteen Corinthian columns, four- 
 
THE BATHS OF CARACALLA. 303 
 
 teen Paris feet in circumference and thirty-nine in height, each 
 shaft being an entire block of red oriental granite, having bases and 
 capitals of white marble. 
 
 But I perceive I must classify a few of the many undescribed 
 antiquities of Rome, and so finish this part of the subject. 
 
 Terme, or baths. The remains of the ancient Roman baths, 
 from their magnificence and extent, astonish the modern spectator. 
 Bathing was practised by all the Romans, high and low; and hence 
 it became necessary to provide the accommodations for the poorer 
 classes at the public expense.* This may account, in part, for the 
 extent of these structures. But, in addition, the rage for splendid 
 architecture found in these baths a field for gratification beyond 
 almost any other; for everything that luxury could require or 
 sensuality demand was connected with these places of public re- 
 sort. The baths themselves were but splendid brothels for the 
 mingling of the sexes in the most refined excesses of licentious in- 
 dulgence, t Connected with these baths also were temples, and 
 porticoes, and even palaces, and they were ornamented with the 
 finest statuary of the age. As a specimen of these, take the Baths 
 of Caracalla, situated at the south of the Ccelian Hill. These 
 baths contained one thousand six hundred bathing-places, be- 
 sides a great number of bathing tubs of porphyry, and granite, and 
 marble, many of which remain as beautiful specimens of ancient 
 sculpture. There were two stories above ground, and three of 
 subterranean apartments, and the extent of all was a square of 
 about one thousand feet each side, the whole divided up, and 
 finished in elegant taste and style. They were excavating in one 
 of the courts while we were there, in which they had just laid 
 open some beautiful mosaic pavement. They promised to bring 
 a piece of it to my lodgings at a stipulated price, but it never came. 
 The Roman baths were of different kinds, named according to 
 their different character, as the laconicum, or vapour bath, the 
 caldarium, or hot bath, the warm bath called tepidarium, and 
 the cold, or frigidarium. The aqueducts supplied the water, and 
 there was a hypocaustum, or great stove, which heated the water, 
 that was conveyed by pipes to different parts of the edifice. There 
 
 * The poor in Rome paid about one halfpenny for bathing, but their children went free. • 
 f To aid in this, the different bathing apartments generally communicated with each 
 other. 
 
304 ITALY. 
 
 was a large public hall where the bathers undressed, and apart- 
 ments heated to different degrees for the purpose of cooling grad- 
 ually those who had been at the hot bath. Shops, also, furnished 
 with oil and perfumes for anointing and perfuming the rich and 
 such as could afford it, were generally found in these baths. 
 
 Many of the arches and walls of these Baths of Caracaila are 
 remaining; but the works of art are removed, and here were 
 found some of the finest specimens of sculpture extant. It has 
 already been mentioned that the Farnese Bull and the Glycon 
 Hercules of the Museo Borbonico at Naples were found here. 
 It is now, however, utterly in ruins, having enough left to show 
 its ancient grandeur, but nothing entire. 
 
 The Baths of Dioelesian are another specimen of this class of 
 Tuins ; but here there were also a pond for swimming in the open 
 air, called a natatio, and a ocystum, or hall for gymnastic and 
 gladiatorial exercises, together with libraries, temples, &c. : around 
 it were shady walks and pleasure grounds. On a part of these 
 ruins is the beautiful church di Santa Maria degli Angeli, the 
 transverse nave of which is supposed to be the ocystum of the 
 baths, three hundred and eighty feet long, seventy-four wide, and 
 eighty-four high, with the ancient columns still standing, formed 
 out of a single block of granite forty-three feet high and sixteen 
 in circumference. I know not that I saw anything in Rome 
 which gave me a higher idea of the boldness and magnificence of 
 ancient architecture than these columns. The entrance of the 
 church is also splendid, and is supposed to be the caldarium of 
 the ancient baths. Michael Angelo planned this church at the 
 command of Pius IV., who dedicated these baths to pious uses, 
 for the reason that they were built by Christians, who, to the num- 
 ber of some thirty or forty thousand, were pressed into this ser- 
 vice by the tyrannical Dioelesian, and, when they had accom- 
 plished the service, he caused them all to be martyred. 
 
 Another part of the baths is occupied by the church, convent, 
 and garden of the monks of St. Bernard, and another by those of 
 the Carthusian monks, and still another by public granaries ; and 
 some of these once splendid edifices are full of hay and straw, 
 like a New-England barn ! Such desecrations, in fact, are not 
 uncommon in Rome. The Temple of Antoninus, as it is sup- 
 posed to have been, is the pope's dogana, or custom-house. The 
 
MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS. 305 
 
 Temple of Pallas is a baker's shop ; and some of the finest ruins 
 are places of the most offensive occasions, They are often fre- 
 quented by the most squalid beggary ; and sometimes we have 
 found concealed among these ruins of ancient grandeur and lux- 
 ury miserable-looking bipeds, partly stripped, and picking the ver- 
 min from their persons. Such contrasts are certainly not in good 
 taste ; but, in the present state of things, they seem unavoidable, 
 and, at least, afford the moralist an occasion to reflect on the con- 
 trasts and changes of this mutable world. 
 
 The Baths of Titus were connected with his palace, and ex- 
 hibit some fine ruins in a good state of repair, especially some 
 of the chambers of the palace, which exhibit frescoes almost as 
 fresh in colouring as if they were but just painted. Here also 
 were found some fine statuary, and especially that first among 
 the first, the group of Laocoon and his children, now in the Vati- 
 can Museum. The rubbish from these baths was principally 
 cleared away by the French. 
 
 Another class of architectural antiquities in Rome is the Mauso- 
 lea, or tombs. Some of these are of colossal architecture, and 
 seem to have been built under the instinctive promptings of a 
 desire for immortality, unaided by the light of revelation. Not 
 having sufficient and satisfactory faith in the realities of the invis- 
 ible world and the immortality of the soul, they aimed to secure 
 a physical immortality for their bodies, by erecting, if possible, an 
 indestructible mausoleum ; and I know not but they have secured 
 their object. 
 
 Mausoleum of Augustus. — This once splendid monument is 
 now a kind of circus, and has been used, we were told, for bull- 
 fights and exhibitions of fireworks. It stands in the midst of 
 other modern edifices, so closely hemmed in and concealed that 
 I failed in several attempts to find it without a guide, although I 
 knew within a few rods where it was situated. It was once a 
 towering monument, rising up to the north of the Campus Martius 
 three stories high, each higher story narrowed by a circling offset 
 planted with evergreens, so as not only to give to the house of 
 death perpetuity, but to wreath it around with unfading circlets 
 of perpetual verdure. On the top was the statue of the august 
 emperor. How have the mighty fallen! The lower story re- 
 26 Qq 
 
306 ITALY. 
 
 mains of massy, and, one would think, immoveable masonry, in 
 which are the arches constituting the sepulchral chambers. Here 
 was pointed out to us the spot where was found the sarcophagus 
 of the emperor himself; but this, too, has been removed. 
 
 The Mausoleum of Adrian is on the opposite, or right bank of 
 the river, immediately facing the ancient Pon s JElicis, now called 
 the Bridge of St. Angelo. The bridge, as well as the sepulchre, 
 was built by Adrian, principally to accommodate the approach to 
 his sepulchre ; but it is now the principal thoroughfare to the Vati- 
 can palace and St. Peter's, and is lined on each side by the 
 twelve apostles in marble. This mausoleum consisted of two 
 stories, and w r as incrusted with Parian marble, and surrounded 
 and adorned with statuary, and surmounted by a dome. It is 
 now, and has been ever since the fall of the empire, a military 
 fortress — stripped of its ornaments, and perforated for cannon — 
 surmounted, however, instead of by the statue of Adrian, as for- 
 merly, by a splendid bronze angel, with a drawn sword, which 
 has given occasion for the modern name, St. Angelo. The origin 
 of this statue is a vision of an angel seen by St. Gregory from 
 the top of this edifice, announcing to him that the plague, which 
 was then raging at Rome, was about to cease. This fortress 
 overlooks the Tiber on the one side, and is connected by a cov- 
 ered way on the other with the Vatican, so that his holiness, in 
 case of sudden danger, can secretly escape to this place of de- 
 fence. 
 
 The ancient part of this structure, however, is the most inter- 
 esting. The entrance to the sepulchral chambers was for a long 
 time concealed, but has been discovered within a few years, and 
 strangers are now shown through their princely arches. In the 
 centre is the arch supposed to have contained the ashes of the 
 emperor, and the vaulted passage that leads to it is well worthy 
 the notice of the stranger. 
 
 If I had room within my prescribed limits, I might describe 
 the tomb of the Scipios, and some others of minor importance ; 
 these, however, must be omitted. Nevertheless, another kind 
 of tomb should be noticed, as being the more common sepul- 
 chre among the ancient Romans : it is called Columbarium, 
 from its resemblance to pigeon-holes cut in dove-houses. We 
 went into one of these lately opened in the Via Latina, near 
 
TOMBS OF THE ANCIENT ROMANS. 307 
 
 the Latin gate. It is subterranean, and is entered by a steep 
 staircase to the depth of about ten or twelve feet. Here were 
 apartments with the walls full of these pigeon-holes, of the 
 dimensions of eight or ten inches ; in them were sunk cinerary 
 urns, like the setting of kettles in an arch. This was the only 
 tomb we entered which had not been rifled; for the rage of 
 putting everything in the public museums has robbed temples 
 and dwellings, tombs and sepulchres, of all their removable con- 
 tents. This columbarium, however, was still possessed of most 
 of its urns, with their burnt bones and ashes all in them, and 
 also the sepulchral tablets, by which it appeared that some of the 
 deposited remains were those of the family of Augustus, freedmen 
 and children. Did the emperor need another sepulchre in addi- 
 tion to the colossal one in the Campus Martins ? or was this 
 erected and used previous to the erection of the other ? 
 
 It was customary for the ancient Romans to line some of the 
 principal streets leading out of their cities with tombs. So it was 
 at Pompeii in the Via Appia, and so it was at Rome in thi3 
 same Via Appia, which, perhaps, was the greatest thoroughfare 
 leading from this greatest of cities. For many miles out of the 
 city this avenue was lined with these mansions of the dead, many 
 of them still remaining in ruinous decay. But these ruins, like 
 most others in Rome, owe their dilapidated condition more to 
 violence than to time. The larger tombs were generally built 
 of small stones, terra-cotta, and cement in the interior, and en- 
 closed by a massy wall of hewn travertine-, or peperino* marble. 
 These, in the middle and later ages, were found very convenient 
 building materials : hence the tombs of the ancient dead were 
 torn down to erect edifices for the living. The central parts, 
 however, remain, ragged and broken memorials of former beau- 
 ty and elegance. Following out this road three or four miles, 
 you come to the sepulchre of Cecilia Metella, the wife of Cras- 
 sus. Crassus was one of the first triumviri, and attained his 
 standing in the political world probably by his immense wealth, 
 which he had mainly accumulated by trading in slaves. Whether 
 he purposed his wife's celebrity mostly by this monument, or his 
 own, we cannot say ; it seems, however, to have been used only 
 
 * Lapis Albanus, a volcanic production, of which the more ancient buildings of Rome 
 were constructed, found near the Lake of Albano. 
 
308 ITALY. 
 
 for his wife, whose splendid sarcophagus was found in the centre 
 as the sole tenant, and now lies in the court of the Capitol. The 
 walls of this tomb are about thirty feet thick, and the interior 
 concavity perhaps twenty feet in diameter ; it is several stories 
 high, and has a castellated top, which was added to it in the 
 middle ages, to transform this also into a military fortress, like 
 that of Adrian. The outside wall of this tomb was composed of 
 immense blocks of stone, but almost all from one side have been 
 taken away. 
 
 In describing the tombs of the ancient Romans we ought not 
 to pass by the Catacombs, which, in the later periods of the em- 
 pire, were used extensively for burial-places, although it is gen- 
 erally supposed they were originally, like the catacombs of Paris, 
 quarries for building-stones. They were more particularly de- 
 voted to purposes of burial during the times of persecution ; and, 
 in fact, they were not only burial-places, but they were retreats 
 for the Christians, where they concealed themselves, and espe- 
 cially where they retired for their religious meetings and ordi- 
 nances, for they were obliged to hide themselves " in dens and 
 caves of the earth." These catacombs are found at different 
 places, as at the churches of St. Lorenzo and St. Agnes ; but we 
 visited them at the church of St. Sebastian, not far from the tomb 
 of Cecilia Metella. This church is one of the seven that are 
 called basilica, and is said to have been built by Constantine. It 
 has an ancient portico, and some other parts that indicate anti- 
 quity, although much of it is comparatively modern. From this 
 church we descended into the subterranean apartments, and were 
 led through what seemed to us a labyrinth of passages, some- 
 times ascending and sometimes descending, and once, at least, 
 passing an ancient stone staircase of some twelve or fifteen steps. 
 Occasionally we came to little chambers, of perhaps five feet by 
 eight, and here they had their altars, and perhaps their lodgings. 
 In the sides of the avenues, which were generally three or four 
 feet wide, and six or seven high, were other little recesses, from 
 which sarcophagi had been taken ; and our cicerone, a Capuchin 
 monk, pointed out numerous places from which, as he said, the 
 bodies of popes had been taken. We were glad to have com- 
 pleted our tour of the catacombs, and return again to daylight. 
 These subterranean passages, it is said, communicate with others* 
 
ST. SEBASTIAN. 309 
 
 with the city, and even with Ostia, eighteen miles distant. Our 
 monk told us there was a direct communication between this and 
 the Mamertine prison, where St. Peter was confined in Rome, 
 more than two miles distant, and that St. Peter left the prison 
 through this passage, and came out as far as this church ; that 
 here he met with Christ, to whom he said, "Quo vadis, Domine ? n 
 (Whither goest thou, Lord?) And Christ informed him he had 
 come to let him know that it was the will of God that he (Peter) 
 should return to the prison, and suffer martyrdom for the sake 
 of Christ ; and, having delivered his message, he vanished, but not 
 without leaving a miracle behind ; the stone on which he stood 
 when he spoke to him was left with the print of his feet upon it; 
 and, to convince us, he showed us the stone itself; and, truly, there 
 was an indurated sandstone, with the exact impressions of the 
 human foot, just as it would appear if a man should step into a 
 soft clay or moistened sand, and leave the full impress of his 
 foot. Whether these tracks had been artificially made in the 
 stone by the chisel of the artist, or whether, like some other 
 tracks discovered by modern geologists, they were impressed 
 upon sand, which afterward became indurated, I am unable to 
 say. Of course we gave the monk but little credit for his miracle. 
 He had also a case full of other relics, such as the arms, legs, 
 heads, &c, of various apostles, popes, and saints, all covered in 
 such a manner as to prevent us from determining whether they 
 were wood, stone, or bone. As this church was consecrated to 
 St. Sebastian, we, of course, had many relics of that saint. 
 Here is his tomb ; here the stone pillar to which he was bound 
 when they shot him ; and here, also, they have one of the arrows 
 by which he was shot. We had become very familiar with this 
 saint, for he is a favourite subject for the artist. He was a soldier, 
 persecuted, and finally martyred by his fellow- soldiers for his 
 religion, which was done by binding him to a pillar, and shooting 
 him with arrows. He is always represented as pierced through 
 his body and limbs, and expiring with a countenance most placid 
 and heavenly. The picture galleries and churches abound with 
 St. Sebastians. Wishing, therefore, to learn some more particu- 
 lars of his history, we asked the monk when this martyred saint 
 lived. " Oh," said he, " three or four hundred years before 
 Christ !" 
 
 _ 
 
310 ITALY. 
 
 A brief notice of a tomb for a priest shall close this part of the 
 subject. This is that of Caius Cestus, supposed to have lived in 
 the time of Augustus. It is a pyramid, one hundred and thirteen 
 feet in height, and sixty-nine feet square at the base, terminating 
 in a point, and appears, as far as I could discover, to remain as 
 entire as when it was first erected. It stands in the city wall, 
 near the Protestant burying-ground at the south of the Aventine 
 Mount. 
 
 Another class of ruins in and about Rome are the aqueducts. 
 These, among the ancient Romans, were numerous and splendid ;* 
 and I scarcely saw anything more picturesque and grand than the 
 remaining arches of these stupendous watercourses, stretching 
 across the Campagna from various directions, some of them, by 
 modern repairs, still rolling their refreshing streams into the eter- 
 nal city. These aqueducts are led from the distance of twenty 
 and thirty miles, and used to convey into the ancient city five 
 hundred thousand hogsheads of water daily, although, at pres- 
 ent, only about one fifth of that amount is brought into the city. 
 Yet Rome is still full of fountains, and many of them very beau- 
 tiful; indeed, I consider the fountains of Rome one of its most 
 interesting features. The three aqueducts, designated by Aqua 
 Vergine, Aqua Felice, and Aqua Paulina, afford the principal 
 supply to these modern fountains. They are all, however, ancient 
 aqueducts repaired and restored, the first by Paul IV., the second 
 Dy Sextus V., and the third by Paul V. The second cost, it is 
 said, a million of dollars to repair it ; it terminates at the Fonta- 
 na di Termini, where are some fine and appropriate statuary of 
 Moses smiting the rock; of Aaron leading the Israelites to 
 quench their thirst ; with four lions, two of which are antiques 
 from the Pantheon. t Aqua Vergine is so called from the springs 
 having been disclosed to some famishing soldiers by a peasant 
 girl : it was brought to Rome by Agrippa, and now empties itself 
 at the Fontana de Treve, where are allegorical figures, rocks, 
 cascades, and waterspouts of great beauty, and reflecting much 
 
 * In the part of the city near the Porta Maggiore remains of five aqueducts may be 
 seen. 
 
 f These lions, spouting water from a fountain, have a closer relation to this element 
 than appears to most spectators. They were originally symbols of the sun in the sign of 
 Leo, at which time commenced the inundation of the Nile. 
 
COLUMNS AND OBELISKS. 311 
 
 credit upon the artist, Nicolo Salvi. The Aqua Paulina is from 
 Trajan's aqueduct, and extends the distance of thirty miles, and 
 is divided into two branches, one of which supplies the Mount 
 Janiculum, and empties itself principally, in copious torrents, 
 under a splendid Ionic colonnade of red granite, into a vast mar- 
 ble basin. There is water enough poured out here to carry sev- 
 eral mills. The other branch goes to the Vatican, and expends 
 itself, in the magnificent piazza of St. Peter's, in two fountains, 
 which throw up the water in foaming columns many feet into the 
 air, whence it comes down in copious showers, and is frequently 
 carried off by the wind, in wreaths of spray, to the distance of 
 many yards. The main body of the water falls into magnificent 
 basins of oriental granite, fifty feet in circumference. 
 
 Columns and Obelisks. — Ancient Rome abounded in porticoes 
 and colonnades, in proof of which it need only be mentioned that 
 a great portion of the churches, palaces, and other edifices are 
 adorned by the architectural ornaments of the ancient city. Some 
 of the streets, also, of the modern city are encumbered with the 
 prostrate columns and fragments of columns of ancient Rome. 
 Columns that, in an American museum, would be preserved and 
 exhibited as antique relics of the Augustan age, are buried in 
 the filth of the streets, or thrown by into back courts and by- 
 places as so much cumbersome rubbish. You will see blocks of 
 beautiful marble, also, piled up in the yards of the lapidaries and 
 toy manufacturers, to be wrought into those models of ancient 
 sculpture and other toys that employ a great portion of the in- 
 dustry, and form quite a portion of the revenue of Rome. And 
 then, what multitudes of these works of art are still buried in the 
 unexcavated ruins and covered streets of the ancient city, and in 
 the choked channel of the yellow Tiber ! Trajan's pillar has 
 been mentioned. That of Antoninus is of a similar construction, 
 with a shaft about one hundred feet high, covered with bassi-re- 
 lievi, representing the Marcomannic war. The ancient Egyptian 
 obelisks are numerous, and very beautiful. I noticed particularly 
 eight or ten of these Egyptian monuments in some of the princi- 
 pal piazzas and before some of the principal edifices, most of 
 them covered with hieroglyphics. The one standing in the piazza 
 of St. Peter's was transported, as we learn from Livy, from Heli- 
 opolis to Ostia (the ancient seaport of Rome), and thence con- 
 
312 ITALY. 
 
 veyed to the city, and placed in Nero's Circus. It is a single 
 piece of red oriental granite, seventy-six Paris feet in length, and 
 was placed in its present position by order of Sextus V., on a 
 pedestal resting upon four lions. 
 
 The obelisk of the Piazza del Popolo was also executed, as is 
 supposed, at Heliopolis for an Egyptian monarch five hundred and 
 twenty-two years before the Christian era. This has a shaft of 
 seventy-four Paris feet, and is covered with hieroglyphics, as is 
 also the one on Monte Cavallo, which is forty-five Paris feet in 
 height exclusive of the pedestal. This latter has on either side a 
 colossal figure, one of Castor and the other of Pollux, originally 
 from Athens, and executed, as is supposed, by Phidias and Prax- 
 iteles. They are standing by their horses, which, however, are 
 modern. 
 
 The largest obelisk is before the Church of St. John Lateran, 
 being, exclusive of its pedestal, one hundred and fifteen feet high 
 and nine in diameter. It was brought from ancient Thebes, where 
 it was placed in the Temple of the Sun by Ramises ! ! 
 
 With all the labours of Champollion and others, there is not yet 
 light enough shed upon these dark hieroglyphics to render them 
 legible to the modern reader. If this were done, what stores of 
 historic facts, and what knowledge of Egyptian usages and wor- 
 ship might not be obtained from the mysterious characters that 
 adorn these ancient monuments ! One of them is supposed to 
 bear date one thousand years before the Christian era. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 A great portion of the most interesting antiquities of Rome 
 and other ancient cities are to be found in the public museums, 
 especially in those of the Capitol and of the Vatican palace. But 
 who will undertake to describe these ? A volume would not an- 
 swer to give their names and history, to say nothing of a descrip- 
 tion of the articles themselves. 
 
 The Vatican palace, so called from its situation upon the Vati- 
 can mount, joins upon St. Peter's cathedral, and in it are extensive 
 
THE VATICAN PALACE. 313 
 
 naileries appropriated to works of art, and especially to specimens 
 of ancient sculpture. Of these apartments even,I can specify but 
 a few, and, of course, I cannot begin to speak of their contents. 
 
 The Museo Chiaramonti contains a gallery of ancient inscrip- 
 tions, monumental tablets, and sarcophagi almost innumerable. 
 On one side are the pagan monuments, and on the other the 
 Christian ; many of the latter were taken from the catacombs, 
 and, by their rudeness, show that they were not the workmanship 
 of the Augustan age ! Another division of this gallery contains 
 seven or eight hundred specimens of ancient statuary. 
 
 At the farther end of this gallery is a passage to the left into a 
 museum of Egyptian antiquities, discovered mostly a few years 
 since at the lower cataract of the Nile, thought to be among the 
 most ancient of the kind now extant. 
 
 The Museo Clementino is up a staircase, but not higher above 
 ground. The palace climbs the hill, so that, although you have 
 ascended several long flights of stairs, you now can pass out into 
 an open court, which is surrounded by a beautiful portico and 
 cabinets of the richest statuary. Here is the Belvidere Apollo, 
 thought to be one of the finest statues in the world ; the very im- 
 age of manly grace ; the almost divine personification ; the beau 
 ideal of the human form divine. The more you look at it, the 
 more you desire to look. It is, of course, of Greek workmanship, 
 and was found at the city of Antium in the fifteenth century. 
 Here is the group of Laocoon and his two sons, writhing under 
 the crushing coils and poisonous fangs of the two serpents. I 
 had seen frequent casts and copies of this, one of the former de- 
 scription in the museum at Philadelphia, but none of them come 
 up to the original. Its painful beauties cannot be described.* 
 This was brought from Greece to be placed in the palace of 
 Titus, and is described by Pliny as the production of the joint 
 labour of Agesander, Apollodorus, and Athenodorus of Rhodes. 
 Here also are a beautiful mosaic pavement, numerous baths of 
 splendid materials and workmanship, sarcophagi, bassi-relievi, 
 
 * I recollect, several years since, in looking at the plaster cast in Philadelphia, of ob- 
 serving to an English traveller whom I accidentally met there, that some critics thought 
 the artist ought to have thrown into the countenance of the father more paternal solici- 
 tude for his sons, who were suffering with him. " But," says the Englishman, in reply, 
 44 do you not see that this fellow," pointing to the serpent, " has got him by the side V* 
 This put an end to all further criticism on that point. 
 
 27 Rr 
 
&14 IT|p,¥. 
 
 &c. One cabinet is devoted to a modern artist, the celebrated 
 Canova. One hardly knows which pleases most, the beautiful 
 sculpture which stands in this cabinet, or the delicate compliment 
 by which he is admitted to companionship with the unrivalled art- 
 ists of antiquity. With all the advantages of the ancient patterns, 
 and with all the improvements of the kindred arts, the moderns 
 never have equalled, and probably never will equal, the sculpture 
 of antiquity. 
 
 The Hall of Animals is full of beautiful specimens of beasts 
 and birds, fishes and reptiles, principally quadrupeds, however, 
 some of them representing ancient fable, as Europa, Mithras stab- 
 bing the bull, &c. Others represent ravenous beasts taking their 
 prey, as a lion devouring a horse, and the like. It is generally 
 thought, however, that the ancients excelled more in imitations of 
 the human form than of the lower animals. 
 
 We next came to an extensive gallery called the Gallery of 
 Statues. Here is a fine collection of beautiful statues represent- 
 ing Apollo, and the Muses, and Hermae, which are portraits of 
 distinguished Grecians, each having his or her name upon it. 
 These were found in the villa of Cassius at Tivoli, and, perhaps, 
 constituted his private gallery. They are doubtless correct like- 
 nesses, as they are of Grecian workmanship. You may see here 
 the genuine features of yEschines and Demosthenes ; of Aspasia 
 and Sappho ; of Solon and Lycurgus ; of Sophocles and Euripi- 
 des, and a host of others, of whom to think is poetry, but to see is 
 almost inspiration. 
 
 In the centre of the Circular Hall is a splendid basin of por- 
 phyry, forty-one Paris feet in circumference, with a number of 
 elegant busts and statues of Jupiter, Juno, and other great char- 
 acters. Then comes another apartment, in the form of a cross, 
 which serves as a vestibule, but filled, nevertheless, with statuary. 
 Here you ascend an elegant staircase to a rotunda, where you see, 
 among other things, an ancient car elegantly sculptured in marble, 
 with two horses harnessed to it, only one of which, however, is 
 ancient. Here is also another extensive gallery, containing splen- 
 did candelabra, cinerary urns, vases, sarcophagi, &c. Some of 
 these candelabra are very elegant, and were used in the illumina- 
 tion of ancient palaces, temples, &c. 
 
 Many of the rooms of these apartments are superb in their ar- 
 
BASILICA. 315 
 
 chitecture, with columns of ancient marble and porphyry, and 
 frescoed ceilings. 
 
 Another splendid collection of antiquities is at the Capitol ; but, 
 as these are similar in character to those already described, I shall 
 not stay to mention particulars. It may be noticed, however, that 
 here is a hall containing busts of a great portion of the Roman 
 emperors, and another hall of philosophers, and another of Egyp- 
 tian statues found at Adrian's villa. 
 
 Many of the antiquities of Rome are so incorporated with mod- 
 ern structures that it is difficult to describe the one without in- 
 cluding the other. I shall, therefore, disregard any further clas- 
 sification of this kind, and finish what more I may say of Rome 
 by adopting the most convenient order for that purpose. 
 
 The churches of Rome are perhaps the most interesting feature 
 of the modern city. Many are constructed, in part at least, of 
 ancient materials, and some of the structures themselves are co- 
 eval with the age of Constantine. Seven of these latter are called 
 basilicce. Basilica anciently seems to have been a term that 
 distinguished a structure of a particular form and architecture, 
 rather than a designation of the uses of the edifice ; and these 
 ancient churches are supposed to be so called from their having 
 been erected on the site of these ancient public halls, and from 
 their being, in some respects, like them in architecture. They 
 had double side aisles ; or, in other words, they had four rows of 
 columns, dividing the whole into the central nave, and two side 
 arcades on each side of the nave. These columns were single, 
 and generally without an entablature, as they supported arches 
 springing from the capitals. Many of those now called basilica 
 churches, however, are so changed by alterations and repairs that 
 the basilica form no longer exists. 
 
 Another reason for calling these churches basilicas might have 
 been that they were built out of the materials of former basilicas. 
 Constantine built all his edifices of plundered materials. Indeed, 
 the first three centuries of the empire seem to have been to Rome 
 what the geologists of the present day represent the antemundane 
 ages of the world to have been to the world as it now is ; mere 
 periods of preparation, in which were elaborated inexhaustible 
 stores for the use of all subsequent ages.* 
 
 * It is for this reason, doubtless, that the Gothic style was never introduced into Rome. 
 
316 ITALY. 
 
 At the head of these basilica churches we must place St. Pe- 
 ter's, which, in fact, stands at the head of all churches, if not of 
 all structures that now exist, in point of architectural elegance 
 and costliness of finish. In some respects the edifice is unfavour- 
 ably situated, for it is overlooked on the one side by the towering 
 pile of the Vatican palace, elevated on the rising hill, and on the 
 other side it is flanked by uncouth buildings. But these defects 
 are measurably remedied by the splendid and spacious piazza in 
 the front, and especially by the covered galleries that wing out 
 from each side, and the unrivalled semicircular triple porticoes 
 that start from these galleries, and sweep round the open piazza 
 in indescribable grandeur. These porticoes are supported by 
 four rows of Doric columns, giving, in each wing, two side and a 
 central arcade, the latter being wide enough for two carriages 
 abreast, and the three are fifty-six feet in breadth. There are 
 two hundred and eighty-four columns sixty-one Paris feet in 
 height, surmounted with a balustrade, on which stand one hun- 
 dred and ninety-two colossal statues. In passing up the arcades 
 you enter the cloistered galleries, three hundred and sixty feet in 
 length, and these bring you into the end of the vestibule. If you 
 go up the right portico you have also in front the Scala Regia, 
 or royal staircase. This is an enchanting position. In one direc- 
 tion the staircase, in the opposite the gallery and portico, and in 
 another this grand vestibule, four hundred and thirty-nine Paris 
 feet in length, by thirty-seven in breadth and sixty-two in height, 
 with its vaulted gilded ceiling, its doors, niches, statues, and fount- 
 ains receding in the distant perspective, and terminating in the 
 equestrian statue of Charlemagne. This noble statue is placed 
 as the guardian genius of that end of the vestibule, in the same 
 manner that a similar one of Constantine guards this. 
 
 But we must say a few things of the interior of this church, to 
 notice which minutely would take a volume. The lower, or sub- 
 structure, still remains, with additions and repairs, as it was built 
 by Constantine. He chose this spot, which was formerly the site 
 of the Circus of Nero, because it was said St. Peter was buried 
 here. This ancient church stood until about the middle of the 
 
 Not only were her patterns of a different character, but her materials. By the former 
 she was allured, and by the latter compelled, not to alter her style. I do not recollect 
 that I saw a symptom of the Gothic among all the edifices of Rome. 
 

THE BASEMENT CHAPEL. 317 
 
 fifteenth century, when it was principally removed, and the pres- 
 ent edifice commenced under the pontificate of Nicholas V. The 
 new structure was carried on under different pontiffs and a suc- 
 cession of architects, the principal of whom were Rosellini and 
 Alberti, who commenced it, Bramante, Raphael, Sangallo, and, 
 above all, Michael Angelo Buonarroti, who planned the cupola, 
 boasting that he would elevate the pantheon to the top of the 
 church. This has, in effect, been accomplished. The edifice, 
 with the exception of some of the ornaments and the sacristy,* 
 was finished in about two hundred and fifty years. 
 
 The Basement Chapel, with its ancient ornaments, sepulchres, 
 altars, and shrines, is a most interesting structure, but can only 
 be seen by lamplight, as the light of the day shines not here. 
 The principal apparent entrance is by the Sacra Confessione, 
 which is surrounded by a beautiful balustrade just in front of the 
 high altar, and surmounted by a hundred lamps constantly burn- 
 ing. This is descended by a double flight of steps to the tomb 
 of St. Peter, whose mortal remains are said to be entombed here. 
 The marble statue of Pius VI., however, kneeling before the 
 bronze doors that lead into St. Peter's tomb, guards this passage, 
 and spectators descend another way. 
 
 The modern church is of gigantic dimensions : the extreme 
 length of the nave is six hundred and fourteen feet ; the breadth 
 of the church two hundred and seven. It is in the form of a Latin 
 cross, and the breadth of the cross is seventy-nine feet. The diam- 
 eter of the cupola is one hundred and thirty-nine feet, and its ex- 
 treme interior height from the floor of the church three hundred 
 and ninety-three feet. The view as you enter the church is one 
 of the finest, if not the very first, taking all things into the ac- 
 count, that can be obtained in any position within or without. 
 The eye traces the entire length and height at a glance ; a glance 
 that kindles in the soul the commingled emotions of sublimity and 
 beauty, heightened by the overwhelming surprise and astonish- 
 ment that so much of grandeur and beauty could ever be thrown 
 into one perspective by human industry and genius. One of the 
 features of St. Peter's that adds much to its effect is the richness 
 and perfection of its finish : it is incrusted with marbles of vari- 
 
 * Indeed, it may be said that the essential parts of the architecture were completed in 
 1621. The sacristy was built by Pius VI. in the latter part of the last century. 
 27 
 
318 ITALY. 
 
 ous kinds, and beautifully wrought ; its pillars are elegant, and 
 seven of them, it is said, are from the temple at Jerusalem. 
 
 Another feature is its symmetry and exact proportions. These 
 are so perfect that they deceive the eye as to the dimensions of 
 everything you see. The statue of an ordinary cherub, appearing 
 about the size of a well-grown infant in his mother's arms, is 
 found, on examination, to be gigantic. No one would suppose 
 the pillars to be of one fourth the size they find them to be by 
 actual measurement. Each of the four pillars on which the 
 cupola rests is two hundred and six Paris feet in circumference; rather 
 a large pillar this to come down in the centre of the church, and 
 yet four of these dimensions do not appear to take an undue pro- 
 portion of room. 
 
 - Another feature which calls out the admiration of the spectator 
 at every turn is the splendid sepulchral monuments, and the pic- 
 tures in mosaic. Here are the tombs of the popes, of princes, 
 and illustrious characters. Here are the most splendid mosaics 
 of the most splendid pictures in the world, all gigantic in size, and 
 elegant in design and execution. 
 
 Another fine view is in or near the centre, under the cupola. 
 The interior of the dome is incrusted with mosaics ; immediately 
 under it is a splendid baldacchino, with spiral pillars, supporting 
 a bronze canopy overshadowing the high altar. Beyond this, at 
 the upper end of the tribuna, is the chair of St. Peter ; arid also, 
 above it, a transparent painting of the Holy Ghost in the form of a 
 dove. But I must break off abruptly from this description of the 
 edifice, while of its contents or of its services I can say little 
 more than I have said already in my account of the ceremonies 
 of Holy Week. At the south end of the cross are confessionals, 
 where priests, in all the different languages of Europe, officiate 
 at stated hours, each box having over it the name of the language 
 in which the confession is heard. When the priest is in his place 
 a long rod runs out obliquely, with which he touches the head of 
 any individual who, passing by, chooses to kneel to receive his 
 benediction. 
 
 Mr. Lyman, in his work on the political state of Italy, gives a 
 catalogue of seventy-nine sacred relics contained in this church. 
 Most of these are the bones of saints. Here, also, in one of the 
 chapels, is the column against which the Saviour leaned when he 
 
 
i*f 
 
 st. peter's. 319 
 
 was disputing with the doctors. Here are the cradle and hay of 
 the manger where Christ lay, and the veil of the blessed Virgin ; 
 the mantle and girdle of Joseph ; the holy sweat of our Saviour ; 
 and I know not what else. But to describe the relics of Rome 
 would take a large volume : some of the churches have many 
 more than St. Peter's. 
 
 You ascend St. Peter's by a gradual ascent to the base of the 
 dome. Here you may go out upon the roof, and then you perceive 
 you have never before had any just conception of its magnitude. 
 The roof of this church seems of itself a little city, covered with 
 towns, cottages, cisterns, plains and hills, slopes and precipices. 
 Returning, you ascend the cupola by a zigzag staircase, which 
 goes up between the two walls of the canopy of the cupola, for it 
 has double walls, to the top. Thence you go up a difficult pas- 
 sage through a narrow throat into the great brass ball above the 
 dome, which from below looks like a small globe ; but, when you 
 reach it, you find it will contain sixteen or twenty men. Females 
 can enter this with some difficulty. Mrs. F., anxious to get to the 
 height of St. Peter's, succeeded in entering the ball. The heat, 
 however, is almost suffocating, and, in very hot weather, must be 
 insupportable. We were glad to hasten down. The entire per- 
 pendicular height to the top of the cross over the ball is four hun- 
 dred and forty-eight feet. 
 
 One of the accessory circumstances which adds to the interest 
 of St. Peter's is the neat and cleanly manner in which it is kept; 
 and this is true, in fact, of most of the Roman churches. They 
 are like a lady's parlour. Dr. Johnson, of London, in his remarks 
 on Italy, says, he thinks the goddess Cloacina has taken her flight 
 from Italy and the Continent across the British Channel. If she 
 has she avoids the churches in England, and still looks after this 
 part of her duty in Rome. Let any one compare the cleanliness 
 of St. Peter's, or, in fact, of any respectable Roman church, with 
 St. Paul's or Westminster Abbey. Indeed, no lady can go over 
 one of these churches, and especially St. Paul's, and keep her dress 
 decent ; it needs a Hercules to turn another river through this 
 augean stable, called the House of God, especially the upper 
 apartments. In St. Peter's the statuary was bright and fresh like 
 a chimney ornament in a lady's drawing room ; in St. Pauls there 
 were accumulations of dust so as to deform the work of the artist. 
 
320 ITALY. 
 
 St. John Lateran was built by Constantine, and is another of 
 the basilicas. It is a magnificent church, and is called the mother 
 church of Rome. The interior architecture is heavy, in conse- 
 quence of the enlargement of the pillars, to strengthen the edifice. 
 They now contain niches in which are placed gigantic statues of 
 the twelve apostles. Near this church is a baptistry, in which, it 
 is said, Constantine was baptized. The whole edifice almost is 
 made of borrowed materials ; even the baptismal, font is supposed 
 to be an ancient sarcophagus. 
 
 The great object of the finish in the Roman churches is orna- 
 ment, in many cases excessive ornament. But even this excites 
 your admiration and astonishment. An illustration of this is the 
 basilica of St. Maria Maggiore. This church is on the site of 
 the temple of Juno Lucina, on the Esquiline Hill, and is supposed 
 to have been built about the middle of the fourth century. This 
 is, perhaps, the most richly-ornamented church of Rome, not ex- 
 cepting the Jesuit's church, which may be more gaudy, but not so 
 magnificent. I can give no idea of this gorgeous temple. It is 
 richly ornamented and gilded. It has splendid statuary and paint- 
 ings by the first masters, a baldacchino over the high altar with 
 antique columns of porphyry. Its arches and chapels are in crust- 
 ed with mosaics, precious polished marbles, lapis lazuli, and verd 
 antique. 
 
 From St. John Lateran to the Church of the Holy Cross in Je- 
 rusalem the approach is very fine. This church derives its name 
 from possessing the piece of the true cross brought by St. Helena 
 from Jerusalem. Its vestibule is antique, and supposed to be an 
 ancient sessorium. The antiquity of this church, being one of the 
 basilica built by Constantine, its vestibule and its cross, from which 
 it takes its name, constitute its principal interest. The whole of 
 this region of the city, which, though within the walls, is mostly a 
 waste, is becoming more and more subject to the malaria, and for 
 a part of the year unsafe as a place of residence. How long be- 
 fore this invisible foe, who appears to be gaining strength yearly, 
 will desolate this boasted city ? How long before the expelled 
 citizens will revisit their city in the winter, to hasten away, as by 
 stealth, some of those splendid works of art which can no longer 
 be enjoyed in this empire of death ? Perhaps never ! yet this is 
 not improbable. 
 
 m 
 
CHURCH OF ST. LORENZO. 321 
 
 The three other basilica* are without the walls of the city. 
 St. Sebastian's has already been mentioned. That of St. Paul is 
 represented to have been a magnificent edifice, but we saw it only 
 in ruins. It fell a prey to fire in July, 1824. The fire was so 
 intense as to calcine the marble and granite pillars, and brake to 
 fragments the columns of porphyry, and ruin a great part of the 
 edifice. Some parts, however, including the high altar, under 
 which repose, as they would have us believe, the mortal remains 
 of the chief apostle to the gentiles, remain uninjured. The edifice 
 is now being rebuilt at a great expense, notwithstanding his holi- 
 ness is running in debt yearly for the current expenses of gov- 
 ernment. Beyond this church is another, called St. Paul's of the 
 Three Fountains, where they show a white stone on which they 
 say St. Paul was decapitated. 
 
 The Church of St. Lorenzo is one mile from the gate of the 
 same name, and is the last of the seven ancient basilicas. It is 
 constructed upon the foundations of the Temple of Neptune, and 
 has adopted most of the pillars from that edifice, some of them 
 evidently standing in the very position where they stood in the 
 ancient edifice. This appears from the fact that the lower ex- 
 tremities of those pillars were, until lately excavated, buried some 
 six or eight feet in the rubbish and earth below the pavement of 
 the church. Here are catacombs, into which we descended, and 
 saw cords on cords of bones laid up in due order of, as the priests 
 say, martyred saints. They claim, also, to possess at this church 
 not only the body of St. Lorenzo, but also that of St. Stephen. 
 We called in question the validity of their claim to St. Stephen, 
 because we had just visited the Church of St. Stephen within the 
 walls, where they claimed to have the body of this first Christian 
 martyr. Nay, they have recorded on the altar the account of the 
 discovery and transportation of the body of the saint from Jerusa- 
 lem ; and on the rail of the circular altar* some twenty or thirty 
 instances are recorded of miracles wrought by the bones of this 
 same saint, such as healing the sick, raising the dead, and the 
 
 * This church is of singular but beautiful construction. It is, in fact, an ancient 
 temple converted into a church. It is circular, having three concentric peristyles of 
 columns, including one in the wall. The two interior are insulated, and stand up in 
 beautiful grandeur under the more modern roof of the temple. In the centre is the circu- 
 lar altar; and all over the walls are the most horrid exhibitions of cruelties, purporting 
 to represent the persecutions of the saints, that my eyes ever beheld. 
 
 Ss 
 
• 
 
 322 ITALY. 
 
 like ; insomuch that if they had continued to keep these bones 
 above ground, they must have filled the earth with their wonders. 
 We asked these priests of St. Lorenzo whether they meant to dis- 
 pute the question with their brethren of St. Stephen's, or whether 
 one of the miracles of this saint was to have two bodies. The 
 older of the two with whom we were conversing seemed inclined 
 to waive the subject ; but the younger insisted that the other was 
 the church of St. Stephen, but "we have his body." As the set- 
 tling of this question did not belong to us, we left it for the priests 
 and monks to adjust as they could, and hastened back to the city, 
 because that afternoon we were to be introduced to the pope ; a 
 brief account of which I will give here as a relief to this, I fear, 
 tiresome sketch of a few of the churches of Rome. 
 
 Several Americans were introduced at the same time with us 
 by our consul. This was by a previous arrangement. The only 
 forms necessary to observe were, that the ladies should wear veils, 
 and the gentlemen dress-coats, and slippers instead of boots. In- 
 deed, no man is admitted into the presence of the pope at the re- 
 ligious festivals with either frockcoats or cloaks.* So much for 
 etiquette. We were received in the library of the Vatican. The 
 officers of the domestic court were at a little distance ; the pope 
 himself was standing, dressed in his monk's habit of close cap 
 and white stuff robe, faced with silk, and red slippers, with the 
 gold cross upon the top. We were not required, however, as is 
 generally supposed requisite, to kneel or kiss his slipper. This 
 is not expected of Protestants. His holiness, on learning that I 
 was from America, remarked at the commencement that he 
 thought well of the United States because there were many Cath- 
 olics, and they all enjoyed equal privileges with others. I replied, 
 that was according to the genius of our government ; we had no 
 religious establishment, but gave liberty of conscience and free tol- 
 eration to all. The pope said he thought " true toleration to con- 
 sist in leaving every one at liberty to worship as he pleased !" He 
 then changed the conversation, and went on to describe the fire- 
 works that should have been ; and finally, after a little time, he 
 bowed for us to retire, at the same time requesting us "to remem- 
 ber St. Peter." 
 
 * The Rev. E. T. T., of the Mariner's Church, Boston, informs me that, by dint of 
 perseverance, he was admitted to the presence of his holiness with frockcoat and boots j 
 but this is a rare, if not a solitary occurrence. 
 
PICTURE-GALLERIES. 323 
 
 The next morning one of the pope's household called to receive 
 a donation from us, stating that it was customary for all who are 
 introduced to his holiness to make a present to the members of 
 his household. We asked how much was. expected. Why, he 
 said, there were five families, and they expected five piasters each. 
 Whatever may have been the origin of this custom, it certainly 
 savours of a meanness altogether unworthy of a sovereign. But 
 the blame should not rest exclusively, nor, perhaps, chiefly on 
 the pope. It is the general custom of the country. If any gen- 
 tleman makes a dining party or soiree, the guests will find the ser- 
 vants at their door the next day, each expecting a buono mano for ' 
 the hospitality of their master. In this way many are mostly sup- 
 ported. Others, who are the servants of princes or noblemen 
 that have villas or palaces furnished with galleries of antiquities 
 or paintings, as is the case with a number in Rome, obtain a very 
 respectable Roman income by waiting upon the strangers w r ho 
 visit them. 
 
 A great deal of time is generally spent by strangers in visiting 
 these palaces. There are, at least, certain palaces that every one 
 must visit if he would not be a heretic in taste ; and many of 
 them are certainly a rich feast to the lovers of painting, as they 
 have galleries filled with the productions of the first masters, and 
 some of them have celebrated frescoes upon the walls and ceil- 
 ings ; but as for the palaces themselves, few indeed are worth the 
 time and expense of visiting. They have cheerless apartments, 
 with some show of state in the furniture, with no fires even in cold 
 weather, and, for the most part, in fact, no place for a fire ; with no- 
 thing very interesting in the architecture, and much that is disgust- 
 ing frequently in the filth of the court and the neglected staircase, 
 which, as one writer has well said, " belongs to nobody to clean." 
 Surely no one would be disposed to spend a great portion of his 
 time to visit Italian palaces, either for their architecture or furni- 
 ture — always excepting their picture-galleries. And even these, 
 to the man who does not make pictures his study, soon tire. 
 There is an endless repetition of the same subjects, some of them 
 disgusting enough, and others lose their interest where we judge 
 of everything by comparison, and where a few transcendent w r orks 
 shine everything else into the shade ; so that, at last, you pass 
 over scores of pictures which are mere mediocrity, or, perhaps, 
 somewhat above mediocrity, and fix upon here and there one as 
 
324 ITALY. 
 
 alone worthy of notice. In this way you get weary in running 
 over successive galleries, for the sake of saying or knowing that 
 you have seen them, and especially to be sure that nothing of 
 transcendent merit has escaped you. But there is such a propor- 
 tion of superior works, that, with all the weariness of routine in 
 going from palace to palace, he must be void of taste who does 
 not enjoy much pleasure in visiting the paintings of Rome. It 
 would be much better for the stranger, certainly, if these superior 
 paintings were selected from the mass, although it might not be 
 equally showy and reputable for the owner. The papal gallery 
 | at the Vatican, however, is formed on this principle, and in no- 
 thing did I notice the prevalence of good taste more than in this. 
 Instead of a wilderness of pictures, that might have been expected 
 in accordance with the prevailing Italian taste, we find a gallery 
 comparatively small, but filled with the sublimest achievements of 
 the pencil. No wonder that this gallery is crowded every day 
 that it is open ; no wonder that the spectators, absorbed in the ex- 
 hibitions before them, are constantly asking pardon for treading 
 upon each other's toes or intercepting each other's views. 
 
 The pope has another splendid palace on the Quirinal Hill, 
 which has also a fine gallery of pictures, but far less select than 
 those of the Vatican, and also a suite of state apartments very 
 well furnished. Some of the other palaces are the Palazzo 
 Rospigliosi, which contains a number of easel pictures, and the 
 Aurora of Guido in fresco, supposed to be the finest fresco in 
 Rome, the Palazzo Borghese, the Palazzo Sciarra, Palazzo 
 Doria, Palazzo Corsini, all rich in pictures by the first masters, 
 such as Raphael, Guido, Rubens, Titian, Annibal Caracci, Do- 
 menichino, Caravagio, Poussinboth Gasparo and Nicolas, Girelio 
 Romano, Carlo Dolci, Claude, Salvator Rosa, Guercino, Corre- 
 gio, Lanfranco, Albano, Andrea del Sarto, and a host of others. 
 
 After a little study, the attentive spectator gets such a knowl- 
 edge of the different styles and different schools of painters, that 
 he can readily distinguish the one from the other ; and much of 
 the interest consists in the comparisons that are instituted between 
 those. Emotions, especially if they are strong, must, after a 
 little, have a truce ; but, after these subside, from satiety or weari- 
 ness, the power of comparing, discriminating, and judging re- 
 mains, and bears you onward for hours, when only an occasional 
 and superior picture can call into transient action the languid and 
 
FRESCOES AND MOSAICS. 825 
 
 exhausted emotions. In this way day after day is spent in the 
 picture-galleries of Europe, and especially of Italy. 
 
 One of the most celebrated classes of works of art in Rome are 
 the frescoes, and among these the halls in the Vatican palace, 
 called the Stanze of Raphael, stand prominent; nay, it is pre- 
 sumed that not only not in Rome merely, but not in the world, 
 can there be found their equals, considering their extent, their 
 composition, their colouring, and general execution. These halls 
 are four in number. One is called the Hall of Constantine, be- 
 cause in it are exhibited the principal historic events of that 
 emperor's life, such as his vision of the cross, his battle with his 
 rival Maxentius, his baptism, &c. The second is the Hall of 
 Heliodorus, so called because the principal picture represents the 
 vanquishment of this Syrian general in the Temple at Jerusalem 
 by two angels, &c, an account of which is given in the second 
 book of the Maccabees. Here, also, is the miracle of Bolsena, 
 which is no uncommon subject for the artist in Italy. It is a 
 pictorial representation of what is declared, among other well 
 authenticated Roman fables, to be a fact, viz., that a priest who 
 had. his doubts on the doctrine of transubstantiation was con- 
 vinced, in celebrating the mass, by the dropping of fresh blood 
 from the wafer. Against such proof there is, of course, no argu- 
 ment. The third hall is the School of Athens, so called because 
 the artist, with admirable skill, has brought out, in all their appro- 
 priate personal, professional, and relative characteristics, all the 
 principal philosophers, poets, artists, and other authors of Greece. 
 This is a most splendid affair, and worth, for its historical asso- 
 ciations and biographical delineations, weeks of study. The Hall 
 of the Conflagration is the last, and is named from the principal 
 picture, which is a representation of a fire near the Vatican, which 
 occurred in the pontificate of Leo IV. These paintings, how- 
 ever, are beginning to fade, and where is the modern artist that 
 will have the courage to restore them ? 
 
 Mosaic work is much wrought in Rome. Allusion has already 
 been made to this subject in describing St. Peter's. The princi- 
 pal manufactory of this kind is in the hands of government, and 
 conducted in some of the lower apartments of the Vatican. The 
 shading is by small pieces of glass, coloured in all the distinguish- 
 able varieties of shade, and there are many more than might at 
 first be imagined. We visited the establishment, and saw the 
 28 
 
326 ITALY. 
 
 process and all the materials. The coloured glass was all 
 arranged in a prescribed order, according to the colours and vari- 
 eties, to the number of twenty thousand different shades. Some 
 of these pieces are extremely small : to form a picture, they are 
 all set in a case prepared according to the size of the picture, and 
 over which is spread a composition of marble dust, fine sand, 
 gum, oil, and the white of eggs, which, being at first soft, receives 
 readily the selected particles that are inserted to form the shades 
 of the picture ; it grows harder, however, by time ; and, when the 
 picture is finished and sufficiently indurated, it is polished, and 
 thus a picture is transferred from the surface of the flexible and 
 fading canvass to a substance as hard as marble, and as durable 
 as the imperishable materials of which it is formed, and as fade- 
 less as it is durable. It is the transferring of a picture to the very 
 substance of a manufactured article, like tapestry ; but while the 
 latter fades and decays, the former endures and resists the assaults 
 of time. Like tapestry, however, it is a slow and costly process : 
 some of these mosaic pictures cost several years of labour. One 
 picture was shown us which employed twelve men eight years. 
 All that is wanting as an artist, or, more properly, a manufacturer 
 in this department, is a little experience, a mechanical exactness 
 of habit, and, as the phrenologists would say, a good develop- 
 ment of the organ of colour. 
 
 There are also many private manufactories of this kind, espe- 
 cially in ornamental mosaics, such as broaches, pins, rings, &c. 
 This forms, indeed, one of the principal sources of revenue to the 
 Roman citizens ; and the United States contribute not a little in 
 this way to support modern Rome. 
 
 " There are only three departments or avocations," said one of 
 the citizens to me, " that a man can pursue with any advantage 
 in this city." " And what are they ?" " The fine arts, the law, 
 and the priesthood," was the answer. The priests certainly ap- 
 pear to be the most pampered and best fed class at Rome. Their 
 full fresh faces formed a striking contrast to the great portion of 
 the population. As to the law, I doubt whether it is a very wide 
 or profitable field for the aspirant to fame or wealth. For public 
 offices in Rome, with the exception of a few, a man stands the 
 best chance, I should judge, by being a priest. Omitting those of 
 Tuscany, the Italian courts are generally ivith closed doors , and 
 there is no public advocacy, for all the pleadings are in writing, 
 
THE PROPAGANDA. 327 
 
 of which several copies are to be made out, making a great amount 
 of manual labour ; and, to become qualified to practise, it is re- 
 quired that the candidate study eight years, four in the profes- 
 sional school, and four with a practising lawyer. The Roman 
 bar, however, is said to be very respectable, and many of the pro- 
 fession are raised to the first honours in the state. 
 
 There are a number of very respectable libraries at Rome, the 
 most splendid of which, however, is that of the Vatican. I have 
 not been able to ascertain the number of books in this library, nor 
 could I form much of an idea from passing through it, as many 
 of the presses containing books are closed by doors. The manu- 
 scripts, however, are said to be forty thousand, and many of them 
 very valuable. Among them are several adorned with beautiful 
 miniatures, as was the custom in the middle ages. Of these is a 
 Virgil, written in the sixth century, with miniatures of iEneas and 
 his companions, and the Latians, in their own appropriate dresses ; 
 also a Terence of the same century, and a Greek Bible, also of the 
 same age, written in capital letters ; Acts of the Apostles in golden 
 letters. But it is useless to attempt an enumeration of even the 
 most interesting. These manuscripts are in a part of the library 
 you first enter, and which is at right angles with the principal 
 gallery. This latter is nearly a thousand feet long, and the 
 whole is beautifully finished, and adorned with frescoes, vases, 
 candelabra, busts, porphyry columns, &c, making a suite of splen- 
 did apartments.* 
 
 In the convent of the Church of St. Maria on Minerva is the 
 Casanateuse library, better for printed books than that of the Vat- 
 ican ; and at the Augustine church another. 
 
 Of all the institutions of Rome, perhaps no one of so simple and 
 definite a character was ever better planned in theory, or was 
 ever more efficient in practice, than the Propaganda. This in- 
 stitution, the object of which was, as its name imports, to propa- 
 gate the papal faith throughout the world, was established by 
 Gregory XV. At its first institution it had not a college, as it 
 now has, and which now, in fact, constitutes its principal strength. 
 The Propaganda, in order to have the suitable agents in the field 
 to direct the operations of the society, appointed bishops, arch- 
 
 * Besides the rooms already mentioned, there are others in the Vatican containing 
 tapestry, and various others too numerous to mention. 
 
328 ITALY. 
 
 bishops, apostolical missionaries, and apostolical vicars for the 
 different parts of the world; for Africa, Asia Minor, Central Asia, 
 the Indies, China, those parts of Europe that had become Prot- 
 estant, and the United States of America. Having thus marked 
 out the field, and given to each his definite work, prefects, curates, 
 and subordinate missionaries were sent, as they were needed, to 
 fill up the work. These missionaries were generally selected 
 from the secular clergy, that is, those who had taken no monastic 
 vows. They were enjoined not to intermeddle with secular or 
 political affairs. The higher grades, however, did not hesitate to 
 intermeddle with politics and government. Indeed, this seemed 
 to be a part of their office and duties. As they were scattered all 
 over'the world, and were skilled in all the literature and science 
 of the age, they insinuated themselves as teachers and officers of 
 government, and thus gained an influence wherever they could, 
 and became, at the same time, by their correspondence with Rome, 
 the medium of communication with the Catholic court, and, indi- 
 rectly, with other courts, on all matters, political, religious, scien- 
 tific, geographical, or historical, on which information was desired. 
 For this purpose, and also to aid in the transmission of funds and 
 all things else necessary to keep the entire system in operation, 
 agents or purveyors were stationed at different points and at con- 
 venient distances in every part of the extended work. These 
 were engaged exclusively in the secular part of the grand 'system. 
 Thus, with their agents, high and low, secular and spiritual, all 
 acting under one head and for one purpose, they became the spies 
 of the world, and the whole meted earth became subject to the 
 espionage of the Roman court. No wonder Napoleon was struck 
 with the organization and efficiency of this institution. No won- 
 der he thought it would prove a good instrument in his hands to 
 carry on his great purposes of universal domination ! " Certain 
 it is," says Carlo Botta, " Napoleon delighted in nothing more 
 than in the Propaganda." In the prosecution of its prime object, 
 schools were established in different parts of the world, viz., three 
 in Egypt, four in Illyria, two in Albania, two in Transylvania, one 
 at Constantinople, together with numerous others in the Protest- 
 ant countries of Europe, all supported by the Propaganda. In 
 addition to this, the different monastic orders, although they had 
 schools and colleges, and raised up missionaries of their own, yet 
 
THE PROPAGANDA. 329 
 
 they were all made subject to the Propaganda, and received from 
 them direction as to the place where and the manner how they 
 should dispose of their labours. And that nothing might be want- 
 ing to concentrate and enlarge the influence of the institution, a pa- 
 rent college, called the College of the Propaganda, was established 
 by Urban VIII., in which were educated natives of all the different 
 countries for missionaries, the Roman church wisely judging that, 
 if they could get natives of the respective countries thoroughly in- 
 itiated into her doctrines and policy, an initiation that could be ob- 
 tained nowhere else so well as at Rome, these would make the 
 most successful instruments of proselytism among their own 
 friends and countrymen. These youths were, of course, selected 
 and sent to Rome by the apostolical supervisors who were al- 
 ready in the field, and were exactly fitted to make those selec- 
 tions which would best serve their purpose. Was there ever a 
 system better planned or more efficiently organized than this? 
 especially when we take into the account the numerous agents 
 among the hosts of supernumerary ecclesiastics which the Church 
 had at her command ; agents which were bound to home by no 
 family ties ; encumbered, for the most part, by no pecuniary claims 
 except their own present personal wants ; forbidden by their mo- 
 nastic vows, in many instances, to accumulate wealth ; and pre- 
 pared, by the most perfect system of training, to sacrifice every- 
 thing for their object. This will account for the small expense 
 by which the whole machinery was kept in operation ; for it is 
 said their annual income, at the time of their greatest prosperity, 
 was but about thirty-three thousand three hundred and ninety-six 
 crowns. 
 
 But the glory and power of the Propaganda are in a great meas- 
 ure fallen. Its revenues had been derived from banks, from trib- 
 utes paid by Naples and Venice, and by various religious orders, 
 and by fees paid by each newly-elected cardinal. These sources, 
 by the wars of the French and the revolutions in the institutions 
 of the country, were mostly dried up, and in the convulsions and 
 tumults of 1800 the Propaganda palace itself was destroyed, and 
 the operations of the society ceased. Its archives were carried to 
 Paris, and it was at one time seriously determined to carry thither 
 the oriental types,which comprehended the characters of twenty- 
 three of the eastern languages. This was prevented, however, by 
 28 T t 
 
330 ITALY. 
 
 the earnest remonstrance of Degerando, one of the consulta or 
 administrative council who had been appointed to manage the 
 government in accordance with the decree of Napoleon, dated at 
 Vienna, May 17, 1810. This was the decree which annexed 
 Rome to his empire, and provided for its government as an impe- 
 rial city. It was through the representations of this same Dege- 
 rando that Napoleon became interested in the Propaganda, and 
 promised to endow it from the imperial treasury. This, however, 
 he was prevented from doing by his great military operations, 
 which finally ended in his overthrow. The Propaganda, therefore, 
 is now comparatively poor. Still it does something ; and the 
 college, especially, is kept in operation, and in it missionaries 
 are now trained for the United States and for other parts of the 
 world. It is because the Propaganda has become so enfeebled, 
 doubtless, that the Leopold foundation has been established in 
 Austria for the purpose of enlarging the funds for missionary pur- 
 poses. With this aid, and with the same principles of organiza- 
 tion, and the same agents, in part at least, to help on the work, 
 the Propaganda may yet become the still, but certain and powerful 
 instrumentality for spreading Romanism to the ends of the earth. 
 From this should not Protestants learn a lesson of zeal, of self- 
 denial, of efficient organization, and religious enterprise ? At least, 
 should they not be on their guard against the influences that are 
 in operation at their own doors, and which threaten to encroach 
 upon their own communities 1 We are apt to look upon the papal 
 power as the measure of the strength of the Catholic church ; but 
 this is erroneous. True, the pope, as a temporal prince, is fallen ; 
 his voice is not heeded in the courts of nations ; his anathemas 
 have lost their power. The last bull of excommunication that was 
 ever fulminated from the throne of the pontiff was that against 
 Napoleon, by Pius VII., in 18G9, and a quenched thunderbolt 
 it was, a hrutum fulmen. Pius himself virtually recalled it while 
 in his captivity at Savona. And popes have now learned, doubt- 
 less, that neither by their intrigues in courts nor by their spiritual 
 anathemas, much less by their secular power, will they be able 
 hereafter to retain their former influence. But this may drive 
 them, nay, has driven them, to other means ; the only means in 
 which they can have any hope of ultimate success. They have 
 taken, I cannot say the ground of fair argument, because it is a 
 
the Jews' quarter. 331 
 
 ground of concealment abroad, and of exclusive access to the minds 
 of their people in Catholic countries ; yet it is in some sense the 
 ground of argument, and by education and direct moral and re- 
 ligious influence they now hope to succeed. Here they will find 
 the Propaganda of immense service to them still ; nay, of more 
 service than ever. It is from this source that our Catholic mis- 
 sionaries and teachers are chiefly furnished in the United States. 
 There are now in the college of the Propaganda young men from 
 the United States preparing themselves to return and labour for 
 the cause of his holiness among us. 
 
 We visited repeatedly, while in Rome, the Jews' Quarter, be- 
 cause in that direction are some of the finest ruins of the city, and 
 once we visited the synagogue on one of their great occasions, viz., 
 the Passover. The Jews amount to four or five thousand, and are 
 closely crowded up in a portion of the town south of the ancient 
 Campus Martius, which is now the principal part of the city, 
 and on the left bank of the Tiber. It is called Ghetto, because 
 ghet is the term used to express their act of divorcing their wives 
 according to the Hebrew law, Deut. xxiv., 1. This. is separated 
 from the other parts of the city by walls and gates, so that at night 
 they are shut into their own quarters. They appear to be a poor 
 degraded caste. Their portion of the city is excessively filthy and 
 crowded, and the poor sons of Abraham look like the outcasts of 
 creation. Indeed, they seem here to labour under greater disabili- 
 ties than in any other part of Italy. In Tuscany they have much 
 more liberty, and many of them are landholders and merchants. 
 In that duchy it is said there are eighteen or twenty thousand Jews. 
 I know not, in fact, that they are confined to their ghettoes in any 
 Italian city except Rome. 
 
 Their synagogue was large, and divided into three or four 
 rooms below, and as many above ; their women worshipping by 
 themselves. A priest officiated in each room in a kind of pul- 
 pit, and the service seemed to consist in chanting certain portions 
 from the Old Testament. On one side was the most holy place : 
 here no Gentile must approach. I undesignedly gave great 
 offence by standing too near, and leaning upon some of the forms 
 or cabinets connected with the sanctum sanctorum. The wor- 
 ship was the most clamorous, the most irreverent and disgust- 
 ing of anything I had ever seen bearing the name. They would 
 
332 ITALY. 
 
 say over their prayers with the greatest haste and carelessness, 
 and, when they had got through, immediately turn to each other 
 and commence talking quite loud about their worldly business. 
 You would have thought you were in a market rather than a 
 place of worship. The money-changers and the pigeon-dealers 
 had not their tables and merchandise in the house, but in all other 
 respects they seemed to defile the temple with their secular busi- 
 ness as much as in the days of Christ. They were boisterous 
 and disagreeable ; some of them very filthy ; their children en- 
 gaged in play, and the rooms, with all this motley group, very 
 much crowded. And this is the worship, thought I, of the de- 
 scendants of those Jews who, in the days of David and Solomon, 
 worshipped Jehovah in such order and beauty ! Truly, " it is 
 written my house shall be a place of prayer, but ye have made it 
 a den of thieves." 
 
 The walls of the city are about seventeen miles in circumfer- 
 ence; but it has already been intimated that a good part of this is 
 comparatively uninhabited, a field of desolate ruins. That part 
 of the ancient city which was the last to be included in the walls, 
 and the least inhabited, is the heart of the modern city. It is 
 formed from a bold sweep of the river, first to the right and then 
 to the left, leaving a rich bow of land, which constituted the wheat- 
 field of Tarquin, from which, in the popular tumult, the - people 
 carried it and cast it into the river, with similar feelings, doubt- 
 less, with those by which our patriots cast the tea into Boston 
 harbour. The island in the Tiber formed by the wheat still re- 
 mains, and forms a part of the modern city : on it is a church, 
 built upon the site of the ancient temple of Esculapius, who vis- 
 ited the island, it is said, in the form of a serpent, and, by conse- 
 quence, had a temple erected to his honour. The more modern 
 church is built, in part, out of the ruins of the temple, and the 
 image of the serpent is still preserved.* 
 
 Four of the seven ancient bridges now span the Tiber,! and the 
 ruins of the other three remain ; some of them, however, are vis- 
 ible only at low water. 
 
 One would suppose that the hills of the eternal city would be 
 
 * Is not the brazen serpent of Moses the origin of this heathen fable ? 
 f That is, reckoning two at the island. This, however, gives but three entire pas- 
 sages across the Tiber. 
 
THE PINCIAN HILL. 333 
 
 the last to be changed, and yet these have undergone almost as 
 much change as anything else. This has already been noticed. 
 But who would expect a modern hill ? " What hill is that ?" said 
 I to our cicerone, as I stood at the Protestant burying-ground, 
 and saw a respectable mount standing to the southwest, with a 
 cross upon the top of it. Luigi shrugged his shoulders, as if he 
 thought that a very unimportant question. " That is modern, 
 sir !" he replied. I suppose he meant that there were no antiqui- 
 ties upon it ; but, in truth, the hill itself, compared with the 
 " seven hills," is modern. It seems to be wholly composed of 
 potsherds, and is supposed to be formed of the refuse of the pot- 
 teries, which was carried out and deposited here. It is nearly 
 two hundred feet in height and six hundred in circumference. 
 Here are the public wine-vaults. The pieces of pottery form 
 such a loose soil, that the air penetrates it, and forms a noncon- 
 ducting medium for the heat, and this it is that renders this hill 
 so suitable for wine cellars. In Horace's day, I suppose this 
 hill was only in process of formation, otherwise it would have 
 been as classic as his old Falerman itself. On this hill they have 
 an annual festival, not unlike the ancient Saturnalia, of which, 
 doubtless, it is a remnant. 
 
 But the loveliest hill now in Rome, and one that had little 
 ancient celebrity, and was by no means ranked with the seven, is 
 the Pincian Hill. It is situated in quite the north part of the 
 city, and is ascended by a zigzag road from the Piazza del Popo- 
 lo : the ascent is made easy, and is beautifully ornamented, pre- 
 senting new views and new beauties at every turn. "When you 
 reach the summit you have a commanding view of the town, of 
 the surrounding scenery, and of the distant mountains, not ex- 
 cepting old Soracte himself, who had on when we saw him, as in 
 the days of Horace, his mantle of snow. Here are gardens, and 
 planted avenues, and cafes, and other edifices ; above all, as the 
 crowning structure of the mount and the most prominent object 
 in the city, the French Academia delle belle Arti, where the fine 
 arts are taught. For the ornaments of this hill, as well as for the 
 academy itself, Rome and the world are indebted to the French. 
 It is, I think, on the whole, the most beautiful promenade I saw 
 in Europe. 
 
 The most splendid entry into Rome is at the foot of this hill* 
 
' 
 
 334 ITALY. 
 
 whether we consider the gate itself, with its proximate edifices, or 
 the magnificent piazza immediately within the gate. One part of 
 this piazza is an oval, adorned with fountains, statuary, and an 
 obelisk. Here the city is narrow, and spreads out from this point 
 in a fanlike form, giving rise to three streets that, starting from 
 this common point, run out in angles of such divergency as to in- 
 clude within their area most of the city. The central street is 
 the Corso, which is the grand thoroughfare, losing itself near the 
 foot of the Capitoline Hill at the south: here, every pleasant 
 afternoon, and especially on Sundays, you meet all the noblesse 
 and fashion of Rome. The left street is the Strada del Babuino, 
 which courses along at the base of the Pincian Hill to the noble 
 Piazza di Spagna, which is the principal resort of the English 
 and Americans, and is, in fact, the most courtly and fashionable 
 part of the city. 
 
 Just out of the Porta del Popolo is the elegant drive to the Bor- 
 ghese Villa. These grounds are most delightful. The park is 
 three miles in circumference, and adorned with avenues and fount- 
 ains. The villa itself contains paintings and ancient sculpture. 
 But the richest villa in ancient sculpture and statuary is the Villa 
 -AJbani. It contains a splendid collection from Adrian's Villa 
 and elsewhere ; and the edifice, with the adjoining grounds and 
 structures, display great classical taste. But time would fail me 
 to speak of all that is interesting in and about Rome. T am con- 
 scious that, for my own sake and the sake of my readers, I ought 
 to leave this interesting city ; leave it with a thousand objects un- 
 described which are worth the notice of the traveller, but which 
 would appear dry in the details of description. I cannot do so, 
 however, without first giving a description of a visit to Adrian's 
 Villa, which will be found in the following letter 
 
 To G. P. Disosway, Esq. 
 
 Rome, April 20, 1836. 
 
 My dear Sir, 
 I have been long looking for a letter from you, but I find my- 
 self disappointed. Indeed, I am greatly disappointed that I have 
 heard so little from my friends since I left America. I can ex- 
 cuse them, however, on the ground of their various duties ; and, 
 that I may not detain them too long by my complaints, I waive 
 
visit to Adrian's villa. 335 
 
 further reflections of this kind, and hasten to give you an account 
 of a late visit to Tivoli. 
 
 Tivoli, as you know, is the ancient Tiber, a town celebrated in 
 ancient Roman history as a place of resort for the citizens of 
 Rome, both for pleasure and for health. Its situation upon a 
 mountain, overlooking the Campagna Romana, and commanding, 
 in the distance, the view of the capital itself — the distance being 
 about eighteen miles from the great city — the healthiness of the 
 position, and especially the wildness, beauty, and romance thrown 
 around the scene by the river Anio, in its shooting, racing cata- 
 ract down the side of the mountain, all rendered it a favourite ap- 
 pendage of Rome. This, therefore, was the resort of men of let- 
 ters, both for the sake of retirement and the inspiration of the 
 scene ; it was the resort of men of wealth and of pleasure, for a 
 pleasurable country residence in the heat of summer ; and, finally, 
 the resort of the emperor himself for the display of taste and of 
 princely magnificence. All its glory has not departed even in 
 these latter days, for some of the most interesting characteristics 
 are imprinted by the God of nature himself upon the scenery of 
 the place ; and, in addition to this, its historic associations, and 
 the splendid ruins in its neighbourhood, shed over its fallen great- 
 ness a lingering, melancholy light, mellowed by time and hal- 
 lowed by classical recollections. 
 
 We left Rome by the Porta Santo Lorenzo, April 18. The 
 present road is mostly on the same route with the ancient Tiber- 
 nian Way, the old pavements of which are, in some places, still 
 visible. The first object of special interest which struck our at- 
 tention was the Lago de Tartari, a small body of water, that 
 derives its name from the peculiar property which the water has 
 of depositing tartareous and calcareous matter, and of petrifying 
 vegetables and other substances that come in contact with it. 
 The lake is now small, but the banks around bear indication of 
 its having formerly been much larger. Almost all the substances, 
 for a great distance around, are in a state of petrifaction, of the 
 kind called travertina, the same material with that of which the 
 temples of Paestum are constructed. This stone seems to be 
 formed not only by a petrifaction of vegetable and animal substan- 
 ces, but also from the water alone, sometimes in large masses, 
 and sometimes in smaller portions, not unfrequently putting on 
 
836 ITALY. 
 
 the shape of stalactites, with a small perforation through the cen- 
 tre, as if the formation were an incrustation around a stream of 
 water. These stalactites shoot out in every possible direction, 
 and produce fragments of the most fantastic forms ; the substance 
 itself is that of a very hard stone, although, in some cases, as po- 
 rous as a honeycomb, and almost bids defiance to time. This it 
 is that has given such durability to the ruins of ancient Paestum, 
 and to some of the relics of ancient Rome. The essential ingre- 
 dient of the formation appears to be lime. The substance abounds 
 in this region, and has furnished most of the material for the build- 
 ing of modern Rome. The waters of the Tiverone, anciently 
 called the Anio, seem to have filled this region with this stone ; 
 hence one would suppose that the waters of the lake and those of 
 the river are of similar properties. 
 
 A little farther on we came to the canal of the Solfatara, a most 
 singular stream, of a size sufficient to float a small boat, of a whi- 
 tish colour, and strongly impregnated with sulphur, insomuch that 
 the air for quite a distance round is strongly afTected with the 
 odour, and the soil adjacent is likewise fully saturated with the 
 same substance. The stream comes from a lake about a mile 
 from the road, anciently called Aquae Albulae, from the whiteness 
 of the waters. That this lake should, for twenty-five or thirty 
 centuries, continue to pour out such a current of sulphureous wa- 
 ter, is a surprising fact in natural history, and shows that the ma- 
 terial which furnishes the solution is inexhaustible. This canal 
 discharges itself, after a short distance, into the Anio, below which 
 no fishes are found in that river, although they abound above this 
 juncture. 
 
 From the canal we proceeded to Tivoli, winding up the mount- 
 ain by a new road, which, within a few years, has been made to 
 facilitate the ascent. The view over the Campagna was very 
 good, although not superior to many others ; and if this were all, 
 the labour of the ascent would not be recompensed. But the wa- 
 ter scenery is the great object of interest at Tivoli. The river 
 Anio is precipitated from the top of the marble mountain on which 
 Tivoli stands into the valley below. Formerly the natural course 
 of the river down the mountain side was by a cascade, the ruins 
 of which only remain. The action of the water and an unusual 
 inundation broke through the rock in such a manner as to destroy 
 
 
visit to Adrian's villa. 337 
 
 the beauty of the cataract, at the same time it carried away the 
 bridge over the river. His holiness, however, in spite of his pov- 
 erty, has repaired, or, rather, restored the bridge, and renewed the 
 cascade. He has cut a grotto through a part of the mountain, and 
 conducted a portion of the river through a double submontane arch, 
 and precipitated it down the side of the mountain, our guide said, 
 four hundred feet. It cannot, however, be that distance from the 
 top to the bottom of the perpendicular fall, although the entire de- 
 scent might possibly amount to that. The road you pass is cut into 
 the side of the mountain directly over the pitch of the water ; you 
 then wind round the mountain, which encompasses the vale like a 
 huge amphitheatre, into which the water descends ; at every quar- 
 ter of which you get a new aspect of the cataract and the surround- 
 ing scenery. When a quarter round you have, on the opposite 
 side, the mouth of the grotto of Neptune, so called, which was 
 the ancient principal channel of the river, where it shot out from 
 under natural arches of marble into the gulf beneath ; and above, 
 crowning the precipice on the side of the town, are two ancient 
 temples ; one of them is a beautiful temple of Vesta, being on the 
 side seen from this point, in a good state of preservation ; the other 
 is called the Temple of the Sibyl, who used to inhabit this roman- 
 tic spot, and who had a grotto also in the glen below. A little far- 
 ther on we had a distant prospect of Rome, with her crowning 
 dome of St. Peter's. Half round we had the cataract full before 
 us, and the former channel of the river, in which direction a por- 
 tion of the water still passes ; and here, also, two other cascades 
 are brought in view, less extensive, and farther to the west ; one 
 against the town, and another beyond. These are also formed by 
 conducting the waters of the river out of their natural channel. 
 They are both divided into several branching spouts and sporting 
 cascades; sometimes partially concealed, and then bursting out 
 anew with increased rapidity. Indeed, this whole circuit exhibit- 
 ed a continued and an ever-varying scene of picturesque beauty, 
 in some instances verging upon the grand, if not upon the sublime. 
 Here, too, we found the site and some of the remains of what is 
 called the Villa of Horace ; and we were shown an ancient mo- 
 saic floor, in a church built upon the site of his house, which is 
 supposed to be the floor of his study. Surely the poet could 
 hardly have selected a place better calculated to feed his poetic 
 29 Uu 
 
338 ITALY 
 
 vein, and kindle up the spirit of song in his soul, than this en- 
 chanting spot. 
 
 On returning, we descended into the valley by a zigzag course, 
 on the side of the gulf, between the present principal cascade and 
 the old bed of the river. The path is cut into the side of the 
 mountain, having only a rustic fence on the precipice side a 
 good part of the way, to defend the traveller from accident ; for 
 here a misstep would precipitate him upon rocks hundreds of 
 feet below. Some of the way, however, we were carried within 
 the crust of the mountain through grottoes cut for the purpose, 
 Low down, we left the direct route to descend a winding gallery 
 to the grotto of the Sibyl. This originally constituted a third leap 
 of the river, and the last before it reached the vale below. Here 
 enough water still plays to lull to repose the mystic goddess in 
 her cataract cell. The view through this grotto is indescribably 
 fine. A small but bright opening at the farther end of the grotto 
 conducted the vision through and onward, until it rested, in the 
 distance, upon the large cascade at the west, just at that point 
 where the falling torrent, almost dissolved into spray, was spanned 
 by a rainbow ! To conceive of this with any approximation to- 
 wards reality, you must see it. It cannot be described, nor ever 
 transferred to canvass. 
 
 We commenced our ascent on the other side, but soon left our 
 donkeys (for, steep as are the sides of this mountain, the path was 
 so graduated as to allow of this mode of conveyance) to pass 
 through another interior gallery in the side of the mountain, 
 lighted by frequent windows, to visit the cave or grotto of Nep- 
 tune. It was with much difficulty, however, we could get a view 
 of it over the piles of ruins caused by the inundation above 
 alluded to. When the whole body of water rushed through this 
 cavern the exhibition must have been grand. We found here the 
 labourers of the pope blasting the rocks, and artificially restoring 
 nature ! 
 
 We finally reached the summit on the side of the temples of 
 Neptune and Vesta already alluded to. The former was a quad- 
 rangle, constructed of the travertina marble, some of the pillars 
 of which still remain in the walls of the church, into which, after 
 the manner of the modern Romans, the temple has been con- 
 verted. The temple of Vesta is near by, and connected by an 
 
visit to Adrian's villa. 339 
 
 uncouth modem building with that of Neptune. This edifice is, 
 like all the other vestal temples, a rotunda, with fine fluted col- 
 umns of the composite order, and an interior pyramid, within 
 which, doubtless, the vestal fires were kept ; the exterior circle 
 of columns were an open piazza, forming a beautiful enclosure, 
 and supporting a canopy for the sanctum sanctorum within. 
 Some of these columns are missing, and the others are very much 
 defaced by time, so that the flutings are, in some cases, scarcely 
 visible, although the material was of the hard marble or travertina 
 stone already mentioned. Here we took our last view of this 
 romantic scene, on the like of which, taking it all in all, we shall 
 never look again. Its classical associations, its ancient ruins, 
 its romantic grottoes, its varied and extraordinary cascades, its el- 
 evated situation, set off by the still higher mountains that close 
 in around it, all unite to render the entire exhibition peculiarly 
 interesting. 
 
 After dining at the inn, we descended the mountain, and fin- 
 ished the day among the ruins of Adrian's Villa, at the foot of the 
 mountain, about one half mile from the main road. This villa, as 
 it is called, must have been almost a city, for it had theatres, tem- 
 ples, and public buildings in great abundance. It must have been 
 built early in the second century of the Christian era, for the 
 Emperor Adrian, by whom it was designed and built, died in 117. 
 It is the most interesting collection of ruins I have yet seen. I 
 have, indeed, seen individual edifices that exceeded any one of 
 these ; but their number, their solitude, and their variety all con- 
 spire to heighten the effect. The location of this villa was ex- 
 ceedingly well chosen, being near the mountains, and on a gentle 
 elevation above the surrounding country. 
 
 The design of the excellent, talented, and tasteful emperor, 
 who laid out and adorned these grounds, seems to have been to 
 unite, in one single collection, many of the most intellectual and 
 classical associations of Greece, and something, also, of Egypt. 
 Hence he had the vale of Tempe, the river Peneus, the Elysian 
 Fields, the entrance into the infernal regions, and the like. For 
 edifices he had what he called the Lyceum, which, in Greece, 
 was the school of Aristotle, the Academia of Plato, the Prytane- 
 um, which was the place of public business of Athens, the Poecile 
 of the Stoics, and the Serapeon of Egypt, &c. The Peneus was 
 
340 ITALY. 
 
 artificial, being a portion of the water of the Anio turned down 
 the mountain in a different direction from its present course, and 
 made to pass through a valley that intervenes between the villa 
 and the mountain. Of this river there remains nothing but the 
 valley through which it ran, and a very small rill in its centre. 
 The Poecile w r as between four and five hundred feet in length, 
 of an oblong figure : one of the long walls only remains, formed 
 principally of tufa, with occasional layers of terra cotta. But this 
 remnant shows what a magnificent edifice this must have been, 
 especially as it was entirely fronted by a spacious portico, form- 
 ing a stoa, or piazza of ample dimensions, like that in Athens 
 which gave name to the sect of Stoics, in which sages and phi- 
 losophers might walk, and philosophize, and teach. 
 
 In this villa were a Greek and a Latin library, and several 
 splendid temples, the ruins of which are still seen. The temples 
 are generally arched over at the tops, like the Pantheon at Rome, 
 and frequently have chambers and other apartments adjoming for 
 the accommodation of the priests. The Temple of Serapis, a 
 great portion of whose massy walls still remain, is an edifice of 
 this kind. Behind the niches where the statues of the gods were 
 placed is a vacant space, which seems to have been entered by a 
 secret passage from the top. Here it is supposed the priest3 
 were accustomed to conceal themselves, to give responses in 
 answer to those who consulted the oracles, by which the' ignorant 
 multitude were deceived into the idea that the voice came from 
 the god himself. From this temple much of the Egyptian statu- 
 ary which now adorns the galleries at Rome was taken. In 
 fact, the works of art, and especially the sculpture taken from 
 Adrian's Villa, have enriched more than one gallery, and more 
 than one city or state, with some of the finest specimens of an- 
 tiquity. In the Temple of Venus we were shown the very niche 
 from which the celebrated Venus de Medicis, now at Florence, 
 was taken. 
 
 In addition to the buildings already mentioned, there were two 
 theatres and two amphitheatres. The latter, however, are more 
 generally supposed to be naumachia, or places for the exhibition 
 of naval combats or games ; these were supposed to be filled with 
 water at pleasure for this purpose, and around one of them are 
 logia, or galleries, still standing, where the spectators were placed 
 
visit to Adrian's villa. 341 
 
 to behold these exhibitions ; and underneath these logia were 
 shops, still in a state of fine preservation, where they sold refresh- 
 ments, &c. 
 
 The most perfect rooms now remaining among the ruins are the 
 Cento Camerelle, or One Hundred Chambers, as they are called. 
 They were the military barracks or lodges of the Praetorian guard. 
 They are situated on the side of a declivity, so as, by the addi- 
 tional help of a trench in front, they are, on that side, entirely open 
 and above ground, while the top is on a level with the surface. 
 They are in ranges of one, two, and three stories in different parts, 
 according to the height of the acclivity, all arched over, and cov- 
 ered with earth at the top ; and the rear wall made double, with 
 an intervening space, to prevent the dampness from penetrating. 
 These are mostly in a perfect state, and, with a little repairing, 
 might still serve for their original purpose. 
 
 The most extensive edifice, or rather range of edifices, was the 
 imperial palace, many parts of which still remain but partially im- 
 paired ; here were the royal chambers, the saloons, the courts, the 
 corridors, the gardens, the baths, and even, in one part, the prisons, 
 all grand and majestic, though in ruins. The entire suite of archi- 
 tectural ruins belonging to this palace must, I think, cover a num- 
 ber of acres. One of the courts has a subterranean corridor quite 
 round it, lighted by oblique windows slanting outward and upward 
 into the court ; the corridor is arched, and lined with a coat of 
 stucco, which is now hard as marble. But I must not dwell upon 
 these ruins in detail ; they are too numerous and extensive to be 
 minutely described. The villa, it is said, extended over three miles 
 in length by one in breadth ; and, indeed, what less could we ex- 
 pect when the Elysian Fields, the descent to the infernal regions, 
 the temples of the principal deities, the schools of the philosophers, 
 the public libraries, theatres and amphitheatres, and the imperial 
 palace and gardens, with all their necessary appendages, were to 
 be exhibited in connexion ? How Adrian, amid all his other duties 
 and studies, could find time to plan and execute this work, is sur- 
 prising, when we reflect especially that he spent the first thirteen 
 years out of the twenty-one of his reign in travelling over his vast 
 empire, from Spain and the British Isles in the west to Asia in 
 the east ; and that, in the remaining eight years, he was diligently 
 engaged- in his private studies, in making laws, and in managing 
 29 
 
342 ITALY. 
 
 the affairs of his empire. He was, indeed, a most extraordinary 
 man, both in physical strength and in intellectual endowments, 
 and, I might add, in moral virtues. Hence, in wandering among 
 the ruins of his villa, the associations and historical reminiscences 
 afford a much greater pleasure than when contemplating the ruins 
 of the palace of the Caesars, and of the golden house of Nero on 
 the Palatine Hill in Rome. You feel that you are treading in the 
 steps of a virtuous man, as well as of an illustrious prince and a 
 sage philosopher. As you pass over the grounds of his extended 
 stoa, you say, Here he walked and philosophized; and at the li- 
 braries, here he pursued his literary studies; and here, at the 
 temples, he worshipped. It is true, he was not a Christian, but 
 he became favourable to Christianity. He put an end'to the per- 
 secutions that had raged against it under former emperors ; and he 
 thought so favourably of Jesus Christ, that he had serious thoughts, 
 it is said, of admitting him among the number of the gods ! 
 
 Another circumstance which enhances the pleasure of contem- 
 plating these ruins is the solitude that prevails around. In Rome 
 you find crowding around the desolations of antiquity the busy 
 multitude of a modern race. The Pantheon and various other 
 ancient edifices are modern churches ; the Temple of Antoninus 
 Pius is a custom-house ; the Temple of Pallas is a baker's shop ; 
 and the ancient Forum, with its nodding columns and crumbling 
 temples, is a market-place ! But here you have no such intrusions ; 
 solitude reigns over these ruins ; not even the farmer with his 
 plough, nor the gardener with his spade, is allowed to break in 
 upon the wildness and solitude of the scene. The wild chamois 
 may feed here, and " the fox may dig his hole unscared." Forest 
 trees have sprung up in every direction, overhanging the ruins and 
 giving additional gloom to the picture. Nothing served more to 
 impress upon the mind a vivid conception of the antiquity of the 
 ruins than the sight of a stately pine, from two and a half to three 
 feet diameter, growing in the centre of one of the courts of the 
 imperial palace. Others of the same character are seen in differ- 
 ent parts of the ground. But the tree that best chimes in with the 
 genius of the place, and which is very abundant here, is the tall 
 perennial cypress. They shoot up in gloomy majesty in different 
 parts of these grounds, like silent sentinels keeping their watch 
 over the consecrated ruins. 
 
DEPARTURE FROM ROME. 343 
 
 We hung around these relics of former grandeur until sunset ; 
 the shadows of the broken arches were deepened, the hollow winds 
 moaned through the trees ; the sensations of this hour were inde- 
 scribable ; it was the deepening of feelings that had long been gath- 
 ering strength, as I had for months been holding communion with 
 the ages of antiquity, and had become more and more assimilated 
 into the spirit of these associations. The musings of that hour 
 were a kind of enchantment, and made me almost wish for some 
 lodge in this " lone wilderness," this extended contiguity of ruins, 
 where, undisturbed, I might muse upon the fading glories of a 
 changing and a transitory world. The last of the company, and 
 with much reluctance, I at length, as the shades came on, broke 
 away from the attractions, leaving the sighing winds to chant 
 through another night, as they have done through the successive 
 nights of by-gone centuries, the melancholy dirge of Adrian's 
 Villa in Ruins. 
 
 I remain, as ever, yours in affection, 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 We spent our time in Rome most pleasantly, and formed, while 
 there, many interesting acquaintances with our own countrymen 
 as well as others. The visiters from the United States to Rome 
 are growing more numerous every year. The present year there 
 have been two or three hundred. Fifty American ladies, I was 
 informed by our consul, were in the city during Passion Week. 
 Very soon after the close of those ceremonies, however, the city 
 was comparatively deserted. A part lingered a little longer than 
 usual, in hope of seeing the illumination ; but when it was found 
 that that was postponed, almost all were moving. We lingered 
 a while to finish out our sight-seeing, and then followed the other 
 birds of passage, who were hastening to a more northern climate 
 to escape the heat and malaria. of Central Italy. 
 
 
341 1TALT. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Six Americans of us, in one berlin, drawn by four mules, with 
 a postilion more mulish than the mules themselves, left Rome for 
 Florence, April 25th. Our veturino was passionate and obstinate ; 
 his mules were slow, so that, to accomplish but little in one 
 day, we had to rise early and travel late. The distance from 
 Rome to Florence by the Perugia Route, which is the one we 
 travelled, is about twenty-seven posts, in travelling which we were 
 six days ; at the close, we decided, I believe unanimously, that we 
 would have no more to do, if we could avoid it, with either four- 
 legged or two-legged mules. The Sienna Route, as it is called, 
 is nearer the sea, and one day's drive shorter, than that by Peru- 
 gia ; but the latter is more interesting, and has, it is said, better 
 hotels. Our road was excellent, but hilly ; and we were under 
 the necessity, in all the mountainous parts, to have our team 
 strengthened by oxen, whose snail-like pace tallied well with the 
 motion of our mules. But whether they have mules or -horses, 
 travellers are reinforced by oxen up the mountains. The inns 
 are of the same cheerless character with those already described, 
 and, in many instances, furnishing but indifferent fare. The beds, 
 however, were in most cases comfortable, save that the sheets 
 were occasionally damp, an occurrence by no means rare in Italy, 
 although, I believe, much less frequent than formerly. Whenever 
 this is the case, the traveller is obliged, if he would preserve his 
 health, either to have a fire by which to dry them, or use a warm- 
 ing-pan until they are sufficiently aired. He should always ex- 
 amine them before he goes to bed. Spme, to avoid danger from 
 this source, carry thick flannel bed-gowns, by which they de- 
 fend themselves against the deleterious effects of the dampness 
 Great care is certainly necessary, for one night might otherwise 
 prove fatal, especially to an invalid. 
 
 The route was, in the main, the same with the ancient Roman 
 ^road, called the Via Flaminia, but not entirely. Leaving the 
 city through the beautiful piazza and Porta del Popolo, you soon 
 pass the Tiber, over a fine bridge called Ponte Molle. Here the 
 
CAMPAGNA. 345 
 
 Via Flaminia bears to the right, to Civita Castillana ; but Pius 
 VI. made a more direct route to this latter place, which is the 
 one now mostly travelled. Civita Castillanawd.s our first lodging- 
 place. We passed, some two or three miles out of the city of Rome, 
 a huge ancient sarcophagus, made of one piece, with a coyer, 
 which they call the Tomb of Nero. Whether it be really Nero's 
 tomb cannot perhaps be certainly determined. It is about 
 the same distance from the ancient city as was Nero, when he 
 was driven to the extremity of destroying himself. The only 
 wonder is, how the monster, execrated as he was by all classes, 
 should find one who would give him a decent burial, much less 
 excavate for him such a sarcophagus. We passed over the 
 Campagna Romana, and found it in this direction quite barren. 
 In this respect, I confess I was disappointed ; for I had supposed 
 the whole Campagna of a very rich soil. It appeared, however, 
 like soil that had been exhausted by excessive tillage ; very lit- 
 tle of it was under cultivation ; and that which was, did not ap- 
 pear very luxuriant. Cultivated it cannot be safely, on account 
 of the malaria ; but if the soil were fertile, it would certainly 
 produce a more abundant crop of grass and herbage. There 
 were, however, large herds of cattle and sheep upon these fields 
 of death ; and the herdsmen who tended them, showed but too 
 clearly that they inhaled a sickly atmosphere, and were hastening 
 to an untimely end. The appearance of these shepherds, as I 
 have had occasion to remark before, is anything but poetical. 
 Think of a countenance cadaverous with disease, crisped and 
 discolored by the sun and the winds, looking either stupid or fe- 
 rocious, and dressed with a sheepskin coat with the wool on — 
 armed, perhaps, with a gun or a long pike, and then say, Is this 
 Meliboeus or Corydon ? — to say nothing of Endymion and 
 Daphne, and other shepherds and shepherdesses who inflamed 
 the love of gods and goddesses. They look more like wolves in 
 sheep's clothing, or like banditti of the desert ; and if you meet 
 one when alone upon these wide wastes, you involuntarily shrink 
 as from the presence of a savage brigand whose trade is death ; 
 and yet, 1 believe it is seldom, if ever known in modern days, 
 that robberies or murders are committed here. For miles there 
 were no dwellings, except occasionally a stone structure, as a 
 station for these herdsmen and their flocks, with a stable in the 
 Xx 
 
346 ITALY. 
 
 lower story, and a lodging-place above, having around them 
 filth enough to breed the malaria, in an otherwise healthy climate. 
 
 Another characteristic of the Campagna, which is unlike my 
 preconception of it, is the unevenness of the surface. There are 
 few high hills, but constant inequalities, like the surface of a 
 rough sea in a storm ; this is in fact its character in every direc- 
 tion from Rome. We soon reached the mountains, however, in 
 the present route, as there is little pains taken here, as in our 
 country when passing a mountainous route, to find out the val- 
 leys. You are sometimes led to believe, that it is an object, in 
 constructing the Roman roads, to strike the first spur that runs 
 out from the mountains, and then mount and keep upon the top 
 as long as possible. This is very impolitic for the most impor- 
 tant purposes of a road, but it is very agreeable to the tourist who 
 is travelling to see the country ; he is carried from mountain top 
 to mountain top, in delightful visions ; getting new views from 
 every successive observatory. This constitutes one of the charms 
 of travelling in Italy. 
 
 The second day, we again crossed the Tiber on a bridge built 
 by Augustus Caesar. "We passed Otricoli, anciently Ocricu- 
 lum, and Narni, anciently called Narnia, and hastened on as fast as 
 our mules would carry us to Terni, twenty or twenty-five miles, 
 without stopping, in order to get time, the same day, to visit the 
 cascade, called the Caduta del Marmore. These falls are four 
 miles from Terni, at the junction of the Velino with the Nar ; 
 and are formed by the waters of the former, being precipitated into 
 the latter, from an elevation of between four and five hundred 
 feet, by several successive leaps, one of which is said to be three 
 hundred feet. We ascended the mountain on a road cut obliquely 
 into its almost perpendicular side, from a miserable little village, in 
 a caleche ; having first ordered donkeys to meet us at the foot of 
 the falls. At the top of the mountain is a plain, over which the 
 water is conducted, before it leaps into the valley below. I say con- 
 ducted, for it is stated that some time before the Christian era, these 
 waters were brought by Curius Dentatus in this direction, with a 
 view of draining the country above of its standing water. The 
 view from above is fine: the fall is so great, that almost the 
 whole body of water seems churned into foam, and quite a por- 
 tion of it thrown off into spray, insomuch, that the whole declivity 
 
CADUTA DEL MARMORE. 347 
 
 of the hill around is constantly wet, as by a falling shower. At 
 a proper time in the day, when the sun is unobstructed by clouds, 
 it is said the prismatic colours are beautifully reflected from the 
 shower of spray that hovers over the vortex below. Of this, 
 however, as the sky was mostly obscured, we obtained but an 
 imperfect and transient view during one short interval of sun- 
 shine. There were several stations at which we had different 
 views of this beautiful cascade as we descended the mountain ; 
 and the only interruption or annoyance we had to our enjoyment, 
 was the constant importunity of beggars, who made direct appli- 
 cation for charity, or claimed that they had made this platform, 
 formed that rustic parapet, where we stood to view the cascade ; 
 or had repaired the road, or dug out the steps of earth, down 
 which we passed in our descent, and for this demanded pay ; or 
 they assailed us with an importunity that no positive denial could 
 turn aside, with minerals or curious natural formations, which 
 they wished us to purchase. But such annoyances are so com- 
 mon in Italy, the traveller is wearied out with them ; and possibly 
 the reader is weary of hearing of them ; and, in fact, unless he 
 should be, he would not have a correct idea of travelling in Italy ; 
 and, therefore, would read a book of travels without accomplish- 
 ing the object of reading, which is to be able to form a tolerably 
 just estimate of a country, through which the tourist conducts 
 him by his journal. 
 
 One of the most interesting features of this cataract, is the cu- 
 rious formations by the water, of stalactites and various petrifac- 
 tions. These alone would repay the traveller for visiting the place. 
 They are similar to the formations, already noticed at Tivoli, of 
 travertine marble. But there are also, as at Tivoli, depositions 
 from the water of petrified lime, in successive strata, resembling 
 the different and successive grains of coarse-grained wood. This 
 substance takes a most beautiful polish, and is wrought by the 
 artists into various handsome works of taste and ornament. 
 
 At the foot of the hill, we found our donkeys under female con- 
 ductors, which we mounted to ascend an eminence, on the other 
 side of the valley opposite to the falls, for the purpose of obtaining 
 a better front view. Our conductors, as usual, commenced pound- 
 ing the donkeys with clubs, and urging them forward by that 
 peculiar kind of grunt, which you hear all over Italy, when an 
 
848 ITALY. 
 
 ass is to be driven, and which to be understood must be heard ; 
 for it is the likeness of no sound, I believe, articulate or inarticu- 
 late, to which the ears of my countrymen are accustomed. It is 
 the most like what I have sometimes heard, when a man is chop- 
 ping wood, or giving a heavy blow with a sledge, and probably it 
 had its origin from the same cause ; for as the blow and the 
 sound naturalty go together, it was found at length, that the grunt 
 itself would sometimes answer the purpose, as the poor donkey 
 was led, when he heard the one, to expect the other. But neither 
 blows nor sounds accomplish much with these poor little insensi- 
 ble animals. After I was well mounted and began to hear the 
 blows behind, I bade my conductress desist ; but she told me, 
 if she did not bastinado him he would not go. But I w T as de- 
 scribing the falls — and yet I must describe them as I saw them, 
 which was riding upon a bastinadoed donkey. We had a fine 
 view of the cascade, from this opposite side at several different 
 positions ; and then returned through a delightful valley down 
 the bank of the sporting stream, with overhanging rocks on one 
 side, and a lofty mountain on the other. At the little village 
 where we ordered our donkeys we resumed our carriage, amid 
 the cries of beggars and the vociferation of guides, donkey-wo- 
 men, &c, &c, clamouring for more buono-mano, some of whom 
 followed our carriage for some rods, after we started. It is thus 
 that almost every where in Southern Italy, the traveller is pounced 
 upon by a cloud of harpies, that seem ready to devour him, and 
 who never have enough. 
 
 We lodged at Terni. The next day dined at Spoleto, an- 
 ciently Spoletium. Here, after the battle of Lake Thrasymenus, 
 Hannibal was repulsed, and an ancient gate still bears an inscrip- 
 tion, recording this event. Here also is a beautiful aqueduct carried 
 across a valley, three hundred feet high. From this place a most 
 lovely valley extends to Foligno, the ancient Fulgineum—m travel- 
 ling over which we passed an ancient temple, supposed to be the 
 Temple of Clitumnus, situated near the source of the river of that 
 name — passed the next morning near the birthplace of Francesco, 
 in the town of Assissi — and near by, visited a church and monastery 
 that were being repaired, or we might say, rebuilt — for they were 
 destroyed four years ago, by an earthquake, a calamity which 
 affected all this section of country — at Foligno the houses and 
 
THE CATHEDRAL. 349 
 
 public edifices were terribly shaken — some demolished and many 
 injured. In this church, we found the sanctuary of St. Francesco, 
 and the room where he resided, and the closet for his books, 
 and the door through which he was accustomed to pass, all 
 preserved in their original form, forming a kind of sanctum 
 sanctorum, within the house of God. All the region around 
 swarmed with Francescans. The next day we were drawn by 
 oxen up the mountain to Perugia ; although a road might have 
 been made so as to avoid the mountain, but you may be almost 
 sure that you will be taken over the mountain, if there is one in 
 the route ; and this especially, because the cities of Italy are 
 mostly built on hills and mountains. At Perugia, called an- 
 ciently Augusta Perusia, we visited the cathedral, where we 
 saw nothing interesting, except the deposition of a dead priest, 
 who had been elevated upon a bed of state, or stage of exhibition, 
 where he had lain the usual time, and was now taken down 
 for sepulture. There was much ado in getting him down ; and 
 when they had succeeded, they stretched him out upon the dirty 
 pavement of the church, where he remained until we left, (al- 
 though we lingered some time to see what disposition would be 
 made of him,) surrounded by boys and youths, some of whom 
 had on the ecclesiastical hat, who were jesting and laughing over 
 the dead priest, in a manner the most repulsive. From Perugia, 
 we descended to the Perugian lake, or as it was anciently called, 
 Lake Thrasymenus, where the great battle was fought between 
 the Roman consul Flaminius, and Hannibal, in which the former 
 was defeated and slain, and almost his entire army exterminated. 
 The lake is a beautiful sheet of water in the midst of surround- 
 ing hills, and sprinkled with islands. We lodged at a miserable 
 little village which was almost crowded into the lake by the 
 mountain, called Passignano, from its being the only southern 
 pass from the vale beyond, where the abovementioned battle was 
 fought. 
 
 Lake Thrasymene, however, furnished us with a delightful 
 supper of fish, and we had a comfortable bed. Another voiturier, 
 which was in company with us most of the way, stopped at the 
 same inn, and we might have been crowded as to our quarters, 
 but a Frenchman, with his daughter, about twenty-five years of 
 age, always took one chamber for both, to save expense, and this 
 30 
 
350 ITALY. 
 
 gave us an additional chamber. The French, and indeed the 
 European continental nations generally, have very different no- 
 tions about such matters from those of the English or Americans. 
 They think nothing of passing each other's lodging-rooms to get 
 to their own beds. Indeed a very common method of building, 
 is to have a long suite of apartments in one range all enfiladed 
 by the doors, and entered by passing successively through the 
 intervening chambers. We often found it difficult to get lodging- 
 rooms where our ladies were not subjected to this inconve- 
 nience. 
 
 The next morning we passed the famous battle-ground. It is a 
 vale setting back from the lake perhaps two miles, and surround- 
 ed by hills, so as to form an amphitheatre, with only two narrow 
 vomitorii, or outlets, at either end, on the shores of the lake. 
 Into this place Hannibal decoyed his enemy by stratagem- 
 placing a good part of his army upon the heights near where the 
 Romans entered, while he with the other portion of his army 
 occupied the opposite heights ; when the Romans had entered 
 the pass and filled the amphitheatre, the concerted signal was 
 given — the ambuscade from the van fell upon the Roman army, 
 and they found themselves surrounded. The elements favoured 
 the Carthaginians ; for it was sunshine on the hills, but a dense 
 fog settled down upon the vale : weapons from unseen enemies 
 were showered upon the astonished and terror-struck' Romans. 
 It was a bloody day — and a critical one for Rome. A small 
 number cut their way through to the neighbouring heights ; but 
 the greater part perished* We passed a rivulet called Sangui- 
 netto, from its waters having been discoloured by the blood of the 
 slain. This battle gave Hannibal the ascendancy in Italy ; and 
 had not the luxury and licentiousness of the Campania been more 
 fatal to his army than Roman arms, he might have subdued and 
 overwhelmed the nation, and Carthage and Rome might have 
 changed characters in the great drama of the world. As it turned, 
 nowever, Rome has gained the appellation of the Eternal City, 
 and Carthage was destroyed, and no traces of its site or existence 
 remain, save on the page of history. 
 
 The next day we reached Florence. From the top of the 
 high-lands, several miles distant, we had a most enchanting view 
 of the city and its surrounding villas. It was environed in the 
 
DEPARTURE FROM FLORENCE. 351 
 
 distance by mountains embowered in vineyards and verdure, 
 elegantly reposing on the banks of the Arno, and wafting up the 
 mountain-side, to welcome our approach, the fragrant incense of 
 an Italian spring. What a change in a place is effected by the 
 weather and the season of the year ! Florence had certainly 
 gained much by exchanging the drenching rains and chilling 
 winds of January for the balmy breath of May. 
 
 We revisited the galleries ; called on our old friends ; inquired 
 after the schools, and found them all flourishing. We learned 
 also that the Swiss heroine of the infant-schools was meditating 
 a new enterprise full of interest, and so far as we could learn, of 
 promise also : but in a country where a heretic is suspected even 
 when doing good, it may not be proper to publish her operations 
 to the world — especially when the agents of the propaganda in 
 our country convey to Rome all that is passing or is published 
 here affecting the interests of the Holy See. We raised a few 
 crowns among our countrymen and fellow-travellers for the enter- 
 prise, and could do no more than follow her with our good wishes 
 and prayers. 
 
 After a few days' rest and preparation, we found ourselves 
 ready to recross the Appenines, which we had determined to do 
 in the direction of Bologna, to try if possible to reach Venice. 
 From the beginning I had hoped to see Venice, but had been upon 
 the point of relinquishing the object, from the discouraging reports 
 of prevailing cholera and consequent quarantines. In this matter, 
 as in many others, we found it extremely difficult to obtain any 
 satisfactory information. However, we thought the nearer we 
 approached, the more definite would be our intelligence. 
 
 Our departure was attended with several painful circumstances. 
 One was that our interesting and kind fellow-travellers were to 
 return in another direction, not choosing to take Lombardy in 
 their route. It was like breaking up a family, rendered the more 
 painful, because we were in a foreign land. Mrs. F. and myself 
 were to proceed alone. But what was still more painful was, that 
 one of our company, Mr. W. already, mentioned, was declining 
 so fast that we feared we should see him no more. His case had 
 been one of painful interest for many days. Sometimes, while 
 in Rome, he was able to go out with us and view those ruins 
 which accorded too painfully with the ruins of his own once 
 
352 ITALY. 
 
 vigorous constitution, wasting under the consuming touch of a 
 resistless disease. Occasionally, his buoyant mind seemed to 
 catch inspiration from the scenes around him, and he would forget 
 his own weakness in the rhapsodies of the poets and the legends 
 of Roman mythology. Again, he would be prostrated — and 
 think and talk of home — pray not to be buried in Italy — and 
 speak of the comforts which a sick man foregoes by leaving the 
 bosom of friends to court health in a more genial clime. He ti at 
 has never been sick abroad, knows not the hundredth part of the 
 meaning that is contained in this reflection ! In the main, Mr. 
 W. was cheerful, and it w r as sometime before he could be per 
 suaded that journeying by land injured him, and that his best 
 course was to go to Leghorn and take ship for New York. At 
 length he became satisfied that this was his only hopeful course- 
 Having been so long the object of our solicitude, it was painful to 
 lea^e him. We parted with the usual tokens, but without wc;ds, 
 for anguish choked utterance.* 
 
 We left for Bologna by voiturier, 6th of May. A sick 
 fellow-passenger, was taken so ill he was obliged to stop. 
 We left him in great distress in a solitary inn upon the 
 Appenines. After this we had the entire coach to ourselves, 
 and our veturino having got rid of a part of his charge without 
 any loss of fee, made an effort to barter us off also upon 
 another, who was going in our direction ; but not feeling disposed 
 to be traded off in that style, and having the staff in our own- 
 hand, he was obliged to carry us through, or go home without 
 his pay. 
 
 Our route was over the desolate Appenines, with but few trees 
 or shrubs, and very little verdure, I should judge at best. At this 
 time they were still sprinkled with snowbanks, and the chill of 
 winter lingered here. There are some sublime views, however, 
 and at one point you may see the Mediterranean on the one side 
 
 * It was the final separation until the Great Day. He embarked at Leghorn, and 
 during the voyage his health seemed rather to improve, until the vessel reached the 
 Banks of New Foundland ; and here the fogs hastened his disease to a speedy 
 maturity. Difficulty of breathing, delirium, and death ensued. In all probability, if 
 he had taken a more southerly passage, he might have lived to breathe his last with 
 his friends. Let the consumptive, who thinks of going to Italy to recover his health, 
 remember the sufferings and solitary death of the intelligent and estimable Wm. J. 
 Webb. For the comfort of his friends, I will add, we have hope in his death, 
 
BOLOGNA. 353 
 
 and the Adriatic on the other. We passed the Monte di Fo, a 
 small volcano, which constantly sends forth, (it is said,) a clear 
 flame, spreading out a number of feet, and burning brightest, 
 or more properly perhaps appearing brightest, as all flames do, in 
 cloud}?- weather, 
 
 Bologna is beautifully situated on the river Reno, at the base 
 of the Appenines, and on the skirt of that most extraordinary and 
 lovely vale of Lombardy — extending from the base of the Alps 
 on the west to the Adriatic on the east, and from the Appenines 
 on the south to the Rhoetian Alps on the north — watered by the 
 Adige and the Po, with their numerous branches. It was the 
 Cisalpine Gaul of the ancient Romans, and has been the seat of 
 more wars, and the scene of more battles, probably, than any 
 other part of Europe. For no other reason, perhaps, than that 
 God hath blessed it with peculiar fertility and beauty ! 
 
 The city of Bologna contains about seventy thousand inhab- 
 itants, and is about five miles in circumference. A peculiarity in 
 the streets, is, that all the principal ones are lined with arcades, or 
 continued porticoes, which rest on single columns, and which, by 
 narrowing the streets and excluding the light, give a sombre 
 appearance to the city. This is certainly a great improvement, 
 however, to a city in a country especially so exposed to intense 
 heat as is Italy. To such an extent does this taste prevail at Bo- 
 logna, that an insulated arcade, or covered portico extends from the 
 city to the church of Marie di St. Luca, three miles perhaps 
 from the town ; and a branch of it turns off to the Campo Santo, 
 a mile from the city. The length of these arcades must interest 
 the stranger, and must be an accommodation to the citizens, 
 whether they wish to visit their most interesting cemetery, rich 
 in the variety of its apartments and monuments, or their 
 patroness saint, Marie di St. Luca ; and it is certainly an accom- 
 modation to the saint herself — for once a year she has to make a 
 visit to the city where she remains to be adored three days, and 
 these are high days. All the world around, city and country, 
 rush in to pay their devotions at the shrine of the goddess. 
 Fortunately for us, we arrived just in time to be sharers in this 
 great religious fete. Her madonaship, I believe, arrived in town 
 the morning of the same day in which we arrived in the evening. 
 ^e found the church and all the streets around it crowded. 
 30 Y y 
 
354 ITALY. 
 
 But the next day, which was the Sabbath, was the great day of 
 the feast. The city was full of the country costumes, the church 
 was decorated and crowded, the ceremony and service were long 
 and tedious, and amidst it all, collectors were going among the 
 crowd, shaking their boxes and calling upon the people t-Wionour 
 the saint by contributing tp the support of the shrine. So it 
 seemed, that, although public veneration and worship were among 
 the 'objects of the saint in coming to the city, yet her principal 
 design was to make a collection. This jargon of sounds, com- 
 pounded of the thousands around you, muttering over their own 
 private devotions and prayers, independent and disregardful 
 entirely of the public service ; the chanting of the service by 
 the priests and by the organ, and the rattling of coppers in the 
 boxes of the collectors, were to me a queer and not very profitable 
 exercise. Perhaps it was because I did not enter into the spirit 
 of devotion. But how could I, when the centre of attraction and 
 the only object of worship, seemed to be an image placed over 
 the altar. To say their prayers and to supplicate her fa- 
 vour, seemed to be the great object of the multitude, and 
 this the priests themselves sanctioned by worshipping most de- 
 voutly at her shrine. I tried to obtain a view of the saint, but she 
 was so embowered in flowers and finery, I could not get a sight 
 of her divine face. It seems to be thought the more they can 
 dress up these images, the more they honour them. Hence it is a 
 very common thing to find the images of the Virgin, and other 
 saints, profusely ornamented and dressed out in tawdry-coloured 
 silks, gauzes, and ribands ! 
 
 Bologna abounds with towers, some of them carried up very 
 high, and all of them leaning. We ascended the highest in the 
 city, called the Asinelli. This was built in 1109, and inclines 
 four feet from a perpendicular line. Its height is said to be three 
 hundred and twenty-seven Paris feet ; at any rate we found it 
 sufficiently high to give a splendid view of the surrounding 
 country, and to enable us to look down into the streets and courts 
 of the little town below us, which was spread out and checkered 
 like the divisions of a chessboard, only it lacked regularity. 
 
 The palaces and galleries of Bologna are principally celebrated 
 for their pictures. The school of painting here was second only 
 in Italy, that is to say in the world. Here were the three Car- 
 
BOLOGNA. 355 
 
 accis ; Ludovico the eldest of the three, and cousin and instructer 
 to the two brothers Augustino and Annibale. These laid the 
 foundation of the Bolognese school, but Annibale was the most 
 celebrated. Both he and his brother, however, hastened their 
 death by dissipation and debauchery. After these were Guido, 
 whose fame needs no panegyric, but whose love of gaming ruined 
 him in fortune and in mind : Domenichino, who, though so slow 
 his companions called him the Ox, yet so persevering he became 
 one of the first masters : Guercino, whose eminent talents were 
 adorned by a virtuous, charitable, pious life : Lanfranco, who 
 was a native of Parma, but studied under Augustino Caracci ; 
 Francisco and Jean Baptiste Albano — the former of whom made 
 his most beautiful and accomplished wife the model of his 
 Venuses, Nymphs, and Graces, and her twelve lovely children 
 the originals of his Cherubs and Cupids — with many others of 
 less note. All these were first rate painters ; and whoever passes 
 through Europe will find their works in every important picture 
 gallery he visits. Bologna was full of them, but many are gone 
 and more are going from this city of the arts. We visited several 
 galleries, the pictures of which w ere almost uniformly on sale ; 
 and the time is at hand, it would seem, when there will be less 
 of the -paintings of Bologna in the city of the Caraccis, than in 
 most other cities, if we except the splendid frescoes — which also 
 would be sold if they could be. 
 
 What has happened to the school of the arts has, though not 
 to so great an extent, befallen also the school of letters— the 
 ancient and celebrated University of Bologna. This once con- 
 tained six thousand students and seventy- two professors. In 
 1819, it had only four hundred and thirteen students, according to 
 Mr. Lyman ; but at this time it is said there are eighteen hundred. 
 A great portion of these are in the study of medicine, for which 
 they have an excellent museum of specimens in healthy and 
 morbid anatomy, and of natural history. They have also a good 
 cabinet of instruments for physical science, and a good library. 
 This is one of the most ancient, nay, I believe the very first 
 University founded in Italy. Some date it back as early as the 
 fifth century. 
 
 There are many other things of interest in this city, but I must 
 omit them—save that I should hardly be pardoned if I did not 
 
356 ITALY. 
 
 mention the fountain of Neptune, which is very fine — the work- 
 manship of Giovanni di Bologna. There is also a natural 
 curiosity near the city, on what is called Monte Paduno. It is 
 a substance which emits phosphorescent light, and is called the 
 phosphorescent stone. I bought two boxes to bring home ; but 
 long before I arrived the light went out. They will retain their 
 phosphorescent quality but a short time after they are taken from 
 their location. 
 
 Our next stage was to Ferrara. This was the residence of 
 Ariosto : his house still remains as a monument of the poet's 
 modesty or poverty, or both. It is said, when he was inquired 
 of why he, who described such magnificent palaces, had made 
 his own house so small, that he replied : " Words are put together 
 "cheaper than stones." The Ferrarese seem proud of having his 
 house and his remains with them. They have erected his tomb 
 in their library, where they show his chair, inkstand, and some 
 of his handwriting. In this same library is the original manu- 
 script of Gerusalemme Liber ata by Tasso, and of Pastor Fido 
 by Guiarini. Of these three great poets only the last was born 
 in Ferrara. The first was a native of Reggio ; and Tasso was 
 born' at Sorrento, near Naples. By the residence of the other 
 two Ferrara was honoured ; but Tasso was there a prisoner for 
 several years — a lovesick crazy poet. Having fallen in love 
 with the sister of the Duke who was his patron, he was hurried 
 away by his passion beyond all bounds, and in a crowded assem- 
 bly embraced his lovely Eleonora. The Duke pronounced him 
 mad, and ordered him into confinement. We visited his prison. 
 It was a dreary stone arch of heavy masonry in the Hospital of 
 St. Anne. When Lord Byron was here he spent four days in 
 this cell — whether for the purpose of sympathizing with Tasso's 
 spirit and to catch his inspiration, or because like Tasso he was 
 himself a mad poet, I cannot say. Byron left his name engraved 
 upon the wall ; and our valet informed us that while he was 
 undergoing his poetic penance, he used to carry him his food 
 from the hotel near by, in which we also lodged. It seems they 
 both had eccentricity and disappointment enough to make them 
 \ great poets, but not moral principle and virtue enough to govern 
 their passions. Tasso's disappointment, as well as Byron's, fol- . 
 lowed him to the last : for when the former was about to receive the 
 
FERRARA. 357 
 
 laurel crown, and be honoured with a triumph by Pope Clement, 
 VIII. at Rome, he suddenly died, and his triumphal procession 
 was changed into his funeral obsequies. His body was entombed 
 at Rome. 
 
 Bologna and Ferrara both belong to the pope ; much, how- 
 ever, to the discontent of the people. In no part of Italy did I 
 hear as much complaining of the government as in these dutchies. 
 The pope could hardly be mentioned without a shrug or a sneer. 
 But Austrian bayonets are a substitute for affectionate attach- 
 ment ; and these they have in abundance. Since the disposition 
 to revolution manifested at the time of the Paris Revolution of 
 July, they have been guarded with greater strictness. It is evi- 
 dent, however, that only a favourable opportunity is wanting to 
 kindle up the flames of civil war, for the spirit is there. 
 
 The court of Ferrara was once the seat of learning and emi- 
 nent men. It was also a city of some note among the baronies 
 and little republics, of which, at one time, it is said, there were 
 thirty in Lombardy. It might have contained one hundred thou- 
 sand inhabitants ; but now grass is growing in the streets, and 
 the edifices are going to decay. Twenty-five or thirty thousand 
 is the limit of its population, and its business seems insufficient 
 to sustain these. 
 
 In passing from Ferrara we crossed the Po and the Adige on 
 a Pont-volant, or flying bridge. In these rivers also we saw 
 mills carried by the current ; for falls there are none. Two large 
 scows or boats are fastened by strong cables in the current at a 
 convenient distance from each other, over which is the structure 
 for the mill, and between which is the water-wheel for carrying 
 the machinery. The water-wheel is rolled round by the natural 
 force of the current, and as the water rises and falls, the boats, 
 mill and all of course, rise and fall with it, and thus the wheel 
 is kept immersed at all times in the same depth of water. 
 
 The second day we passed the Euganean Hills, which rise up in 
 picturesque beauty in the midst of an otherwise unbroken plain, 
 as if on purpose to afford a lodge for a poet, and scenery to in- 
 spire his muse. We had learned that the tomb and last residence 
 of Petrarch were near our proposed route, but the tameness of 
 the flat sandy plain over which we passed, and which seemed 
 bounded only by the sensible horizon, led us almost to doubt the 
 
358 ITALY. 
 
 truth of the guide-book on this subject. Truly, Petrarch, who 
 once rhapsodized in the vale of Vaucluse, could not have chosen 
 this Boeotian plain for his final residence ! Who ever heard of 
 a poet, and I had almost asked, of a patriot, in a country of an 
 unbroken level ? But as we approached the place a change came 
 over us, which, in our measure, I suppose, is not unlike that which 
 kindles the poet's eye into a " fine phrensy," and works up his 
 heart into all the palpitation of poetic rhapsody. By an extra fee 
 we persuaded our veturino to take us up among the hills to this 
 poet's tomb, in the little village of Arqua. We found the house 
 as he left it, with a female cicerone, who, I doubt not, accumulates 
 a good rent for the edifice, although it remains unoccupied. Here 
 is the furniture of the poet — his study — the balcony from which 
 he was wont to gaze upon the surrounding scenery — and here 
 were painted in fresco upon the walls, the poet and his Laura, in 
 a great variety of relations. At the foot of the hill, below the 
 house, stands an humble, rustic church, and in its front-yard rises 
 the marble tomb of the celebrated Petrarch, the father of modern 
 poetry. He was born at Arezzo in 1304, was crowned with the 
 poetic crown at Rome on Easter-day, 1341, and died at Arqua 
 in July, 1374, aged 70. 
 
 We reached Padua the same evening. This is the birthplace 
 of the historian Livy, and was a city of ancient renown, having 
 been built as some suppose by Antenor, soon after the fall of Troy. 
 Its ancient name was Potavium, and it is said to have been once the 
 most flourishing town in Northern Italy. In the middle ages, under 
 the feudal chiefs it was a town of note, and it is still a respecta- 
 ble and strongly fortified town — has some very good edifices, 
 especially its university which was built by the great architect 
 Palladio, the modern Vitruvius. The churches of St. Anthony 
 and Justina are both interesting edifices. At the former was held 
 the day after we arrived, a splendid anniversary fete, in honour 
 of St. Anthony, who appears to be in great repute in Padua. 
 All were in their gala-dresses, and as is usual on such occasions 
 the whole country were flocking to the town. In these fetes there is 
 some religion, but more frolic and fun. If they can go to the church 
 and say their prayers, that satisfies the conscience of the most 
 scrupulous ; the rest of the time is for amusement. This church 
 of St. Anthony is full of tombs and of bassi relievi. We crowded 
 
VENICE. 859 
 
 around among the devout as well as we could to see these 
 splendid ornaments, as we were aware no other opportunity would 
 be afforded us. But it does not trouble these devotees to see the 
 curious stranger moving round to the pictures and monuments 
 while they are saying their prayers. For as they pray by the 
 book or from memory, and the merit consists in the number 
 repeated, they can look at you if they choose and pray on. 
 Knowing this, for it is a matter of universal experience in this 
 country, led on by our cicerone we passed round the church. 
 Rarely indeed have we seen so many j£ne, " immoderately fine," 
 sepulchral ornaments as here. Among others, is the tomb of 
 Cardinal Bembo, the learned and licentious secretary and instru- 
 ment of Leo X., a cardinal and a bishop. But when popes 
 turn infidels and sell the privilege of sinning for money, we 
 cannot wonder that their bishops and cardinals should follow in 
 their suit. 
 
 The University of Padua once had 18,000 scholars, but like 
 all the other Universities of Italy, it is greatly fallen. It has able 
 professors, however, and lectures in the different departments, 
 with a library of 100,000 vols. The most prominent department 
 is that of medicine. 
 
 There is a beautiful public square in this city, surrounded with 
 statuary, all of which is now, from an extraordinary cause, in a 
 very mutilated state. In 1835, there was a violent hail-storm of 
 stones large as cannon-balls which fell in twenty-seven minutes 
 to the depth of one foot and a half. It broke in the tiles of the 
 roofs of a great many edifices, made great havoc of the trees, and 
 broke off the fingers, arms, noses, &c, of this extensive company 
 of statues. 
 
 We arrived at Venice on the evening of the great festival of 
 St. Mark, the patron saint of the city. This was the day on 
 which, in the times of the Republic, the Doge was accustomed 
 to wed the Adriatic Sea. The ceremony consisted in going out 
 in a galley, in great state, taking up some of the water, casting a 
 ring into the sea, and going through certain other forms, to indi- 
 cate the espousals between this city and the waters of the 
 Adriatic. Well might Venice cherish this sea, as a spouse which 
 had brought to her beloved a rich dower. It was in her bosom 
 that the city rested in safety, when all Italy besides was desolated 
 
360 ITALY. 
 
 by the barbarians of the North, and by the mutual wars of the 
 feudal chieftains who succeeded the conquerors. It was on her 
 bosom, that commerce wafted her golden treasures into the city 
 from all parts of the world. The city itself, in short, reposed as it 
 were, upon the sea ; her streets are canals, her squares are 
 Lagunas wrested from the waves ; and almost her entire founda 
 tions rest upon the shoals of the Adriatic. This ceremony, 
 therefore, was a significant one, and far more tolerable than many 
 other Italian fetes and anniversaries, that are still crowded into 
 almost every day in the year. At present, however, the nuptials 
 are not celebrated, except that the religious ceremonies for the 
 festival of St Mark, are still observed. There is good reason for 
 dispensing with the celebration of the nuptials now ; for in the 
 first place, the independence of Venice, and the liberties of the 
 city, are gone ; so also, to a very great degree, the trade and the 
 wealth of the city, have departed together. The Adriatic bears 
 no Venetian navy, to make all the shores and the islands of the 
 Mediterranean tremble. She has also joined herself to other 
 lovers ; and Trieste, and Ancona, and others are sharing in those 
 favors and exulting in those caresses that used to be reserved 
 for Venice alone ; much to the mortification and scandal of her 
 former husband and lord. On this account we regretted less, 
 that we were a few hours too late, to witness the festivities of the 
 day. After passing over about five miles, the distance from 
 Fusina to Venice, in a gondola, we landed upon the threshold of 
 the Hotel Royal of Signior Danieli, where we took lodgings, 
 during our short stay in the city. 
 
 I shall proceed to give some general notion of this remarkable 
 city, and of the things most worthy of notice in it, without pre- 
 suming to attempt a full description of Venice, either as a whole 
 or in parts. Indeed I know not how to describe it ; to be properly 
 conceived of, it must be seen. If any one should ask me, if 
 Venice was beautiful, I could hardly say yes or no. But it is 
 interesting — it is an historical cuiiosity — it is an architectural 
 curiosity — its physical constitution is a curiosity — you know not 
 whether to say it belongs to the land or the water. It is in 
 fact neither, and it is both — it is amphibious. It is a mermaid, 
 or a sea-nymph — the lower part is a fish, but above the form is 
 human. Like Jupiter, it sprang up self-creative from the froth of 
 
VENICE. 361 
 
 the sea, and, like him, it subsequently ruled both the sea and the 
 land, until its day of rule was over, and its sceptre and its glory 
 departed together. Venice lives, however, in history still — nay, 
 more, she lives in the splendour of her achievements, in the mag- 
 nificence of her temples, the wealth of many of her palaces, the 
 productions of her artists, and the peculiar physical characteris- 
 tics of her unique construction, although, as Byron has well 
 expressed it, 
 
 " The soul of the city is fled." 
 
 Think of a city rising up from the sea, five or six miles from 
 the main land, having for its commencement a few islets, on which 
 fishermen might erect their cabins and spread their nets. Think 
 of this marine asylum, becoming the resort of the enterprising, 
 the afflicted, the friends of liberty, and of the lovers of adven- 
 ture. Think of its growth to a population of two hundred 
 thousand, of its independence for fourteen hundred years, of its 
 immense wealth, and the spoils brought from all parts of the 
 world to enrich and adorn it. Conceive of its haying neither 
 horse-power nor carriage ; but its coaches are gondolas, and its 
 locomotive power the oarsman. Conceive of one hundred and 
 forty-nine canals winding their way through all parts of the city, 
 crowded by boats, and spanned by three hundred and six arched 
 bridges of marble, over which pass the footpaths or streets, that 
 in general are not wider than sidewalks, and amount to two 
 thousand one hundred and eight in number ; and you will per- 
 haps have some faint idea of the general appearance of Venice. 
 There is, however, one feature that must not be left out of the 
 account, and that is the grand or principal canal. This is per- 
 haps from thirty to sixty yards wide, is in form somewhat like the 
 letter S, and in its serpentine course, divides the city into two 
 parts, leaving however much the largest on the northeast side. 
 Over this canal, there is but one bridge, and that is called the 
 Bridge of the Grand Rialto. This bridge is a high arch, and is in 
 part a regular staircase of considerable height, consisting of one 
 central and two side flights, the latter being separated from the 
 former by a row of twelve shops on either side. 
 
 Another peculiar feature of Venice is the architecture, which 
 is mostly of a style peculiar to the middle ages. It is a mixture 
 of the Gothic, with the most redundant ornamental Arabic. 
 31 Zz 
 
362 ITALY. 
 
 You have capitals, and architraves, and friezes, fantastically orna- 
 mented, in connexion with Gothic arches and other features of 
 the rustic style of architecture. You look at it with mixed feel- 
 ings of pleasure and dissatisfaction ; you feel it to be an outrage 
 upon all architectural taste of the present day, and yet you 
 would not wish to see it otherwise ; and you only regret that it 
 has the most decisive appearance of hastening rapidly to decay. 
 Some of the most expensive palaces are all but forsaken, and the 
 edifices are beginning to exhibit a desolate and ruinous aspect. 
 Perhaps all the buildings have a foot as well as a water passage, 
 In passing round or through the Great Canal, I perceived that 
 most of the palaces fronted upon the water (which came up at 
 high water-mark to the very threshold of the front door), with 
 painted posts, to which to fasten a gondola, and a step to pass 
 into it. Just as, in our country, you see near the yard a stake 
 to which you may hitch your horse, and a block from which 
 to mount him. At the back door there is a foot passage 
 leading out and branching off to different parts of the city. 
 There is also at the west end an open space of several acres, 
 covered with green sward, and occupied as a parade-ground, or a 
 Campus Martius, formed entirely, as I was informed, of the mud 
 dug from the bed of the canals ; and on the east side are gardens 
 planted with trees and laid out in gravel walks of considerable 
 extent. There are also several squares and market-places, the 
 largest of which is the piazza of St. Mark ; and as this is the 
 great public centre, and the place in which the greatest interest 
 is concentrated, I will rest here a moment, to describe some of 
 the principal objects around it. 
 
 Here are the church of St. Mark, the ancient palace of the 
 Doges, the imperial palace, &c. The firstmentioned edifice is 
 on the east end of the square, having the ducal palace, or the 
 palace of the Doges between it and the quay. This most singu- 
 lar and interesting edifice was commenced in 976, and finished 
 in about one hundred years. It consists of all orders of architec- 
 ture, and is in fact without order. It is, however, rich in marbles, 
 mosaics, statuary, and other ornaments, both within and without ; 
 having, it is said, five hundred columns of porphyry, serpentine, 
 veined and other precious marbles. It is in the form of a Greek 
 cross, and measures two hundred and twenty Yenetian feet in 
 
VENICE. 363 
 
 length, and one hundred and eighty in breadth — measuring from 
 one end of the transverse nave to the other — and presenting a 
 facade front of one hundred and forty-eight feet. There are 
 splendid mosaics over the front doors, and the interior is entirely 
 encrusted with mosaics ; so also is the floor of the church.* 
 Over the front door on a gallery, too elevated to give a good 
 effect, are the four bronze horses that have been such great trav- 
 ellers, and are so much and so justly admired for their antiquity 
 and beauty. Of the origin of these horses there have been dif- 
 ferent opinions ; but the most probable and that which has gained 
 pretty general credence, I believe, is that they are Grecians, 
 being the work of Lysippus, and appertained to the chariot of the 
 sun in Corinth. They were brought to Rome when the Romans 
 conquered and plundered Greece, and from Rome, after the trans- 
 fer of the seat of the empire to Constantinople, they were conveyed 
 thither in the fifth century ; and when Constantinople was taken 
 by the Venetians, they transported them as trophies to Venice, 
 where they continued until Venice was conquered by the French 
 in 1797, when they were conducted to Paris; at the restora- 
 tion of legitimacy they were restored to Venice, and with great 
 pomp introduced into the city and placed in their present position. 
 If the hypothesis of their origin be correct, they must have been 
 made more than three hundred years before the Christian era, as 
 Lysippus was contemporary with Alexander the Great, who died 
 three hundred and thirty-three years before Christ. They were 
 originally gilt ; and a portion of the gilding still remains, although 
 the greater part has been worn off by time and service. They 
 are certainly of most exquisite proportions and workmanship, and 
 bid fair to survive the city which they have so long honoured with 
 their presence ; and most probably at some future day may again 
 cross the Alps and honour some more northern city with their 
 residence : perhaps St. Petersburgh may yet see these southern 
 coursers, for they follow in the train of conquest and of power, 
 and these attributes seem at present to be tending by a strong 
 current towards the northern pole. 
 
 South of the church of St. Mark, and between it and the quay, 
 
 * The materials of which this church was built, like those of the Duomo at Pisa, 
 and many other Italian buildings of that age, were the spoils of enemies, and were 
 mostly taken from the Saracens. So also were many of its decorations* 
 
364 ITALY. 
 
 is the ancient palace of the Doges. It is built round a court 
 which serves as an exchange, and has in it, it is said, several 
 hundred apartments. This also is of various styles, but mostly 
 of the Arabic, and therefore highly ornamented. The capitals of 
 the columns are decorated with leaves, animals, and various sym- 
 bolical figures, and the whole constructed of fine marble. This 
 edifice is extremely interesting both from its architecture and 
 paintings, and also from its historical associations. It has two 
 fronts — one upon the quay, presenting to the harbour a beau- 
 tiful fagade of two hundred and five feet, divided into seven- 
 teen arches ; and the other upon the smaller square which 
 connects the grand piazza of St. Mark with the quay, two hun- 
 dred and fifteen feet in length, and divided into eighteen arches. 
 These are surmounted by another row of arches half as large, 
 and, of course, double the number, forming a beautiful gallery on 
 both fronts : above these the walls are in diamonds of bricks of 
 different colours. It was commenced early in the fourteenth 
 century, but a long time in being finished ; and was, of course, 
 directed by various architects in successive generations. 
 
 The interior is decorated by a great number of splendid paintings 
 of the Venetian school, many of them of fine workmanship and of 
 most magnificent dimensions. They are by Tintoretto, Titian, 
 Bonifacio, Paul Veronese, Bassano ; many others also of the Vene- 
 tian school of painting have contributed to the ornaments of these 
 apartments. The ceilings as well as the walls are covered with 
 easel paintings ; although, from their size and their peculiar adapt- 
 ation to the walls of the apartments to which they belong, they 
 are often mistaken for frescoes : even some of the guide-books 
 have fallen into this error, and describe paintings for frescoes 
 which are really tableaux, or paintings upon canvass. 
 
 I cannot speak particularly of these works of art ; but to give 
 the reader some idea of their size, I will notice one or two. In 
 the saloon of the grand council, now the library of St. Mark, is a 
 painting by Tintoretto, representing the glory of Paradise. It js 
 thirty feet in height, and its greatest length is seventy-four feet, 
 entirely covering one end of the hall. In this hall (and the one 
 adjoining) are other paintings of enormous size, representing 
 mostly remarkable events in the history of Venice. Indeed, it 
 may be remarked of the paintings generally, that they are more 
 
VENICE. 365 
 
 decidedly historical than those of any other city which I have 
 visited. This is as it should be. If painting ever flourishes in 
 our country, I hope it will be in this form. That the art should 
 be so much prostituted to the celebration and illustration of the 
 cruelties and the licentious loves of ancient fable, corrupting the 
 heart and inflaming the strongest passions, through the medium 
 of the imagination — as is the case in almost all the schools of 
 painting and sculpture, ancient and modern — can only be accounted 
 for on the ground of the universal depravity of the human heart — 
 a depravity which the arts themselves have greatly aggravated by 
 the licentious manner in which they have pandered to the gratifica- 
 tion of a corrupt taste. The most sublime efforts of these arts — the 
 most exquisite productions of the bright geniuses who have 
 excelled in them, have sanctioned the exhibition of the strongest 
 and most corrupting incentives to licentiousness and crime. In 
 the almost superhuman exhibitions of the art, we pardon the 
 offence against moral purity, and while we admire, the more 
 triumphant the achievement, the more insinuating the poison, 
 which, unperceived, is drunk in and nourished by the mixture of 
 sweets that disguises it, until the moral sense is blunted and the 
 heart is seduced by the fascinating spell. It is on this account 
 especially that I fear for our own comparatively moral country- 
 men. As wealth increases, the number of travellers will increase, 
 especially among the young, who are, of course, the most in 
 danger. These may not all become corrupted themselves ; 
 although I frankly confess that I deem it next to impossible for 
 a youth to visit Italy, and the continent of Europe generally, 
 without suffering loss in the discriminating power and purity of 
 his moral feelings. It must be a miracle of grace alone that can 
 preserve him. But, in addition to this — for I should hope there 
 would never be so great a number corrupted among the tourists 
 of our countrymen as to affect materially the morals of the 
 nation — there is to be dreaded more than anything else, the intro- 
 duction into our country, through the medium of wealthy travel- 
 lers and travelling artists, the corrupting causes themselves of 
 moral principle. Already, through the medium of artists and 
 amateurs, paintings, engravings, and statuary of a character that 
 will contribute nothing to the purity of our youth, are finding 
 their way into our country ; and as wealth increases among us, 
 31 
 
366 ITALY. 
 
 these works of art will be multiplied. They will not be openly 
 and publicly exhibited at first ; but gradually as that nice delicacy 
 which now characterizes public taste with us shall become 
 blunted, we shall see, I fear, naked Loves and Venuses as fre- 
 quent in our galleries and public gardens as they now are in 
 Europe : we shall have our groups of Leda and the Eagle, of 
 Love and Pscyhe, and all the rest, rendered more tolerable, be- 
 cause they are either the original or the copies of the most 
 splendid works of art, and are consecrated by the incense of their 
 classical associations. Nay, there are many now, very many, of 
 our travelling and untravelled countrymen who, if these remarks 
 ever meet their eye, will doubtless sneer at the squeamishness, 
 and superstition, and vulgar destitution of taste, which could 
 object to these exhibitions. It is becoming fashionable with us 
 to affect the European taste ; and there are many who would not 
 dare be so uncourtly and vulgar as to manifest any scruples of 
 delicacy and moral feeling on this subject. Be it so. I must do 
 my duty in the case, whether it effect little or much ; and I 
 therefore am constrained to raise my feeble voice against this 
 fascinating manner of sapping the principles of public virtue, 
 and would especially warn and entreat the rising generation 
 against this influence; and, if I might be permitted, I would 
 entreat my fellow-citizens — that class of them especially whose 
 standing in society gives them influence — to adopt the only 
 course which, in my opinion, can resist the bad consequences 
 here depicted, and that is, while they discountenance the intro- 
 duction of works of art which have a licentious tendency, to 
 encourage as much as they may, by their patronage, the pure 
 and chaste productions of the pencil and chisel. For these pro- 
 ductions, no subjects are more suitable than the historic events 
 of a free country ; and by American artists, the example already 
 set by Trumbull should be followed up and improved upon, 
 until every important event in the settlement, progress, and inde- 
 pendence of our country be transferred to canvass, as it has been 
 already recorded on the page of history. Such has been the 
 course pursued by Venetian artists with great success. It is 
 true, the history of Venice is too much interwoven with war and 
 bloodshed. This grew out of the character of the times and of 
 
VENICE. 367 
 
 the nation : and in this respect our country would have a great 
 advantage in the humanizing and moral effects of its history on 
 canvass. Its wars have not been those of conquest or of individual 
 aggrandizement, but of self-defence ; and for the maintenance of 
 those great principles of national and social rights, which were 
 never so well understood as at the present day, and never con- 
 tended for with so much purity and success, as by the United 
 States of America. 
 
 But to return to the description. I confess myself not so great 
 an admirer of the style of paintings in the Venetian school as in 
 some others. I have rarely undertaken to make critical remarks 
 on paintings in the course of my journal, for the reason that I 
 have not sufficient knowledge of the art to be a critic ; and as 
 for adopting the sentiments of others, an immense number of 
 which are stereotyped to my hand, and retailing them for my 
 own, I can, in such a course, see no credit to myself and no profit 
 to the public. I know, and hold myself at liberty to say, what 
 pleases me. Although the subjects of this school please me in 
 general better than many others, yet the style and the execution 
 are, in my opinion, by no means to be compared with those of 
 the Caraccis and Domenichino of Bologna — much less can they 
 compare with Carlo Bold, Guercina and Andrea del Sarto, and 
 the few who, in Dolci's manner (none can equal him), threw the 
 sweetness of angels and the softness of paradise over the forms 
 and scenes of earth. Sweet is the name of Bold, and sweet are 
 the touches of his pencil. While I live I shall carry with me 
 the impressions that his fascinating pencil has melted into my 
 heart. With such a pencil and such a genius, consecrated to vir- 
 tue and religion, what might not a man accomplish ? Raphael 
 surpasses him in strength and sublimity. Salvator Rosa can paint 
 human nature rough and rude as savages, and cruel as pirates or 
 banditti — and the wildest scenes of nature also stand forth ex- 
 pressive of reality from the dark conceptions of his mind and 
 strokes of his pencil ; but give me a cabinet of pictures by Carlo 
 Bold, and I will be satisfied. 
 
 The Venetian school, however, stands high ; and Titian is 
 sometimes remarkably fine. He and Jacobus Tintoretto painted 
 so much, they could not always excel. Not only did they fill 
 
368 ITALY. 
 
 the public halls of Venice, but the churches and palaces, also, 
 with their works ; and they are, in fact, in every part of Italy 
 and all over Europe. Many paintings, doubtless, bear their 
 name, that these artists never saw ; but still they painted much. 
 We were shown one palace (the palace Barbarigo) in Venice, 
 where Titian painted forty years, and in the school of St. Roc, 
 T. Tintoretto painted thirty years. He was seven years, it is 
 said, painting the paradise of the Ducal palace. Titian lived to 
 a great age, and painted till late in life. In the church of St. 
 Marie delta Salute I saw a picture — the subject, the descent of 
 the Holy Ghost on the day of Pentecost, which, it is said, he 
 painted when he was sixty-four years old.* 
 
 The library of the Ducal palace contains, it is said, eighty-five 
 thousand volumes. We were shown also the chamber of the Coun- 
 cil of Ten, and the Council chamber of the Inquisition. Here, also, 
 is the small aperture at the side of the door leading to a box within, 
 into which the informers used to put their secret accusations. 
 Wo to the man who had the misfortune to be thus reported to 
 the secret tribunals of the state and the church. After the intro- 
 duction of an hereditary aristocracy in Venice, the character of 
 the government was more democratic in name than in reality. 
 In fact, although the government of Venice was at first a pure 
 democracy, it verged more and more towards absolute power, up 
 to the time of the French conquest in '97. And this state is a 
 surprising instance of a progressive and peaceable movement 
 in a direction opposite to popular rights and immunities. It is 
 no singular thing in history that democracies should become 
 absolute monarchies ; but this change has generally been effected 
 by usurpation and violence, but not so in Venice. From causes 
 which cannot be fully understood, perhaps, and which, at any 
 rate, this is not the place to examine, the Venetians changed, 
 first, their executive, and then their legislative power, by their 
 own peaceably expressed act and deed, so as to throw the whole 
 almost entirely out of their hands. First, the executive power 
 was vested in Tribunes annually elected ; and this continued from 
 the foundation of the government early in the fifth century up to 
 
 * In the grand hall are also the portraits of seventy-six doges in regular succes« 
 sion, beginning with the ninth doge, Obelerio, in the year 804. 
 
BRIDGE OF SIGHS. 369 
 
 697, when the constitution was so altered as to vest the execu- 
 tive power in the hands of one man, who was elected for life, 
 under the title of Doge. In 1172, a legislative assembly or 
 council of four hundred and seventy members, elected annually 
 from among the citizens and by the citizens, was wisely sub- 
 stituted for the popular assemblies. But in 1297 the constitution 
 was so modified as that this council was constituted solely and 
 exclusively of members from an aristocratic class in the commu- 
 nity, by which all other citizens were thrown out of all direct 
 participation in the affairs of government ; and now it was that a 
 system of espionage commenced, which, aided by official in- 
 formers and secret tribunals, became one of the most cruel en- 
 gines of tyranny ever known, perhaps, under any government. 
 No man's life, or liberty, or property was secure. When any 
 fell under suspicion, they were privately arrested, and, in most 
 cases, they were heard of no more. Everything was conducted 
 with the most profound secrecy — the accused victim knew not 
 the secret tongue that betrayed him, or the secret hand that stab- 
 bed him. Near the palace, and separated only by a canal, is a 
 prison ; this prison is connected with the palace by a high cov- 
 ered bridge, called the Bridge of Sighs* This bridge has, or 
 had, for it is now closed up, two passages : one leading from the 
 prison into the council chambers, and another leading to other 
 more private apartments and dungeons under the palace itself. 
 These dungeons were also accessible from the palace by a secret 
 passage, which was unknown to the public until the arcana of 
 these apartments of death were laid open by the French. In 
 deed, it is said, that the citizens generally did not know of the 
 existence of these wretched cells. Here the trembling victims 
 were led to the torture and to death. We visited these gloomy 
 prisons ; they were dark as night, and consisted each of one arch 
 of heavy masonry, with a single hole for purposes of respira- 
 tion, &c. They had been generally lined with wood ; but Napo- 
 leon permitted the citizens to enter and tear out all that was 
 moveable in these horrid cells. Here was a grated window 
 where the victims used to be strangled. They were seated on a 
 
 * Because across this bridge the accused were led for their mock trial to the secret 
 tribunals, where the sighing prisoner had little hope of justice. 
 
 3A i 
 
► 
 
 370 ITALY. 
 
 block within, and a rope, fastened at one end, passed through the 
 grate and round the neck, and out again to a machine, by the 
 turning of which the head and shoulders were drawn up to the 
 grate, and the poor wretch was strangled by the cord that passed 
 round his neck. Another place was fitted up for decapitation, 
 like a guillotine. The heavy knife, fixed to a frame, was raised 
 by machinery to the proper distance, (the victim being fixed in the 
 right position,) when it fell and struck the head from the body, 
 and a trench in the stone and holes made for the purpose, con- 
 veyed the blood down into the waters below. All this was done 
 by night, and with the utmost privacy ; and here was the little 
 arches in the wall, where the executioner placed his lamp while 
 he performed his bloody work. The whole was made so real 
 and brought so near by the associations around us, that the blood 
 was almost chilled with horror ; and we were glad to leave those 
 gloomy vaults where thousands had languished out years of soli- 
 tary confinement, or perished miserably by the hand of the exe- 
 cutioner.* 
 
 Such was the government of Venice, up to the time when the 
 French revolution, backed by the armies of the republic, came 
 down upon Italy like a tremendous tornado, which hurled kings 
 from their thrones — broke up the foundations of nominal repub- 
 lics — unsettled the feudal aristocracies, that had for fourteen cen- 
 turies pressed upon the social system, and, what all must approve, 
 unlocked the prison-doors and let the prisoners go free. This 
 was literally true, at Venice and elsewhere ; we saw one cell 
 from which a prisoner was liberated, who had been confined four- 
 teen years. Soon after his liberation he became blind, from the 
 effect of the light upon eyes that had for fourteen years been ac- 
 customed only to the darkness of a dungeon. 
 
 In this building also is the library of St. Luke, which formerly 
 was in the east end of what is now called the Imperial Palace — 
 it consists of about eighty-five thousand volumes. 
 
 Directly opposite to this palace is the Imperial Palace — the 
 property, at present, of the Emperor of Austria. We were 
 shown in this, an extensive suite of state apartments, furnished in 
 
 * In the time of the persecution of the heretics by the Inquisition, the capital punish- 
 ment was generally by drowning.— See Reform in Italy, p. 267. 
 
THE IMPERIAL PALACE. 371 
 
 a plain way for an Emperor's palace. One room, which was 
 formerly the hall of the library of St. Luke, contains some fine 
 pictures, and at the opposite end, in the part that forms the west- 
 ern side of the piazza of St. Mark, additional apartments were 
 in progress of completion, one of which, nearly finished, was a 
 splendid public saloon for company, dancing, &c. This palace 
 forms two sides of the splendid square, and fronts the harbour, 
 between which and the palace, are gardens laid out and deco- 
 rated by the French. In this square also is the Campanile, or 
 tower of the church of St. Luke, separate, according to a prevail- 
 ing custom of the age in which it was erected, from the church 
 itself. Here also is the tower of the clock, as it is called, or the 
 Horological tower, containing the city-clock and a bell, with two 
 large bronze human figures, who with huge hammers, regularly 
 strike the hours. At the time we were there, and it is said the same 
 is repeated for fourteen days in succession, at the same season 
 every year, there was a regular mechanical procession at the 
 striking of every hour. Midway up the Horological tower sits a 
 noble bronze gilt image of the Virgin and the infant Jesus, with 
 an open gallery in front of her, facing the square. On each side, 
 is a door opening into the interior. At the striking of the clock, 
 these doors fly open, and several persons move out in succession ; 
 the first is a trumpeter, who raises his trumpet to his mouth as 
 he comes in front of the Virgin ; then follows three others in suc- 
 cession, dressed like eastern sages, and one of them a person of 
 colour. They all pass in front of the Virgin round to the other 
 side, bowing as they pass, and then halting a moment, they 
 straighten up, and entering the other door, disappear. The whole 
 is very well done, except that in straightening, there is an unnatural 
 spasmodic jerk of the head, which shows that the machinery is not 
 quite perfect in its imitation of muscular motion. This is called 
 the visit of the Magi. Perhaps I have dwelt sufficiently long on 
 this piazza and its local associations, but I cannot omit saying here, 
 that this spot, so full of interest to the citizens generally and to 
 strangers, is also one of great interest to all the doves of the city 
 — for here, regularly, at two o'clock, the bell rings to call them 
 together to be fed. They come in clouds, and from a high win- 
 dow a woman throws out corn, &c, which they are so eager to 
 
372 ITALY. 
 
 obtain they darken the window and hover over the corn as it falls, 
 and devour it all, the moment it strikes the ground. This public 
 feeding of the pigeons of the city is the result of a legacy left 
 by a benevolent lady, the avails of which, are to be appropri- 
 ated in perpetuity for this express purpose. Habit has enabled 
 them to calculate the time so exactly that a little before two they 
 collect in great numbers and sit upon the neighbouring roofs, wait- 
 ing for the signal. I fear, however, that, as is too often the case, 
 these heirs are cheated by their guardians, for their dinners seem 
 to me altogether too stinted for so great a number. 
 
 There are a number of very interesting churches in Venice, 
 which, if my limits would permit, might well merit a particular 
 notice. I can, however, only make some general remarks, and 
 notice a few particulars. Many of the churches are richly fur- 
 nished with pictures from the pencils of the Venetian school, 
 already named. They are generally, however, the usual sub- 
 jects, taken from the history of Christ and the legends of the 
 saints. In every Italian city there is a patron saint. St. Mark 
 answers for Venice, of whose life they seem not to have found 
 so many miracles, as in some more modern saints, hence their 
 painters, after all, are obliged to introduce other saints more fre- 
 quently upon the canvass. They have St. Roch, who was 
 brought from France, and performed wonders, in time of the 
 plague. He has a church dedicated to him, and here, it is said, 
 are his remains. In this, as in many other churches, both in 
 Venice and elsewhere in Italy, is an attempted representation of 
 the Eternal Father— an attempt which I never witness without 
 feeling a kind of horror like that which comes over me, on hearing 
 the name of God blasphemed. But so common is it with the 
 Catholics to give everything appertaining to our religion, a sensi- 
 ble form, that nothing scarcely is more common than this giving 
 a visible body to God the Father. This church was erected after 
 the time of the plague in 1630, in the fulfilment of a vow. This 
 plague swept off forty-four thousand of the inhabitants. Another 
 church called St. Marie Des Frari is particularly noticeable for 
 the monuments it contains. Among others a rich mausoleum to 
 Jaques Pesaro, who was Bishop and General, and died in 1547, 
 and another to a Doge of the same family. This family was 
 
CHURCHES IN VENICE. 373 
 
 very rich, and by a legacy from one of them, given for that ex- 
 press purpose, prayers are to be made for his soul every day, 
 while the world stands ; as this is a cheap way of securing the 
 income of the legacy to the church, this is regularly attended to ; 
 the prayers prescribed were being offered up while we were in 
 the church — poor man ! he expected to lay in purgatory a great 
 while, and seemed to fear that the prayers of the living would 
 never avail in his behalf. What a miserable, fearful hope is this 
 to a dying man ; and yet, unsatisfactory as it is, how natural that 
 those who are taught to trust in it, should perfer to live in sin for 
 their own gratification, provided they may buy their redemption 
 in the end, by a portion of their wealth. 
 
 In this same church lie the remains of that great artist, Titian 
 Vicellio. He died at the time of the plague, in 1575, (not by the 
 plague, but of old age,) and this calamity prevented the proper 
 attention to his memory at the time. He was, therefore, deposited 
 under the church, with a simple inscription (which may still be 
 read) on the marble pavement, indicating that Titian was buried 
 there. It was subsequently proposed to raise a monument to his 
 memory ; and Canova, before his death, had already proposed a 
 design for the purpose ; but the funds were not raised, and on the 
 death of Canova, in 1827, the plan that he had designed for Titian, 
 was taken for his own monument, which has since been admirably 
 executed by his scholars, and placed in the same church ; on the 
 side opposite to Titian. The expense of this work was met by 
 subscription, made throughout Europe. In this monument is de- 
 posited the heart of the artist — his right hand is at the monument 
 erected to his memory at the Academy of Fine Arts, in Venice, 
 and his body rests in his own native village. This cutting up the 
 body of a great man, to scatter it about among his admirers, is a 
 revolting barbarit)?", and a species of superstitious materialism, 
 that ill becomes a rational believer in the immateriality and im- 
 mortality of the soul. This is in perfect accordance, however, 
 with that rage for relics so common in Catholic countries, and which 
 makes up so great a portion of their feeling of devotion and vene- 
 ration, instilled into the mind by education. This feeling shows 
 itself in different ways. In the religionist, it is vented upon the 
 toe of a saint, or upon a nail or a splinter of the real cross, &c, 
 32 
 
jr^ 
 
 374 ITALY. 
 
 but in the man of intellectual culture it is seen in his veneration, 
 and almost adoration, of the body, the hand, or the heart of an il- 
 lustrious author or artist ; and in the soldier it is called into action 
 by the relic of a general or a hero. Venice has an Academy of 
 Fine Arts, which I cannot now describe, and a splendid arsenal 
 and shipyard. The arsenal contains specimens of all the armour 
 of the middle centuries, and is a place of great interest. The 
 shipyard also shows to what an extent naval architecture was 
 once conducted at Venice, although but little, comparatively, is 
 now done there. 
 
 The Venetians are a very religious people, and such, I believe, 
 has ever been their character. It is true, they have been warlike, 
 cruel, and lovers of this world ; but all this they may be, and still be 
 very religious in their way. If a Venetian were hastening to as- 
 sassinate his enemy, he would stop, and cross himself, and say 
 his Ave Marie to the image of the Virgin; and this is true not 
 merely of the Venetians, but of the Italians generally. Instances 
 have been known of banditti that have been scrupulously exact in 
 their religious services. Nay, while their hands have been reek- 
 ing with the blood of the murdered, for which they felt no com- 
 punction, they have checked themselves with great fear and hor- 
 ror of conscience on the recollection that they have neglected some 
 ceremony or observance that appertained to their superstition. I 
 do not by this mean to charge upon Romanism that 'it justifies 
 these crimes, but that the religion itself is of such a character as 
 to lead its votaries to think they are very religious if they attend 
 to the prescribed forms, although they may live in constant and 
 enormous sins. I have known a postillion swear most blasphe- 
 mously in the name of his Maker, and the next moment raise his 
 hat, and perhaps mutter his prayer, in passing the image of the 
 Virgin. Of the connexion between Catholicity as taught in Italy 
 and the effects here alluded to I have spoken elsewhere. 
 
 As in other parts of Italy, so here, the worship of the Madonna 
 is the leading trait of devotion, and not of the Madonna merely, 
 but of some image of her, painted or graven. These images are 
 not only in all the churches, but they are by the streets, in little 
 shrines fitted up for the purpose in every part of the city, and 
 especially in the more public places. These shrines seem, in 
 some instances, to be a kind of Madonna shops, fitted up by the 
 
SUPERSTITION OF THE ITALIANS. 375 
 
 side of the streets, where relics, candles, beads, &c, are kept for 
 sale by some mercenary devotee, who sits there continually to 
 watch the image and sell his sacred wares. Whether any man 
 may fit up his shrine in this way who chooses, or whether some 
 government sanction and license are necessary, I did not learn. It 
 was very evident, however, that some shrines of this kind were 
 more popular than others. I recollect, among a number of these 
 shrines that I noticed along the quay in Venice, one which ap- 
 peared to be particularly popular ; the image of the Virgin was 
 covered with votive offerings, such as little hearts of tin, and the 
 like, together with little scraps of paper, with a name or some 
 sentiment written thereon, left by the devotees for special pur- 
 poses. All that passed raised their hats, and generally turned 
 round, crossed themselves, muttered a prayer, and not a few 
 bowed the knee, and this, too, where a crowd was continually pass- 
 ing. Lamps are kept burning before these images day and night. 
 Very often these shrines and images appear to be fitted up and 
 lighted at individual expense before houses, and over the doors 
 of palaces and other edifices, as a kind of a defence or talismanic 
 charm against all physical and demoniacal evils. Indeed, it ap- 
 pears to me that, in a great proportion of cases, the attention paid 
 to the Virgin is a superstitious ceremony to defend them against 
 physical evils. Nay, it is my solemn opinion, if hearts could be 
 laid open, and the whole secret disclosed at this moment in Italy, 
 it would be seen that, where there was one who, with a penitent 
 heart, paid his respects to the Virgin or her image in view of his 
 sinfulness, and with a desire to obtain grace that he might be 
 more holy, scores do this to obtain worldly prosperity or to avoid 
 some dreaded evil. It is a kind of charm to keep off evil. The 
 traveller, as he passes the numerous images and shrines which 
 are erected by the highway, thinks if he does not raise his hat 
 he will have had luck, and he performs this ceremony just as he 
 sticks up a cross in his field or upon his building, many of which 
 may be seen in all parts of Italy, viz., to keep off evil spirits, and 
 mildew, and lightning, and all mischief; and for a similar cause, 
 in fact, with that for which the American sailor nails a horseshoe 
 to his mast. And the more conscious a man is that he is living 
 in constant violation of the laws of God, the more necessary he 
 feels it to be scrupulous in his religious observances, for in this 
 
376 ITALY. 
 
 way he drives a profitable barter trade with his conscience, and 
 avoids not only temporal evils, but also eternal death, by being, 
 in all matters of religious faith and observances, a good Catholic. 
 I Venice, as has already been observed, is in a state of decline. 
 It is melancholy to pass round her canals with one who is ac- 
 quainted with all the families, and hear him, in pointing out many 
 of the once splendid palaces, say, " The family who own, or who 
 did own this, were once rich, but are now reduced to poverty ;" 
 a fact that, in many instances, needs no other attestation than a 
 sight of the edifices themselves, crumbling to decay as they are, 
 and forsaken. There are still, it is true, many wealthy families 
 in Venice, but much fewer than formerly, and their number is 
 diminishing. It is not with them as with flourishing cities, where, 
 if one wealthy family declines, several rise up to take its place: 
 The canals themselves seem to be going to decay, and the entire 
 business of the city falling off. It is true, Venice is yet a free 
 port, and there are still quite a number of water-craft, of different 
 kinds, in her harbours; and so long as the government of Lom- 
 bardy remains as it is, this great valley, watered by the Po and 
 the Adige, and their branches, will draw their foreign resources 
 through Venice or some other city in its neighbourhood. Nev- 
 ertheless, it is evident that the very existence of such a city as 
 Venice, in its present locality, was not a natural, but a constrained 
 occurrence, growing out of an unnatural state of things, and hence 
 it will be a struggle against nature to sustain it ; a struggle which 
 will be less likely to succeed, as the causes which originated, ele- 
 vated, and enriched the city have altogether ceased. Many of 
 the Venetians attribute their adversity to the destruction of their 
 republic and the loss of their independence. This may have has- 
 tened and aggravated their decline, but it by no means originated 
 -it. The first cause was the loss of the trade of the east, resulting 
 from various circumstances, but mostly from the improvement of 
 the art of navigation, and the discovery of the southern passage to 
 the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope. The proximate ef- 
 fect of this upon several other nations, and especially upon Eng- 
 land and Holland, was to greatly increase their marine, and ulti- 
 mately give them the supremacy at sea. The Venetians, in the 
 mean time, true to the Italian character, were slow to adopt any 
 of the modern improvements in trade and navigation. I say true 
 
DECLINE OF VENICE. 377 
 
 to the Italian character, for it would surprise a native of the Uni- 
 ted States, who before knew nothing of the state of things here, 
 to see how inflexible are the habits of the people in almost every- 
 thing. You can trace to this day, in Italy, a thousand exemplifi- 
 cations of ancient usages in their agriculture, their commerce, their 
 social intercourse, domestic habits, &c. I have before remarked 
 that it may well be said of Italy, " As your fathers did so do ye." 
 This was especially exhibited in Venice. Her naval architecture, 
 her military tactics, her system of finance, were all falling back 
 in the scale of comparison with other nations. These causes, 
 connected with that imbecility and effeminacy which are naturally 
 engendered by wealth and the loss of patriotism, which the op- 
 pression of the government had superinduced, broke the spirit and 
 rolled back the tide of prosperity of the nation. Its population 
 had already declined from one hundred and ninety to one hundred 
 and forty thousand, and its wealth and national spirit had sunk in 
 a much greater proportion, when the French army subjugated a 
 great part of Italy, and almost all the Venetian states, in 1796; 
 and finally, on the 12th of May, 1797, the legitimate council of 
 the nation solemnly sanctioned the dissolution of the government; 
 the doge, the last of one hundred and twenty who, in succession, 
 had governed Venice for one thousand one hundred and thirty 
 years, abdicated his chair, and the French forces entered the city. 
 Since that time its fall has been more rapid. It became, of 
 course, under the French, a component part of the Italian Re- 
 public, with which France flattered Italy and amused herself; 
 and, subsequently, when Napoleon assumed the supreme power 
 in France, and erected the countries east of the Alps into the 
 Kingdom of Italy, Venice still formed a part of this Bonapartean 
 transalpine realm, of which Milan was the capital, and Venice only 
 a second-rate city ; and in the same connexion it passed over to 
 Austria, in the new distribution of Europe made by the allied 
 powers in 1814, to be, not a second, but a third-rate city, under a 
 government which is fostering, but just across the head of the 
 Adriatic, a rival city, which combines the advantages of nature 
 with the patronage of a powerful empire for commercial pur- 
 poses. Trieste, therefore, must increase, and Venice must de- 
 crease. The latter has already fallen down to a little more than 
 32 3B 
 
378 ITALY. 
 
 one hundred thousand inhabitants, and still its march is retrograde. 
 The winged lion* of St. Marc still crouches upon the towers and 
 minarets of his ancient city, but he no longer flies upon his prey, 
 nor brings home the spoils of the mighty. Yea, he cowers in his 
 own lair, and feebly succumbs to the triumph of his rivals ; and 
 the time will come, perhaps, when the tivo-headed eagle] of Aus- 
 tria will pick out his eyes, and cast his carcass into the Adriatic. 
 In the nature of things it will be long before the accumulated 
 wealth, the congregated works of art, and the historic associations 
 will permit Venice to be swept from its site, and the waste of 
 waters resume their former dominion over the lagunes of the 
 Adriatic Gulf ; but I see not why that time will not, must not 
 ultimately come. Whether this event will be hastened by a 
 physical cause, which seems to threaten the city at some future 
 day, will depend upon circumstances which cannot now be fully 
 foreseen. The cause I allude to is the gradual rise of the level of 
 the sea. The place St. Marc was, by an extraordinary tide in 1732, 
 buried under the water, in consequence of which the quay has 
 been elevated one foot ; and I noticed, at the time of high water,:): 
 that the sea came up to the very threshold of many of the houses. 
 These were not built so near the surface, but the water has grad- 
 ually risen. By the examinations that have been made by scien- 
 tific men in Venice, it is calculated that this rise is about three 
 and a half inches in a century ; some calculations make it even 
 more than this. According to this calculation, it will not be very 
 long before the lower floors of many of the houses will be under 
 the water. This, if the city was prosperous, might only lead to 
 an elevation of the floors, and a remodelling of the lower stories 
 of the buildings ; but with the little inducements which are now 
 held out to make extra exertions to save a sinking city, it is be- 
 lieved that, when Neptune comes up into their palaces to reclaim 
 his lost dominions, the inhabitants, weary of the unequal struggle, 
 will abandon their dwellings, as they abandoned their government 
 at the approach of the French, take to their gondolas, and flee to 
 the shore. 
 
 * The ensign of Venice is a winged lion. 
 f The Austrian ensign is a two-headed eagle. 
 
 % As near as I could judge, the tide varies here, between high and low water, more 
 than two feet. 
 
INCONVENIENCES OF A DILIGENCE. 379 
 
 The above reflections, together with the interest which I had 
 felt in the peculiarities and history of this extraordinary city, caused 
 me to leave it with mingled emotions of mournful pleasure. As I 
 retire, her image dwells with me still. I see her sitting upon the 
 waters like a dethroned princess, dignified and courtly even in her 
 decline. I see her turrets rising from the sea, indicative at once 
 of her former wealth and skill in the arts. I mark her labyrinthian 
 canals, and see the shining steel-beaked gondolas, and the oars- 
 man bending himself upon the stern with all the lightness and 
 grace of a Mercury. The vision fades in the distance, and finally 
 sinks in the wave. Venice ! farewell for ever. I shall see her 
 no more, but the poetic feeling with which, as before remarked, I 
 have been accustomed to think of Venice, has not been destroyed, 
 but rather increased, by the sight of the reality. In addition to 
 my former images of her, I shall hereafter associate with my con- 
 ceptions of the city a prospective fate like that which has actually 
 befallen Tyre, the Venice of ancient times, which, from being the 
 most wealthy of the nations and the glory of the world, was swept 
 by the wave of desolation that rolled over it, and is now only 
 known as the place where the fisherman dries his net and the sea- 
 bird whistles in the wind. 
 
 Left Venice on the evening of the 16th May, by boat, of course, 
 to Mestre, and thence by diligence. A diligence ride is always 
 disagreeable, inasmuch as they prefer the night to the day, and 
 are sure to travel by night even if they lie by by day. This 
 was our present lot. It was said to be the mercantile line, and 
 so it seemed, for we had wares and merchandise on board ; but, 
 what was worse than all else, we had overhead a box of fresh 
 fish, which was conveyed from the Adriatic to Milan, put down 
 in ice, which the hot sun melted, and the water, after it soaked 
 through the fish, run down the sides of the coach, and occasionally 
 into it ; against this annoyance to our clothes and olfactories we 
 remonstrated with our "conducteur to no purpose. In addition to 
 this, he delayed some five or six hours each day in the different 
 towns for business, &c, but at night could give us no time to stop 
 and rest. Our route was through Padua, "Vienna, Verona, and 
 Brescia, with numerous intermediate towns which it is unnecessary 
 to mention, twenty-four posts or about one hundred and forty miles. 
 In accomplishing this we were forty-eight hours, including stops. 
 
380 ITALY. 
 
 Padua has already been noticed. Vicenza is the same with the 
 ancient Vicentia. It is pleasantly situated, and contains about 
 thirty thousand inhabitants. Polladio, the great architect who de- 
 signed so many of the public buildings in Lombardy and the Ve- 
 netian states, was born here, and has left in his native city some 
 of the finest specimens of his genius. 
 
 The next town of importance was Verona, which is situated on 
 the river Adige, formerly called the Athesis, in the midst of a most 
 delightful and fruitful valley. It was an ancient town, and the 
 birthplace of several eminent men, among whom, of the ancients, 
 were Catullus, the Roman poet, and Cornelius Nepos, the biogra- 
 pher, and Vitruvius, the architect of the Augustan age ; of the 
 moderns, Paul Veronese, the painter, was born here. The greater 
 portion of English readers know this city best as being the scene 
 where Shakspeare has laid two of his most celebrated plays, viz., 
 " Two Gentlemen of Verona," and " Romeo and Juliet." The 
 latter story is a matter of record in the historic remains of the 
 beginning of the fourteenth century, and the tomb of Juliet, as it 
 is affirmed to be, is still preserved. We went to visit it, a short 
 distance beyond the walls of the town. It was certainly as well 
 arranged for a sarcophagus of a living person as one of that di- 
 mensions could well have been. There was at one end an eleva- 
 tion, on which her head rested ; at one side was a place fixed for a 
 lamp, and a hole perforated in the side near the bottom for the 
 admission of fresh air. All things were so far well ordered and 
 arranged to effect the contemplated object of conveying her away, 
 under the influence of her soporific draught ; but the despair and 
 precipitancy of poor Romeo broke up the plot and destroyed the 
 unfortunate lovers. The rage for relics has made great depreda- 
 tions upon the sarcophagus, for it has been broken off and carried 
 away by piecemeal, until it was put under a custode, and further 
 fractures forbidden. The English, our guide told us, had done 
 this ; indeed, they seem to be the principal authors of such kinds 
 of sacrilege, at least if we may believe the Italians. 
 
 We visited also in Verona the tombs of the Scaligeri family, 
 a noble and ancient race, whose name signifies a ladder, and that 
 also was their coat of arms, as seen at this day upon their tombs. 
 This implies, I suppose, that they were fond of ascending, and so 
 it would seem from their tombs, which are very high, as well as 
 
BRESCIA THE RH(ETIAN ALPS. 381 
 
 very singular and magnificent : they are of the fine spiry fretted 
 Gothic style. 
 
 But the principal object of interest at Verona is the ancient 
 amphitheatre, in a good state of preservation, the most perfect, 
 probably, now in existence, and a very interesting relic of antiquity. 
 It is even now used for theatrical purposes, as there was a play 
 performing there while we were examining it. 
 
 Some twenty miles from Verona is a mountain which abounds 
 with petrified fish. The stone in which these fish are imbed- 
 ded is very soft, and the entire fish is preserved in great per- 
 fection. Jn some cases the mouth is distended to the utmost ex- 
 tent of the muscles, having all the appearance of the fish's being 
 overtaken with a thick muddy liquid, in which he struggled for 
 existence until he was suffocated by the increasing solidification 
 of the elements around him. In this position, with contracted 
 muscles and distended jaws, the mass around him hardened into a 
 sarcophagus more perfect and more preservative than that of an 
 Egyptian mummy, giving to his substance and form a perpetuity 
 and identity as enduring as time. I saw many of these specimens 
 in Verona, and purchased some for the mineralogical cabinet of 
 the University. 
 
 Beyond Verona, and before we came to Brescia, or Brexia, as 
 it was anciently called, we passed the Lago di Garda, a beautiful 
 lake about thirty miles by twelve. The ancient name of this lake 
 was Benacus, and is noticed by Virgil. 
 
 Brescia was a town of ancient note, and within the last fifteen 
 years some splendid Roman edifices and works of art have been 
 excavated here ; but, as this did not happen to be one of our 
 trading towns, our mercantile line would not stop for us to visit 
 them. The town now contains about forty thousand inhabitants. 
 
 Our entire route was at no great distance from the base of the 
 Rhcetian Alps, which propped the clouds with their snow-capped 
 tops, and gave additional interest to the plains below. These 
 latter were covered with verdure, and were in a high state of 
 cultivation ; a part of the way, especially as we approached Milan, 
 these plains were plenteously and beautifully irrigated by canals 
 and water-courses cut in every direction. These water-courses 
 were studded on each side with colonnades of trees ; so also was 
 every road, and lane, and hedge ; all in addition to the trees which 
 
382 ITALY. 
 
 were planted in regular rows for the vines, and in addition, also, 
 to the mulberry- trees, extensive and seemingly endless orchards 
 of which are planted for the growth of the silkworm, for silk in 
 this country is a leading article of production. This abundant 
 growth of trees gives this country, when viewed from an eminence, 
 at the time the foliage is full, the appearance of an extended and 
 an unbroken forest ; and yet, as you pass through it, you find all 
 the intervals between the trees, and every interstice and corner, in 
 a fine state of cultivation, producing wheat, corn, beans, grapes, 
 &c, in great abundance. In short, a richer country in its pro- 
 ductions, or one more thoroughly cultivated, can, I believe, hardly 
 be found. It is difficult to conceive how any soil could produce 
 more. This, in fact, is true of all the fertile parts of Italy. It 
 seemed to me, however, that the labouring part of the community 
 in Lombardy, and especially in Austrian Lombardy, eat and drink, 
 and enjoy the good of their labour more than in any other part of 
 Italy. The peasantry are apparently comfortable and happy; 
 much more so, in fact, than I was prepared to find them ; and it 
 was truly a matter of much gratification, after seeing so long the 
 wretchedness and beggary of the south, to get into a country where 
 a hand was rarely held out for charity, and where all appeared 
 to be in circumstances of comfort. 
 
 We had two coaches in company, and, at the request of our 
 conducteur, we changed from one to the other during the latter 
 part of the journey. In this we found a very well dressed gen- 
 tleman and lady, who appeared, when we entered, to be the sole 
 occupants of the diligence, and seemed not a little chagrined to 
 have company. What their relation to each other was I could 
 not determine ; but they seemed too much engrossed with each 
 other to be pleased with the society of others, and therefore, at 
 first, manifested anything but a courteous deportment. Finding, 
 however, that he gained nothing by his irritation, the gentleman, 
 in the end, became very complaisant. I mention this as a rare 
 instance of impoliteness among the Italians. Wherever we met 
 any respectable-looking Italians we were almost sure to meet 
 with courtesy. In this respect we found them far before the 
 French. The lower classes, too, were, in general, very civil, es«- 
 pecially when they expected a buono mano, which they always 
 expected if they did you the least service or answered a common 
 
CHARACTER OP THE ITALIANS. 383 
 
 inquiry. And this is common to all Italy. But this is not so bad 
 a trait, however troublesome it is, as an almost universal disposi- 
 tion and determination to cheat you if they can ; and not only to 
 cheat you themselves, but to play you into the hands of others, 
 that they also may have a slice. If you hire a servant, you must 
 calculate that he will cheat you, if he can, in every case where he 
 transacts business for you, or introduces others to you for that 
 purpose ; and if he is not able to make anything out of you him- 
 self, he can give you into the hands of others. To illustrate this : 
 Our valet, in Venice, took us to see the arsenal. At the gate a 
 soldier was sent round with us ; and although the valet and the 
 guard knew everything we wished to see, still they must give us 
 over to the superintendent of each room, or shop, or ship that we 
 visited, each of which must have his fee, to the number, perhaps, 
 of a dozen or more ; and then the guard must have his at the end 
 of the tour ; and, in addition, the porter must have something for 
 letting us in and out ; and, last of all, the valet must be paid for 
 his day's work. In this way, if a man would see Italy, his hands 
 must be in his pocket continually ; and his little expenses of this 
 kind will often amount to more than his travelling fare and board. 
 A foreigner must pay comparatively high for everything, and es- 
 pecially if he talks English. The English have ruined the for- 
 eign market for all that use their language. They have gone 
 round throwing out their gold and silver with such a lavish hand, 
 calling everything cheap, and paying such exorbitant prices, that 
 the people think they may ask almost any price, and may expect 
 to receive money from an Englishman if they answer him a civil 
 question. I have sometimes refrained from asking a question, 
 which would only require a breath to answer, because I was 
 aware that the person answering would contrive to make a fee 
 out of it. These gratuities of a few biocs, or a half paul, are 
 not large, it is true ; but when one has to be throwing out contin- 
 ually such small sums, they amount, in time, to a large, perhaps 
 the largest portion of one's expenses. If one has not a good un- 
 derstanding of the language, he is more entirely at the mercy of 
 the people, who know very well how to turn his ignorance to good 
 account. Indeed, whether you understand the language or not, 
 you must expect to be cheated ; and the only way is to keep as 
 good a look-out as you can without giving too much attention to 
 
384 ITALY. 
 
 the subject, and submit to unavoidable impositions with as good a 
 grace as you may. 
 
 The reader will pardon these occasional discursions from the 
 main thread of the journal, as my object is to give, as far as I may, 
 the traits of character as they were developed, and as the different 
 subjects occur to me. 
 
 We entered Milan, and took lodgings at the Gran Brittagna, 
 and found ourselves as well accommodated as the infamous prac- 
 tice of occupying the lower part of public houses for stables would 
 permit. Our rooms were very comfortable, except that the fumes 
 of the stables, which opened under us into the same street with 
 our windows, came reeking up, in offensive effluvia, much to our 
 discomfiture. We find the annoyance from this source much 
 greater as the heat of the season increases. However, the mount- 
 ains are near, so we take courage, and proceed to the examination 
 of this capital of Lombardy. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 The history of Milan is replete with interest, and shows the 
 changes to which the important cities of Europe were exposed 
 under the feudal lords, when the fortune of arms was the criterion 
 of justice, and might constituted right. If we look at the city as 
 it now is, and compare it with what it was before the French 
 revolution, we must believe that it has gained much in the time. 
 It is true, so far as her political condition is concerned, she has 
 passed entirely round the circle, from absolute monarchy, through 
 republicanism, &c, back again under the same master. But in 
 the mean time she has waked up from the torpor of her former 
 condition, and received an impulse that the leaden absolutism of 
 Austria itself cannot resist. Of Bonaparte, absolute despot as he 
 was, it may be said, " Nihil tetigit quod non arnavit — he touched 
 nothing which he did not adorn." Look at France politically ? 
 He found her in a state of anarchy, and he reduced her to order. 
 It was the order of despotism, I grant; but, nevertheless, it was 
 infinitely preferable to her licentious Jacobinism. Look at her 
 
CITY OF MILAN. 385 
 
 physical character ? He connected her various ports with roads, 
 he repaired her public edifices, he improved and ornamented her 
 cities. But France could not contain him, and if he visited 
 Italy as a warrior, so also he visited her with all the improvements 
 with which he was renovating France. He smoothed the Alps 
 before him as he passed, and made these hitherto difficult barriers 
 and almost perpendicular heights gently inclined plains, over which 
 the pleasure-carriage may roll without molestation or fear. He 
 fixed upon Milan as the capital of his Transalpine kingdom ;* and, 
 to say nothing now of what he did for other cities, you cannot 
 remain in Milan without beholding the touches of his restoring and 
 creating hand. Her Boulevards, interior and exterior, are by him ; 
 her public gardens were by him planted and adorned ; her cathe- 
 dral, that had laid waste, in a manner, for centuries, was by his 
 order put in a progress of completion ; her canals were cleared 
 and multiplied. Indeed, it is to be attributed to the French, and 
 to Napoleon in a great degree, that Milan is what it is, a most 
 lovely and interesting city. 
 
 But to be more particular. Like all other cities, Milan must 
 be described by its parts. Its situation is most delightful, in the 
 midst of the most fruitful part of the most fertile plains of Lom- 
 bardy. Its form is very compact and nearly circular. Its former 
 ramparts have been formed into elevated promenades for foot-pas- 
 sengers and carriages. It is surrounded by two most beautiful 
 courses, one exterior and the other interior, which are adorned with 
 elegant rows of trees of various kinds, but all rich with the most 
 umbrageous foliage. The prevailing growth is the horse-chestnut, 
 which, at the time we were there, was in the blossom. To him who 
 has not beheld the like, it is difficult to communicate a just 
 notion of the beauty of these shady streets. From the Porta Ori- 
 entate to the Porta Romana is the grand corso, and here, every 
 evening, the fashionable Italian course is performed by all the 
 wealth and beauty of the town. This amusement, so common in 
 Italy, is a very dull one ; but, to the Italians, this and the opera 
 seem to be their chief amusement. At any rate, it gives them an 
 opportunity of seeing their acquaintances, of exhibiting their equi- 
 page and dress, as well as to take an airing in a pleasant and 
 
 * Transalpine to France, although, with an affectation of classic terms, Napokon 
 called it Cwalpine. 
 
 33 3 C 
 
386 ITALY. 
 
 healthful exercise. It is to the fashionable world what the ex- 
 change is to the merchant ; and they assemble as regularly at six 
 in the evening to perform the ceremonies of the corso, as the mer- 
 chants assemble at the prescribed business-hour on change to at- 
 tend to the business of their appropriate calling. In the northwest 
 part of the city is the Forum, so called. Here is the amphitheatre 
 built by Napoleon. Here is the Champ de Mars for the review- 
 ing of the troops ; and here, also, are the public gardens, answer- 
 ing to the Champs des ElysBes of Paris, planted with trees, &c» 
 These public grounds extend from the upper end of the corso 
 quite round to the triumphal arch. This arch was commenced 
 by Napoleon, and is now nearly completed under the direction of 
 the Austrian government. 
 
 It was commenced in 1806, on occasion of the nuptials of the 
 Prince Eugene with the Princess Amelie. It was then made of 
 wood and plaster, and the design was so generally admired, it 
 was determined to erect one of marble, and place it at the gate 
 of the Simplon, where the magnificent Alpine road entered the city 
 ^— a splendid termination of a splendid route. And it was designed 
 under Napoleon, to be a monument of his victories. The design 
 however is changed, and it is now denominated Arc de la Paioc, 
 a monument dedicated to peace. It is not yet finished, but is in 
 rapid progress of completion ; nay, it may be said the arch itself 
 is finished, but not all the ornaments. Instead of the victories of 
 Bonaparte, as was originally designed, there are representations 
 of the Congress of Prague, the conference of the three allies, 
 Austria, Russia, and Prussia, the battles of Leipsic, capitulation 
 of Dresden, the entry of the Allies into Paris, the peace of Paris, 
 the Congress of Vienna, &c.,— besides numerous others, some of 
 which pertain more particularly to the city of Milan, and the 
 new Lombard-Venetian kingdom. The horses, car, &c, for the 
 top of the arch are nearly finished. The design is the " Triumph 
 of Peace." The goddess, crowned with laurel and with a branch 
 of olive in her hand, is to be drawn in her triumphal chariot 
 by six horses. The figures are of gigantic size, and are cast of 
 bronze. The arch resembles that of Constantine, although not 
 a copy of that, or any other, and will be, when completed, say 
 the Milanese, superior to any other ancient or modern ; and they 
 further boast, that, when this is finished,- their city will have two 
 
MILAN. 387 
 
 of the most splendid monuments in the world — this and the 
 Cathedral. The arch was designed by the Chevalier and Mar- 
 quis Louis Cagnola. 
 
 May we not hope that this change in the design of this monu- 
 ment, is ominous of a change to a considerable extent, in the 
 spirit of the civilized world. When shall all our triumphal 
 arches be dedicated to peace ? When will kings and princes 
 seek their renown in promoting peace rather than war ? When 
 they learn that war is madness and its spirit diabolical ; but that 
 peace is divine and its spirit heavenly. 
 
 The other public monument that is deservedly the glory of the 
 Milanese, is their Cathedral. This edifice is, taking it all in all, 
 unlike any thing else I have ever seen. It is purely Gothic — 
 spiry, open, towering. In the language of another, " it surprises, 
 astonishes, ravishes." It was commenced in 1386 or '7. For 
 two centuries the work went on slowly ; but when Charles 
 Borromeo was placed on the archi-episcopal throne of Milan, the 
 work was hastened, under the architect Pellegrini, who undertook 
 to incorporate the Grecian order with the Gothic ; and in this 
 way he constructed the front of the edifice. Subsequently, how- 
 ever, the discordance appearing so glaring, this "front was all 
 removed, except the doors and some of the windows. These 
 were spared for their great beauty, and the great labour bestowed 
 upon them. The edifice, however, was far from being finished, 
 when the French took possession of Milan; and in 1805, five 
 millions of livres were appropriated by the French government, 
 to finish the edifice. The work went on rapidly; but in 1814, 
 the revolution in favour of Austria found it still incomplete — it is 
 however, in progress. 
 
 From every point of view this edifice is remarkable, but you 
 are the most impressed with the view upon the top. Here are a 
 multitude of corridors, platforms, parapets, flying buttresses, and 
 a forest of spires — it is, you may sa}? - , an architectural porcupine, 
 shooting oat its needles of less or greater length all over its 
 ample roof. These needles are covered with ornaments and 
 statues. It is said the number of spires, w r hen complete, will be 
 one hundred and thirty-five. There are now about one hundred. 
 The entire number of statues, in and on the edifice, is now two 
 thousand and twenty, and when all are finished, according to the 
 
388 ITALY. 
 
 design, they will amount to three thousand five hundred. Beside3 
 these, each square of some of the immense Gothic windows, has 
 a descriptive painting of some scripture event. These windows 
 are beautifully painted, and many of the pictorial representations 
 are very fine. 
 
 The form of the church is a Latin cross, the principal nave 
 being four* hundred and forty-nine Paris feet in length, and the 
 transverse nave two hundred and seventy-five feet. The interior 
 is rather gloomy, and not finished nor furnished in good taste. 
 The pillars, however, are magnificent, octagonal in form, and 
 fifty-two in number; and in the portal are two splendid red 
 granite columns, all of one piece, and vie with the ancient 
 columns of red oriental granite, found in Rome. They are of 
 - the granite of the country, and each pillar, it is said, cost fifty- 
 six thousand livres, independently of the transportation. 
 
 The subterranean chapel is very rich in massy silver relics of 
 St. Charles and others ; and in the sacristy, they show you the 
 gold crosier of this saint, and his mitre, set with jewels, and 
 various other most extravagant and costly ecclesiastical toys. 
 They seem in a fair way to be knocked to pieces, however, by the 
 rough handling of the Sacristans, but not until their value has 
 been extorted from strangers, who have the curiosity to look at 
 them, if the sacristans charge all as they did us. They thought 
 two dollars was the least we could give, for detaining them at 
 their own importunity one half hour. However, we had not 
 spent five or six months in Italy, without learning that these 
 show-men, if they cannot get what they ask, will take up with what 
 they can get. One needs to have a general idea of what would be a 
 reasonable tariff, in these cases, and then be governed, not so much 
 by what is demanded, as by what he judges fit and reasonable. 
 
 We happened to be at Milan on the feast of the Pentecost ; 
 and on that occasion attended worship at the Cathedral.* Besides 
 the other services which were peculiar to the occasion, a bishop 
 preached.! His subject was the baptism of the Holy Ghost; 
 
 * We at first thought ourselves peculiarly fortunate to have fallen in with so many 
 leading feasts of the Roman Church ; but on reflection, it is rather to be considered 
 more singular to escape, than to meet with them, they are so numerous. 
 
 t Preaching among the Catholics is comparatively rare. The mummery of the 
 mass, and other ceremonies and tedious prescribed forms and offices, take the place, 
 in a great measure, of religious instruction. 
 
MILAN. 389 
 
 the offices of the Spirit ; and the perpetuity of these offices in 
 the church. In the main, the doctrine was good ; but the miracle- 
 working power, which, of course, the Catholics claim to be con- 
 tinued in the church, because it was originally included in the 
 baptism of the Holy Ghost, was a claim that we had before heard 
 much of, but had seen nothing to confirm it ; and were, conse- 
 quently, unbelieving still — notwithstanding the reasoning of the 
 bishop. It is, however, the firm opinion of the Catholics, and is 
 constantly taught by them to the people, that the power of work- 
 ing miracles is still possessed by them. 
 
 The Milanese church, though Catholic, has some things pecu- 
 liar. Its early bishops, as we have seen in the sketches of 
 history, were slow to submit to the assumptions of power by the 
 Roman bishops, and never yielded many of their peculiarities.* 
 They have many rites of their own, and some difference as to 
 the time of commencing Lent, &c, of trifling importance how- 
 ever, although connected with questions that formerly shook the 
 church to its centre. They practice baptism by immersion. 
 The church is called Ambrosian, after St. Ambrose, who was 
 made Bishop of Milan in 374, and then, by virtue of his own 
 independent episcopal authority, introduced what is called the 
 Ambrosian Liturgy. A plain proof this, that at that time, the 
 Bishop of Rome possessed no such supreme power, as was after- 
 ward claimed by him. 
 
 The Ambrosian Church, however, is nearly, if not quite, as 
 intolerant as Rome herself. There are a number of Protestants 
 residing in Milan, but they have no place of worship, no church : 
 and it is said, that the Milanese Church will not consent to such 
 toleration ; although in some of the provincial towns of the 
 duchy there are Protestant churches. 
 
 Milan is divided into twenty-four parishes, and contains not far 
 from two hundred to two hundred and fifty churches, chapels and 
 oratories, of all descriptions ; although the population itself, in- 
 cluding the faubourgs, amounts to only about one hundred and 
 fifty thousand inhabitants. It is a great relief, however, to this 
 city — as indeed it is to all Lombardy and the Venetian states — 
 that the monastic orders are suppressed. It frees the community 
 
 * In the eleventh century, a civil war was excited, because the Milanese Church 
 would not submit to the law, requiring the celibacy of the priests. 
 
 33 
 
390 IT ALY. 
 
 from an intolerable burden, and prepares the way for other 
 reforms in church and state. By getting rid of the church mendi- 
 cants, the way has been opened to get rid of other public beggars 
 and idle vagrants. These are removed from the streets, and put 
 into work-houses, and such as are able, are made to labour for 
 their support ; so that a considerable portion of their expense is 
 saved to the public. Indeed, it was a relief to witness the thrift 
 and apparent prosperity of the city, compared with southern Italy. 
 There was the hum of industry — a general attention to business — 
 little lounging in the streets and public places. The people ap- 
 peared comfortably clad, and comparatively happy. The city 
 was cleanly ; the streets well paved and well built. There was 
 this peculiarity in the paving, that on each side, where the wheels 
 of the carriages come, were rows of broad granite flagging ; so 
 that the carriages rolled almost as freely and smoothly as on a 
 railroad. 
 
 One cause, undoubtedly, which has raised Milan so much 
 above her southern neighbours is, the extensive system of educa- 
 tion maintained here. There are two lyceums, several gymnasia, 
 and a general plan of elementary schools ; all maintained by the 
 government, and open to the public. Although Austria is behind 
 her sister-kingdom to the north, in her plans of education, yet 
 she is greatly in advance of the countries south of the Appenines. 
 The advancement of Milan, however, is undoubtedly, in a great 
 measure, owing to the French, who had done much to establish 
 these institutions of learning : and being established and coun- 
 tenanced by public opinion, they were continued under the present 
 government. 
 
 The press is also freer here than at the south. Periodicals 
 circulate more freely, and everything is conducted on a more 
 liberal scale. It should be recollected, however, that in all this 
 I speak comparatively. The present government is certainly 
 arbitrary and absolute : but it is the spirit of the people that 
 modifies government. The public mind becomes a constitution, 
 more powerful than parchment. And although Francis I. refused 
 the Milanese a constitution, when they earnestly requested it — a 
 constitution that had been promised them, and which, therefore, 
 they could claim as their right — yet neither he nor his successor 
 has dared to press public opinion beyond certain bounds ; because 
 
MILAN. 391 
 
 they knew it would not be endured. The present king and emperor 
 has, so far, shown his wisdom, in mitigating the rigours of his 
 father's government. Many that were confined for opinions' sake, 
 or perhaps a little too much freedom in expressing their opinions, 
 by Francis L, have been set at liberty, and permitted to leave the 
 country. A more general spirit of satisfaction with the govern- 
 ment is manifested : and there is hope, that the march of public 
 opinion is such, as to preclude the power of any absolute will to 
 control it. 
 
 The manufactures and commerce of the Milanese are consider- 
 able. The principal article of manufacture and trade is silk. It 
 is said, in this single article, the trade of the city amounts to four 
 millions of dollars annually. On naming to one, who was engaged 
 in this trade, that we were commencing in the growth and manu- 
 facture of silk in our country, and should perhaps ere long be able 
 to supply our own market : he replied, there was no danger of 
 that ; we could not give the perfection and finish which they 
 could give to the fabric. The greater difficulty, however, will 
 be, probably, the impossibility of competing with them, on ac- 
 count of the cheapness of labour in Italy. Our country has such 
 vast resources, and such a market for industry of every kind, that 
 it will be a long while before our poor labouring class will be 
 obliged to toil for a mere meager livelihood. So let it be. Better 
 that Italy should make our silks, than that we should be able, by 
 pressing the operative down to a bare miserable existence, to 
 compete with foreign manufactures. 
 
 The trade of Milan is greatly helped by its canals. These 
 surround the city and extend off in connexion with the rivers, so 
 as to give a water communication with the Adriatic. Milan 
 seems to have been one of the first to engage in the construction 
 of canals. So early as 1179, the citizens of Milan excavated the 
 canal called Naviglio, which extends from the Ticino to Abbia- 
 tigrasso. In 1 220, they, in conjunction with the citizens of Lodi, 
 cut another from Cassano into Castiglione. This is called 
 Muzza. To these, others were subsequently added. These ca- 
 nals, crossing this level country in different directions, make it 
 easy to lay almost the whole under water, and in this way exten- 
 sive fields of rice are cultivated, which makes the surrounding 
 country to some extent insalubrious. In addition to the exhala- 
 
392 ITALY. 
 
 tions from these waters, the atmosphere itself is damp, and the 
 country is subject to great falls of rain. The average quantity 
 in one year is thirty-five French inches, or a little over thirty- 
 nine English inches.* 
 
 Milan abounds with palaces public and private, some of which 
 we visited, but will not weary the reader with a detailed descrip- 
 tion of them. The palace of Br era, however, should be noticed, 
 because it is, in fact, the sanctuary of literature, science, and art. 
 To say nothing of the edifice itself, which merits notice, here is 
 the gallery of paintings, containing some very fine pictures — 
 among others, that celebrated painting of Raphael — the marriage 
 of the Virgin. It is one of his earliest works, and is doubtless 
 more admired, because it indicates at what an early age this 
 original and unparalleled genius burst away from the dry and 
 steril style of his master, Peter Perugino, and, in fact, from that 
 of the age in which he lived, and, opening up a new era in the 
 art, gave to painting a sublime elevation and scope that had never 
 before been conceived of. There are a great number of paintings, 
 mostly of the Lombard school. 
 
 In this palace, also, is a fine collection of medals, schools of 
 engraving, of anatomy, as connected with drawing, of architecture 
 and perspective, of design in relief, &c., &c. 
 
 Here, also, is an observatory well furnished with instruments. 
 Connected, also, with this, is a library open to the public, rich in 
 scientific and classical works and constantly increasing. Here 
 is, also, one of the municipal Lyceums, and, connected with the 
 edifice, is a botanical garden. 
 
 In addition to the library just mentioned, Milan has the Ambro- 
 sian library, so called, founded by the Cardinal Frederic Borro- 
 meo in 1607, containing thirty-five or forty thousand volumes, 
 beside some fourteen or fifteen thousand manuscripts. Here is 
 a Virgil with Petrarch's manuscript notes ; and here, also, we 
 were shown copies of Pliny, Plato, and Cicero, of the second 
 century. 
 
 In the suppressed convent of St. Maria della Grazie, is still 
 shown in the Refectory that unrivalled fresco painting of the last 
 supper, by Leonardo da Vinci. I say unrivalled, for, although it 
 
 * In Paris, the mean quantity of rain annually is twenty and a half inches. 
 
ST. AMBROSE. 393 
 
 is greatly injured by time and violence, it retains enough of its 
 original sublimity and beauty to charm and chain the spectator. 
 It was with difficulty I could leave it. How much is it to be re- 
 gretted that this painting should be so abused. The room is 
 damp, which has contributed doubtless to the fading of the col- 
 ours ; but it has suffered more from violence. A door has been 
 cut through the wall at the lower part of the picture, and the wall 
 has been otherwise fractured and marred. The French soldiery 
 were lodged here at one time, and they helped on the vandal 
 work of destruction. This picture has been frequently copied, 
 but none have caught the spirit of the original. The engraving 
 of it, by the celebrated Morghen, is very fine. It is from this 
 celebrated engraving that the numerous ordinary copies are taken 
 which are so common in the United States. 
 
 Although I cannot stop to describe the churches, yet I must 
 not neglect to mention the church of St. Ambrose, where the 
 saint himself was buried, and where are many interesting monu- 
 ments of antiquity. But especially is it interesting from its being 
 the place where the Lombard kings used to receive the iron 
 crown ; and it was here that Napoleon received it at the hand of 
 the Cardinal Caprara, oU/the 26th of May, 1805. As if to show 
 his own independence, he took the crown from the hand of the 
 cardinal, after it had been blessed, and put it upon his own head, 
 exclaiming, with more of ostentation than became him, " God 
 has given it to me; wo to him who touches it." It has been 
 well remarked, that " the greatness -there is in humility Napoleon 
 had never learned." If he had put on his crown under the salu- 
 tary lesson of the wise man, " Let not him that putteth on the 
 harness boast as he that layeth it off," he might have worn it 
 longer. In nine short years the iron crown* fell from his head. 
 In 390, Saint Ambrose repulsed the Emperor Theodosius the 
 Great from this same church, and closed the doors against him 
 because he had caused seven thousand of the citizens of Thessa- 
 lonica to be murdered; but in 1805, and that too on the Lord's 
 day, Bishop Caprara crowned in this church the Emperor Napo- 
 leon, reeking, as he was, from the blood of thousands whom his 
 
 * This was the crown with which the ancient kings of the Lombard dynasty used 
 to be crowned. It-was called the iron crown, from a small ring of iron, said to be 
 made of a nail of the true cross, placed upon the interior of a circlet of gold. 
 
 3D 
 
394 ITALY. 
 
 ambition had been the occasion of slaughtering. Which have 
 changed, emperors or bishops 1 
 
 Among other great and good men in the history of Milan, St. 
 Carlo Borromeo stands first. He was born in the year 1538, 
 and at the age of twenty-two was made Cardinal and Archbishop 
 of Milan. He is represented as an example of meekness, 
 piety, and benevolence. He set himself to reform the abuses of 
 the clergy and of the monastic orders, for which he incurred 
 their displeasure ; and a monk of the order of the Humilies fired 
 a gun at him, while at prayer, for the purpose of assassinating 
 him, but it did not take effect. He formed the institution of the 
 Brera already described — established institutions for the reforma- 
 tion of profligate females — patronised learning and the arts — ex- 
 posed his own life to aid his fellow-citizens in time of the plague — 
 wrote five folio volumes on moral and religious subjects — and 
 died at the age of forty-six ; but he lives in the affection of pos- 
 terity. His family still exist in Milan, and they own a splendid 
 estate round Lake Maggiore. On the islands of that lake they 
 have splendid palaces ; and up a little from the lake, overlooking 
 Arona, his native town, stands a bronze statue of St. Charles one 
 hundred and twelve feet in height. 
 
 We left Milan for Lake Como, on Monday, the 23d of May, 
 after having taken our passage in a voiturier for Geneva, which 
 was to meet us and take us in at Bavena, on Lake Maggiore. We 
 passed through a beautiful country ; and towards the close of the 
 route, as we approached the lake, the scene became more pic- 
 turesque and romantic. The town of Como, which we reached 
 in the afternoon, is beautifully situated on the south end of the 
 lake of the same name. We found it much more thrifty and 
 flourishing than was anticipated. After dining upon the beautiful 
 trout of the lake, which reminded me of the north of Vermont, 
 and the days of my boyhood, we took a boat and made an excur- 
 sion up the lake as far as the Villa D'Este, the former palace of 
 Queen Caroline of England. This was built by her ; and here 
 she lived a number of years in comparative retirement : and it 
 was this part of her history, which laid the foundation of the 
 charge against her, before the House of Peers in England, of infi- 
 delity to her most continent royal consort, George the Fourth. 
 Of her guilt or innocence, it is certainly not for me to judge : she 
 
LAKE COMO. 395 
 
 has had the fiery ordeal of public opinion to pass ; which, I be- 
 lieve, has not resulted, in all respects, so favourably as might be 
 desired. But in these matters, public opinion seldom errs on the 
 score of charity. She also passed the ordeal of an official trial 
 in England ; and, last of all, she has gone to the Great Judge of 
 the universe, who cannot err. These reflections, growing out of 
 this unfortunate, if not criminal, queen's history, cast a gloom over 
 the mind as we passed through what were once the grounds of 
 royalty. And well did these grounds become her. They were 
 retired and rural, and washed by the classic waters of the lake. 
 The only carriage-road to her palace was one which she had 
 caused to be constructed, at a great expense. The palace was 
 directly under a mountain, whose magnificent terraces and pic- 
 turesque cascades greatly enhance the interest of the site. I 
 could well imagine that a queen might, without criminal asso- 
 ciates, prefer this residence to the heartless pageantry of a court ; 
 and especially when her husband, at the head of that court, was 
 the licentious George the Fourth. She had gardens and rivulets, 
 shrubbery and flowers — rustic bridges, artificial and natural cas- 
 cades — statuary, grottoes, and labyrinths ; all tastefully arranged 
 in rural beauty. But the grounds are not well kept ; and this, 
 with the moaning of the evening breeze, gave double force to the 
 mournful historic associations of the past. The next day we 
 went on board the steamboat, which runs every day to the north 
 end of the lake, and back to Como ; starting at eight, A. M., and 
 returning at five o'clock in the evening. This is a fine excursion. 
 You see all the shores and villas of the lake, which at its widest 
 part, does not exceed two or three miles. The mountains are 
 high, and where perpendicular rocks did not prevent, were stud- 
 ded with cottages to their very tops ; hanging above you, appa- 
 rently midway between heaven and earth, and accessible only on 
 foot, by tedious and tortuous paths, up the sides of the mountains. 
 Immediately on the shores, are a great number of villages and 
 country seats ; many of which are only accessible by water. 
 Among these is one, supposed to occupy the site of a villa of 
 the younger Pliny, who was a native of Como, and who had a 
 villa on this lake, called his Tragedy — the site of which is sup- 
 posed to have been identified by his description of it, still extant ; 
 and especially by an intermitting fountain, mentioned by him, 
 
396 ITALY. 
 
 which still exists. This modern edifice is called Villa Pliniana. 
 Here also are a number of English villas, and villas of the Italian 
 nobility ; some of them in fine taste. The most beautiful part 
 of the lake, which is forty miles long, is about in the centre, or 
 twenty miles from Como. Here the shores assume a more in- 
 teresting form, and are decorated with a greater number of villas, 
 and some fine looking hotels ; and here also lake Lecca branches 
 off, shooting down into the mountains, some fifteen miles, in a 
 southeastern direction, and finally terminating in the river Adda, 
 which forms the outlet of this chain of waters. On the eastern 
 shore, at this point, the great Splugen route across the Alps 
 strikes the lake, and tracing along the shore, sometimes hiding 
 itself within the crust of the mountain, and sometimes finding 
 -sufficient room for its course without, passes on, to wind its way 
 over those barriers of Nature, forming another link between Italy 
 and central Europe. The natural scenery of this lake is much 
 like the pass of the Highlands, up the Hudson river. 
 
 The next day we took a carriage, and crossed the country to 
 lake Maggiore ; struck the lake at Lovena, and took boat for 
 Bavena — visiting the Barromean Islands on our way. This lake — 
 although a handsome sheet of water, and abounding with numer- 
 ous villages on its shores, and white cottages on its mountain 
 sides — does not begin to compare, in my opinion, with lake Como. 
 
 The greatest interest is in the Borromean Islands. These are 
 ornamented with a great variety of trees, shrubbery, and flowers; 
 have fine palaces, especially Isola Bella. The palace on this 
 island has a suite of subterranean apartments, fitted up like ma- 
 rine grottoes, tastefully encrusted with shells, rock-work, and 
 stalactites. It must be a most delicious retreat in the heat of 
 summer. There is also a suite of state apartments, to which we 
 were introduced, and in which was a number of paintings, by 
 Tempesta. The garden is on an elevated part of the island, 
 which is, at best, only large enough for the palace, and a moder- 
 ate-sized garden, and rises up in eight successive terraces, and is 
 crowned with fountains and statuary, and redolent with the fra- 
 grance of plants and flowers. It cannot be described ; but the 
 accompanying plate will give its general features. 
 
 At Bavena we found a comfortable hotel, and, what was to us 
 a great luxury, a luxury that we had not enjoyed for the last five 
 
BAVENA. 397 
 
 months, a wood floor. Simple as it may seem, it gave us more 
 of a home-feeling than anything we had met with for a long time. 
 The trout of the lake furnished our table, which was another 
 association of early childhood ; and, last of all, the Alps were 
 before us, which, when passed, would introduce us to our side of 
 the world. All these awakened feelings, of which he, who has 
 never been in exile far from home and from the language, re- 
 ligion, and institutions of home, can form no conception. 
 
 The next morning we prepared ourselves to take our final 
 farewell of Italy. We were, in all probability, to see her sunny 
 plains and glassy lakes, her marble mountains and classic vales, 
 her ancient cities, her enduring monuments of the arts, her tem- 
 ples, and her towers no more. Here we had enjoyed much and 
 endured much ; and, if we had not been much profited, it must 
 have been our own fault. 
 
 "What is to be the future state of this country ? I have not the 
 spirit of prophecy and, therefore, cannot say. I infer, however, 
 from the history of the past and from the signs of the times, that 
 it will be better — it will, on the great whole, continue to improve. 
 Its great hinderance is its religion ; but even this must yield to a 
 better state of things in due time. Whether the Catholic church 
 is to maintain its peculiar character until its final overthrow, and 
 until it is wholly supplanted by some other, or whether it is ulti- 
 mately to become modified and reformed, I cannot say. Re- 
 formed and maintain its identity, it cannot ; but it may be reno- 
 vated and still retain its organization to some extent. Whether 
 it will do this, remains to be seen. The light that is now shining 
 upon central Europe, and gradually working its way southward, 
 will, must change the public opinion on this subject. The Prot- 
 estant missionary will ere long be permitted to visit Italy — the 
 press must be unshackled — constitutional governments must be 
 formed. What convulsions may take place before these things 
 are matters of history, we cannot now predict ; but intellectual 
 emancipation has now so wide an empire and so strong an army, 
 that universal triumph seems certain. The contest may be long 
 and, in particular places, bigotry and ignorance, and temporal 
 and spiritual domination may for a while prevail, but, like the 
 contest between the house of David and of Saul, the one must 
 grow weaker and weaker, and the other stronger and stronger. 
 34 
 
398 ITALY. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 To Professor A. W. Smith 3 of the Wesleyan University. 
 
 My dear Professor, 
 
 One of the unpleasant circumstances attending travelling en 
 voiturier, where you have not a party sufficient to take the whole 
 carriage, is the undesirable company into which you are liable to 
 be thrown. In most cases, we had been in a party sufficient to 
 command the whole ; but now we were to join a company of 
 strangers. In this, however, we were most fortunate. Our com- 
 pany was a Swiss family, consisting of the gentleman and his 
 lady and three amiable children. They were accommodating, 
 courteous, intelligent, of the Protestant faith, and acquainted 
 with the route. Nothing could be more desirable than to fall in 
 with such company. Long shall we remember these interesting 
 fellow-travellers. Like many of their countrymen, they had gone 
 abroad for employment and were engaged in the silk-trade in 
 Bergamo, about thirty miles, I think, from Milan, where they in- 
 formed me are numbers of their countrymen, and where they 
 have a Protestant church and schools. Like others of their coun- 
 trymen, also, their home associations were strong and ardent; 
 and they were now on a visit to their friends and country. 
 
 Immediately on leaving the lake, we began to see we were ap 
 proaching mountain scenery, although for a long way we had no 
 steep ascent. We found this grand military road very much out 
 of repair ; insomuch that, in many places, we passed with great 
 difficulty and danger. It appears the King of Sardinia, into whose 
 kingdom we entered once more on the west side of Maggiore, 
 greatly prefers that the trans-alpine travel should be through the 
 Mont Cenis route, for that passes through the centre of his 
 kingdom > whereas this Simplon route, the whole of which from 
 the south end of Maggiore almost to the top of the mountain is 
 in his kingdom, and, therefore, should be kept in repair by him, 
 if by any one, is, nevertheless, but just on his borders, and con- 
 
 ■& 
 
domo d'ossola. 399 
 
 centrates all its advantages in Milan and Austrian Lombardy. 
 Hence his interest has been to let this go to decay, which, with- 
 out repairs, it would soon do ; for what with mountain torrents 
 carrying away bridges and washing away the bed of the road, 
 and mountain avalanches filling it up, it soon becomes impassa- 
 ble, so that this which used to be the best, has now become the 
 worst Alpine thoroughfare. Public opinion and the complaints of 
 other states, have, however, at length prevailed, and his Majesty 
 of Turin has now a great number of workmen employed to re- 
 store this splendid road. 
 
 Near the lake is the quarry of white marble of which the Du- 
 o7no at Milan is constructed ; and we passed, also, during our first 
 day's route, a fine quarry of red granite. This takes a fine polish, 
 and is as beautiful for pillars and columns as the famous oriental 
 granite so common in ancient edifices. This quarry, too, furnishes 
 large blocks of sufficient length for entire columns, some of which 
 we saw at the new church of St. Paul's near Rome, said to have 
 been a present by the King of Sardinia, to assist in rebuilding 
 that noble basilica. These columns were each estimated at an 
 expense of twenty thousand dollars. 
 
 Our first lodging-place was a romantic little village, at the base of 
 the mountains, called Domo oV Ossola. Thence we departed betimes 
 in the morning, with minds strongly excited between the hope of 
 spending the next night the other side of the mighty Alps, and the 
 fear that some disaster or delay might obstruct our progress and 
 disappoint our hopes. Providence favoured us — the weather was 
 delightful, and had been for several days. We passed gorge after 
 gorge and valley after valley, as we gradually and slowly wound 
 our way up this sublime pass. The reign of Nature here, is the 
 reign of terror and sublimity, and she holds her empire still in 
 despite of the encroachments of art. The most the latter has 
 been able to accomplish, has been to penetrate the domains of the 
 former, with this narrow avenue, by which the traveller is con- 
 ducted through her realm and over some of her lowest eminences. 
 And even to retain this advantage requires a constant warfare. 
 Every year Nature renews the war. In the winter she throws 
 up her ramparts of ice and snow, and places the howling tempests 
 as sentinels to assail, and if possible overwhelm the adventurous 
 passenger. And when the vernal sun drives back these winter 
 
400 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 guards ; like the flying Parthian, their retreat is equally fatal 
 and fearful — the avalanche and the torrent now cut off the 
 passage, and sometimes overwhelm the passenger. At this time, 
 however, the elements were quiet. It is true, we were tracing 
 up a noisy fretting stream, but it kept within its banks. It 
 is true, numerous mountain torrents were still conveying the 
 waters of the melting snows, from the tops of the perpendicular 
 mountains, that rose up in wild sublimity on each side of 
 us. But these were not of a magnitude to inspire terror — they 
 hardly approached to the grand. They borrowed a grandeur from 
 the height and majesty of the mountain, but these cascades them- 
 selves were rather an element of beauty. Sometimes they come 
 coursing down in a narrow silvery belt, whitened to foam by their 
 rapid descent ; and sometimes falling perpendicularly, they were 
 torn by projecting crags and by the friction of the atmosphere, 
 until they disappeared in spray, before they had accomplished half 
 their descent. Not unfrequently, however, the invisible spray, 
 falling in a shower upon a less perpendicular part of the moun- 
 tain, was again collected into a mountain belt of sparkling silver. 
 This presented a singular phenomenon — a cascade, broken off in 
 the middle, disappearing and again re-appearing, without any appa- 
 rent connexion. It seemed as though the genius of the moun- 
 tain had touched it with his fairy wand, and made it vanish and re- 
 appear at his bidding. It was Nature's holyday. Happily for us, 
 she had suspended her warfare, and seemed now to have put on 
 her gala-dress and to be sporting in her most frolicsome mood, for 
 her own relaxation and our amusement. 
 
 We passed some noble bridges as we occasionally crossed the 
 stream — went through a grotto of eighty paces in length — passed 
 up the Val Vedro to Divedro, a village which is said to be one 
 thousand seven hundred and twenty-eight Paris feet above the 
 level of the sea — thence along the bed of the Vedro, up the gorge 
 of Isella — just beyond this we came to the confines of Italy, in 
 passing which we enter the Swiss Canton of Valais. Further 
 on, we came to a grand cascade, coming down from the Swis- 
 bergen and forming its almost perpendicular cataract, close to the 
 road, under which it is conducted by a suitable channel into the 
 Vedro ; immediately we came to another grotto, the longest, I 
 believe, on the route, extending two hundred and two paces 
 
S1MPL0N. 401 
 
 through solid granite ; after this another splendid cascade, and a 
 grotto of eighty paces. 
 
 We now more distinctly perceived that winter and summer 
 were contending with each other for the ascendancy. From the 
 valley to the top of the mountain, you see all the different stages 
 from the broad leaf of summer to the opening foliage — the swelling 
 bud — and finally, to the leafless bough, still chilled by the lingering 
 frosts of winter. Sometimes these could all be taken in at one 
 glance ; and following up the mountain side, through the different 
 and successive zones, you see the shrubbery springing out of the 
 very borders of the remaining snow-bank, putting on the green 
 livery of spring : and Mrs F. collected several beautiful and 
 peculiar flowers of velvet softness, which grew out of the side of 
 a bank overhung with snow. The very water that fed them 
 dropped from the snow-bank that melted by their side. The tim- 
 ber was principally the larch, a tree of the fir kind, but not an 
 evergreen. 
 
 At length we turned short to the right, mounting with a bolder 
 ascent, and serpentining with more sudden sinuosities, plainly 
 indicating that we were approaching the last round in this Alpine 
 ladder. 
 
 The village of Simplon is nearly at the summit. Here we 
 stopped to dine, but the chill of winter was upon us. The 
 ground, it is true, was mostly bare, and the females were carrying 
 out manure upon their backs, to try to force a vegetation into ex- 
 istence upon these mountain eminences. A menial employment 
 for the softer sex, truly ; showing that if we had passed the con- 
 fines of Italy, we had not yet reached the land where woman was 
 placed in her true position. 
 
 After an uncomfortable rest we again commenced our route, 
 hoping soon to find oui selves descending, but we were disap- 
 pointed. The snow increased until we were hedged in by banks 
 on each side, higher than the top of our coach, with several feet 
 under us, so soft that it would not bear either the horses or the 
 carriage. Several times we were stopped and had to shovel out the 
 wheels. Some score of men were employed in this, while others 
 passed ropes round the carriage and travelling upon the heights 
 on either side, kept it from upsetting, or tried to do so ; in one 
 instance, however, they failed, and we went over as far as the 
 34 3E 
 
402 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 snow would permit. We had to get out upon the snow-banks 
 until we righted, which was a tedious labour, for these mountain 
 cantoniers all seemed to command and none obeyed. They 
 talked and cackled much, but worked little — and here too, for the 
 first time, the German language struck our ears ; for that is the 
 language of the Valais. But it was the German in its rudest 
 provincial dialect, and their conversation was like the honcking 
 (pardon my new coinage) of a flock of wild geese. You cannot 
 readily conceive of the effect of this sudden transition from the 
 heat of summer to the cold snows of winter ; and probably nothing 
 but the excitement of the occasion prevented our taking severe 
 ■ colds. Our fellow-passengers went forward on foot, wading 
 through the snow ; but we thought it the safer to take our chance 
 . in the coach, come what might. There were several other car- 
 riages in company which rather increased our delay. In short, we 
 Were several hours passing two or three miles. Sometimes 
 crowded by the drifts of snow, to the very verge of the precipice. 
 We passed several more grottoes, and one especially deserving 
 notice, called the glacier grotto, carrying us under the crust of the 
 mountain, but not so deep but that the water oozes in and freezes, 
 so that the interior was incrusted with ice. Well may it be called 
 the glacier grotto. The highest point in the pass was before we 
 arrived at this grotto, said to be four thousand six hundred and 
 ninety Paris feet above the level of the sea. Near this is a Hos- 
 pice inhabited by monks of St. Bernard. 
 
 At length a kind Providence brought us safely through. We 
 rejoiced to pass out of the region of snow, and find our wheels 
 rolling once more on the bare earth. Brigg, the object of our 
 destination was just below us, and seemed but a step, but it was 
 a long, long way to reach it. We traced a serpentine route, 
 winding this way and that, into the bold sinuosities and round the 
 projecting promontories of the mountain ; and nightfall overtook 
 us before we reached our lodgings. But the delight of finding 
 ourselves over this desired, yet dreaded, pass, safe and comfort- 
 able, cannot be readily conceived by the reader. We had passed 
 through the four seasons of the year — travelled from the sunny 
 vales of Italy to the far-famed Republic of Switzerland — in short, 
 we had crossed the Alps in one short day. And here we were, 
 in a clean, lovely Swiss tavern, abounding, literally abounding in 
 
TOURTMAGNE. 403 
 
 milk and honey. The milk of Switzerland is not only abundant, 
 but very rich. As soon as we got out of the region of snow 
 we began to see, upon the sides of the mountains, little neat- 
 looking cottages, which, as we descended, became more numerous, 
 but wholly uninhabited. They were generally made of logs, 
 sometimes they were covered with boards, and often had large 
 stones on the roof to preserve and defend them against the heavy 
 winds. These cottages, we learned on inquiry, are the Swiss 
 Chalet* a provincial term, which, however, Rosseau has rendered 
 classical. When the grass gets grown the Swiss swains and dairy- 
 maids, with their cows and goats, resort to these mountain-pastures, 
 and tend their herds, and make their butter and cheese. These 
 Chalets, for the time, become their homes ; and here, in rural sim- 
 plicity, they spend a short but joyous summer, chanting their wild 
 airs in the mountain-breeze, and in the autumn they descend again 
 to the valleys, laden with the fruits of their industry. This is 
 the life of poetry. These are the heroes and heroines of the 
 genuine eclogue. The scenes, the persons, their employments, all 
 unite in forming the most perfect elements of pure pastoral song. 
 
 The milk, we are told, that is produced by this mountain her- 
 bage, is often too rich to be taken without dilution. 
 
 "We started next morning, and breakfasted at Tourtmagne, and 
 visited, a half mile from the village, a lovely cascade. The inter 
 est of the waterfall itself is greatly heightened by the surround- 
 ing scenery. Our lodging-place was Sion. This was anciently 
 called Sedunum, and seems, by the Roman antiquities found in 
 the neighbourhood, to have been a place of some consequence in 
 the days of the empire. It stands on the successive declivities of 
 three hills, each of which is crowned with a castle ; and there 
 are other castles on the neighbouring heights, which give the 
 entire scene a picturesque appearance. 
 
 Our whole route was in a narrow valley watered by the Rhine. 
 This valley, from the mountains to the lake of Geneva, is more 
 than one hundred miles in length, and said to be the longest in 
 Switzerland. Near Sion is the dividing line between the Haut 
 Valais and the Bas Valais — the higher and the lower valley. 
 The next day we dined at Martigny, the ancient Octodurus. 
 This is a delightful village, but situated near the confluence of 
 * Pronounced Shally. 
 
404 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 the Dranse and the Rhone, in a valley, so as to be exposed to 
 inundations. A few years since, almost the entire village was 
 overwhelmed and made a heap of desolation, by avalanches and 
 mountain floods. It is now principally rebuilt. Indeed, this 
 valley, in its entire length, seems the sport of the mountain tor- 
 rents. Sometimes they sweep away small hills, and smooth 
 them level with the valley ; sometimes they spread gravel and 
 stones, of great size, over a fertile meadow, and convert it into a 
 waste. The desolating effects of recent occurrences of this kind 
 frequently met our eye. 
 
 It is from this town that travellers often set out for the 
 celebrated valley of Chamouni and Mont Blanc. The route to 
 Chamouni is nine leagues across the mountains, and can only be 
 travelled on foot or by mules. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Martigny, as well as in other parts of 
 Switzerland and the Alpine regions, are numerous cases of goi- 
 trous swellings of the neck. The women are more generally 
 troubled with these than the other sex ; but neither are exempt. 
 Sometimes you may meet companies of these mountaineers with 
 their necks horribly deformed. The cretins also are numerous. 
 These are a race of idiots, of which these mountainous regions 
 produce an abundance. They are deformed in body as well as 
 mind ; and appear in all the different stages of idiocy — from 
 absolute fatuity, up to such a share of sense as enables them to 
 labour and earn their own living. Many of them are certainly 
 the most disgusting and pitiable looking objects imaginable. Why 
 this race is so numerous here, has never been satisfactorily ascer- 
 tained. But this, and the other disease mentioned, together with 
 the ravages of the avalanche, teach us, that the mountains of 
 Switzerland, with all their romance and picturesque or sublime 
 scenery, like all other parts of the world, have also their repulsive 
 features, moral and physical. Still, with all their disadvantages, 
 these residents of the valleys and the mountains, seemed wedded 
 to their native glens. You find them, it is true, scattered over 
 Europe — especially in France and Italy—pursuing a great variety 
 of avocations, but returning whenever they have accumulated 
 enough to purchase a cottage upon the mountains, to spend their 
 latter days in their native land. Sometimes, even before this 
 period of their final return, they come home and wed their moun* 
 
LAKE LEMAN. 405 
 
 tain lass, provide for her a cottage, and return to acquire something 
 more for the support of any offspring with which Heaven may 
 bless their union. We met one of this description, who had just 
 returned from Rome. He had his intended by the hand, a fresh, 
 blushing, mountain dame, and responded to the inquiries of our 
 veturino with all the frankness and sincerity of one who was 
 conscious of sincere and honourable love ; while his fair one, 
 in the picturesque costume of her canton, stood blushing by his 
 side. 
 
 Each canton has its particular costume ; and it is as unchange- 
 able as their patriotism. How much better this, than that rest- 
 less chase after the ever-varying forms of fickle fashion that 
 characterizes the peasantry of our own country ! 
 
 We left Martigny in advance of the coach, and walked a league 
 to see the cascade of the Pissevache ; a magnificent cataract, 
 which comes tumbling down from a lofty mountain, and finally 
 pitches in a perpendicular leap of one hundred feet, spread into a 
 limpid sheet or veil, hung out in waiving gauze over the brow of 
 the mountain. The waters are those of the river Salanche, 
 which, in their course towards the Rhone, have no other alterna- 
 tive but to make this desperate leap down the tremendous preci- 
 pice. The fall in its full extent, is three hundred feet. 
 
 Around this valley shoot up the Dent du Midi and the Dent du 
 Marcles, two Alpine eminences, that rise seven thousand feet 
 above the bed of the Rhone ; and a little further in the distance, 
 are still higher mountains, constituting a part of the group of the 
 great St. Bernard. Here also is a great variety of minerals and 
 of plants ; all combining to make this region one of Nature's rich, 
 beautiful, and sublime localities. 
 
 We passed into the Canton de Vaud, and took lodgings for the 
 night in the little town of Bex. This contains about three thou- 
 sand inhabitants. From this we proceeded in the morning to 
 Vevay ; a pleasant town on the north side of Lake Leman, or 
 the Geneva lake. This lovely sheet of water met our eyes for 
 the first time this morning. As it lies somewhat in the form of a 
 segment of a circle — of which the north is the curve, and the 
 south the chord — in passing to the north we traversed the longest 
 side, and left the great military road, the course of which is on 
 the south side of the lake, Our route, however, is supposed to 
 
406 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 be the most interesting. The sloping sides of the hills, which 
 for the most part are, on this shore of the lake, gentle declivities, 
 were covered with vineyards, and studded at proper intervals 
 with beautiful villages. The limpid mirror of the lake lay be- 
 neath us, and the Alps reared up their successive peaks and 
 towering heights on the opposite side, until Mont Blanc himself, 
 that three-headed monster, terminated the prospect, by basing 
 himself on other mountains for his pedestal, and wreathing for 
 himself a capital from the clouds of heaven. 
 
 After leaving Vevay, we passed, among other towns, Lausanne 
 and Nyon. At the former we spent the night. This is a beautiful 
 town, situated about four hundred and fifty feet above the surface 
 of the lake, and is the capital of the canton of Vaud. It contains a 
 cathedral, built in the year 1000, a castle of the thirteenth century, a 
 college containing a library, a museum of natural history, and a phi- 
 losophical and chemical apparatus, This institution is flourishing. 
 
 Our dining-place of the next day's journey was Nyon, at the 
 Hotel of the Fleur de Lis. The very place, as it happened, 
 where the Swiss family who was in our company, were to stop — 
 the residence of the mother and brother of the lady. The meeting 
 of these friends was very affecting, and afforded an illustration of 
 the strong attachment to country and kindred, for which the Swiss 
 are so proverbial. While yet a good way off, the lady looked 
 out of the carriage- window, and got a distant view of her native 
 village, and burst into tears. When she met her mother, and 
 brother, and sister, there seemed to be no end to their mutual 
 salutations and embraces, their tears of joy and expressions of 
 affection. 
 
 Nyon is a pleasant little town, of perhaps between two and three 
 thousand inhabitants, situated partly on the lake shore, and partly 
 upon a terrace at the top of a hill, a little above the lake. Its 
 principal interest, however, to me was, that it was the birthplace 
 and family residence of that excellent and eminent man of God, 
 the Reverend J. William De la Fletcher : a man, of whom Mr. 
 Wesley says, after a long and intimate acquaintance with him : 
 " I never knew him speak an improper word, or do an improper 
 act." A testimony which, from such a man as Mr. Wesley, is 
 most extraordinary ; and could be true only of an extraordinary 
 man. Such, indeed, was Mr. Fletcher : not only that he was 
 
REV. J. WILLIAM FLETCHER. 407 
 
 free from all improprieties, but that he was " full of goodness," 
 and always abounding in the work of the Lord. His antagonists 
 complained of him in controversy, it is true ; but it was only 
 because of the keenness of his controversial sword, and the dex- 
 terity with which he wielded it against error, and in defence of 
 the truth. Of bitterness of spirit, none could ever accuse him ; 
 for he lived and died in the element of love. A most illustrious 
 example of the power of that grace which, even in this life, if 
 received in the fulness with which the provision is made, can 
 transform a man to an angel. Such was Fletcher : a man, of 
 whose spirit and piety, I have as high a conception as of any 
 that has lived since the days of the apostles ; and from the read- 
 ing of whose biography I have received more spiritual benefit, 
 than from any other writings, the inspired Scriptures excepted. 
 
 We visited the family mansion, that we might see the place 
 which gave him birth ; and as we could obtain no more appro- 
 priate memorial of the spot, we plucked, and have carefully pre- 
 served, a leaf of laurel that grew in the yard — a faint emblem of 
 that fresher and more enduring wreath, with which his immortal 
 spirit is crowned, in the bright world above. Opposite to the 
 house, and immediately across the street, is the ancient church, 
 where, doubtless, he was early taught the principles of that 
 gospel he so successfully preached, and so worthily magnified, in 
 his ministry and life. 
 
 The fruits of his piety and prayers are seen in the Fletcher 
 family at the present day. They are an ancient and honourable 
 family ; and a number of them, male and female, are now, as I 
 am informed, rejoicing in the truth, and are active and worthy 
 supporters of the evangelical cause at Nyon. 
 
 It is known to those who are conversant with Mr. Fletcher's 
 life, that he left his charge in Madeley, England, and visited his 
 native country for his health, which was reduced very low by an 
 affection of the lungs. While here, however, he could not rest, 
 but poured out his ardent spirit in exhortation, prayer, and praise, 
 among his countrymen. It was then, and for a long time since, 
 until quite lately indeed, a time of great spiritual dearth in Switzer- 
 land ; and the national church and clergy could not endure his 
 zeal. They persecuted him and refused him their churches, 
 but he used to take the open air ; and they still show a stone 
 
% 408 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 about a mile distant from his paternal mansion, from which he 
 used to exhort the people. He mentions especially, in one of his 
 letters, a company of children that resorted to him to re- 
 ceive instruction and to sing hymns. On mentioning this circum- 
 stance at the inn, the good old lady said, " she well remembered 
 it, for she was one of that company of children, and she pre- 
 served in vivid recollection his emaciated face, and the sweet 
 manner with which he used to sing with them and converse about 
 the Saviour." 
 
 We were surrounded, during the last day of our journey, with 
 more of the associations of home than at any former period of 
 our absence. The vines had mostly disappeared, and the land 
 was richly covered with the agricultural products more common 
 in our own country. The frequent school-house surrounded 
 with sprightly and neatly dressed children — the appearance of the 
 peasantry — the face of the country — and the militia trainings, 
 all seemed a model of our own New England. In the latter, the 
 resemblance was too close ; for not only were the constitution of 
 the militia system and the manner and time (for they were just 
 now having their " May trainings") similar to oyrs, but like what 
 it used to be with us, and is now to some extent— here and there 
 a drunken soldier vt&§ seen staggering home, or leaning upon his 
 musket, almost incapable with this support to keep a perpendicu- 
 lar posture. Strange as it may seem to those who have never 
 been in similar circumstances, this entire exhibition, drunken sol- 
 dier and all, was so like what I had beheld in the days of my 
 boyhood among the green mountains— the Switzerland of Amer- 
 ica—it cast a spell over my heart, and made every object an in- 
 teresting remembrancer of early youth, of country, and of home. 
 
 With minds softened and gladdened by the scenes around us, 
 and by the delightful reminiscences they inspired, we finished the 
 day by a short ride of two or three hours to Geneva— the cradle 
 of the Reformation—where we arrived at about 7 o'clock, P. M. 
 
 Yours, &c, 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 - 
 
GENEVA. 409 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 The canton of Geneva is the smallest in the confederation, and 
 lies at the outlet of the lake in the southwest corner of Switzerland, 
 the Duchy of Savoy being on one side, and France on the other ; the 
 territory of the former coming up very near to the walls of the city 
 itself is the reason, I suppose, why the police of the city is more 
 rigid than any of the other Swiss towns which we visited. Our 
 passports had been rarely called for since we entered Switzerland, 
 but at the gates of Geneva we were closely examined. Nor are 
 strangers allowed to remain in the city without a permit from 
 government; a permit which Catholics do not readily obtain for 
 a long residence. The reason assigned for this is, that if the 
 privileges of citizenship should be readily accorded to them, Ge- 
 neva would be overrun with a Catholic population ; and this the 
 more speedily from the circumstance that the Sardinian govern- 
 ment is oppressive in its restrictions and exactions, from which 
 the citizens would naturally and in great numbers escape, if they 
 could find a ready admittance into a city so liberal and inviting 
 as Geneva in their own immediate neighbourhood. But should 
 they come there under the influence of their superstitions and 
 their priests, as they now are, enlightened and Protestant Geneva 
 would be outnumbered and controlled by a bigoted and an illiberal 
 Catholic colony. I say illiberal, for this epithet is emphatically 
 applicable to the Sardinian government. In proof, we need only 
 refer to the manner in which the Waldenses are now treated with- 
 in the bounds of that government. We became acquainted with 
 some who held correspondence with these Christians, and from 
 them learned several particulars on this subject which are not, 
 perhaps, generally known to the world. In the general declen- 
 sion that has taken place among the Continental Protestants, these 
 ancient churches have had their share. They had become spirit- 
 ually dead ; but, within a few years, they have been revived ; and 
 with their spiritual resurrection has arisen also the spirit of perse- 
 cution. By the most rigorous measures, the government has for- 
 35 3F 
 
410 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 bidden that any pastor shall be allowed to visit them from abroad. 
 An old patriarch, who has been instrumental of much spiritual 
 good to them, has been imprisoned. They have been driven from 
 their places of worship and violently assailed by their opposers 
 in their own neighbourhood. 
 
 The present king was educated in Geneva, and there imbibed 
 sentiments entirely opposite to those which mark his govern- 
 ment. He even assured gome gentlemen of Geneva, his old 
 associates at school, that he would change the measures of the 
 government when he should be seated upon the throne. The 
 result only proves that kings are slaves. He cannot do the 
 things that he would. "When the officer of government, to whom 
 was intrusted the old patriarch above alluded to for safe keeping 
 as a prisoner, wrote a private letter to the king, entreating him 
 to use his authority to set the prisoner at liberty, because he 
 was a good man and was persecuted for righteousness' sake, 
 the king replied privately, ordering him to be released; but, at 
 the same time, directing the officer not to make the subject known 
 to the king's ministers, lest his kind designs for the old patriarch 
 should be thwarted ! The Austrian Metternich is probably the 
 author of this policy ; for he stands at the head of intolerance in 
 Europe, and, doubtless, infuses wherever he can the same spirit 
 into the governments dependant upon Austria that influences the 
 councils of the court which is more immediately under his sway. 
 Quite recently a worse course of persecution has been adopted 
 towards a body of Protestants under the Austrian dominion in a 
 mountainous district called Ziller Thai. None of these govern- 
 ments would like to adopt this intolerant policy before the face of 
 the world ; but where they can fall upon the little flocks in the 
 mountains, secluded from public view, they manifest the same 
 spirit that drove Protestantism from Italy by all the bloody hor- 
 rors of the Inquisition. 
 
 While I am on this subject I will notice another case. Some 
 excellent Protestants of Geneva made an excursion into the borders 
 of Savoy, and carried with them religious tracts, which they dis- 
 tributed in the distant hamlets and villages among the mountains. 
 These were received by the people with great joy and gratitude. 
 in a few days, however, they came to Geneva, and informed their 
 benefactors that the priests had taken their tracts from them and 
 
THE "EVANGELICAL SOCIETY." 411 
 
 burnt them ; and that the government had taken the alarm, and 
 had forbidden any further distribution of such tracts under severe 
 penalties ; and these honest peasants had come to Geneva to give 
 the information, lest, coming there again, these Protestant friends 
 should fall into the hands of the officers and be imprisoned.* 
 
 With such neighbours, it is no wonder that the Genevese are 
 very cautious of exposing themselves to a redundant population 
 of Catholic beggars, bigoted priests, and intriguing politicians. 
 No wonder that my host, speaking of the government of Geneva, 
 called it, " tres sage — very wise." 
 
 I say my host, for I must now state that we found delightful 
 lodgings at Mr. Henry Wolffs, a little out of the city, with a family 
 whose piety, and intelligence, and courtesy have cheered many 
 from our own country, and will be long remembered by us. 
 
 I found I had visited Geneva in a propitious time, as it was 
 the anniversary of the Evangelical Society, and clergymen and 
 others were assembled from different parts of the country and 
 towns of Switzerland and elsewhere to attend this religious con- 
 vention. 
 
 The " Evangelical Society" of Switzerland is an association 
 for the promotion of evangelical religion in Switzerland and else- 
 where. It had its origin in the almost total apostacy of the Swiss 
 churches, and especially that of Geneva, into Socinianism. It 
 might be a curious and an instructive inquiry, in a proper place, 
 to examine into the causes of the transition of the Swiss churches 
 from the doctrines of the Reformation to that lax and formal sys- 
 tem which seemed little better than a heartless philosophy. For 
 myself, without stopping here to trace the connexion, I believe 
 it is owing to two causes : first, the connexion of the church 
 with the state ; and, second, the ultra Calvinism of these 
 churches. A law religion, by a most obvious process, always 
 has a tendency to introduce a worldly clergy and a worldly church ; 
 and we have seen in more places than Geneva that the strong 
 dogmas of Calvin have a reacting influence on the public mind, 
 and drive it to the other extreme. Whatever may be the causes, 
 however, the truth is clear. In Geneva, but a single evangelical 
 man was left when Madame de Stael, according to the custom 
 
 * We had this account directly and personally from the young ladies who distributed 
 the tracts. 
 
412 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 of the country, selected an instructor and religious guide to pre- 
 pare her children for the sacrament. Strange as it may seem, 
 this very eccentric woman selected this clergyman, and the re- 
 sult was, that her son and daughter both became decidedly pious 
 — the former, the late Baron de Stael, died in the faith of the 
 gospel ;* the latter, the present Duchess de Broglie, is a living 
 example in the midst of the French court, not only of the Protest- 
 ant faith, but of a devout life. 
 
 After the death of this pious clergyman, it does not appear that 
 there was left another experimental minister in the church. Ge- 
 neva, however, was not long to be left without witnesses for the 
 truth of a spiritual religion. A young man, Monsieur Empeytez, 
 became unhappy under a sense of his guilt as a sinner, but could 
 find no relief. He thought he must punish his body for the sin 
 of his soul ; and, for that purpose, among other methods adopted, 
 he made him a cross of thorns, and put it next to his flesh in his 
 bosom, that he might be constantly reminded of his guilt and 
 punished for his sins. At length, however, he found one who, in 
 obscurity, knew the way of faith, and taught it to him. He heard 
 and believed. He is now a Christian minister, and has been in- 
 strumental in turning the feet of others into the faith and experi- 
 ence of the gospel. t Others, also, have been raised up as faithful 
 and successful instruments, in the hand of God, of spreading holi- 
 ness among the people. Monsieur Empeytez is now an associ- 
 ate pastor, with two others of an independent church, which 
 meets in an uncomfortable place in the Bourg de Four, in Ge- 
 neva. This church, as appears by a circular lately issued, soli- 
 citing aid from their brethren to assist them in procuring a more 
 convenient and spacious place of worship, had its origin in the 
 piety of a number of individuals who, as early as 1811, had 
 commenced in their spiritual course, mauger all the formality and 
 darkness which reigned around them. At first they only had pri- 
 
 * We visited the parents of the baron's wife, who still lives a widow, and found the 
 family most interesting, intelligent, and pious. The father supports, at his own expense, 
 an excellent school. The family residence is a pleasant ride of an hour from Geneva. 
 
 f We attended a social meeting one afternoon at his house, which is delightfully situa- 
 ted at a little distance from the city. In going thither we not only had a most delightful 
 walk, and a fine -view of the scenery south of the city and of the valley of the Arve t 
 which enters the Rhone just below the city, but we also passed two places of opposite in- 
 terest : the one was the spot where Servetus was burnt ; and the other the house where 
 once lived that devoted missionary, Felix Neflf. 
 
THE " EVANGELICAL SOCIETY." 413 
 
 vate meetings for prayer and religious conversation, but in 1817 
 they formed a regular church, and have, since that time, been in- 
 creasing in their influence at home and abroad. This little church 
 has taken a leading part in the impulse that has been given to the 
 cause of evangelical piety in Switzerland and France. From 
 this little company have gone forth as missionaries, instructers, 
 colporteurs, &c, twenty-five at least ; most of whom are still in 
 the work, Two of the most eminent, viz., Felix NefT and Henry 
 Pitt (the latter has already been spoken of as having laboured in 
 Paris and died at Versailles), have entered into their rest. 
 
 Connected with this church is a school, where persons are in- 
 structed as missionary schoolmasters, colporteurs, &c, for the 
 spread of the gospel. These are found to be very efficient agents 
 in spreading the knowledge of Christ among the lower classes in 
 France and Switzerland. They distribute the Bible, the Evan- 
 gelical Magazine, and various religious publications, which tend 
 greatly to rouse the spirit of the people to an attention to their 
 eternal interests. 
 
 With this band of Christians we had the pleasure of Christian 
 communion on the Sabbath, the first opportunity we had enjoyed 
 since we left Paris. To such as have never been deprived of the 
 benefits of Christian communion and worship for months together, 
 I cannot fully describe the pleasure we felt in joining again with 
 those who, in the manner the Romanists call heresy, worship the 
 God of our fathers. This little band of Christians has been per- 
 secuted, and reproached, and driven from place to place; and 
 their congregation is now so unfavourably situated that they have 
 very little chance to enlarge their field of usefulness. It is to be 
 hoped that the appeal they now make to their fellow-Christians 
 will be generously responded to, and that American Christians 
 will assist in this very desirable and important charity. 
 
 But to return to the Evangelical Society. This is made up of 
 all, in different cantons and of different churches, independent or 
 national, who feel the importance, in the midst of spiritual death, 
 of uniting to awake the public mind to the great work of saving 
 their souls and the souls of their fellow-men. It is a merging of 
 peculiar and local interests in the great and paramount cause of 
 spreading and enforcing the truth. Their prayers were fervent, 
 their salutations from distant and auxiliary societies were sincere, 
 35 
 
414 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 and their bands of union appeared strong, and their combined la~ 
 bours efficient. Numbers were there from the national churches 
 of the other cantons ; few, indeed, from Geneva. The Geneva 
 Church will not license nor ordain an evangelical man. One,* 
 that was a pastor in the church, they have silenced, and excluded 
 from his clerical functions, for they have this power; and this 
 shows most clearly the extreme absurdity of a state religion. A 
 fallen church is thus standing in the way of the gospel, with all 
 the authority of the state to sustain it. 
 
 I said this pastor was silenced, and so he is, officially, in the 
 national church; but he preaches still. His congregation have 
 built a separate church, called the Oratoir, where he preaches 
 and administers the sacraments ; and he has also a theological 
 school, where he is training young men for the work, in spite of 
 all the threatenings and anathemas of the national church ; so 
 that this their opposition has turned out to the furtherance of the 
 gospel. This revival is interesting from the facts that a number 
 of influential men have become the subjects of it ; that it is stead- 
 ily advancing; that it is operating powerfully upon France and 
 the other Swiss cantons, and promises much for the cause of 
 Christ here. Pure religion, experimental godliness, is beginning 
 to revive where the reformation from popery was first established ; 
 4jay, it is said the work seems to run in the very channels, and 
 influence the descendants of those very families that stood out 
 foremost in the former reformation. It has refreshed especially 
 some of those families that fled from Parma and other Italian 
 cities, that they might escape from the Inquisition. This work, 
 too, is interesting from its position, between Germany and France, 
 where both the German and French languages are spoken ; among 
 an enterprising race, who circulate extensively, in their ordinary 
 worldly business, throughout Europe, and who make excellent 
 missionaries to go out voluntarily and preach the gospel to the 
 nations around them. It is interesting from the instrumentalities 
 which the great Head of the church uses in its accomplishment. 
 In this particular it bears a striking resemblance to the revival 
 under the Wesleys in Great Britain and Ireland. In addition to 
 
 * This was Mr. Malan, now Dr. Malan. He entered the national church in 1810, and 
 was a gay, worldly minister until 1816, when, by reading the Scriptures, he was awa- 
 kened, and has since become a very useful rninister. 
 
PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 415 
 
 regular pastors, laymen of various callings and employments ap- 
 pear to have been moved to a co-operation in this work, and have 
 not only taught and carried about Bibles and tracts, but have also 
 preached with great success. 
 
 Connected with these features there are some not so promis- 
 ing. First, there is too much connexion with the state, especially 
 in some of the cantons. Then there is too strong a spice of Cal- 
 vinism among a great portion of the evangelical ministers ; al- 
 though this is very much let alone, I believe, in their evangelical 
 operations ; and, so long as this is the case, there is less danger 
 from this antinomian seed. And, finally, like all sudden and ex- 
 traordinary revivals, it has in it some of the spirit of fanaticism. 
 They have a sect among them called Momiers or Methodistes, 
 which are represented to be enthusiastic, and to resemble the 
 Quietists of a former age. Whether they are misrepresented like 
 the Methodists of England when they first arose, I was not able 
 fully to satisfy myself. But I conclude, from all I could gather, 
 that they had carried the doctrine of the operations of the Spirit 
 to a fanatical excess. At any rate, there is now found in Switzer- 
 land a tincture of the Irving heresy or delusion, which unhappily 
 has been transplanted hither from London. A nephew of Mr. 
 Fletcher's, who was a pastor in the Canton de Vaud, and, I be- 
 lieve, in the town of Nyon, became tinctured with this while on £ 
 visit to London ; and some others also have embraced it. The 
 wildness of these notions will undoubtedly react upon the evan- 
 gelical cause to its reproach and injury.* The cause, however, 
 will triumph ; and I cannot but look upon the present religious 
 movement in Switzerland, and its already perceptible influences 
 upon the other nations of Europe, as one of the signs of the times 
 most favourable to the Christian cause. This work, however, 
 does not go on without opposition. Severe persecutions have 
 been experienced by the evangelical Christians, and in the Can- 
 ton de Vaud a most intolerant law has been enacted against the 
 Momiers. This, however, is only a proof that the cause is gain- 
 ing ground, and that Satan and a formal church are alarmed for 
 their craft. 
 
 * I am sorry to learn that some of these teachers have visited Geneva since I was 
 there, and have deluded away quite a number of the students in the evangelical theologi- 
 cal school, and have almost broken up the institution. 
 
416 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 I have dwelt thus long upon the religious stale of Geneva and 
 Switzerland, because this was to me one of the most, nay, I may- 
 say, the most interesting feature in the country. Several inter- 
 esting facts of a local character came to my knowledge, which I 
 should be glad to narrate, but I am aware of the danger of prolixity, 
 and I forbear. 
 
 The situation of Geneva is delightful. The Rhone, as its limpid 
 waters first shoot from the lake, passes through it, dividing it into 
 two unequal parts, with an islet in the centre. The current is 
 very rapid, and carries numerous water-wheels, which give im- 
 pulse to machinery of various kinds — insomuch that the banks 
 and the current, far inward towards the centre of the channel, 
 from either side, are covered with shops of artisans and manufac- 
 turers ; and the constantly-gliding current seems to have all its 
 power used up for the important purposes of aiding and relieving 
 human labour. It is an animating scene of life and industry, so 
 unlike the torpor that hangs over the Italian cities, that you are 
 constrained to pause, especially if you have just come from Italy, 
 and wonder at the change. What has made the difference ? 
 Two causes doubtless combine — religion and government. The 
 Genevese are an industrious, enterprising, thriving people ; and 
 the position of their city is most advantageous, not only in refer- 
 ence to the water power just mentioned, but also in reference to 
 its advantages of trade, by reason of the lake navigation, and its 
 frontier position between France and Switzerland. The city is 
 walled and surrounded by a Fosse, and the gates are guarded. 
 It contains a population of about thirty-five thousand, and seems 
 scarcely capable of a very great increase, on account of its 
 straitened dimensions. It lies very uneven, by reason of the 
 inequality of the ground ; and some of the streets are difficult of 
 access, on account of the steepness of the hills, although a good 
 portion of the city is comfortably level. It is watered by an hy- 
 draulic machine, which elevates the water one hundred and ten 
 feet into the centre of the city. 
 
 Geneva has long been celebrated for its schools and eminent 
 men. To have produced a Calvin and a Beza, is honour enough 
 of this kind for one city. But she has also had her Burlamaqui, 
 in the law ; and as a statesman she has produced a Neckar, and 
 in political economy, /. B. Say — besides numerous others in 
 
GENEVA. 417 
 
 the various departments of science and literature. At the pres- 
 ent day, she has in the department of history, Sismondi, and in 
 botany the savan, whose fame is known to the world, the emi- 
 nent De Candolle. This latter gentleman has ornamented and 
 enriched the city by a fine botanical garden, which he com- 
 menced in 1816, and has made it a rich appendage to this interest- 
 ing town. 
 
 The Academy founded by Calvin and divided into the depart- 
 ments of Law, Theology, Sciences, and Lettres, is still flourishing, 
 with various other schools and institutions,* libraries and literary 
 and scientific associations. The public library has fifty thousand 
 volumes, and many valuable manuscripts, among which are ser- 
 mons and letters of Calvin and Beza. 
 
 The Cathedral is a venerable old building, and has the more 
 interest from its associations; built for Catholic service, it became 
 the theatre of a Calvin and others, in which to proclaim the doc- 
 trines of the Reformation. But these Catholic cathedrals and 
 churches are, after all, very inconvenient edifices for Protestant 
 worship. They were not built for places of instruction for the 
 people, but for the sacrifice of the mass. Their pillars, arches, 
 colonnades, recesses, triple naves, altars, side chapels, tribunes, 
 and choirs, are only suited to the cumbersome ceremonies of the 
 Roman worship, and are constructed in the very worst possible 
 form for the worship of Protestants. Yet these constitute the 
 principal Protestant churches in Switzerland ; for where the people 
 become Protestants, they take their churches with them, and where 
 they are divided, they not unfrequently, by mutual arrangement, 
 divide the parish church between them ; the Catholics occupying 
 it one part of the day, and the Protestants the other. 
 
 Geneva was a city in the time of the ancient Romans ; after 
 their transalpine power ceased, it fell successively under the 
 Bourguignans, the Ostrogoths, the Franks, &c, until in 1535 it 
 threw off all foreign domination, and established a republic. In 
 1798, it fell into the hands of the French, but in December, 1813, 
 it recovered its independence, which was guarantied in 1814, by 
 the allied powers ; and in 1815, it was associated with the Swiss 
 confederacy as the Twenty-second Canton. The American reader 
 will understand, however, that there is a wide difference, after all, 
 * The University has between three and four hundred students, 
 
 3G 
 
418 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 between the government of the Swiss cantons and that of the 
 United States. When we came to the gate of this walled and 
 guarded city, and our passports were demanded, I observed that 
 this did not appear much like a republic. A German, who was 
 in the coach with us, (having, with a lady, taken the place of 
 the Swiss family, whom we left at Nyon,) shrewdly remarked, 
 that " a Swiss republic was one thing and an American republic 
 another." This I was often reminded of while in Switzerland. 
 The union of the different cantons is a loose confederacy, which, 
 like the old confederation of the United States, gives rise to 
 numerous jealousies and disputes. It answers a much better pur- 
 pose, however, for these mountainous cantons, than it would for a 
 large commercial country like ours, and the more because the sur- 
 rounding nations will finally put them right, if they get too violent. 
 When the other cantons, following Berne, which led the way, 
 annulled, in 1813, the "Act of pacification," which had been 
 formed by Napoleon for Switzerland, and which should rather 
 have been called an " Act to subject Switzerland to his control," 
 they attempted to form a confederation among themselves, that 
 should secure their liberties and independence. But they had so 
 many cantonal claims for indemnities, remunerations, restorations 
 of territory, &c, that their attempts were nothing but so many 
 renewals of contention and opposition. The Allied Sovereigns, 
 however, to their honour be it spoken, and they should have due 
 credit for all the good they did, when they were guilty of so many 
 acts of oppression and injustice, took the subject under considera- 
 tion in their Congress at Vienna, weighed the respective claims, 
 adjusted the indemnities, and laid the foundation for the present 
 confederation. By this arrangement each canton sends delegates 
 to the General Diet — pays an established proportion of the gener- 
 al expense, and furnishes a given quota of soldiers in time of 
 war. The General Diet decides all questions that relate to the 
 general interests, but the several cantons are, to a very great ex- 
 tent, independent, and differ very considerably in their forms of 
 government. Republics although they are called, yet they are in 
 fact aristocracies — the offices being filled only from the aristo- 
 cratic classes. In this respect, however, there is a change going 
 on in the country, and the people are breaking down the old 
 aristocratic barriers. In Berne, there has been of late, a revolu- 
 
GENEVA. 419 
 
 tion in favour of popular rights. One of the cantons,Neufchatel 9 
 is an hereditary monarchy. This was formerly a Prussian princi- 
 pality, and became associated with the Swiss confederacy, at the 
 same time with Valais and Geneva, by the decisions of the Con- 
 gress of Vienna. 
 
 There is one circumstance or custom which saves Geneva, and 
 I know not but this is true of the other cantons, from much of that 
 demagogical electioneering so prejudicial to the peace, and so 
 dangerous to the liberties of society in our country. The officers 
 of government serve for the honour of it and for patriotism — they 
 have no pay. I asked one of the citizens what they would do, 
 if a man elected should refuse to serve in any office. He said 
 that would be very unpopular. For a man, whose circumstances 
 would permit of it, to refuse to serve his country, would be con- 
 sidered as a most glaring evidence of a disregard for the welfare 
 of the nation. Is not this the true conservative principle ? In 
 this way a citizen takes office not to serve himself, but his country. 
 
 One of the most interesting features of Geneva society is, 
 the courtesy that prevails, unembarrassed with the formalities of 
 etiquette. There are intelligence, politeness, and much of suav- 
 ity, and yet every one is left, to a great extent, free and untram- 
 melled by unmeaning forms. This of itself renders it a desirable 
 residence. Another delightful appendage to a residence in Ge- 
 neva, is, the enchanting scenery around. Do you wish to take a 
 sail ? You have the lake on which steamboats and other water- 
 craft ply continually to the distance of sixty miles, and along the 
 shores of which are numerous country-seats and villages. Do 
 you wish to ride ? You have beautiful promenades in every di- 
 rection. In short, I saw no place in my tour which appeared to 
 me to combine so many advantages for a summer's residence as 
 Geneva. Our only regret was that our stay was so short. We 
 had time to make but few excursions in the neighbourhood, and 
 these but short. We could see Mont Blanc ; but neither time 
 nor health would permit us to visit it. We saw the Arve rolling 
 down its channels the melted snows of the mountains around the 
 Chamouni valley; but we could not visit this interesting spot, 
 which had been concealed from the rest of the world for centu- 
 ries previous to 1741, when it was discovered by the'two English 
 travellers, Messrs. Windham and Pocock. These and numerous 
 
 
420 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 other excursions, we had to forego, and had time only to make 
 the best route we could in our tour to the Rhine, which we pro- 
 posed to take in our way to England. 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 Parting with our friends, for so we must call them, though but a 
 few days before we were strangers to each other, we left this 
 lovely city in a steamboat for Lausanne. Here we dined and 
 engaged a voiturier for Berne for thirty francs. The regular 
 price is twenty francs a day (about four dollars) ; but each day 
 you advance, is reckoned as two, unless you can meet with a re- 
 turn carriage, because the coachman must have pay for return- 
 ing as well as for going. This was the best specimen of veturino 
 travelling we had enjoyed on the continent. With a new carriage, 
 good horses, a kind and intelligent veturino, fine weather, and a 
 most picturesque country, the route through Switzerland was in- 
 describably delightful. There was a pleasing variety of hill and 
 dale, in general appearance, not unlike the most cultivated parts 
 of New-England. The forests were mostly spruce and beach, 
 with a smaller proportion of oak. Orchards in abundance. The 
 cultivated fields were productive of grass, rye, wheat, peas, pota- 
 toes, &c. The meadows looked as though Nature was profligate 
 in the bestowment of her floral beauties, and the air was redolent 
 with their fragrance. From the tops of the hills we had splendid 
 views of mountain-scenery, with snowy summits wreathed in 
 clouds. We were between two elevated chains of mountains : 
 the Alps on the one side, and the Jura on the other. The former 
 have their greatest elevation on the south of our route, and ex- 
 tending, from a parallel of longitude as far west as the western 
 extremity of Switzerland to Hungary on the east, above two hun- 
 dred leagues ; and the latter, starting from the west and north of 
 the Rhone, extend one hundred leagues on the northern boundary 
 to the neighbourood of the Rhine. These mountains make the 
 central and more level parts of Switzerland one grand amphithea- 
 
 
LAUSANNE 421 
 
 tre. These interior parts are delightfully diversified with hills 
 and dales ; and when the traveller arrives at the top of one of the 
 intermediate hills where he can see the neighbouring eminences, 
 the intervening lakes, and the distant cordon of Alpine ranges, 
 broken into successive turrets and extending quite round the hori- 
 zon, he feels that all is enchantment. 
 
 To these general features of interest, near and more remote, 
 we were amused and pleased with certain other features of the 
 picturesque — especially the cottages of the peasants, and the cos- 
 tumes of the women. The former were unique — built generally 
 of wood — their roofs jutting over the walls, some ten or fifteen 
 feet — galleries, or a sort of corridor, running across the ends — 
 the outside often carved and inscribed with texts of Scripture, and 
 dates of the births of the children ; and, whatever might be the 
 state of the interior, the exterior was washed and kept clean, 
 although very generally the stable and barn were in one end, and 
 a large pile of manure in front. 
 
 Every canton has its costume. That of Berne is very pic- 
 turesque. The general features of it are, a black silk cap, with 
 a high flaunting gauze border, made stiff so as to run up from the 
 head in a waiving circlet, eight or ten inches in depth — a black 
 velvet bodice or stays, worked and ornamented, and a black collar, 
 which is sometimes ornamented with chains of metal resembling 
 silver, wreathed over the shoulders and fastened to the bodice, 
 near the waist — a black riband braided into the hair, and hang- 
 ing down to the ground — white full sleeves for the upper, and 
 dark mits for the lower arm, and blue skirts bound round the bot- 
 tom with red. 
 
 In some respects the country was unlike New-England. The 
 farms were not fenced ; the cattle are stabled winter and sum- 
 mer ; the women are all in the fields at work, some of them in very 
 menial employments ; one of them, decked, in her country cos- 
 tume, I saw carrying out manure in her apron ; all were engaged 
 in the most laborious and filthy parts of agricultural labour. When 
 they carry burdens on their heads, they slip their caps back to 
 save them from being crushed. How the domestic affairs go on 
 with most of the women in the field, I cannot say ; I suppose, how- 
 ever, there is very little done within doors. Nevertheless, the 
 hotels were clean and well furnished— unlike France and Italy, 
 36 
 
 
422 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 h 
 
 the chambermaids were females, and the servants were generally 
 courteous and attentive. 
 
 In our way to Berne we turned a little from the direct route, 
 for the purpose of passing through Friburg, the capital of the 
 canton of the same name. This canton contains about eighty- 
 seven thousand inhabitants, most of whom, with the exception of 
 the district of Morat, which contains about eight thousand Protest- 
 ants, are Catholics. The present reformation, however, is making 
 some progress here. A young shoemaker, in the spirit of a 
 missionary, established himself with much difficulty and opposi- 
 tion, in one of the villages, where his labours were very success- 
 ful, and the work spread to the capital itself, so that when we 
 arrived there we found that a new Protestant church had just been 
 . opened for Divine worship, and the work was in a prosperous 
 state. This is, however, a strong hold of the Catholics. They 
 have here a very flourishing college, which has just been enlarged 
 by new and convenient edifices, over which we were shown, and 
 which contained apparatus, library, and other materials of learn- 
 ing, with all the necessary rooms to accommodate a large institution. 
 They have faculties of law, theology, mathematics, philosophy, 
 ancient languages, &c, together with a number of inferior semi- 
 naries and schools. These public edifices stand upon the highest 
 grounds of this romantic city, and appear like a citadel. The 
 whole are under the order of the Jesuits. 
 
 The town of Friburg is most romantically situated on an uneven 
 promontory, partly surrounded by a stream, which glides in pictu- 
 resque beauty at the bottom of a glade or gorge, that in its depth and 
 abrupt cliffs, associates with the scene the attributes of the sublime. 
 This gulf is several hundred feet deep, reckoning from the tops of 
 the hills, on either side. The narrow and almost perpen- 
 dicular part, however, is only about two hundred feet. Over this, 
 a suspension bridge has been recently thrown, one hundred and 
 eighty feet in height, and about one thousand feet in length. It 
 i3 a splendid work, and the greatest curiosity of the kind I ever 
 saw. It is so well represented in the accompanying plate that I 
 need not describe it ; and will only add, that the view, whether 
 you look at it above or below, is indescribably fine, set off as it 
 is by the accompaniments of nature and art, with which it is 
 surrounded. 
 
 
 ^L 
 
9 
 
BERNE. 423 
 
 We spent several hours in this little town, which contains only 
 about seven thousand inhabitants, and were amply paid for our 
 visit to it. Among other curiosities, was a linden-tree, growing 
 near our hotel, which was planted on the occasion of the great 
 victory gained by the Swiss confederates at Morat, over Charles 
 the Bold. This great battle, the most memorable, perhaps, that 
 marks the Swiss history, was fought on the 22d June, 1476, and 
 resulted in the annihilation of an army sixty thousand strong, with 
 which the Duke of Burgoine had, in the month of March preceding, 
 crossed the Jura, threatening to annihilate the states in the mount- 
 ains, that presumed to resist his claims. Patriotism and valour, 
 however, with but about one third of the number of soldiers, en- 
 tirely overwhelmed him. This memorial of the battle and of the 
 victory, is at present on the decline, and will soon die of age or 
 disease, after bearing the verdant honours of the confederacy for 
 almost four centuries. I trust its decay is not ominous of any 
 approaching decline in the liberties and independence of the 
 Swiss republics. 
 
 We left this delightful town for Berne, where we arrived the 
 same evening. 
 
 The canton of Berne is situated in the heart of Switzerland, and 
 is the most extensive in territory, and has the largest population 
 of any other in the Swiss confederation.* It contains three hundred 
 thousand souls, who, with the exception of about forty thousand 
 inhabiting the country of the Jura Alps, are of German extraction 
 and of the Protestant faith. This canton is beautifully watered 
 and rich in agricultural products. The peasants live upon their 
 farms and get their bread by the sweat of their brow. They ap- 
 pear courteous and kind-hearted, giving, as they pass, the accus- 
 tomed " God greet you" in all the simplicity and honesty of 
 primitive times. 
 
 The government of Berne, like most of the other Swiss can- 
 tons, was very aristocratic ; notwithstanding, it was called a re- 
 public. The nobility had exclusive privileges, and were alone 
 eligible to the important offices. Such was its character at the 
 time of the arrangement of 1815. With this the people were 
 
 * The population of all the cantons is reported at 1,687,900. The least populous 
 is Uri, which has only 11,800 in the canton. One thirty-seventh of the territory of 
 Switzerland is lakes, and a much greater portion uninhabitable mountains. 
 
424 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 dissatisfied ; and what with the growing light of the age, and the 
 onward march of popular principles, and the whole temporarily 
 excited, by the return of the Swiss guards from France after the 
 revolution of 1830, the people claimed, and, to avoid the unequal 
 conflict by force, the nobility accorded to them, the privileges 
 which they had so long been denied. Thus, a bloodless reform, 
 we may almost say a radical change, was effected in the govern- 
 ment. It is said, however, that there are still discontents and 
 jealousies — the principles of popular reform not having yet re- 
 ceived their full development ; but as the reform hitherto has ad- 
 vanced without bloodshed, it is to be hoped that any further 
 changes will be effected in the same way. Happily for the world 
 that resort to arms is not so frequent as formerly ; and important 
 changes are accomplished by peaceable means — by the power of 
 reason rather than by the sword. 
 
 Berne is an elegant city. Its site may be called a peninsular 
 promontory, for the river Aar flows on three sides of it, in a 
 deep-cut valley, giving this beautiful town a smiling throne, on 
 which she sits in princely beauty, as the queen of the surround- 
 ing country. The principal streets run parallel to each other, 
 east and west, and are crossed at right angles by alleys and some 
 wide streets. The main streets are lined with arcades, and 
 the basement stories of the houses are shops, so that the sides of 
 the streets have the appearance of extended bazars, filled with 
 life and business. In these streets, also, are numerous fountains to 
 supply the city with water. The houses are well built, of a gray 
 freestone ; and, like the other cities of Switzerland, it is fortified, 
 and a part of the deep fosses are now used as a sort of den for a 
 number of large bears, which appear to be maintained at the 
 public expense, by way of honouring the race. In the centre of 
 the city is a square tower, called the Tower of the Clock, having 
 in it a curious piece of mechanism, made probably at the time of 
 repairing the tower, which, according to an inscription, was in 
 1770, about six hundred years after it was first erected. The 
 principal parts of the mechanical exhibition are as follows : dif- 
 ferent faces, representing the phases of the moon, the signs of 
 the zodiac, and the twelve months of the year ; a cock, made of 
 wood, stretches up his neck and crows twice, a minute before, 
 and twice a minute after the clock strikes ; a queer figure strikes 
 
HOFWYL SCHOOL. 425 
 
 the hour, with a small hammer, on two bells ; a troop of little 
 bears, in various pastimes, run out and in, in a circle ; another 
 figure, sitting on a throne, counts the hour, by opening the mouth, 
 lowering her sceptre with one hand, and turning an hour-glass 
 with the other ; a little lion holds a sword in his paw, which he 
 motions to designate the hour, at the same time that he gives a 
 slight nod of the head. So much for curious trifling, by which 
 the artisan, Gaspard Brunner, has perpetuated his name, at least 
 until his machinery wears out. 
 
 The Bernese have a library of about forty-five thousand volumes, 
 and fifteen thousand manuscripts ; a cabinet of coins, of natural 
 history, and of artificial curiosities ; and a garden of plants. They 
 have, also, a public academy, divided into high and low : the latter 
 for the preparatory course, and the former for the professions and 
 the higher walks of literature and science : all well sustained 
 with professors in the several grades and departments. 
 
 From Berne the excursions are short and very practicable, to 
 some of the most interesting mountain and lake scenery in Swit- 
 zerland ; but time would not permit us to make any of these 
 excursions. We could not, however, forego the pleasure and 
 profit of visiting the famous school of Mr. Fellenburg* at Hofwyl, 
 which is but six miles from town. After spending two nights in 
 Berne, therefore, we left on a beautiful morning for Hofwyl, where 
 we met with our amiable and intelligent countryman, Reverend 
 W. C. Woodbridge, and spent the day most pleasantly, and, I trust, 
 profitably, in examining the premises, and making ourselves ac- 
 quainted with the plans and operations of this excellent institution. 
 
 The Hofwyl School has been so long and so favourably known 
 to a portion of our citizens, that I hardly feel justified in taking up 
 the subject very extensively here ; especially as I cannot present 
 it in as full and perfect a portraiture as has been drawn in the 
 " Annals of Education," and in other works in this country. How- 
 ever, as these pages may fall into some hands that have not been 
 favoured with these works, I will notice a few things, by way of 
 adding my testimony to what has been said of this excellent in- 
 stitution. 
 
 This institution was got up by the individual exertions and pri- 
 
 * Count Fellenburg, he was formerly called ; but, like Lafayette, he has renounced 
 his title, to be consistent with his republican principles. 
 
 36 3H 
 
426 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 vate fortune of Monsieur de Fcllenburg. It was designed to give 
 a practical illustration of an idea, conceived by Mr. Fellenburg, 
 of " reforming society by means of education." For this purpose, 
 he has fixed on a site, at a distance from a large town, and com- 
 menced his operations and matured his plans, until the institution 
 is expanded to its present dimensions. Without tracing it through 
 its various stages, I will describe it as I found it. 
 
 1. The Buildings. These of themselves constitute a little 
 village. The family mansion is in the centre ; and around it are 
 four or five different edifices for the schools, several farmhouses, 
 granaries — a house for the washerwoman and laundress — hotel 
 for the institution — swimming school, &c, to the number of be- 
 tween twenty and thirty buildings. These are interspersed with 
 play-grounds, a park, and private and public walks ; and sur- 
 rounded by an extensive plantation, in a high state of cultivation. 
 
 2. The Division of the Institution. To carry out his plan, 
 Mr. Fellenburg seems to have thought it necessary to establish 
 schools of different grades, suited to the different ranks or condi- 
 tions of society. To this end, he has several schools, one for the 
 poor, a scientific institute for the rich and noble, and an inter- 
 mediate school for the middle classes. In addition to these, there 
 is a normal school, or a department for educating teachers ; for 
 one of the leading objects of the proprietor, is to train and qualify 
 teachers. This department, however, was not in distinct opera- 
 tion when I was there, although a constant eye is had to this 
 object ; and if any one in the rural school manifests a talent for a 
 good instructer, he is transferred to the higher school, to be train- 
 ed for that profession. Nor is this the only case in which the 
 students are transferred from one school to the other. Any special 
 developement of talent, promising superior scholarship, is encour- 
 aged in the same way. 
 
 The scientific institute contains at present only about forty 
 students. The reason for this may be found in the political 
 course of Mr. Fellenburg; for, in the late contest between the 
 aristocracy and the people, Mr. Fellenburg, true to his republican 
 principles, took the side of the latter, which gave such offence to 
 his fellow-citizens of the same rank, that many of them have with- 
 drawn their patronage from the school. There is about the same 
 number in the rural school ; these, independent of what they earn 
 
 ■ 
 
THE HOFWYL SCHOOL. 427 
 
 by their labour, are educated gratuitously. In the intermediate 
 school there are about one hundred. 
 
 3. The Government.— As Mr. Fellenburg is sole proprietor, so 
 he is absolute governor of this institution, or, more properly, he 
 is the father of this family ; for the government is truly patri- 
 archal. All the subordinate teachers are solely under his con- 
 trol, and all the students look up to him as the common father ; 
 all needful liberty is given to throw them, in a great degree, upon 
 their own responsibilities, and yet due care is taken to follow 
 them with such a parental solicitude as to prevent them from 
 being exposed to too strong temptations, and with the view to 
 call their attention, speedily and kindly, to the beginnings of error. 
 This trains their moral feelings, calls conscience into action, and 
 teaches them to resist temptation, not for wrath, but for con- 
 science' sake. This is the very reverse of the French system of 
 government. They put their Sieves under a lock and key, and trust 
 almost entirely to seclusion and physical restraints to guard their 
 morals and habits. This prevents the overt act of moral delin- 
 quency, but causes, on the one hand, a rank growth of many of the 
 nascent passions, and, on the other, effectually excludes all educa- 
 tion of conscience and the moral feelings. The truth is, there are 
 two wrong ways, and but one right way, of governing a literary in- 
 stitution. The two wrong ways are the easiest for the instructer, 
 but are both equally ruinous to the pupil. They appear to have 
 been adopted with a view to the good of the student, but with a 
 design to secure some good to him with the least possible trouble 
 to the teacher. The first of these is that of the French already 
 alluded to, and is the same with that of most Catholic countries, 
 and is a part of the same system that encourages convents and 
 monasteries ; founded, in fact, upon that anti-scriptural doctrine, 
 that we are to be " kept from the evil of the world" by being 
 " taken out of the world." True, if you put your pupil in prison 
 he will not get out to do any mischief, if your locks and walls 
 are safe ; but, when he gets out, whether by stealth or at the 
 time of his legal enlargement, you may be quite sure he will do 
 mischief with but little remorse. 
 
 The other extreme is to give the student up entirely to his 
 own responsibilities under the sanction of fixed penal laws. This 
 is nearly the plan of the English, and too many of the American 
 
428 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 universities and colleges. This, too, is an easy process ; for it 
 takes much less time to decide a case and affix a penalty, in view 
 of a fixed statute, than it does to look after the exposed youth 
 with a parental eye ; to fortify his mind with the strong persua- 
 sives and dissuasives of moral and religious obligations ; and to 
 call his attention to the elements of sin in his heart and the earli- 
 est deviations of his practice. Yet this latter is the true course. 
 The man who is not willing to watch with a vigilance that never 
 sleeps, and to rebuke, and exhort, persuade and correct, with a 
 diligence that never tires, is not the man to have the care of youth. 
 Mr. Fellenburg adopts the right course. To parental authority 
 and counsels he adds the obligations of religion. Indeed, reli- 
 gion, not in its controverted dogmas, but in its moral precepts and 
 holy sanctions, is made a prominent part of instruction ; and thus, 
 like the hydraulic works of Fair Mount, near the city of Phila- 
 delphia,* the very element that is elevated into the moral reser- 
 voirs of the soul for future usefulness furnishes the power also 
 by which the process itself is conducted with regularity, beauty, 
 and efficiency. 
 
 Perhaps I ought to say here, that there is one point, and that 
 an essential one, in which there appears, from all I can learn, to 
 be a deficiency. The necessity of a supernatural work of grace 
 upon the heart seems not to be sufficiently insisted on. Of this 
 point I could not be informed by actual observation from the short 
 time I was there, but infer it from the facts with which I became 
 acquainted on the spot and elsewhere. This, however, in all 
 teaching of religion, w T hile it should never detract from the moral 
 precepts, nor be substituted instead of devotional exercises, should 
 be inculcated as the only permanent foundation of all correct reli- 
 gious practice, moral and devotional. Here we must take our 
 stand ; however, some may say this is introducing " controverted 
 dogmas," and, therefore, is not to be justified in a school ; yet, to 
 the man who believes in the work of the spirit, the depravity of 
 the heart, and the consequent necessity of supernatural regenera- 
 tion, there can be no option ; he must give up his religion, or he 
 must enforce it on evangelical principles. I am inclined to the 
 opinion that, in this respect, there are schools in our own country 
 
 * In these works the same river, the water of which is elevated to be conveyed into 
 the city, furnishes also the water power for their elevation. 
 
THE HOFWYL SCHOOL. 429 
 
 which have the advantage over the institution at Hofwyl ; but, 
 for the inculcation of duty and of religious obligation, and for a 
 careful interweaving of our holy religion with the whole course of 
 education, probably the equal of the Hofwyl school cannot be 
 found. 
 
 To avoid any plea of sectarianism, as the students are part Catho- 
 lics and part Protestants, Mr. Fellenburg keeps two chaplains, 
 a Catholic and a Protestant. And while the general principles of 
 religious obligations are inculcated by Mr. Fellenburg, and also 
 by the respective chaplains in turn, each chaplain has an oppor- 
 tunity, a part of the day, to instruct his respective charge in the 
 peculiar dogmas of the religion he prefers. Thus, while their 
 mutual intercourse and the authority of Mr. Fellenburg prevents 
 any unpleasant collision of sentiment, these same causes tend 
 probably to soften their sectarian asperities. 
 
 Mr. Fellenburg, in conversation on this subject, expressed his 
 very great surprise at the neglect of religious instruction in our 
 schools in America ; that the Bible was excluded as a regular text- 
 book ; in short, that in the United States, among a religious, a 
 Protestant, an enlightened, and a free people, man should be edu- 
 cated so much in view of his physical wants and his temporal ex- 
 istence, while the moral feelings of the heart, and our relations to 
 God and eternity, should be left so much out of our schools. 
 "What could I say in extenuation of such a just accusation ? I 
 told him our love of religious liberty and our dread of sectarianism 
 led us to be jealous of religious instruction in our schools. But 
 he said the great principles of our religion would come in collision 
 with no man's views who believed in Christianity, and that, at 
 any rate, party views were nothing in comparison with the im- 
 portance of religious training; and, therefore, every good man 
 ought to be willing to make some sacrifices of party views for the 
 great benefits of an early religious education. How true are these 
 sentiments ! how worthy of the philanthropist of Hofwyl ! When 
 will the citizens of the United States feel their force ? There is, 
 I trust, a better state of feeling on this subject dawning upon our 
 country, and it is to be hoped that, in spite of narrow bigotry on 
 the one hand and Jacobinical looseness on the other, for these two 
 extremes generally exist together, an intelligent, hallowed, and 
 hallowing public sentiment will be formed on this subject that 
 
430 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 shall wipe away our just reproach, and pour into our schools of 
 every grade the soul-preserving and soul-reforming influences of 
 Bible truth. 
 
 4. Course of Instruction. — I have in part anticipated this by 
 enlarging as I have upon the government, and the moral and re- 
 ligious restraints involved in the control exercised over the pupils. 
 Mr. Fellenburg aims not so much to perform the office of a teach- 
 er, in the ordinary acceptation of the word, that is, one who im- 
 parts knowledge, as that of an educator, that is, one who trains 
 and fashions the man; the whole man,- intellectual, moral, and 
 physical. Hence the course of education has not respect so much 
 to the amount of knowledge imparted as to the effect produced 
 upon character. To this end the principles of morality and reli- 
 gion are inculcated as above described. The physical man is 
 trained by rural labour, by gymnastic exercises, &c., and the in- 
 tellect is instructed by such kinds and degrees of study as the cir- 
 cumstances of the pupil may require and will admit of. The 
 classification is not at all governed by time or age, but by attain- 
 ments, and by mental and physical capabilities. The severer 
 studies are in the morning, when the powers of body and mind 
 are in the most vigorous exercise, and the lighter studies are re- 
 served for the after part of the day. No rewards are held out to 
 excite ambition and rivalry, but each is encouraged to make the 
 best use of the powers God has given him ; and for this course, 
 whether his success be brilliant or moderate, he is approved and 
 honoured. It is the wish of Mr. Fellenburg to have his pupils so 
 long with him as to give him time to stamp the mark of Hofwyl 
 upon them. He seeks not to have students to come to him for 
 the purpose of obtaining a particular science, but to be educated. 
 He only asks an opportunity to join his endeavours with natural 
 powers and the student's own efforts, to make the man what he 
 should be for the important purposes of time and eternity. 
 
 The instructers are mostly young men ; several of them are 
 performing the duties of assistant teachers, and at the same time 
 pursuing their own studies. 
 
 It is impossible to go into the minutia of the system of educa- 
 tion at Hofwyl. In fact, education, so far as it is an art, and it 
 is both an art and a science, cannot be described. Certain ob- 
 jects may be proposed, and certain general principles may be laid 
 
THE HOFWYL SCHOOL. 481 
 
 down ; but the practical adaptation of those principles to the varied 
 circumstances of the case is a matter of skill, a matter of experi- 
 ence, a matter of natural aptness, a matter of taste. Out of five 
 hundred youths whom Mr. Fellenburg has instructed in his school 
 for the indigent, only thirteen have been found who were judged 
 well adapted to the profession of a teacher, or, more properly, of 
 an educator. This, if it be a fair proportion, and I know of no 
 place where that proportion would be more judiciously designated 
 and recognised than here, shows how rare is the talent for this 
 most important of all professions. The instructers formed by Mr. 
 Fellenburg " devote their most conscientious solicitude and care 
 to their pupils ; they share in their pleasures and their pains, 
 and to them the task is sweet and full of delights.'''' The painter 
 and the poet may be assisted by the rules of their art, but they 
 must have taste and genius of their own, or they will never suc- 
 ceed. The rules would be infinite that should dictate, in every 
 combination, where and how to touch the pencil or guide the pen. 
 Having the principles within him, and his whole soul in his sub- 
 ject, the artist touches the image by the instinctive promptings of 
 genius, and the production springs forth true to the life. So the 
 educator. He may draw his bold outlines by the rules of his art, 
 but the filling up, the perfecting of the character, depends upon 
 those every-day, oft-repeated touches which are small and unim- 
 portant in themselves, but are constantly working out and perfect- 
 ing the colouring and lineaments of the mental character. 
 
 It may be asked, does Mr. Fellenburg succeed according to his 
 theory 1 It would be strange if it was not found here, as elsewhere, 
 that to theorize on education is one thing, and to do the work an- 
 other. But from all I can learn of the Hofwyl Institution, it is 
 more interesting and important in its practical operations and in 
 its results than in its theories. The Rev. Mr. W., whom I met 
 at Hofwyl, and who has spent months there, both now and at a 
 former period, informed me that his attention was attracted almost 
 every day to some new feature of this interesting institution. 
 
 I cannot but hope that the excellences of these schools will be 
 practically introduced into our country ; a young man from New- 
 England, who is an enthusiast in the cause of education, is now 
 ihere as an assistant instructer ; and will, I doubt not, catch the 
 rery spirit of Hofwyl and transfer it to America. True, some 
 
432 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 things are not desirable. The grading of the schools, whatever 
 may be its advantage there, would not answer for us ; we want 
 no aristocracy of that kind introduced into our literary institutions. 
 It is also true that some of the best features of the Hofwyl sys- 
 tem are beginning to be adopted with us. We have schools where 
 the physical and moral, as well as the intellectual man, are edu- 
 cated ; we have schools where the principles of our holy religion 
 are faithfully inculcated ; we have schools where the paternal 
 government is exercised ; but, in our primary schools especially, 
 there is still too much despotism, and in our colleges too much 
 foreign legislation. It is mortifying to know that we have so 
 many colleges and universities that have a code of laws for the 
 moral government of the students enacted by one board, and put 
 into the hands of another for execution. It appears to me that 
 every president and faculty of a college ought to be made respon- 
 sible for their government ; and, if they cannot regulate their inter- 
 esting household without this array of legislation, judicial powers, 
 and magisterial- execution, they are unfit for office, and should give 
 place to others. 
 
 But to return. I found much interest in the agricultural ar- 
 rangements of Hofwyl. Mr. Fellenburg is a great lover of agri- 
 culture. He has invented numerous agricultural instruments, 
 which, taken altogether, constitute quite a museum. He had 
 forty-four of the finest cows I think that I ever saw. These are 
 all kept stabled, and fed on fresh clover in the season of it, and 
 were as fat as the fattest stall-fed beef, and their milk was almost 
 cream. Indeed, a leading employment of the agriculturists in 
 this part of Switzerland, at this season of the year, is to cut the 
 fresh grass to feed their stock, which is universally kept stabled. 
 This saves fencing and preserves the manure, but engrosses much 
 time that our farmers, by their method of keeping their cattle in 
 summer, save for other purposes. 
 
 We were also much charmed with the family of Mr. Fellen- 
 burg — his excellent wife and daughters. Courteous, pious, intel- 
 ligent, and affectionate, they received us with open arms, and 
 treated us as strangers love to be treated. We dined and took 
 tea with the family, enjoyed a most delightful social interview, 
 and were entertained, among other things, by one of the young 
 lady's playing us some of the wild and enchanting airs of the 
 
BALE. 433 
 
 Swiss mountaineers. We were compelled at last reluctantly to 
 bid them farewell, and returned to our lodgings. 
 
 We started on Friday, 10th of June, for Bale ; found the 
 country, as before, picturesque and beautiful ; dined at Soleure, 
 the capital of the canton of the same name. It is situated on the 
 river Aar, is not large, but rather pleasant than otherwise. Has 
 a public library of ten thousand volumes ; a museum of natural 
 history, which is especially rich in petrifactions,* and, like the 
 other cantonal capitals, is a fortified city. Soon after leaving So- 
 leure we reached the base of the Jura Alps ; and, after coasting 
 along at their feet three or four leagues, we turned up a valley 
 which led us gradually to the top almost without our perceiving 
 it. Indeed, the mountains here had considerably subsided, and 
 they were cut through by streams and inhabited valleys on either 
 side, so as to render the entire route easy and pleasant. There 
 are some very good views in this passage. We lodged on the top 
 of the pass, and the next day at eleven A. M. entered Bale. 
 
 This city was the capital of the canton of the same name ; but 
 the political divisions which have long disturbed the peace of 
 many of the Swiss cantons, viz., the contention between the city 
 and the country, has led to an entire cantonal separation, so that 
 there is now two cantons of Bale : the canton of the country, of 
 which Liestall is the capital, and the canton of the city of Bale. 
 The city persisted in its old feudal rights of monopolizing the 
 whole power, and of holding the country as a kind of an appen- 
 dage to itself. Against this the country remonstrated, and claimed 
 its full share in the government, until the contention assumed a 
 serious aspect ; and, after some violence on both sides, it was ter- 
 minated by a formal separation, which was sanctioned by the 
 Diet of the Cantons. 
 
 One hardly knows which to admire most, the arrogancy of the 
 city, or the patience of the country in submitting to such claims 
 so long. But this is accounted for on the principle of the strength 
 of the old feudal system, which gave all the power to the cities 
 and the castles, and from the effects of which, in this and in other 
 things, society has not yet fully recovered itself on the eastern con- 
 tinent, even among the most free and most enlightened ; and would 
 have advanced, doubtless, much slower in its progress towards 
 
 * Many of these are from the Jura Alps, where marine petrifactions are abundant. 
 37 31 
 
434 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 emancipation, but for the example that has been set in the New 
 World, where society was unencumbered with the accumulated 
 rubbish of ages of ignorance and sin. 
 
 The more we examine the past and present history of the 
 world, the more we must admire the secret workings of that 
 Providence which kept in reserve one hemisphere until the vari- 
 ous combinations and corruptions of society should have time to 
 deyelop themselves, and the errors in social and political life should 
 have shown practically their pernicious results. In the darkest 
 hour of these dreadful corruptions the portals of the new theatre 
 were thrown open, and the fugitives from oppression and error, 
 who could with difficulty have wrought a radical reform amid the 
 inveterate evils of old institutions, had an opportunity of forming 
 and presenting, on a virgin soil and in an infant society, the need- 
 ed exhibition of a new, a free, and an enlightened social system. 
 This infant society was, even in its cradle, d Hercules, and stran- 
 gled the serpent which the Goddess of Error sent from the Old 
 World for its destruction. Since that time it has grown up to its 
 manly maturity, and, like a reforming genius, is reacting upon the 
 eastern hemisphere, accomplishing the Herculean labours of de- 
 stroying the more than twelve political plagues that have so long 
 infested the earth. This work may go on slowly, but go on it 
 must ; the monsters of error and oppression will struggle hard for 
 existence, but they must finally fall, maugre all their temporary 
 and local triumphs. 
 
 There can be no doubt, I think, but that the political character 
 of the world has a direct bearing upon those moral and religious 
 triumphs to which the Christian church has for a long time been 
 looking to change the character of our race. Not only the polit- 
 ical changes in Switzerland, as well as elsewhere, stand remotely 
 connected with these expected moral and religious changes, but 
 we generally find the religious movements to correspond, in their 
 advancement, very nearly with the political melioration of society. 
 This, as we have seen, is true in Switzerland generally, and it is 
 especially true at Bale. This city seems, in fact, to be the point 
 of radiation, from which spiritual light has emanated to different 
 parts of the Continent. 
 
 The first institution that I visited in Bale was the Missionary 
 Institution, under the care of the venerable Dr. Blumheart, to 
 
THE MISSIONARY INSTITUTION. 435 
 
 whom I had letters of introduction. I found the old patriarch 
 sitting in a room hung round with the printed portraits of his chil- 
 dren, as he termed them. Every student who becomes qualified 
 and leaves the institution for the missionary field leaves his like- 
 ness behind him ; and these are preserved and arranged so as to 
 constitute a kind of chronological calendar of the graduates. One 
 hundred and twenty-five have already been sent out from this in- 
 stitution, thirty-two of whom have gone to their reward, leaving 
 ninety-three still in the field, in different parts of the world. 
 
 This institution seems to have led the way for all the other mis- 
 sionary operations in Switzerland and France. It was formed at 
 (humanly speaking) a very inauspicious moment. It was at the 
 time of the great military movements in Europe for the dethrone- 
 ment of Napoleon. Bale was then encompassed with armies ; 
 the French on one side and the other Continental powers on the 
 other. The city itself was bombarded all one day, but was saved 
 by a strong east wind, which checked the momentum of the 
 bombs, so that all but two or three exploded short of their desti- 
 nation. Amid this scene of war and tumult, the hearts, of some of 
 the good men of the place were moved to establish this mission- 
 ary institute ; and the present principal, then a secretary of a so- 
 ciety for the circulation of Christian publications, was called to 
 make the commencement. He began with one scholar, and from 
 this beginning it has grown up to its present standing. The build- 
 ing, which is by no means an imposing one, has been purchased 
 by the proceeds of their missionary publications ; and they have 
 also collected a small library. Besides these they have no funds 
 except the " love of Christians" as the venerable Blumheart ex- 
 pressed it, and " the heart of our God and Father" They have 
 now forty-three students, all of whom receive a gratuitous educa- 
 tion, at an expense of about twenty thousand dollars per annum, 
 and yet they have never lacked. " We have not known," says 
 Dr. Blumheart, " at the beginning of the year, where our money 
 was coming from, and yet we have never failed, at the close, to 
 have a surplus." Much of their support and many of their schol- 
 ars are from the neighbouring kingdom of Wurtemburg. A num- 
 ber of the small villages from that kingdom send them from two 
 to three hundred dollars per annum. The scholars stay five years 
 in the institution, unless they come somewhat advanced in their 
 
436 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 studies, in which case their stay is proportionately shortened ; and 
 during this time they are expected to obtain their classical and 
 professional education. If they go out with the spirit of their ven- 
 erable president, they must certainly do good. I was specially 
 pleased with the simplicity, the zeal, and the piety of this mission- 
 ary patriarch. " The present is a day," says he, " when all Chris- 
 tians should forget the distinctions of nations and of sects to unite 
 in the common cause of evangelizing the toorld" This is a sen- 
 timent worthy of the father and founder of a missionary school. 
 Let this spirit prevail in the church, and the world will soon be 
 made better. 
 
 During the triumphs of infidelity in the last century it became 
 extremely difficult and almost impossible to print and circulate 
 Christian books. There was such a public and general feeling 
 against it, that no bookseller or publisher dare undertake it. In 
 this state of things, the few who did not bow the knee to the 
 infidel spirit of the day combined together to print and circulate 
 Christian books. The centre of this society was at Bale, and it 
 was sustained by numerous auxiliary societies in different parts of 
 Germany. From this society sprang the first Bible society on 
 the Continent, which was formed the same year with the British 
 and Foreign Bible Society, but a little before it. So that Bale 
 has the honour of taking the lead in mission schools, in religious 
 tract societies, in Bible societies, and, in fact, we may say, in the 
 entire evangelical work, which may be called the second Reform- 
 ation, in Germany, Switzerland, and France. It seems as though 
 an overruling Providence has delighted to honour the place where 
 sleeps the dust of that great and good man, Erasmus, and make it the 
 special instrument of blessing the surrounding nations and the world. 
 
 Erasmus, however, is not the only great and good man that has 
 sanctified the history of Bale. The great Swiss reformer, Zuin- 
 glius, who took the field in the west of Switzerland against the er- 
 rors of popery while Calvin was yet in his childhood, graduated to 
 the degree of doctor in divinity at the university in this town. 
 Nay, it may be said that he paved the way for Calvin himself; for 
 when the latter was driven by persecution from Paris, he found 
 an asylum prepared for him at Bale by the previous labours of 
 Zuinglius. Here Calvin dedicated to Francis I. his famous apol- 
 ogy for the reformers. To Bale also Arminius himself retreated 
 
LITERARY INSTITUTIONS. 437 
 
 for a while in 1583, being driven from Protestant Geneva (for 
 Protestant Geneva has always been rather notorious for its intol- 
 erance) because he espoused and boldly defended the philosophy 
 of Ramus in opposition to that of Aristotle. A clear indication, 
 by-the-by, of his early discrimination, and a noble presage of Jjis 
 future independence and eminence. 
 
 They are well provided with literary institutions in Bale. Here 
 is the " College of Erasmus," the room where that great scholar 
 used to lecture ; and on one of the benches is still seen a rude 
 likeness of the professor, carved with a penknife by some idle 
 wight of a scholar who, like some modern pupils, preferred whit- 
 tling to study, and taking a likeness of his professor's face to 
 obtaining a transcript of his intellect. The university is divided 
 into the four sections of theology, law, medicine, and philoso- 
 phy. They have also five parish schools, a gymnasium, &c. 
 They have in Bale some very good collections of natural history, 
 and a very interesting public library containing many old books 
 and manuscripts, and a great number of paintings by that cele- 
 brated artist, Hans Holbein ; especially some fragments of his 
 far-famed Dance of Death ; an excellent portrait of Erasmus, a 
 less perfect one of Luther, and various others of more or less 
 merit. Holbein was a native of this city, and hence we might 
 naturally expect to find here many of his paintings ; although,, 
 probably, the best part of his painting days, for they were the last 
 years of his life, were spent in England, under the patronage of 
 Henry the Eighth. The, cathedral is the most prominent church, 
 elevated upon a terrace, in which are the tombs of the Empress 
 Anne, wife of the Emperor Rhodolphus of the house of Hapsburg ; 
 of Erasmus, with a monument of black marble, and of other em- 
 inent persons. In this cathedral also is the hall where the cel- 
 ebrated council of Bale held its sessions from the year 1431 to 
 1444. Truly, a long parliament, but not quite equal to that of 
 Trent, which, a century afterward, lasted eighteen years. The 
 popish councils were long enough to be infallible. 
 
 Bale contains about seventeen thousand souls, and is a place 
 of a great deal of business. Its manufactures are cotton-prints, 
 leather, paper, hose, gloves, silks, &c. We visited some most 
 splendid and extensive riband factories, many of which, especially 
 the belt ribands, which were the finest I ever saw, were destined, 
 37 
 
438 
 
 SWITZERLAND. 
 
 we were told, for the American market. This city claims the 
 honour of having invented the manufacture of paper. 
 
 The trade of the city is aided by the waters of the Rhine, on 
 the banks of which it is situated ; not so much, however, by the 
 channel of the river, the navigation of which is very difficult on 
 account of the great rapidity of the current, as by a canal near 
 its banks, and connecting with the river lower down. 
 
 There is much wealth among the principal citizens of Bale, 
 which is increased yearly by their industry and frugality. Their 
 spirit of saving is thought by some to be excessive, for they are 
 said to live niggardly, and that without spending one tenth of their 
 income. Sumptuary laws are still in force in the city ; and the citi- 
 zens are prohibited the wearing of diamonds, Cashmere shawls, &c. 
 This, probably, may have laid the foundation, in part, for the rare 
 economy, not to say parsimony, which marks the family expenses. 
 
 There is a bridge over the Rhine at Bale, which connects the 
 principal city with a smaller town on the other side, called Little 
 Bale. Between these two towns, it is said, there was formerly 
 much contention and local jealousy, of which there is still remain- 
 ing a most laughable monument. In a tower directly facing the 
 bridge is a public clock and a carved image of a human face, 
 whose perpetual business seems to be to make faces at Little 
 Bale. The image has its mouth a little open, and is furnished 
 with a long tongue of a fiery red colour, which is so connected 
 with the pendulum of the clock, that every vibration in one direc- 
 tion runs it out in a threatening, scornful, venomous brandishing 
 towards Little Bale, and the return stroke draws it in. The de- 
 vice is so queer, so expressive, and, at the same time, so ludicrous, 
 that I could scarcely refrain from laughing right heartily in the 
 public thoroughfare when I saw it, and I have felt my risibles 
 excited ever since whenever my mind has reverted to the perpet- 
 ual spitting out of that scornful red tongue towards the momently 
 insulted and scorned town of poor Little Bdle. 
 
 From Bale there is a number of interesting excursions. One 
 to a village a little distance from the gate, where, in 1444, 
 six hundred Swiss fought ten hours with forty thousand French, 
 commanded by the dauphine, afterward Louis XL of France, 
 and, Spartan-like, all perished in arms save twelve, who were 
 marked with infamy by their countrymen for having survived 
 
DEPARTURE FROM SWITZERLAND. 439 
 
 their brave compatriots. It is by such deeds of almost superhu- 
 man valour that the Swiss have been enabled to assert and main- 
 tain their liberty and independence. 
 
 Another excursion is two leagues distant to the town of Augst, 
 the ancient city of Augusta Rauracorum, built by Munatius Plan- 
 cus, under the reign of Augustus. Here have been found a great 
 number of Roman antiquities. But we had no time for this and 
 other interesting excursions. Having exchanged our respectful, 
 accommodating Swiss coachman and pleasant coach for an indif- 
 ferent carriage, and, what was worse, for an ignorant, selfish Ger- 
 man boor, we prepared to leave Switzerland. As in no part of 
 our tour had we travelled with so much unmixed pleasure as in 
 these cantons, so there was no country which we had left with 
 so much regret as we felt at leaving this. We wanted the en- 
 tire summer to penetrate these valleys, climb these mountains, and 
 navigate these lakes. We wanted to linger longer even here in 
 Bale. Our dining-room of the Three Kings (that is the name of 
 our hotel) literally hung over the waters of the Rhine, so that, 
 like some of the ancient feudal chieftains from their castles, we 
 could, from our hotel, fish in the river. The wall next to the 
 river was mostly glass, so that we had as full view of the Rhine, 
 the bridge, and the opposite banks, as though we were dining in 
 an open portico over the border of the river. But we must leave 
 all. We go most sincerely praying, if we are ever banished from 
 our own country, we may be permitted to find a home in Switz- 
 erland, the New-England of Europe. 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Left Bale 13th June by the Duchy of Baden, one of the states 
 of the German confederacy, which we entered very soon after 
 leaving Bale. The route to Strasburg, on the right bank of the 
 Rhine, is generally through a fertile country, and the fertility in- 
 creased as we advanced. For some leagues on the right was a 
 succession of vineyards on the side of a range of hills ; after 
 which we came to extensive intervals of grass, rye, wheat, barley, 
 Indian corn, hemp, tobacco, &c. The most prevalent growth, 
 
440 GERMANY. 
 
 however, was rye, a great portion of which, I suppose, is manu- 
 factured into Holland gin. Thus in this country, as in our own, 
 the good creatures of God are metamorphosed into poison to de- 
 stroy our race, and the hard earnings of the labouring class are 
 prostituted to purposes of destruction of life rather than for sus- 
 taining it. The females seemed almost universally to be em- 
 ployed in the field, and very commonly with bare heads and naked 
 arms.* Their petticoats had high wastes, which came up over 
 the shoulders, and they wore no gowns, so that they had nothing 
 upon their arms but the short sleeves of the chemise. Thus 
 equipped, they laboured under a hot sun in the field or meadow 
 until their skin was seared with the heat and wind. They seemed 
 to be an industrious, hard-labouring class of peasants ; and, at 
 the same time, not favoured, apparently, with all those comforts 
 which hard work and a rich soil united ought to furnish. Whether 
 this is the fault of the government, or whether the aristocratic 
 few eat up the earnings of the many, I cannot say. There cer- 
 tainly appeared to be very few lordlings among them. I never 
 travelled a country so productive and prosperous where I saw so 
 few princely houses of nobility or costly country-seats as here. 
 The inhabitants appeared very much on an equality, living in 
 villages, as in France, and not each on his own land, as in Switz- 
 erland. Their houses were generally framed ; and then, instead 
 of being covered with boards, the frames were filled in between 
 the timbers with bricks, and sometimes with a kind of crooked 
 lath locked in and plastered over in an even surface with the 
 frame, leaving all the timbers exposed, however; and as the 
 studs and braces, posts and girths, are numerous, and sometimes 
 fantastically and irregularly arranged, they give the buildings a 
 singularly streaked appearance — white plastered walls striped 
 in with wooden timbers. The houses are usually, in their agri- 
 cultural villages, but one story high. Hence they do not live 
 over their cattle, as in Italy and Switzerland ; but their stables 
 are not far off, and the manure heap is still frequently seen fer- 
 menting in the front yard. 
 
 We dined at Friburg. This is a respectable little town, con- 
 taining an ancient university, which still numbers about four hun- 
 
 * As we descended lower down near Kiel their heads were generally covered with a 
 straw hat as large as a small clothesbasket. 
 
FRIBURG CATHEDRAL. 441 
 
 dred students, and has a library of forty thousand volumes. There 
 is also a theological school distinct from the university contain- 
 ing thirty students. 
 
 But the great object of interest at Friburg is the splendid Gothic 
 cathedral, said to be the finest in Germany. It was commenced 
 in the fore part of the twelfth century, and was three hundred 
 years in being completed. The spire is light, arched, and orna- 
 mented with niches, statues, and most exquisite fretwork to the 
 very top, which is an elevation of three hundred and eighty feet. 
 The Gothic roses, embossed flowers and buds, filagree-work, 
 arches, statuary, and pyramids, all displayed with architectural 
 art and industry, exhibit one of the finest specimens of the kind 
 I have ever seen. In fact, the whole exterior is a curious affair. 
 A commissioner of one of the hotels, who speaks indifferent Eng- 
 lish at best, has thus described the tout ensemble of the exterior. 
 " We see windows framed in ogee-arches, with Gothic roses in 
 boundless windings and turnings, the different compartments 
 crossing in every direction ; it is a vast labyrinth of intertwisted 
 ramifications (!) — balusters nicely interwoven with different con- 
 tortions, surmounted by Gothic ornamental pinnacles ; elegant 
 niches, with figures surmounted by Gothic canopies, towering high 
 in air ; pedestals of exquisite workmanship ; pillars with capitals 
 of varied foliage ; buttresses surmounted by Gothic pyramidal 
 pinnacles ; Gothic crownwork high in air ; flying buttresses and 
 angles, adorned with Gothic flowers and buds, embossed in varied 
 foliage ; high embossed lines, with foliage throughout the whole 
 length, underneath the balusters of the nave and collaterals ; the 
 Gothic staircase, winding up by numberless slender pillars, so 
 light and airy ; rain-spouts formed in the shape of different figures 
 of men, animals, and monsters, gaping and projecting out from 
 the cornered buttresses ;* and the mysterious train of allegorical 
 figures and animals." 
 
 I have introduced this quotation, partly because it seems to me 
 that this " Gothic," " ornamented," " fretted," redundant style is 
 of itself a pretty good representation of the style of architecture 
 it attempts to describe ; and partly because I wished to intro- 
 duce to the reader this curious cicerone, who, for the time he 
 
 * Some of these rain-spouts, in the manner of the age, were truly grotesque, and, in 
 some instances, presented aspects not only ludicrous, but indecent. 
 
 3K 
 
442 GERMANY. 
 
 was with us, afforded us some interest and amusement. His 
 name is John Andrew Ritschil, which name, as he seems to 
 think, he has immortalized by an " English poem," which is an 
 allegory representing the attack of the vicious upon the good, by 
 the powerful assault of the winds upon the tower of the cathedral, 
 in which the cathedral, like the good man in affliction, stood firm 
 and defied the tempest. And long will it defy it, I believe, and 
 the corroding tooth of time also ; for, although it is constructed of 
 red sandstone, it seems only to grow harder by time, and pre- 
 sents a firmer wall now than at its first erection. 
 
 The only things of interest to us at Nemmingin, the little vil- 
 lage where we stayed the first night, were an excellent hotel with 
 clean and airy apartments, and a magnificent stork's nest, which 
 was perched upon the top of a church. There is something in 
 these nests piled up like a haycock upon the ridges of the high- 
 est edifices, so strongly fixed as to defy the fiercest storms, at- 
 tended, as they generally are, by one or both of the noble pair to 
 which the nest belongs, watching with a parental assiduity and so- 
 licitude their rising charge, and connected with the almost sacred 
 character which they sustain, and which protects them from all 
 annoyance from man, that renders them objects of intense inter- 
 est. The second day we arrived at Kiel, which is a village oppo- 
 site Strasburg ; and here, to avoid the vexations of the custom- 
 house, we left our carriage and baggage, and took another vehicle 
 to cross over and see the city of Strasburg. We passed the 
 Rhine on a bridge of boats. Strasburg, although formerly a Ger- 
 man city, belongs to France ; the territory of which country is 
 now brought up to the Rhine, on its eastern boundary in this re- 
 gion. The place has been a bone of contention and the scene 
 of many a battle ; the environs are fattened with the blood of the 
 skin. On an island formed by an arm of the Rhine is a fine 
 monument to the gallant Dessaix, on which is this simple inscrip- 
 tion : To General Dessaix, by the army of the Rhine. Stras- 
 burg is a fortified city, strongly protected and compactly built, 
 containing about fifty thousand inhabitants, and pleasantly situa- 
 ted in the midst of a fertile country. It is not immediately on 
 the banks of the Rhine, but it has water conveyance by means of 
 a branch of the Rhine which passes through the heart of the city. 
 Its object of greatest interest is the cathedral. We ascended 
 
STRASBURG TELEGRAPH. 443 
 
 four hundred and sixty-one feet to the top of its magnificent tower, 
 and had a fine view of the city and its environs. While we were 
 there a telegraph was playing on a tower at the other end of the 
 cathedral, and such was the expedition with which it communi- 
 cated with Paris, that they proposed a question and received an 
 answer in six or eight minutes. The master of the telegraph had 
 a house the other side of the square, where he sat in his window* 
 and with a small telegraphic machine exhibited the various forms 
 in which the main machine upon the tower was to be exhibited ; 
 and this was speedily taken by the next, which was at a conve- 
 nient distance to notice the position with a telescope, and this again 
 was taken by the next, and so it passed from hill to hill and from 
 mountain to mountain with a speed that outstripped the winds, 
 and back again with the same speed. Thus, by this wonderful 
 device, France, from all her extensive frontiers, may be reported 
 every few minutes to Paris ; and so, indeed, a great part of it is. 
 Not a ship arrives ofT Havre de Grace, but it is known at Paris, I 
 like to have said, as soon as by the citizens of Havre ; the differ- 
 ence is so small that it is not noticeable ; for the same telegraphic 
 sign that conveys the intelligence to the town of Havre sends it 
 with the rapidity almost of a shooting meteor to Paris. 
 
 The clock of this cathedral is a plane tariwn, and gives also the 
 days of the week as well as the usual indications of a clock. It 
 is a very fine piece of machinery. 
 
 In the church of St. Thomas is the splendid mausoleum of 
 Marshal Saxe. Here also is an embalmed Count of Nassau, who 
 has lain there for about four hundred years, and his daughter, 
 about sixteen years of age, both well preserved, and dressed in 
 the costumes of the fifteenth century. 
 
 From Kiel we took our departure, June 16, to Baden, a village 
 in the Duchy of Baden, about twenty-four to thirty miles from 
 Kiel, and a little out of our direct road to Frankfort, back under 
 the base of the mountains. Our object in visiting this place was 
 to have a specimen of a German watering-place, of which this is 
 thought to be a very fair sample. The mineral waters are hot, 
 and have the properties of iron, a little sulphur, salts, &c. The 
 village itself contains about four thousand inhabitants, and is vis- 
 ited annually by eleven or twelve thousand strangers, some for 
 
444 GERMANY. 
 
 disease, more for pleasure, and perhaps still more for gaming. 
 The gaming here is very deep, and by the princes of the land, as 
 well as by others. 
 
 There are several hotels where they have convenient baths for 
 visiters. The hotels are large, but not as elegant as those in our 
 public watering-places. The lodging-rooms, however, are much 
 more spacious and convenient than the little cells in which they 
 stow away their visiters at Saratoga and Ballston ; and the accom- 
 modations are at much lower prices ; for while at Saratoga, for ex- 
 ample, you pay, at the best hotels, from six to ten dollars, you get 
 accommodations at the first hotels in Baden for about two dollars. 
 In addition to these baths at the hotels, there are public baths for 
 the poor, and cheaper houses, where they can live for a very mod- 
 erate sum. 
 
 The Duchy of Baden, as well as other parts of Germany, has 
 numerous medicinal springs,* many of which are hot-springs, 
 which show that there are subterranean fires in constant opera- 
 tion, elaborating perpetually these chymical waters, and sending 
 them forth scalding hot from their subterranean caldrons ; and 
 they have been of long standing, for the ancient Romans had 
 baths here, the ruins of which still remain. 
 
 The walks and gardens in and about Baden are very fine. 
 They are not so artificial as to destroy the pleasing rusticity of 
 the natural scenery, and yet sufficiently improved by art to render 
 the places of resort accessible and pleasant. There is an old cha- 
 teau here, with pleasant gardens, which used to be the residence 
 of the former Margraves of Baden. The most interesting part of 
 this edifice is the subterranean apartments, which used to be oc- 
 cupied by a branch of the secret tribunal. These apartments are 
 very deep, and constructed of strong and heavy masonry, with nu- 
 merous divisions for prisons, a judgment hall, a room for torture, 
 and a deep pit for the execution of those appointed for death. 
 This pit was situated under one of the dark avenues that led from 
 one of these gloomy cells to the other, and the condemned victim, 
 as he was walking forward, found a drop suddenly give way 
 under his feet, and let him into the pit, where he was crushed to 
 
 * In one of the itineraries seventy-seven public watering-places of mineral waters are 
 particularly described, besides a number of others which are incidentally mentioned as 
 being of less note. It is said there are one thousand in Germany. 
 
SECRET COMBINATIONS. 445 
 
 death by a wheel. These cells were closed by heavy stone doors,' 
 all of one piece, ten inches thick* and hung on hinges ; and the 
 unfortunate beings who fell into the hands of these secret murder- 
 ers were let down into the cells by a secret trapdoor from above, 
 through which the light was seen faintly to glimmer as we looked 
 up to it from the dark depths below. Happy for society that such 
 institutions cannot flourish, and such deeds of darkness cannot be 
 perpetrated at the present day. At the same time we ought not 
 to forget that secret combinations may be abused in any age, even 
 the most enlightened, to the danger of public liberty and of individ- 
 ual rights ; and that, therefore, all such combinations should be dis- 
 couraged. However well-intentioned many may be who have, in 
 our own day, countenanced such ihstitutions, and I certainly would 
 not deal in wholesale and indiscriminate censure towards such, for 
 this would be unjust and ungenerous, still, in view of past history, 
 and of the known character of man, I think the public have a right 
 to expect, in this day of light and reflection, that all philanthropic 
 and patriotic men will hereafter, whatever may have been done 
 formerly, discountenance, by their example and precept, all such 
 institutions. So obvious, as it appears to me, is the duty of good 
 citizens in this respect, that it is surprising there should be in 
 active operation, at the present time, in Germany and Switzerland, 
 more than three hundred secret associations, all bearing the gen- 
 eral name of Freemasons, although existing, I believe, under differ- 
 ent forms and modifications. 
 
 There are the ruins of a still older cMteau or castle something 
 less than a mile from this, upon the side of the mountain overlook- 
 ing the town. It was a veritable feudal castle, and the ruins are 
 truly picturesque and imposing. The approach is through a very 
 dense pine forest up the mountain-side, and the castle itself is in 
 the midst of a forest, with large forest-trees growing out of the 
 walls and in the centre of the courts of this ancient fortress of feu- 
 dal chivalry. They are ruins in a wilderness, and yet so magnifi- 
 cent that they still resist all the efforts of nature either to dissolve 
 the massy walls, and towers, and princely halls, or to overshadow 
 them with the luxuriant vegetation that nourishes around. The 
 mouldering turrets still overtop the forest, and, rising up in maj- 
 esty, overlook the meandering Rhine and its wide and fertile val- 
 ley far beyond Strasburg on the one side and Carlsruhe on the 
 38 
 
446 GERMANY. 
 
 other ; showing numerous villages sprinkled over the valleys, and 
 giving the eye an enchanting range equal to its strongest power 
 of vision. We climbed still higher, to a fortress some two hun- 
 dred feet above, where there seems to have been a strong citadel 
 overlooking the castle, and serving as an outwork for its defence 
 and greater security. The prospect was indescribably fine. We 
 were obliged, however, to leave our elevation and the chivalrous 
 associations around us, and descend to the valley, to start, accord- 
 ing to arrangements, for Carlsruhe, which we reached that even- 
 ing. 
 
 We arrived at Carlsruhe, the capital of Baden, in time to visit the 
 extensive gardens of the grand duke, and to take a superficial survey 
 of the palace, the park, the public squares, fountains, &c. . This is 
 a very pleasant town, containing twenty thousand five hundred in- 
 habitants. The streets are laid out in the form of a fan, all radiating 
 from the palace as a centre. Round this centre, at a given distance, 
 is struck a circle, which bounds the public squares in front of the 
 palace and the gardens in the rear. The public gardens are hand- 
 some ; the avenues through the park, which is a noble forest, are 
 straight and long, and the perspective is very beautiful. The 
 streets of the city are ample and clean. To add to the interest of 
 the occasion, it was the time of one of their semiannual fairs, and 
 the public grounds were occupied by long ranges of moveable 
 shops, which are erected so as to give the appearance of a tem- 
 porary city. These shops, or shantees, as we should call them 
 in the United States, are taken down when the fair is over, and 
 the parts stored until the next exhibition. To these fairs persons 
 come, with their wares and merchandise, from quite a distance, 
 rent their temporary shop, and spread out their goods for sale. 
 The time being known to all the country and towns around, the 
 people and village retailers come hither also to make their pur- 
 chases. In this way many people are drawn together, and vari- 
 ous amusements are connected with their business transactions. 
 At night they close up the front of their shops, and some of them 
 pack their wares in their boxes, to be displayed again in the morn- 
 ing. The Carlsruhe fairs are twice a year, and continue a fort- 
 night. This feature of commerce is entirely unknown among us, 
 but has been continued, in man}?- towns in Europe, from the cus- 
 toms of the earlier ages, when commerce was in its infancy, and 
 
HABITS OF THE FEMALES. 447 
 
 might, therefore, require such extraordinary seasons and concen- 
 trated efforts to sustain it; but at present they seem to me un- 
 necessary, and, although they may have their advantages, are, I 
 should think, disadvantageous both to commerce and to morals. 
 Carlsruhe is the capital of Baden, and the residence of the grand 
 duke. 
 
 From Carlsruhe we went to Heidelberg to lodge and spend the 
 Sabbath. We found the quality of the land less fertile, the cottages 
 and villages about the same, but the common people seem of 
 rather an under stature, their skin shrivelled and seared. This is 
 especially true of their women, who, from exposure and hard work 
 in the fields, have lost most of the interesting characteristics of 
 their sex. Their appearance was very coarse, and their manners, 
 in many instances, what with us would be considered indelicate. 
 We passed young girls of eight or ten years of age bathing in a 
 state of nudity close by the high road, in the centre of a village, 
 and in the presence of a number of older females, who did not ap- 
 pear at all embarrassed at our passing. The women in the field 
 have the habit of tucking up their petticoats when they are at 
 work so as not only to expose their most interior garment, but 
 also to leave the leg naked from above the knee. I do not men- 
 tion this as any proof of the want of chastity in their females, for 
 they are probably as virtuous as others ; but to show how that 
 slavish kind of labour to which the females are subjected breaks 
 down those delicate sensibilities which are so prevalent even in 
 the lower classes among us, and to give, as far as I may, a portrait- 
 ure of society as it is exhibited to the passing traveller. 
 
 We stopped at Scwhitzingue to visit the public grounds and 
 edifices of the grand duke in this village. Here he has a palace, 
 gardens of about two hundred acres, extensive parks, a grotto, a 
 Temple of Apollo, an elegant bathhouse, an artificial lake, jets flecm, 
 on which danced the rainbow, with various other artificial fountains 
 and waterworks, statuary, a Chinese bridge, artificial ruins of a 
 Temple of Mercury, and a Turkish mosque and minarets ; the 
 whole of which cost more than three millions of dollars, and re- 
 quire six thousand dollars annually to keep them in order. 
 
 Heidelberg is beautifully situated on the river Neckar, a branch 
 of the Rhine, in a recess of a narrow valley, where the former 
 river iust disembogues itself from the mountains into the wide 
 
448 GERMANY. 
 
 valley of the Rhine. It contains about eleven or twelve thousand 
 inhabitants, and is principally remarkable for its literary institu- 
 tions, and for its noble castle, now in a ruinous state, overhanging 
 the town. 
 
 At the head of the literary institutions is the University, one 
 of the most ancient in Germany. It contains about five hundred 
 students. Formerly it had nearly a thousand. But there has been, 
 as I was informed by Professor Schwarz, who is at the head of 
 the theological department, and at present, in fact, pro tempore 
 at the head of the University, a great falling off throughout Ger- 
 many of those who are pursuing a liberal and a professional course 
 of study. The reasons he assigned were, that the learned profes- 
 sions were full, and that with them, as with us, money-getting 
 and the wants of the physical man had become the all-engrossing 
 subjects of attention. 
 
 The University of Heidelberg is conducted upon the same gen- 
 eral principles of the other German universities. The instruction is 
 by lectures, and these lectures, for the most part, support the pro- 
 fessors. The government has the appointment of the professors, 
 and it allows them also, either from the public chest or from en- 
 dowments, a small annual stipend, altogether inadequate, how- 
 ever, to their support. To make up for this deficiency, they are 
 allowed to give a private course of lectures, at a price fixed by 
 authority. The result is, that, in many cases, the public course is 
 neglected both by students and professors, so that they become 
 rather nominal than otherwise ; while all the labour is bestowed 
 upon the private course, to render them more attractive, and, of 
 course, more productive. Hence the most industrious and the 
 most popular lecturer secures the most pupils and the greatest 
 income. With some disadvantages, this course has some striking 
 advantages. It makes it for a man's interest to be industrious 
 and eminent ; and this, taking man as he is, has a powerful, per- 
 haps, on the great whole, the most powerful influence, to produce 
 vigorous efforts in the discharge of professional duties. 
 
 There are public lecture-rooms in the University buildings, but 
 the private courses are generally delivered at the professor's own 
 house. The students lodge and board at private lodgings in the 
 town. They are, in general, a restless and contentious class of the 
 community, and are often engaged in skirmishes with the citizens 
 
UNIVERSITY STUDENTS. 449 
 
 and duels with each other. I speak not now particularly, much 
 less exclusively, of the students of Heidelberg, but it is said of the 
 students of the German universities generally, that duelling pre- 
 vails among them to a great extent, and the authorities, although 
 they do not actually sanction it, nevertheless wink at it. It is 
 believed, if there were a general understanding among the univer- 
 sities to put it down, it might be done ; but, as it is, no one institu- 
 tion will do it, lest it should drive away their students. Thus, as 
 in many other cases, self-interest and rivalry lead to the tolera- 
 tion of popular vices, to the great injury of the cause of educa- 
 tion and of morality. These duels, however, are generally fought 
 with swords, and seldom end fatally; but faces and breasts are 
 hacked, and eyes are put out, and sometimes other parts wound- 
 ed. The more scars of this kind they can exhibit, the greater 
 the proof that they have been good fellows at the university.* 
 
 Many of the students are very poor, and not unfrequently sup- 
 port themselves by charity, as they go to and from their places 
 of study. I could not conceive, at first, what it might mean, that 
 decently-dressed and healthy-looking young men should accost 
 us on the road with solicitations for charity. I at first supposed 
 that they did it for sport, and replied to them by returning the 
 compliment, and held out my hat to them for charity, intimating 
 that I considered them as much obliged to give to me as I to 
 them ; and that, if they trifled with me, I should answer the fool 
 according to his folly. I afterward learned, however, that these 
 were real objects of charity, and that they were begging their way 
 through the world, in order to obtain an education. 
 
 The students who can afford it generally receive private in- 
 struction from tutors, employed and paid by themselves, in addi- 
 tion to the lectures of the prefessors ; in this way the poor stu- 
 dents sometimes find employment, especially when they have 
 advanced in their studies, and not unfrequently, in this way, they 
 bring themselves into notice, and prepare the way for an enlarged 
 sphere of action as private lecturers and professors. 
 
 The lectures are so arranged, that each student can, if he 
 
 * There is evidently some discipline at the universities, for I saw posted up in the 
 public halls that such and such individuals were expelled, others censured, &c. 
 I noticed, too, that they posted up in a similar way those who had been- admitted to 
 degrees, and other college honours. 
 
 38 3L 
 
450 GERMANY. 
 
 pleases, attend them all. All religions meet together at Heidelberg, 
 for the students are made up of Protestants, Catholics, and Jews. 
 The theological professors, however, are Protestants, but in this 
 department the Catholics arid Jews are not obliged to attend. 
 
 Connected with the University were good geological and minera- 
 logical collections, and a library of sixty or seventy thousand 
 volumes. This institution was founded in 1386, and was early 
 enlisted in the Protestant cause, and became a resort for many of 
 the most eminent divinity students in the first century of the ref- 
 ormation. It was here that the famous Heidelberg Catechism 
 was formed, which was incorporated with the Belgian Confession 
 of Faith, and was so often appealed to in the disputes in the 
 Netherlands between Arminius and his followers on the one side, 
 and the high Calvinists on the other. The population of Heidel- 
 berg, however, at present, is mostly Lutheran. 
 
 It has already been stated that Heidelberg is situated in a 
 narrow valley, under the mountains. The hills rise up so sud- 
 denly and abruptly, that they overhang the houses and streets, 
 and give a picturesque appearance to the place ; and especially 
 as on one of these eminences, several hundred feet above the 
 town, is the famous Heidelberg Castle. This is a splendid 
 memorial of feudal times, the finest, perhaps, on the whole, that 
 we visited. It is in some sense in ruins, having been tremend- 
 ously shattered by the French in the war that arose concerning 
 the succession, at the extinction of the reigning family in 1693. 
 It is not, however, so demolished or dilapidated as to destroy the 
 principal apartments ; and one may, by attention, ascertain the 
 general divisions and arrangements of this splendid seat of feudal 
 chivalry and strength. Here is the Ritter Saal, or " Hall of 
 the Knights," still hung round with ancient armour. Here are 
 the fortresses, the towers, the offices, the courts, the chapel, the 
 halls, and the chambers, in a tolerable state of preservation — 
 and all in ruinous and solitary grandeur. What affrays have 
 occurred here ! what revelling and banquetting ! what broils 
 between contending knights ! what sieges and defences ! what 
 deeds of heroism ! what scenes of courtly intrigue ! In true chiv- 
 alrous spirit, love and war, dancing and fighting, sonnets and 
 blood, have been commingled together, or have followed in quick 
 succession in these princely halls. But now all is silent ! In 
 
ROUTE FROM HEIDELBERG TO DARMSTADT. 451 
 
 proof that the ancient inmates were fond of good cheer, the 
 Heidelberg Tun is a stupendous monument; it is still seen in 
 one of the lower apartments of the castle ; it is made in the form 
 of a hogshead, but is the size of a small cottage, being in dimen- 
 sions twenty-eight feet by thirty-two, and will hold, it is said, 
 two hundred and eighty-three thousand two hundred bottles ; they 
 speak also of two or three times in which this gigantic reservoir 
 was filled with wine. Near it, as large as life, stands the image 
 of old Clemens, a toper (perhaps a tapster of the castle) of noto- 
 rious memory in the history of this chateau, who used to drink 
 his fifteen bottles per day — a real John FalstafT. 
 
 The grounds around this chateau are very interesting. They 
 are romantically rural and wild, and yet have upon them the 
 stamp and order of art and of science. You would at first think 
 it was Nature's forest encroaching upon what was once the seat 
 of a military court ; but, after a little examination, you find your- 
 self in the midst of a botanic garden, planted with a numerous 
 variety of trees, shrubs, and flowering plants, labelled and named, 
 and yet so artfully done that it seems but the spontaneous growth 
 of Nature's own planting. 
 
 Our route from Heidelberg to Darmstadt was most delightful. 
 It ranged along just at the base of the mountains, or highlands, 
 which stretch almost the whole length of the eastern border of 
 Baden. The Rhine was at our left, two leagues distant, present- 
 ing a rich intervening valley in a high state of cultivation. The 
 sides of the mountains at our right were covered with vineyards, 
 and their highest points were crowned with towers and feudal 
 castles in ruins, rising up in the midst of extensive forests, as the 
 gloomy monuments of a semibarbarous and warlike age. These 
 monuments constitute the most striking feature to the eye of the 
 traveller in this country. This gives to the scene the air of ro- 
 mance, and makes one almost imagine that he still sees some 
 ghostly knight, who was murdered in a fatal affray, stalking in ar- 
 mour amid the ruins. No wonder the inhabitants in the vicinity 
 of these castles fancy that uncorporeal knights still haunt these 
 ruins. We passed this day a castle of this description, which is 
 notorious in all the regions round for the ghostly visitations of 
 these chivalrous heroes of a former age. 
 
 This day's journey finished our travels in the Grand Duchy of 
 
452 GERMANY. 
 
 Baden, and a few words will finish what more I have to say of 
 it. This was formerly a margraviate, and was founded in 1009 
 by Hermander I., who died in 1059. We saw in the chateau at 
 the town of Baden the portraits of all the margraves, in consecu- 
 tive order. This formed one of the states of the German con- 
 federacy previous to the Bonapartean conquests; but in 1806 
 Napoleon dissolved that confederacy, enlarging Westphalia, which 
 is lower down on the Rhine ; he erected it into a kingdom, and 
 placed upon the throne his brother Jerome. Bavaria and Wur- 
 temberg were also erected each into a separate kingdom ; and the 
 other smaller states, with Baden, enlarged by the addition of Bres- 
 gau on the north, were united together upon certain confederated 
 principles and provisions, under the name of the " Confederacy 
 of the Rhine." In 1815 the Congress of Vienna restored the 
 German confederacy, which now consists of thirty-five different 
 sovereignties, besides the four free cities, Hamburg, Bremen, 
 Lubeck, and Frankfort-on-the- Maine, which latter city is the seat 
 of the diet for the confederacy. In this diet all important ques- 
 tions relating to the general interests of Germany are settled. 
 Each state furnishes its quota of delegates, according to a consti- 
 tutional arrangement. In all matters, however, relating to the in- 
 ternal government, each sovereignty is independent. Some of 
 them are democracies, like Frankfort, but most of them are abso- 
 lute monarchies; but Baden, whose sovereign bears the 'name of 
 grand duke, which title has been assumed since the restoration 
 of the confederacy, has a legislature and a constitution. Of 
 course, he must keep up the splendour of a court, as must all the 
 other petty sovereigns, and this will account for the otherwise 
 unaccountable fact, that a great portion of the common people la- 
 bour hard for barely a livelihood ; for, to meet the expenses of so 
 many sovereigns and courts, taxes are enormous and oppres- 
 sive. Commerce, too, and the freedom of trade are very much 
 embarrassed by these numerous states. Resources are divided ; 
 public enterprises are obstructed ; intercommunications are inter- 
 rupted ; so that a fertile and a populous country, which, united 
 under one government, would be rich and powerful, is compara- 
 tively feeble. It shows, in fact, what the United States of Amer- 
 ica would be if once their bond of union were dissolved. Let 
 American citizens be jealous of the spirit of disunion. As it is 
 
SMOKING. 453 
 
 personal ambition which keeps the German states from forming a 
 strong consolidated government, so it will be personal ambition 
 that will dissolve our union, if it is ever destroyed. Will Amer- 
 ican citizens ever suffer themselves to be deceived and ruined by 
 such a spirit? 
 
 Baden contains about five thousand six hundred square miles, 
 and one million of inhabitants. 
 
 But to return to our journal. Ever since we crossed the Ap- 
 ennines we have noticed that the practice of smoking tobacco 
 was increasing. There was more of it in Lombardy than in 
 Southern Italy, still more in Switzerland, and most of all in Ger- 
 many. The men are almost universally smokers, and, what is 
 worse, they smoke everywhere; in the shop and in the field, and 
 often in the bed the pipe is seen dangling from the mouth ; as 
 their pipes are secured by a cap, so as to prevent any danger 
 from fire, they can smoke in bed with safety. These pipes are 
 often curiously wrought and painted, and are so constructed that 
 when the stem hangs down upon the breast the bowl is perpen- 
 dicular, so that they are more out of the way, and more easily 
 held by the teeth, than the common pipe used in the United 
 States. The fabrication and sale of pipes constitutes a very im- 
 portant item of manufacture and trade in this country. You see 
 many shops in every town devoted almost exclusively to this arti- 
 cle. So common is the practice of smoking, that it is hardly 
 considered an offence in any place or company. A gentleman 
 who, I was afterward told, was a professor in the University of 
 Heidelberg, having had his dinner served a little before us, at the 
 same table, lighted his segar as he commenced upon the dessert 
 (for he, for a rarity, had a segar instead of a pipe), directly at my 
 elbow, while I was eating. I begged him to spare me the fumes 
 of his segar until after dinner ; he very politely complied, but gave 
 me to understand that he had no idea it could be any offence. 
 
 We lodged at Darmstadt, the capital of the duchy of the same 
 name. We saw in it nothing remarkable. It is a neat town, with 
 some fine buildings and spacious streets, containing a population 
 of about twenty thousand, a library of more than a hundred thou- 
 sand volumes, and several public institutions, and collections in 
 literature and the arts. It is pleasant to see with what attention 
 every government in Germany fosters literature and the sciences ; 
 
454 GERMANY. 
 
 and this is extended not only to the accommodation of the favoured 
 few, but all classes are made to share in the benefits of instruc- 
 tion. The primary school is frequent, and the children of both 
 sexes are all favoured with an opportunity of at least some degree 
 of education. 
 
 The Grand Duchy of Darmstadt, so called from the river Darme, 
 extends to the north and soujh of Frankfort, by which, with some 
 adjoining territory, it is divided into two parts. It contains four 
 thousand square miles, and about six hundred thousand inhabit- 
 ants, mostly Lutherans. 
 
 We arrived at Frankfort in the morning of June 21, and took 
 lodgings in the Hotel de Russie. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 Frankfort is a distinct sovereignty, embracing the city and 
 some few square leagues of territory without the walls. At the 
 arrangement in 1814, and the modifications that subsequently 
 took place, the government was established on democratic princi- 
 ples. It is, however, a part of the Germanic confederacy, and is 
 itself the seat of the Germanic diet. Its situation is on each side 
 of the river Maine, about twenty-two miles above its entrance into 
 the Rhine at Mayence. By means of this river, which is navi- 
 gable for boats, its commerce is facilitated, which, in consequence 
 of its being a free port and possessing much wealth, together 
 with the advantage of two annual fairs, is considerable. Its 
 population is from fifty-eight to sixty thousand, the greater part 
 of which is Protestant. There are, however, seven thousand 
 Jews, among whom are the Rothschild family, the great bankers, 
 who hold the purse-strings of Europe. 
 
 They have a large banking-house here, as also in London, 
 Paris, and Vienna, in each of which cities one of the brothers 
 now resides. Frankfort, however, is the family residence ; and 
 hither the families from London and Paris had come, when we 
 arrived, to celebrate the nuptials between two of their respective 
 children, who were intermarrying, as had been done by branches 
 of the same families before, to preserve the wealth of the parties, 
 
FRANKFORT. 455 
 
 doubtless, in their own family. One of the families was lodging 
 at the hotel where we stopped, and what, with their servants and 
 equipage, their visiters, sorties, and returns, they kept the whole 
 house in a state of bustle and excitement. They constantly rode 
 in state, with the plumes of their footmen streaming in the air 
 like princes.* Not many of their countrymen, however, bear 
 indications of an approximation towards such style. We passed 
 through the Jews' Quarter, which, as in all other cities, was the 
 most filthy part of the town. The houses were a curiosity ; they 
 not only bore evident marks of antiquity in the style of architec- 
 ture and materials, but they were covered externally with soot or 
 smoke, so as to make them resemble the inside of a smokehouse. 
 The inhabitants looked miserably filthy, and their narrow, crowd- 
 ed streets were lined with shops full of old clothes, boots, hats, 
 iron, &c. : so true it is, that to this day this people are a prov- 
 erb and a byword among the nations where they dwell. How 
 strikingly do they authenticate the sacred history ! 
 
 If any caviller chooses captiously to inquire for existing mira- 
 cles in confirmation of the revealed and inspired scriptures, let 
 him look at the dispersed of Judah, and note in their history and 
 character a standing miracle of the fact that " God did, at sundry 
 times and in divers places, speak unto the fathers by the proph- 
 ets," and afterward "by his Son." If they credit not this evi- 
 dence, neither would they believe though one rose from the dead. 
 
 Frankfort in general, notwithstanding what I have said of the 
 Jews' Quarter, is a very clean, cheerful city. It has a number 
 of fine streets and many well-built houses, both in the city and 
 the suburbs. Its public buildings are not numerous or splendid. 
 In the City Hall are the portraits of the German emperors, from 
 Conrad II., who was crowned in 911, to Francis II., who died in 
 1806. For the last emperor there was no room. They paid his 
 successor, however, the present emperor, due honour ; for, at his 
 coronation, they roasted two oxen in the square before the state 
 house, and the fountain in the court was made to run with red 
 and white wine. 
 
 The churches are not elegant, but several of them are ancient. 
 The cathedral, which is an edifice of the fourteenth century, con- 
 
 * Soon after we left Frankfort this wealthy banker died. " All the glory of man is as 
 the flower of grass ; the grass withereth, and the flower thereof falleth away." 
 
456 GERMANY. 
 
 tains the chapel where the ancient emperors were crowned, and 
 the tomb of one who was assassinated the next day after his coro- 
 nation, and laid his bones where he took his crown. 
 
 There is a collection of pictures and plaster casts, and about 
 thirty thousand engravings, in what is called the Staedel Academy 
 of painting. The name is from J. F. Staedel, a merchant of 
 Frankfort, whose liberality in 1816 founded the institution. 
 There are also several private museums, among which is that of 
 Mr. Bethmanns, which contains a celebrated statue of Ariadne 
 mounted upon a leopard, by Dannaker. Ariadne is certainly 
 very fine ; but if the leopard is a good one, I have no correct idea 
 of what a leopard ought to be. There are various literary, and 
 scientific, and humane societies and institutions ; but the schools 
 were what most interested me. Among them I visited a gymna- 
 sium of one hundred and fifty boys, under the direction of Mr. V., 
 and a large school of about five hundred children of both sexes, 
 under the direction of M. Bagge. Both of these gentlemen were 
 very polite in showing and explaining the principles of their 
 respective schools. Of the gymnasia of Germany I need add 
 but little, after the description given of the Hofwyl school, beg- 
 ging the reader, however, to bear in mind that that school is 
 more extended, and unites a greater number of objects, than most 
 of the gymnasia of Germany. This gymnasium in Frankfort, for 
 example, is for the boys of the city, who, except at the hours of 
 school, are in their respective families ; others frequently lodge 
 and board their students, but have not the department of industry 
 connected with them like that of Hofwyl. 
 
 These institutions, in respect to the kind of studies pursued, 
 correspond with our highest academical institutions ; but, in re- 
 gard to the perfection with which instruction is imparted, I fear 
 we are, in general, very much behind the institutions of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 The great object seems to be to discipline the whole man, 
 physical, intellectual, and mora). There are several features in 
 the German system of education that seem specially worthy of 
 notice : one is, their religious instruction. This is not mere 
 accidental business ; but, as it is considered an essential, so it 
 constitutes an integral part of the regular instruction. Certain 
 lessons in the week are devoted to this, in which the appointed 
 
SYSTEM OP EDUCATION. 457 
 
 classes are duly instructed and lectured, not in the speculative 
 and abstruse points of theology, but upon the subjects of Christian 
 and moral duties, and the essential doctrines connected therewith. 
 In some instances, to meet sectarian jealousies, teachers of differ- 
 ent religious sentiments are employed, and the children are placed 
 . under each respectively, according to the wish of their parents or 
 guardians. In this instruction the Bible is, as it should be, the 
 principal text-book. Nothing more surprises the Germans than 
 to learn the Bible is generally excluded from the regular text- 
 books in our schools, high and low, a fact which they hardly 
 know how to reconcile with the idea of our being a Christian 
 nation. " Christianity," they maintain, " should be the basis of 
 all education, and the great teachings of inspiration paramount to 
 all other writings." 
 
 Another trait in the German system of education is, a general 
 attention to some branches which are commonly neglected in 
 America, such as singing and drawing. These are introduced 
 into their common schools, especially so far as relates to the ele- 
 mentary principles. In one of the schools I visited at Frankfort, 
 for example, I entered a room where the teacher was instructing 
 his class in the rules of music upon the black board, and for my 
 gratification he stopped and exercised them in singing a beautiful 
 tune, which their young and sweet voices chanted in the most 
 exact time. I think this an improvement in education, as it affords 
 a pleasing relaxation from severer studies, and secures the exer- 
 cise of voices that might otherwise remain entirely uncultivated. 
 Drawing, to a certain extent, is important for every person. It 
 is next to writing itself, for the common business of life ; and yet, 
 ultra-utilitarian as we are in America, we count drawing as be- 
 longing only to the ornamental accomplishments. The mode of 
 instruction is also a subject which is much more attended to here 
 than with us. It is true, we are of late waking up to the science 
 of education, but it is still an infant science with us. Here they 
 have numerous normal schools, which are devoted entirely to the 
 work of forming teachers. The business of teaching is a business 
 for life — a regular profession ; and hence the teachers have all the 
 advantages which a regular business ever has over a mere occa- 
 sional employment. The teachers, so far as I have been able to 
 judge, keep up a greater interest in their schools than is common 
 39 3 M 
 
458 GERMANY* 
 
 with us. A specimen of instruction in geography in a class 1 
 visited shall illustrate what I mean. I found a teacher, surround- 
 ed by about fifty happy faces, lecturing, with a little globe in his 
 hand, on the different astronomical and other divisions of the 
 earth, its form, motion, &c. Every eye was fixed upon him ; and, 
 as he walked from one end of the room to the other, he put his 
 questions sometimes generally to any or all, and sometimes to 
 individuals, and, in either case, all who understood, or thought 
 they understood the question, would reach out their hands, and 
 sometimes rise up, to give indications that they were ready to 
 answer. The scene cannot be described, but the impression on 
 my mind was, that I had rarely, if ever, seen so happy a teacher 
 amid such happy pupils. Another, a female teacher, was exer- 
 cising her class on orthography and etymology : she gave a word, 
 and they wrote upon a slate the primitive and derivative words, 
 and such various modifications in the declinations and conjuga- 
 tions as were proposed to them. In short, they were taught to 
 think, and thus the powers of the mind became developed and 
 strengthened in the same proportion as their stock of ideas was 
 increased, and, in learning the rules of grammar, they became 
 initiated, almost imperceptibly, into the philosophy of language. 
 In addition to the schools I have mentioned, they have in Frank- 
 fort two infant schools, for those who are able to pay, consisting 
 of about one hundred and fifty scholars each, besides infant 
 schools for the poor, and four large primary schools for the same 
 class, with many other smaller and more private seminaries. 
 Frankfort has a public library of about fifty thousand volumes, 
 an academy of medicine, with a botanic garden, an anatomical 
 theatre, and a museum of natural history. 
 
 In Frankfort, as well as in other parts of the valley of the Rhine 
 and in Switzerland, we found many English ; more, indeed, than 
 we met with in Italy. The English, it would seem, must ulti- 
 mately take the Continent. They are everywhere. Switzerland 
 at this season of the year swarms with them. They are out " in 
 search of the picturesque," and inquiring everywhere what there is 
 worth seeing. The Americans are uniformly taken for English- 
 men ; and we are known before we speak. I have been surprised 
 to see with what instinctive knowledge we are recognised by all 
 classes. The beggars will pass their own countrymen in a crowd 
 
DIFFICULTIES WITH A VETURINO. 459 
 
 of thousands, and come directly to the Englishman for alms ; so 
 also the veturinos and the servants of the hotel. You are often 
 surprised to hear a servant's voice in broken English, before you 
 have uttered a word, as you are stepping from the diligence or 
 the packet boat, " Will you take lodgings in our hotel, sir ?"* Many 
 young Englishmen are visiting Switzerland at this season to travel 
 among the mountains on foot, which, if one has time and strength, 
 is much the pleasantest, cheapest, and most healthy way of visit- 
 ing the Alpine scenery. 
 
 At Frankfort we have had our last trouble, as I hope, with a 
 veturino. Most of the way from Bale our German coachman 
 had greatly annoyed us by setting up additional claims for extra 
 services, detentions, &c, which were perfectly groundless and un- 
 reasonable, but which, he supposed, we would sooner pay than 
 contend with him. Determined, however, not to yield to imposi- 
 tion, though it cost additional time and money, I absolutely refused 
 his claim, and tendered him the money which was his due ; but 
 he refused to take it, and I could get no settlement with him up 
 to the time of my departure. I left the money with the master 
 of the hotel, and departed in the diligence, not without serious ap- 
 prehensions that we should meet a police officer at the gate to ar- 
 rest us. This was the first time, I think, that I ever left a city 
 with apprehensions of an arrest. However, we were not molested ; 
 and, after a very pleasant ride of about three hours down the Maine, 
 we crossed the Rhine on another bridge of boats, and took lodgings 
 in Mayence or Mentz. This town belongs to Hesse Cassel, but 
 is garrisoned by Austrian and Prussian, as well as Hessian troops. 
 This, also, is the case with Coblentz and some other cities. It is 
 by an arrangement entered into by treaties between the respective 
 powers, and is caused by their mutual jealousies of each other, 
 and by the insufficiency of the small states of the Germanic con- 
 federation to support a garrison adequate to the supposed necessi- 
 ties of the case. These towns are the great portals of Germany, 
 especially on the side of France, and hence the necessity of guard- 
 ing them with great caution and ample forces. Mayence and the 
 little town of Cassel opposite to it are strongly fortified and garri- 
 soned. It is finely situated in the midst of a deligthful and fertile 
 
 * In Switzerland and Germany you find servants, and sometimes masters, in the prin- 
 cipal hotels speaking English. 
 
460 GERMANY. 
 
 country, and contains a population, including the garrison, of about 
 thirty-two thousand. It was originally a Roman fortress, and va- 
 rious Roman antiquities have been found in the neighbourhood, 
 some of them dating back to a period as early as the Christian 
 era. Here the twenty-second legion of the Roman army, which 
 had served under Titus in the taking of Jerusalem, came as a 
 garrison in the seventieth year of the Christian era, at which time, 
 it is said, Christianity was first preached on the Rhine by Cres- 
 centius, who came with this legion. 
 
 The town was, however, destroyed in the wars between the 
 Romans and the Germans, but was restored about the time of 
 Charlemagne. This town has the honour of originating, by one 
 of its citizens, Arnaud Walpoden, the Hanseatic League, in 1355. 
 It was a combination entered into by numerous towns to secure 
 the navigation of the Rhine, which was greatly interrupted and 
 embarrassed by the rude chieftains, who had built castles upon 
 the borders of the river, and plundered, or, at least, laid heavy im- 
 posts upon all merchandise that passed the Rhine. Their ch&- 
 teauxweie burnt, and the banditti were driven from their positions 
 by the arms of the confederates.* The ruins of these castles still 
 remain, and form a principal feature in the scenery of the Rhine 
 between Mayence and Bonn. Mayence also claims, and perhaps 
 justly, the honour of inventing the art of printing by one of its 
 citizens by the name of Guttemberg. We saw the statue of the 
 inventor, with the appropriate symbols and inscriptions, commem- 
 ora* ; ve of the event, in a court of a large public house in the city. 
 Haerlem and Strasburg lay claim to the same honour, but Gut- 
 temberg is generally acknowledged, I believe, to have been the 
 original inventor, although it is not impossible but Laurence Cos- 
 ter of Haerlem might also have originated the same invention, and 
 about the same time. Faust, to whom this honour has been some- 
 times, although incorrectly, attributed, was also a native of May- 
 ence, and was the first to make use of cast types for printing. It 
 was this that enabled him to make Bibles so eheap as to cause 
 him to be suspected of having made a league with the devil, and 
 gave rise to the old romance of " John Faust, or Faustus, and the 
 
 * This confederation in favour of commerce was extended not only to the valley of the 
 Rhine, but a great number of cities in France and other countries of Europe entered the 
 league for the purpose of commercial security. 
 
PASSAGE DOWN THE RHINE. 461 
 
 Devil," the reading of which, I well remember, in early childhood, 
 almost chilled my blood with horror. There are preserved in the 
 library of this city, which consists, it is said, of about eighty thou- 
 sand volumes, a number of the books printed as early as 1460, 
 especially a Psalter, Bible, &c. This library is open to the pub- 
 lic every day except Saturdays and Sundays. Mayence has been 
 celebrated, not only for its printing, but for its poets and musi- 
 cians. It was the principal seat of the T?~oubadours, so celebra- 
 ted in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. We were shown 
 m the court of the cathedral a tombstone of one of the most cele- 
 brated of these, by the name of Henry Frauenlob, who died in 
 1318, and who was such a favourite with the women of the city, 
 that they honoured his memory by bearing his coffin to the grave. 
 The cathedral also contains the tomb of Fastrada, the wife of 
 Charlemagne, and of several other eminent personages. A part 
 of this cathedral was built as early as the ninth century. There 
 is also in Mayence a museum of Roman monuments found in the 
 neighbourhood, which is said to be more complete than any other 
 this side of Italy, and a gallery of pictures. This city was sub- 
 jected to the French in 1797, but was restored to Germany in 
 1814, and is the capital of Rhenish Hesse. 
 
 From Mayence we commenced our passage down the Rhine 
 on board the steamboat, with a great number of other passengers, 
 with their charts, and guides, and panoramas of the Rhine, all 
 prepared to enjoy the celebrated scenery of this famous river. 
 
 For a number of leagues we passed through a valley called the 
 Rheingau, which is very fruitful, and exhibiting numerous coun- 
 try-seats, castles, &c. The hills were covered with vineyards ; 
 but the vine here is not the garland vine of Italy, but the low 
 bush vine. In general, the wine made on the Rhine is white, al- 
 though there are some exceptions, and is, as is well known, an 
 acid wine. It was not agreeable to my taste, although many pre- 
 fer it to any other. The productions of some years are more es- 
 teemed than those of others, and some particular spots are famous 
 for the peculiar flavour of their wine, the most celebrated of which 
 is a vineyard we passed about two leagues before we reached 
 Mentz, on our way from Frankfort. 
 
 The principal features of the Rhine, in this celebrated section 
 of its course, are the picturesque highlands that rise in varied 
 39 
 
462 GERMANY. 
 
 beauty on either side ; the verdant intervening slopes and vales 5 
 especially the frequent towns and villages, and, above all, the old 
 feudal castles and convents" that crown almost every eminence. 
 These castles are, most of them, in a ruinous state, although a 
 few have been repaired as summer residences for German princes, 
 and are situated sometimes upon the top of the mountain that 
 rises up upon the bank of the river, and sometimes down the 
 side, and occasionally based even in the water's edge, so that the 
 chieftains and their households used to fish out of their windows. 
 Here, too, they had their fortresses and their towers, by which 
 they commanded the entire channel of the river, narrowed, as it 
 frequently is, by the obtrusive mountains, which seem to grudge 
 to this princely river a channel for his accumulated waters. He 
 has been able, however, to force himself through in spite of rocks 
 and opposing hills, although, according to appearance at one 
 place near Bingen, the contest was long and difficult, and was 
 not effected, probably, until the immense valleys above, as far up 
 as Strasburg and Baden, had collected all the watery forces of 
 the Alps into mighty inland seas, which pressed down upon the 
 rocky fortresses of the enemy with such tremendous power as 
 to make an entire breach in the ramparts, and smooth for themselves 
 a navigable passage to the ocean. The interests of commerce, 
 however, have greatly deepened this channel by the improvements 
 that have been made in it, at different times, to facilitate the pas- 
 sage of boats. The Frankfort merchants, since the invention of 
 gunpowder, have done good service here by blowing a channel 
 through a ridge of rocks that crosses the river, so that now, with 
 a good pilot, large steamboats may pass in safety. 
 
 I have heard the passage of the Rhine, from Mayence to Co- 
 logne, compared to that of the Hudson from New-York to Albany ; 
 but the natural scenery of the former will not compare with that of 
 the latter. The passage of the Hudson is bolder and more magnifi- 
 cent, even Mrs. Trollope herself being judge ; for this she has con- 
 ceded, as we were informed by a gentleman on board the boat who 
 had sailed through this passage with her. But we have nothing 
 on the Hudson to compare with the feudal and ecclesiastical ruins, 
 the churches, convents, palaces, and castles that hang over this 
 picturesque valley of the Rhine, Many of these fortresses are 
 rich in historic associations, and some of them are veiled in all 
 
SUPERSTITIOUS ROMANCES. 463 
 
 the witchery of superstition and romance by the mysterious fa- 
 bles that a dark and superstitious age has hung over their remote 
 history. In one place, near Rudesheim, in the Rheingau, the wa- 
 ters are rough and turbulent, which were occasioned on this wise. 
 A chieftain of Rudesheim, who was one of the crusaders, and had 
 been taken prisoner by the Saracens, made a vow that, if he should 
 be rescued, he would return home and dedicate his daughter, the 
 beautiful Giesela, to Heaven. She had other thoughts, and had 
 plighted her love to a knight by the name of Odon, and was only 
 waiting the return of her father to consummate her fondest wishes. 
 The crusader r 3 turned, and, learning the facts, in a transport of 
 rage he cursed his daughter. In the bitterness of her anguish she 
 precipitated herself into the river, and was drowned ; from that 
 time the troubled river has exhibited upon its disturbed estuary 
 the turbulent monument of the event. 
 
 At another place near the town of Lorch, which forms the 
 southern boundary of the Rheingau, is a precipitous mountain, 
 which " has received the name of the Devil's Ladder, because it 
 is said the devil himself rode up this hill on horseback." A 
 famous knight also rode up this precipice to rescue his " ladye- 
 love," whom the gnomes, a ghostly race that dwelled near, had con- 
 fined in a lofty tower. In proof of this exploit, the saddle on 
 which he rode is still shown in the town-house. At another 
 place is the site of the former residence or haunt of a water- 
 spirit by the name of hurley, whom the boatmen still invoke as 
 they pass, and she answers in an echo sounding like her name — 
 hurley or hurely. An enormous rock near by is called hurley- 
 berg. The origin of the fable seems to be the remarkable echo 
 produced here, which repeats a sound five times. A more interest- 
 ing, because a more real character, occupies these haunts for the 
 present. It is an old man who seems to be partially insane, and 
 spends his time chiefly in firing muskets as boats pass up and 
 down the Rhine, that the passengers may enjoy the echo. For 
 this service he gets no other fee than the gratification of giving 
 pleasure to others. This must be called, I think, a species of 
 benevolence. 
 
 I might mention other fables, and numerous tender or heroic 
 historical events connected with these feudatory castles, but my 
 limits will not permit, The part of the passage richest in these 
 
464 GERMANY. 
 
 historical associations is below Coblentz, between that and Bonn, 
 in Westphalia. This is the region of the " Seven Mountains ;" 
 they are seven distinct heights, that rise on or near the right bank 
 of the river, all of which are crowned with fine ruins towering in 
 gloomy grandeur over the valley of the Rhine. Some of these 
 castles, it is said, were built in the fourth century ; most of them, 
 however, are works of from the ninth to the twelfth centuries. 
 
 The territories on the Rhine were formerly divided into four 
 Electorates, or Circles, called the Circles of the Rhine ; they were 
 Mayence, Treves, Cologne, and the Palitinate. The electors of 
 these four territories often made and deposed the emperors, and 
 otherwise controlled and directed the destinies of Germany ; and 
 they still show near the small town of Rhense, a little above 
 Coblentz, the site of the Konigstuhl, " King's Stool" or Royal 
 Seat, where these electors met to consult upon the interests of the 
 empire. This spot was selected because the four territories 
 cornered here, or so near this, that one town or more in each 
 territory could be seen from this spot. This, like many other 
 royal seats, was destroyed in the revolution, and will probably 
 never be restored. At the restoration, after the dethronement of 
 Bonapart, this country, from Bingen, a little below Mayence, to 
 the Netherlands, was given to Prussia, embracing about eight 
 thousand three hundred square miles, and containing a million of 
 inhabitants. This is called the Grand Duchy of Westphalia. It 
 is thus that the larger European powers took advantage of the 
 derangement occasioned by the changes of Napoleon to help 
 themselves to a portion of the spoils. The settlement, therefore, 
 was not exactly a restoration, but, to some extent, a partition, so 
 that the larger powers increased their own territories by swallow- 
 ing up a portion of the smaller. This was a crime in Napoleon, 
 because he did it on such a large scale, and took it all himself; but 
 in the allies it was a legitimate virtue, I suppose, because they 
 only helped themselves and one another, each to a few slices ! I 
 know not, however, as it would have been any worse for the 
 world, nay, I am not sure but it would have been better, if all the 
 little states had in this way been swallowed up, except so far as 
 the principle of doing it because they had the power would have 
 been a dangerous one to be sanctioned by those who were fighting 
 • for the liberties of Europe." But the principle was sanctioned* 
 
CHARACTER OF FREDERIC WILLIAM III. 465 
 
 at any rate, to some extent ; and, after they had commenced, they 
 might as well have carried it through ; as it is, all the evil of sane 
 tioning a bad principle stands out in bold relief upon the historic 
 tablet that records the transactions of the allies ; and, at the same 
 time, most of the inconvenience of these petty sovereignties re- 
 mains. 
 
 1 The allies professed much and promised fair, but their practice 
 is quite another thing. This practice is what might have been 
 expected of the northern autocrat, and also of the Austrian court, 
 the counsels of which are governed by that sworn enemy to 
 liberty, and that notoriously practical enemy to truth and honesty, 
 Prince Metternich; but not of the King of Prussia. In many 
 respects he certainly appears to be a good man ; he makes a pro- 
 fession — which, by-the-way, is a rare thing for kings — of experi- 
 mental piety. The venerable and learned Tholcuk, professor at 
 Halle, stated, in a speech before the Wesleyan Missionary Society 
 in London, that his sovereign had declared, alluding to the 
 memorable campaign of 1813 and 1814, when Napoleon was 
 overthrown, that the " snows of Russia had kindled up the fires 
 of devotion in his heart ;" and with this profession there are, ac- 
 cording to all accounts, many correspondences in his life. And 
 since I have introduced this subject here, it may not be amiss to 
 allude to a few things connected with the character and policy of 
 the reigning King of Prussia, Frederic William III. 
 
 To Frederic William's religion I have just alluded, and his re- 
 gard to vital piety, and his wish to promote it in his realm, ap- 
 pear in his continued efforts to put down Neology, which is so 
 prevalent in Germany at the present day. Perhaps, for the ben- 
 efit of some of my younger readers, I ought here to say that by 
 Neology is meant a sort of philosophical religion, which takes 
 some cognizance of the scriptures, and claims to be founded on 
 the principles of Christianity, but which so effectually discards 
 all the essential principles of the gospel, and so fabulously and 
 figuratively explains away all its miracles and spirituality, that 
 it is no other than downright undisguised Deism. I say undis- 
 guised, for it has no other disguise than the name of Christianity^ 
 and the forms and ordinances of a Christian church. Its doctrines, 
 its philosophy, are plain, palpable Deism, or rather worse than 
 some kinds of Deism, for some of its supporters seem to give to 
 3N 
 
466 GERMANY. 
 
 the Deity himself no other personality than a kind of all pervading 
 energy, the anima mundi of the ancients. That the character and 
 extent of this philosophy may be seen, I take the liberty to intro- 
 duce here some extracts which my esteemed friend and Christian 
 brother, the Reverend John Beacham, one of the Wesleyan Mis- 
 sionary secretaries in London, permitted me to make from a letter 
 which he had just received from Professor Tholuck, to whom 
 allusion has been already made. 
 
 " Quite recently a book has been published, the name of which 
 I am sure will reach England also, for it will commence a new 
 era in theology and religion in our country — The Life of Christ, 
 by Straus of Tubingen. This book intends to prove that all our 
 gospels are spurious and supposititious productions, and all the 
 relations about Christ mystical." " Hundreds of clergymen, pro- 
 fessors, and laymen have received his assertions, and many be- 
 lievers despair of its being answered. I am just about to write a 
 volume for its refutation." "A general separation must take 
 place ; a small flock of believers will range on one side, the large 
 bulk of complete infidels on the other. Straus is not a Deist, but 
 a Pantheist. He believes in no God, but some eternal impersonal 
 principle spread and manifested in the world." 
 
 Such is the character and prevalence of the German theology. 
 Against this enemy, which has come in like a flood, " the Spirit 
 of the Lord has lifted up a standard," a revival of evangelical re- 
 ligion has been experienced to some extent in Germany, and a 
 few are struggling against the tide that has overspread the land. 
 The court throws its influence into this side, and the king does 
 what he can to accomplish a change in the creed and religious 
 character of the country. He does this by extending court pat- 
 ronage to the evangelical clergy ; by promoting to professorships, 
 chaplaincies, &c, as vacancies occur, such as favour orthodoxy; 
 and also by attempting a kind of an amalgamation creed and re- 
 ligious establishment, by which, he is endeavouring to persuade, and, 
 in some sense, coerce* the Calvinists and Lutherans to coalesce. 
 
 * A law was passed in 1830, commanding the use of the new national liturgy, by 
 which it is proposed to unite the Lutheran and reformed churches. Under the operation 
 of this ordinance many nonconformists have been dismissed from office and fined, and a 
 number of ministers imprisoned. 
 
STATE OP THEOLOGY. 467 
 
 That he is sincere in this there is little doubt, and that he is taking 
 the wrong course to accomplish his object is not so much his 
 fault as the fault of the times' — the fault of all Europe. But it 
 is, nevertheless, a serious fault. When did the church ever ex- 
 tensively and grossly apostatize, except in its connexion with the 
 secular power, and by reason of that connexion ? And when did 
 a reform from such gross apostacy ever take place, except inde- 
 pendently of the secular power, and, for the most part, in opposition 
 to it ? Let the readers of church history examine this subject, 
 and find the true answer to these questions ; for an answer to them 
 is of vital consequence to the religious operations of the present day. 
 The secular power introduced the apostacy of Rome. The Prot- 
 estants commenced, in opposition to the governments, to reform 
 the church ; but most indiscreetly, as soon as they obtained the 
 power, strengthened their own cause, for the time being, by form- 
 ing the same unholy alliance. And what has been the conse- 
 quence ? Like causes, in the moral as in the physical world, 
 produce like effects, and will to the end of time. Protestantism 
 has become corrupted in every case where such alliance has ex- 
 isted. This is pre-eminently true, I apprehend, in Germany, and 
 hence the greater folly for the King of Prussia to make use of that 
 as an antidote to cure the poison of infidelity in his church, which 
 is the very bane that has infused that poison into the ecclesiastical 
 system. Would these men that are now professedly Christian 
 clergymen in Germany have been clergymen, or even nominal 
 Christians at this time, but for the legalized salaries of ecclesias- 
 tical benefices and the honours of ecclesiastical preferments ? It 
 is this that has kept Up the forms of Christianity, and deluded the 
 people with the idea that they were the members of a Christian 
 church, while their entire system was becoming perverted. It is 
 this that has kept out an influence, which, but for the strength of 
 government patronage, would have combated these growing er- 
 rors in their early development, and would have purified the 
 church. But, as it is, all has been lost, and one can but regret 
 that a prince who seems well disposed towards the Christian 
 cause, not merely for state purposes, but for the sake of the truth, 
 should, now that the inherent energy of truth is beginning to com- 
 bat with error, run into the same old, oft-tried, and fallacious 
 method of restoring the purity of the gospel. The orthodox cause 
 
468 GERMANY. 
 
 may in this way be strengthened for the time ; nominal, and, per- 
 haps, in some cases, real converts may be multiplied; but the 
 church can never in this way in Prussia, or anywhere else, be 
 essentially and permanently purified and reformed/ Reason, his- 
 tory, common sense, and revelation, all combine to establish this 
 proposition. 
 
 But much as Frederic William is missing the mark in his at- 
 tempts to promote the interests of religion in his realm, the evil 
 will be remedied, in part at least, by his excellent system of gen- 
 eral education ; a system which, for its symmetry, energy, practi- 
 cal efficiency, and utility, has become the admiration and imitation 
 of both hemispheres. Absolute monarch as he is, the King of 
 Prussia has, in this respect, shown himself to be the father and 
 friend of his people. I would do nothing more than allude to this 
 subject here, were it not that this system of education is, after all, 
 but partially known in our country ; and I should rejoice in being 
 instrumental in calling to it the attention of such as may not have 
 examined it, by briefly noticing a very few of its leading features. 
 I have less need, however, of going into detail on this subject, 
 because I have done this to some extent with the French system, 
 which corresponds, in many respects, with this of Prussia. 
 
 1. One of the features of education in Prussia, as in France, is, 
 that the superintendency of the schools is made a distinct department 
 of government, with an efficient minister at its head.* He,' with his 
 council and subordinate officers, looks after the whole system. He 
 not only takes care of the funds and of their distribution, but he sees 
 that well-qualified teachers are employed, proper text-books intro- 
 duced, suitable houses provided, &c. To carry out the system effi- 
 ciently, the country is divided into provinces, and these into regency 
 circles, and these again into smaller circles, and, finally, the smal- 
 ler circles into parishes. Each parish must have a school. This 
 school is under a parochial committee and inspector, subject to the 
 supervision of the higher councils, and of the minister of instruction. 
 
 2. Every parent is obliged by law to send his child to school 
 from the age of seven years to fourteen. He can, however, by 
 permission of the committee, take out his child before the age of 
 
 * Why should not this feature be introduced into the respective states in our country ? 
 In Connecticut there is an officer to superintend the school fund. But of how little avail 
 is it to have a fund and have it well taken care of, unless it is also properly expended ? 
 
PRUSSIAN SYSTEM OF EDUCATION. 469 
 
 fourteen, if the pupil shall have gone through the course of primary 
 instruction ; and, if the parent is not able to furnish the child 
 with suitable clothing, &c, to attend school, the public furnishes 
 them. 
 
 3. Each parish is obliged by law to establish and maintain a 
 primary school. 
 
 4. The schoolhouses are well fitted and suitably located. A 
 play-ground is generally laid out in connexion with the school- 
 house, and often a garden, orchard, &c. 
 
 5. In addition to suitable books and maps, cheap apparatus 
 and collections in natural history are required. 
 
 6. Religion is taught in the schools, and, where there are differ- 
 ent religions, a spirit of accommodation is enjoined ; and, if there 
 is more than one master, when the parish is divided in its reli- 
 gious views, the head-master is to be of the religion of the major- 
 ity, and the assistant of that of the minority.* 
 
 7. Girls' schools are required, as far as practicable, to be sep- 
 arate from the other sex. 
 
 8. In addition to the ordinary branches of a primary education 
 as given in our country, drawing, singing, and the elements of ge- 
 ometry are required. Agricultural instructions and gymnastic ex- 
 ercises are also insisted on. 
 
 9. But that which, more than anything else, gives character to 
 these schools is the competency of the instructers. To secure 
 this there are forty-two normal schools, where teachers are trained 
 to their profession. They are not only taught ivhat to teach, but 
 how to teach ; and, to this end, they are required to take a three 
 years' course ; at the end of which, if found qualified, they receive 
 a certificate, specifying their qualifications, aptness to teach, &c. 
 As these teachers are educated at the public expense, they are 
 required to pursue the business of teaching where the consistories 
 appoint. Those who excel are promoted ; those who are negligent 
 are fined, and, if they continue unprofitable, they are dismissed. 
 No one is allowed to teach who has not his regular diploma or 
 certificate. 
 
 * It should be recollected that this accommodation is effected where the population is 
 divided between Catholics and Protestants ; as is the case in a great part of Prussia. 
 How much easier might this accommodation be effected between different Protestant 
 sects? 
 
 40 
 
470 GERMANY. 
 
 10. Although there seems to be much of the exercise of strong 
 authority in this system, it is nevertheless remarkable that a great 
 portion of the machinery that enters into it is made of the man- 
 aging committees and councils appointed by the different parishes 
 and circles ; so that the business of government, after all, seems 
 to be to form the general plan and exercise a general supervision, 
 while the immediate superintendency falls upon the people imme- 
 diately concerned. This gives a general interest in the schools, 
 which could not otherwise be secured, and which is indispensable 
 to the success of the plan. So satisfied is the government of the 
 necessity of enlisting the popular feeling in order to secure suc- 
 cess, that, when the new provinces on the Rhine were acquired 
 by the arrangement of 1815, the law requiring parents to send 
 their children to school under the sanction of severe penalties 
 was suspended until, by gentler means, a public sentiment could 
 be formed in favour of popular education. Tn 1825 this law was 
 also put in force in these provinces. 
 
 It is supposed that there is now scarcely a child in all the 
 Prussian dominions capable in body and mind of attending and 
 receiving instruction between the ages of seven and fourteen, who 
 is not in a process of primary or higher instruction. In 1831, 
 out of a population of twelve millions, seven hundred and twenty- 
 six thousand, eight hundred and twenty-three, which was the re- 
 ported population of the entire kingdom, there were attending the 
 public primary schools two millions, twenty-one thousand, four 
 hundred and twenty-one. 
 
 In addition to her primary schools and private seminaries, 
 Prussia has one hundred and ten higher schools called gymnasia ; 
 and, above these, she has six universities ; viz., at Berlin, the 
 capital of the kingdom ; at Halle in Saxony ; at Bonn on the 
 Rhine ; at Breslau in Silesia (this is principally under the con- 
 trol of the Catholics) ; at Konigsberg in East Prussia ; and at 
 Greifswalde in Pomerania. These universities are generally in a 
 very flourishing condition, and are, as well as the other universi- 
 ties of Germany, supplied, for the most part, with splendid libraries. 
 
 I had the pleasure of an extended and very agreeable travel- 
 ling acquaintance while passing down the Rhine, during our stay 
 at Rotterdam, and on our passage to London, with Count Falken- 
 stein, a counsellor of Saxony, and royal librarian at Dresden; 
 
LIBRARIES AND UNIVERSITIES, 471 
 
 from whom I derived much information concerning the character 
 and management of the German libraries. The following facts 
 respecting the Dresden library may give some general idea of 
 the regulations and extensive advantages of the German libraries. 
 The number of volumes is three hundred thousand. To manage 
 the library there are one principal librarian, two assistants, and 
 four secretaries. Every man, high or low, appertaining to Sax- 
 ony, may, by giving a sufficient guaranty that the books shall be 
 returned, take out three or four volumes ; and even strangers 
 and foreigners are favoured with the advantages of the library. 
 During the last year (1835) there were two thousand four hun- 
 dred and eighty-iive readers in Dresden, and five hundred and 
 twenty out of the city, making three thousand and five different 
 readers for the year. 
 
 The library at Gottingen has three hundred thousand volumes ; 
 at Munich four hundred thousand ; at Berlin two hundred and 
 fifty thousand ; at Vienna three hundred and fifty thousand, with 
 numerous others. Every important town, in fact, has its library 
 of a greater or less extent 
 
 The universities of Germany are also well attended. The 
 most prominent are that of Berlin, with two thousand five hun- 
 dred students, and that of Halle, with seven hundred. The uni- 
 versity of Gottingen, also, in the Duchy of Brunswick, has nine 
 hundred students ; and that of Leipsic in Saxony eight hundred 
 and twenty. The German universities vary considerably at dif- 
 ferent times in the number of their students, according to the 
 celebrity of their professors. A popular lecturer, in any one de- 
 partment, will draw students from the different sovereignties far 
 and near, and thus, for the time, increase the patronage of the in- 
 stitution. From the above specimens, it is evident that there are 
 at this day very many who are pursuing a liberal and a profes- 
 sional course of study in Germany. Many of these become, 
 in their turn, professors, authors, and teachers of various grades. 
 It is here, and here only, in many of the states, that the lower 
 classes have a chance to rise. In the republic of letters the field 
 is open for competition, and the rush to this theatre of action, and 
 the press for distinction, is surprisingly great. Poverty is re- 
 sisted, obstacles are overcome, and thousands are stretching on- 
 ward in their eager course for knowledge. The entire public 
 
472 GERMANY. 
 
 mind feels the impulse, and absolute royalty itself swells and fa- 
 cilitates the tide of mental elevation by the salutary regulations 
 and princely munificence of the throne. 
 
 Whether the King of Prussia perceives that this will ultimately 
 subvert the irresponsible exercise of absolute power, or whether 
 he vainly imagines that absolutism and universal education can 
 subsist together, does not appear. The result will show, doubt- 
 less, that a constitutional government in fact, if not in form, must 
 follow this general diffusion of knowledge. And who can say 
 that this is not the intention of Frederic William ? I see no othei 
 way — after all that has been said of his religion — to vindicate his 
 character as an honest man. He, with other sovereigns of Eu- 
 rope, who, like him, have hitherto disregarded their solemn 
 pledges, promised his subjects a constitutional government if they 
 would rally and unite in putting down Napoleon. They took him 
 at his word. The farmer left his plough in the furrow ; the me- 
 chanic closed the door of his shop ; the student left his books, 
 and all rushed to the field of conflict. This unanimity and ardour 
 ensured success. Napoleon fell ; and up to this hour the reward 
 of their zeal has been perfidy, falsehood, and disappointed hopes. 
 But, if the king hesitates to adopt this form of government, not 
 because he loves power and disregards the truth, but because he 
 fears the consequences until the people are educated ; ana 1 if he is 
 diffusing light over his subjects that he may safely give them lib- 
 erty, then is he worthy to be reckoned among the benefactors of 
 the world The result will be seen, and, in the mean time, suspi- 
 cion darkens by this long delay, and by certain rigorous measures 
 of government against those who hold and teach constitutional 
 doctrines, and especially by that cruel intolerance that incarce- 
 rates a minister of the gospel because he conscientiously refuses 
 to conduct Divine service in accordance with a royal dictation of a 
 newfangled liturgy. Every day the plague-spot of perfidy grows 
 darker upon the crest of the Prussian monarch ; and, if he dies 
 leaving it an inheritance to his successor, it will be infamous to 
 his character and a curse to his house. 
 
473 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 But it is time, perhaps the reader will think, to return to the 
 passage of the Rhine. Our first stopping-place was at Coblentz, 
 eighteen leagues from Mayence. This town derives its name by- 
 corruption, it is said, from Confluens, because it is situated at the 
 confluence of the rivers Moselle and Rhine. The business of 
 the city consists principally in storing and forwarding the mer- 
 chandise of the Moselle ; over this river is a bridge, built, it is 
 said, by Bishop Baldwin, with money collected by the sale of in- 
 dulgences. There is also a bridge of boats over the Rhine, con- 
 necting the town with the valley of Ehrenbreitstein. These 
 bridges of boats are very common on this river, and they are very 
 convenient. The platform of the bridge is laid upon the top of a 
 succession of boats, which are moored close to each other, being 
 made fast to posts or anchors above by means of cables. The 
 rapidity of the current is favourably resisted by the sharpness of 
 the prows, and the cables permit the entire mass to rise and fall 
 with the waters of the river. 
 
 Coblentz, though small, containing but about eleven thousand 
 inhabitants, is, nevertheless, in connexion with the fortresses in 
 its immediate neighbourhood, one of the strongest positions, prob- 
 ably, in the Prussian dominions. It appears to be strongly gar- 
 risoned also ; for the Place oVArmes was full of soldiers the day we 
 called, whose gay uniforms, contrasted with the verdant Linden- 
 trees that surround this public square, made a very beautiful 
 appearance. 
 
 The next town of importance' is Bonn, which, like Coblentz, is 
 situated on the left bank of the Rhine, and contains about twelve 
 thousand inhabitants. This town is principally noted for its uni- 
 versity, which now occupies the buildings formerly called the 
 castle. The situation is elevated, and commands a fine view of 
 the Rhine and the " Seven Mountains." The old Rheister Saal, or 
 "Knights' Hall," once the scene of feudal conviviality and mirth, 
 is now a place of intellectual refreshment ; it is the room for the 
 40 3 
 
474 GERMANY. 
 
 library. One would think the students of Bonn would be inspired 
 with romance and poetry. Their academic halls, and the entire 
 circle of their sensible horizon, are all rife with the associations 
 of romance and chivalry ; and the scenery itself is most poetically 
 picturesque. 
 
 We arrived at Cologne, and debarked for the night, for these 
 Rhenish boats afford us no berths for sleeping. Here all the 
 interest of the Rhine ceases ; below this the banks are flat and 
 low, and the entire scene is as monotonous and dull as it is pic- 
 turesque and animating above. Hence many travellers leave the 
 river here and strike across Belgium, and taking Brussels, and 
 Ghent, and the Field of Waterloo in their route, they embark for 
 London or Dover at Ostend. We were somewhat in doubt which 
 route would afford us the most interest ; but having, from my earliest 
 recollections, associated something peculiar with my idea of that 
 land which has been wrested from the domains of Neptune, and 
 presuming that this would be my only opportunity of gratifying 
 curiosity in reference to it, I determined to retain my berth and 
 visit Holland. 
 
 We had a little time in the evening and morning for examining 
 this ancient city, which dates back to the time of Marcus Agrippa, 
 who laid the first foundation of the city by making this site a place 
 of encampment for the Roman army.* It is on the left bank of 
 the Rhine, and lies in the form of a crescent, extending on the 
 river about one league. It contains about sixty thousand inhabi- 
 tants. Formerly it was entirely under the influence of Romanism 
 and superstition, and, as a matter of course, its government was ty- 
 rannical and oppressive. At one time, in the fifteenth century, on 
 account of an insurrection among the weavers, seventeen hundred 
 looms were burnt by order of government, which impolitic act 
 drove the cloth manufacturers from the city. In 1618 all the 
 Protestants were expelled the city ; in 1425 all the Jews were 
 banished. No wonder, after such a course of bad policy, the 
 French, when they took the city in 1794, should find in it twelve 
 thousand mendicants, whose particular stations, in many instances, 
 had become a sort of property, and descended to their children 
 as an inheritance. These, with twenty-five thousand ecclesiastics, 
 were enough, one would think, to drink up all the Hfeblood of the 
 
 * By some it is supposed that this was the site of the capital of the ancient Ubians. 
 
COLOGNE. 475 
 
 city. The French, however, broke in upon this system of men- 
 dicity and superstition, and the city is improving. 
 
 Cologne contains a fine specimen of German architecture in 
 its unfinished cathedral, which was commenced in the thirteenth 
 century. Among other tombs and monuments, this cathedral, it 
 is said, contains the relics of the magi, or " three kings," who 
 came from the east to worship the babe Jesus in the stable. 
 The sarcophagus was superbly ornamented with gold, and silver, 
 and precious stones, but it suffered much by removing it when 
 the chapter fled at the time of the French invasion in 1794. It 
 was returned in 1804, much mutilated, but has since been par- 
 tially restored. Here, too, is the tomb of Queen Mary de Medicis, 
 mother of Louis XIII. The sainted Empress Helena built a 
 church here, as well as at Bonn, thus showing that the enter- 
 prising spirit of this Christian heroine led her to the West as well 
 as to the East; a missionary of unremitting zeal in Palestine, in 
 the deserts of Arabia, and in the barbarous regions of Transalpine 
 Gaul. Bating her superstition, which was rather the fault of the 
 age than of any one individual, what a worthy example of Christian 
 enterprise was exhibited in this extraordinary woman ? Who of 
 modern days can compare with her ? On the site of the church 
 which she built in Cologne stands now the church of St. Gereon, 
 which is a fine structure, built in the eleventh century. 
 
 P. P. Rubens, who was born in a house in this city, still shown 
 to the stranger, was baptized in the church of St. Peter. The 
 fount in which he was baptized, and the tombstone of his father, 
 are still preserved in the church, as also a beautiful picture of his, 
 representing the crucifixion of the Apostle Peter. 
 
 Cologne is almost wholly Catholic, there being less, probably, 
 than two thousand of Jews and Protestants within its walls. 
 
 Among various other manufactories, the famous eau de Cologne 
 or Cologne water, which takes its name from this city, where it 
 was first invented, is still very extensively manufactured here. We 
 were told there were fifteen manufactories of this article, which 
 furnish for exportation to the amount of three hundred thousand 
 francs annually. We went to the old shop of M. Jean Marie Fa- 
 rina, and bought several bottles, so that we might be sure, for 
 once in our lives, that we had obtained the " genuine article" 
 
 Our next day's sail was to Nimeguen, the capital of the prov- 
 
476 GERMANY. 
 
 ince of Guelderland, one hundred and twenty-five miles from Co- 
 logne. On going on board in the morning we found our compa- 
 ny had very much changed, and had become considerably dimin- 
 ished. One party, however, in which we had become very much 
 interested, was with us still. It was that of a German princess 
 and her suite, consisting of a young lady, Count Falkenstein, be- 
 fore mentioned, a colonel of the Austrian service, &c. They 
 were all fine companions, and contributed not a little to the inter- 
 est of the rest of our voyage, not only to Holland, but thence to 
 England. They were intelligent, social, and courteous, and uni- 
 ted, to a great degree, simplicity of manners with dignity of char- 
 acter. By some means we became acquainted with each other, 
 and consorted together with a freedom and an attachment not com- 
 mon with strangers, especially with strangers so unequal in rank 
 as that of plain republicans on the one side and princes on the 
 other. All etiquette in the matter was waived, and we became, 
 for the rest of the w r ay, in a manner, of one party. The intimacy 
 commenced, I believe, in the first place, between the ladies, who, 
 although generally more wary and tenacious of etiquette than the 
 opposite sex, have also stronger sympathies, which, under some 
 circumstances, will strangely draw together and cement in one 
 distant and unaffiliated minds. And when this union is once ef- 
 fected between them, we of the other sex, whose affinities are not 
 so strong, are, as a matter of course, readily drawn into the same 
 association. On this account, as well as many others, I should 
 advise travellers to take their ladies with them. True, they will, 
 by this means, be retarded somewhat in their speed ; will, be en- 
 cumbered with more baggage, in the ratio of three to one, and will 
 have more solicitude and responsibility ; but not more than they 
 ought to have, to form a proper ballast to the mind. And then 
 how does such company heighten the pleasures of the traveller I 
 how does the female influence open the way for the stranger, 
 where otherwise he could not go ! How does it attract to him 
 sympathies and courtesies in a foreign land which otherwise he 
 could not secure ; and, in addition to all, and I speak feelingly 
 here, if sickness come upon him in that far-off land, how cheering 
 to his heart to enjoy her soothing and assiduous attentions, when 
 otherwise he must be abandoned to the mercenary sympathies of 
 a hireling stranger \ 
 
BRANCHES OF THE RHINE. 477 
 
 Our passage to Nimeguen was mostly devoid of interest from 
 without. We passed a number of small towns on the low banks 
 of the Rhine, which afforded a little variety to the flat, tame scenes 
 that, in every direction, and hour after hour, met our sight. 
 
 In fifteen or eighteen miles of Nimeguen we came to the point 
 of the division of the waters, the old Rhine, as it is called, pass- 
 ing off to the right, while the branch called Waal keeps to the left 
 to Nimeguen, and thence to the sea ; not, however, in one channel, 
 for the arms are multiplied as you approach the sea, and run in dif- 
 ferent directions, and are subdivided into various subordinate chan- 
 nels, natural and artificial. The Rhine, in fact, is like a mighty 
 tree, with various and extended roots and multitudinous branches. 
 By its roots it connects with the sea, and with its branches it pen- 
 etrates the Continent, and spreads out over the Alpine mountains. 
 I said by its roots it connects with the sea. This, however, is 
 not true of all its roots. The right branch, or the old Rhine, 
 passes down to Utrecht, where a small arm shoots off to the north 
 into the Zuyder Zee, and the principal branch, passing down by 
 Leyden, seems to labour much to bear its accumulated treasures 
 to the ocean ; but is overpowered by the opposing sands, which, 
 like a mighty leviathan, " drink up the river," and are thirsty still. 
 
 At the point of division first mentioned, hydraulic works are 
 erected to regulate the course of the waters, on which depends, it 
 is said, the very existence of Holland. But for these works, in 
 the great flood of 1784 that province would have been deluged 
 and destroyed. 
 
 Nimeguen is an interesting town, and the more so as contrasted 
 with the flatness of the surrounding region, being itself so eleva- 
 ted and precipitous as to enable one to overlook the tops of one 
 range of houses from the windows of the other ; and from the high- 
 est part is a fine and an extensive view of the country around, and 
 of the four rivers, Meuse, Waal, Rhine, and Issel. Here Julius 
 Caesar built a castle, which was afterward inhabited by Charle- 
 magne. At this place we lost more of our company, who took a 
 route to Utrecht, and thence to Amsterdam ; but we preferred to 
 keep on our course to Rotterdam, especially as it was now the 
 last day of the week. 
 
 In the remainder of our voyage we had very little to interest 
 us, except the dikes by which this stolen world is kept from re- 
 
478 GERMANY. 
 
 turning to the dominion of the ocean, and here and there a village, 
 which, if it had no other attraction, was sure to be connected with 
 some historic event that made it a spot of associated interest. 
 Among these was Loevestein, where that great and good man, 
 Grotius, was imprisoned three years for daring to be a friend of 
 liberty, and afterward made his escape by the stratagem of his 
 wife (what will not conjugal affection in a woman's breast accom- 
 plish ?) who caused him to be conveyed away in a box used for 
 carrying books. A very expressive transaction this ; for any box 
 containing the living head of Grotius might well be represented 
 as full of books ; for Grotius's head contained all the books of the 
 age. 
 
 We also passed the town of Dort, or Dordrecht. This place is 
 celebrated on various accounts. The land on which it is situated 
 was constituted an island by being torn from the shore in a ter- 
 rible inundation which occurred in 1421, and which destroyed 
 seventy-two villages and one hundred thousand persons. Here 
 also was born the celebrated Dewitt. Dort is famous, moreover, 
 for enduring a number of sieges without ever being taken ; so 
 strong is its natural situation. But not floods, nor wars, nor great 
 men have done half as much to give this city celebrity as the fa- 
 mous (I might justly say infamous) synod which, in 1618 and '19, 
 was convened here to condemn, what had already been prejudged, 
 the tenets of James Arminius. I believe the great body of the 
 Christian world now, both Calvinistic and Arminian, unite in con- 
 demning the course of this council, whatever may be thought of 
 the truth or falsity of many of their decisions. That a Protestant 
 council should proceed with such partiality, bigotry, and violence 
 against men of eminent learning, and amiable manners, and unim- 
 peachable lives, high in office, and sustained by a large circle of 
 friends and followers, merely because they differed from their 
 brethren on the vexed abstrusities growing out of the doctrine of 
 predestination, is a disgrace to the Protestant name. As one sails 
 by this noted city, he may almost fancy he hears the rough and 
 angry voice of the president, Bogerman, driving the defenceless 
 remonstrants from the council with their cause unplead ; and fan- 
 cy pursues them still as they walk back to their lodgings with 
 their dignified spirits unbroken ; the hisses and scoffs of the cit- 
 izens, and of the very rabble of the streets, assail them as they 
 
A FORTUNATE ESCAPE. 479 
 
 pass. What an unenviable character have that council and the 
 citizens of that age entailed upon Dort. I know this generation 
 is not to be criminated for the transactions of more than two cen- 
 turies' standing ; but it is difficult to pass the city without feeling 
 that this generation " are the children of them that did these things." 
 Would that the doings of that council could be blotted from the 
 history of Protestantism. There is, however, one consolation, 
 and that is, that such transactions are not only not in accordance 
 with, but directly opposed to, the teachings and spirit of genuine 
 Protestantism. 
 
 A sail of ninety-five miles from Nimeguen brought us to Rot 
 terdam early in the afternoon ; in time, in fact, to take a general 
 view of most that is interesting to a stranger in this commercial 
 city. 
 
 We sallied out, as soon as the necessary arrangements could be 
 made and a valet procured, to examine Rotterdam. We had 
 walked but a few paces before we passed a dog on the sidewalk 
 in violent convulsions, and a moment after he passed us at full 
 speed, snapping at us as he went by, and just in advance of us he 
 turned aside to a man who was at work upon the quay, who for- 
 tunately had on thick boots. With these the rabid animal pitched 
 battle, and, after repeated repulses, he was at length kicked off 
 the wharf into the dreaded element of the dock, where he was fal- 
 len upon by numbers, and undoubtedly soon despatched. We 
 have had no hairbreadth escapes to give life and incident to our 
 journal, but, in this case, we had occasion at least for gratitude to 
 a protecting Providence that saved us from so dangerous a foe. 
 
 The first thing that strikes the attention of the stranger in this 
 country is the extreme cleanliness of the place and of the people. 
 Cloacina, it must be confessed, after all, holds her court in Hol- 
 land ; and well does she administer her government. Her chief 
 executive officers appear to be females, whose banner is a scour- 
 ing-cloih. And as Saturday is the day of general exercise and 
 review, we had an opportunity, to our great annoyance, of noticing 
 a full share of the administration ; for it must be understood that 
 the outside has to be scoured as well as the inside. The streets, 
 the sidewalks, the walls, all must undergo a lustration once a 
 week ; and the pedestrian may think himself well off if, after a 
 good look-out, he has not a share of the rinsings upon his clothes. 
 
480 GERMANY. 
 
 Some features of this town are like those of Venice. It is pen- 
 etrated by numerous canals of different sizes, and vessels go into 
 the very interior of the city in various directions. These canals 
 and water-channels, however, are lined with trees, which grow in 
 abundance in the city, and the streets are wide and commodious 
 for carriages in every part of the city ; and there are also beauti- 
 ful quays, the most magnificent of which is called the Boom-Tees, 
 beautifully ornamented with double rows of trees. A street runs 
 through the centre of the city called High-street, which is on the 
 top of a dike erected to protect Holland from inundations. How 
 necessary this may be, the reader will judge when he is informed 
 that so late as 1825 the water rose to the height of twenty-four 
 feet above the level of the province of Holland ; and but for this 
 dike the whole must have been submerged to that depth under 
 the water. Truly, these inhabitants, with such exposures contin- 
 ually menacing them, ought to be aquatics, or, at least, amphibious. 
 As the neighbourhood of Naples is continually threatened with a 
 deluge of fire, so this is constantly exposed to a deluge of water. 
 The inhabitants of both, however, seem to have become used to it, 
 and live without fear. What a paradox is man ! There are also 
 other dikes, and all of them are planted with double rows of trees, 
 with an intervening pavement. Under the dikes there are sluices 
 and tide-gates, by which, at low tide, the interior country is drained 
 of its surplus water, the pressure of which opens the gates for the 
 purpose ; but when the tide rushes in it shuts these gates, and 
 prevents the interior country from being flooded. Windmills are 
 also used for the purposes of draining off the surplus water. 
 
 Many of the edifices of Rotterdam, both public and private, are 
 elegant. The great church or cathedral is one of the four princi- 
 pal churches that belong to the Dutch Reformed. This has a 
 tower two hundred feet high, which gives a most extended view 
 to the spectator over this flat country, embracing arms of rivers, 
 and canals almost innumerable, and a great number of towns and 
 villages. The organ is thought to be the most magnificent in the 
 kingdom. It was thirty-five years in being built, and cost three 
 hundred thousand florins.* 
 
 There is an English, and also a Scotch Presbyterian church, 
 an English Episcopal church, a French Reformed church, an 
 
 * A florin is about forty-two cents. 
 
BRASS STATUE OF ERASMUS. 481 
 
 Evangelical Lutheran, two churches for the Remonstrants, one 
 for the Anabaptists, and six for the Roman Catholics (two of these 
 last are for the Jansenists), and a synagogue of the Jews. I 
 mention these to show how vain was the mighty effort of the 
 Synod of Dort to introduce uniformity, and stop the spread of 
 what they called heresy, by the strong arm of authority. One thing 
 they have accomplished, I believe ; and that is, they have banished 
 the power and spirit of the gospel from among them almost en- 
 tirely. While contending violently for the peculiarities of doctrine, 
 and persecuting others, the holy fires upon the sacred altars ap- 
 pear to have become almost extinct. Of a great part of the 
 churches of the Netherlands it might, perhaps, be said in truth — 
 " Having the form of godliness, but denying the power thereof."* 
 
 In the public square of the great market is a beautiful brass 
 statue of Erasmus, having on his doctor's hat and toga, and hold- 
 ing a book in one hand, while the other is employed in turning 
 over the leaves. Among other inscriptions is one in Dutch, 
 which has been translated as follows : 
 
 " Here rose the great sun that set at Bale. May the imperial 
 town honour and celebrate the saint in his tomb ; the city that 
 gave him birth gives him this second life. But the luminary of 
 the languages, the spirit of morality, the glorious wonder that 
 shone in charity, peace, and divinity, is not to be honoured by a 
 mausoleum nor to be rewarded by a statue. Hence must the 
 heavenly vault alone cover Erasmus, whose temple scorns a more 
 limited space." 
 
 The house where he was born, in 1467, stands near this public 
 square. It is said, when the statue was first erected, it was annu- 
 ally scoured so bright that it shone in the sun like gold ; but as 
 this would in time mar the likeness, by wearing out the more del- 
 icate lineaments, it was discontinued. 
 
 Rotterdam has little in it of interest to the stranger, except the 
 general features of the town, the principal of which have been al- 
 ready alluded to. In its population and trade it is only second to 
 Amsterdam among the cities of Holland ; and it may, perhaps, in 
 time, rival Amsterdam itself. Its ship channel is about to be im- 
 proved by a new passage, which, it is said, will give a depth of 
 
 * The Sabbath is much abused. The tea-gardens around Rotterdam are crowded in 
 the afternoon of the Sabbath with pleasure-taking multitudes. 
 
 41 3P 
 
482 GERMANY. 
 
 thirty feet instead of twenty, which is the depth of the present 
 channel. The ice leaves the port sooner than at Amsterdam, and 
 the tide alone will float a ship to sea in three hours. The site 
 is at the point where the river Rotte connects with the Merwe ; 
 this latter is the most northern branch of the Meuse. When, 
 however, we speak of rivers in Holland, the reader must under- 
 stand only one of those watery arteries that run across this coun- 
 try in almost every direction, w T hich are not supplied by fountains 
 of their own from the interior, but are arms of the Pchine, of the 
 sea, &c. The population of the city is about sixty thousand. 
 
 The commerce of Holland is somewhat embarrassed by the ex- 
 cessive taxation imposed by the government. The necessity for 
 this has been increased, rather than diminished, by the late diffi- 
 culties with Belgium. It is not supposed, however, by the intel- 
 ligent citizens with whom I conversed, that the loss of that country 
 will be any disadvantage to the Dutch Netherlands ; but, on the 
 contrary, an advantage. The king, however, thinks otherwise, 
 and he contends for the integrity of his realm with great pertinacity 
 and obstinacy. He not only refuses to recognise the separation, 
 but he will not acknowledge any of the public functionaries of 
 Belgium, nor any of their official acts. A passport even, which is 
 only stamped and signed by a Belgic officer, is rejected, and the 
 traveller holding it is not allowed to pass. An instance occurred 
 when we were coming down the Rhine of two English gentle- 
 men, who, because they came through Belgium, were refused a 
 passage through the country, and were obliged to turn back. 
 
 The entire population of his Dutch majesty's present domin- 
 ions is three millions. Of these, about two hundred and sixty 
 thousand are Roman Catholics, and forty thousand are Jews ; the 
 remainder are Protestants. 
 
 In an excursion to the Hague, a distance of about fourteen 
 miles, we had an opportunity of seeing a fair specimen of the 
 stiff, yet peculiar and interesting scenery of Holland. We trav- 
 elled by coach, although the more common way is by canal ; for 
 the canals here are more numerous than the highways of most 
 countries. The country is everywhere perfectly flat ; the canals 
 are generally planted with trees ; and these, with the numerous 
 small canals, and ditches shooting out in every direction, consti- 
 tute the general features of the landscape, with the addition of the 
 
THE HAGUE. 483 
 
 windmills, which are more prominent and magnificent than any- 
 thing else in the country. These windmills have high towers, 
 many of them neatly finished, and the lower stories not unfre- 
 quently constituting convenient tenements. You see them in 
 every direction, sometimes ranged along in extended rows, and 
 skirting the horizon as far as such an object can be visible to the 
 naked eye. 
 
 The houses and country seats by the side of the canals were 
 pleasant: their gardens extended to the bank of the canals, and 
 frequently, in addition to other appendages, had a summer-house 
 in one corner, finished in a beautiful airy style, with a convenient 
 room, or parlour, in which, as we passed at the hour of tea, the 
 families were generally assembled to drink their favourite bev- 
 erage. Tea-drinking is universal in Holland, more so than smo- 
 king, for both sexes drink tea ; and they contrive to have both 
 going on together. I noticed in their tea-gardens, when a party 
 of gentlemen and ladies were sitting round the table, while the 
 latter were sipping their tea, the former would have their long 
 pipes lighted, the bowls of which reached the centre of the table, 
 and thus they regaled the olfactories of the ladies with the fumes 
 of the West India weed, while they were refreshing another sense 
 with a decoction of the East Indian plant. The drinking of in- 
 toxicating liquors seemed also very common in Holland ; intem- 
 perance, in fact, appears to have taken deep root m society. 
 
 We found a delightful hotel at the Hague, called the Old 
 Doelan; it had commodious apartments and a most splendid 
 drawing-room. Indeed, the town itself, though not very large, 
 containing about thirty thousand inhabitants, is most magnificent : 
 it seems to be filled with palaces. The streets are broad and 
 clean ; the squares are elegantly built, and beautifully ornament- 
 ed with trees and walks. The Vyverberg especially, which is a 
 large oblong square, is very fine ; it has an avenue of trees on the 
 one side, and the royal palace and an artificial lake on the other. 
 The principal street is called Voorhaut, and seems to be built up 
 with a succession of palaces. 
 
 The Royal Museum has a splendid Chinese cabinet, which 
 comprises the most extensive collection of Eastern curiosities I 
 have ever seen. Here, also, is a beautiful model of a Dutch 
 town ; and the model of the interior of a house, made by order of 
 
484 GERMANY. 
 
 Peter the Great, at an expense of thirty thousand francs. In this 
 museum there is also a fine collection of pictures, mostly of the 
 Flemish school. The royal library contains, we were told, one 
 hundred and twenty thousand volumes, although some of the 
 guide-books say seventy thousand volumes ; and in the same 
 building with the library is a collection of medals amounting to 
 thirty-four thousand pieces. There is in this city, also, a muse- 
 um of natural history, which was carried away by the French, 
 but restored again at the peace of 1814. 
 
 Near the Hague is a wood two miles long and three quarters 
 of a mile broad, consisting of very large and noble forest-trees, 
 that reminded me of the trees of our own native forests. The 
 proximity of this grove to this splendid city, and the deep, dark, 
 venerable aspect of the grove itself, give it a character of beauty 
 and sublimity seldom met with. In this wood is a palace called 
 the "palace in the wood." 
 
 Leaving Mrs. F. somewhat indisposed at the Hague, I jumped 
 into a coach and paid a short visit to Leyden, a distance of twelve 
 and a half miles. Part of our route was very pleasant, but the 
 greater part was over a sandy country, comparatively barren. 
 The sea was about two miles distant from us at the left, between 
 which and us were piled, in barren confusion, the sand-banks 
 which were thrown up in a terrible storm in the year 860, by 
 which the principal mouth of the Rhine was buried, and the waters 
 have ever since been lost in the sand. My time at Leyden was 
 short, and unfortunate in respect to the principal object of my 
 visit, which was to see the far-famed university, as the profes- 
 sors were mostly absent. I found one of the professors at home, 
 however, who treated me with great courtesy. This celebrated 
 seat of learning has at present about three hundred students, and 
 an extensive board of professors. The old system of giving the 
 instruction in Latin is still kept up in most of the departments ; 
 the lectures, however, in the natural sciences, and, I think, in the 
 department of medicine, are given in the vulgar tongue. The 
 university is well provided with a museum of natural history and 
 comparative anatomy, in which is a splendid collection of Eastern 
 birds, formerly belonging to Mr. Zemmink of Amsterdam. They 
 have also a fine botanical garden, and a library of about fifty thou- 
 sand volumes. These Dutch towns are very fine ; there is a sort 
 
PASSAGE TO ENGLAND. 485 
 
 of general elegance about them that renders them the very re- 
 verse of the Italian towns. The latter have their points and 
 spots of interest, while the great whole is filthy, or, at best, pov- 
 erty-smitten and dull. But the Dutch towns have a general ele- 
 gance ; cleanliness is everywhere apparent ; the houses are well 
 built, the streets are commodious, trees abundant and flourishing, 
 and the gardens verdant and beautiful. All this is especially true 
 of Leyden. The environs of Leyden are also beautiful, abound- 
 ing with country seats, gardens, and fruitful fields. The waters 
 of the canals sometimes spread out into pools, and artificial lakes 
 add also to the interest of the scenery, I cannot say, however, 
 what effect the heat of a long summer may have upon these low 
 grounds, covered with a luxuriant vegetation, and abundant in 
 bodies of water almost stagnant. Already, though but the month 
 of June, the surface of the water in some of the canals and pools 
 is almost as green as the banks themselves, and the natural infer- 
 ence would be, that they would soon become extremely offensive 
 and deleterious to health. Experience proves, however, that 
 Holland is not unhealthy. Their northern latitude (fifty- two de- 
 grees) and their cleanliness are probably the causes why the 
 summer exhalations do not breed contagion. I had a great desire 
 to linger longer around these enchanting scenes at Leyden, whose 
 natural and artificial beauties were heightened and hallowed by 
 the memories of such worthies as Arminius, and Episcopius, and 
 Vossius, and a host of others whose names are immortal. What 
 land had done more for learning, and, I might add, for religion, 
 and for the cause of civil liberty, up to the period of the Synod of 
 Dort, than Holland ? The spirit and principles that then tri- 
 umphed finally withered, as they must always wither, the intel- 
 lect and the heart of the nation. 
 
 We returned to Rotterdam in time to join our old friends of the 
 Rhine in taking the steamer the next morning for London. The 
 distance is two hundred and twenty miles, and the passage, which 
 we had long dreaded on account of our strong propensity to sea- 
 sickness, proved one of the most delightful, I venture to say, that 
 was ever experienced in the British seas. The weather was fine, 
 and the bosom of the deep was scarcely disturbed by a swell' or a 
 ripple during the whole voyage. On the morning of. the 28th 
 June, 1837, we entered the mouth of the Thames with feelings 
 41 
 
486 ENGLAND. 
 
 of joy and gratitude, second only to those we expect to experience 
 if Providence permit us again to reach our own native land. 
 
 In working our way up the Thames on the beautiful morning 
 of our entering that extraordinary river, we were more than ever 
 impressed with the vast amount of business upon this outlet of the 
 British metropolis. It was covered with steamboats, ships of dif- 
 ferent sizes, and water-craft of all descriptions. Of the bustle and 
 crowd upon this river no one can have any conception who has 
 not seen it. Some little idea can be formed by noticing in detail 
 some of the agencies and items of business transacted on this 
 river. From the mouth to the metropolis, following the windings 
 of the river, the distance is sixty miles. In this distance twelve 
 hundred revenue officers are on duty continually; four thousand 
 men are employed in shipping and unshipping goods ; eight thou- 
 sand watermen navigate the small craft and wherries. The num- 
 ber of vessels of various kinds engaged in the river is estimated 
 at thirteen thousand four hundred and forty-four, embracing a ton- 
 nage of between two and three millions. The number of pack- 
 ages annually received and discharged at the port is calculated at 
 three millions, at an estimated aggregate value of seventy million 
 pounds sterling. 
 
 From the extended and contiguous villages on either side, there 
 seems almost a continuous city from the port to some twenty 
 miles down the river. As the channel is not wide, the reader can 
 judge something of the crowded and bustling character of the 
 scene, especially at those hours of the tide most favourable to the 
 entry and departure of the larger sized vessels ; for as the tide 
 rises and falls many feet, and with a strong current, the motion 
 of the larger vessels is regulated very much by the ebbs and floods 
 of the tide. At full tide the largest sized vessels can float up to 
 the port, and they generally wait the favourable turn of the tide 
 for entering or departing. This, indeed, to some extent, regulates 
 the arrival and departure of the more than one hundred steamboats 
 that float upon this river. On this occasion our own boat could 
 not get up to its proper landing-place on account of the lowness 
 of the tide, and we were obliged to take passage in one of the 
 wherries which are always in attendance for this purpose. This 
 was very annoying to the princess, for the custom-officers who 
 came aboard would not suffer the baggage to be moved, and the 
 
ARISTOCRACY OF THE ENGLISH. 487 
 
 princess would not move until she could take her baggage with 
 her. It was in vain we all told her it would be safe ; in vain we 
 offered to watch it and see it up; her decided answer was, " I go 
 not till my baggage goes." At length we got our baggage started 
 and ourselves on shore. Here again, and for the last time in a 
 foreign land, we had to wait the movements and submit to the 
 searching operations of the custom-house. In this, however, in 
 consequence of our intimacy with the princess and her suite, we 
 were highly favoured. Our trunks were scarcely opened, and all 
 were passed immediately, and we were permitted, after this nom- 
 inal ceremony, to take our luggage and depart ; whereas we might 
 otherwise have been detained until nearly night, and have been 
 obliged to have our clothing and effects all unpacked and deranged. 
 Here we parted with the amiable princess and her intelligent 
 and interesting companions ; long shall we remember them ; they 
 are among the worthies of the earth; noble, yet humble, well 
 calculated among kindred minds to give and receive pleasure ; 
 they travel to their own profit, and take pleasure in communica- 
 ting profit to others. If all travellers possessed this spirit, how 
 much would the pleasure and profit of travelling be enhanced ! 
 But too many, and this is emphatically true of a great portion of 
 the English, wrap themselves up in their own dignity, and appear 
 to lose a great portion of the social enjoyments of life through a 
 fear that their caste will be desecrated by any chance familiarity 
 with persons of a lower or a plebeian rank. When the English 
 gentleman or lady meets you abroad, they look at you with a sort 
 of inquisitorial scrutiny, that asks, in language too plain to be 
 misunderstood, " Are you respectable ?" The feeling of an Amer- 
 ican, in turn, is generally intimated by a look that says, " It is 
 nothing to you whether I am or not ; you take care of your own 
 dignity and I will attend to mine," and this puts an end to all 
 further intercourse. It would be unjust, however, not to say here, 
 that although this prevails to an extent that gives a general char- 
 acter to the English abroad, yet it is far from being universal ; 
 we met with many very pleasant exceptions, and, I believe, wher- 
 ever we were known as Americans, there was less of shyness 
 than is generally manifested between Englishmen who meet as 
 strangers. This I attribute to the less fear they have of possible 
 embarrassment hereafter by an acquaintance and familiarity with 
 
488 ENGLAND. 
 
 Americans, even though they should not prove to be as " respect- 
 able" as themselves. In the first place, in consequence of the 
 distance, they have little fear of their association and familiarities 
 being afterward revived by the parties concerned, or their friends ; 
 and, in the second place, as our scale of rank is not so distinctly 
 and definitely graduated as with them, there is no great danger 
 of an imputed inferiority w T hich would prove embarrassing to 
 either of the parties. But to return to our narrative. The first 
 thing that struck our attention when we landed w r as the strange 
 sound of our own language in the mouths of boatmen, porters, 
 hackmen, waiters, and, in fact, of all we met. We had not, for the 
 eight months of our absence, been destitute of the sound of the 
 English language, but from these classes it was a rare sound ; and 
 we had so long been accustomed to hold an imperfect intercourse 
 with them through the medium of different foreign languages, the 
 change seemed the more striking. It was like waking from a 
 dream, ana 1 finding one's self at once among former delightful as- 
 sociations. Never did the distinct accents of the polished and 
 sweet-toned orator give such surprise and pleasure to my ear as did, 
 on this occasion, the uncouth accents of these London Cockneys. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 The reader will perceive, by the concluding remarks of the last 
 chapter, with what different feelings we approached the British 
 shores now from those which we experienced when landing in 
 1835. Then we were, for the first time, entering upon a foreign 
 country ; now we have become familiar with transitions from one 
 foreign nation to another. Then we were taking the first step in 
 our temporary banishment from country and friends ; now we 
 have come back to England for the purpose of taking our last 
 step in our return from that banishment. Besides, our stay in 
 England at the first had made us acquainted with numbers, to 
 whom we returned as to old friends ; and to come back to mingle 
 again with our own literature and our own religion, and to resume 
 our wonted habits of social intercourse, was so unlike what we 
 
ENGLAND AND AMERICA. 489 
 
 had experienced during most of our absence, and such an ap- 
 proximation to the endearments of home itself, that the change in 
 our feelings can excite no surprise. 
 
 Indeed, the feelings of loneliness with which we entered Eng- 
 land at the first were soon removed. Directly after arriving I 
 sent letters of introduction, with which my friends had favoured 
 me, to Thomas Sands, Esquire, whose kind and prompt hospi 
 tality introduced us to his family residence, in Everton, near 
 Liverpool, two or three miles from town. "With this truly polite 
 and hospitable family we enjoyed greater opportunities for an 
 acquaintance with the people than we could have done at a public 
 house. To know the habits and social character of a people, we 
 must see them at their own homes, and have an opportunity of 
 mingling with them in the unrestrained intimacies of social and 
 friendly intercourse. And I consider it as peculiarly favourable 
 to one of the leading objects of my visit to England, that we have 
 been mostly thrown, during our stay and travels in this country, 
 into the very bosom of social and domestic life ; with these ad- 
 vantages, I have endeavoured to gain what knowledge I could of 
 this our fatherland. With what feelings I entered upon this 
 work may be gathered, in part, from the following extract of a 
 letter to G. P. Dissosway, Esq., written from Liverpool : — 
 
 And now here we are on the shores of Albion. And do you 
 ask, "What are your 'first impressions?'" I dare not trust to 
 first impressions ; I am suspicious of them ; they have deceived 
 many, and they may deceive me. I have come to England ex- 
 pecting to be gratified and instructed. I have no prejudices 
 against her. I have many and strong feelings in her favour. She 
 is the mother of us all. From her we have received the grand 
 outlines of our own social, political, and religious institutions. 
 These have been modified by us, it is true, and, ive think, improved 
 in most cases. So much the more interesting, however, is the 
 examination of the original models ; models which are rendered 
 peculiarly venerable by the very rust of antiquity with which 
 they are discoloured and corroded ; for by this examination, com- 
 paring the institutions as they now exist in the respective coun- 
 tries with individual and national character, we can best judge 
 of the comparative excellences or deficiencies of each. It is 
 , 3Q 
 
490 ENGLAND. 
 
 natural for a traveller to compare ; his whole course of observa- 
 tion is carried on by a comparison of what he sees with what he 
 has been accustomed to. And here, it strikes me, is the point 
 where most of the errors and false deductions of tourists originate. 
 In this comparison they are extremely apt to give the preference 
 to their own country. Habits, and local attachments, and, perhaps, 
 what some would call patriotism, all unite to lead us to judge too 
 favourably of our own institutions, and to censure others, of 
 course, where they differ from us. Besides, the bearings, and 
 dependences, and results of social institutions, together with 
 physical causes, vary in their influences indefinitely ; and, there- 
 fore, a condition of society that may be unfavourable in some re- 
 spects may nevertheless be very desirable for other and more 
 important influences, which the casual journalist entirely over- 
 looks. Judging of the character of the cause by a part, and per- 
 haps a less important part of the effects, a most erroneous deduc- 
 tion is drawn, and the sage philosopher announces his discovery 
 and passes his decision with oracular authority. This has been 
 the course of numerous tourists in America. They have seen on 
 the surface of society an apparent roughness of character and in- 
 dependence of manner most decidedly unlike the character of the 
 English in the same grades of society. It is in itself an unlovely 
 feature, and it strikes the stranger with greater disgust than it 
 does the American gentleman, and that for two important rea- 
 sons : in the first place, the stranger is unused to it ; it comes 
 upon him unexpectedly ; and, in the second place, nine times out 
 of ten he provokes it — unintentionally it may be — because the 
 manner with which he has been accustomed to address his ser- 
 vants is that* which indicates his conception of his own superi- 
 ority. This the American servant will not bear; and he imme- 
 diately gives the gentleman to understand that he calls no man 
 master. 
 
 It must be confessed, however, that the character of our politi- 
 cal institutions does give to many of the uneducated and unre- 
 fined a coarseness and bluntness of manner that is not agreeable. 
 The gentleman is a gentleman anywhere and in every nation ; 
 but the uncultivated will be likely to be coarse and uncorteous 
 in his manner whenever he feels himself free from the restraints 
 of dependance, especially if he wishes to show that he is free from 
 those restraints. But what then ? Is this of itself sufficient to 
 
LIVERPOOL DOCKS. 491 
 
 condemn our institutions ? Are there no advantages to offset 
 against this evil 1 
 
 You will perceive, from the foregoing, that I have been long 
 enough in England to see the difference between the deportment 
 of the poor man here and the poor man in Amerca ; a difference 
 that is written in legible characters on the very surface of society ; 
 and it requires no great experience or shrewdness to discern it or 
 write about it. 
 
 Never was I before so fully impressed with the buoyant and 
 elevating character of republican institutions. How far this, on 
 the whole, tends to human happiness is another question. One 
 thing is clear, it is human nature for those who have superiority 
 to wish to keep it, and for those who are inferior to wish to rise. 
 But it seems to be according to the laws of a sound philosophy, 
 as well as of our holy religion, that each man should be free to 
 find that level in society to which his intellectual powers and 
 moral worth, unshackled by any artificial arrangement in the social 
 system, can elevate him. 
 
 But I forget. I am not so much called to philosophize and 
 moralize at this time as to inform you of what I see and hear. 
 
 You must expect that whatever communications I may make 
 will relate more to men than to the physical world ; more to the 
 moral, intellectual, and political character of man than *to his 
 physical comforts and embellishments. 
 
 You will expect, however, that I should say something of Liv- 
 erpool, as I have now been in the city some days. But a few 
 words must suffice. Every traveller mentions the large, commo- 
 dious, and substantial docks of Liverpool, which are, in fact, above 
 all praise, and are the first feature that interests the stranger as 
 he approaches the town by water. On seeing these, the first 
 inquiry of the American is, Why does not New-York build such 
 docks ? The answer is at hand — America does everything for 
 the present. This, however, may not be the only reason why 
 Liverpool is so much in advance of us in this matter. The tides 
 of the river Mersey, on which Liverpool is situated, are so great, 
 and the water at low tide is so inadequate for the largest sized 
 ships, there seems to be almost a necessity that a place shut in 
 from the sea, and, therefore, unaffected by ebbs and floods, should 
 be provided for the vessels in the harbour. Such an accommo- 
 
492 ENGLAND. 
 
 dation these docks afford. They are large reservoirs of substan- 
 tial stone masonry, in which the vessels are provided with any 
 desirable depth of water, and are as perfectly secured as if housed 
 in one of the large buildings of your Brooklyn Navy Yard, with 
 the exception of the roof. 
 
 The public buildings, so far as I have examined, are not nu- 
 merous ; at least such as are interesting. The Exchange is the 
 best. In the court of this is a monument to Lord Nelson, the de- 
 sign of which is to represent his principal victories. The device 
 seems to be in bad taste, although the workmanship is very well. 
 Fame is crowning him at the same time that Death is laying his 
 fleshless hand upon the hero's heart. Beneath, at equal distan- 
 ces, are the representations of the conquered in chains, with their 
 faces most piteously resting upon the hand, and the hand upon 
 the knee. There they sit, " for ever silent and for ever sad." It 
 is a sight of monumental sorrow that makes one sad to look upon ; 
 and, to add to the offensiveness of the design, the British lion 
 holds the chain in his mouth, and never lets go. Does this rep- 
 resent " the genius of universal emancipation ?" 
 
 The general exterior of the city is sombre and gloomy. This 
 is what is said of all English towns. The reason is, doubtless, 
 that the smoke of the coal, here universally used for fuel and for 
 manufacturing purposes, renders any attempt at external bright- 
 ness and freshness altogether futile ; and to this may be added the 
 fact that the dampness of the climate operates powerfully upon 
 paint and masonry, whether of stone or brick, to impart a dark 
 and ancient appearance to the edifices. Hence this has become 
 the English fashion, and now, therefore, the inhabitants would not 
 have a fresh-looking edifice if they could ; it w T ould be out of taste. 
 This, to one accustomed to the bright and fresh walls of an Amer- 
 ican city, has a most gloomy aspect, and I am not sure but it con- 
 tributes something towards the low spirits of the inhabitants them- 
 selves. This must be greatly counteracted, however, by the in- 
 creased comforts within ; for, while Americans may have a live- 
 lier exterior to their dwellings, the English appear to have, in 
 general, a greater share of interior accommodations and conveni- 
 ences. 
 
 I know not that others may have the same impression, but ev- 
 erything almost in England seems, compared with what I have 
 
EXCURSION TO CHESTER. 493 
 
 been accustomed to, out of proportion as to length. The boats 
 are short ; the carriages are short ; so are the people ; the houses 
 are lower in general than is common with us. In fine, at first 
 view, when coming on shore, everything seems to wear a novel 
 aspect ; and yet that novelty is so much in small things that it 
 gradually melts away, and in a little time the general features, 
 which are essentially the same in both countries, are all that leave 
 any lasting impression upon the mind. 
 But I must for the present bid you adieu. 
 
 Yours truly, 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 Liverpool, Oct 6, 1835. 
 
 Having, by the foregoing remarks and letter, translated the read- 
 er from London, where we landed from the Continent of Europe, 
 to Liverpool, where we first landed in 1835, I will continue my 
 journal from that time and place. 
 
 The following letter, written at the time, will narrate our excur- 
 sion to Chester. 
 
 To G. P. Dissosway, Esq. 
 
 My dear Sir, 
 
 The old town of Chester is about fifteen or sixteen miles from 
 Liverpool, and is a place of considerable interest, as is also Eaton 
 Hall, which is in the same neighbourhood. I will amuse myself 
 by giving you a short description of our excursion thither from 
 Liverpool. 
 
 You have to cross the Mersey in a ferry-boat to take the coach 
 for Chester ; and here let me caution you against drawing any 
 analogy in your own mind between your Brooklyn, Hoboken, or 
 any other New-York ferry-boats and those of Liverpool. I did 
 not come to England to find fault, but to tell the truth. Now the 
 truth is, the New- York boats are as much before these, as these 
 are before the old flat-bottomed scows which were formerly used 
 for ferry-boats. But let that pass ; they may improve as they 
 grow older. We crossed in the rain and dirt, took seat in the 
 coach at Berkenhead, and arrived at Chester about five o'clock 
 P.M., and put up at the " Feathers' Inn." And this, by-.the-way, 
 is as good a place as I can fix upon for the commencement of my 
 42 
 
494 ENGLAND. 
 
 sketch of the city. This is the part of the town that has the 
 greatest appearance of antiquity. Everything around you bears 
 the marks of age ; and some monuments remain, showing that the 
 city had an existence and a reputation as early as the days of the 
 Roman conquest. Immediately under the Feathers' Inn, and back 
 of a smith's shop, are the remains of a Roman hypocaust, or sub- 
 terranean passage, and a sweating-bath. The interior of it is 
 something like an oven. Here, in a space of about fifteen feet 
 by six x the fire was built, and the heat was carried into the suda- 
 toria above by small tubes, the holes for which are still seen. 
 This is only one of many Roman antiquities which, according to 
 the accounts, have been found here, many of which have been 
 carelessly destroyed or lost. One other I shall have occasion 
 particularly to mention when I come to speak of Eaton Hall. 
 
 One of the curiosities of Chester which will assist you in form- 
 ing a better idea of the bath already mentioned is as follows : 
 Some of the principal streets appear to be cut into the solid rock 
 to the depth of one story of the buildings, so that the floor of the 
 second story in the front is on a level with the ground in the back 
 yard. Suppose, then, this smith's shop to occupy this lower story 
 in front, you will readily conceive that the rear has the rock for 
 its perpendicular wall ; and into this wall of rock, by an entrance 
 as before described, is the furnace of the sweating-bath. The 
 rock, however, is of easy excavation, being of a red sandstone, 
 very similar to the red freestone of the Chatham quarries of Con- 
 necticut. This, in fact, is the stone that forms the entire bed of 
 this part of England a very little below the surface. 
 
 The next peculiarity of this old city is its " roivs" a word that, 
 without an explanation, will carry no definite idea to your mind ; 
 and which is used to designate a feature that I shall find it diffi- 
 cult to describe. To give you an idea of it, however, suppose that 
 the second story of all the buildings on a street were cut out fif- 
 teen or twenty feet back into the body of the buildings, with posts 
 and pillars left standing in front to support the upper part ; you 
 will at once conceive, by such an arrangement, of a continuous 
 portico running the whole length of a square, with one range of 
 shops underneath. Now imagine this portico connected with the 
 street by flights of steps, as often as convenience requires, and 
 floored with flagging stones mostly, or some of the way with thick 
 
CHESTER "ROWS." 495 
 
 oak plank, varying in its altitude by the varieties in the heights 
 of the lower stories, not, however, by abrupt steps, but by gentle 
 slopes, so as to give this interior walk a " pleasing variety of hill 
 and dale," and you will have a tolerable idea of the Chester 
 "rows." 
 
 In the interior of these " rows," and fronting them, are the va- 
 rious retail-shops of dry goods,* &c, constituting the " Cheap- 
 side" of Chester. As these shops are, of course, badly lighted 
 in front, most of them are accommodated with skylights. These 
 shops make the " rows" the liveliest part of the town. Here all 
 ages and ranks are passing and repassing continually on their in- 
 terior sidewalk, free from molestation, from sunshine or rain. 
 When this exhibition first met my eye, as I was riding into the 
 town in a stage-coach, the novelty, and the mystery, and the pic- 
 turesque character of the scene produced an indescribable effect. 
 I could not tell what to make of it. There was a kind of enchant- 
 ment about it ; and the more so as the front of the row was walled 
 up two or three feet, and, occasionally, a small shop or case of goods 
 of some kind would be thrown in for economy's sake, or for exhibi- 
 tion of wares, which partially intercepted the view ; and thus the 
 passing multitudes appeared and disappeared in constant succes- 
 sion, and yet without rule or order, and all in such a manner as 
 to leave the stranger to doubt whether they were in doors or out. 
 
 The origin of these " rows" is so ancient that their design is not 
 certainly known. Various speculations are afloat, the most plau- 
 sible of which, in the opinion of most, is, that they were designed 
 for greater security and defence in the early ages, when the town 
 was harassed by the depredatory invasions of the Welsh. I will 
 venture to suggest another theory : almost ever since I have been 
 in England it has rained ; it was rainy while I was in Chester, 
 and I found these " rows" very convenient for walking about the 
 city while it rained without ; and so, apparently, did the citizens, 
 for *the ladies and others were busy in doing their shopping, as 
 though it were a fair day. Now if such is the general character 
 of the English weather, instead of wondering at the Chester rows, 
 I should wonder that every city was not built with " rows" and 
 with archways over the streets. But if the antiquarian think my 
 
 * Dry goods is an Americanism. The English never understood the term when we 
 used it without an explanation. 
 
496 ENGLAND. 
 
 theory savours too much of utilitarianism, a sin which, you are 
 aware, I am more than half suspected of where I am known, then 
 he must reject it, and adopt the one already suggested, or some 
 other equally chivalrous and poetical. 
 
 Another feature of Chester, new, and, of course, interesting to 
 me, is its walls. It has been a walled town time out of mind, and 
 has repeatedly endured the terrors and horrors of a military siege. 
 The old walls are still kept in a state of good repair, but "in these 
 piping times of peace" they are only used for a promenade for 
 pleasure and exercise, for which they are peculiarly adapted by 
 the improvements they have undergone. The walls are about 
 two miles in circumference, with occasional towers and gates, 
 most of which are fraught with historic associations. The city 
 has always been remarkably loyal, and hence it has the honour- 
 able appellation of the " Loyal city of Chester." This, perhaps, 
 is owing to the fact of its having been one of the fortified posts 
 where his majesty's troops were quartered. Nothing is better 
 calculated to promote loyalty, even in the worst of times, than 
 the presence of a strong garrison. But, whatever may be the 
 cause, Chester has generally stood by the legitimate sovereign. 
 Under Lord Byron, one of the ancestors of the late poet of that 
 name, it endured against the republican army of Cromwell a 
 twenty weeks' siege of extraordinary suffering; and it was from 
 the Phoenix tower, between the east and north gates, where the 
 unfortunate Charles I. stood in 1644, and beheld the defeat of his 
 army on Rowton Moor, after which the king fled to Oxford, and 
 the city fell into the hands of the usurper Cromwell. 
 
 Chester is a bishop's see The present bishop (Sumner) is 
 brother to the Bishop of Winchester who was so constantly with 
 George IV. in his last illness and at his death, to whom the dying 
 monarch addressed himself when he said, " Oh God ! is this 
 death ?" Alas ! poor man, he lived a profligate life, and died ***. 
 But if anything of the kind could give the dying king consolation, 
 it must have been the reflection that he had elevated to the epis- 
 copal office two such men as these brothers, both of whom are 
 represented to be pious, faithful, evangelical men ; and especially 
 as he insisted upon the appointment of the Bishop of Chester 
 against the remonstrance of the Duke of "W., who, it is said, did 
 not like Sumner, and suggested to the king that the government 
 
THE CATHEDRAL. 497 
 
 vras under greater obligations to some others ; but the king per- 
 sisted, and the appointment was made. The see, however, is the 
 poorest in the kingdom, and is generally considered only a step- 
 ping-stone to something higher. Hence few ever die Bishops of 
 Chester, This saying, therefore, has gone abroad, that "the 
 Bishop of Chester is immortal." 
 
 The cathedral is venerable for age. Its site is an ancient ab- 
 bey, a part of which is contained in the present edifice. The 
 bishop's throne, also, is said to have been the pedestal of the 
 shrine of St, Werburgh, who was the abbess, and for whom the 
 abbey was built eleven hundred years since. I cannot, however, 
 stop to give a particular account of the edifice ; but as we have 
 nothing in America except our forests, mountains, &c, that show 
 the marks of age, I will once for all give you, if I can, in a few 
 words, the idea of a stone edifice corroded by the slow but finally 
 destructive gnawings of the tooth of time. The appearance is 
 sadly interesting, and unlike, perhaps, what you might imagine. 
 The effects are most seen at the corners of the stones. Hence a 
 stone which is square when put into the building approaches more 
 and more to a globular or spherical form. This gives the whole 
 a very uneven appearance, and, as the corrosion and decay are not 
 equal even in all the relative parts, owing to greater or less ex- 
 posure, or to some variation in the character of the stone, or other 
 causes, the surface assumes a very rugged appearance. Here 
 and there, perhaps, a stone falls out ; another hangs in scales ; 
 there is a recess where moss is gathering ; and here the wall is 
 so discoloured that the character of the material is concealed. 
 You gaze upon the wall until you see standing out in legible 
 characters, " Man and his works are doomed to decay." 
 
 The castle stands on the site of the old castle, part of which 
 still remains, and is incorporated with the new edifices. Here 
 are the courtroom, the prisons, barracks, &c. Of these I cannot 
 speak particularly, but must not pass over the costume of the 
 Highland soldiers, some of whom are stationed here. They still 
 wear the plaid kilts, which come a little more than half way down 
 the thigh, leaving the remainder naked down to the middle of the 
 calf, where is the top of the red and white plaid gaiter which cov- 
 ers the ancle and foot. The kilt is fastened round the waist, and 
 hangs loose like a skirt. The body is covered, and the head 
 43 3R 
 
498 ENGLAND. 
 
 adorned with a splendid cap and feathers. Indeed, the entire 
 dress is an imposing and showy uniform ; but this nudity is al- 
 most as indelicate as it must be uncomfortable, for it is worn in 
 all climates and at all seasons. The wonder is that such a dress 
 should be retained, and can only be accounted for on the known 
 principle of habit and tradition, " As your fathers did so do ye." 
 
 But I must hasten to Eaton Hall. This is the country residence 
 of the late Earl Grosvenor, now Marquis of Westminster, and of 
 his son, who now takes his father's former title.* The ride thither, 
 four miles from Chester, is most delighful. As you leave the 
 city you cross the fine new bridge, which with one arch spans the 
 river Dey just below the castle. Immediately after you leave 
 the main road, and take a gravelled carriage road skirted on either 
 hand at a little distance with beautiful shrubbery and woodland, 
 leaving between the woodland and road an intervening lawn of 
 about one rod on each side. The grass on this lawn is kept 
 sheared close by a broad knife or scythe. This constant shearing 
 (which is common, I believe, throughout the pleasure-grounds of 
 England) gives to the greensward a thick, fine, velvet character, 
 which greatly adds to the beauty of this lovely carpet of nature. 
 Into this beautiful lawn, from the adjoining thickets, the game 
 comes out to feed, numbers of which were seen as we passed 
 along, especially hares, rabbits, and English pheasants. These 
 greatly added to the life and interest of the scenery. We passed 
 the cottage of one of the gamekeepers, numbers of whom are lo- 
 cated in different parts of the grounds to guard them from invasion 
 by unauthorized sportsmen, and to look after the game. The 
 game laws are very severe. The hunting is a monopoly, and 
 any not privileged presuming to shoot a bird or a quadruped is 
 heavily fined or imprisoned if detected. A little farther on we 
 passed the northern lodge,! which has a fine Gothic arch springing 
 sublimely over the entrance to the park. Here we passed, in un 
 counted numbers, deer^: of various kinds and colours, with theij 
 proud antlers waving over their shoulders, and also large herds of 
 
 * The young earl and family are now on the Continent. 
 
 t Every important nobleman's, and even many gentlemen's seats, have entrances 
 sometimes of arches and sometimes of noble pillars and statuary, with a cottage con 
 nected for the porter. These are called lodges. They are generally some distance front* 
 and out of sight of the houses themselves. 
 
 X Our coachman informed us that " they killed a power of these every year." 
 
EATON HALL. 499 
 
 sheep. I ought to have mentioned that before entering the park 
 we passed the marquis on horseback, who, with a single mounted 
 groom attending him, turned off just before us into a road leading 
 through another part of his grounds. We had the good fortune 
 also to meet the marchioness in the farther part of the park (which 
 extends quite up to the palace yard), who was just going out to 
 take an airing in her phaeton, drawn by two elegant ponies. She 
 drove her own carriage in graceful and horseman-like style, as be- 
 came an English marchioness. The only other person in the car- 
 riage was her footman, who sat much at his ease in his place be- 
 hind. He, one would think, was the man her ladyship delighted 
 to honour, for he was seated in her own carriage, and she, at her 
 own expense (nay, doubtless, paid him for it also), drove him in 
 lordly style over her family domains. Leave names and titles 
 out of the question, and look at the thing as it is ; who is the ser- 
 vant and who is the served ? On our return we met her ladyship 
 returning in the same style. 
 
 We approached Eaton Hall on the west front. But, before we 
 enter, let us look at the exterior. It is a superb Gothic edifice, 
 finished with towers, turrets, pinnacles, and battlements of white 
 freestone. The material, however, soon vegetates with moss, 
 and becomes discoloured, so that the building, although begun in 
 1803, has now the appearance of age. The style is Gothic, and 
 the entire length, including the two wings, which are finished with 
 octagonal towers, is said to be four hundred and fifty feet in length. 
 The stables, &c., adjoining, are built in the same style, and, at a 
 little distance, appear to be a part of the same building ; with 
 these, the whole fagad& front is about seven hundred feet. It is, in- 
 deed, a noble pile ; from whatever point you view it, you feel the 
 same satisfaction, and seem never weary of the sight. The inte- 
 rior is finished and furnished with equal magnificence. You ring 
 the bell at the bottom of the stone steps ; a servant in full dress of 
 tight smallclothes and white silk stockings ushers you into a splen- 
 did entrance hall hung with paintings, and in the niches are effi- 
 gies in full dress of ancient steel armour. Here you amuse your- 
 self with the wonders of the place, until the " groom of the cham- 
 bers," who, perhaps, may be showing another company through 
 the apartments, is ready to wait upon you. You are shown suc- 
 cessively into the saloon, the state bedroom, the dining-room, the 
 
500 ENGLAND. 
 
 chapel, the large and small drawing-rooms, the library, &c. I 
 could not think of giving you a detailed description of this superb 
 suite of apartments. They are finished in the best style, adorned 
 with paintings of the first order, some of them with painted glass, 
 and all with draperies of crimson, salmon coloured, and yellow 
 satin and gold, with gold fringes and tassels. Four of the paintings 
 are by our countryman, West, of whom the earl was an early and a 
 munificent patron. In the large drawing-room was a screen of silk 
 and gold, wrought by the present Queen of France. The mahog- 
 any doors are said to have cost one hundred guineas each ; a pier- 
 glass, which is fourteen feet in one plate, said to be the finest in 
 the kingdom, cost, if I rightly understood the groom, one thousand 
 eight hundred guineas. The furniture was in good keeping with 
 the rooms, and discovered great chasteness of taste as well as 
 elegance of design and costliness of execution. The motto of the 
 Grosvenor arms was everywhere displayed, and a better one never 
 was inscribed upon a coat of arms. 
 
 " Nobilitatis virttis non stemma character;" 
 
 or, as it is generally contracted, 
 
 " Virtus non stemma." 
 " Virtue, not descent, the true mark of nobility." 
 
 This is truly a republican motto, and one we should least liave ex- 
 pected to see on the arms of a family whose blood has been noble 
 from before the days of William the Conqueror, in whose suite the 
 Grosvenor family came to England. 
 
 But I forget that you have not yet been introduced to the pleas- 
 ure-grounds and gardens. The land on the east is a gradual 
 slope to the Dey ; this slope is laid out in gravel walks, and 
 adorned with trees, shrubbery, plants, and flowers in great vari- 
 ety, and arranged singly, in clusters, and in parterres, in great taste. 
 On one end of these grounds is the conservatory of exotic plants ; 
 among which was the peerless flowering aloe, which blossoms at 
 the age of one hundred years and then dies. The one we saw 
 had about arrived to its goal, and will soon be crowned with its 
 short-lived honours and expire ; sad representative of man's years 
 of toil to grasp the crown of earthly honour, which fades almost 
 as soon as enjoyed, 
 
PLEASURE-GROUNDS. 501 
 
 On the opposite side is the Roman antiquity I promised to 
 mention. It is contained in a little temple which the marquis 
 has erected for its reception — an appropriate receptacle ; for the 
 antique is a Roman altar ; it has inscribed on both its opposite 
 sides the following : — 
 
 N YMPHIS 
 
 ET 
 
 FONTIBUS 
 
 LEG. XX. 
 
 V. V. 
 
 " To the Nymphs and Fountains, the 20th legion, the invinci- 
 ble and victorious," so it has been interpreted and translated. 
 The altar is four feet high, and was dug up near Chester in 1821. 
 The floor of the temple is from the palace of Tiberius, in the 
 island of Capri, and was purchased from the Duke Casserano. 
 But I must hasten ; the other grounds are a kitchen garden and a 
 fruit garden, the latter containing many hothouses for the pro- 
 duction of foreign and tropical fruits. Here are grapes, and figs, 
 and oranges, and lemons, and pineapples ; five hundred of these 
 last are consumed in a year grown on the premises. The plant 
 bears the second year, and then dies, producing but one apple. 
 In some parts we noticed what is called rockwork, and rustic 
 arches where plants spring out of artificial hills, and from be- 
 tween ledges of rocks ; some of which were large fine specimens 
 of minerals, which I could but covet for our mineralogical cabi- 
 net, rather than see them exposed there for mere show to the 
 corrosive influence of the weather. 
 
 The gardener was very polite, and took much pains to cull a 
 choice boquet of various flowers for Mrs. F. ; and, at parting, gave 
 us a specimen of the fruit, which had hung round us in tempting 
 profusion during the latter part of our walk. 
 
 We started for our lodging a little after sunset, highly gratified 
 with our afternoon's excursion ; and, I trust, as well satisfied with 
 our own humble lot and plain republican mode of living as we 
 were before we saw the splendour of the Grosvenor palace. 
 
 You need not fear that I shall trouble you or any of my friends 
 with many such long descriptions. As we in America have no 
 opportunity of examining such splendid establishments, I thought it 
 might not be improper to give a somewhat detailed account of one 
 
502 ENGLAND. 
 
 noble residence, as a specimen of British aristocracy. We returned 
 to Chester to have our carriage surrounded by squalid poverty, 
 begging for a penny to procure bread to satisfy their hunger, so 
 true is it that luxury and want are always near neighbours. The 
 marquis is said to be charitable ; but, alas ! what is a charity like 
 this, which gives a little out of a princely estate, the most of 
 which, however, is spent in superfluities. It is said one may ride 
 twelve miles in a direct line without going off the Grosvenor 
 estate, besides extensive possessions in the city of Chester and 
 elsewhere. With such a fortune at command, what might not a 
 man accomplish for our dark, wicked world, if he had the knowl- 
 edge and the heart necessary for the work ! 
 
 Yours, in much esteem, 
 
 W. Fisk. 
 
 We left Liverpool on the 6th of October for London on the 
 Manchester railroad. This great channel of intercommunication 
 has proved of immense service to the business of Manchester and 
 Liverpool. Although the distance is about forty miles, yet it is 
 accomplished in ordinary times in two hours ; and sometimes 
 much sooner. So that goods purchased in Manchester, the great 
 cotton mart, are sent to Liverpool and shipped in the course of 
 two or three hours, without the trouble of storage. 
 
 We stopped in Manchester but one night, but this was long 
 enough to give us some little conception of the extent of English 
 manufactories ; and long enough, also, to convince us of what we 
 had often been reminded, that this was a smoky dirty town. Be- 
 fore we reached it, and while approaching its borders, it was 
 concealed from our vision by a dense cloud of smoke, which, like 
 a black muffler, veiled the town from mortal eyes. We hurried 
 through it and hastened on in our journey, to escape, as soon as 
 we might, the fogs and rains of this humid and smoky atmo- 
 sphere. We expected to give all these places another hearing 
 under better auspices, and, therefore, we suspended all judgment 
 for the present. It had rained most of the time since our arrival. 
 The morning sometimes promised fair, jusj enough to tempt the 
 uninitiated stranger abroad without his mantle or umbrella ; but 
 before he was apprized of the approaching shower he was 
 drenched in rain. November, they say, is the dark rainy month 
 
 
THE POTTERIES. 
 
 503 
 
 in which Englishmen hang themselves ; but if any one has a 
 tendency to hypochondria, he need not wait until November this 
 year, I am sure, for the fit to overtake him. At all events, al- 
 though, through Divine mercy, my spirits seldom sink, and, there- 
 fore, I was in little danger of the hanging mania, still, my catarrh 
 and pulmonary complaints were so aggravated by this wretched 
 climate, I had no wish to risk the experiment of a worse state of 
 the atmosphere, and hence we hastened on to London as fast as 
 prudence would justify. A few things, however, should be noted. 
 Our second day's ride was to Birmingham, through Burslem and 
 the potteries, in Staffordshire. This is the great porcelain and 
 earthenware region ; for the reader should be aware, if he is not 
 already, that a great portion of the different trades and manufac- 
 tures of England is confined to particular towns and sections 
 of the country. The district of country above alluded to, in 
 extent about eight miles by six, is called " The Potteries." And 
 here, for the first time in my life, much and often as I had read 
 on the subject, I obtained a tolerably adequate conception of Brit- 
 ish manufactures ; of their extent, and of the vast amount of capi- 
 tal vested in them. It seemed as though all the porcelain and 
 earthenware for the supply of the world might be made here. 
 Acre after acre and mile after mile of kilns and furnaces, crowded 
 together in some instances, or a little more scattered in others, 
 covered this region. Burslem is the principal town, and con- 
 tains about eleven thousand inhabitants. It has nearly doubled 
 its population since this century came in, so great has been the 
 increase in this branch of industry. The first pottery institution 
 in England is spoken of here. This was greatly extended in 
 1690 by two brothers from Holland, who settled here and made 
 some improvements in the art. This might have been extended 
 still farther, but Old England had not then learned to appreciate 
 her manufactures above the value of a pure atmosphere. The 
 neighbouring inhabitants quarrelled with the Hollanders on ac- 
 count of the bad odour of the fumes of their potteries, and they 
 returned home. In 1763 Mr. Josias Wedgwood, a gentleman to 
 whom science and the arts are greatly indebted, and whose in- 
 ventions and improvements are well known to the world, made 
 great advances in the art of pottery, and got up a large estab- 
 lishment in this district, which, after that country in Italy where 
 
504 ENGLAND. 
 
 ancient pottery was carried to such great perfection, he called 
 Etruria. This establishment is still m the hands of his sons or 
 grandsons. The reason, doubtless, why this section abounds in 
 potteries is, that coal is abundant here, and also those kinds of 
 clay which are most used in this art are found in this region in 
 great quantities, while the soil itself is unfit for agricultural pur- 
 poses. Much of the clay, however, is brought from Dorsetshire 
 and Devonshire. Besides Burslem, there are fourteen other towns 
 in " The Potteries" which contain extensive establishments. In 
 this, as in most of the manufacturing districts, there are many 
 dissenters from the established church, and Methodism especially 
 has extended itself here more than any other sect. 
 
 As we approached the lower part of Staffordshire, in Wolver- 
 hamptom, Wednesbury, West Bromwich, &c, we had a noctur- 
 nal exhibition of another kind of manufactory, which was alto- 
 gether unexpected, and of a character entirely new to us. Be- 
 fore we reached this region it was night, and that was a cloudy, 
 dark night. Suddenly we found ourselves in a region of fire. 
 Flames were bursting out of the earth in every direction, some- 
 times in a steady blaze, and sometimes in fitful, flashing alterna- 
 tions of flame and smoke. Here were large masses of molten 
 fire, and there were vast piles of smouldering and gleaming em- 
 bers ; and all these commingled, and extending as far as the eye 
 could reach, and continuing through successive miles of our journey. 
 
 The occasion of these phenomena we found to be the combined 
 operation of working mines, and of roasting, smelting, and forging 
 iron. In the coal districts the coal is all raised from deep subter- 
 ranean pits by steam power ; so also are the iron ore and the lime 
 which are used for a flux in smelting the ore, both of which are 
 found in the same district of the coal, and in different strata of the 
 same shaft or pit. The fires which generate the steam usually 
 blaze out at the top of the flues, and the workmen also commonly 
 have fires blazing at the mouth of the pit. Frequently large masses 
 of fine and unsaleable coal are set on fire to get them out of the way. 
 All this makes a good deal of fire ; but the most vivid is from the 
 roasting of the iron, and from the furnaces and forges. Altogether, 
 the scene was to us terribly sublime, the more so, doubtless, be- 
 cause it was perfectly new to us, having never heard of the exhi- 
 bition till it burst upon us through the thick gloom of that dark 
 night. 
 
" poetic" associations. S05 
 
 At one time the image of Tophet of old would rush across our 
 minds, and the perpetual fires of the Valley of Hinnom, with the 
 smoking sacrifices of writhing infants offered upon the altars of 
 Moloch. The tall black figures of the workmen, as they loomed 
 up passing and repassing between us and the fires, might readily 
 , be taken for the officiating priests in these cruel rites of human 
 sacrifices ; and when we consider the character of many who la- 
 bour here, the prevalence of intemperance and blasphemy, and 
 especially the manner in which many of these parents, generation 
 after generation, devote their children as heirs to this same drudg- 
 ery, degradation, ignorance, and sin, the idea suggested above is 
 not far from the reality. Here, in too true a sense, doubtless, are 
 thousands of children made to pass through these fires to Moloch. 
 At another time the turning wheels, and creaking machinery, 
 and hissing forges brought up the recollections of 
 
 u Vulcani domus it Vulcania nomine tellus" 
 
 Here Vulcan's forges breathe out fire and flame ; 
 The region here must bear old Vulcan's name.* 
 
 From this time forward, I said to myself, I will call the lower 
 part of Staffordshire Vulcania. 
 
 And yet, again, as the scene varied and the prospect was en- 
 larged, as the bursting flames glared more vividly upon the wall 
 of impenetrable darkness in the distance, more awful and solemn 
 images were suggested ; the exhibition of that day when the in- 
 ternal fires of our globe shall burst through their barriers and 
 wrap the earth in flames ; or the associated thought hovered over 
 scenes still more painful, over that lake of fire where the incorri- 
 gibly wicked experience the pains of the "second death," and 
 " the smoke of their torment ascendeth up for ever and ever." 
 
 We rested one night at Birmingham, the British toyshop. In 
 our passage to London the next day we passed some interesting 
 towns, among which was the city of Coventry. This is an old 
 town, having had some character as far back as the time of Ed- 
 ward the Confessor, 1041. It was about this time that Leofric, 
 the Earl of Mercia, as the story goes, consented that his lady, Go- 
 diva, should be gratified in her importunity to confer a public fa- 
 vour upon the town, on condition that she should agree to ride 
 
 * The classical reader will excuse my free translation, 
 
 43 3S 
 
506 ENGLAND. 
 
 through the city naked. Her benevolence overcame her feelings 
 of modesty, and she, for the public good, consented ; the more 
 readily as she had long and abundant hair, with which she could 
 mostly conceal her person ; and especially as all the inhabitants 
 were, by agreement, to keep within and close their windows. 
 Only one, a tailor by the name of Tom, ventured to peep out. 
 He, it is said, was immediately struck blind ; and, to perpetuate 
 his shame, he was for ever after called "peeping Tom." The 
 window out of which he peeped has been formed into an open 
 niche, and in it is placed an image of the curious tailor, where it 
 remains unto this day a monument of his disgrace. To commem- 
 orate this event, and in proof that, in its essential features, it is 
 true, there is an annual festival in Coventry, on which occasion a 
 female slightly attired in close flesh-coloured apparel rides through 
 the city, personating the character of the benevolent Godiva. 
 
 Coventry contains a population of about twenty-seven thousand, 
 and carries on an extensive business in the manufacture of ribands. 
 It is the "Riband Region" of England. It does considerable, 
 also, in the manufacture of watches. * 
 
 We also passed the " Straw-bonnet Region," the centre of which 
 is Dunstable, a town in Bedfordshire containing about two thousand 
 inhabitants. From this town the well-known Dunstable straw re- 
 ceives its name. It is supposed that the peculiarity of the straw 
 takes its character from the soil. Just above Coventry we leave 
 the coal region, and here at Dunstable we strike a range of chalk 
 hills, which extend across the counties of Bedford, Buckingham, 
 and Oxford, and this soil probably gives a peculiar character to 
 the vegetable products. In this, as in the instance of the Stafford- 
 shire ironworks and potteries, we see the reason for the different 
 manufactories being found in different sections of the country. 
 Each region has its peculiar adaptation to the prevailing busi- 
 ness of that region ; and the populousness of the country has of 
 necessity pressed its industry into the most advantageous posi- 
 tions. Here capital accumulates, and takes the form in which 
 it becomes most productive for the respective departments. Thus 
 the business of the country is made more or less sectional, until it 
 becomes a fashion, and then this classification is extended to other 
 departments, for whose location no special reason can be given. 
 Chance, perhaps, first formed the nucleus around which the same 
 
ST. ALBANS. 507 
 
 and kindred or collateral trades began to congregate, and thus a 
 character was given to the business of the place or neighbourhood. 
 In this way, perhaps, the cotton trade of Manchester, and the 
 wool trade of Leeds, and others that might be mentioned, have 
 been accumulated and enlarged in their respective localities. 
 This gives to the country adopting the practice a great advantage 
 in another respect. It may be laid down almost as an axiom in 
 political economy, that, other things being equal, the more the 
 capital of the nation, vested in any one department and its collat- 
 eral branches, can be concentrated, in respect to territorial extent 
 and division, the more perfect may be the division of labour, and, 
 therefore, the more perfect the manufactured article and the cheap- 
 er the price. i 
 
 It is this natural economy of natural agents and human indus- 
 try that has rendered the island of Great Britain so productive and 
 so wealthy. Add to this the fact that the surrounding seas and 
 oceans seem to have been employed in the early ages of the world 
 in accumulating from the depths and from the distant shores a 
 vast variety of minerals, vegetables, and earths, and to have thrown 
 them up in regular sections and compartments, for the purpose of 
 making this speck of land, in the bosom of the waters, the most 
 stupendous and productive theatre of industry and wealth the world 
 has ever beheld. I 
 
 St. Albans is the only other town that I will mention before 
 our arrival at the metropolis. This was a very ancient town, and 
 once, it is said, was the capital of Britain. The Romans made it 
 a town of peculiar privileges, and so attached the inhabitants to 
 the Roman government that the anger of the native Queen Boa- 
 dicea was excited against them, and she massacred seventy thou- 
 sand of the citizens. In the Dioclesian persecution at the com- 
 mencement of the fourth century the saint whose name the town 
 now bears was martyred here. In the ninth century the celebra- 
 ted abbey was founded here by OfFa, king of the Mercians, which 
 continued until Henry VIII., when, with other similar institutions, 
 it was demolished, and only the gate remains. The church, how- 
 ever, still stands, as a venerable relic of antiquity, and is a very 
 extensive ecclesiastical edifice ; having, however, a variety of parts, 
 built at different times, and, like numerous similar edifices in Eng- 
 land, exhibiting the most dissimilar and incongruous styles of ar- 
 chitecture. 
 
509 ENGLAND. 
 
 The Romans called this place Verulam, and it was this thai 
 gave the title of Lord Verulam to Francis Bacon r the disgraced 
 chancellor of James I., but the honoured philosopher of the civ- 
 ilized world. The family residence is about two miles distant, at 
 Gorhambury, where the present earl now lives. At this family 
 residence Lord Verulam wrote his Novum Organum Scientia- 
 rum ; and here his father, Sir Nicholas Bacon, used to entertain 
 Queen Elizabeth. 
 
 St. Albans is also celebrated for two famous battles fought be- 
 tween the houses of York and Lancaster about the middle of the 
 fifteenth century. And in this town was born the celebrated trav- 
 eller, Sir John Mandeville. 
 
 _ On our arrival in London we stopped at a comfortable house 
 called the George and Blue Boar, in " High Holborn." This last 
 name is familiar to every American almost, by no very elevated 
 association; but still High Holborn never before obtained so ex- 
 tensive a notoriety as it has since its association with " Day & 
 Martin's shoe blacking f so true it is that fame itself sometimes 
 rides in an humble car. The hotel also, queer as its name may 
 sound, has some celebrity ; for here, we were told, Cromwell 
 himself used to lodge. It is, at any rate, a comfortable house ; 
 so much so that when we returned from our Continental tour we 
 drove directly to our old lodgings. It is due, however, to, the hos- 
 pitality of our London friends to say here, that we were not al- 
 lowed, either at our first or second visit, to stay long at a public 
 inn. At our first arrival we were most cordially received and 
 welcomed to England by that venerable patriarch, Rev. Rich- 
 ard Reese, president of the Wesleyan Conference, and with his 
 amiable daughter and her husband we were hospitably entertain- 
 ed during our first visit ; and after our return our excellent and 
 kind friend, the Reverend Robert Alder, one of the missionary 
 secretaries, pressed us to his house, where, with him and his es- 
 timable lady, we found ourselves much at home during our stay 
 in London. 
 
509 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Having once and again visited the British Metropolis, it 
 behooves me to say something of this great Babel, this queen of 
 cities. And yet I know not where to begin, or what topics to 
 select ; as one may spend months in this great city without ex- 
 hausting the interest which even novelty itself can impart, so 
 numerous and diversified are the scenes and objects here concen- 
 trated ; so he might write volumes of descriptions and reflections 
 upon what he sees and hears, without tautology or repetition. 
 Well may it be said, " London is the world in miniature." Nay, 
 I might almost say, it is something more, than the rest of the 
 world. For we have here, not only specimens from all parts of 
 the world, but these, by new combinations in their association 
 and commixture, present new aspects and formations, unlike the 
 simple elements from which they are combined. 
 
 London owes its origin and wealth to the river Thames, 
 which, as has already been noticed, is navigable for large ships 
 up to the port of London, and for barges and boats, more than 
 one hundred miles above the city. The tide flows fifteen miles 
 above the city. This city is spoken of by Tacitus, and other 
 early historians, as a place of commercial importance. It is said, 
 that in the middle of the fourth century, it employed, in the corn 
 trade alone, eight hundred vessels ; and in the reign of Charles I., 
 it was reckoned the chief commercial port in the world. It has, 
 from that time, been constantly increasing in wealth and popula- 
 tion. It has, indeed, met with several temporary checks : for a 
 considerable time, the government used every precaution to pre- 
 vent its extension. At this time, the city was badly built ; the 
 houses were of wood, thatched with straw ; the streets narrow ; 
 and each story of the houses projected over, until the eaves from 
 either side nearly met at the top, confining the air, and greatly 
 contributing to, if not actually producing, that malignant disorder 
 called the plague, with which the city was so frequently visited. 
 The last serious visitation from this disorder, was in the reign of 
 43 
 
510 ENGLAND. 
 
 Charles II., in the years 1665-6, which continued for the space 
 of thirteen months, and is supposed to have swept away one hun- 
 dred thousand victims. Immediately after this, viz., in 1666, 
 occurred the " great fire," which lasted four days, and destroyed 
 about five sixths of the city, and a great portion of the suburbs. 
 This event is commemorated by a noble monument, erected in 
 Fish street, by Sir Christopher Wren, near the spot where the 
 conflagration commenced. This monument is built of the Port- 
 land stone, fluted, and of the Doric style, is two hundred feet in 
 height, and contains Latin inscriptions, describing the conflagra- 
 tion, and the measures taken by government to facilitate the res- 
 toration of the city. 
 
 This fire was the greatest blessing London ever experienced. 
 The city was made aneiv, and rebuilt on new and improved prin- 
 ciples. The streets widened and straightened ; the small streams 
 arched over, and made into sewers for the city ; every house was 
 built with party-walls ; the steep hills excavated, and the valleys 
 filled up ; and the whole completed in about three years. Since 
 that period, no very extensive contagious disorder has prevailed in 
 London ; nay, perhaps there is scarcely a large city in the world 
 more salubrious than London. The improvements, however, thus 
 made in the city — adequate as they were for the purposes ot 
 health — were far from meeting the necessities of business, in these 
 latter days. The streets are still too narrow, the great thorough- 
 fares too few, and the public places all too crowded. The throng 
 ©f the city, both of carriages and of footmen, is absolutely oppres- 
 sive, and to the stranger astonishing. He dodges in every direc- 
 tion to make his way through to his place of destination, until 
 baffled at every turn, and wearied with the almost fruitless effort, 
 jostled and dirtied by the friction of the crowd, he shrinks into 
 some angle or recess to get a little respite, and wait until the 
 procession shall pass by. From his retreat he looks out upon 
 the busy world, and the more he looks, the more he is astonished. 
 His first mental inquiry is, Do all these persons know what they 
 I are after, or where they are going? It seems impossible that 
 they should all have a definite object in view. The tide rolls on 
 in one incessant current, from early in the morning until late at 
 night ; and the stranger soon finds he might as well wait for the 
 waters of the Rhine to exhaust themselves, and run their channels 
 
LONDON. 511 
 
 dry, as to wait for some of the principal streets of London city to 
 clear themselves of their immense moving multitudes. In despair 
 of a better tide or a freer channel, he throws himself again into 
 the 'whirlpool, and with much delay and difficulty, reaches his 
 place of destination. One never feels this embarrassment more, 
 perhaps, than when he gets short of time, on his way to the 
 steamboat in a hackney-coach. The more impatient he grows, 
 the more he is obstructed, and at length, perhaps, he finds him- 
 self absolutely at a stand : he looks out, and beholds one entire 
 and unbroken mass of coaches, omnibuses, cabs, carts, drays, and 
 wagons — wedged in on every side as far as the eye can extend. 
 There is no relief; patience alone can sustain him, and time 
 alone can bring him relief. 
 
 To remedy these evils, alterations are made yearly in the very 
 heart of the city ; so that at some points — such as in the neigh- 
 bourhood of London Bridge — he who, a few years ago, was well 
 acquainted with the city, and returning after an absence, would 
 be at a loss to recognise his position. "What is called the " city," 
 is comparatively but a small part of London. The town has been 
 enlarged, until suburb after suburb, and village after village, have 
 been connected with the main body, and swallowed up in the con- 
 tinuous, extended, and extending metropolis. From being a little 
 city of two miles in circumference, it has swelled to the dimen- 
 sions of thirty miles in circumference, and contains one hundred 
 and fifty-six thousand houses and public edifices, and one million 
 and a half of inhabitants. 
 
 Everybody feels, when travelling over London, that it is " too 
 big," and yet when its growth will stop cannot be foreseen ; its march 
 is still outward and onward, and its vast population is rapidly in- 
 creasing. In such a city, there are certainly great commercial 
 advantages, great facilities for the arts, for science, for literature, 
 and for refinement in all its forms : great advantages for the 
 central points of the great moral and religious enterprises of the 
 day. In short, whatever advantages man can promise himself, in 
 the development of the social principle ; the division of labour ; 
 the mutual action of intellect upon intellect ; the juxtaposition 
 and concentration of all kinds of agencies and instrumentalities : all 
 these are enjoyed in London, as they are enjoyed nowhere else in 
 the world. Still, it may well be questioned, whether, on the whole, 
 
512 ENGLAND. 
 
 such an unwieldy extension of one city is desirable — whether 
 the disadvantages do not overbalance the benefits, by a great 
 majority. It seemed to be the opinion of those best qualified to 
 judge, with whom I had an opportunity of conversing, that the 
 metropolis was unfavourable to piety. It swallows up all the 
 salt that is annually thrown in upon it from the country, and still 
 it remains, to a great extent, a putrid mass. True, there is a vast 
 amount of piety in London ; an army of faithful ministers and 
 Christians, of different denominations : but it may be a question, 
 whether, in spite of all their effort, sin is not increasing; and 
 whether the proportion of the good to the bad is favourably main- 
 tained. Some public indications are certainly very unfavourable. 
 At the head of these, are the violation of the Sabbath, and intem- 
 perance. The Sabbath is worse kept, by far, in London, than in 
 any other town I visited in the British isles. Many shops are 
 open in some parts of the town ; and in one place I noticed a 
 public market on the Sabbath morning, where the streets were 
 crowded with noisy customers. During our first residence in 
 London, in the fall of 1835, we lodged in Drury Lane, not far 
 from the noted Drury Lane Theatre, and when we went out to 
 go to public worship, on Sabbath morning, we generally found 
 the sidewalks and lanes filled, for the most part, with a low, 
 squalid population, of both sexes, whose vulgar and profane lan- 
 guage showed that the Sabbath was by them no otherwise 
 remembered or regarded, than as a day of greater relaxation, for the 
 freer indulgence of licentiousness and sin. These scenes are, of 
 course, limited to certain sections ; and, on the great whole, the 
 Lord's day is much better observed, even in London, than in most 
 cities on the continent.* 
 
 Something may be inferred, (especially in Protestant countries, 
 where there are not generally more places of public worship than 
 are occupied,) of the religious turn of the people, by the number 
 of places of public worship, compared with the population. The 
 number of places of public worship in London, all told, do not much 
 
 . * It cannot but be deeply regretted, that persons high in office, and that publio 
 -regulations, sanction the violation of the Sabbath. The Duke of Wellington used to 
 
 hold cabinet meetings on Sunday, until public opinion put them down. The Tower 
 
 is open to the public on Sundays, and great crowds frequent it. The Postofflce, how-'. 
 
 ever, in all its branches, is— to the honour of the British Government— closed on the 
 
 Lord's day. 
 
INTEMPERANCE. 513 
 
 exceed five hundred.* Now, supposing these houses, on an aver- 
 age, accommodate one thousand persons each — which is probably 
 a large calculation for the actual worshippers — we have but one 
 third of the population, who attend upon public worship on the 
 Lord's day. And, if we make the very liberal allowance of one 
 third, who from age, infirmity, and occasional necessary absencej 
 cannot attend, we have still one third of the population of Lon- 
 don who might attend worship, but who do not ; to which add 
 one half of the preceding third, and we have one half of the 
 inhabitants of London who are living like heathens in a Christian 
 land. This calculation, I have no doubt, is more favourable than 
 would be found true on actual inspection. What a mass of moral 
 death is here ! Seven hundred and fifty thousand souls in one 
 town, who are not brought under the means of grace ! To say 
 nothing of the hundreds of thousands, who, for form's sake, for 
 state purposes, and other causes, attend worship, statedly or oc- 
 casionally, who are not only not truly pious, but many of whom 
 are most licentious and corrupt. 
 
 Intemperance is another most unlovely and unpromising feature 
 of the metropolis. Indeed, this may be said of the whole of Great 
 Britain and Ireland. For, as yet, but little, comparatively, has 
 been done in these countries, to check the fearful progress of this 
 vice. The intemperance of the metropolis, however, is, I think, 
 of a more hopeless character than that of the provincial towns and 
 villages. Among the latter, the lower classes, for the most part, 
 drink strong beer ; but in London they add to this a free use of gin. 
 
 They have numerous large and splendid establishments which 
 they call gin palaces. Here the work of death goes on by the 
 wholesale. The custom is so great that the very drippings from 
 the glasses, all of which are saved by lattice-work counters and 
 large trays underneath, are sufficient, it is said, to pay the clerks 
 who wait upon the customers. I stopped at the door of one of 
 these palaces one evening on Holborn Hill, and took out my 
 watch to see how many, in a given time, passed out of this palace 
 of death. In nine minutes seventy came out ; and by that time 
 
 ♦ Of these churches, the denominations shared, in 1833, in the following propor- 
 tions : the Established Church, one hundred and ninety-four ; Roman Catholics, fif- 
 teen ; foreign Protestants, eighteen ; Jewish Synagogues, six ; Dissenters of various 
 kinds, two hundred and sixty-eight. 
 
 3T 
 
514 _ ENGLAND. 
 
 I saw there was another door from which others had been passing 
 in and out at the same time. So I left my post of observation, and 
 that the more readily, because I found my pocket had been picked 
 of my handkerchief while I had been standing there ; and I know 
 not but they would have had my watch, if it had not been in my 
 hand. I thought it was lime, therefore, to make my escape. 
 During my stay, however, I perceived that there were more wo- 
 men than men who came out of the palace. Their dress and ap- 
 pearance were most squalid and wretched. Many of them seemed 
 to be mothers leading up their children — sometimes a young child 
 in the arms, and another at the side. These poor little children, 
 when hungry for bread, are fed with whiskey, and thus early 
 trained to habits of intemperance. Truly the time is come when, 
 if a child ask for bread, the parent gives him a poisonous serpent. 
 
 To remedy the evils just alluded to, some exertions are made 
 by the good people of London. The ministers and members of 
 the establishment responding to the call of the Bishop of Lon- 
 don, and roused to action by the statistical exhibits of Rev. Bap- 
 tist Noel and other good men, showing the moral wants and re- 
 ligious destitution of the metropolis, have resolved upon raising a 
 large fund for the erection of new churches and the support of 
 additional clergymen, to meet the necessities of the people. The 
 Methodists also, with their accustomed zeal, are preaching in the 
 streets and public places to win over to the gospel, if possible, 
 those who refuse to go into the houses of worship to hear it 
 preached. 
 
 Some efforts are also made in the temperance cause. But 
 these are comparatively few and feeble. The honest truth is, 
 the religious people of England and ministers of the gospel do 
 not generally enter into the temperance reformation, as they have 
 in the United States. I speak now of those special and exclu- 
 sive efforts for the suppression of intemperance which have occu- 
 pied so much of the attention of Christians and Christian ministers 
 with us for a few years past. This remark, I think, is more ap- 
 plicable to the established church and to the Wesleyan Metho- 
 dists, than to the dissenters generally. The Methodist societies 
 plead that they are a temperance body already, and that any fur- 
 ther organization and pledge than those by which they are bound 
 to their religious fraternity, would not only be useless but self- 
 
INTEMPERANCE. 515 
 
 condemnatory. Nay, some of them plead that temperance socie- 
 ties and exclusive and direct temperance efforts, are a reflection 
 upon the gospel — implying that the gospel is not sufficient, without 
 other and collateral aids, to accomplish the great object of public 
 moral reform. But few, therefore, of the preachers or people co- 
 operate heartily in the enterprise ; and many, both of ministers and 
 people, speak of the temperance society with strong disapprobation. 
 One cause, perhaps, for this, is the ultraism, which in England, 
 as well as in this country, has marked some of the tem- 
 perance measures. Among other causes that have disaffected 
 many, I heard it stated that some of the leading and most talented 
 men in the Wesleyan connexion had been publicly and most 
 offensively denounced by certain agents and editors in the tem- 
 perance cause. In this country, as in the United States, this pub- 
 lic exhibition of men's names and characters has become too 
 fashionable. A practice which good feeling, as well as gentle- 
 manly and Christian courtesy, decidedly forbids. It would seem 
 that certain subordinate writers and public declaimers imagine 
 themselves at liberty, in a good cause, to deal out their denuncia- 
 tions and censures against all who follow not. with them. In this 
 way they are exclaiming, like Jehu, " Come and see my zeal for 
 the Lord," when it is more than possible, that, in many cases, 
 like him, their zeal is more the promptings of their own personal 
 ambition than of a holy benevolence. At any rate, this rash and 
 censorious zeal always justly renders the purity of a man's mo- 
 tives suspected. 
 
 I do not by this mean, however, to justify the course which the 
 Wesleyans and others in England take in reference to the tem- 
 perance cause. I greatly lament and highly disapprove of this 
 course. I believe it is founded in error, and will be a means of 
 retarding the great and good work which- certainly, with all its 
 embarrassments, has had an auspicious commencement, and has 
 enlisted in its interests some of the best and most sanctified tal- 
 ents of the nation. And why should not all the churches unite 
 in putting down this hydra-monster which is destroying the na- 
 tion. So far as I am able to judge, there is no part of the world 
 where intemperance prevails so fearfully at this moment as in 
 the British isles ; and there is no part of the world probably, 
 where, if the good people of the country would unite in it, so effi- 
 
516 ENGLAND. 
 
 cient a moral influence could be brought to bear against this evil. 
 In our own country the universality of the elective franchise gives 
 such a power to the lowest of the people, and holds out such a 
 temptation to the aspiring demagogue to pander to the appetite 
 of the dissolute and unprincipled, that, with the same amount of 
 moral power enlisted on the side of temperance, we cannot act 
 with half the efficiency and success in this great moral enterprise, 
 at least in some of its departments, as that with which British 
 philanthropists might act. What a fearful amount of responsi- 
 bility then do they assume in neglecting this, when the gigantic 
 evil is stalking over the land and the remedy is so obvious. 
 Britons boast of their liberty and their abhorrence of slavery, in- 
 somuch that many of them seek abroad to find channels for the 
 exuberance of their philanthropy, while at home they have more 
 than a half million in the very worst kind of slavery ; subjecting 
 themselves and families to the worst kind of suffering, inevitably 
 pressing the body down to the grave and the soul to endless wo, 
 and yet very little special effort is made for their emancipation. 
 
 But to return to my remarks on London. It would, at first 
 view, be supposed that the preservation of good order, in so great 
 a city as this, would be extremely difficult. This, however, is 
 not corroborated by experience. Although there are frequent 
 street rows in some parts, either between men or women, quite 
 as frequent, I should think, with the latter as the former ; still 
 these are of a very partial and limited character, and are soon 
 terminated by the interposition of the police, which is always at 
 hand, and prompt in its interference. The present police of 
 London is excellent. The credit of this organization is due to 
 Sir Robert Peel, and it was established by law in June, 1829. 
 The following abridged statement of its essential features may 
 not be unacceptable to the reader : — 
 
 " The metropolitan police extends to all parts of the metropolis 
 and its vicinity, beyond the jurisdiction of the city, and within 
 twelve miles of Charing Cross. It supersedes the old watch- 
 men, patrols, street-keepers, &c, by uniting all parochial police 
 authorities. These are placed under a board of police, consisting 
 of three commissioners, who superintend and are responsible for 
 all acts of the inferior officers. This police was commenced in 
 the parishes of Westminster, September 29, 1829, and has been 
 
LONDON POLICE. 517 
 
 gradually extended to other districts. A general police tax of 4<£ 
 in the pound, is levied on all householders, to defray the expense. 
 The police district is formed into divisions, varying in size, but 
 each has the same number of men and officers. In each is a 
 station-house. Every division is designated by a local name, and 
 , every man is designated by a letter of the alphabet : every divi- 
 sion is again divided into eight sections, and each section into 
 eight beats. 
 
 ** The police force consists of as many companies as there are 
 divisions. Each company comprises one superintendent, four 
 inspectors, sixteen sergeants, and one hundred and forty-four 
 police constables. A company is divided into sixteen parties, 
 each consisting of one sergeant and nine men. Four sergeants 
 parties form an inspector's party. The collar of each man's coat 
 is marked with a letter indicating his division, and a number cor- 
 responding with his name in the book of the office. The first 
 sixteen numbers in each division denote the sergeants. Police 
 men are required to patrol the streets, lanes, &c, of their respect* 
 ive districts ; arrest disturbers of the peace, house-breakers, re- 
 puted thieves, and beggars, and preserve good order. They are 
 dressed in blue coats and pantaloons, and at night wear great coats. 
 Each man is furnished with a cutlass, a rattle, and a staff.* They 
 are constantly on duty, but more are out during the night than the 
 day." 
 
 This system succeeds so well, that it is adopted by other im- 
 portant towns in the kingdom, and will, ere long, probably, be 
 universal. Those selected for police duty, are all youngerly look- 
 ing men, of a fine and sober character, and gentlemanly manners. 
 Every few rods you meet one of them, whom you instantly recog- 
 nise by his dress ; and if you have any occasion to make inquiries 
 for persons or places, he is the man to whom you should make 
 application, and you are sure to receive a civil and an intelligent 
 answer. Their general appearance is quiet and unostentatious. 
 To see them moving about in the city, you would think they, ot 
 all men, had least authority to intermeddle with the affairs of 
 others ; but if occasion require, you find them very decided and 
 efficient. It produced on my mind the most gratifying feelings, to 
 contrast this unarmed city-guard, with not even a stick in their 
 
 hands to enforce their authority, with the armed guards of the 
 * These they seldom carry. 
 
 44 
 
518 ENGLAND, 
 
 cities of the continent. It shows the triumph of moral power 
 over physical force, and is a practical refutation in one of the 
 strongest conceivable cases, that large masses of men collected 
 together cannot be privileged with free institutions, 
 
 Institutions of London. In noticing these, my attention was 
 first attracted to the schools and seminaries of learning. Among 
 these, the London University and King's College hold the highest 
 rank. Both of these have fine edifices, but are not very flourish- 
 ing, except m their preparatory departments, and in the medical 
 departments. The London University, however, may now rise, 
 perhaps, in all its departments, for during the present summer 
 (1836) a royal charter has been granted to it, with power to con- 
 fer degrees in all the departments, except Divinity. This is an- 
 other step towards the breaking down of the old system of exclu- 
 sive monopolies, which, in many instances, has been so detri- 
 mental to the best interests of the nation. Now, other denomina- 
 tions besides members of the established church, may receive 
 academic honours. 
 
 For the purposes of primary and general education, there are 
 extensive schools, where gratuitous instruction is imparted, in 
 different parts of the city. In the different parishes there are 
 parish schools, supported by voluntary contributions, and a great 
 many of the Methodist and other dissenting chapels, both here 
 in London and in other large towns, have schools connected with 
 them, for the education of the children of their respective congre- 
 gations. Lancasterian schools also are numerous, to which all, 
 without distinction of sects, are admitted.* 
 
 The establishment of the London University led to the establish- 
 ment, on the part of the aristocracy and the high-church party, 
 of King's College. The same spirit of emulation and jealousy 
 for the national church establishment, led to the institution of what 
 is called the national schools, where the creed and the service of the 
 national church are introduced. Of these, there are forty large 
 schools containing from two hundred to one thousand pupils each. 
 
 It is computed that there are sixty-six thousand children edu- 
 cated in the Sunday-schools of the metropolis. These are from 
 
 * It is said there are at this time, in different parts of the kingdom, not fewer than 
 three hundred of these schools for boys, and one hundred for girls ; forty-three of 
 theae are in London, in which are educated twelve thousand children of both sexes. 
 
SCHOOLS. 519 
 
 the poor classes not otherwise provided for. Thus, in addition to 
 their instruction, these poor children are brought to attend reli- 
 gious worship, which is a part of the system ; where, otherwise, 
 they might be left without religious restraint, to roam in idleness 
 on the Sabbath exposed to temptation and vice. 
 
 In addition to the foregoing, there are numerous schools of an- 
 cient charter supported by special endowments. Among these, is 
 Christ's hospital in Newgate street. It is commonly called the 
 "blue-coat school," from the peculiar dress which the pupils 
 wear. And here it should be observed, that most of the schools 
 existing under old charters and old endowments, are required to 
 have a prescribed costume. You see them in different parts of 
 the kingdom, with dresses so antiquated, and appearing in these 
 days so quaint and queer to the eye of the stranger, that one can- 
 not well restrain his risibles at the exhibition. To see the garb of 
 our great grandfathers and grandmothers, on little boys and girls of 
 eight and ten years of age, has a strong resemblance to the ridic- 
 ulous. The " blue coats," however, are peculiar ; they are a 
 long blue tunic of cloth made close to the body down to the waist, 
 and then descending loosely almost to the feet, and open in front. 
 Under this coat is a yellow under-coat and yellow stockings, with 
 drab-coloured small-clothes, a round flat worsted cap, and a leath 
 ern belt round the waist. This school was originally founded 
 by Edward VI., and has received subsequent endowments ; so 
 that now twelve hundred are educated on the foundation, five 
 hundred of whom, however, are at an establishment in Hartford. 
 The Lord Mayor and corporation of London are the official guar- 
 dians of the institution. The right of naming pupils to fill the 
 vacancies as they occur, is vested in different individuals and cor- 
 porations. Schools of a similar character are founded in differ- 
 ent parts of the kingdom. As the patronage of these schools, 
 that is, the right of presenting scholars to the benefits of the insti- 
 tutions, vests either in private individuals or in certain public offices 
 and corporations, there is great room for party and personal fa- 
 vouritism, so that the benevolent designs of the original founders 
 are often perverted ; and, as the income is sure, even though the 
 institution languish and retain only a nominal existence, strong 
 inducements to neglect have, in many instances, resulted in a 
 gross perversion of the funds to the support of sinecures. To 
 
520 ENGLAND. 
 
 the honour of the government, however, it should be stated thai 
 these old charters and the present character of the schools have 
 of late been carefully examined and many abuses corrected. 
 
 Among the chartered professional institutions of London, are 
 the college of physicians and the college of surgeons. None can 
 practise in these departments without being fellows of the col- 
 leges to which none are admitted without having received then- 
 degree at one of the universities. They both have splendid edi- 
 fices, especially the former, which is in Pall Mall East — the lat- 
 ter, in Lincoln's Inn Fields. 
 
 With respect to the fine arts,, one is not at first impressed by 
 what he sees in London that the English are very great patrons 
 of these, especially after having visited the continent, for the rea- 
 son that there are no splendid national galleries or public collec- 
 tions, as in the principal cities of continental Europe. Still a 
 further acquaintance will show that there is much attention paid 
 to these subjects by the English nobility and gentry. The pal- 
 aces and noble seats of England contain a great number of pic- 
 tures by the first artists, and not a few of fine specimens of stat- 
 uary. In the higher classes, there is a sufficiency of taste and in- 
 terest in these works. I cannot but believe, from all the existing 
 facts and from past history, that there is danger of carrying this 
 taste to excess ; and if the British government has not spent mill- 
 ions on the fine arts from the public treasure, but left these more 
 to the private patronage of individuals, it may be that the nation 
 is on the whole the richer and the happier on that account ; and cer- 
 tainly what show there is in these departments by private patron- 
 age, is not of forced and factitious growth, but the promptings oi 
 a spontaneous taste. There are in the metropolis numerous col- 
 lections of the fine arts. The Royal Academy, founded 1768, of 
 which Sir Joshua Reynolds was the first president, and our coun- 
 tryman Benjamin West the second, is well known. The rooms 
 of this society are at the Somerset House, where there is an an- 
 nual exhibition, of only the new works never before exhibited, 
 from May till July. I cannot say that the exhibition this year 
 (1836) gave me a very high opinion of the skill of the present 
 artists in England. There were many of the productions of nov- 
 ices, apparently, but there w r ere but few, if any, forms and touches 
 worthy of the great masters. 
 
BRITISH MUSEUM. 521 
 
 The various literary, philosophical, and scientific societies are 
 too numerous to be mentioned here ; and those that are the most 
 worthy of attention, are too well known in the United States to 
 require a notice. Their number is increasing with the advance- 
 ment of science and the increase of the city. The same remarks 
 will apply, and perhaps with greater force, to the benevolent in- 
 stitutions of London — its various charitable associations — its 
 hospitals — its missionary and Bible societies. Many of these 
 have made themselves known to the remote corners of the earth 
 by their out-bearing and far-stretching rays of light and love, 
 while others, in a more circumscribed sphere, are combating 
 with darkness and suffering at home — darkness and suffering 
 which, strange and paradoxical as it may seem, are abundantly 
 generated and matured in the grand radiating centre of light and 
 benevolence. 
 
 There is, perhaps, nothing in London which presents such a 
 concentration of interest to the intelligent and curious stranger as 
 the British Museum. It is a matchless collection of natural his- 
 tory, antiquities, and literature. The library is made up of six- 
 teen different libraries, the last of which was that of George IV., 
 consisting of sixty-five thousand volumes ; besides the numerous 
 additions by purchases, bequests, donations, &c., which have 
 been and still continue to be made to this noble institution. All 
 authors or publishers, are required to present a copy of their work 
 within a month after publication to this library. This of itself, in 
 such a book-making age and in the centre of such a book-making 
 nation, must constitute a most productive revenue to enrich these 
 literary treasures* 
 
 Here, also, is a gallery of sculpture and antiquities, and a col- 
 lection of curiosities from all parts of the world. Among the 
 Egyptian antiquities are a sarcophagus, which is said to be the 
 tomb of Alexander the Great, and the Portland vase, found in the 
 Monte del Grano, near Rome,* and some bricks from the walls 
 of Babylon. Here, also, are the Elgin marbles, so called, from 
 their having been collected by the Earl of Elgin, while he was 
 ambassador at the court of Constantinople. They are the sculp- 
 
 * This has its name from the Duchess of Portland, who purchased it from Sir Wil- 
 liam Hamilton. The vase is of glass, with figures in relief of white enamel, and the 
 whole most exquisitely executed. 
 
 44 3U 
 
522 ENGLAND. 
 
 tural and architectural embellishments of ancient Grecian temples, 
 by that great master in his art, the unrivalled Phidias : and con 
 nected with these are the Phygaleian marbles, being specimens 
 of a still more ancient date, from the temples of Apollo, at 
 Phygaleia. 
 
 The collections in natural history are a very extensive suite oi 
 shells, minerals, and geological specimens, conveniently arranged 
 and labelled, in glass cases, and a fine collection of birds, fishes, &c. 
 Around the great hall, containing the minerals, is a great number 
 of ancient portraits of persons celebrated in British history. 
 
 We were requested to enter our names in a book kept for the 
 purpose, in a little room near the entrance, and here, in a glass 
 case, we were shown the original copy of the Magna Charta. 
 The number of annual visiters to this museum is about one hun- 
 dred thousand. 
 
 In mentioning some of the localities, edifices, and public works 
 of London, I must necessarily be very partial and brief. A few, 
 however, will be touched upon. 
 
 The Colosseum, so called, after the splendid amphitheatre of 
 Titus at Rome, is a large edifice in Regent's Park, four hundred 
 feet in circumference, having a portico of seventy-five feet, and a 
 glass cupola one hundred and twelve feet from the ground. Con- 
 nected with this are several artificial curiosities, well calculated 
 to amuse the spectator : such as a marine grotto or cavern, ap- 
 parently formed in the bowels of the earth ; a beautiful fountain, 
 with a splendid jet-tfeau ; a Swiss cottage, with water-falls, a 
 lake, &c, and a custode, in the Swiss costume, to point out the 
 curiosities of the place ; conservatories of exotic and rare plants, 
 &c. But the most interesting object here, is the grand panorama 
 of London, painted upon a surface of forty-six thousand square 
 feet of canvass. It is, doubtless, the most magnificent thing of 
 the kind in the world. It is a representation of London, as it 
 appears from the dome of St. Paul's. The artist, in fact, copied 
 it from reality, by spending years at his stupendous enterprise, on 
 the top of St. Paul's. You ascend up the dome of the Colosseum, 
 as if you were going up the dome of that cathedral, and go out on 
 successive galleries, one above another, from each of which you 
 have views of the city, perfectly answering to the reality, as seen 
 from different altitudes. The streets and lanes— the public 
 
regent's park. 523 
 
 squares, churches, and other public edifices — the river, the 
 bridges, the curling smoke, from the tens of thousands of chim- 
 neys, the thronging crowds in the streets, markets, and other 
 public places, with the various carriages, and different costumes, all 
 lie out before you, and beneath you, in the most perfect represent- 
 ation of the scene conceivable ; while the sky abo\ie your head, 
 with the passing clouds and gathering smoke, complete the illu- 
 sion. There was nothing in the whole exhibition that would lead 
 the uninitiated spectator to suspect any illusion, except some 
 streaks in the sky and clouds, that look as though small cords 
 had been drawn over the cerulean canopy ; or I would say, more 
 naturally and familiarly, the appearance was as though there were 
 cracks in the sky. This, I suppose, must be owing to some 
 cracks in the canvass, after its completion. To carry out the 
 representation, London appears, in this panoramic view, just as 
 it is seen in reality, at different times, from St. Paul's. If it is a 
 dark, smoky day, of which there are not a few in the British 
 metropolis, the appearance of the panorama will be smoky and 
 obscure, for the reason, that the light by which the picture is 
 viewed, is the light of London ; hence the exhibition is more 
 perfect here than it would be elsewhere. 
 
 Near this, at the northeast part of Regent's Park, are the Zoo- 
 logical Gardens, containing by far the most extensive collection 
 of living animals, of all classes and of all countries, that we saw 
 in Europe ; all of them placed, as nearly as possible, in a condi- 
 tion corresponding with their natural state. The amphibious 
 animals have a lake of water for their indulgence ; the tropical 
 birds and quadrupeds have an artificial temperature suited to their 
 habits : and so of the rest. 
 
 In visiting the foregoing, you are necessarily introduced to the 
 magnificent parks, crescents, porticoes, mansions, terraces, and 
 palaces of the west of London, the seats and promenades of 
 wealth and fashion, of nobility and royalty. 
 
 Regent's Park, already mentioned, contains about three hun- 
 dred and sixty acres, laid out in pleasure-grounds, and planted 
 with trees and ornamental shrubs, adorned with water and ver- 
 dure within, and surrounded by elegant edifices of varied and 
 classical architecture. We walked and rode around, surveying 
 these beautiful grounds and splendid edifices with admiration *, 
 
524 ENGLAND. 
 
 but there was one single exhibition, unimportant in itself, but so 
 expressive of man's brief history and frail nature, that it cast a 
 gloom over the whole scene, and excited sensations more mourn- 
 ful than if we were walking in the midst of the tombs. It is 
 customary, when a member of the family dies, to hang out upon 
 the exterior wall, in the front of the dwelling, the family crest, 
 veiled in black, in whole or in part, according to the station of 
 the deceased in the family. Here it hangs for, if I mistake not, 
 twelve months, a sad index to all that pass by, that death has 
 been there. Now, we knew, of course, that 
 
 " Death, with equal step, 
 Knocks at the palace and the cottage gate," 
 
 yet, to see so frequently hanging from these splendid palaces, 
 filled with wealth and beauty, talent and fashion, these emblems, 
 not merely of man's mortality, but of his actual dissolution, con- 
 trasted so strongly with the worldliness of the scene around, and 
 the probable worldliness of the inhabitants within — (for alas ! how 
 hard for the rich and great to enter into the kingdom !) — the 
 rich and gorgeous vision was clouded over by the sombre shades 
 of the tomb. 
 
 Hyde Park lies some distance, a little to the west of south, 
 from Regent's, and is somewhat larger. As the latter is not open 
 to the public — for the reason, it is said, that the trees are not yet 
 sufficiently grown — Hyde Park is the great promenade. Here, 
 fifty thousand are sometimes seen at one time ; and especially is 
 it crowded, I am told, on the afternoon of the Sabbath. Hackney 
 and stage coaches are excluded ; but with these exceptions, these 
 grounds are open to the public from six in the morning to nine in 
 the evening. 
 
 At Hyde Park Corner, which is at the southeast corner of the 
 park, is Apsley House, the town residence of the Duke of Wel- 
 lington. Here you pass out of Hyde Park under a triumphal 
 arch, of the Ionic order, with three archways for carriages, and 
 two for footmen, extending one hundred and seven feet ; and on 
 the opposite side of Piccadilly, is another triumphal arch still 
 more magnificent, opening into Green Park, and leading to the 
 new palace, which is situated at the farther extremity of Green 
 Park, and adjoining St. James's Park. These two latter parks 
 would not, unitedly, equal in extent half of either of the others ; 
 
st. Paul's. 525 
 
 but they are beautifully laid out, and ornamented with trees and 
 sheets of water, and surrounded with noble edifices. In short, 
 the whole of the court end of London is well built, elegant, and 
 tolerably cleanly. The great consumption of coal for fuel, how- 
 ever, and the clammy, bituminous character of the mud, prevent 
 any part of London's having the character of cleanliness in wet 
 weather ; — that is, for the most part of the time ; and the central 
 and business parts of the town are wretchedly dirty. The labour- 
 ing and common classes appear unwholesome : their clothes often 
 look as though they were glazed over with dirt ; you are con- 
 stantly afraid, as you walk the crowded streets, of coming in 
 contact with bodies, from whose surface you might gain to your- 
 self, by the friction, some undesirable accessions. This is, un- 
 doubtedly, owing to the impossibility of attending to business, 
 without, contracting a share of the soot, and smoke, and mud, 
 which adhere to everything they touch, until at length the people 
 become familiar with the association, and as it ceases to be offen- 
 sive, no pains are taken to avoid it. The Londoners do not*real- 
 ize their dirt. They complain of the filthiness of some of the 
 continental cities, especially the Italian, because their filth is of a 
 different character ; but they fancy Cloacina has fled to England, 
 and made London her metropolis. Maybe so : and perhaps she 
 labours hard to keep it clean ; but she evidently has more than 
 her match. These remarks, so far as personal cleanliness is con- 
 cerned, of course, do not apply with the same force to the more 
 respectable classes. These learn, however, to adjust themselves 
 to their circumstances, and hence dark dresses are much more 
 common among the ladies than with us ; and hence, too, when 
 they go into the streets to walk, for business or for recreation, 
 they dress much less than our ladies are accustomed to do, when 
 they walk out in our large cities. 
 
 In miscellaneous descriptions of great cities, we frequently feel 
 the need of some kind of connexion between the different sub- 
 jects, so as not to make the transitions too abrupt. The foregoing 
 remarks remind me forcibly of that noble structure, St Paul's 
 Cathedral, which stands as a noble, though uncleanly, monument 
 of English architecture. I say uncleanly, for whoever visits it, 
 will find it, unless it has improved, a fair illustration of what I 
 have just said of the filth of London, I allude not now to the 
 
526 ENGLAND. 
 
 sombre and smoky hue of its external walls, for this cannot be 
 avoided, and has become, in fact, not only in London, but in 
 England generally, to be an architectural beauty ; but the interior 
 was excessively dirty. The various monuments, which were, in 
 my estimation, generally, not of the first order of sculpture, were 
 marred in their apparent proportions, by the accumulated dust 
 that hung upon them in such depth, that you might have inscribed 
 upon them new epitaphs, with no other graving tool than your 
 finger; and the stairs and passages were not decent for a lady, 
 with a respectable dress, to pass over. They certainly take fees 
 enough of visiters, to keep it clean, for they demanded an addi- 
 tional shilling of us at almost every new angle we turned. What 
 a contrast between this church and the beautiful cleanly churches 
 of Rome ! In the architecture of St. Paul's, however, the spec- 
 tator will find much to admire. 
 
 St. Paul's, as is generally known, was built by Sir Christopher 
 Wren, on the site of a former cathedral of the same name, which 
 was so injured by the fire of 1 666, that it was wholly removed, to 
 make room for this new edifice. It took thirty-five years to com- 
 plete it. Its form is a Greek cross, and is of the following 
 dimensions, viz. : length, from east to west, five hundred feet, 
 from north to south, two hundred and eighty-six feet ; circuit of 
 the edifice, two thousand, two hundred and ninety-two feet. It is 
 surmounted by a dome, on which rises a ball six feet in diameter, 
 and this is surmounted by a cross thirty feet high. The style is 
 of the Corinthian and Composite orders, and, but that the site is 
 too crowded and closed in with other edifices, the exterior would 
 present a very imposing aspect from every point of view. As it 
 is, indeed, the edifice has a noble appearance, and especially the 
 west end fronting Ludgate Hill. 
 
 There are various monuments within and about the cathedral, 
 but the finest of all is the one erected to the great architect of 
 this edifice, the character of which may be understood by the 
 reader, from the following translation of a Latin epitaph, inscribed 
 upon a slab over the entrance of the choir : — 
 
 " Beneath, lies Christopher Wren, the architect of this church 
 and city, who lived more than ninety years, not for himself alone, 
 but for the public. Reader, do you seek his monument ? Look 
 around !" 
 
WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 527 
 
 The statue of Dr. Johnson is said to be the first erected here. 
 Here are also those of Howard, Bacon, Sir William Jones, Rey- 
 nolds, Nelson, and many others. The sepulchral monuments are 
 too uniform in their designs, and the statuary generally did not 
 strike me very favourably. In one of the rooms of the church 
 is an ecclesiastical library, and in another various architectural 
 models, among others, a great lantern which was suspended from 
 the dome, at the funeral of Nelson. The whispering gallery in the 
 dome is very good, but not equal, I think, to St. Peter's, in Rome. 
 
 The cathedral is open for service three times each day. It is 
 to be feared, however, that these stated seasons for public service, 
 in the English cathedrals, are much like the same ceremonies in 
 Catholic churches — cold and formal — exciting little attention, and 
 observed more in accordance with some canons and ecclesiastical 
 usages, than from any heartfelt interest. Few attend, and those 
 apparently from official duty : like the Catholics, they have a 
 company of little boys, in canonical dresses, who make the 
 responses, chant, &c. Artificial service of this kind seems so un- 
 like the simple and spiritual worship of the true Christian church, 
 and so much in accordance with the pompous and heartless cere- 
 monies of Rome, that another reform and expurgation seem to be 
 imperiously required, to bring the English church back to the 
 simplicity of the gospel. Even in an ordinary church, and at the 
 regular Sunday service, I have seen a class of the boys attached 
 to the charity school of the church, seated near the reading-desk, 
 to perform the responses, much to the relief of the congregation 
 generally, who seemed to feel themselves excused from the bur- 
 den by this substitution of the children. 
 
 Westminster Abbey is of a character very unlike St. Paul's — 
 its architecture is Gothic, and its origin dates back to the reign of 
 Henry III.; although this, too, received its finishing touches from 
 Sir Christopher Wren. One writer expresses himself very per- 
 tinently and descriptive of the reality when he says of this edifice 
 — " It appears as if the artist had intended to give to stone, the 
 character of embroidery, and enclose the walls within the meshes 
 of lace-work." It is spiry, fretted, turreted, vaulted, divided into 
 chapels, and filled with monuments. Here most of the sover- 
 eigns of England have been buried, since the foundation of the 
 church up to George II. The remains of the subsequent kings, 
 
S28 ENGLAND. 
 
 viz., George III. and George IV., as well as those of the other 
 members of the royal family of George III., are deposited at 
 Windsor, which is henceforth to be the royal cemetery. 
 
 Westminster Abbey is much better kept than St. Paul's, and 
 to the curious stranger, a place of much greater interest, from its 
 historic associations and its monumental records. It is rather 
 ft monumental temple, consecrated to eminence and genius, than 
 a temple of worship. So abundant and interesting are the 
 sepulchral monuments, and so pre-eminent in British history are 
 the names and characters of those whose memory is here per- 
 petuated and honoured, that the spectator is entirely absorbed and 
 engrossed by the mementoes of human genius and fame. He for- 
 gets that he is in the temple of the Almighty God, by his imme- 
 diate association with the almost innumerable and overwhelming 
 reminiscences of the mighty dead. Since the human mind is 
 finite in its comprehension, I know not that the spectator is 
 to be blamed for this state of mind in such circumstances ; but 
 whether it is not reprehensible to convert the temple of worship 
 into a monumental depot and registry of human mortality, and 
 human character, is a thought worthy of more attention than it 
 seems to have received. In such an edifice, however, as West- 
 minster Abbey, there is plenty of room for many mausolea, and 
 the place of worship still be free. Henry the Seventh's chapel 
 has been recently repaired, (from 1809 to 1822,) at the public 
 expense of about fifty thousand pounds, under the direction of 
 James Wyatt. Here are many royal monuments. In Edward 
 the Confessor's chapel is the celebrated stone taken by Edward 
 the First from Scone, in Scotland, in 1267, which was thought to 
 be the identical Jacob's pillar, on which the patriarch rested his 
 vhead. It is said the Scotch made great efforts to regain this stone, 
 and when they could not succeed they became reconciled to the 
 union of the two kingdoms, in consequence of the following 
 distich, which had been inscribed upon it by King Kenneth :— 
 Where'er this stone is found (or fate's decree is -vain) 
 The Scots the same shall hold, and there supremely reign.* 
 
 The chapel of St. John and St. Michael, has a splendid monument 
 to Lady Nightingale, by Roubiliac. The workmanship is beau- 
 
 * Which seems to have been fulfilled in the fact that the heir of the Scotch throne 
 became also the heir and king of England. 
 
WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 529 
 
 tiful, and the design is the most expressive of anything of the kind 
 I ever saw. She is sitting above a tomb, out of which Death, with 
 his naked skeleton, is issuing ; and reaching up with his long fin- 
 gers, he aims a dart at her breast : but the husband, with intense 
 anxiety and vigilance, stands by her like a guardian angel, and 
 wards off the blow. Comment and paraphrase on this consum- 
 mate monumental composition, are impossible ; the beholder has 
 thoughts and feelings that can never be put into words. The ten- 
 derness of conjugal love, the relentlessness of Death, the exposure 
 to his shafts, of loveliness and beauty, the temporary protection 
 we sometimes enjoy from the care and kindness of friends, and, 
 finally, the triumph of the skeleton king, in bringing down this 
 lovely victim to his palace of bones, the great charnel-house of 
 death, all stand out, in this pantomimic drama of monumental 
 marble, in indescribable force and pathos. There are many other 
 fine monuments in this chapel ; but the great concentration of in- 
 terest is in the Poefs Corner — so called, because here are the 
 monuments of the great and illustrious family of the British 
 Poets. But in this department I cannot begin to mention names 
 and individual monuments. Here are Chaucer and Spencer and 
 Prior, Dryden, Cowley and Milton, Gray, Johnson, Goldsmith, 
 and a host of others, whose works are to them more enduring 
 and more honourable monuments than the sculptured marble. 
 Many of these have very appropriate designs and epitaphs ; among 
 others, the facetious poet, John Gay, has the following, written 
 by himself : — 
 
 " Life is a jest, and all things show it; 
 I thought so once, and now I know it." 
 
 Not so — by this time he has doubtless discovered that life is a 
 momentous reality : short, it is true, but pregnant with future and 
 eternal consequences ! What an imposition upon the living, and 
 what an insult to the dead, is such an epitaph ! 
 
 Many heroes and statesmen have also their sepulchral monu- 
 ments or cenotaphs here. Among others is that of Major Andre, 
 who was condemned and executed as a spy during our revolu- 
 tionary war, being concerned in the treasonable negotiations of the 
 infamous Arnold. Britannia is represented as mourning over his 
 fate. So honourable is it to have a mausoleum in Westminster 
 Abbey, that the great Nelson, on the eve of one of his most im- 
 45 3 V 
 
530 ENGLAND. 
 
 portant naval battles, gave out, as the rallying watchword and 
 motto, " Victory or Westminster Abbey /" 
 
 This church, in its greatest length, including Henry the Sev- 
 enth's chapel, is five hundred and thirty feet ; greatest breadth, 
 three hundred and seventy -five ; height of the highest towers, two 
 hundred and twenty-five. 
 
 Of the other churches, I cannot speak in detail. More than forty 
 are still standing in London, which were built by, or after the 
 designs of, Sir Christopher Wren. 
 
 The places of worship for dissenters and Catholics, are called 
 chapels. Some of these are, not only in London, but all through 
 the kingdom, well built ; and they are more numerous, taken alto- 
 gether, by more than one hundred, than the churches of the 
 establishment. The one which most interested me, was the City 
 Road Chapel, built by Mr. Wesley, and this chiefly by its asso- 
 ciations and monuments. Here the great Wesley preached, and 
 here his mortal remains are deposited, as also those of several 
 others of the most eminent Wesleyans of England. In this 
 chapel are chaste and beautifully designed and executed monu- 
 ments to John Wesley, Charles Wesley, Dr. Clarke, Mr. Watson, 
 and others, with appropriate epitaphs. Mr. Wesley's tomb is in 
 the chapel-yard, surrounded by an iron balustrade, and Dr. Clarke's 
 close by, in the same form and with a similar enclosure. This 
 has occasioned some unpleasant feelings, especially as the doc- 
 tor's tomb is so near as to leave no passage between them, and 
 seriously to embarrass the reading of the inscription on the prox- 
 imate side of Mr. Wesley's tomb. Hence some have said, that 
 there is an appearance of a design not only to exhibit the doctor 
 as the equal of Mr. Wesley in every respect, but also of eclipsing 
 him by obscuring his monument with the juxtaposition of the 
 doctor's rival mausoleum. It can hardly be supposed that there 
 was any design of this kind, whatever may be the appearances ; 
 but the altercations that have arisen from this cause, added to 
 some jealousies that existed in the lifetime of Doctor Clarke, have 
 produced very unpleasant feelings on both sides. It is much to 
 be regretted that these great and good men — both prominent in 
 their respective spheres ; both, while living, contributing, though 
 not equally, yet eminently, to the advancement of the same com- 
 mon and holy cause — should, in death, be the innocent occasion of 
 
THE TOWER. 531 
 
 heart-burnings and discord. It is not their fault. While they 
 were contemporaries, they lived and labored in unison as an obe- 
 dient son with an affectionate father. In death, their bodies sleep 
 together in peaceful fraternity, and their spirits doubtless are 
 united in the paradise of God. 
 
 It will be impossible for me to dwell upon the particular local- 
 ities of London. I ought, however, perhaps briefly, to notice the 
 Tower and a few other places of note in the city. The Tower was 
 originally built to keep the city in awe ; it afterward became a 
 royal residence, and, subsequently, a royal prison ; and it is also 
 used for a royal arsenal and a place of deposite for the regalia of 
 the British sovereigns. The site comprehends twelve acres, sur- 
 rounded by a ditch and a high wall, close by the left bank of the 
 Thames. There are in two rooms arms for thirty thousand sol- 
 diers ; in addition to this, there are several other rooms of armour 
 and a great quantity of heavy ordnance for the royal artillery. 
 The armour is tastefully arranged in a variety of figures, monu- 
 ments and military trophies. There is in fact much here to 
 gratify the curiosity of the stranger ; at the same time it must ex^ 
 cite painful reflections on the character of man, and the constitu- 
 tion of society, which have made the work of death a science, and 
 
 a preparation for human slaughter a principal feature in the policy 
 of human government. 
 
 Among other curiosities of this kind, is a room filled with 
 Asiatic armour. Here are the arms of Tippoo Saib, and other 
 eastern princes, together with many military trophies, and the 
 spoils of the Spanish Armada. In another room is a collection 
 of armour of the age of chivalry, both for the horse and his rider. 
 In an apartment one hundred and fifty feet in length, are effigies 
 of horses mounted by knights, arranged in chronological order, 
 armed cap-a-pie, each wearing the particular costume of the age 
 in which he lived, and bearing his appropriate arms ; and over 
 each waves a banner, on which are recorded the name, rank, and 
 period of the hero beneath. It is a magnificent display, and con- 
 veys at once a better idea of this ancient armour, and the method 
 of wearing it, than can possibly be obtained by the most careful 
 description. It is said, the armour of every kind in this arsenal, 
 is sufficient to arm two hundred thousand men. 
 
 The jewel office contains a magnificent array of brilliants, dis- 
 
532 ENGLAND. 
 
 played within enclosures of plate glass, lighted by six splendid 
 Argand lamps. These throw a dazzling light upon the crowns 
 and sceptres and other regal toys, to the number of about forty, 
 which lie there in state, to astonish beholders. Here, as chief 
 among the royal diadems, sits the unrivalled crown of the ex- 
 travagant George IV. Its value is inestimable. It is arched 
 with diamonds, frosted with brilliants, having in the centre, on 
 the one side, a peculiar sapphire stone of a deep azure colour, 
 and on the other, the rock ruby, worn by Edward the Black 
 Prince, and by Henry V. at the battle of Agincourt ; around the 
 base of the diadem is a fillet of large pearls, interspersed with 
 diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and amethysts, of varied size and 
 brilliancy. What were all these to the proud and prodigal prince, 
 at that moment, when, in the last agonies of life, he called for the 
 Bishop of Winchester, and exclaimed, as his deathless spirit flut- 
 tered on his lips, " O God ! is this death ! " 
 
 The river Thames is spanned by six bridges, of which two 
 are cast iron, and the others of stone. The most splendid is the 
 Waterloo, which is, in fact, the most magnificent work . of the 
 kind I ever saw. Its length, including the abutments, is one 
 
 thousand three hundred and eighty feet, being tlie longest of the 
 
 six. The others do not, in general, come up to one thousand 
 feet. But the most magnificent enterprise, for crossing the 
 Thames, is the Tunnel, which, although commenced in 1 824, has 
 been completed to but little more than half the distance, the 
 whole of which is computed at thirteen hundred feet. There is 
 no reason, however, to apprehend that it will require an equal 
 length of time to complete the undertaking. Past experience 
 enables them to prosecute the work with greater facility, and has 
 taught them to secure it, as they advance, with greater safety. 
 After the river broke into the Tunnel in 1827 and '8, the works 
 were suspended for seven years ; they have been recommenced, 
 however, with renewed vigour, and will, it is confidently expected, 
 be prosecuted to their completion, with but little danger of another 
 rupture. The possibility of the speedy completion of this enterprise 
 may be inferred from the fact, that the first four hundred feet were 
 excavated, and the arches completed, in two and a half months* 
 * Since writing the above, I learn that there has been another irruption of water, 
 without any loss of life, however ; and it is hoped it will not long impede the work, 
 men. 
 
THE TUNNEL. 533 
 
 The excavation is thirty-eight feet in breadth, and twenty-two 
 feet and six inches in height ; and this is rilled with brick ma- 
 sonry, with the exception of two archways for the passage of 
 carriages each way, with a sidewalk for footmen. A perspective 
 view of these arches may be seen in the accompanying plate ; as 
 also a view of the shield, which protects the works as they 
 advance. This is a strong wooden frame, in the different cham- 
 bers of which the workmen stand to prosecute the work of 
 excavation and masonry — the frame being moved up as soon as 
 an entire section is completed. 
 
 The Tunnel was commenced by sinking a shaft on the right 
 bank, or Surry side of the river, sixty-three feet in depth. The 
 excavation gently declines to the centre of the river, where the 
 base is seventy-six feet below highwater mark. At the horizontal 
 shaft is a steam-engine, for ptynping out the water and elevating 
 the earth. The arches, when we visited them, were perfectly 
 dry, and brilliantly illuminated by gas-lights ; and from anything 
 we saw, or heard, or felt, we should not have supposed that we 
 were in a sub-andarian grotto, with a navigable river rolling its 
 swelling tides over our heads, and bearing upon its bosom the 
 merchandise of the world ; — yet so it was, and the thoughts of 
 our situation, at that moment, were of thrilling interest. When 
 the horizontal portion of the Tunnel shall have been completed, 
 the excavations will, of course, be extended at either end, so far 
 as to make the descent and ascent easy and pleasant ; and then, 
 with the arches lighted, I see not why this will not be as com- 
 modious and advantageous a passage across the Thames as any 
 of the bridges : and as it is two miles below London bridge, 
 which is the lowest of the existing bridges, and below which none 
 can be constructed, on account of the obstruction to the immense 
 navigation of the river, it must form a very important and advan- 
 tageous thoroughfare for the increasing and already extended 
 population and business of that part of the town. At the same 
 time it will exhibit a stupendous and wonderful monument of 
 human industry and skill. 
 
 We procured in the Tunnel a dioramic representation of this 
 extraordinary work, which presents to the spectator as perfect a 
 view of the interior, as though he stood by Mr. Brunei's steam- 
 45 
 
534 ENGLAND 
 
 engine, at the bottom of his perpendicular shaft, looking down 
 the illuminated arches of the Tunnel. 
 
 There are two sweeps in the Thames through London, in op- 
 posite directions, somewhat resembling the letter S, save that the 
 upper bend is much bolder and deeper than the lower. The 
 latter, however, is sufficiently large to give place, in the arch, for 
 the spacious, splendid docks that accommodate the larger ship- 
 ping, secure from the ebbs and floods of the tide, in the heart of 
 a populous section of the town. These docks will accommodate 
 altogether, perhaps, two thousand vessels at one time. Besides 
 these, the quays, and the wharfs, and the channel itself, are con 
 stantly full. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII. 
 
 The new Parliament House is not yet finished. The tempo- 
 rary rooms in which the Parliament now meets, were formerly 
 the Chapel of St. Stephen. No one is admitted without a mem- 
 ber's order, which, by the interposition of a friend, I was fortunate 
 enough to obtain at the door, from Mr. Buxton, the prominent 
 and influential advocate of West India emancipation. I had the 
 privilege of hearing the principal speakers of the house, but none 
 of them in their most elaborate and weighty discussions. One 
 evening, when I was present, Mr. Spring Rice was carrying a 
 bill through the house, for the reduction of the newspaper tax. 
 He managed the subject with a good deal of tact and skill — with 
 complete self-possession ; he was prepared to ward off every attack, 
 or adjust himself to the exigences of the case. Sir Robert Peel 
 was the finest speaker I heard on the floor. His person is good, 
 his voice fine, his conception clear, and his elocution persuasive 
 and winning. Everything about Sir Robert Peel is preposses- 
 sing. As a statesman, he may have made some mistakes, but 
 probably fewer than most men ; and for honesty of purpose, ex- 
 tensiveness of practical knowledge, chastened liberality of views, 
 

O'CONNELL. 535 
 
 and sound common sense, he is probably a safer man to direct 
 the councils of the British government, than any other man now 
 prominent in the national councils. The appearance of O'Connell 
 is that of a clown ; his hair is bushy, his features coarse, his 
 neck short, and his head is drawn into his coat collar. From his 
 appearance, I would readily take him for a boxer, but never for 
 a statesman. Lord John Russell, who now leads the ministerial 
 part of the house, is a small, inferior-looking man, although there 
 is some shrewdness apparent in his countenance. He may be a 
 managing politician, but nothing that he has ever done indicates 
 any extraordinary intellectual powers, or great statesmanship. 
 His family, and the peculiar state of the public mind, have, pro- 
 bably, given him a prominency which, under other circumstances, 
 he would never have gained. The Bedford family (for Lord 
 John is the son of the Duke of Bedford) have always been 
 stanch whigs ; and now that the popular party is in the ascend- 
 ant, it is natural that so wealthy and honourable a family, if it 
 can furnish a respectable man, should have a commanding influ- 
 ence in the national councils. The state of political parties is at 
 this time very unfavourable to a comfortable and a profitable ad 
 ministration of public affairs. The party favourable to popular 
 'rights is divided. The smaller fraction, with Mr. O'Connell of 
 Ireland, Mr. Hume of Scotland, and some others, to lead the way, 
 are thorough -going radicals, and would, probably, if they could 
 have their way, break up the very foundations of the ancient 
 order, and drive the car of reform so rapidly as to jeopardize the 
 state. Mr. O'Connell's main object seems to be his own aggran- 
 dizement, through the influence of the Catholics of Ireland, 
 Without wealth to carry on his plans, he is supported by O'Con- 
 nell pence — a tax imposed upon all the Irish party, to sustain 
 their leader — and by contributions in England and Scotland, as 
 well as Ireland, for the same object. It is not uncommon to see 
 a sign out, over a shop door, even in London, giving information 
 that contributions to the O'Connell fund are received there. 
 Without possessing the confidence of either of the leading parties, 
 he is powerful, because his trained band, of some forty members, 
 have the balance of power, and they are ready to come or go at 
 his bidding. The present ministry, therefore, cannot do without 
 him, and they can do nothing with him. It has been shrewdly 
 
536 ENGLAND. 
 
 said, " the present government can do nothing ; for O'Connell will 
 not permit them to do any good, and the House of Lords will not 
 suffer them to do any harm, and, therefore, they can do nothing." 
 The division between the two houses has certainly frustrated a 
 number of very important measures of the present administration : 
 and with this friction to the machinery of the government, it has 
 been a wonder to all that the present ministry should endure as long 
 as they have. The general voice seems to be in favour of a new 
 ministry, made up of the moderate of both parties ; by which 
 the ultra-tory spirit on the one side, and the ultra-democratic 
 spirit on the other, might be controlled, and the work of reform 
 be gradually and safely carried forward. That much work of 
 this kind remains to be done in Great Britain and Ireland, there 
 can be no doubt — work that must be done — the spirit of the age 
 imperiously demands it, and the popular voice will carry it for- 
 ward. The only question is, will the opposing party have wisdom 
 enough to yield the point so far, as to submit to a gradual im- 
 provement of their social state, political and ecclesiastical, and 
 submit with such cordiality as to keep a controlling influence in 
 the work — or will they resist, until popular feeling and power 
 shall break over all bounds, and in a wild revolution, destroy, in- 
 stead of reform ? 
 
 For the last few years, the work of political reform has ad- 
 vanced quite fast enough for the safe action of a constitutional 
 government. The greatest danger for England, now, is on the 
 popular side. There is a reckless heated spirit abroad — the popu- 
 lar mind is restless and feverish, and, of course, extremely excita- 
 ble, and there are numerous demagogues, with O'Connell at their 
 head, who are constantly blowing up the flames of popular ex- 
 citement. O'Connell makes it his business in the recess of Par- 
 liament to travel over England, get up popular assemblies, and 
 harangue them on political subjects. His great wrath has been 
 poured out of late chiefly upon the House of Lords, because 
 they have negatived some of the favourite measures which he 
 has procured to be carried through the Commons, for the relief, 
 as he terms it, of his oppressed country Ireland. We, in the 
 United States, are apt to sympathize with everything that strikes 
 against royalty and an hereditary nobility ; but we ought to be 
 aware it is one thing to favour the establishment of a nobility 
 
REFORM. 537 
 
 where it never existed, and quite another to sustain it when it is 
 interwoven with the very frame work of society. No one in his 
 senses, I believe, would wish to see an attempt to introduce an 
 hereditary sovereignty or nobility among us ; but does it there- 
 fore follow that these should be suddenly and rashly overturned 
 where they exist ? Is it easy to form a new structure of strength 
 and beauty out of the irregular and scattered fragments of disrup- 
 tured and demolished institutions ? There may be some political 
 communities in a condition so utterly hopeless as to require, at 
 all hazards, a radical breaking up of the social order ; but such is 
 not England. With a judiciary sound to the core ; with an exec- 
 utive administration always either directly or indirectly under the 
 control of the most enlightened and stable part of the population ; 
 with a more intelligent, and, on the whole, (though this I confess is 
 not saying a great deal,) a more virtuous aristocracy than can be 
 found beside in Europe ; with a free press and an extensive and 
 extending system of popular education, England contains in her- 
 self, and in her present social compact, the inherent principles of 
 a safe and an efficient improvement. The only fear is, that the 
 machinery which is put in operation by designing demagogues for 
 exciting the fcolingo of tho populace, will be propelled with too 
 much violence, and in directions dangerous to the public weal. And, 
 at this juncture, from the peculiar state of political parties, and the 
 character of the political questions which are now canvassed, the ten- 
 dency to ultraism is great. The more so, because from its supposed 
 success in the cause of West-India emancipation, popular agita- 
 tion is very much the order of the day. In the West-India question, 
 this course was safe for several reasons. In the first place, the evil 
 proposed to be removed was local, very limited, insulated, at a dis- 
 tance from the heart and main arteries of the social system, and by 
 no means and to no extent interwoven with the framework of the 
 government ; and, in the second place, the community brought 
 under the influence of the agitating process, were immediately and 
 legally responsible for the existence of West-India slavery. They 
 virtually and actually held the chains of the enslaved in their 
 own hands, and had, therefore, the immediate power to unclasp or 
 rivet these chains at their own will. If, then, a practical way 
 could be presented, for a safe emancipation, it became a matter 
 of duty to act in the premises. All that was necessary was to 
 3X 
 
538 ENGLAND. 
 
 devise the plan, and then excite to action. But even in this 
 case, as I have elsewhere shown, the agitators were too violent, 
 and had well nigh ruined the cause at last. However, the bill 
 for the gradual redemption of the slaves, passed ; and African sla- 
 very has received its death-warrant in the British empire — to her 
 honour be it recorded ; and that, to all present appearances, with- 
 out endangering the safety and prosperity either of the govern- 
 ment or of the islands. Would that the same could be said of 
 our own and of every other land ! But, although the bill itself 
 and its immediate consequences appear favourable, yet the agita- 
 tion by which the passage of the bill was preceded and accom- 
 panied, has not proved so favourable. It has left the public mind 
 in a feverish state ; it has opened up to the eager eye of the dem- 
 agogue a highway to popular influence and power ; it has sanc- 
 tified that way, because here Philanthropy herself, it is thought, 
 has accomplished ene of her noblest achievements ; and now, all 
 that travel this way, justify themselves by this illustrious prece- 
 dent. This is a hazardous course, especially in all cases where 
 the questions involved are in any way connected with topics that 
 act upon our sentient natures and particularly our sympathies. 
 When once the demagogue oan got tk© onntrol of popular sympa- 
 thies, he is a potentate — an absolute sovereign. Now he can 
 carry his measures in spite of law or constitution, in spite of 
 order or public safety. None understand this better than 
 O'Connell and his colleagues. Hence their object is to connect 
 with their political plans some topic of popular excitement. The 
 slave question was too important in this point of view to be read- 
 ily given up ; and, therefore, when the question was settled in the 
 British parliament, the political philanthropists, who still desired 
 the control of the public sympathies for their own purposes, con- 
 nected with their public harangues the subject of slavery in the 
 United States. This, for some time, was the practice of the 
 Irish orator. He knew he had only to name the subject of sla- 
 very, and he would set the whole audience in a flame. When, 
 therefore, he concentrated his powers on this point, when he 
 stretched himself upon the western coast of the British isles, 
 holy philanthropist as he was, and with his stentorian voice rolled 
 back the western winds by his blast of anathemas against the 
 domestic despots and political hypocrites of the United States, 
 
PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. 539 
 
 then it was that the English populace threw up their caps and 
 huzzaed for the orator, and felt their souls moved within them to 
 follow such a leader, so pure and philanthropic to any and e very- 
 enterprise his patriotic soul could devise, or his fearless spirit 
 could attempt to execute. Such, for a season, were the public 
 harangues of the " honourable and learned member from Kil- 
 kenny," and such is the course of many others up to the present 
 time. But O'Connell has changed his course. American sla- 
 very is no longer his theme. Rumour, with her more than usual 
 credibility, has revealed the cause. The only hope of O'Connell 
 is in the unflinching devotion to his cause of the Irish Catholic 
 population. To secure this, he must have the confidence of the 
 priests ; and to have their confidence, it must be conceded or be- 
 lieved by the undivided universal Roman Church, that his course 
 is promotive of the general interests of Romanism. Now it has 
 so fallen out, that the great body of Catholics in the United 
 States think that it has a tendency to bring them into suspicion 
 in this country, to have their great political champion in Europe 
 dealing out such wholesale anathemas against the United States. 
 Letters, therefore, it is said, have been sent to Ireland to this 
 effect, and the orator has changed his theme. 
 
 While on the subject of the morbid excitability of the British 
 public, amounting almost to a mental disease, and the constant 
 effort to keep up that state of the public mind, I might mention 
 their manner of conducting their public assemblies, religious* 
 as well as political — the deliberations of the national legislature 
 as well as popular assemblies. Public speakers on these occa- 
 sions are constantly applauded or opposed, by clapping, stamp- 
 ing, cries of hear ! hear ! or hisses and cries of no ! no ! In a 
 great proportion of cases the appearance is that the public orators 
 are coveting the clap and the cheer, rather than conviction by 
 grave and solid argument. In missionary meetings and bible 
 anniversaries, you often notice this as well as in the speeches 
 in parliament. Sometimes this is carried to very great excess. 
 A case in point was a meeting I attended in Exeter Hall,f of the 
 
 * Assemones for public worship, 01 course, are not included. 
 
 t Exeter Hall is a noble building, erected on the Strand for public meetings. It has 
 a majestic entrance of the Corinthian order, and the principal room is one hundred 
 and six feet by seventy-six, and is computed to hold four thousand persons. 
 
540 ENGLAND 
 
 " Protestant Association," so called. It is a society formed among 
 statesmen and others, to oppose Romanism. At this meeting an 
 Irish orator, by the name of M'Ghee, a Protestant clergyman, 
 and an agent of the society, addressed the meeting. His topic 
 was chiefly relative to an edition of the Bible, called the Douay 
 Bible, with a Catholic commentary, commonly called " Rheimish 
 Notes." These " Notes " savour of persecution and justify the po 
 litical assumptions of the Pope and of the Roman Catholic Church. 
 The object was to prove that editions of this bible and commentary 
 had been published in Ireland and circulated among the people ; 
 and that to avoid the suspicion of having been active in this high- 
 toned inquisitorial publication, the church dignitaries in Ireland 
 had practised a good deal of tergiversation and falsehood ; and 
 that Mr. O'Connell had been identified with the hypocrisy of the 
 priests, by pretending to disapprove of the Rheimish Notes, and 
 making a great public parade on the subject, but that he afterward 
 neglected to carry out his promises, and slunk away as if priest- 
 smitten, from final action in the case. Such was the tenor of the 
 arguments supported by documents and testimonies, which the 
 orator presented with great clearness, much sarcasm, and biting 
 irony, and no little share of moving declamation. If he had 
 stopped here, he certainly would seem to have made out a strong 
 case. It would have appeared from very strong documentary 
 testimony, that the Catholics cherished the same enmity to popu- 
 lar liberty, claimed the same ecclesiastical prerogatives and 
 authority over the bodies and souls of men, and practised the 
 same Jesuitism in the dissemination of their sentiments, that had 
 at any period marked the history of that church. The audience 
 was highly excited, vociferous applauses acted upon the speaker, 
 and the speaker again acted upon the audience. And now the way 
 was prepared for the after-piece — and the exhibition convinced me 
 more forcibly than I ever realized it before, how strong and con- 
 tinued excitement, on any particular subject, becomes a monoma- 
 nia, and cuts off, entirely, on the exciting question, the enlightened 
 dictates of the judgment. 
 
 The orator presented a pamphlet, which he said had, in the 
 providence of God, fallen into his hands the night before at a late 
 hour, while he was preparing for that meeting. This pamphlet 
 was to finish the work for the Romish church, and the very read- 
 
PUBLIC ASSEMBLIES. 541 
 
 Ing of it would make all our ears tingle. It was an encyclical 
 letter from the Pope, instructing the priests of Ireland, how they 
 were to manage to deceive the Protestants, by the most consum- 
 mate hypocrisy, and the most flagitious chicanery, and at the 
 same time secure the advancement and ultimate triumph of the 
 papal cause in that islandj and perhaps in Great Britain. The 
 letter, it would seem had been written originally in Latin, and the 
 translator had inserted some of the Latin phrases, to show the ex- 
 act spirit of the original ; and among these our orator had found 
 infallible proofs of the genuineness of the document. 
 
 The whole affair was new to all. The document was new — 
 the design of bringing it forward was new — and all listened with 
 breathless suspense ; presently, however, the reading of the 
 pamphlet and the comments by the orator, carried the audience 
 all away. Grave senators and graver clergymen, aristocrats and 
 plebeians, were mingling their voices, and clapping and stamping 
 with feet and canes ; some swung their hats, some laughed and 
 cheered, and a few Catholics hissed and contradicted. It might 
 seem natural enough to those who were used to it, but to me it 
 was a scene of tumult and disorder, and became every moment 
 the more painful, because every successive paragraph confirmed 
 me in an opinion that I formed before he had completed one page, 
 that the whole was a hoax, and that all this transient uproarious 
 triumph would end in a painful mortification, and a resistless re- 
 action upon the Protestant cause. I sat between gentlemen that 
 were habited like clergymen — I said to one— "That pamphlet 
 must be an imposition. The pope never could have written such 
 a letter." " It is undoubtedly true," he replied, " they are capable 
 of anything." Directly I turned to the other, and asked — "Is 
 Mr. M'Ghee a judicious man ? is he not easily imposed upon ?" 
 " He is a very judicious man," was the reply ; " he knows what 
 he is about." I said, "You may rest assured the pope never 
 wrote that letter ; for on the supposition that Gregory XVI. was 
 both a knave and a fool, neither of which was I prepared to admit, 
 still he had counsellors around him who understood themselves 
 better than to suffer such a document to receive the official sanc- 
 tion of the Vatican." But it was all to no purpose ; and as I 
 could find none to join me in my judgment, I sat extremely uneasy, 
 distressed even, until the conclusion. I thought, however the 
 46 
 
542 ENGLAND. 
 
 enthusiasm abated a little, towards the last, as a fear had taken 
 possession of some portion of the audience, that the document 
 might be an imposition ; but the clapping and cheering kept up 
 to the last. The next day it came out, that the whole affair was 
 an imposition. The letter was written by a Protestant clergy- 
 man, one of the professors of Trinity College in Dublin; and 
 Mr M'Ghee, the great Protestant agent and champion, who had 
 but the day before boasted that he should show the nakedness 
 of the papal church to the abhorrence of the world, had to come 
 out and make his public recantation of his foolish and insane ad- 
 venture. The effect of such an explanation may readily be 
 imagined. O'Connell had been invited to come on the occasion, 
 and defend himself and his church, against the charges about to 
 be presented. He declined, and his refusing to meet the charges 
 face to face, was set off to good effect, in the fore part of the meet- 
 ing ; but the result gave him and his friends a complete triumph, 
 and struck such a blow to the " Protestant Association " and their 
 special agency, as will not be readily recovered from. This is 
 the fruit of ultraism. It is a circumstance that is symptomatic of 
 the present age. Happy for England, if she check that spirit 
 before it carry away her strongest social and political bulwarks ; 
 and happy for the United States if they also avoid the same danger- 
 ous course. , 
 
 One of the great questions that have agitated the nation under the 
 present administration, and will continue to agitate it for years to 
 come, doubtless is that of the English church establishment. The 
 dissenters, of course, consider this a burden ; most of them proba- 
 bly would gladly throw it off altogether, while all desire to see 
 it greatly modified and reformed. Hence the contest assumes a 
 form, in many respects, very unpleasant and unfavourable to the 
 cause of pure religion. Ministers and bishops become politicians, 
 and members of the Christian churches become heated partisans, 
 and throw themselves into the political arena — the one part to de- 
 fend religion, as they term it, and the other part to secure religious 
 liberty. Both justify themselves for their violent political parti- 
 sanship, on the ground that their party is identified with the best 
 interests of religion. The effect, as might be supposed, is very 
 deleterious. The spirit of devotion is supplanted by the spirit 
 of political party — and the work of preaching Christ is neglected 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. 543 
 
 in too many instances for electioneering and political purposes — 
 and spiritual death, by consequence, pervades the religious com- 
 munities. And this is thought to be specially true, among the 
 dissenters. I found the Wesleyan Methodists generally freer 
 from this destructive influence, than most other religionists. 
 The greater portion of the Wesleyans with whom I met, are 
 conservatives, but still they are not in general so strong for the 
 church, as church-men themselves. They hold a medium posi- 
 tion — wishing the integrity of the establishment to be sustained 
 — at the same time they are desirous of some reform. This 
 saves them from an ultra party-spirit on either side, which is 
 very favourable to the piety of the body, at this time of political 
 ferment. It is curious to see how both parties, in this contest, 
 quote the United States, in favour of their particular views. 
 Those who contend for the voluntary principle, as it is technically 
 termed, that is, those who wish to have religion supported only by 
 voluntary contributions, refer to our country as an instance of 
 great religious prosperity, without a legal support. On the other 
 hand I notice in the political journals, frequent allusion to certain 
 reports that some of our " home missionaries " make, respecting 
 the great destitutions of the western and new parts of our coun- 
 try — " no ministers " — " no churches " — " no gospel."* Here, say 
 they, is the proof that the voluntary principle is not efficient, in 
 supplying the religious wants of the people ! They seem aware, 
 neither of the rapid extension of our frontier settlements, nor yet 
 of the fact that rapid as this is, the voluntary principle is carry- 
 ing the gospel to them, with a promptness abundantly more timely, 
 and to an extent far more adequate to their increasing wants, than 
 ever has been known to have been done by the slow machinery 
 and worldly policy of legal provision. Even in London itself, 
 as we have seen, in the very metropolis of church and state, the 
 government provision would have left four fifths of the population 
 to perish for lack of knowledge, but for the dissenters : and even 
 now, that the established church has waked up to this work, at 
 this late hour, it has been by the excitement to emulation, which 
 has been produced by the action and influence of the dissenters. 
 
 * It is to be regretted that religious agents, in their zeal to make out a strong case, 
 or perhaps deceived by sectarian partialities, should suffer themselves to be the cause 
 of such erroneous impressions. 
 
544 ENGLAND. 
 
 There is every reason to believe that, but for the fear that the 
 dissenters would gain upon them, unless they bestirred them- 
 selves, the establishment would have slept over this subject, until 
 now. But what is still more to the purpose, and utterly subver- 
 sive of the argument urged by the sticklers for church and state 
 is the fact, that now the established church has been roused to 
 action on this subject, they have been compelled to resort, for the 
 accomplishment of their object, to that very principle which they 
 condemn as inadequate and inefficient — the voluntary principle. 
 For it is by voluntary contributions, that the bishop of London 
 and others are now endeavouring to raise a magnificent fund, for 
 the erection and endowment of churches, in connexion with the 
 establishment. How will these advocates for a union of church 
 and state reconcile their arguments with their practice. " Reli- 
 gion will not be sustained," say they, " if left to the option of the 
 people. The public will not be adequately provided with reli- 
 gious instruction." " Ours is the only adequate system to meet 
 the wants of the people ;" and while their words are on their lips 
 they see the deficiency, the ruinous deficiency of their own 
 governmental provisions, and practically adopt the discarded sys- 
 tem of voluntary contributions, to help out their own cherished 
 but imperfect plan ! When man theorizes, his prejudices often 
 betray him ; but when he is driven to action, his common sense 
 is apt to lead him to adapt the end to the means, in despite of his 
 theory. Nothing is more clearly and satisfactorily established, 
 in the United States, even to those who among us once opposed 
 the measure, than that religion is the most pure, most efficient, 
 most abundant in its provisions for instructing the public mind, 
 and reforming the public heart, when its support is left entirely 
 to the voluntary offerings of the people. 
 
 The present state of the English church, with all its advan- 
 tages and improvements, is to my mind demonstration that an 
 ecclesiastical establishment is, on the whole, pernicious ; nay, 
 that its legitimate tendencies are fatal to the cause of Christianity, 
 Much is said of the great reform that is now in progress in the 
 English church. And by how much that reform is magnified, 
 by so much is the cause of dissent and of the voluntary principle 
 illustrated and accredited. What produced this reform ? What 
 sustains it 1 What is carrying it forward ? The dissenters and 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. 545 
 
 Methodists. These have excited the establishment to emulation ; 
 these have provoked them to love and good works; these have 
 waked up the torpid spirit, rebuked and aroused the sleepy con- 
 science of a worldly priesthood and a formal church. 
 
 But the worst of all is, that, although much has been done and 
 much more may be done, still the English church, under its pres- 
 ent organization, never can be fully reformed. There is a worm 
 at the root. To say nothing now of numerous points that might 
 be noticed as illustrative of this position, the single fact that 
 church preferments are in the hands of worldly men, is enough to 
 prove not only that the constitution of the church is unapostolic, but 
 also that the tendency of its organization is directly opposed to 
 the spirit of the gospel. The sovereign is the head of the church. 
 This, to begin with, is an essential feature of the Roman apostacy. 
 This places the appointment of the highest dignitaries of the church 
 directly in the hands of a worldly, and most probably, an ungodly 
 man. Or, more properly, it places the power of appointing the 
 highest offices of the church in the hands of the ruling ministry ; 
 and what chance there is for genuine piety in the breasts of the 
 successful and political party leaders, can readily be imagined. 
 Having the power to make important and desirable appointments 
 in the church, they will doubtless appoint such as will strengthen 
 their political party. Of this the present administration has been 
 accused in more than one instance. This, in fact, is human na 
 ture. It is the very course we might expect worldly men of any 
 party to pursue. Here then is corruption, the worst kind of 
 corruption, at the very head ; and if the whole head is sick, the 
 the whole heart will be faint ; the influence will be felt, and it is 
 felt, more or less, through the entire ecclesiastical body. And 
 this political influence will probably grow worse, as party be- 
 comes more organized and more exclusive. 
 
 But the evil rests not here. The right of disposing of the 
 livings as they are called, is private property, and descends 
 like any other property of the posessor to his heirs. This 
 is called the right of advoiuson. Some of these belong to 
 the king ; some to the bishop, but many more to other individ- 
 uals. In the first case the king, of his own authority, institutes 
 his candidate or clerk ; in the second case, the bishop institutes 
 h's own candidate without presentation ; and, in the third case, 
 46 3Y 
 
546 ENGLAND. 
 
 the patron, whatever he may be, presents his clerk or candidate 
 to the bishop, and the bishop institutes him. Of this latter kind 
 of advowson, some are appended to the manor, and can never be 
 separated from it ; so that he who owns the estate, possesses also 
 the advowson. But others are not only inheritable, but they are 
 an article of traffic and are bought and sold in the market like 
 any other goods and chattels. In a benefice that was thrown 
 into the market in Bristol, the present summer, it is said that a 
 Roman Catholic ecclesiastic was one of the competitors for the 
 purchase. It will be readily seen how such a disposition of the 
 livings of the church, must tend to secularize the clergy. The 
 younger sons of noblemen and gentlemen will select the church 
 for their profession, because there is a chance to get a respecta- 
 ble living in it ; perhaps the father or some friend holds the ad- 
 vowson, and he has the promise of it as soon as he has gone 
 through the forms of an education ; and he, perhaps, after he ob- 
 tains it, may not choose to do the work himself, but farms it out 
 to a curate who will attend to the duties for a small portion of the 
 income, and the legal incumbent gives his dinners, drinks his wine, 
 and keeps his horses and hounds upon the balance. Sometimes 
 one man may have several of these livings, and drive a profitable 
 speculation in farming them out to the lowest bidder. One can 
 readily see how such a course must greatly pervert a religious 
 ministry. Indeed it is sacrilege ; it is making gain of godliness ; 
 every Christian that has not been trained to it and become fa- 
 miliar with it by habit and education, must turn from it with hor 
 ror as a most base prostitution of gospel ordinances. It is true, 
 no man can, without being obnoxious to the charge and penalty 
 of simony y enter upon his own advowson ; neither can the patron 
 prefer a man to the benefice for a stipulated reward ; but he can 
 give it to his own son, as a substitute for making some other pro- 
 vision for him ; he can give it to his friend, with a view of re- 
 warding him or obtaining his influence, or for mere caprice 
 and private partiality ; or, what probably is quite common, he can 
 dispose of it for political purposes, to promote his own ambitious 
 designs, or the designs of his party. 
 
 In view of the great importance of having the benefices in the 
 hands of good and evangelical men, Doctor Simpson, of Cambridge, 
 with some others, has laid out considerable sums to purchase up 
 
CHURCH AND STATE. 547 
 
 such advowsons as Tie could find in the market, for the purpose 
 of preferring evangelical men to these livings. All this looks very- 
 fair as far as it goes ; but, can Doctor Simpson assure himself that 
 his heirs may not be worldly men, and be influenced by other 
 motives ?* Moreover, if Doctor Simpson, out of pure motives, 
 could secure a portion of the patronage of the church for money, 
 that shows that another man, who, because he is a man of the 
 world, is quite as likely to be rich as Doctor Simpson, may pur- 
 chase that patronage for ambitious and worldly motives. The sub- 
 ject, therefore, in whatever aspect it is viewed, is not only deci- 
 dedly bad, but it is a horrid desecratian of the sacred office. And 
 this will appear almost as strong when we look at its bearing in 
 another point of view, viz., that the more good men endeavour to 
 get a control over these benefices in order t^ hold them in reserve 
 for evangelical men, the greater will be the demand, in the ec- 
 clesiastical market, for evangelical men, the more sure men of 
 this reputation will be of professional success, and the more of 
 them, of course, will be presented professedly of this character ; 
 and thus, while, perhaps, an open, worldly, and irreligious spirit 
 will be restrained and diminished, a zealous, canting, bigoted hy- 
 pocrisy will take its place. And, if I nftistake not, this effect al- 
 ready begins to show itself. To be evangelical in the view of 
 many is to be zealous supporters 0/ certain dogmas and bold as- 
 serters of certain hackneyed propr* tipns ; if to this is added a 
 certain manner, and the use of cer.airi cant phrases, the popular 
 character of an evangelical man will be;quite established. To com- 
 plete the portraiture, he must be ai great croaker about the danger 
 of the Church, a great eulogist of all 'her forms and pretensions, 
 and exclusive in his views of apostolical succession and ordination. 
 But it does not follow, because these and many other evils 
 appertain to the English church, that, therefore, it should be 
 suddenly divorced from the state. Modern political empyr- 
 icism is for experimenting with a rude and revolutionary legis- 
 lation upon the objectionable features of the body politic ; and 
 especially it is common for individuals of one nation to decide 
 very positively and thoughtlessly upon what ought to be the 
 course of other nations on cases which they but imperfectly 
 
 * Doctor Simpson is now (1837) dead ; and his patronage has, of course, already passed 
 into other hands. 
 
548 ENGLAND. 
 
 understand. In this way some individuals in England have very 
 foolishly and impertinently undertaken to legislate for us, and to 
 dictate with the confidence of an oracle what is our duty in cer- 
 tain matters vitally affecting our constitution and government. 
 And in this way certain declaimers in our country are, with equal 
 folly and impertinence, giving out their oracular decisions of po- 
 litical wisdom on the importance of speedy and radical changes 
 in the British constitution. Now as we, on some points, may do 
 too little, so it may also be with them ; but the truth is, as we un- 
 derstand our own business best, so do they also theirs ; and the 
 better way will be for each of us to meddle with our neighbours 
 less, and attend more to ourselves. We must, of course, have our 
 opinions, and it may be well at proper times to express them ; but 
 to attempt by agents, associations, or popular declamations, to ex- 
 ert an influence on each other in questions pertaining to our re- 
 spective constitutions, is an unjustifiable interference, that will be 
 only productive of mischief. 
 
 Evils may exist in governments which, in themselves consid- 
 ered, are every way pernicious ; their nature and their tendency 
 may be evil, and only evil, and yet it may not be either good pol- 
 icy or moral duty to extirpate them suddenly. The English es- 
 tablishment is vitally interwoven with the principles of the British 
 constitution, and a sudden disruption might be fatal to the gov- 
 ernment; still something, dqgbtless, might be done ; something, 
 indeed, has been attempted »,he present session of parliament. 
 The princely incomes of some of the bishops' sees have been re- 
 duced by transferring a part to others less lucrative, and the bound- 
 aries of the sees have been altered so as to bring the jurisdiction 
 of all more nearly upon an equality ; but this is only tinkering upon 
 the scaffolding ; when this is arranged they will be better prepared, 
 perhaps, to approach the main edifice. It appears to me most 
 evident that, sooner or later, great reforms will be made in the 
 English church ; and, finally, as the social state can adjust itself 
 to the change, an entire divorce between church and state will 
 probably take place. I say this, because I believe this is the true 
 apostolic relation which the church should sustain in the world ; 
 and she will never appear in her appropriate robes, like a bride 
 adorned for her husband, until she disrobe herself entirely of the 
 
PARLIAMENT. 549 
 
 toga of state. To this point public sentiment is gradually verging 
 in England.* 
 
 Touching upon the British parliament has opened the way for 
 the introduction of several questions connected with the British 
 government and the present state of political parties ; which, as 
 I wished to notice them somewhere, have been as well brought 
 in, perhaps, in this connexion as in any other ; but I have not yet 
 said what I intended concerning the parliament itself. Their hour 
 of meeting is peculiar to themselves ; I believe it is always in the 
 evening. The worst time, one would think, for doing business. 
 If there is any danger of dulness from a hearty dinner, or of ex- 
 citement from the free use of wine, both of which indulgences, as 
 is well known, are rather common with the English gentry and 
 nobility, all this must be experienced by an evening session. A 
 good part of the night is often consumed in these sessions ; and 
 this, perhaps, has given the general character of turning the night 
 into day and the day into night, so common in London. It is next 
 to impossible for any one in London to accomplish anything 
 abroad early in the day. Everything is late ; and whoever mixes 
 in society must retire late, and, of course, will be late up in the 
 morning. 
 
 The speaker of the House of Commons, when he is in the 
 chair, sits with great dignity, with a large powdered wig upon his 
 head and a huge mace lying before him. When he leaves the 
 chair for the house to go into committee of the whole the mace is 
 laid one side. 
 
 If a question is about to be taken on which a division of the 
 house is called for, the speaker rises and proclaims, " Strangers 
 must withdraw." No matter how trifling the question may be, 
 or how often a division is called for, all that are not members 
 must leave the house. The only reason that I can conceive of 
 for such a rule is, that the public may not know how their repre- 
 sentatives vote. It does not now, however, have this effect ; for, 
 on all important questions, it may be easily known how each one 
 
 * I have not thought it expedient to enlarge upon the fact that there is no moral dis- 
 cipline either in the ministry or membership of the English church. A state of things 
 that almost necessarily grows out of its relations to the state, and a feature most ruin- 
 ous to the cause of Christianity. 
 
550 ENGLAND. 
 
 votes. Like many other cumbersome and useless forms, it is kept 
 up now from custom. 
 
 The eloquence of the parliament had nothing very strong or 
 agitating to call it out when I happened to be present. I must 
 say, however, that, as a general thing, I was not pleased with 
 the manner of the speakers. There was too much of a tone, too 
 much of " mouthing the words," too much like an effort which sa- 
 voured of affectation. There were some exceptions. Sir Robert 
 Peel was one ; his manner was easy and natural. 
 
 From all I could learn of the British parliament, there was very 
 little of genuine piety in the house. As liberalism in politics in- 
 creases, the cases of truly religious members of parliament dimin- 
 ish. This is certainly no great compliment to the spirit of reform ; 
 but it can be easily accounted for without making irreligion a neces- 
 sary characteristic of republicanism. It has already been stated 
 that the great contest now is between the church establishment 
 and the spirit of dissent. The religious dissenters may be consid- 
 ered opposed to the exclusive claims and prerogatives of the estab- 
 lishment from religious considerations, or, at any rate, from consid- 
 erations not opposed to religion ; but there is another class, of very 
 considerable influence as to wealth and numbers, who are opposed 
 to the establishment because they are opposed to Christianity ; 
 they are opposed to all religion. Neither of these would be suf- 
 ficiently strong as distinct parties, hence they make common cause, 
 and by this means form an anti-church party of individuals pos- 
 sessing very different characters and feelings. This is an unfor- 
 tunate state of things ; unfortunate in its influences upon the cause 
 of religion and upon the character of parliament. Religious men 
 are not so fond of office ; are not so ready to play the demagogue 
 to get into office ; but when they are identified with a political 
 party to accomplish an object which seems to them important, 
 they support the infidel, the Catholic, the demagogue of whatever 
 character, who pledges himself to their cause. Hence many of 
 the dissenters, religious laymen, and ministers, are found among 
 the foremost constituents of most irreligious men * In this way, 
 although infidelity and irreligion may not be the most prevailing 
 
 * Since I left England, Dr. Pye Smith, of Hackney, a dissenter, and a minister of dis- 
 tinguished talents and piety, has come out publicly in favour of the election of Mr. Hume, 
 a notorious infidel and scoffer at sacred things ! ! 
 
THE PRESENT ADMINISTRATION. 551 
 
 ingredients of the party, and by no means essential to the prin- 
 ciples of it, still men of infidel and irreligious character become 
 the principal and prominent leaders ; they get the offices ; they 
 give character to the cause. Such is the state of the question 
 now in England, to some extent ; and the more it assumes this 
 aspect, the more the friends of religion and good order, who are 
 more moderate in their views of reform, and who are favour- 
 able to the establishment, shrink back from the cause of reform, 
 although they had before supported it. A powerful reaction, I 
 have reason to believe, has already taken place in the whig ranks. 
 I have conversed with a number, and heard of others, who have 
 been disgusted and driven over to the ranks of the tories on ac- 
 count of this unholy alliance.* So that the fair prospect is, as 
 this alliance is the only ground that sustains the present govern- 
 ment in power, so it will be the very cause, in the end, which will 
 throw them out of office ; or, should the anti-church party finally 
 succeed by the help of such an alliance, the efTect would be to 
 throw the whole administration into unholy hands. We have seen 
 in more than one state in our own country the deleterious effect 
 of such an amalgamation for political purposes. The purpose it- 
 self may be a good one, but it must be an extraordinary case when 
 the political good obtained in this way is not greatly counterbal- 
 anced by the moral and social evils consequent upon it. The 
 wicked and the worthless, by intrigue, effrontery, and ambition, 
 almost invariably get the control of the party ; and if you are de- 
 pendant upon them to accomplish your measures, you must be 
 led by them to accomplish theirs. The Christian should be cau- 
 tious how he places himself in such a copartnership. 
 
 It is a matter of much surprise to many that the present gov- 
 ernmentt should sustain itself so long as it has. That it should 
 hold out much longer can hardly be expected. A thorough tory 
 government, however, it is believed, can never again sustain itself 
 in England. Every administration must admit of such reforms 
 and improvements as can be safely adopted in accordance with 
 the principles of the British constitution, and, very likely, these 
 
 * Lord Stanley, Sir Francis Burdet, and even Sir Robert Peel himself are prominent 
 cases of friendship to reform, but of opposition to the present administration, for the rea- 
 sons given above. 
 
 t " The government," in common parlance in England, means the administration for 
 the time being, or the present ministry. 
 
552 ENGLAND. 
 
 improvements will advance not only to the gradual demolishing of 
 the ecclesiastical prerogatives of the establishment, but also to 
 the curtailment of the hereditary power and privileges of the no- 
 bility. 
 
 The present government have certainly done some good. They 
 have greatly favoured the colonies. Their colonial policy, so far 
 as I can judge, has been more liberal and enlightened than that of 
 any of their predecessors. There is now in London a dele- 
 gation from New-Brunswick to lay " at the foot of the throne" 
 their complaint of sundry abuses in the administration of their 
 colony, and to pray for a redress of grievances. They have been 
 met most promptly and favourably by Lord Glenelg, the minister 
 of the colonial department, and have, in fact, obtained all they 
 have asked for their colony. This department has also sought to 
 become acquainted with the condition and wants of the colonies 
 by seeking information from the most unquestionable sources. 
 The Wesleyan missionary secretaries have often been called to 
 the colonial office to give information on these topics ; information 
 which, in many cases, can better be given by them, perhaps, than 
 by any other men in England. They watch with a sleepless eye 
 the moral and social condition of the colonies, and their missiona- 
 ries are communicating to them every week from almost every 
 section of the British empire. The government certainly shows 
 its wisdom in resorting to such sources for information. 
 
 Another act of this government worthy of high commendation 
 is the charter of the London University, by which literary degrees 
 and professional diplomas can be dispensed now under other au- 
 spices than those of the established church. This is as it should 
 be. There is no good reason why these degrees should have been 
 monopolized so long by one sect (the high churchmen will pardon 
 me for calling them a sect instead of the church) when such a por- 
 tion of the nation was of different sects. 
 
 Similar to the above was that act by which a royal charter has 
 been procured this season also, and a little before the charter of 
 the London University, for the Coburg Academy, in Upper Can- 
 ada, under the patronage of the Methodists. This was said to be 
 the first charter of a literary institution ever granted to dissenters 
 by the British government. 
 
GREENWICH, S53 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII. 
 
 We were much interested in an excursion to Greenwich, cele- 
 brated over a great part of the world as the English meridian of 
 longitude. Here, on a beautiful hill, stands the Royal Observatory. 
 Its location is fine in every respect save one ; the prospect is, for 
 the most part, obscured by a smoky atmosphere. Its proximity to 
 London, being but five miles distant, the extended population 
 around it in almost every direction, together with the incessant 
 volumes of smoke from the steamboats passing the river, all unite 
 to obscure the naturally misty atmosphere of the British Isles. 
 This must be a great obstruction to astronomical observations. 
 
 The instruments were very abundant and very excellent. The 
 mural circles, the equatorial telescope, the transit instruments, the 
 zenith sector, were splendid instruments of the kind, and worthy 
 of the Royal Observatory of Greenwich.* 
 
 The Royal Hospital at Greenwich for disabled seamen, their 
 widows and children, is one of the most splendid charitable insti- 
 tutions I have seen in Europe. There are four grand edifices de- 
 tached from each other, but yet so near as, at a little distance, es- 
 pecially from the river Thames, on the right bank of which it is 
 situated, to have the appearance of one plan. The architecture 
 is fine, and the material the Portland stone. Here are pensioners 
 to the amount of two thousand seven hundred and ten ; besides 
 whom they have about thirty thousand out-pensioners, who receive 
 an annual stipend. These pensioners looked remarkably comfort- 
 able and happy. They have books for the aliment of the mind, 
 and a comfortable provision for the body, besides two or three 
 shillings a week for pocket-money. There is connected with the 
 institution a spacious chapel, which will accommodate one thou- 
 sand three hundred persons ; and a splendid public hall, the ceil- 
 ing of which is beautifully painted by Sir James Thornton. In 
 
 • On one of the cupolas is a large ball, which is elevated on a pole, and falls, when the 
 sun passes the meridian, with such a report as to inform the people for miles around of 
 the precise hour of twelve. 
 
 47 4 A 
 
554 ENGLAND, 
 
 accomplishing this work, he lay upon his back, and painted from 
 the year 1703 to 1727. The designs are principally historical al- 
 legories. Kings and queens are represented adorned with more 
 graces and virtues than often falls to human nature, much less to 
 royal blood. 
 
 In passing from the hospital to the observatory you go through 
 a fine park, venerable with branching oaks, at the entrance of which 
 stands the naval school, consisting of a centre and two wings, con- 
 nected by a colonnade. Here are three schools, two for boys of 
 four hundred each, and one for girls of two hundred ; all children 
 of seamen of the Royal Navy. Thus liberally does England pro- 
 vide for her seamen and their children. 
 
 A railroad is just about completed from London to Greenwich, 
 constructed on arches, and appears, at a little distance, somewhat 
 like one of the ancient aqueducts. 
 
 Three miles below Greenwich is Woolwich, which must be 
 an object of curiosity to the stranger, as it contains the royal dock- 
 yard where one thousand hands are employed, and a splendid ar- 
 senal. Neither this nor any of* the other towns on the coast of 
 Kent, many of which are popular watering-places, did we find it 
 convenient to visit, with the exception of Dover, where we stop- 
 ped on our way to the Continent in the fall of 1835, as already 
 mentioned. 
 
 By reason of the sickness of Mrs. F., which detained us a week, 
 I saw rather more of Dover than I cared for. It is, however, 
 a very interesting little town, containing about twelve thousand 
 inhabitants. Its chief interest consists in the peculiarity of its site 
 and of the soil around it. It is on a level spot in the form of a 
 crescent, bounded on the one side by the sea, and overtopped on 
 the other by the high chalky cliffs of which everybody has 
 heard who has heard of Dover. These boundaries are so limited 
 in depth that the town extends one mile in length, and runs into 
 the sea on the one side and into the cliffs on the other. Literally 
 into the cliffs, for these are so dry that you may cut apartments 
 into the side of the perpendicular precipices without inconve- 
 nience ; and the material is such that you can excavate it with 
 the greatest ease, and with very little danger of caving in. Hence, 
 in the bowels of these hills are not only cemeteries for the dead, 
 
DOVER. 555 
 
 but also domicils for the living, stables, covered fortifications, 
 and barracks. The stranger, in fact, finds curiosities here that he 
 cannot find elsewhere in this wide world. The material is chalk, 
 filled with small flint stones, most of which have the appear- 
 ance of pebbles ; as though this entire mass had been subject to 
 the abrasion of water, until the flints were worn into pebbles, and 
 then the whole mixed up with a mass of marl chalk. These 
 hills, in short, are English plum-puddings, the flour of which is 
 chalk, and the plums flint-pebbles. And, to carry out the anal- 
 ogy, like the plums in a pudding not well mixed, or from some 
 inequality in the consistency of the mass, you sometimes find these 
 flints settled into strata cutting the mass horizontally or a little 
 inclined to the horizon. These cliffs are in the immediate neigh- 
 bourhood of the town, and from three hundred and fifty to four 
 hundred feet in height. Immediately back of the centre of the 
 town is a horizontal shaft, running back into the mountain, per- 
 haps, a hundred yards ; and then a perpendicular shaft, with a 
 winding staircase, carrying you up two hundred steps to the bar- 
 racks. Still higher up the hill are extensive fortifications, parts 
 of which are subterranean, the tops of the arches being twenty- 
 four feet below the surface, and containing bomb-proof accom- 
 modations for three thousand men. There are a great number of 
 subterranean apartments twenty feet in height. These subterra- 
 nean fortresses have openings at the angles into deep fosses cut 
 round the brow of the hill which are raked by cannons in a man- 
 ner that would render it extremely difficult for a besieging army 
 to approach them. Here, too, is a well, sunk four hundred and 
 twenty feet (ten feet below the surface of the sea) to secure water 
 to the garrison ; and two spacious tanks for water, holding each one 
 hundred thousand gallons. On a northern cliff, separated from the 
 one just mentioned by a deep romantic valley, which forms a prin- 
 cipal entrance into the town from the interior, is an ancient castle, 
 well worth visiting, both for its interesting character, its romantic 
 situation, and the fine view it affords of the straits, the town, and 
 even of the coast of France. The castle and tower are supposed to 
 have been founded by Julius Caesar. In the side of this cliff are 
 soldiers' barracks, now, however, occupied for magazines. The . 
 chimneys come up forty feet through the mountain, and shoot 
 
556 ENGLAND. 
 
 out of the top as if they were the flues of some Cyclopean 
 artificers, whose forges were in the bowels of the earth. 
 
 In ascending the winding avenue up to the castle, we were at- 
 tracted by the ringing of a little bell by the side of the way. On 
 examining, we saw a cord attached to the bell, and extending quite 
 a distance to the top of the cliff and into the grated windows of 
 one of the apartments of the castle, now used for a prison. There, 
 through the iron lattice, a hand was thrust out, beckoning most 
 earnestly. The whole was explained by a little alms-box fixed 
 near the bell, and a card under it, with the following tender in- 
 scription : — 
 
 "Oh ye, whose hours exempt from sorrow flow, 
 Behold the seat of poverty and wo. 
 Think, while your hands the entreated alms extend, 
 That what to us ye give, to God ye lend." 
 
 Among other curiosities on the cliff we saw a most beautiful gun, 
 a twelve-pounder twenty-four feet long, cast at Utrecht, in 1 544, 
 and given by the states of Holland to Queen Elizabeth. It is 
 called Queen Elizabeth's pocket-pistol. 
 
 One mile from Dover Harbour to the south rises Shak- 
 speare's Cliff, in a bold elevation of three hundred and fifty feet per- 
 pendicular height. It is supposed to be the cliff alluded to by 
 Shakspeare in his " King Lear," in the following dialogue be- 
 tween blind Gloucester and his son Edgar, disguised as a mad- 
 man : — 
 
 Gloucester. Dost thou know Dover 1 
 
 Edgar. Ay, master. 
 
 Gloucester. There is a cliff, whose high and bending head 
 Looks fearfully in the confined deep : 
 Bring me but to the very brink of it, 
 And I'll repair the misery thou dost bear 
 With something rich about me ; from that place 
 I shall no leading need, &c. 
 
 The cliff has been DroKen off until it no longer hangs over, but 
 rather recedes towards the top. The view from it was very fine, 
 We could see the chalky cliffs of the coast of France ; and, in 
 the intervening straits, nearly a hundred sail of water-craft of dif- 
 ferent sizes. The following description, which the great dramat- 
 ist puts into the mouth of Edgar, though doubtless purposely 
 overwrought by the poet, will, nevertheless, help to a vivid con- 
 cept/ on of the view : — 
 
DOVER. 557 
 
 " Come on, sir, here's the place— stand still— how fearful 
 And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low ; 
 The crows and choughs that wing the midway air 
 Show scarce so gross as beetles : halfway down 
 Hangs one that gathers samphire : dreadful trade ! 
 Methinks he seems no bigger than his head. 
 The fishermen that walk upon the beach 
 Appear like mice, and yon tall anchoring bark, 
 Diminished to her cock : her cock a buoy 
 Almost too small for sight : the murmuring surge, 
 That on the unnumbered idle pebbles chafes, 
 Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more, 
 Lest my brain turn, and the deficient sight 
 Topple down headlong." 
 
 Dover has become rather popular of late as a fashionable 
 ivatering-place. To understand this, perhaps, some of my read- 
 ers ought to be informed, that, in addition to the great resort to 
 the mineral waters in the interior, such as Bath, Cheltenham, &c, 
 multitudes rush every year from the interior to the seaside, for 
 sea-bathing, relaxation, and pleasure. Different places have their 
 day of popularity, and then, perhaps, fall into discredit, either by 
 becoming too common and vulgar, or because some other place 
 in the neighbourhood offers greater advantages, or from some 
 other cause. Many of the flourishing villages on the coast owe 
 the chief of their business and wealth to this cause. Indeed, it 
 is surprising to see the extent of this practice of resorting to the 
 seaside. One would think that there was sea-air enough in any 
 part of the island ; but the people think differently, and hence 
 they go in crowds to the coast. In our country we should hardly 
 talk of a difference of climate, between the parts of a section of 
 territory as large as the whole of England, sufficient materially 
 to affect the health. But the English make very nice distinctions ; 
 talk about the difference in small distances ; and, either for 
 health or for pleasure, are constantly discovering new places, and 
 multiplying their varieties indefinitely; so that such as do not 
 enjoy foreign travel, make up the lack by an almost endless 
 variety at home. It all helps in the diffusion and distribution of 
 wealth ; and, wherever the nobility resort, there especially wealth 
 flows in and population increases, and everything bears an extrav- 
 agant price. How far this has affected the prices at Dover I 
 cannot say ; but I found them most extravagant. England, in 
 fact, is the most expensive in its tariff of duties upon the traveller 
 47 
 
558 ENGLAND. 
 
 of any country I ever travelled in. You have to fee three ser- 
 vants, at least, daily, viz., the waiter, the chambermaid, and the 
 bootblack, who also acts as porter. To the former two, each 
 individual pays about twenty-five cents per day, and to the latter 
 half that sum. This income supports the servants, and even 
 more ; for there are frequent instances of the servants hiring their 
 places. Such was the case in our hotel in Dover. The princi- 
 pal chambermaid, for instance, gave a bonus to the landlord for 
 the privilege of taking care of his bedchambers. She then hired 
 her under-chambermaids, and paid them out of the income from 
 the lodgers. 
 
 I had been in Dover a week ; Mrs. F. had been so ill she was 
 unable to eat a meal during the time ; and at the close, our bill 
 at the hotel was between forty and fifty dollars. Let all travellers 
 who go to Dover beware of the Ship Hotel. The physician 
 and the apothecary, on the other hand, on whom I drew very 
 freely, would take nothing for their services. One thing more, 
 also, is worthy of notice. During the time of our stay in Dover, 
 I had made myself known to the people, and had preached once 
 or twice in the neat Methodist chapel, lately finished, and the 
 leading members, at least, knew that I was there, a stranger, and 
 with a sick wife ; and yet not an individual, with the exception 
 of the Wesleyan Superintendent of the Dover Circuit, called to 
 know whether we were dead or alive, or to proffer to us the least 
 assistance or sympathy. Could such an instance take place in 
 the United States, in reference to a minister of the gospel of any 
 reputation or standing 7 If there should be such a case in my own 
 denomination, I should blush for my sect. I have sometimes 
 said, with respect to Dover, that we had there illustrated extor- 
 tion, generosity, and inhospitality to strangers. I will not put 
 the epithet British before these characteristics, because I do not 
 think the Dover case a fair representation of the nation ; and yet 
 the incidents here alluded to are only strong shadings of what 
 are truly national characteristics. The liberality of the English 
 is above all praise. In this respect, they are a noble nation. 
 They are hospitable, too, in their way ; but their hospitality is 
 more formal, more tardy, and at first, at least, with more appa- 
 rent coldness than that of most others. This coldness is some- 
 times withering to the feelings of a stranger ; and yet, perhaps* 
 
INCIDENT AT DOVER. 559 
 
 where he at first saw it and felt it, he, after a little acquaintance, 
 finds solid friendship. A stranger will never, at first, fall in love 
 with the English character, especially if he has been accustomed 
 to find his enjoyment in the social sympathies ; but a further ac- 
 quaintance will disclose excellences that were at first concealed. 
 
 One incident more at Dover, which I will mention for the same 
 reason that I mention the preceding, because it is illustrative of 
 character. Our passage was a most wretched one. Mrs. F. and 
 myself had been most miserably sick for the last few hours of 
 the voyage, and when we arrived at the harbour it was low tide, 
 and there was no approaching the wharf but by going some dis- 
 tance in a small boat. The wind was up, the waves were rolling, 
 and the night was dark ; we chose, therefore, cheerless as was 
 our condition on board, to remain until we could float up to the 
 wharf. This brought us into town late at night. Not expecting 
 either packets or stages at that late hour, the waiters, when we 
 arrived at the public house, looked upon us with suspicion, espe- 
 cially as we appeared wayworn and out of time. They declined 
 receiving us ; they had " no room — no bed." We inquired for 
 another hotel, and were about leaving to go to it, when, recollect- 
 ing that Mr. Lane, our travelling companion, who was coming 
 from London that night, would expect to find us at this hotel, I 
 said to the waiter, " If a young gentleman in the London coach 
 should inquire for Dr. Fisk, say to him, I am at the ' Union.' " 
 The chambermaid and waiter exchanged looks. "Don't you 
 think," says the latter, " you can give this gentleman the bed 
 you were reserving for the gentleman you were expecting in the 
 coach ?" The thing was arranged, and we soon found ourselves 
 in a comfortable room. Thus Dr. F. gained what the untitled 
 stranger could not. So, thought I, hereafter I will let the title 
 have its weight if it can profit me aught. I am not sure, how- 
 ever, but the title came in to help swell the bill at the final 
 settlement ; for, although a title goes a good ways in England, 
 still the lower classes expect pay for it. A dealer in laces, for 
 instance, thought it mean in the present queen that she objected 
 to the price of his goods. Queens, and so of noblemen, and 
 those of still lower titles, are expected to pa)^ not merely accord- 
 ing to the worth of the article, but also according to their rank. 
 
 Another excursion from London was to Bedford, the county 
 
560 ENGLAND. 
 
 town of Bedfordshire, fifty miles from the metropolis, containing 
 about six thousand inhabitants. A good portion of the county 
 belongs to the Duke of Bedford. It is mostly agricultural. The 
 town of Bedford is in the midst of a rich valley on the river 
 Ouse, and contains several institutions, and has in its neighbour- 
 hood some localities very interesting from their historical asso- 
 ciations. 
 
 Sir William Harper, who died in 1566, gave, for a charity 
 school, &c, at Bedford, about twelve acres of land, in that part of 
 London lying in the neighbourhood of High Holborn, which, in 
 those days, was of comparatively little value. This property is now 
 very productive, yielding about thirteen thousand pounds sterling 
 annually. From this fund a most beautiful range of Gothic 
 school edifices has been built ; and they now support from 
 the fund a classical school, a commercial school, a national 
 school of three hundred pupils, a blue-coat school, for girls and 
 boys, a grammar school, an hospital — besides supporting several 
 students at the university — giving money to the boys, when they 
 are bound out as apprentices, from ten to thirty pounds sterling ; 
 and money to the girls, who are put out to service, from two to 
 five pounds sterling per annum ; and finally, twenty pounds when 
 they get married ; and they also contemplate erecting another 
 girls' school. It is one of the richest charities in the country. 
 But there are, in fact, many similar charities in England. There 
 is, probably, no country in the world in which there are so many 
 valuable charities as in England. True, many of them have 
 been neglected and perverted ; but government is looking after 
 them with increased strictness and vigilance. 
 
 John Bunyan was born at a little place called Elstow, about a 
 mile from Bedford town. We visited the humble cottage, which 
 is still standing, and found residing in it a pious old couple, who 
 were astonished to see any one from so great a distance as Amer- 
 ica, and particularly so to perceive that we were not black. We 
 persuaded the good man to give us a chip from the beam of the 
 house. Bedford was the place of Bunyan's ministry. His chap- 
 el is still standing, which we visited — sat in his armed-chair — 
 saw, at Mr. Hiliiard's, the present pastor of the church, the jug 
 in which they used to carry him refreshment when in prison ; 
 for it was here, also, that he was imprisoned for his religion, and 
 
BEDFORD. 561 
 
 in the Bedford jail he wrote his Pilgrim's Progress. We saw, 
 also, at Mr. Hilliard's, the record book of his church, entitled 
 "A Booke containing a Record of the Acts of a Congregation of 
 Christ in and about Bedford." Many of the entries of this book 
 are in Bunyan's own hand, and some of them at the very time he 
 was in prison ; showing that he was sometimes permitted to come 
 out, which is said to have been by the indulgence of the jailer. 
 
 Near Bedford, also, in Cardington, was the residence of How- 
 ard the philanthropist. We visited his mansion, as also the parish 
 church, in which is a tablet to his memory, with this inscription : — 
 
 " Mr. John Howard died at Cherson, in Russian Tartary, 
 January 21, 1790, aged 64. Christ is my hope." 
 
 In the same church was a monument, by Bacon, to Samuel 
 Whitbread, Esq. Here is the family residence of the Whitbreads, 
 the great brewers of London. They are now the owners of the 
 Howard estate, and how much more I know not, for, like many 
 others of their profession, they have accumulated an immense 
 estate by manufacturing ruin for the nation. One of the present 
 family, together with Lord John Russell, son of the Duke of 
 Bedford, used to represent Bedford in Parliament ; or, in English 
 phrase, were " the members " for Bedford. Lord John, however, 
 in the plenitude of his spleen against Methodism, wrote a book, 
 entitled " Memoirs of the Affairs of Europe, from the Peace of 
 Utrecht," in wdiich he took occasion to censure Mr. Wesley and 
 the Methodists with great freedom and flippancy. This finished 
 his Parliamentary career, so far as the constituency of Bedford was 
 concerned. The Methodists met him at the next election, and 
 told him plainly that a man who could not only vilify them, but, 
 through them, the cause of experimental religion, was not the 
 man of their choice; and, notwithstanding, his lordship, and his 
 grace the duke, both made an effort to reconcile matters and save 
 a defeat — the apology come too late — Lord John was defeated, 
 and his colleague fell w r ith him, defeated too, in the centre of his 
 father's estate, and with all the family influence to sustain him. 
 However, they have a ready manner of accommodating such a 
 defeat in England. If a man, whose presence is greatly desired 
 in Parliament by his party, is defeated in one place, he can offer 
 himself in another — anywhere in the kingdom — and it is not un- 
 4A 
 
562 ENGLAND. 
 
 frequently the case that an elected member resigns, in order to 
 make a vacancy for a more prominent candidate, who has been 
 defeated in some other place. Lord John is in Parliament still, 
 but he has to seek constituents elsewhere than in Bedfordshire. 
 
 We attended a missionary meeting in Bedford, where we had an 
 opportunity of noticing what is by far too common in England, and 
 carried to too great excess, viz., public compliments and flattery. 
 This, however, is a small matter in the great, system. The mis- 
 sionary meetings of England excite great attention, and are 
 Temarkably well sustained: if the speakers would have less of 
 personal flattery and aim less at getting applause, the religious in- 
 fluence, I think, would be better, and, of course, the entire influence 
 would be improved. Nevertheless, it behooves us rather to copy 
 their zeal, and aim at equally successful efforts in this holy cause. 
 One item in the catalogue of measures for the promotion of the 
 missionary cause is what they call a missionary tea. The Eng- 
 lish are remarkable for connecting, with all their operations, 
 " meats and drinks." By eating and drinking over a subject, their 
 sympathies are awakened, their social feelings are called out, a 
 fuller tone is given to physical, and, of course, to moral pulsation. 
 This great business of eating and drinking, therefore, must be 
 incorporated into the missionary enterprise — hence the " mission- 
 ary tea." This we had at Bedford the day after the missionary 
 meeting, and it was managed on this wise : There was a commit 
 tee to make the arrangements. The vestry or schoolroom of the 
 church was selected for the place. The ladies agreed each to 
 furnish a given proportion of the vessels, &c, necessary for the 
 occasion ; the cold ham, bread and butter, cake, tea, &c, were 
 paid for out of the sale of the tickets, which were put at a price, 
 not only to cover the expense, but also to yield a handsome 
 
 ♦ balance for the missionary cause. The young men assisted in 
 waiting on the table. After tea several of us were called on to 
 
 4>,give addresses, in addition to which we had singing and prayers, 
 and much pleasant conversation. The whole was well calcu- 
 lated to promote Christian social intercourse, and to interweave 
 our sympathies with the hallowed cause that had brought us 
 together. These missionary teas are well worthy of the atten- 
 tion of American Christians. It is true they might be abused by 
 being left too unrestrained, and by suffering the lighter social 
 
CAMBRIDGE. 563 
 
 feelings to take the place of the devotional ; but, properly directed, 
 they cannot fail, I think, to do good. In the present case, the 
 excellent and devoted superintendent of the circuit gave the 
 whole a decidedly religious turn, and yet it was social and free. 
 
 We took Cambridge in our route on our return to London, 
 where we spent two nights, and devoted our lime to an examina- 
 tion of the celebrated university in that town. The university is 
 all that is worth visiting here. The town lies low and flat, and is 
 badly built; the streets are indifferent, and the surrounding scenery 
 tame and dull. The population is about 20,000, and the business 
 of the place dependent mostly upon the colleges. Many of the col- 
 leges are splendid edifices, and some of them, especially on the 
 banks of the river Cam, which sweeps round the north part of the 
 town, and gives name to it, are pleasantly situated. 
 
 I dare not commence upon a description of these edifices. 
 They are built mostly in courts or quadrangles, and of the Gothic 
 style. The entrance is frequently sheltered by a splendid Gothic 
 screen, the most beautiful of which is a new front of St. John's 
 College, on the south of the fourth court. This is magnificent, 
 and several others are very fine. King's College chapel is cele- 
 brated for its architecture. It is, perhaps, the finest Gothic struc- 
 ture in the kingdom. The accompanying print will give the reader 
 some idea of its external appearance, and a general idea of the 
 style of architecture most prevalent in these edifices. It has 
 towers at the corners, pinnacles along the sides, and frequent 
 buttresses in the walls. The view within is finer than that with- 
 out. The roof hangs over your head like fanwork, unsupported by 
 a single pillar, and yet it is all of heavy stone. If any one asks 
 what supports it, I must answer, I cannot tell. It is reported 
 that Sir Christopher Wren used to say, " If any man will show 
 me where to lay the first stone, I will engage to build such an- 
 other ;" and it is also said he went once a year to survey this 
 roof. There are two roofs, between which I walked upright. 
 The lower roof constitutes the ceiling of the chapel, and is orna- 
 mented with ribs and tracery. The architect was Nicholas Cloos, 
 who commenced the edifice in 1441, under the direction and 
 patronage of Henry VI. 
 
 The colleges are seventeen in number, and were founded at 
 different times. The first was St. Peter's, in 1257, and the last 
 
564 ENGLAND. 
 
 was Downing College, founded in 1800. Five were founded in the 
 fourteenth century, five in the fifteenth, and five in the sixteenth- 
 These colleges are of different sizes, and vary very much in the 
 number of undergraduates ; but the whole number is about two 
 thousand. One of the students of Trinity College, to whom I had 
 letters, introduced me to his tutor, from whom I obtained what 
 information I could for the time ; and this, together with the de- 
 scriptions of the " University Calendar," gave me a better view 
 of this celebrated university than I was ever before able to form. 
 For the information of American students and such others as 
 may feel interested in these matters, I shall subjoin a general 
 outline of the. constitution and regulations of this university. If 
 any of my readers are uninterested in it, they can pass over this 
 brief sketch. 
 
 Each college is a body corporate by itself, and is bound by its 
 own statutes, has its own funds, and educates separately and in- 
 dependently its own students, and has its own collegiate examina- 
 tions. The college is made up of, 1. The head, who, in all but 
 King's and Queen's College, is called Master. In the former he 
 is called provost and in the latter president. 2. The Fellows, 
 who in all the colleges but two, are graduates, and, generally, 
 masters, or bachelors, and doctors in divinity, civil law, or physic. 
 These fellows are a kind of literary monks: they are, bound tc 
 celibacy while they remain fellows ; and, for the most part, re- 
 quired to live in Cambridge, and can generally hold no other living 
 or income, or, at any rate, not above a specified amount. This 
 last regulation differs, however, in different colleges. They are 
 appointed for their merit or scholarship after a rigid examina- 
 tion, and are supported by funds appropriated for that purpose, 
 by the founders, in the respective colleges. Some of these fel- 
 lowship foundations are restricted to residents of particular coun- 
 ties or towns, and some even to pupils of particular schools. 
 Their advantages are rooms and commons free of expense, and 
 annual dividends of money, according to the value of the respect- 
 ive foundations. They have also other advantages. All college 
 officers are chosen from these fellows, some of which are very 
 lucrative and honourable ; and, besides this, each college has 
 more or less of benefices or church-livings at its disposal, and to 
 these livings the fellows are preferred by seniority. The whole 
 
COLLEGES. 565 
 
 number of fellowships in all the colleges is above four hundred. 
 These fellows eat in the same room with the students, although 
 they have a higher seat and a better table ; and, after they finish 
 their dinner in commons, they have what is called a " Combina- 
 tion Room" (an ominous name), where they retire to drink wine, 
 eat fruit, &c., and cultivate sociality with each other. They be- 
 long, therefore, as will be readily seen, not to the eremites, but 
 the cenobites. They are generally reputed to be fond of good 
 cheer, and, although the original design was to promote the cause 
 of literature and science by the separate maintenance of a literary 
 community, yet I seriously doubt whether the institution answers, 
 on the whole, a valuable purpose. I hope we may never see 
 fellowships introduced among us. 
 
 In addition to the 'master and fellows, each college has scholars. 
 These are graduates resident in the college, and supported by 
 scholarships* which are also foundations for the support of such 
 as may, on examination, be admitted to them, and which afTord 
 emoluments of different kinds. The instruction is given by tu- 
 tors, who are chosen from the fellows, and are, in fact, the prin- 
 cipal working men in the community. They are appointed by 
 the master, and there is this peculiarity, that each student may 
 select from among them his own tutor. Then they have bursars 
 to attend to the college estates and funds ; stewards, chaplains, 
 deans, lecturers, and a great number of porters, hairdressers, 
 cooks, and other inferior servants. 
 
 Notwithstanding the colleges are, in many respects, indepen- 
 dent of each other and of the university in their operations, yet 
 they are all under the paramount laws of the university. They 
 are imperium in imperio, and must submit in all general matters 
 to the higher sovereignty. No degrees are conferred by the col- 
 lege ; these are the prerogatives of the university. 
 
 The university is directed by a senate, consisting of doctors in 
 divinity, law, and physic, and of all who have been admitted to 
 the degree of A.M., if their names are on the college boards,! or 
 ii they live in Cambridge, or hold an office in the university. 
 There are belonging to this senate about two thousand five hun- 
 
 * Some of these scholarships are also available for undergraduates, 
 t By this is meant if they pay an annual fee of from two to four pounds, by which 
 they retain their right to vote in the senate when admitted masters. 
 48 
 
566 ENGLAND. 
 
 dred ; but twenty-five is a quorum for doing business. The offi- 
 cers of the senate are, 1. A chancellor, who is at the head, is cho- 
 sen by the senate once in two years, and is generally one of the 
 principal noblemen. 2. A high steward. 3. A vice-chancellor, 
 ■who is elected annually by the senate, and is, in fact, the officer 
 who generally presides over the senate, as the chancellor is sel- 
 dom here. 4. Commissary, &c, &c, for the officers are too nu- 
 merous to be mentioned. Among these officers are two courts ; 
 one by the high steward, and the other by the commissary. The 
 limits of their jurisdiction are, as to persons, the students who 
 may be impeached of felony, or any other persons belonging to 
 the university ; as to local limits, their jurisdiction extends to a 
 mile distant from the town in every direction, reckoning from the 
 extremities, The senate also adopts all the regulations necessary 
 for the government of the university, in subordination to the char- 
 ters and the statutes of parliaments, which are the constitutional 
 law, binding and limiting the senate. The senate also elects two 
 members to parliament, and has various other powers and prerog- 
 atives. An ordinance of the senate is called a grace, and the as- 
 sembly of the senate is called a congregation. 
 f The annual income of the university, independent of the colle- 
 ges, is about five thousand five hundred pounds, which is derived 
 from various sources. The university has also an extensive influ- 
 ence from church patronage, amounting to about two hundred and 
 fifty livings, in addition to the patronage belonging to the respect- 
 ive colleges. 
 
 In addition to the governmental powers possessed by the uni- 
 versity, it has the professional schools of divinity, law, and medi- 
 cine, and a school of philosophy under its direction. Connected 
 with these schools, or otherwise belonging to the university, are 
 about twenty-seven professorships, which are worth, besides the 
 income from their lectures, on an average, from fifty to two hun- 
 dred pounds per annum. Two of them have an income of a thou- 
 sand pounds each. Some of these professorships were founded 
 by the king, and are, therefore, called regius professorships ; oth- 
 ers are founded by private individuals.* There is a suite of rooms 
 in an edifice erected for that purpose, where these professors lec- 
 
 * Many of these professors are chosen by the executive officers of the senate ; some 
 are appointed by the king, and others are nominated by individuals. 
 
COURSE OF STUDY. 567 
 
 ture ; and here also, in the upper story of the same edifice, is the 
 university library, consisting of about one hundred and ten thou- 
 sand volumes, many of them choice and rare books and manu- 
 scripts. Among the latter is perhaps the oldest Biblical manu- 
 script extant. It is the four Gospels and the Acts, in uncial let- 
 ters, on vellum, in Greek and Latin. In this library are paintings 
 and statuary, and various curiosities.. The university has also a 
 fine senate house, a university press, in which its many classical 
 works have been executed, and which is a source of revenue to 
 the corporation, and a fine collection of paintings, called the Fitz- 
 william Museum. This was given by Richard, Viscount Fitzwil- 
 liam, who died in 1816, and is the best collection of the old mas- 
 ters we saw in England. Among them were the works of the 
 Caraccis, Paul Veronese, Rubens, &c. 
 
 The colleges have libraries of their own, some of which we 
 visited. That of Trinity College contains about thirty thousand 
 volumes. Here also we saw several interesting manuscripts, 
 among which was the original plan of Paradise Lost, in the hand- 
 writing of Milton, and in the form of a tragedy ; showing that the 
 first conception of the poet on this subject was in a dramatic 
 form, but was afterward changed to the epic. Here are also pre- 
 served the globe, ringdial, quadrant, and compass which formerly 
 belonged to Sir Isaac Newton, with many other curiosities. This 
 college boasts of having educated the greatest men of the world : 
 Newton and Bacon, as also the poets Cowley and Dryden, and 
 many others. Each college has, in general, a chapel, a public 
 hall, a combination room, rooms for the master and fellows, and 
 also rooms for the students, together with the necessary refectory 
 apartments, and lodges for the servants of all grades. i \ 
 
 The course of instruction and study necessary for a degree is, 
 on the whole, not as extended as in the United States. It is di- 
 vided into three parts, viz. : philosophy, including pure and mixed 
 mathematics and astronomy ; this is about the same as in our col- 
 leges. Theological and moral, or, as we should term it, depart- 
 ment of intellectual and moral science ; this is not as extended 
 as our course in the same department. Locke is the text-book in 
 intellectual philosophy ; Duncan in logic ; to which if you add 
 Paley and Butler, you have the great whole of this important class 
 of studies. The third division is called belles lettres, but only em- 
 
ENGLAND. 
 
 braces the Latin and Greek classics and literature. In classical 
 studies they certainly make maturer scholars than we do, for these 
 languages are studied eight years before the pupil enters college. 
 Here is nothing of chymistry, mineralogy, geology, botany, politi- 
 cal economy, or rhetoric ; nor is there need of much hard study 
 in the authors required, unless the student reads for the honours ; 
 in that case he needs to apply himself closely, especially to the 
 mathematics, which are the principal thing at Cambridge. They 
 are pretty strict in requiring students to keep term, as they call it ; 
 that is, be present in Cambridge, and attend to some of the duties, 
 such as dinners, and prayers also, at least once a day ; and if they 
 are guilty of any small offence, they are required, as a punishment, 
 to attend prayers twice a day. A good way this to bring praying 
 into bad odour. As to study, they may attend to that or let it 
 alone. They are, in general, not even examined when they en- 
 ter, but must bring a certificate from some master of arts that they 
 are suitable persons to enter. The students have examinations 
 before the college, attend, if they please, the lectures of the tutor 
 and of the professors of the university, and frequently, in addition, 
 hare a private tutor. They have two examinations before the uni- 
 versity. One in the second year, called \k\e previous examination, 
 and one at the close of their collegiate course. 
 
 At the previous examination, which is before four examiners 
 appointed by the senate of the university, and who have twenty 
 pounds each for attending to that duty, the junior sophs, as they 
 are called, are examined in one of the four Gospels or the Acts 
 of the Apostles in the original Greek, Paley's Evidences of Chris- 
 tianity, one of the Greek and one of the Latin classics. It is 
 often the case that the student has not looked at his authors until 
 perhaps a few weeks before the examination. He then gets him 
 a private tutor, and commences what, in the Cambridge technics, 
 is called cramming; a very expressive appellation, and ono 
 which we give to the method of fattening turkeys speedily by 
 cramming down their throats more than they would naturally be 
 inclined to eat. So these tutors cram their students, against their 
 stomachs, doubtless, to prepare them in a short time for the exam- 
 iner's knife. The fat acquired in this way is probably lost about 
 as speedily as gained. However, they can be crammed again for 
 the second examination, which takes place preparatory to a degree. 
 
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS. 569 
 
 All who present themselves to this examination are called ques- 
 tionists. The first exercise is three questions : one taken from 
 the Principia of Newton, one from some other writer in mathe- 
 matics or philosoplty, and one from Locke, Paley, or Butler. 
 These questions the respondent, as he is called, pledges himself 
 to maintain against all opposition. The moderator assigns three 
 opponents to oppose this respondent. At the time appointed he 
 appears and reads a Latin thesis on one of the questions, at his 
 own option ; generally it is the moral question. Whether the re- 
 spondent writes his own theme cannot be known, and, therefore, 
 unless he should be called upon as an opponent to some other, 
 this examination, so far as he is concerned, may be said to go for 
 nothing. To him the opponents answer in turn. Then another 
 respondent is brought on, and so of the rest. The most part who 
 graduate go out, as they term it, in the pol ; an abbreviation of 
 Vt ?roAAoi, meaning that they graduate with the multitude. They, 
 it is true, have a further examination, but in mathematics it only 
 extends to arithmetic, algebra, and Euclid ; and in the classics to 
 the first six books of Homer and six of Virgil ; less than our col- 
 leges require to enter ; and in moral and intellectual science they 
 are examined in Paiey's Evidences and Philosophy, and in Locke ! 
 A little cramming soon fits them for this. And this is all to ob- 
 tain a degree at the University of Cambridge !* It is true, those 
 who present themselves for the mathematical honours undergo a 
 more rigid and severe trial, and are carried over the general range 
 of the ordinary course of mathematics, pure and mixed.f All the 
 examinations are conducted in a manner entirely different from 
 ours. The questions or problems are all printed, and distributed 
 to those who are to be examined, and they are allowed a given 
 time, and pen, ink, and paper, and nothing else to make out their 
 written answers. These are done in the presence of the exam- 
 iners and moderator, who take the papers, and, after examining 
 them, assign the rewards or prizes to the most meritorious. This 
 saves the embarrassment of an extempore answer, and more cer- 
 tainly calls out the knowledge of the student than our method* 
 
 * Sometimes the questiontst fails even in this, and is denied his degree. This they 
 call being plucked. 
 
 t This is called the examination of the tripos, probably because the patients used to 
 sit on a three-legged stool. The technics of Cambridge are amusing, not to say ludicrous^ 
 for I suppose it will not do to apply the latter term to this ancient seat of learning.. 
 
 48 4C 
 
570 ENGLAND, 
 
 The student who passes the best examination in the senate-house 
 is called senior ivrangler, and then follow the other wranglers in 
 their respective grades, all arranged according to their rank. 
 
 On the whole, this system of education seems very defective. 
 No wonder it should confer degrees on thousands of blockheads, 
 and no wonder it should learn thousands of youths to be ensnared 
 and corrupted by vicious influences. There seems very little pa- 
 ternal watchcare over these youths ; very little prompting to duty. 
 Ambition and rivalry are the great motives by which any are 
 prompted to action, and, of course, feelings are begotten that con- 
 travene all the principles of the gospel, even in the minds of those 
 most attentive to their collegiate duties. 
 
 The students are generally of the nobility or gentry, and the 
 expenses are considerable. A few fag up, that is, maintain them- 
 selves by menial services. Some have exhibitions, a term ex- 
 pressive of certain allowances for the support of undergraduates 
 from specific funds willed or appropriated for that purpose, and 
 belonging sometimes to the college, and sometimes to some lower 
 school, and sometimes to particular trades and companies, as to 
 the carpenters, fishmongers, hatters, &c, of London. The stu- 
 dent deposites a sum at his entrance called caution money, viz. : 
 noblemen, fifty pounds; fellow-commoners, twenty-five pounds ; 
 pensioners, fifteen pounds ; and sizers, ten pounds each. This 
 caution money is to secure their attention to certain academic ex- 
 ercises, which, if not attended to, the money is forfeited. Money, 
 it seems, will secure at Cambridge almost any exemption from 
 duty, and gain almost any college degree. There is also another 
 entrance fee to the college of from six to eighteen shillings, ac- 
 cording to the rank of the student, for the expenses are mostly 
 graduated by rank ; and also another to the university called 
 matriculation fee, graduated in the same proportions as the cau- 
 tion money, viz. : noblemen, ten pounds ; fellow-commoners, five 
 pounds ; pensioners, two pounds ten shillings ; sizers, one pound 
 five shillings each. These are also precisely the sums paid 
 quarterly for tuition, with the exception of the sizer, who pays 
 but fifteen shillings tuition-fees. Besides this, there are fees for 
 everything. I will not attempt to enumerate all the small expen- 
 ses that are required of the student in his progress. The fees for 
 bachelor's degree varies, at the different colleges, from -two to four 
 
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. 571 
 
 or five pounds sterling, and for the higher degrees still in advance 
 according to the dignity of the degree. The highest I noticed 
 was twenty-seven pounds thirteen shillings. 
 
 It should be noticed, in respect to the preceding grades, that 
 & fellow -commoner is the younger son of a nobleman, or a young 
 man of fortune, who has the privilege of dining with the fellows , 
 pensioners form the great body of the students, and are such as 
 pay for their commons, chambers, &c. ; sizars are the poorer 
 class of students, and have their commons free. 
 
 To one who is disposed to make the best use of his time, 
 whether he be an undergraduate, or a student in the professional 
 schools, or, in fact, holding any other relation to the university, 
 there are in Cambridge great advantages. The material for 
 learning is, for the most part, here ; and here are many learned 
 men : but here, also, is much sinecurism, much idleness, much 
 to tempt the footsteps of the young astray. The funds that are 
 here available might be laid out to much better advantage, and 
 the university might be much better adjusted to the present state 
 of literature and science. There is not, for example, any chymi 
 cal apparatus, except what belongs to the professor as his private 
 property — a most vital deficiency this — and others might be 
 mentioned. There is, in fact, at Cambridge, more form than 
 study ; and the arrangement and operations of this ancient and 
 venerable seat of learning are more suited to the purposes of ex- 
 ternal pomp — to public display — to the pampering of an over- 
 grown aristocracy — to the sustaining of a defective church 
 establishment,* than to the great purposes of intellectual and 
 moral elevation. I say this with the greatest respect for the 
 learned men who are now there or have there been educa- 
 ted. Why should there not be great men there ? With two 
 thousand undergraduates, with between four and five hundred 
 felloivs, who have none of the anxieties of domestic or public 
 life ; who have, in fact, nothing to do but to cultivate science — 
 besides more than as many more men, in the different offices of 
 the colleges and the university — what ought not the world to ex- 
 pect ? There should appear not merely an occasional star, bu 
 the whole sensible horizon of Cambridge should be one expanded 
 
 * Every student, before he is admitted to his degree, must take an oath that he is 
 bonajide, a member of the Church of England, as by law established. 
 
572 ENGLAND. 
 
 galaxy of crowded constellations. But is it so? and is there 
 not some serious defect in all this splendid array of wealth and 
 show, when the results are so much below what they should be ? 
 No man can look at Cambridge without admiration, and almost 
 veneration ; but, at the same time, it must be with mingled regret. 
 
 Evangelical piety, it is thought, has in Cambridge, as else 
 where in the kingdom, advanced within a few years. To this 
 Mr. Simpson has contributed much. He deservedly stands in 
 high repute here ; and it is to be hoped the savour of an influ- 
 ence like his may be greatly extended. 
 
 Our next excursion from London was to his majesty's royal 
 residence at Windsor Castle. This is twenty-two and a half 
 miles from London, up the Thames. In going thither we pass the 
 beautiful parks, and many other beautiful and interesting objects. 
 It seems, in fact, most of the way, like a continuous city. Twenty 
 miles out is Slough, the late residence of Sir William HerscheL 
 Here we saw, still standing, the frame of his large telescope. He 
 has gone where he needs no telescope, and his son has left Eng- 
 land to point his glass into the southern hemisphere from the 
 Cape of Good Hope. Two miles farther is Eton, celebrated for 
 its classical school, founded by Henry VI. in 1441. It is the 
 great literary gymnasium for the children of the nobility, and the 
 most wealthy and aristocratic al of the gentry. The number of 
 pupils, I believe, is between three and four hundred. Some of 
 the peculiarities of the school are, that it consumes a great por- 
 tion of childhood and youth in the study of the ancient languages, 
 and sanctions the practice of fagging ; the younger pupils, 
 whether they be noble or gentle, serve the elder — by doing their 
 errands, blacking their shoes, and performing other menial offices ; 
 and the senior students have power to exact obedience and ser- 
 vice by corporeal punishment. This is doubtless often abused; 
 at any rate, our country youth, Zerah Colburn, complained bit- 
 terly of the cruelties practised upon him when placed in this 
 school ; and he and his father took such a stand against it as 
 finally secured him an exemption from such impositions. This 
 irreconcilable opposition of a Vermont peasant to the Eton aris- 
 tocracy shows the misconceptions of some respecting this school. 
 " Surely," they say, " you cannot complain that Eton is aristo- 
 cratic, when noblemen, as well as others, are subjected, in theb 
 
WINDSOR. 573 
 
 turn, to the same servitude." Most certainly ; it is the quintes- 
 sence of aristocracy ; and nowhere but in an aristocratic coun- 
 try could such an institution be maintained. It is true, the 
 hereditary aristocrat for a time submits to it. But it is on the 
 same principle that the pope sometimes washes and kisses the 
 dirty feet of the devotees at the Hospital of the Pilgrims — it is a 
 part of the system, and the pope must do a little at it, in due form, 
 to set an example for others. Our countryman, Irving (I quote 
 from memory, and do not give his exact w r ords), in describing a 
 rich English gentleman's apparent devotion and loud responses 
 in a country parish church, looking, as he occasionally did, upon 
 the poor parishioners around him, as if he should say, " Look at 
 me, and follow my example," compares him to a magistrate, 
 who sups down the broth prepared for the parish paupers, smacks 
 his lips, and commends the soup, saying, " See how I eat it — it 
 is good enough for the poor." This is the principle at Eton. 
 The boys of the nobility will fag a few terms at school, that they 
 may set the example to that part of the nation who must fag all 
 their lives for them. " See how I submit to it — it is good enough 
 for the poor." 
 
 There always will be poor and rich — those who labour and 
 those who are exempt from it : and far be it from me to excite in 
 the breasts of the former the rankling feelings of envy towards 
 the more fortunate and wealthy. What I complain of in England 
 is, that society is formed and maintained on such an artificial 
 principle, that every layer in the social strata is compelled, in a 
 great measure, to keep its position. The social elements are not 
 free to find their own level, restrained, as they are, by the super- 
 incumbent weight, girded and bound down by the very structure 
 and framework of society. 
 
 But enough of this here. Passing Eton a half mile you reach 
 Windsor, an ancient borough, containing about seven thousand 
 inhabitants, situated upon the side of a hill rising up from the 
 bank of the Thames, and upon the top of which towers the mag- 
 nificent castle. It is a residence worthy of a king. It has a 
 terrace around it, which has been considered one of the noblest 
 walks in Europe. There are numerous towers and apartments ; 
 one is called the Round Tower, situated between the two princi- 
 pal courts, which rises above the rest, and exhibits a splendid 
 4C 
 
574 ENGLAND. 
 
 panorama. The Royal Park, and the neighbouring grounds and 
 villages, and the meandering river in the vale below, are all mag- 
 nificent. The view, also, is extensive ; it is said, twelve counties 
 are discerned from this tower by the naked eye. This castle has 
 been a royal estate ever since William the Conqueror. Succes- 
 sive monarchs have enlarged and improved it. In the reign of 
 George III. it was greatly improved ; and still more under 
 George IV., who lavished a part of his extravagance here. To 
 him, chiefly, is the castle indebted for its splendid collection of 
 paintings and its princely furniture. We were fortunate in our 
 day — the king was gone to town, which left the apartments free 
 for the gaze of strangers ; and the Wesleyan minister, being ac- 
 quainted with some of the members of the domestic court, pro- 
 cured for us admittance into the various apartments. These I 
 will not attempt to describe in detail ; but the wealth and magnif- 
 icence of a nation are here. We went into the rooms of the 
 gold plate, and such a display of magnificence and wealth I never 
 before beheld. The plates, turrenes, goblets, saucepans, salts, 
 fruit-dishes — in short, every form of dish that the most refined 
 luxury could require, many of them set off with brilliants and 
 precious stones, filled two large-sized rooms. I counted one pile 
 of gold dining-plates, amounting to between four and five hun- 
 dred. The cost of these dining-sets and other dishes was from 
 ten to fifteen millions of dollars. This is one of the methods by 
 which the British national debt has accumulated. 
 
 This splendid plate is not used ordinarily, but only on state 
 occasions. Silver answers for common use. And for whom is 
 all this expenditure and profligacy 1 For a frail, erring mortal, 
 like ourselves. The poor old king — his present majesty, William 
 IV. — has not vital energy enough, with all his sparkling appara- 
 tus and tempting luxuries around him, to keep awake during his 
 ordinary dinner ; but uniformly, after the cloth is removed, he 
 falls asleep in his chair ; and as it is a part of the court etiquette 
 for none to speak or leave the table while the king sleeps, the 
 household who dine with him are obliged to sit in mute dignity, 
 till his majesty finishes his nap.* This was communicated to 
 one of our party by a member of the domestic court. 
 
 Near the castle is the collegiate church of Windsor, called St. 
 * He has since fallen asleep in death— (1S37), 
 
st. george*s chapel. 575 
 
 George's Chapel. It is an elegant specimen of architecture of 
 the kind — it being of the florid Gothic — although the style itself 
 had its origin in a corruption of taste. In this edifice are the 
 tombs of several of the kings, and a number of other members of 
 the Brunswick family. In one of the chapels is a most touching 
 and elegant, monument to the Princess Charlotte, erected by- 
 subscription, from the designs of M. Wyatt, Esq. In design and 
 execution it is, to my eye, a masterly production ; it is pathetic — 
 it is the very eloquence of pathos. 
 
 This chapel was erected in honour of the Knights of the Garter, 
 and its ceiling is hung with their banners. 
 
 We happened in at the time of service, which is performed 
 here morning and evening, at half past ten and four. The exer- 
 cises were a fac-simile almost of the Catholic service ; all artifi- 
 cial — prayers chanted — responses made by a company of boys, 
 habited for the service with what would have been white canoni- 
 cals if they had been clean, joining in the responses in the most 
 heartless and careless manner conceivable. I believe, from my 
 heart, that such a service is an abomination to the Most High. 
 How much of the trappings, and, I may add, of the spirit of 
 Babylon, still hangs round what is so often called the " venera- 
 ble church establishment" of England. 
 
 The two parks adorning the neighbourhood of Windsor Cas- 
 tle cover twenty-three hundred acres ; one of them, fourteen 
 miles in circumference, is traversed by what is called the 
 " long walk" — a most splendid avenue, extending out in front 
 of the magnificent terrace. Near the farther end of this is a 
 royal lodge and sheet of water, called " Virginia water," for Majesty 
 to sport upon. But as I have much to see, and, of course, 
 much to say yet of England, I cannot stop to visit or describe 
 all the interesting objects in and around this royal residence. 
 It is said to be the most splendid palace of the English monarch ; 
 but whether it is or not I cannot judge, for I was inside of no 
 other. Indeed, I had become so weary of visiting palaces while 
 on the continent, I had very little desire to enlarge my observa- 
 tions on this class of subjects. I have seen enough to be con- 
 vinced that his majesty of England is a most wealthy king of a 
 most wealthy kingdom. I did not even see the king ; I saw his 
 coach and six, and inferred he was in it; but whether he was or 
 
576 ENGLAND. 
 
 not was of little consequence : his coach was, doubtless, a finer 
 sight than he would be. It is said to be a very common thing for 
 our countrymen to be introduced at the queen's levee. Our 
 charge informed a friend of mine that more citizens of the Uni- 
 ted States applied to be introduced to their majesties than of 
 all other countries put together. Our republicans, it seems, have 
 a great desire to see the splendour of majesty and of a royal 
 court ; for myself, I thought it not worth the trouble. 
 
 We left London July 19th, for Birmingham, the seat, the pres- 
 ent year, of the Wesleyan Annual Conference. The first day 
 brought us to Oxford, where we spent two nights, for the purpose 
 of examining this ancient seat of learning. But as I have spent so 
 much time and paper in describing Cambridge University, I shall 
 say but little of the University of Oxford, especially as the essen- 
 tial features of the two institutions are the same. A few things, 
 however, may be worthy of notice. Oxford is a far more beautiful 
 town than Cambridge — its environs are fine, and the country 
 around fertile — many of the walks are delightful, and the streets 
 are good and very well built. 
 
 The state of morals here is thought to be better than at Cam 
 bridge, and they are much greater sticklers for high churchism 
 than at Cambridge. At the latter place the student cannot take 
 his degree without swearing his allegiance to mother church, but 
 in Oxford he must do this before he can enter. Rev. Mr. Hill stands 
 at Oxford in the place of Rev. Mr. Simpson at Cambridge. The 
 Oxford apostle, however, is more decidedly Calvinistic, and more 
 strenuous in his notions of the exclusive claims of "the church." 
 Around him the more pious students gather as their leader, and, of 
 course, they drink into his notions and spirit. It is greatly to be la- 
 mented that these views of doctrine and succession are so prevalent 
 among those who call themselves evangelical in the Church of Eng- 
 land. Indeed, the arrogancy of the church of England in these 
 matters cannot be tolerated. It is subversive of some of those best 
 principles on which Protestants in general depend for the spread 
 of the Gospel, and promotive of the most arrogant and exclusive 
 claims of the Church of Rome. I cannot conceive how the 
 premises of the successionists in the church can be granted with- 
 out leading directly to the Romish Church, as the one most un- 
 questionably entitled to the character of the true church. I met, 
 
OXFORD. 577 
 
 in Italy, a clerical gentleman from Natchez, United States, who 
 had given up his charge as an Episcopal minister, and, with his 
 wife and two children, had gone on a pilgrimage to Rome to find 
 the true church ; and on Palm-Sunday he formally renounced his 
 Protestantism, and took upon him the Roman yoke. The reasons 
 he assigned to me for this, for I had many long and faithful 
 dialogues with him on the subject, were precisely those which 
 the high church clergy in England and America assign for claim- 
 ing to be the exclusive church of Christ; if the succession of 
 the priesthood and the line of bishops from the apostles be the 
 only criterion of the true church, then truly the Church of Rome 
 has the strongest claims, and all who dissent from her are schis- 
 matics and heretics. The Church of England is, in fact, a little 
 more exclusive than popery, for although the Episcopacy of the 
 Protestant Episcopal church in the United States was derived 
 from the English, the latter, nevertheless, exclude the former from 
 their pulpits ; even an American bishop is not allowed to preach, 
 in the most obscure parish church in England. 
 
 Mr. Hill and his coadjutors have engaged in writing and pub- 
 lishing tracts of late, some of which fell into my hands — and 
 what, kind reader, do you think is the object of these zealous 
 tract distributors.? — not to get unbelieving sinners converted — not 
 to teach the important experimental and practical doctrines of the 
 Gospel, but to impress the common people with the danger and 
 heresy of going to the meetings of the dissenters. Whatever 
 may be the character of the parish clergyman, his is the true 
 ministry ; the dissenter is a schismatic, and must not be counten- 
 anced. This is the great work of the evangelical party at Oxford. 
 This is a leading feature in the great reform that is said to be 
 going on among the clergy of the establishment. To this they 
 add a strong spice of Calvinism, bearing in many instances a 
 very close relation to antinomianism. With this spirit and doc- 
 trine, what, after all, can be hoped from such a church for the 
 conversion of the world ? 
 
 The university contains twenty colleges and five halls. The 
 halls at this place are on the same footing as to literary advan- 
 tages and university honours, but have not the same charters and 
 funds with the colleges. In this respect they differ from Cam- 
 bridge, where the halls and colleges are the same. In point of 
 49 
 
578 ENGLAND. 
 
 architecture, the college buildings at Oxford do not compare with 
 those of Cambridge. The edifices, for the most part, appeared old 
 and weather-beaten. Some of the buildings are more modern. 
 Among these is the Radcliffe Library, which is very well as a 
 monument, but is anything but a convenient edifice for a library 
 It is a rotunda, with a dome ; above the floor for the library is 
 a circular gallery, under which are the books. The room is too 
 dark and every way inconvenient. There are about 15,000 
 volumes in this great cenotaph of Dr. Radcliffe, who was the 
 founder of the library. He left forty thousand pounds for its 
 erection, one hundred and fifty pounds per annum for the librarian, 
 one hundred pounds for the purchase of books, and the same sum 
 for repairing the edifice annually. From the dome there is a fine 
 view of the town and adjoining country. Robert Hall was so 
 enchanted with the view, that he called it the " New Jerusalem 
 descending from heaven ;" but his brother, Andrew Fuller, was 
 desirous of hastening down, to go to his lodgings for the purpose 
 of discussing the doctrine of " Justification by faith !" These 
 anecdotes are remembered and repeated, in order to illustrate the 
 characteristics of these two eminent men. Perhaps I did not 
 feel the enthusiasm of the former ; but I felt no haste, I confess, 
 to descend from this commanding observatory to discuss any 
 question in philosophy or theology. 
 
 There is a very good collection in natural history called the 
 Ashmolean Museum. It is said to be the first collection for va- 
 rieties in art or nature ever established in England. The founda 
 tion was by a donation from Elias Ashmole, in 1677. 
 
 In a quadrangle called the Schools y an edifice belonging to the 
 university, and used for examinations and other public purposes, 
 is the Bodleian Library, so called after Sir Thomas Bodley, who 
 was the principal founder, and who died in 1612. This is a li- 
 brary worthy of this ancient university. It contains about four 
 hundred thousand volumes. Here are many valuable manu- 
 scripts, European and oriental. No books are allowed to be 
 taken out ; but all graduates of the university, and literary stran- 
 gers who are well recommended, are allowed an entrance and the 
 use of the books. In the same building is a picture-gallery, con- 
 taining pictures, busts, and some very fine models of the most 
 celebrated ancient edifices. 
 
OXFORD. 579 
 
 In this building, also, are the celebrated " Arundelian marbles," 
 the " Selden marbles," and the " Pomfret statues." The first 
 are among the most ancient monumental records extant, and con- - 
 tain some important illustrations of antiquity. They were origi- 
 nally brought from Greece and Asia, and purchased by "William 
 Petty, who had been sent to Asia for making such collections, 
 by Thomas, Earl of Arundel and Surrey. Hence their name. 
 The Selden marbles are also antiques ; and the Pomfret statues 
 are a collection of ancient busts and statues presented by the 
 Countess Dowager of Pomfret, in 1755 : there are one hundred 
 and thirty-five of them, some of which are very good. 
 
 "We saw here, also, a fine model in cork of the ancient amphi- 
 theatre which we visited at Verona. 
 
 The university theatre, erected, not for dramatic exhibitions, but 
 for certain public academic exercises, is a splendid edifice. Like 
 many other buildings in Oxford, it is the work of Sir Christopher 
 Wren — that veteran labourer in the field of architecture. The 
 ground plan is from the ancient theatre of Marcellus, which we 
 had visited at Rome. Here, in 1814, degrees were conferred 
 upon the Emperor Alexander, the King of Prussia, Prince Met- 
 ternich, Prince Blucher, and other wondrous savans, whose pro- 
 found scholarship in the work of blood and tyranny entitled them,, 
 doubtless, to these litei-ary and scientific honours of the first uni- 
 versity in the w T orld ! ! " Let the potsherds strive with the pot- 
 sherds of the earth ;" but shame on the literary institution that 
 will stoop to crown the victor. 
 
 The principle of conferring degrees and awarding university 
 honours is similar to that of Cambridge, save that here the an- 
 cient classics take the prominent place of the mathematics in 
 Cambridge. In the prescribed examinations, moral science and 
 classical literature are required, and the candidate may, if he 
 pleases, add mathematics and natural philosophy. 
 
 The stranger's attention is arrested both here and at Cambridge 
 .. with the costumes of the students and others, members of the univer- 
 sity. All the officers have their peculiar dresses, so also have the 
 graduates in their respective degrees, and the undergraduates. 
 These last again vary according to their rank. In Cambridge, and 
 I suppose it is so here, no undergraduate is allowed to appear out 
 
580 ENGLAND. 
 
 without having on his academic gown and cap ; so that, in term- 
 time, the town is full of gownsmen* 
 
 In going from Oxford to Birmingham we passed the ancient 
 town of Warwick, where we made a stop of several hours to visit 
 "Warwick Castle. The town itself is rather interesting and ven- 
 erable, and the castle is very fine. It is a little to the southeast 
 of the town, on a rock forty feet high, the base of which is 
 washed by the river Avon. Its foundation is too remote to be 
 chronicled. The most ancient part, called Caesar's tower, is one 
 hundred and forty-seven feet high. In the interior is a princely suite 
 of apartments, three hundred and thirty-three feet in a right line, 
 adorned with paintings and curious ancient armour. In the green- 
 house is the celebrated Warivick vase, one of the most beautiful 
 works of art that has come down to us from antiquity. It was 
 dug from the ruins of Adrian's Villa, near Tivoli, and is supposed 
 to be the workmanship of Lysippus, the celebrated statuary of the 
 age of Alexander. Its capacity is one hundred and sixty-three 
 gallons, its material white marble, and its form nearly spherical. 
 Two vines spring out of the sides, and, gracefully curling up to 
 the rim, divide into two branches and form the handles of the 
 vase ; after this they run round the top, interlace with each other, 
 and form for the upper border of the vase a beautiful garland of 
 tendrils, foliage, and fruit. The sides are embossed with strong 
 relief of antique heads, a panther's skin, and the thyrsis, or wand 
 of Bacchus. 
 
 The park is venerable with branching oaks. The whole ex- 
 hibition, in short, is one of the finest specimens of feudal remains 
 to be found in England. Guy's tower, one hundred and forty- 
 eight feet high, is so named after Sir Guy of Warwick, one of 
 the chivalrous heroes of the wildest days of romance. Many are 
 the anecdotes related of him, and many the ballads which set 
 forth his prowess. In one of these he is represented as boasting, 
 
 " On Dunmore heath I also slew 
 
 A monstrous wild and cruel beast, 
 
 Called the Dun-cow of Dunmore heath, 
 
 Which many people had oppress'd." 
 
 * We had the curiosity to notice, in Oxford, Lincoln College, where Mr. Wesley was 
 fellow. In the town, Methodism has taken root, and I preached a lecture in a neat 
 chapel belonging to the society. 
 
A STAGECOACH CONVERSATION. 581 
 
 Whether we saw the armour with which he killed the Dun-cow, 
 I cannot say, but we saw an ancient suit of armour, offensive and 
 defensive, said to be his, which should be wielded by none but 
 giants. 
 
 We were gratified in meeting at Warwick our London host, 
 Rev. Mr. Alder, with whom we proceeded to Birmingham. We 
 met at Warwick, also, some Americans, who turned aside to visit 
 the ruins of Kenilworth Castle, a sight, it is said, well worth see- 
 ing ; but we have found that it is impossible to see everything. 
 
 A gentleman sitting beside me on the stagecoach, in the 
 course of conversation informed me of a Baptist missionary meet- 
 ing which had been held the night before in Birmingham, in 
 which a dissenting minister by the name of East, and a Quaker 
 by the name of Sturge, had been invited to speak. These gen- 
 tlemen, it appears, had left the object of the meeting, and suc- 
 ceeded in turning it into a noisy and bitter anti-slavery meeting. 
 Dr. Hobey, a Baptist minister of Birmingham, who was the col- 
 league of Dr. Cox in a Christian embassy sent by the English 
 Baptists to their brethren in the United States the year before, 
 was the first object of their attack. The ground was, that he had 
 betrayed his trust in the United States by refusing to appear in 
 public to advocate the cause of abolition in America. From Dr. 
 Hobey they passed to the United States, and from the United 
 States they were led to mention that a Methodist bishop (as they 
 were pleased to term him) was expected at Birmingham in a 
 few days as a delegate to the Wesleyan Conference ; that he was 
 sent by a pro-slavery party in the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 and was himself an advocate for slavery ; and, as my informant 
 understood it, and as one of the public journals afterward reported 
 it, it was also added that this bishop was a slaveholder. The 
 name of the gentleman was called for by some one in the assem- 
 bly, that he might be known and treated accordingly when he 
 should arrive. Bishop Fisk y was the reply. My informant fur- 
 ther intimated that it would be very unpleasant, if not unsafe, for 
 the American bishop to show himself in Birmingham, as he 
 would meet with rough treatment. I told him, although I did not 
 claim to be a bishop, yet as I was the delegate from the Metho- 
 dist Episcopal Church to the Wesleyan Conference about to be 
 held at Birmingham, I supposed I must be the person alluded to ; 
 49 
 
582 ENGLAND. 
 
 that I should not take any pains to hide myself from the good 
 people of Birmingham ; and, therefore, they would have full op- 
 portunity of doing all their pleasure in the case. 
 
 It appeared, by what this gentleman informed me, and by what 
 I further learned after reaching town, that they had a most un- 
 pleasant, nay, I might add, a most disgraceful meeting ; that the 
 attack on Dr. Hobey was most rude and unchristian, and the 
 missionary meeting was productive of anything but good to the 
 cause of Christ. As John Bull often berates Brother Jonathan 
 right lustily for his want of politeness and courtesy, I suppose he 
 wanted to give a specimen of the manner in which he would treat 
 a stranger and a foreigner ; viz., condemn and denounce him, and 
 hold his name up to public odium, unheard and altogether un- 
 known, except through some private channel of communication, 
 which, from the mistakes as to matters-of-fact, showed it to be 
 in this case altogether indefinite and destitute of credit. Far be 
 it from me, however, to charge this feeling and conduct upon the 
 better part of Englishmen. The sequel showed that neither the 
 citizens of Birmingham in general, nor the Wesleyan Confer- 
 ence, sanctioned this wild procedure, which, even in the actors 
 themselves, is, to a great extent, to be attributed to a too highly 
 excited and misdirected public feeling ; bating always the dema- 
 gogical agency that fattens upon such excitements. In short, it 
 is but justice, I believe, to give Mr. Sturge himself the principal 
 credit of this whole affair; to which he had been prompted, it 
 seems, by letters and communications which, he said, he had re- 
 ceived from the United States. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX. 
 
 Having arrived at the seat of the Wesleyan Methodist Confer- 
 ence, one of the most important purely ecclesiastical bodies in this 
 or any country ; a body, too, to which I had been officially dele- 
 gated by the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church in the United States, it will be expected, of course, that 
 
METHODISM. 583 
 
 a small portion of my journal should be devoted to the official do- 
 ings of this body. To avoid, however, such details as would be 
 at best only interesting to those of the same denomination, I shall 
 touch only upon those points that will serve to show the general 
 constitution and present condition of this very efficient branch of 
 the Christian church ; a subject which, to the philosopher and the 
 politician, the observer of man as a social and a religious being, 
 must, in any event, be one of deep interest. To see one individ- 
 ual start up in the bosom of a civilized and Christian community, 
 and become the founder and leader of a sect which, in all its 
 branches, numbers more than a million of members, and between 
 four and five thousand travelling, and nearly twice as many local 
 ministers and public teachers, and that, too, in less than a century, 
 is a phenomenon in the moral world such as is rarely beheld. 
 To see it spreading out its influences over the world, and carry- 
 ing forward its moral conquests in every continent, and in the isles 
 of the sea, advancing still with all the vigour of fresh manhood, 
 with a surprising uniformity both of doctrine and discipline, and 
 with a marvellous unity of design and of effort in its moral and 
 religious achievements, is an exhibition which may well attract 
 the careful attention and study of every investigating mind. 
 
 The most perfect exemplification of this system is in England, 
 for this is the parent stock, and here the system has, in its prac- 
 tical operations, ripened into its greatest maturity and acquired its 
 greatest vigour. 
 
 Methodism in the United States has become more extended 
 than the British connexion, including all their missions, in the 
 ratio of two to one. But the peculiarities of our country, con- 
 nected with the fact of the more recent establishment of the cause 
 in America, has prevented that practical perfection of the organi- 
 zation that is exhibited in England. The present is the ninety- 
 third annual conference of the British connexion, whereas the first 
 conference in the United States was held in 1773, only sixty -three 
 years since. At that time there were but ten preachers in the 
 connexion, and for the ten following years, in consequence of the 
 revolutionary war, there was very little increase, comparatively : 
 so that the principal gain of the Methodist cause in the United 
 States has been in a little over half a century. 
 
 To understand the present position of the connexion in Eng- 
 
584. ENGLAND. 
 
 land, the reader should be informed that a severe attack had been 
 made upon the integrity of the body by some malecontents of the 
 ministry and membership, at the head of whom was Dr. Warren, 
 a minister of some standing and age, who had become disaffected, 
 as many thought, for the same reason that Diotrephes opposed the 
 apostles. The general accusations by these schismatics were, 
 that the ministry had too much power, both in their Conference 
 capacity and as administrators of discipline ; that even the Con- 
 ference itself was under the control of a few individuals, and 
 especially of one, whose power and influence was dreaded and 
 denounced more than all the rest. In short, all the discontent and 
 restlessness of the connexion seemed to be rallied under this 
 leader and in this excitement ; not that there was any harmony 
 of feeling among the different malecontents themselves, except in 
 the simple point of being dissatisfied and wishing for a change. 
 The principal ground of direct attack upon the Conference was 
 the establishment in London of a theological seminary for the 
 improvement of the junior preachers. This w 7 as denounced as 
 unconstitutional and unmethodistical ; and, in addition to this, 
 claims were set up for changes and popular rights, as they were 
 called, which showed that the whole movement had its origin in 
 that revolutionary spirit of radicalism so rife at the present day in 
 church and state on both sides of the water. To accomplish their 
 objects, Dr. Warren and his party formed " an association" for the 
 factious purpose of effecting a change in the economy of the con- 
 nexion, and finally they adopted the modern process of " agitation" 
 by the press and by popular harangues, for the purpose of stirring 
 up faction and division in the regular societies. 
 
 It is not for me to decide, because I am not sufficiently ac- 
 quainted with all the facts in the case to do so, that there was no 
 ground of complaint in any of the matters alleged by the malecon- 
 tents. I could not, however, fail to notice the close sympathy of 
 feeling in this schism with that which prompted the schism in the 
 American connexion in 1828. The principal complaint in both 
 cases was " clerical domination," " ecclesiastical oppression." It 
 undoubtedly originated, in both instances, in that ultra democratic 
 spirit which may be carried, as all must allow, too far in the state, 
 and which is certainly erroneous when it founds its claims in the 
 church on a marked and literal analogy between the government 
 
METHODISM. 585 
 
 of the church and of the state. From the nature of the case there 
 always must be a marked distinction between ecclesiastical and 
 civil government ; and the safety of the people, in ecclesiastical 
 government, consists in this, that it is armed by no secular power. 
 The extent of its authority is moral discipline by moral means, 
 with no other power but that of withdrawing fellowship from the 
 incorrigible offender. The association itself is a voluntary one, 
 and the ministry entirely dependant, not only for their influence, 
 but also for their support, upon the affection and confidence of 
 those among whom they exercise the pastoral office. That there 
 is danger of " lording it over God's heritage," however, is evident 
 from experience, from the nature of man, and from the cautions 
 of the New Testament. But one thing is very evident ; the man 
 or party of men that, because of some real or supposed offence 
 of this kind, undertakes to agitate publicly and to divide the 
 church of Christ, to stir up discontent and beget distrust in the 
 minds of the people against their religious pastors, assumes a 
 fearful amount of responsibility. Such a man is doing the work 
 of the accuser of the brethren, and will, without repentance, find, 
 in the day of eternity, the blood of souls in his skirts. 
 
 The Warren schism agitated the connexion through a great 
 part of the kingdom. The strenuous efforts of the schismatics, 
 however, were met by equally vigorous efforts of the ministers 
 and members opposed to them, and the result has been much 
 more favourable than could have been anticipated. I could not 
 ascertain the precise loss, but probably from twelve to fifteen 
 thousand members. During the two years of agitation, however, 
 the connexion, as a whole, has gained in membership some thou- 
 sands ; and are now bound together by stronger sympathies, proba- 
 bly, than at any former period since the death of Mr. Wesley. 
 The ministers and people understand each other and their church 
 rules and privileges better than ever, and especially one point 
 has been settled, which, more than anything else, settles and con- 
 solidates the connexion on a stable basis. I allude to a legal de- 
 cision obtained in the court of chancery on the authority of the 
 Conference and its legalized organs over the chapels and other 
 church property of the Wesleyan connexion. This property is 
 held, as with us, by trustees ; but this is for the specific purposes 
 mentioned in the trust deeds. And among these is the right of 
 4E 
 
586 ENGLAND. 
 
 occupying the pulpits of the chapels by ministers regularly ap- 
 pointed and controlled by the Conference. The object was to 
 discard this control, and still retain the pulpit. On this issue the 
 action was commenced and prosecuted. The interest on the 
 subject was intense, as, in a great measure, the constitution of the 
 Methodist connexion was jeopardized. The subject was ably 
 canvassed in the chancellor's court, and decided in favour of the 
 claims of the Conference. 
 
 The basis of the powers of the Conference, in all questions of 
 this nature, is a poll deed, executed by Mr. Wesley, February 28, 
 1784, and enrolled in the high court of chancery on the 9th 
 of March, 1784 ; by which he gave legal existence to the Metho- 
 dist Conference, which, by that instrument, is always to consist 
 of one hundred, the vacancies being filled annually in the man- 
 ner prescribed by the deed. T3y this deed, also, the power of ap- 
 pointing preachers and expounders of God's word to occupy the 
 chapels, which before had belonged to Mr. Wesley, was granted 
 and secured to the Conference ; and, in addition, that the Metho- 
 dist chapels might never be perverted from their original design, 
 in the trust deeds of all the chapels a clause is inserted, in which 
 reference is made to this poll deed of Mr. Wesley's, and also to 
 the first four volumes of Mr. Wesley's sermons, and to his notes 
 on the New Testament ; and it is declared that " no person or 
 persons whatsoever shall be permitted to preach or expound God's 
 Holy Word in the said chapel who shall maintain any doc- 
 trine contrary to what is found in these works." By the decision 
 of the chancellor, Mr. Wesley's deed is confirmed and estab- 
 lished, and the Conference is recognised as a legal body ; and all 
 their constitutional acts, therefore, are sanctioned by the law of 
 the land. Hence their trust deeds, with all their provisions, are 
 sanctioned ; thus the unity of the body is secured, a uniformity 
 of doctrine is established, and the power to maintain and enforce 
 moral discipline in the church is confirmed to the Conference and 
 their official organs and members. The Wesleyan Methodists, 
 therefore, may claim Mr. Wesley's poll deed as their Magna 
 Charta, and the chancellor's decision as confirming to them all 
 the rights and immunities therein contemplated. This is one 
 among many evidences of the reach of Mr. Wesley's mind, and 
 of his remarkable adaptation to and fitness for the office of a re- 
 
METHODIST CONFERENCE. 587 
 
 former, and of a founder of a religious society of extraordinary 
 comprehension and efficiency. 
 
 It is true, there have been frequent defections, in a small way, 
 from this body. The most considerable was in 1797, in which 
 from fifteen to twenty preachers and between five and six thou- 
 sand members drew off, and set up a " new connexion," as it is 
 sometimes called ; and at other times they are called Kilhamites, 
 from one Kilham who was the principal leader in the schism. 
 This connexion numbers now two hundred and fifty-five chapels, 
 eighty-two travelling preachers, six hundred and sixty-seven lo- 
 cal preachers, and nineteen thousand two hundred and nineteen 
 members. Their growth, however, has been comparatively slow, 
 especially when it is considered that they have been the recepta- 
 cle of a great portion of the discontented of the old connexion, 
 until this last schism by Dr. Warren. Some attempts have been 
 made to unite these to the Kilhamites, but the materials which 
 are composed of malecontents of any community are generally 
 possessed of such repulsive influences and forces as to prevent 
 any close and general aggregation either among themselves or to 
 any foreign body. Such is the case in the present instance ; and 
 although they may have succeeded in drawing off between 
 twelve and twenty thousand, yet it is doubtful whether, when 
 the elements come to settle according to their elective affinities, if 
 affinities they have, any considerable number will be found in 
 any one association. 
 
 At the meeting of the Conference the present year the storm 
 had passed over ; hardly was the pattering of the lingering drops 
 heard upon the ecclesiastical edifice. With renewed confidence 
 in their cause, and with stronger motives for union among them- 
 selves, they assembled for their annual business at Birmingham— 
 the first session ever held in this town. The most important 
 parts of their business are arranged and prepared in committees 
 that are appointed the year before, and meet several days before 
 the session of the Conference for that purpose. At most of these 
 committees, lay members are invited to be present to take part in 
 the deliberations, and especially to assist in the arrangement of 
 the financial concerns of the church. 
 
 As this part of the system is a beautiful feature in the econo- 
 my of Methodism, I will give some of its general features. 
 
588 ENGLAND. 
 
 Although the financial resources are altogether from the volun- 
 tary offerings of the people, yet they inculcate the principle that 
 every one ought to do something ; and the least that any one 
 should do who is not absolutely a pauper is reckoned at a pen- 
 ny a week, and in addition one shilling at each quarterly renewal 
 of the ticket of membership. All will do this much, it is calcu- 
 lated, and the money thus collected nearly meets the current ex- 
 penses of the societies. But in addition to this there are several 
 other sources of income, which are called funds ; not that there 
 is any money funded which is made available for the church, but 
 moneys collected for specific objects are called the funds for those 
 objects respectively. Such as the school fund ; the contingent 
 fund; the chapel fund ; the children's fund ; the preachers' aux- 
 iliary fund ; the missionary fund, &c. A short explanation of 
 some of these will show upon what liberal and evangelical prin- 
 ciples their ecclesiastical affairs are conducted. 
 
 School Fund. — There are two schools for the sons of the Meth- 
 odist travelling preachers, viz. : Kingswood School, near Bristol, 
 and Woodhouse Grove School, near Leeds, in Yorkshire. These 
 have each one hundred boys, who are educated by collections 
 made yearly in all the circuits for that specific object, consisting 
 of a public collection in the month of October, and private dona- 
 tions. It costs only about twenty-two pounds sterling per annum 
 to educate a boy at one of these schools, including clothing and 
 books. As the schools will not hold all the boys, and there is no 
 public provision for girls, the parents are allowed a given sum for 
 each child educated at home. The whole amount expended in 
 the school fund this year appeared by the report of the committee 
 to be eight thousand five hundred and seventy -four pounds.* 
 
 Children's Fund. — It was found that the itinerant system was 
 embarrassed from the fact that some had large families, while 
 others had smaller, or perhaps none at all. This made it diffi- 
 cult both for circuits and preachers. The preachers with large 
 families could not be supported, where, perhaps, they were really 
 
 * The schools have a debt on them of between six and seven thousand pounds ster- 
 ling, to pay which the bookroom appropriates annually one thousand pounds. The 
 amount of sales from the bookroom the past year has been forty -four thousand six 
 hundred and fifty-one pounds, three shillings, and ninepence ; nett income appropriated 
 to the different funds from this source is six thousand four hundred and twenty-seven 
 pounds. 
 
METHODIST CONFERENCE. 589 
 
 needed, and many large families were rather considered a burden 
 to the circuits where they were appointed. To equalize this 
 expense, and make it more pleasant for both preachers and peo- 
 ple, a calculation is made at the Conference of the number of 
 preachers' children to be supported by the connexion the ensu- 
 ing year ; this ascertained, they are divided out *on paper to the 
 different districts according to the members in the societies, and, 
 at the first district meeting after Conference, this number for each 
 district is divided out to the respective circuits according to 
 their number of members, and each circuit must furnish the sup- 
 port for the number attached to it. Treasurers and other officers 
 are appointed to receive this money when a surplus is raised in 
 one circuit over and above the number of children actually living 
 in it, and to disburse it to other circuits where they have more 
 children than belong to them to support. 
 
 Contingent Fund. — It was found that while one circuit 
 whose needs for ministerial labour were as great as those of 
 another might nevertheless be comparatively poor, and, there- 
 fore, not able to support its needed amount of ministerial and 
 pastoral labour, the other circuit was able to do something 
 more than support its own pastors. Hence the following plan 
 was adopted: each district furnishes to the Conference the 
 amount it will want the ensuing year from the contingent fund. 
 The Conference makes an aggregate of these claims. It then 
 ascertains by estimate the probable amount of the available funds 
 which may be collected from all the circuits to make up these 
 deficiencies, and then it divides this amount to the respective dis- 
 tricts in due proportions ; and the districts, at their first district 
 meeting after Conference, divide it out in such proportions as 
 they judge just and equal to the needy circuits. If the Confer- 
 ence cannot meet the full amount of the requests for aid from the 
 different districts, it curtails where, in its judgment, it can be done 
 with the greatest propriety. This contingent fund is raised from 
 a public collection made for that purpose, and from an annual 
 subscription taken up among the members ; to which is added an 
 appropriation from the bookroom. Out of the moneys thus 
 raised a certain portion is reserved to meet miscellaneous ex- 
 penses and special cases which could not be foreseen, of sick- 
 ness, or expensive removals, or necessary changes, and from vari- 
 50 
 
590 ENGLAND. 
 
 ous other sources. This portion is called the appropriation for 
 extraordinaries ; the other is for ordinaries. The whole amount 
 collected for this fund the present year, including an appropriation 
 of a thousand pounds from the bookroom, is eleven thousand three 
 hundred and seventy-nine pounds, nineteen shillings, and three- 
 pence. 
 
 The Preachers* Auxiliary Fund is for the superannuated 
 preachers, preachers' widows and orphans. This is made up of 
 collections, donations, and legacies. Many of the most wealthy 
 every year make liberal donations to this fund. I should judge, 
 however, that the provision for this interesting part of the work 
 is the most uncertain and inadequate of any of the others, not- 
 withstanding I saw in the list of donations to this fund quite a 
 number of fifty pounds each.* 
 
 The Preachers 1 Annuity Fund is for a similar object with the 
 preceding. It is the income of property funded, given by legacies 
 and otherwise, and from an annual payment of five guineas from 
 each member of the annuitant society, and of twenty guineas 
 from each on entering the society ; by which a fund is formed 
 from which those preachers who are worn out in the service, and 
 their wive3 and families, receive an annuity proportioned to the 
 time they have been contributors to the fund. The object seems 
 to be to lay by something, while in youth and in health, for old 
 age and sickness. Whether the plan is altogether productive of 
 the good that has been proposed by it, is to me doubtful ; per- 
 haps if I understood it better I should think more favourably of 
 it. The collection of that fund seemed to me, in some cases, to 
 produce as much embarrassment as its disbursement was cal- 
 culated to relieve. 
 
 The Chapel Fund, and Chapel Loan Fund. — I have put these 
 together because they are united in their operations ; and, taken 
 altogether, this is the most interesting feature of Methodist 
 finance. To understand it, the principle of building chapels 
 should be explained. In the first place, the spirit of a national 
 debt appertains also to the church. The English hardly think 
 they can carry on any great public enterprise without a public 
 
 * I might have added here the seniors' fund, which is made up of an appropriation from 
 the bookroom and a portion of the auxiliary fund. This is for those who have travelled 
 thirty-five years ; all such have an annuity of one hundred pounds. 
 
METHODIST CONFERENCE. 591 
 
 debt ; so much does the general policy of a nation give character 
 to all the subordinate social relations of its citizens. 
 
 The national debt, or, in other words, the ecclesiastical debt 
 of the Methodist connexion in England for chapels amounts, in 
 the opinion of some good judges with whom I conversed, to half 
 the value of the real property of the connexion. In some cases 
 chapels had become extremely embarrassed, and were thrown 
 into the market for sale to meet the debts upon them. 
 
 To prevent building with indiscretion, no chapel is to be com- 
 menced until approved, first, by the quarterly meeting in the cir- 
 cuit where the chapel is proposed ; secondly, by the district 
 meeting; and, finally, by a chapel building committee appointed 
 annually by the Conference for the whole connexion. These ap- 
 proving, which they do on certain conditions, one of which is, 
 that a certain portion of the necessary funds for building be first 
 obtained, the building of the chapel is authorized. If the society 
 proposing to build neglect this course they are entitled to no 
 aid from the chapel fund. In general, they are under the patron- 
 age of that fund. To obtain aid, special application is necessary 
 to a committee appointed by the Conference for that purpose, 
 who receive and examine the representations of the state of the 
 chapel, and apportion their disbursements according to their 
 available means to the most distressed cases. Most of the chap- 
 els which are in debt make no such application, for the reason 
 that their seat-rents pay the interest of their debt, and, in many 
 cases, annually sink, a portion of the principal; for in all the 
 chapels the larger portion of the seats are rented. 
 
 The chapel fund is obtained by an annual collection taken up 
 for that express purpose in all the societies. But this fund, it 
 was found, was not ample enough to meet the pressing wants of 
 many of the chapels ; to supply this lack and relieve the work, 
 the chapel loan fund was got up. A committee appointed for 
 that purpose borrows an amount of money, which it disburses to 
 the most distressed chapels on certain conditions ; one of which 
 is, that the society applying for a grant shall consider this grant 
 as final, and shall hereafter make no application to the chapel 
 fund for such partial and annual relief as they have heretofore re- 
 ceived from that source ; and another is, that the society shall 
 raise a given amount, generally a sum equal to the grant from 
 
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METHODIST CONFERENCE. 593 
 
 erally made in advance upon the credit of what is expected ; so 
 that each district and circuit knows what is required, or how 
 much will be bestowed, as the case may be. The collections 
 are made for each fund at a given time in the year, and the 
 preacher who neglects to make the collection will be called to 
 an account as certainly as though he neglected any other ministe- 
 rial duty. 
 
 On the annual committees quite a number of laymen are en- 
 listed, by which their business talent is employed to advantage, 
 and their interests and feelings also become enlisted.* Everything 
 is done by system, and, therefore, well done. The minister's sup- 
 port is liberal and certain ; his extra bills for sickness are all met ; 
 his house is furnished with everything necessary for the family use, 
 so that nothing is removed from one circuit to another but his books, 
 clothing, and family. In this way a great portion of the pains and 
 privations of an itinerant life, such as we have it, are avoided. 
 
 Missionary Fund. — This is the great fund of the connexion, 
 and gives operation to one of the most efficient subordinate or- 
 gans of moral power now in existence in the Christian church. 
 The number. of members under the care of this society is, as re- 
 ported for the present year, sixty-one thousand eight hundred and 
 three. Of these, thirty-eight thousand and twenty-five are in the 
 West Indies, and mostly coloured ; and ten thousand six hundred 
 and eighty-five are in the British colonies of North America, 
 The others are in India, Africa, Continent of Europe, islands of 
 the Pacific, New Holland, &c. In these missionary stations two 
 hundred and eighty-one preachers are employed, besides teachers 
 and other agents. 
 
 To meet the expense of this part of the work, above fifty-two 
 thousand pounds have been raised by subscriptions and contribu- 
 tions during the past year, and by legacies and from other sour- 
 ces sufficient to make the income for the year sixty-two thousand 
 one hundred and ninety-six pounds, fourteen shillings. This sum 
 is raised in various ways ; by public contributions at anniversary 
 meetings, by missionary boxes, by annual subscriptions, by do- 
 nations, by collectors who go from house to house to obtain aid 
 for the missions, by missionary teas ; in short, almost every law- 
 
 * As a proof of the interest thus excited, quite a number of these laymen, when they 
 left town, gave fifty pounds each for the funds of the connexion. 
 
 50 4 F 
 
594 ENGLAND. 
 
 ful thing that can be thought of is put in requisition to aid this 
 cause. The great means, however, and that which gives life to 
 all the rest, are the anniversaries that are held in all the societies. 
 These anniversaries are attended by delegates, who are selected 
 from among the preachers at the Conference, to visit each a given 
 portion of the work, to make speeches, state facts, and attract the 
 attention of the people to this great enterprise. In this way not 
 only has the missionary feeling become intense throughout the 
 whole connexion, but it has become a matter of principle and an 
 important and indispensable part of practical godliness to give to 
 the missions. 
 
 * At the head of this work are the missionary secretaries, four in 
 number, including the assistant, who devote their time entirely to 
 the missions. They are assisted in London by a committee of 
 preachers and laymen, and the Conference also have a missionary 
 committee, which meets, like the other committees, the week pre- 
 ceding the annual session to review the business of the year and 
 prepare all new measures for Conference. The secretaries have 
 all power in the executive department, as well as the principal 
 agency and influence in forming the plans of operation. They se- 
 lect the missionaries out of those who offer themselves for the mis- 
 sionary work, change and remove them, and select their fields of 
 labour. Notwithstanding the preachers of the British connexion 
 suppose the bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church in the 
 United States have too much power, yet the missionary secreta- 
 ries have more power in their department than our bishops. 
 
 Among the other committees that meet on the week preceding 
 Conference, the stationing committee is of the first importance. 
 The preceding committees have the charge of the distribution of 
 the funds of the church ; this of the ministerial gifts of the church. 
 This work is very much lessened, however, by private arrange- 
 ments previously made between the preachers and circuits. It 
 is customary at the first quarterly meeting after Conference for 
 the circuit by its official board to invite their preachers for the 
 next year. If those invited comply with the request, the subject 
 rests until the Conference, when, if nothing special intervene to 
 prevent, the arrangement is confirmed. Those who are not pro- 
 vided for by this arrangement are to be distributed among the va- 
 cancies on the circuits. Although each preacher is permitted to 
 
METHODIST CONFERENCE. 595 
 
 be stationed three successive years on the same circuit, yet it 
 must be by reappointment in a formal way, so that every appoint- 
 ment is canvassed, first in the stationing committee, and then re- 
 viewed and revised, and finally acted upon and confirmed, after, I 
 think, the third reading in Conference. 
 
 On the subject of stationing the preachers, I saw again how 
 important was Mr. Wesley's poll deed. Make the best of an itin- 
 erant life, there is something in it so unpleasant to flesh and blood 
 that there is a constant tendency to a more permanent system ; 
 and the idea was decidedly expressed by several of the leading 
 preachers, that a longer stay than three years would be, in some 
 cases, important ; but the poll deed will not allow of it. Thus 
 has Mr. Wesley's forethought perpetuated a travelling ministry, 
 which otherwise, by its own friction, would sooner or later have 
 run itself down to a dead locality. 
 
 The preachers think they have more voice in their appointments 
 than we have in our method ; but I believe, with the exception 
 of a portion of the more favoured, there is more difference in name 
 than in reality. In no case was the question of the appointment 
 of a preacher put to vote. The voice of the elders, and especially 
 of the president, prevailed, and the preacher submitted. It is true, 
 he had an opportunity of telling his wishes to the Conference ; of 
 saying, as was often done, that he thought he should do for such 
 a circuit, &c. ; and he also had the opportunity of hearing it said 
 very plainly in the Conference that he would not do for such a 
 circuit, they never would receive him, and the like. This was 
 at first a little amusing to me ; but I found habit had made them 
 familiar with these things, and it was thought little of. It was 
 pleasing, however, to see with what submission they yielded 
 when the voices seemed to be against them. 
 
 But I anticipate ; for, heretofore, I have only been speaking of 
 the doings of the committees before Conference. This body com- 
 menced its regular session on the 27th July. Dr. Bunting was 
 chosen unanimously to fill the president's chair. This was done 
 to show the schismatics the confidence they had in the doctor, 
 and in those principles which he had sustained, and for which 
 he had received so much personal abuse. This office, also, he 
 was well qualified to fill. He is perfectly acquainted with the 
 Methodist system ; he knows the men ; he knows the work ; he 
 
596 ENGLAND. 
 
 knows the rule ; he has a most extraordinary business tact that 
 grasps the whole and inspects the parts. He has a mind for gen- 
 eralization and analysis, and a ready skill to adapt the means to 
 the end ; to do the proper thing in the proper way. Having 
 spoken thus freely of him in his official relations, I might add, 
 that in the chair he exercises more authority than could be ex- 
 ercised in the United States. Indeed, I believe everywhere in 
 England the president or chairman in church and state exercises 
 more authority than with us. At any rate, if I may judge of the 
 authority of the president of the Wesleyan connexion in England 
 by what I saw at the Conference and elsewhere, he has twice the 
 power of the entire board of Methodist bishops in America, if we 
 except the power of stationing the preachers ; and in practice even 
 here the president's power was greater than that of our bishops'. 
 When he said let it be so, the voice of the elders said let it be so, 
 and so it was. No man, probably, since the days of Mr. Wesley, 
 has had such a control and influence in the connexion as the 
 present president ; and richly does he merit it. If knowledge, if 
 judgment, if integrity, if entire devotion of time and talents ought 
 in any case to secure influence to a man, then is his authority 
 legitimate, and all who know him know that it is also safe. 
 
 I was pleased at the deference paid to seniority and to office 
 in the British Wesleyan Conference ; and not only here, but in 
 all the social and domestic relations of this country. Honesty 
 and candour oblige me to say it is the contrast of what we see in 
 America ; and it is but candid to acknowledge that this difference 
 is doubtless owing, in a great measure, to the difference in the in- 
 fluence of the political institutions of each country respectively 
 upon social and domestic habits. We gain nothing in favour of 
 republicanism to claim for it what does not belong to it ; and we 
 are great losers by shutting our eyes to its unfavourable bearings. 
 Everything has its defects, and the height of human perfection 
 is to fix upon that which has the fewest imperfections ; and 
 then, instead of shutting our eyes to the imperfections of our 
 chosen system, it becomes us to know them well, and provide 
 against them. Where everything is carried by vote, and every 
 man's vote, whether young or old, rich or poor, ignorant or learned, 
 is of equal value with that of any other ; and where, too, these 
 votes are courted by flattering the besotted and ignorant,, and or* 
 
METHODIST CONFERENCE. 597 
 
 ganizing and setting forward the young and inexperienced in the 
 great affairs of the nation, we could expect little else than that the 
 tendency would be to the levelling system, to the prostration of 
 all distinctions, not only the arbitrary and oppressive, but also 
 the natural and salutary ; the guards, therefore, should be on that 
 side. Where men do not come up to the natural mark, there is 
 no danger of their passing beyond. But we have come up, in the 
 constitution of society, to the full point of popular and equal priv- 
 ileges ; and a man must be but half of a philosopher not to be 
 able to infer from the very nature of things, that the press will be 
 onward towards radicalism and agrarianism ; to a levelling, in fact, 
 of those distinctions of respect for the aged and the wise which 
 even savage life recognises. For when civilized communities 
 break over their just social bounds, they rush into a worse state 
 than exists in original barbarism ; they have refined upon theory 
 until they have stifled the voice of those gregarious instincts that 
 constitute the rude elements of savage or barbarous clanship. 
 That we have, in our social constitutions, come fully up to the 
 line in this direction, shows our courage, if not our wisdom ; and 
 the only way now to sustain ourselves is to know our exposed 
 sides, and guard against them ; here is one point of exposure, and 
 here we should set our double guard, and this is to be done mainly 
 in the domestic circle. We must cease to flatter our children, 
 and to press them forward into early public notoriety ; and in 
 more extended associations we must be cautious how we spoil our 
 youth of promise, who are shooting up from the dust, under the 
 patronage of our genius-fostering institutions, by too much flat- 
 tery, and by giving them a premature pre-eminency. Let them 
 rise ; it is well that we have thrown off those shackles of rising 
 genius which, in Europe, make every case of elevation from the 
 lower grades of society a phenomenon ; but it is not well that we 
 guard so little against any peculiar evils incident to such a state 
 of society. I have said more on this subject than I should have 
 done, but for the conviction that the evil is a growing one ; and 
 for the known fact that, when it is seen and charged upon us by 
 Europeans, we deny it. 
 
 The manner of doing business in the Conference was much 
 less in regular parliamentary order than with us, In their mis- 
 cellaneous business several would speak at a time. Whenever 
 4G 
 
598 ENGLAND. 
 
 the subject was one of moment, however, and required grave de- 
 liberation, they spoke successively and in set form ; but very 
 few questions were put to vote. In general, they talked over the 
 subject, and settled down upon what seemed to be the voice of 
 the majority, and especially the majority of the more experienced 
 and the aged. 
 
 As I have mentioned the affair of Mr. Sturge and the Baptist 
 missionary meeting, I will add that Mr. Sturge was true to his 
 promise of making my character (as he preferred to understand 
 it) known to the Conference. He procured a printed circular to 
 be sent to every member of the Conference, informing them of 
 the bad man that had come among them, and calling upon them 
 to treat him accordingly. In allusion to this, and in explanation 
 of the slave question in our country, I spoke at some length on 
 the subject when I was officially introduced. The Conference 
 received me with great apparent cordiality and kindness, and the 
 president expressed his disapprobation of the interference of 
 another in their concerns. On hearing our rules and doings on 
 the subject of slavery, it was declared by several that, so far as 
 ecclesiastical action was concerned, the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church in the United States had done more than the Wesleyans 
 of England ; that the instructions given to their missionaries sent 
 to the West Indies prohibited them altogether from agitating the 
 question of emancipation ; since they were sent there, not to med- 
 dle with civil relations, but to preach the gospel and bring sinners 
 to repentance. In doing this, they considered they were adopting 
 the apostolical example. To this there seemed to be a general 
 assent ; the president, however, stated that it would have been 
 more gratifying to him if the General Conference of the Metho- 
 dist Episcopal Church in the United States had expressed, at 
 their late session, their official and continued disapprobation of 
 slavery ; but, at the same time, expressed his conviction that it 
 did not become the English to interfere or dictate in this matter, 
 and especially to send agents to the United States to agitate the 
 public mind. 
 
 Mr. Sturge afterward sent another circular, expressing, among 
 other things, that " something approaching to indignation had 
 been raised in his mind at seeing it announced in the public pa- 
 pers" that I had been "most cordially and affectionately re- 
 
METHODIST CONFERENCE. 599 
 
 ceived." But this second produced as little effect as the first. 
 I am thus particular on this subject for two reasons : to show the 
 extreme ultraism of a certain portion of the English population, 
 and the rational and honourable course adopted by the Wesleyan 
 Methodists towards their brethren in America. The British 
 Methodists are certainly decided emancipationists, but, as a body, 
 they are reasonable men ; whereas, on this question, many in 
 the other dissenting sects of England and Scotland have treated 
 the subject, so far as the United States are concerned, altogether 
 unreasonably. Some of the Baptists were ready to quarrel with 
 Rev. Doctors Cox and Hobey because they did not commence a 
 crusade on abolitionism as soon as they reached America. The 
 Presbyterians treated the Presbyterian delegation from the United 
 States this very season in a way that will, it is presumed, effectually 
 suspend all further interchanges of official messengers of peace 
 and salutation between the two Christian bodies in the respect- 
 ive countries. The Methodists alone stand in that relation to each 
 other which will authorize the continuance of these Christian em- 
 bassies between the two countries ; and it is devoutly to be de- 
 sired that nothing may occur to prevent the friendly relations that 
 exist between these two great divisions of the Methodist family. 
 
 Two or three things more, and I must dismiss the subject of 
 the Conference. One interesting change was made this year by 
 the British Conference in their manner of setting apart their 
 young ministers for their work. Before, it was done without the 
 laying on of hands, except in case of those who were ordained for 
 foreign missions. This year that ceremony was adopted. Why 
 it should have been delayed so long is not readily accounted for. 
 It is certain, however, that the Methodists have, from the begin- 
 ning, very reluctantly — too reluctantly, as I think — assumed any 
 attitude that would appear like setting up a separate and a dis- 
 senting church. Even to this day, many of the ministers and 
 people will tell you they are not dissenters, and that they do not 
 like dissent. Although they have all the attributes of a regular 
 and distinct church organization ; their doctrinal creed ; their 
 church covenant and moral discipline ; their distinct ministry and 
 ordinances ; their places of worship, and their legal recognition 
 as a distinct religious community, yet, strange to tell, even intel- 
 ligent men among them will tell you they are not dissenters ! It 
 
600 ENGLAND. 
 
 is difficult to know what they mean by this. I suppose it is, 
 however, that they do not wish to supplant or help destroy the 
 establishment. This step of a formal ordination by the laying on 
 of hands, small as it is, will help widen the division, probably, 
 that separates them from the establishment. 
 
 As this was the first Conference held in Birmingham, the citi- 
 zens struck a medal in commemoration of it, and got up a public 
 breakfast, where these medals were presented, with appropriate 
 speeches, on both sides to the president and secretary of the Con- 
 ference, and to the American and Irish delegates ; the thing was 
 executed in a way very creditable to the friends in Birmingham. 
 The breakfast was served in the large new town-hall, which is a 
 fine specimen of Grecian architecture, and a spacious edifice for 
 public meetings. I know not the number that were seated at the 
 breakfast-tables, ladies and gentleman, but I think there could be 
 little, if any, short of a thousand ; and numbers paid a liberal fee 
 for a ticket, just to have the privilege of coming into the gallery 
 to see and hear. The whole scene was peculiarly English, but 
 none the less interesting for that; the topics discussed in the 
 speeches were themes connected with the past and present state 
 of the great Methodist family in Europe and America, and with 
 the general interests of the great Christian cause. Here were pres- 
 ent more than four hundred ministers ; here were representatives 
 of the cause from almost all the British colonies, from Africa, from 
 the United States, and from Ireland, and even one converted In- 
 dian chief from the wilds of Canada. The cheer was good, the 
 tide of feeling strong and pure ; at suitable intervals a most splen- 
 did organ, elegantly played, rolled its deep tones around the echo- 
 ing arches of the spacious edifice. At the close of the breakfast, 
 and just before the ceremony of the medals, the favourite air of 
 " God save the king" was struck by the organ. I noticed a 
 movement before I was aware of the cause. " Is that ' God 
 save the king V " I asked. " Yes," was the reply. " Then," said 
 I, "I must rise also ;" at the same time dropping my cup of cof- 
 fee, and rising upon my feet. The remark and rising were no- 
 ticed and applauded in English style by loud cheers and clap- 
 ping, as though they had hardly expected that a plain republican 
 would rise to honour a king ; but my religion, as well as my sense 
 of propriety, teaches me not only to " love the brotherhood," but 
 also to " honour the king." 
 
METHODISM IN ENGLAND AND AMERICA. 601 
 
 It is often asked what are the points of difference or coinci- 
 dence between English and American Methodists, I answer, 
 that in everything essential they coincide ; in doctrine and moral 
 discipline, perfectly ; in all the ceremonies and general usages 
 they are the same. The English are more systematic than we 
 are ; everything is in order ; everything is done at the time and 
 in the manner the rule proposes. This is a commendable trait, 
 and is in a great measure the secret of their success. In this 
 respect the inconveniences of a new country have contributed to 
 lead us to relax too much from the rules of our great founder, who 
 left on all the institutions of Methodism the stamp of his method- 
 ical mind. 
 
 The character of their ministry, intellectual and theological, 
 and, indeed, for general pulpit qualifications, does unquestionably, 
 in the great whole, exceed ours. I do not mean that we have 
 not as many of what would be called superior preachers as they 
 have, but the great body sinks below theirs, and that for very 
 good reasons. Many of our most promising men have been com- 
 pelled, or, at any rate, induced, for the want of competent support, 
 to leave us and join others ; or, what is more common, go into 
 the local ranks and engage in some secular calling. To this, in 
 England, there is no temptation. In addition, their ministers in- 
 crease faster than their calls for them. The consequence is, 
 they are not obliged, in order to fill up or enlarge their work, to 
 take any but the best; the barely passable they pass by, whereas 
 our great call for ministerial labour leads us to take all who offer 
 that are judged barely passable. 
 
 Their theological school in London will operate still more to 
 improve their ministry. The students consist of those who have 
 been examined and admitted into the Conference, but whose la- 
 bours are not yet wanted, and they are therefore put on what 
 they call their list of reserve. Some of these, as is judged expe- 
 dient and as their funds will allow, they select and place here, 
 board and instruct them, and pay them their ministerial allowance 
 besides. They are instructed in science, literature, and theology. 
 Reverend John Hannah, known to many in the United States as 
 the associate delegate to the American General Conference in 
 1824, is the theological professor. 
 
 That the Methodists in England are more spiritual and devout 
 51 4 G 
 
C02 ENGLAND. 
 
 than they are with us, I could not say. On both sides of the 
 water the free social intercourse of the ministers with each other 
 sometimes borders very close upon a compromise of what some, 
 at least, would think a commendable ministerial gravity. In this 
 respect, however, I think our British brethren rather surpass us. 
 They are the most cheerful class of men I ever saw ; and one 
 would judge that, to look at them. As I sat upon the platform in 
 the Conference room, elevated some seven or eight feet above the 
 great majority of the preachers, I said to myself, you are the best 
 fed and happiest countenanced class of men I ever saw. One 
 would think they had been selected from the nation for some office 
 where corpulency was the qualification for the appointment. As, 
 however, they are not appointed because they are fat, they prob- 
 ably get fat after they are appointed. This, however, is not pecu- 
 liar to the ministry; corpulency is a prevailing physical charac- 
 teristic of the English.* For this I cannot account ; perhaps it is 
 drinking beer; perhaps it is in the climate. Bilious complaints 
 are certainly much less prevalent than with us. There are few 
 sallow, but many fair, ruddy faces ; although I might say here, as 
 a passing remark, that I saw no evidence that there was greater 
 longevity in Old England than in New England ; indeed, I should 
 think the latter has the advantage in this respect. It might be said, 
 perhaps, that in England they have fewer lingering chronic dis- 
 eases and sickly constitutions, but more acute disorders and sud- 
 den deaths. But I wander. 
 
 The preaching of the Methodists in England, and, I may say, 
 that of all others whom I heard, is not so much directed to infiu- 
 ence the unregenerate to an immediate decision to dedicate them- 
 selves to a religious life as with us. The consequence is as 
 might be expected ; the marked and sudden changes are far less 
 frequent than in Mr. Wesley's days, and what we in America 
 term revivals are comparatively rare, especially in some parts of 
 the country. There is a difference in this respect. A Wesleyan 
 preacher in England seriously asked me whether I thought revi- 
 vals were, on the whole, advantageous to the church. I could 
 only reply to him that I was astonished to hear a professed dis- 
 ciple of Wesley make that a question. 
 
 * Another very prevailing physical characteristic is a bald head. The bald heads ex- 
 ceed those in America, I should think, five to one, if not ten to one. 
 
BIRMINGHAM. 603 
 
 The manner of preaching, or, more properly, the style of elo- 
 cution among the preachers generally, is far from being natural. 
 There is a mouthing of their words ; a drawling or dwelling on 
 certain syllables to make them solemn or emphatic that is the 
 very essence of affectation, and could only be tolerated in a coun- 
 try where the habit has become very general. It is borrowed 
 from mother church. The clergymen of the establishment abound 
 in it. They frequently read the service so outrageously that one 
 unaccustomed to it can hardly endure it. The same habit, I am 
 sorry to say, has gained some countenance in our own country, 
 especially among Episcopal clergymen ; although the greater part 
 do not copy it. But in England, although it is not so preva- 
 lent among the other dissenters, you find it extensively among the 
 Methodists, and it is naturalized to some extent even in parlia- 
 ment. It has taken root in their universities, and therefore it will 
 continue to fill the nation with its fruit. When the Methodists, 
 as a body, have such a sample of natural, unaffected elocution, as 
 is exhibited by their honoured presiden and some others, it is 
 surprising to me that they will ever leave it to follow this Gothic 
 sing song, this antiquated, intolerable drawl. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX. 
 
 The town of Birmingham has been called the " toyshop of Eu- 
 rope." It contains about one hundred and fifty thousand inhabi- 
 tants, who are devoted chiefly to the manufacture of the smaller 
 articles made of metals, such as buttons, buckles, toys, knives, 
 scissors, pins. Muskets, and other weapons of death, are also 
 manufactured here, together with a great variety of plated ware. 
 The trade of the town is mainly with America; perhaps more 
 than with all other countries put together in the ratio of four to 
 one. The abundance of coal and of metals in the neighbourhood 
 affords the principal materials that feed these manufactories. 
 
 There is in the town a delightful variety of hill and dale, and 
 the prospective on the east side especially is very fine. At its 
 
004 ENGLAND, 
 
 highest level it has a canal basin, from which, in different cuts, tf 
 distributes its wares to different parts for the home and foreign 
 markets. Birmingham is almost the centre of the kingdom, and 
 is, therefore, a grand thoroughfare for this populous nation and 
 for strangers, to which its fine branching roads in every direction, 
 and its canals, greatly contribute , and to all of which, the addi- 
 tional advantage of a railroad extending from London to Liverpool, 
 now in progress, will soon be added. The surrounding country 
 is very fertile, and affords an abundant and varied market to the 
 town. The public buildings are not numerous ; but the town- 
 hall, already alluded to, is a fine Corinthian temple, with a peri- 
 style of fluted columns on a lofty base, twelve on the sides and 
 eight at the ends, reckoning the corners twice. There are also a 
 fine market, an elegant edifice for a free grammar-school in the 
 Gothic style, just being finished, and in the old market-place is a 
 statue of Lord Nelson. 
 
 Although Birmingham is an old town, yet its principal growth 
 has been since the peace with the United States in 1783 ; showing, 
 as well as Liverpool and other towns, that the trade of a free and 
 an independent nation is abundantly better than that of shackled and 
 dependant colonies ; and that what Great Britain lost in foreign ter- 
 ritory she gained in commerce and wealth at home. Populous as 
 Birmingham is, she never was represented in the national parliament 
 until the passage of the Reform Bill. She now has two members. 
 
 A little out of town are the works of Boulton and Watt, sup- 
 posed to be the first of the kind in Europe, in which one thousand 
 workmen are employed. This Watt is the son of the celebrated in- 
 ventor of the steam-engine, whose single invention has conferred a 
 favour upon his country and upon the world beyond all human cal- 
 culation. Imagination herself would grow weary in attempting to 
 follow out the advantages that result from this method of applying 
 steam power to the arts ; and, what is still more wonderful, al- 
 though the engine itself has been considerably improved in many 
 respects, yet all the important principles were conceived and ma- 
 tured in the single mind of the original inventor. 
 
 Although Birmingham is in Warwickshire, yet it is close upon 
 the borders of Staffordshire ; so near, in fact, that my own lodg- 
 ings during the session of the Conference were in the latter county, 
 in the town of West Bromwich. We had lodgings with a Mrs. 
 
COAL AND IRON MINES. 605 
 
 Hartly, with whom and her kind and interesting family we enjoyed 
 all the kindness and cordiality of Christian hospitality. We had 
 four other ministers lodging with us, with whom we enjoyed sea- 
 sons of delightful intercourse long to be remembered. 
 
 Here we were on the very borders of the coal and iron mines ; I 
 and, by the politeness of Mr. Bagnall, one of the principal owners 
 of extensive works in the neighbourhood, we were taken over the 
 whole. It would be interesting, perhaps, to describe the various 
 processes and parts of the works, but it would swell my volume 
 too much. Their extent, order, and productiveness surprised us. 
 They were manufacturing railroad bars for Russia, in the north 
 of Europe, and for the United States 
 
 That all the materials for making iron, the ore, the coal for 
 roasting and smelting, and the lime for the flux, should be arranged 
 precisely as they were wanted in the same locality, is a wonderful 
 provision of our bountiful Creator. The strata of these different 
 materials lie one above another at different depths, so that, by sink- 
 ing a shaft, they throw out of the same pit all the materials men- 
 tioned. Among their forges and pits canals are cut in every di- 
 rection, by which everything is carried by water almost to the 
 very spot where it is needed. The whole of the natural agents 
 seemed to be used up in these great workshops of England. 
 Many hands are also employed, and at this time they command 
 great wages'; and yet, sad to reflect upon, very few of them lay 
 up anything for the future ; owing chiefly to the great prevalence 
 of intemperance. The hands, in general, can only be made to 
 work about three or four days in the week ; the rest of the time, 
 including Sabbath, is spent in rioting. By means of trades' unions 
 they compel their employers to pay them exorbitant wages, for 
 which they are none the better, but rather the worse. If any of 
 their trade break over the rules and work for less wages, they are 
 persecuted, and punished, and sometimes even murdered, by their 
 fellow-crafts. Business is good ; never better, perhaps, in Eng- 
 land ; orders for manufactures are abundant; and this gives the 
 manual labourer the control. Times will doubtless change, and 
 then what will become of those who now control the market of 
 wages by combination, and spend those wages in strong drink? 
 But on this they spend no thought. " A short life, and a merry 
 one," is their motto. The villages are full of shops for strong 
 51 
 
606 ENGLAND. 
 
 drink, and the streets are full of children, growing up to drink 
 and die, as their fathers now drink and die before them; and 
 yet, who cares for their souls 1 Who steps in to turn aside those 
 streams of molten fire that are overwhelming successive gen- 
 erations and scorching this fair land with its consuming flames ? 
 The neighbourhood of West Bromwich was one of additional inter- 
 est from its having been the birthplace and scene of the early minis- 
 terial labours of the venerated Francis Asbury, who may be called, 
 under God, the principal founder of Methodism in America. We 
 visited the house of his former residence, and the room where his 
 parents lived and died. The only relic I could procure was an 
 earthen cup with two handles, which served as the family drinking- 
 cup, and was common for the parents, and the son, and the itin- 
 erant preacher, who always preached and lodged, when he came 
 round, at old Mr* Asbury's. I inquired for letters of the people 
 who lived in the same cottage and took care of the old people 
 until they died, supposing, of course, that the many letters which 
 it was known he wrote to his parents might be preserved. 
 " Law me," said the woman, " I didn't know that the papers were 
 good for anything ; it isn't a year since I emptied the old trunk 
 and burnt up the contents." Disappointed here, I went to a Mrs. 
 Mosely at Sneal's Green, whose father was a cousin and corres- 
 pondent of the bishop's. Here, however, I could get but two 
 letters. 
 
 My conductor over these scenes was a Mr. John Reeves, a 
 labouring man, but quite an antiquarian in his way, who seemed 
 to know everything connected with the neighbourhood, either in 
 the past or present generation ; among other things, he showed us 
 in the churchyard at Barr the grave and monument of our adopted 
 countryman, Henry Foxall, Esq., who died here while on a visit to 
 his native country and friends in 182a. To him our own denom- 
 ination are under special obligations in Washington City ; and he 
 was also favourably known to the public, and especially to the 
 ordnance department of the government. 
 
 As I know whatever appertains to Bishop Asbury will be of 
 special interest to all who know his character, or anything of his 
 history in the United States, I will give the following statement 
 of John Reeves, which, at my request, he reduced to writing, and 
 I believe it will be more interesting to give it in his own words. 
 
BISHOP ASBURY. 607 
 
 "The late Mr. Francis Asbury was born on the 20th or 21st 
 of August, 1745, near the foot of Hampstead old bridge (this 
 house has been taken down some years), on the Handsworth side 
 of the water in Staffordshire, three miles from Birmingham. 
 His father's name was Joseph, and his mother's Elizabeth As- 
 bury. Joseph Asbury, about the period Francis was born, and for 
 some years after, was employed under Wyrley Birch, Esq., of 
 Hampstead Hall, as farmer. W. Birch was a magistrate ; appli- 
 cation had at several times been made to him to protect the 
 Methodists from the rioters. He once went to Joseph Asbury 
 (about 1764), and said to him, 'Well, Joe, how do they use you ? 
 If anything's the matter, bring them before me, and I will punish 
 them ; and if you have a mind to pray with your 'eels uppermost, 
 I will make them to know better than disturb you.' 
 
 "About the period mentioned above, the Rev. Alexander Mather 
 laboured in this round; Wednesbury* was the principal place; 
 persecution raged at Wolverhampton and Birmingham. At the 
 latter place some 'prentices and others broke into the preaching- 
 house down an entry in Moor-street, Birmingham (formerly an old 
 playhouse) ; one mounted the pulpit, others threw the books at him, 
 and much damage was done. Mr. Mather took these persons be- 
 fore Sir Wyrley Birch, of Hampstead ; his worship declared he 
 would send them for soldiers ; but turning to Mr. Mather, whose 
 good sense he admired, said, ' What do you intend to do ? must I 
 commit them V The answer was, ' If they will promise not to do 
 the same again, we will forgive them.' The justice sternly re- 
 plied, 'Ah, you are always such fools.' After this there was peace 
 at Birmingham. 
 
 " While F. Asbury was a child his parents removed to Barr, 
 about a mile and a quarter from where he was born, and from this 
 place he was sent to school to Auther Taylor, at Sneal's Green. f 
 His master, as he says, ' was a great churl, and used to beat me 
 cruelly ; this drove me to prayer, and it appeared to me that God 
 was very near to me.' I am informed that while the other boys 
 were at play Frank would retire into the fields to pray. He 
 sometimes wore a white smock frock, and the lads in derision 
 called him the parson. 
 
 * Wednesbury was where Mr. Wesley was assaulted and his life endangered. It is 
 in full view from Barr, perhaps about three miles distant, on a neighbouring hill. 
 ■J- We visited the schoolroom at Sneal's Green ; a school is still kept there. 
 
608 ENGLAND. 
 
 "At thirteen and a half years of age he was bound an apprentice 
 to John Griffin ; his trade was chape filing* (A man of the name 
 of Thorp now lives in the house.t) The Rev. Mr. Ryland, of 
 Sullon (a church clergyman), hearing of his piety, and going about 
 to preach, paid him several visits, lent him books, and gave him 
 Christian advice. When F. A. and his young companions went 
 to the preaching at Wednesbury, it was his usual custom to walk 
 a little distance behind therm It has been known that when he 
 has gone to a distance to preach, he has sat with the people wait- 
 ing for the clock to strike, when one would say to the other, * I 
 wish the preacher would come ;' when, to their surprise, he would 
 mount the chair, or what else was ready for him, and commence 
 the service. 
 
 " About the year 1763 Mr. Asbury met class at West Brom- 
 wich, and met in band at Wednesbury. He began to preach 
 when he was about sixteen years of age ; was about twenty-one 
 when he went out as an itinerant preacher (1766). He landed 
 at Philadelphia on the 27th October, 1771. The first Sabbath- 
 schools ever established in America were organized under the 
 direction of Bishop Asbury for the benefit of the slaves in the 
 south of the Union, A.D. 1786. He died March 31, 1816." 
 
 Mr. Reeves further informed me that he was well acquainted 
 with Thomas Ault, who w T as an intimate companion with Asbury 
 in his boyhood. Ault lived in the house adjoining the first preach- 
 ing-room built at West Bromwich in 1764 ; and Mr. Asbury 
 preached his last sermon there, previous to his departure for 
 America in 1771, from 2 Timothy ii., 20. At that time there 
 were but fifteen or sixteen persons in the society ; now they have 
 a very large chapel, at the opening of which, a year or two since, 
 they took up a collection of, I think, seven or eight hundred pounds 
 sterling. Such are the changes of sixty years ; indeed, all this re- 
 gion abounds with Methodists, and it is a little singular that this 
 neighbourhood should have given two Methodist bishops for the 
 United States ; for at Dorlaston, three miles from Barr, Bishop 
 
 * A " chape" is the catch of a buckle ; a small business for so great a man. It is 
 said, however, he was a dull mechanic, and his mind seemed to be too much on other 
 subjects to allow him to excel in his business. 
 
 f And a wretched fellow he is ; it seemed a sort of sacrilege to see the house where 
 Asbury used to live converted into a den of thieves. 
 
LABOURING IRISHMEN. 609 
 
 Whatcoat, when a boy, was also an apprentice to a trade, which 
 he left for the ministry. 
 
 We left Birmingham by a new route on the 13th of August, 
 which was the day after the Conference adjourned, and reached 
 London the same evening. These stagecoaches go at the rate 
 of ten or twelve miles an hour, and on some of the lines the 
 horses are always upon the run. We met one wreck of a coach 
 upon the way, which is no very uncommon thing; for, although 
 the roads are remarkably fine, still the coaches are so topheavy, 
 and the speed is so great, a trivial obstruction will overset them. 
 
 We remarked great droves of the common labouring Irishmen 
 upon the road, all travelling north. These poor fellows come 
 over in harvest to get a little money to pay their rents ; and, as 
 the harvest is ripe in the south soonest, they land there and work 
 up until they reap their way through the kingdom. The number 
 surprised us ; we met hundreds on hundreds in addition to those 
 who were in the fields. One would suppose that so many could 
 scarcely find employment ; but the agricultural products of Eng- 
 land are immense, especially the wheat. Indian corn does not 
 grow at all ; there is not sun enough. Indeed, for my part, I 
 hardly see how anything grows. The greater portion of the time 
 during this absence from London I have felt the need of a sur- 
 tout or cloak, and the hours of sun have been few and far be- 
 tween. But this seems to be the better for the wheat, and the 
 crops are fine. One would suppose, on noticing the immense 
 number of manufactories, and, of course, the numerous hands to 
 be sustained which are not employed in agriculture, that it would 
 be impossible to supply the nation with bread-stuffs at home. 
 The fact, however, is, that the nation is supplied, and large ex- 
 ports, especially the present year, are made to the United States. 
 And when we consider the great extent of pleasure-grounds and 
 hunting-grounds that are still unproductive in the necessaries of 
 life, and the possibility of subjecting much that is now waste land 
 to profitable culture, the presumption is, that England might be 
 made to support double its present population. 
 
 The landscape views in England are often commended. They 
 are rather beautiful than grand. The frequent hedges of haw- 
 thorn and other shrubs give the whole a very fresh and verdant 
 appearance ; but to me they appeared to have injured rather than 
 4H 
 
610 . ENGLAND. 
 
 helped the prospects by too minute divisions. The two most in- 
 teresting features in the country parts of England are the very 
 contrast of each other. The lordly castle or palace, with its ex- 
 tensive parks and pleasure-grounds, and sometimes antique edi- 
 fices ; its porters 1 lodges ; its magnificent gates and extended ave- 
 nues, and all the concomitants of wealth and splendour, constitute 
 one of these features ; and the other is the humble rural cottage, 
 it may be, thatched with straw; it maybe small, and, perhaps, an- 
 cient, but it has around it numerous little appendages of taste and 
 comfort. The little patch in front is tastefully adorned with 
 flowers; a vine runs over the door, and a flower blooms in the 
 window. The charm is in the verdure and in the taste which 
 cultivates it. The climate, however, is so temperate, that it has 
 undoubtedly begotten and fostered this taste for verdure. There 
 are very few countries where there is so little biting frost in the 
 winter and scorching sun in the summer as in England. One 
 luxury they have comparatively little of in England — except at 
 the great expense of a hot-house growth — that is fruit. They 
 have the gooseberry in perfection, such as I have never tasted 
 anywhere else ; but the apple, the pear, the peach, are very indif- 
 ferent; melons they have none. In short, their supplies of fresh 
 fruit are very limited and generally poor. 
 
 We spent another week in London, and then, in company with 
 our excellent hostess, Mrs. Alder, started for Bristol on the 20th 
 of August. There was nothing unusual in the journey. We had 
 the common lot of a ride on the top of an English stagecoach ; 
 hard seat, an iron rod to the back, and frequent showers upon the 
 head, which, thanks to a water-proof coat purchased in London, 
 slid off without penetrating. The ladies had worse fare ; for to 
 hold an umbrella was to shed your rain upon your neighbour, 
 and give him full license to hold one and shed his upon you ; so 
 that there was little gain in that. To go inside is to see nothing 
 and enjoy nothing; yet you are better there than outside in a 
 rain ; but the difficulty is, the morning often promises fair and the 
 treacherous day deceives you. 
 
 We stopped to dine, but could get neither seats nor food, 
 and the coachman hurried us away before we had half satisfied 
 our hunger; and, at the close, the servant had the impudence to 
 come to me to be " remembered." I shall always " remember* 
 
BATH. 611 
 
 him ; and I told him when I called again, if the hotel could afford 
 waiters enough to give us our dinner,. I would pay them. But 
 that is not the policy. As the time is very limited, if embarrass- 
 ments can be thrown in the way of eating for a few minutes, the 
 dinner is saved and the fee is gained. Why will not Madam 
 Trollope travel through her own country, and chastise some of 
 her own countrymen into good manners ? 
 
 There was nothing important to notice until we reached Bath, 
 one hundred and six miles from London. This is a beautiful 
 town, situated on the Avon in Somersetshire, and owes its exist- 
 ence and importance chiefly to its medical springs. This town 
 contains nearly forty thousand inhabitants, and is built chiefly of 
 a beautiful white stone called the Bath stone, from its being 
 found in the town and vicinity. The architecture is imposing, 
 and some of it elegant. The ground rises considerably, and the 
 brows of the eminences are crowned with ranges of architecture, 
 terrace above terrace, which sweep round in the form of a crescent, 
 and make a magnificent appearance. Bath is supposed to have 
 had an existence before the Roman conquest. It became a place 
 of celebrity and even of imperial residence under the Romans ; 
 and here they built splendid baths, the ruins of which were found 
 in 1755, in the centre of the town, twenty feet below the surface 
 of the ground. The celebrated Beau Nash, who was king, in his 
 day, of the world of etiquette and fashion, lies buried here. He 
 died in 1762. The temperature of the Bath waters is about one 
 hundred and sixteen degrees. 
 
 In thirteen miles more we reached Bristol, and were welcomed 
 to delightful lodgings, according to previous arrangements, at J. 
 Irving's, Esquire, a little out of town. With this truly hospitable 
 family we spent ten days, during which time we visited the envi- 
 rons to some extent, but were principally occupied in attending 
 the " British Association for the promotion of Science," for which 
 purpose we had selected this time to visit Bristol. I had at first 
 designed to give a particular account of this association, but find 
 my limits will only permit a slight sketch. 
 
 This association had its origin in a suggestion of Sir David 
 Brewster's, purporting that it was very desirable for scientific men 
 to have an opportunity of associating together, and exchanging views 
 and enjoying each other's communications on scientific subjects. 
 
612 ENGLAND. 
 
 This led to the first meeting at York in 1830. Their subsequent 
 annual meetings have been at Cambridge, Oxford, Edinburgh, 
 Dublin, and now commencing on 22d August, and ending on the 
 27th, at Bristol. The object of the meetings is to promote science 
 by bringing together the improvements of all, by discussing scien- 
 tific subjects, by promoting sympathy and concert in and among 
 the lovers of science, and by interesting the public in the process 
 and results of scientific investigation. As the object is to promote 
 science, and not to honour scientific men by admitting them into 
 a select fraternity, the privileges of membership are open to all 
 respectable persons who will pay the accustomed fee, one sover- 
 eign. Twelve or thirteen hundred new members were added at 
 the late session ; and as none are admitted to the meetings but 
 such as are members, there is a great anxiety among the citizens 
 of the place where the meeting is held to become members ; and 
 thus a great accession is made to the society, and, of course, to 
 its funds, every year. Nor is the increase of funds the only ad- 
 vantage. All who attend the meetings become more deeply inter- 
 ested in science and in scientific men ; an impulse is given to the 
 public mind ; the great advantages of philosophy, and its connex- 
 ion with the practical arts, are more clearly seen, and thus the 
 narrow prejudices of popular feeling -are removed. Indeed, the 
 advantages, are unspeakable; and I have only to hope that our 
 own country will soon avail herself of such an institution. There 
 are, of course, more difficulties with us to prevent success in such 
 an association than exist here. We are more widely scattered ; 
 we have not so many scientific men, and those we have are not 
 so much at leisure as many of the scientific men in Great Britain 
 and Ireland. But all these considerations only go to show the 
 more need we have of some general association to operate as a 
 convex lens to converge to a common focus our sympathies, our 
 discoveries, and our efforts. As a high intellectual feast of a 
 most uncommon character, to say nothing of other advantages, I 
 should think our men of science would make great efforts and 
 sacrifices to establish and sustain such an institution. Never did 
 I before so fully realize what was meant by " the feast of reason 
 and the flow of soul" as during my attendance upon these meet- 
 ings of the British Association. I never expect again to enjoy the 
 like ; but if we could have a distant approximation to it in some- 
 
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 613 
 
 thing of the kind in the United States, it would be in some re* 
 spects more gratifying, as it would promise so much good to our 
 rising country. Nor can I doubt, from the known enterprise and 
 perseverance of our men of science, that, should they engage in 
 an association of this kind, they would make it interesting and 
 profitable ; especially when I see, as I have seen here, one of our 
 own countrymen, Professor Hare, of Philadelphia, contributing to 
 the chymicai department of the British Association as great or a 
 greater portion of important and interesting matter as perhaps any 
 other individual member. 
 
 For the better division of labour, the association is divided into 
 seven departments, called sections, viz., mathematics and physics, 
 chymistry and mineralogy, geology and geography, zoology and 
 botany, medical science, statistics, and mechanical science. These 
 all meet at different rooms during the day, and have each its pres- 
 ident, two vice-presidents, and three secretaries, and a committee 
 consisting in the different departments of members varying from 
 eight to eighteen. Besides these, there were a president, vice- 
 presidents, treasurer, secretaries, and a general committee for the 
 association. Before each section respectively papers were read, 
 communications made, and discussions carried on upon subjects 
 relating to that department; each important paper having first 
 been presented to the committee for its approval, that nothing un- 
 suitable or unprofitable should occupy the time of the section. 
 The sectional committees also took into consideration all proposi- 
 tions for important investigations and experiments which required 
 particular attention and expense. These propositions were ex- 
 amined ; and such as were approved of were referred to the gen- 
 eral committe, when, if approved of by them, committees Were 
 appointed, and appropriations of money were made to carry on the 
 investigations during the year, the results of which were to be re- 
 ported at the next annual meeting. Besides these there was a 
 local committee for the town of Bristol, to make all necessary ar- 
 rangements for the accommodation and the proper conducting of 
 the meetings and the entertainment of the members. This was 
 done in a way highly creditable to the citizens of Bristol. Rooms 
 were nicely fitted up ; all the public rooms, and institutions, and 
 gardens, and collections of the arts, &c, were thrown open for 
 the free access of the members ; an ordinary was provided, where 
 52 
 
614 ENGLAND. 
 
 all might meet together and dine at a common table, and the the- 
 atre was fitted up for the general meetings of the society three 
 evenings in the week, where the doings of each section were re- 
 ported in a condensed form for the general information of the 
 members. At these meetings each member, by applying before- 
 hand and obtaining a ticket, was permitted to introduce a lady, 
 and I, as a foreigner, was favoured with two ladies' tickets. They 
 also favoured foreigners in other respects, by giving them a (red) 
 ticket, which gave them admission to the committee rooms and 
 to the platforms at the general meetings, which was no small fa- 
 vour in the immense crowd which thronged the theatre on these 
 occasions. One of the greatest drawbacks upon the gratifications 
 of these meetings was, that the house was too small for the as- 
 sembly. This occasioned a great rush as soon as the doors were 
 opened by the multitude that had assembled at an early hour to 
 secure seats, by which the ladies were exposed to such crushing as 
 threw some, I believe, into hysterics ; tore off shawls, Vandykes, 
 and headdresses from numbers, and greatly incommoded many 
 others. I had known something of John Bull's character for 
 pushing with his head and horns during Passion Week at Rome,, 
 and I now discovered that what he was abroad he was also at 
 home. One of them declared he would break my arm, because 
 I persisted in interposing it between him and Mrs. F., on whom 
 he was rushing with such violence as made her cry out for relief, 
 to which he paid no regard ; having, however, come to a passage 
 where I could clinch the moulding with my hand, I held him 
 at bay until the ladies could be relieved. 
 
 These general meetings were of great service, as they gave to 
 all the members a comprehensive view of what was done in each 
 section. This was an inadequate compensation for one's not being 
 able to attend all the sections. For myself, I would have been 
 glad to be in several places at once, so interesting were the do- 
 ings of each section. At a common room, however, called the 
 Inquiry Room, the papers to be read each day were advertised 
 in the morning ; and we had an opportunity, in this way, of se- 
 lecting those sections where the subject promised the most in- 
 terest. 
 
 The president of the mathematical and physical section was 
 Rev. W. Whewell, of Cambridge University, and one of the wri- 
 
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 615 
 
 ters of the celebrated Bridgewater Treatises. He is a most talented 
 man, and in his reports of Iris section showed a most comprehen- 
 sive view and penetrating mind. Here, also, were Sir David 
 Brewster and Sir W. R. Hamilton the astronomer, Mr. Babbage 
 the author of the Calculating Machine, Rev. G. Peacock, who has 
 written on the hieroglyphics, and a host of others. 
 
 In the section of chymistry and mineralogy were several veter- 
 ans in science. Dr. Dalton, of Manchester, who is the author of 
 the " Atomic theory." He is a physician by profession, a Quaker 
 u\ his religion. Doctors Turner* and Thompson, the authors re- 
 spectively of the works in chymistry which bear their names. 
 Our countryman, Professor Hare, of Philadelphia, was also pres- 
 ent, and took a very active part in the business of the section, 
 and was, in fact, a member of the sectional committee. 
 
 The paper in this section which excited the greatest attention 
 was read on the second day by Thomas Exley, Esquire, the au- 
 thor of a treatise in which he endeavours to reduce all the phe- 
 nomena of matter to the two grand laws of attraction and repul- 
 sion. Mr. Exley is a teacher of mathematics in the city of Bris- 
 tol, a local preacher of the Methodist church, and a brother-in-law 
 of the late Doctor Clark. His paper was on " the reduction of 
 chymistry to mathematical principles/' This paper was highly 
 complimented by the first chymists present, and may possibly 
 lead to a new era in the science of chymistry ; a science which 
 has already passed from era to era with such rapidity as almost 
 makes one's head giddy to follow its history with the eye, to say 
 nothing of the experiments and the science itself. 
 
 By far the most attracting section of the association was that of 
 geology and geography. This was owing, in part, to the character 
 of the subjects discussed, and, in part, to the popular eloquence 
 of some of the gentlemen belonging to this section ; especially of 
 Professor Sedge wick and Professor Phillips. The former, more 
 particularly, was one of the most fluent speakers, abounding in 
 rich and spontaneous tropes and imager}' - , that I ever heard. I 
 listened to him repeatedly, not only with great pleasure, but with 
 great astonishment. The most happy and masterly effort of all 
 was the first that I attended. It was a description of a geologi- 
 
 * A few weeks after this Doctor Turner committed suicide. He was in bad health 
 and spirits at the time of the meeting. 
 
616 ENGLAND. 
 
 cal section in the county of Devonshire. Mr. Murchinson, the ge- 
 ologist who has made himself so favourably known to the scien- 
 tific world by his description and classification of a system of 
 rocks, which he calls the " Silurian system," began the discus- 
 sion, for he and Professor Sedgewick had examined it together. 
 After Mr. Murchinson had given a very beautiful and scientific 
 analysis and description of the section, Professor Sedgewick arose. 
 He complained, at first, that his friend Mr. Murchinson, having 
 gone over the field first, had left him very little to say. " How- 
 ever, gentlemen," said he, pointing to a fine drawing of the section 
 that had been stretched across the lecture-room, " here is a fine 
 haunch of Nature's game ; and although you have been feasting 
 upon it from the carving of my friend Mr. Murchinson, it will not, 
 perhaps, be offensive to your geological tastes to take another 
 siice." He then began to carve for us in fine style, basting it 
 with tropes, seasoning it with the most happy and illustrative im- 
 agery, and spicing it with wit and eloquence. It was a masterly 
 production. 
 
 But it would be too tedious to follow out the different sections. 
 I will just add, however, that, in the section of mechanical science, 
 over which that veteran philosopher, for a long time president of 
 the Philosophical Society, Gilbert Davis, presided, the time was 
 mostly taken up in discussing the science of steam, and' its va- 
 rious applications. Doctor Lardner (author of the Cyclopedia) 
 gave us a very long lecture to prove the impossibility of naviga- 
 ting with steam from the British Isles to the United States with- 
 out an intermediate stopping-place to take in fuel. He recom- 
 mended the Azores or St. John's in Nova Scotia. Mr. Brunei, 
 the architect, who is concerned in the new steamer now building 
 in Bristol to try the experiment, opposed him. It was to me a 
 very interesting discussion, and resulted in a stronger impression 
 of the practicability of the project. 
 
 The last evening in the theatre was very crowded, and would 
 have been more interesting if Doctor Buckland (the author of the 
 last Bridgewater Treatise) had not attempted to bring his philos- 
 ophy down to what he conceived to be the comprehension of the 
 ladies ; in doing which he became not only boyish, but indelicate. 
 The American ladies, perhaps, are fastidious upon some points ; 
 so, at least, Mrs. Trollope thinks ; and I am very sure that no as- 
 
BRISTOL. 617 
 
 sembly of American ladies would have listened to Doctor Buck- 
 land's remarks ; and I am very happy in believing that no philos- 
 opher educated in our country would have attempted to entertain 
 them with such remarks as characterized a great part of his speech. 
 Doctor Buckland paid a poor compliment, withal, to the intellects 
 of his countrywomen, if he supposed it necessary to lower him- 
 self to such a position to make himself intelligible and entertain- 
 ing. I know well that many of them were as disgusted with 
 him as we were ; and yet Doctor Buckland is a man of science. 
 His late work is very valuable. 
 
 On Saturday the general committee met to finish up their busi- 
 ness, and adjourned to meet next year in Liverpool. 
 
 Bristol was for a long time second only to London in popula- 
 tion and commercial importance ; but other towns have now gone 
 far before it. Its population, including the out-parishes, is about 
 one hundred thousand, more than half of which, however, belong 
 to the city proper. One cause of its not keeping pace with Liv- 
 erpool, Glasgow, &c, is the great inequality in the height of the 
 water at high and low tides. The highest tides rise about forty- 
 two feet. The town, how r ever, keeps up a foreign trade with 
 most parts of the commercial world. 
 
 The situation of the town is most delightful, and the surround- 
 ing scenery very fine. It is on the Avon, about ten miles from its 
 junction with the Severn. Just below the town are heights, 
 through which the Avon has cut a channel that is extremely pic- 
 turesque and bordering upon the sublime. Here a suspension 
 bridge is about to be erected, under the direction of Mr. Brunei], 
 the first chain of which was stretched across during our stay at 
 Bristol. This bridge will be higher than the one at Friburg, in 
 Switzerland, although not so long. Its proposed length is seven 
 hundred feet, height two hundred and thirty, and width thirty- 
 four. This, when completed, will be the third wonder of the 
 kind, that of Menai, in Wales, being the first ; which, however, 
 falls behind both the others, being but five hundred and fifty feet 
 in length, and one hundred feet above high water. The one at 
 Bristol connects Clifton, a beautiful town one mile from Bristol, 
 and known to the American reader as the late residence of Miss 
 Hannah More, with the opposite bank of the Avon. 
 
 The association of illustrious names with Bristol renders it in- 
 52 41 
 
618 ENGLAND. 
 
 teresting to the traveller. Here, in an ancient cathedral founded 
 in 1140, is the tomb of Bishop Butler, the author of the "Analo- 
 gy ;" and at a more modern Baptist chapel is the grave, covered 
 by a simple slab, of the no less celebrated Robert Hall. This is 
 the chapel where he exercised his ministerial office. At the 
 Portland-street Methodist chapel lies the dust of Captain Webb, 
 the first Methodist preacher in America, who, in his military 
 dress, used to preach the gospel to a handful in a sailloft in New- 
 York. Sebastian Cabot, the navigator, who first discovered the 
 Continent of America, was born here, and sailed from this port in 
 1497 on his voyage of discovery to America. The poet Chat- 
 terton, Hannah More, Southey, Coleridge, and numerous others 
 of note, were also natives of this metropolis of the west of Eng- 
 land. One would think it must produce poets, for the scenes are 
 inspiring in almost every direction. I think for a residence I 
 should prefer the neighbourhood of Bristol to any other part of 
 England which I visited. 
 
 The Wesleys were much in Bristol, and Methodism had an 
 early growth in this city. I visited the first preaching-place built 
 here by Mr. Wesley. The construction is singular ; on the same 
 level with the gallery of the chapel were several rooms fitted up 
 for the accommodation of the preacher. Here are still shown Mr. 
 Wesley's study and parlour. He passed from his rooms directly 
 into the gallery, and thence to the desk of the chapel. This in- 
 teresting chapel, to the discredit of the society in this place, has 
 been suffered to pass into the hands of another religious sect. 
 
 Near my lodgings is a rural lane called " Charles Wesley's 
 Lane," where Mr. Charles Wesley used to walk and meditate ; 
 and here, it is said, he composed many of his inimitable hymns. 
 
 A few miles from Bristol is Kings wood, which is a settlement 
 of colliers. Here the gospel, under Mr. Wesley, took great effect 
 among these outcasts of society, which so endeared the place to 
 him that he built a school here. Its first destination was for gen- 
 eral and public use, but it has now come to be used exclusively 
 for the sons of the travelling preachers, a hundred of whom are 
 kept here constantly. The arrangements in general seemed ap- 
 propriate, with the exception that the boys, in their hours of re- 
 cess, had no appropriate home. They must either be in their 
 public schoolroom or out in the public yard. . They had no place 
 
KINGSWOOD. 619 
 
 of retirement for reflection, writing, or study ; and no place of de- 
 posite to which they could have free access for any such toys or 
 tools as boys are fond of. This struck me as a grand defect. 
 
 At Kingswood we were shown Mr. Wesley's gown, now al- 
 most hanging in shreds, which I had the curiosity to put on ; the 
 association was almost inspiring, but I fear no permanent in- 
 spiration resulted from the temporary investiture. Who of his 
 numerous sons has been able to receive and wear his official man- 
 tle ? Not one. In the history of Methodism Wesley stands, and 
 will for ever stand, alone. 
 
 Here, too, is a beautiful walk, shaded and perfumed with flow- 
 ers, faint emblem of the savour of his memory, called " Wesley's 
 Walk." His library is here, many of the books containing notes 
 by his own hand ; and here are still preserved his chair and other 
 articles of furniture ; and in the yard is the tree under which he 
 used to preach to the colliers, until the tears, coursing down the 
 rough black cheeks of these sons of the pit, washed a stripe that 
 gleamed with the light of penitence in the dark background, not 
 only of a polluted face, but of a still more polluted heart. This 
 tree, however, is dead ; its verdure has departed, and it is going 
 rapidly to decay. Not so the gospel that was preached under its 
 shade ; that still blooms and bears fruit all around these regions. 
 What an illustration of the words of St. Peter : " The grass 
 withereth, and the flower thereof falleth away : but the word of 
 the Lord endureth for ever. And this is the word which by the 
 gospel is preached unto you." 
 
 We left Bristol on the 30th of August in a steamer for Dublin, 
 and had a wretched voyage ; but, as I have already said enough 
 about sea-sickness, I will pass this over. Suffice it to say, that 
 from seven o'clock in the morning until four in the afternoon the 
 next day, neither Mrs. F. nor myself took any nourishment, and 
 were, for a good part of the way, in a miserable state of suffering. 
 To add poignancy to all these transient seasons of suffering, the 
 voyage home is lived over and over again in painful anticipation. 
 
620 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI. 
 
 The approach to Dublin is fine ; the perspective is bounded by 
 an amphitheatre of hills covered with verdure, and beautifully 
 spotted with country- seats and other edifices ; islands and rocky 
 eminences skirt you on the right and left. Several villages also at- 
 tract the stranger's attention, and especially that of Kingston, which 
 bids fair ultimately to become the principal harbour for Dublin, 
 as it is more accessible and convenient than the one nearer the 
 city ; it has a pier two thousand eight hundred feet in length, 
 around the head of which, at low tide, there is twenty-four feet 
 of water. A railroad connects this village with the city ; passen- 
 gers frequently land here, but we kept on, as the tide was favour- 
 able, up to town. 
 
 On landing we were saluted by a number of obsequious por- 
 ters with "Your honour," "Your worship," "Your excellency,'* 
 " Will you go to our hotel ?" " We will give you a room almost 
 for nothing at all, and good enough for his majesty." As the 
 "jaunting cars" were all taken up, we made the neare'st port* 
 but, alas ! " for his majesty," if he had to lodge here. We made 
 a stay of it for one night ; and the next morning, according to an 
 arrangement made by the Wesleyan superintendent of the Dublin 
 Circuit, we were hospitably lodged with a Mr. Owen, from 
 whom and his family, as well as from many others in Dublin, 
 we received much kind attention. 
 
 Before we left our lodgings in the morning we had an oppor- 
 tunity of seeing a specimen of Irish justice. A poor fellow 
 was carried by on a rail, followed by a multitude, and ever and 
 anon tossed up and shaken, to make his seat more " unaisy." 
 " What is that for ?" said I to a bystander " Och I sir, and he 
 refuses to pay his socket money." It seems he had just got mar- 
 ried, and refused to pay the usual treat ; for this offence he was 
 carried down the public quay in broad daylight, no one saying 
 " Why do ye so ?" 
 
 We visited most of the public places in Dublin, and were much 
 
DUBLIN. 621 
 
 pleased with this beautiful city ; although in the midst of princely- 
 splendour there was much of beggary and wretchedness. The 
 contrast of poverty and wealth is more strongly marked, and more 
 constantly noticed, perhaps, in Dublin, than in any other city we 
 have visited. I cannot attempt a description of Dublin, for I find 
 I am swelling my journal already beyond what many will think a 
 readable extent ; indeed, we came to Dublin with a view of de- 
 voting but little time, and therefore of getting but a smattering of 
 personal knowledge of this interesting island. 
 
 Dublin is divided into nearly two equal parts by the almost 
 straight channel of the river Anna Liffey running through it from 
 west to east. Over this river are seven beautiful bridges, the low- 
 est of which is Carlisle Bridge ; from this bridge you have a fine 
 view of the most elegant part of Dublin. To the north is Sack- 
 ville-street, a spacious avenue constituting the main artery of the 
 city ; in the centre of this street is Nelson's column, surmounted 
 by a statue of this naval hero, the whole elevated one hundred 
 and thirty-four feet ; it is a Doric shaft of fine workmanship. 
 This street is finely built ; in the opposite direction is Westmore- 
 land-street, leading through between the old parliament house, 
 now the bank, and Trinity College ; up the river the beautiful 
 bridges are stretching their arches across the Liffey, and below 
 are the fine quays, custom-house, public stores, &c. It is a 
 charming view. There are numerous public squares in Dublin, 
 and a great number of fine buildings, which I cannot describe. 
 
 The only church which I will stop to notice is the Cathedral of 
 St. Patrick ; it occupies the site where the patron-saint of Ire- 
 land is supposed to have had a chapel in the middle of the fifth 
 century ; this is a fine old building, with numerous monuments 
 and much architectural taste. It was in this cathedral that Jona- 
 than Swift was dean, and here he was buried ; he wrote his own 
 epitaph, which is inscribed upon his monument in Latin, the pur- 
 port of which is, that " Jonathan Swift is buried here, where 
 cruel insult can no longer lacerate his heart. Go, stranger, and 
 imitate, if you can, this strenuous advocate for liberty. He died 
 the 19th of October, 1745, aged seventy-eight." His " Stella" 
 has a monument in the same church, and his servant also, with 
 an epitaph by the dean. By the politeness of Mr. M'Guire, who 
 waited upon us, we were permitted to inspect some of the old 
 
622 IRELAND. 
 
 records, and he gave me also an autograph signature of the 
 dean's ; by these records we saw the strong and rough character 
 of Swift delineated in some of the records he made. A deed, for 
 instance, which he appears to have believed was executed in 
 fraud, was endorsed as the work of " that rascal Jones, and the 
 knaves or fools, his chapter." Swift knew very well that deans 
 might be rascals. 
 
 Mr. M'Guire showed us the dean's scull, the conformation and 
 developments of which were a positive contradiction of all the 
 principles of phrenology. Of its being the identical head of the 
 dean there can be no doubt; first, because it was found in his 
 tomb ; and, secondly, because it was found sawed in two ; an oper- 
 ation which was known to have been performed on his head after 
 his death. This cranium was shown to some of the phrenologists 
 who attended the British Association the year before, and was at 
 first so strong an argument against the supposed science as to be 
 extremely perplexing to them ; but they finally accounted for it 
 by supposing that the cranium must have changed its size and 
 form during the three years of his insanity and idiocy, the last of 
 his life ! That he was insane no more than three years is evi- 
 dent from the fact that I saw a signature of his in a regular busi- 
 ness transaction, requiring the use of his reason, in the year 1742. 
 
 From the cathedral we went to the residence of the present 
 dean, where we saw a most splendid collection of ancient Irish 
 curiosities, all collected by the dean within the last six years. 
 
 Queen Elizabeth, under whom the most important statutes of 
 the English universities were enacted, was the sovereign who 
 founded and chartered Trinity College. The first students were 
 admitted in 1593. Thirty years ago, it is said, there were but 
 about five hundred students, but now they reckon about two thou- 
 sand. But it is not much to be a member of Trinity College, for 
 residence is not required. If the student is present to answer to 
 eight examinations, held at the commencement of the term, he 
 may be anywhere the rest of the time without detriment to his 
 degree ; but the course of study and of examination for a degree 
 is much more extended than in the English universities. 
 
 Doctor Sadleir, regius professor in Greek, was kind enough 
 to take us over the university. The entire suite of buildings con- 
 sists of three successive quadrangles, containing the public rooms 
 
EDUCATION IN IRELAND. 623 
 
 and the rooms for ihe pupils. The library is a fine room, contain- 
 ing about one hundred and thirty thousand volumes. It is two 
 hundred and sixty-five feet long by two hundred and fourteen 
 broad. The books are well arranged. At the extremity of this 
 room is another library, consisting of twenty thousand volumes ; 
 besides which there is another room of manuscripts. Books that 
 are brought here are never allowed to be carried out. The offi- 
 cers are obliged to take an oath to this effect. So scrupulous are 
 they in observing this oath, that, when they found that a number 
 of pernicious books had, by some means, been introduced, they 
 held a consultation, and finally concluded to cut a hole in the wall 
 and do them up with masonry, and thus purify the library and 
 save the law and the oath. 
 
 The cause of education appears to be on the advance in Ire- 
 land, although an unhappy division has taken place on the subject 
 of the national schools which government is establishing in dif- 
 ferent parts of the kingdom. These schools were planned with a 
 design to exclude religious sectarianism of every kind, and to that 
 end it was found necessary to exclude the Bible, except such por- 
 tions as have been selected with care, so as to have nothing that 
 shall give offence to Catholic, Protestant, or infidel. This gar- 
 bling of the Scriptures has given offence to many good men, who 
 think the plan of national education devised for Ireland is an un- 
 holy compromise of principle and of Protestantism. The plan, 
 however, continues to be prosecuted under a board of commission- 
 ers, consisting of a Catholic and a Protestant archbishop, a Pres- 
 byterian clergyman, and others. They have established thirteen 
 or fourteen hundred schools in different parts of the kingdom, in 
 which more than one hundred and fifty thousand children are ed- 
 ucated, and the work is advancing. At this time they are getting 
 up some fine buildings in Dublin for a normal and other schools, 
 which promise something very creditable to the city. This sys- 
 tem, however objectionable it may be in some respects, will do 
 good, I think. It will be a great thing to get Ireland enlightened. 
 One of the most unfavourable considerations for Ireland is the 
 extreme jealousy of the respective parties, political and religious, 
 of each other. They have, by mutual collision and provocation, 
 become extremely sensitive, irritable, and intolerant, and there 
 appears little hope of mitigation or reconciliation. The Catholics 
 
624 IRELAND. 
 
 especially are extremely sore on the subject of tithes ; constitu- 
 ting, as they do, the great majority of the population, they deem it 
 a hardship that they have been obliged to pay tithes, and support a 
 religion which they verily believe is heretical. And the Protestant 
 clergy have, in general, been anything but faithful pastors ; instead 
 of going after their flock and faithfully instructing them, they have 
 lorded it over their spiritual heritage, and urged their claim for the 
 fleece, while they have paid but little attention to the flock. This 
 is the view which even the established clergy take of the subject; 
 and some of them say they consider the present situation of the 
 clergy in Ireland a just visitation for their criminal neglects and 
 covetousness. Now many of them cannot get their tithes ; the 
 man in the parish who will pay is made an outlaw by the com- 
 munity, and the officer who shall undertake to enforce a collec- 
 tion is the same. 
 
 The position of England to Ireland seems to me very much 
 like that of a man who has seized a cur by the ears and throat, 
 because he thought he deserved chastisement for some offence, 
 and has rubbed his ears and choked him until he has become mad- 
 dened with irritation. The man, weary of struggling with the cur, 
 wishes himself well out of the scrape ; but he dare not now relin- 
 quish his grip upon the dog's throat, lest, as soon as he is at lib- 
 erty, he should turn and bite him ; the cur continually shows his 
 teeth, and snarles at his master, which only leads the latter, through 
 fear, to pinch him the tighter. O'Connel and his party demand 
 the same laws for Ireland that have been enacted for England ; 
 that the close boroughs and corporations should be thrown open 
 to the suffrages of the people, &c. But England says no ; as you 
 are the majority, so soon as we give you permission, you will 
 annihilate us ; and the question simply is, whether the Protest- 
 ants or Catholics shall be masters in Ireland. We have got you 
 now, and we mean to hold you. This only makes the Irish the 
 more enraged, and that, on the other hand, only makes the Eng- 
 lish the more afraid to let go their hold. Where will this state of 
 things end ? Shall the poor cur be choked to death ? or shall the 
 master let go and be severely bitten ? for bitten he most surely will 
 be the moment he lets go. This is certainly a question in govern- 
 ment of exceedingly difficult solution. Some, perhaps, would say, 
 " Do right, without regard to consequences." Ay ! but there are 
 
POLITICAL STATE OF IRELAND. 625 
 
 some questions, the right of which can only be ascertained by re- 
 ferring to consequences ; and nowhere do questions of this kind 
 come up more frequently than in those relations which exist in 
 civil society. All who know anything of the Irish character 
 know it is factious and ungovernable ; and all who know anything 
 of the Catholic policy know that it always, where it is possible, 
 aims at political supremacy. The contest between the two par- 
 ties then is, not simply whether Ireland shall have equal rights 
 with England, but whether there shall be a Catholic or a Protestant 
 supremacy. The parliament reform bill, coming upon the back of 
 the Catholic emancipation bill, has already given great power to 
 the Catholics ; so that the O'Connel party have the casting vote 
 in all cases where there is a division on any important question. 
 If to this were added such municipal regulations as would give 
 the Catholics all the power in the local magistracy, the conse- 
 quences, it is feared, might be disastrous. What, then, can be 
 done ? Grant that the policy of England with Ireland has been 
 bad ; allow that it has been oppressive ; still that does not help 
 the matter now, The existing relations and feelings are what 
 they are ; the question is as to the remedy. The improvement 
 in education promises something ; the more ignorant people are, 
 the more they may be made the tools of designing priests and 
 demagogues. What though the education is not all or precisely 
 such as might be desired ? still give the people knowledge ; dif- 
 fuse it abroad ; it will show its advantages in the end. I confess I 
 was not able to see the full force of all the opposition which many 
 of the good people of England and Ireland make to the national 
 schools. There has been one argument urged on this subject, 
 however, that is worthy of attention, and by noticing which some 
 light will be thrown on the affairs of Ireland. 
 
 There was a society incorporated in 1730 for the purpose of 
 instructing the poor children of Ireland. This society used to re- 
 ceive parliamentary aid, by which it supported forty schools ; 
 since the national system has been adopted this aid is withdrawn, 
 and they now support but eight schools. Here, it is said, is a 
 great loss to the Protestant cause, since in all these schools, though 
 Catholic children were admitted, yet it was with the understand- 
 ing that they should be taught Protestantism. There is also an- 
 other consideration urged, which will apply to this and other 
 53 4K 
 
626 IRELAND. 
 
 charity schools in Ireland, namely, that although where there is 
 no other school accessible to the children, many of the Catholics 
 would send their children to these decidedly Protestant schools, 
 yet, as soon as a school less objectionable in its religious charac- 
 ter is established in the neighbourhood, all these Catholic children 
 are withdrawn and sent to the latter schools. Here, they say, the 
 measures of government have actually interfered with Protestant ef- 
 forts ; they take the children away from Protestant influence. This 
 is plead by the Methodists, who employ twenty-six schoolmasters, 
 and instruct in their mission schools in Ireland six thousand poor 
 children, " a considerable number" of whom, it is stated in their 
 last missionary report, " are of Romish parentage." Grant all this, 
 still it must seem that very few Catholics are educated in all these 
 charity schools put together. What are the few Catholic children 
 in the fifty or sixty, or even in several hundred, if there were so 
 many of these Protestant charity schools, compared with the en- 
 lightening of the whole mass, as the national system promises to 
 do ? At best, they can get but few of these Catholic children into 
 Protestant schools ; fewer in Ireland than almost anywhere else. 
 The priests are opposed to it ; and, as they see the design, they 
 are constantly on the watch ; the people are irritated and suspicious. 
 Catholic Ireland is neither to be caught with guile nor converted 
 by force. Let the schools go on, and that will do something.* 
 
 Another thing England might do for Ireland ; she might abate 
 her tithe system altogether; at least in those districts where the 
 people are almost wholly Catholics. Wise men cannot well be 
 guilty of greater folly at the present day than to attempt to crowd 
 a religion down the throats of an opposing community. There 
 are cases, I am told, where the whole congregation of the Protest- 
 ant clergyman consists of only the household of the parson, and 
 yet the entire parish are compelled, by the odious tithe system, to 
 support him. If it were designed to disgust the people with Prot- 
 estantism, this is the way to do it ; and if it is intended to per- 
 petuate this disgust, let this policy be perpetuated. The only 
 way to convert Ireland is, doubtless, to take off all legal disabilities 
 and restraints. 
 
 * It is made a still further ground of complaint against the government, that they have 
 become a propaganda for the Catholic church, for at Maynooth, in Kildare county, twelve 
 miles from Dublin, government actually supports a college for the education of Catholic 
 priests ; for this I can form no excuse. 
 
METHODISTS IN IRELAND. 627 
 
 And since I have struck upon this subject, I will just express 
 an opinion ; whether it be correct or not, lime will determine. 
 The opinion is this, that the questions at issue between the English 
 and the Irish will never be set at rest until Ireland is admitted to 
 equal privileges with England, and until the Irish church is left 
 entirely free from Protestant domination and taxation. To return 
 to my former figure, the Protestant grip must be loosed from the 
 animal's throat, bite or no bite. Give him fair play, and fight it 
 out with him on moral grounds, for here is where the question is 
 ultimately to be decided, and then the Irishmen will be aisy, but 
 never before. 
 
 The Methodists have probably done more towards spreading 
 Protestantism in the wildest parts of Ireland than any other class 
 of men. In addition to the schoolmasters already mentioned, they 
 have eight Scripture readers, and about twenty-five missionaries 
 employed on the island. Among the latter is the celebrated Gid- 
 eon Ousely, whom I had the good fortune to meet in Dublin. 
 He is an original character, prepared alike to talk Latin to the 
 Catholic priests and confound them by quoting their own author- 
 ities, and to preach to the wild Irish in Gaelic. He has spent al- 
 most the whole of a long life in ministering to the reformation of 
 the most ignorant portion of his countrymen. He holds publie 
 debates with the priests ; he publishes books and tracts, and visits 
 the common people in their cabins. He has been often exposed 
 and threatened, but has hitherto escaped. He was cotemporary 
 with the latter years of Mr. Wesley, and still holds the field against 
 Romanism and sin. He gave me, when I parted with him, a large 
 book and a great roll of tracts, of which he was the author, on the 
 subject of the Catholic controversy. 
 
 The Methodist connexion in Ireland have a conference of their 
 own, separate from the British Conference, to which, however, 
 the latter appoints the president. The support of their ministry 
 and the executive part of their administration are all independent 
 of the parent conference, as also are most of their funds. They 
 have been much in debt, and have laboured under great disad- 
 vantages ; but their debt is now nearly liquidated, and the con- 
 nexion is rising. One great difficulty, however, is, that they 
 cling too close to the establishment. They seem to prefer having 
 their children enter the church than be Methodists, and especially 
 
628 IRELAND. 
 
 Methodist ministers. This spirit is apparent to a considerable ex- 
 tent in England, but it appeared still stronger in Ireland. By this 
 means the children of the most wealthy and»respectable in the 
 Methodist societies entirely forsake, in many instances, the reli- 
 gion of their fathers, and with the approbation, and often wilh the 
 high gratification of their parents, enter the establishment as cler- 
 gymen ; or, if in other professions, they withdraw altogether from 
 the Wesleyans. This is done, too, it appears to me, in most cases, 
 from worldly motives and with the hope of wordly promotion. I 
 believe this to be inconsistent, not to say sinful. If Methodism 
 has done the parents good, it is valuable for the children ; and if* 
 it is not important for the latter, the former ought to give it up al- 
 together for themselves and for the world. If Methodism needs 
 not to be sustained for the sake of the children of Methodist pa- 
 rents, it is not worth sustaining at all. Who will carry it forward 
 if the children of those who have been supporters of the cause 
 forsake it ? I can scarcely account for the too prevailing course 
 of the Methodists of Great Britain and Ireland on this subject. 
 They act as though they thought it of some consequence to them- 
 selves and the world to keep up the institutions of Methodism ; 
 but it pleases many of them rather the most to have their children 
 adhere closely, and perhaps professionally, to the established 
 church. They may think it right, but, for myself, I cannot un- 
 derstand it ; and certain I am, it greatly weakens the cause both 
 in England and Ireland. I would say, however, in connexion 
 with these remarks, this feeling and practice are by no means uni- 
 versal.* 
 
 The members in the Irish Wesleyan Conference are, the present 
 year, reported at twenty-three thousand two hundred and seventy- 
 eight, besides three thousand one hundred and fifty-six in the mis- 
 sions. The number of travelling preachers belonging to the Irish 
 Conference, exclusive of the missionaries, is one hundred and 
 thiry-four, of whom only ninety-four are efficient. The encour- 
 agement for their pious young men to enter the field is small ; and 
 as they are entirely destitute of academic or higher schools of 
 learning, most of the influence thrown over the best educated of 
 
 * Notwithstanding all this cringing to the church, many of its ministers are among the 
 strongest opposers of the Methodists ; in Ireland especially they persecute and reproach 
 them, and, in some cases, exclude their children from their schools. 
 
JAUNTING CARS. 629 
 
 Methodist youth is likely to be such as will alienate them from 
 the Methodist church. Under these circumstances, as might be 
 expected, those who do enter the work are a self-denying, labori- 
 ous, and, in many instances, a suffering class of men. The good 
 they have already done to Ireland is incalculable ; and, but for 
 their embarrassments by debts and by divisions among themselves, 
 they would have done much more. From these embarrassments 
 they have, of late, been greatly relieved, and the connexion is in 
 a more prosperous state than at any former period ; but, unfortu- 
 nately, this comes too late. Much less can be done for the igno- 
 rant Catholics of Ireland now than could have been done a half 
 century since. The same remark will hold with respect to the 
 established church. Among them now are more pious men than 
 formerly, and more genuine Christian effort is made for the good 
 of Ireland ; but it comes too late. Goaded to madness, irritated 
 with tithes and political disabilities, Catholic Ireland is deaf to 
 the voice of instruction, and firmly fixed against reform ; perhaps, 
 however, when the present paroxysms of political and religious 
 opposition and prejudice have subsided, the result may be more 
 favourable. Already some think they see the dawning of light. 
 Some Catholic priests and people have lately renounced the su- 
 perstitions of the Roman church. Among them is the Rev. Mr. 
 Crotty, of Birr, who, with his cousin, also a clergyman, and two 
 thousand of his congregation, have recently come out against al- 
 most all the peculiar and offensive features of the Roman church. 
 They have not left the church, but openly and publicly protest 
 against her errors. 
 
 But I am reminded that my journal in Ireland will be longer 
 than my stay, unless I hasten on with my pen. I must remark, 
 however, for it has something to do with our mode of travelling in 
 this country, that in Dublin, and, in fact, all over Ireland where I vis-, 
 ited, they have a peculiar kind of carriage called a tl jaunting car," 
 These are divided into inside and outside ears. The construction 
 of both is similar ; but in one the feet of the passengers are turn- 
 ed outward on two parallel seats running lengthwise, and bringing 
 their sides, of course, towards the horse, and the parties on the two 
 seats back to back. In the other the feet are turned inward, and 
 the parties sit face to face. The former is more common. In 
 both the wheels are low, and the seats are built out over them j 
 53 
 
630 IRELAND. 
 
 and in the outside cars a wing hangs down, within perhaps eigh- 
 teen inches of the ground, to which is attached a footstool or step, 
 on which the feet rest. The seat is, in fact, a hanging settee, built 
 over the wheel, and furnished with a footstool. This footstool is 
 so constructed, that when you are out it can be turned up, and forms 
 a covering to the settee. When it is turned down you can step 
 upon it and seat yourself with the greatest ease. It is the handi- 
 est carriage to get into and out of that I ever saw ; and, withal, it 
 seems to be constructed as a showcase for the rider ; for the 
 whole form, from head to foot, is exposed. If it turns over, which 
 seems to be almost impossible, it cannot hurt you, for it is a very 
 easy thing just to step off and free yourself from danger. The 
 stranger, however, especially in the city, rides in continual fear 
 lest his lower extremities should come in contact with a post or 
 some other object or vehicle, and the more so because these bat- 
 winged settees and footstools spread out much wider than other 
 carriages. By the politeness, however, of John Barrett, Esquire, 
 whose car was much at our service while in Dublin, and to whose 
 special attentions we were particularly obligated during our stay, 
 we had the privilege of sailing round this beautiful city whenever 
 the weather would permit. 
 
 They have public cars of a similar construction with the above, 
 except that they are much larger and more coarsely made, which 
 are used for carrying passengers over the island. As we failed 
 in getting into the stagecoach, we prepared to take our chance in 
 one of these Irish omnibuses. It is a very cheap mode of con- 
 veyance, and, therefore, frequently crowded by very undesirable 
 associates. Luckily for us, a heavy shower, just as we were 
 about to embark, drove us from our purpose, and gave the decis- 
 ion in favour of a postcoach. Posting in Ireland is much cheaper 
 than in England. Our postcoach was one shilling per Irish mile, 
 exclusive of tolls, and threepence per mile to the postillion. We 
 arrived at Drogheda, where I had an appointment for a lecture in 
 the evening, and where I was warmly greeted by Christian friends, 
 especially by the Reverend F. Tackerbury, the Wesleyan superin- 
 tendent of the circuit. 
 
 Drogheda has about twenty thousand inhabitants, of whom only 
 about fifteen hundred are Protestants ; and of these a portion under 
 the pastoral care of Reverend Mr. M'Ghee, son of the author of 
 
IRISH BEGGARS. 631 
 
 the treatise on the Atonement, are, as I was informed, decided 
 Antinomians. The little Wesleyan band, therefore, seem to be 
 the only representatives of the true gospel light in this dark town, 
 and they are few and feeble. 
 
 When we' left Drogheda the next morning we saw the fruits of 
 Romanism in the full and abundant harvest ; a harvest of degra- 
 dation and want. Our coach was surrounded with beggars, from 
 whose importunities it seemed almost impossible to escape. Beg- 
 gars, indeed, annoyed us almost the whole route. Whenever we 
 stopped we were assailed, and never was there a race better skilled 
 in the beggar's dialect than the poor Irish. At one place a blind 
 man accosted us, who called himself "Poor Jack," and whose 
 sight seemed to have been destroyed by a burn, which left his en- 
 tire face scarred, shrivelled, and deformed. The language of his 
 supplication was as follows : " Have compassion upon Poor Jack, 
 and God will reward you !" It was uttered in a low, plaintive 
 undertone, which sounded as if the poor wretch had spoken from 
 the depths of a dark prison-house. Such, indeed, was the gloomy 
 habitation of his soul, for the windows of his house were curtained 
 over in perpetual darkness. I shall never, I think, forget the sound 
 of that voice in my ear. I hear it still. Poor Jack ! who can 
 doubt but that compassion for thee will meet the reward of Heaven ? 
 Another was the case of a miserable-looking, decrepit old lady, 
 bending under the weight of threescore and ten. Her story was 
 soon told, and, as it was more simple, so it was more expressive 
 and touching even than that of Poor Jack. Her voice was dis- 
 tinct, though tremulous ; and as she reached out her skinny, with- 
 ered hand, she said, " I am a poor widoio ; i" can do nothing for 
 myself." Oh, merciful Heaven ! what a world is this ! There 
 is almost enough in such an appeal to break one's heart. A poor 
 widow, stretching out her withered, helpless hand for charity, and 
 her whole appearance speaking more forcibly than her tremulous 
 voice, " I can do nothing for myself /" Alas ! how many widowed 
 hearts there are in this world who can do nothing for themselves. 
 That is not true, however, of all the wretched poor we saw on 
 this route. Even the healthy and the young were ragged and 
 dirty, and their cabins were the most wretched dwellings I ever 
 saw. I thought I saw the most cheerless dwellings in Italy that 
 mortals could well inhabit, but they did not compare with those 
 
632 IRELAND. 
 
 of Ireland. These cabins are built of turf, the walls are low, and 
 the floor is of earth. The pig lives much of the time in the same 
 mud-cell ; the donkey also enters in here ; and sometimes, when 
 he wishes to hold possession of both the interior and exterior do- 
 main, he stands with his head and fore feet out, while his hinder 
 parts are housed ; in this case he nearly fills up the hole of en- 
 trance. There is evidently a good deal of indolence among the 
 peasantry. Many of them had potato patches attached to their 
 cabins, and in these, for the most part, the weeds had attained a 
 rank growth, and run up to seed. It is thus that thousands of 
 the Irish peasantry live in idleness, poverty, and filth. Whose 
 fault is it ? What can we think but that their religion and their 
 priesthood are in a great measure responsible for this state of things, 
 and this the more especially when we see such a sensible change 
 as we approach the north of Ireland, which is, for the greater part, 
 settled by Protestants ? Here the squalidness and poverty mostly 
 disappear, and the comfort and prosperity of the people make 
 the traveller almost imagine he is in another country. 
 
 The country was much of the way fertile, but part of the dis- 
 tance was through the region of bogs. These bogs are a very re- 
 markable feature of this country ; the amount of bog in Ireland is 
 three millions of acres, of which more than half is the flat red bog, 
 and the remainder is mountain bog. This latter is quite frequent 
 in England and Scotland, but the low ground bog is most abun- 
 dant in Ireland. The depth of this substance varies from twelve 
 to forty feet, but the average is about twenty-five feet. The top 
 stratum is fibrous and loose, and the surface is covered with heath, 
 bog-myrtle, or sedgy grass, and sometimes with common grass. 
 There are some instances, I think, in which they will bear cul- 
 tivation ; but this is not common. A little below the surface it 
 becomes more compact ; but the fibre, like fine roots of grass or 
 moss, is still visible ; lower still the fibre disappears entirely, and 
 the substance is of a very dark colour, and this is still better for 
 fuel than where the fibre is visible ; and lowest of all, it becomes 
 a black compact mass, which, when dry, somewhat resembles 
 bituminous coal, and is capable of receiving a very good polish. 
 This is very good fuel ; indeed, this peat is the principal fuel of 
 the island, and seems to be a merciful provision to the inhabitants 
 to supply them with this necessary of life ; for, although time 
 
bogs. 633 
 
 was when Ireland was thickly wooded, yet now there are very 
 few trees upon the island. The presumption is, that these -very 
 bogs were once a forest; and even now large trunks and frag- 
 ments of trees, in a perfect state of preservation, are found many 
 feet below the surface. We saw numerous instances of this in 
 the bogs we passed ; and yet these trees must have lain there 
 many centuries, for the bogs are rather slow of growth. They 
 accumulate by the growth, apparently, of moss and other vegeta- 
 bles, which root in the soil, and form a vegetable stratum of such 
 a nature that, by the peculiar humidity of the atmosphere a cling 
 upon it, gives rise to another stratum over the former, which be- 
 comes, in its turn, the substratum for another, and so on. The 
 bog may be removed from the surface and planted in another 
 place, and then and there begin to accumulate and grow. When 
 all the old bog is entirely removed from any locality, they call it 
 a spank hog, and then, it is said, another series of accumulations 
 does not readily commence unless replanted. In the bog dis- 
 tricts the cutting out into small pieces, and piling them up in a 
 loose form, like new-struck brick, to dry, is a principal business. 
 Some are called floating bogs. In a wet time they will swell 
 up in the centre, and afterward fall again. This is occasioned 
 by water gathering underneath ; and, in some instances, it swells 
 so high as to bear off acres upon the surface of a swollen subter- 
 ranean lake. We passed one place where, but the year before, 
 an extensive bog was in this manner carried across the highway 
 into an opposite field, which was before free from peat, and there 
 it was deposited, and is carrying on in this new locality its pro- 
 cess of self-propagation. 
 
 We had become acquainted at Birmingham with the excellent 
 superintendent of the Belfast circuit, the Rev. Thomas Waugh. 
 After arriving in town, therefore, and taking lodgings, I went to 
 inquire him out, and found him at his chapel in the midst of 
 his people, just closing the exercises of a "missionary tea." I 
 had the pleasure of addressing them on the subject of missions ; 
 and, having engaged to return to them and spend the next Sab- 
 bath, I hastened on the next day to the place of our farthest des- 
 tination in the north of Ireland, Coleraine and the Giant's Cause- 
 way. We had already travelled eighty miles from Dublin to this 
 northern capital of Ireland, and now we were to go about thirty 
 4L 
 
634 IRELAND. 
 
 I 
 
 more to Coleraine. The day was unpleasant, and we had an 
 Englishman in the coach, who would neither suffer the coach 
 window to be closed so as to keep the rain from driving in 
 upon me, nor yet change seats with me and take the storm 
 himself. This an English traveller in America would call a spe- 
 cimen of Yankee politeness, and would consider it one of those 
 malign influences of our political institutions upon our social and 
 domestic manners. As it was, I considered it a proof that not 
 every man in the garb of a gentleman is one in reality ; many in- 
 stances of which can be met with in every country, whether a 
 monarchy or a republic. I hung up my cloak to defend myself 
 as well as I could, and tried to be contented to pass through the 
 country without seeing it. We arrived in Coleraine in time to 
 deliver our letters of introduction, among which was one to Lieu- 
 tenant Nichols of the royal navy, whom I found to be a great 
 temperance man. We also visited the same evening, one mile 
 up the river Bonn, on which the city is situated, a beautiful salmon 
 fishery. This, like many of the other natural advantages of Ire- 
 land, is a monopoly, and belongs to an absentee landlord, who farms 
 it out for his own advantage. It was a beautiful evening's ride.* 
 
 The next morning our friends made out a party, and we started 
 off in jaunting-cars to the Causeway, about nine or ten miles dis- 
 tant. We took the ruins of Dunluce Castle in our way, which 
 were certainly well worth visiting. The coast all along is bleak 
 and bold. The winds set in fresh from the sea, and with such 
 blighting effect that vegetation quails before it. A few thorn 
 hedges and other shrubs have been planted here, but they cannot 
 live long. The sheltered side alone was green, and even here 
 the sickly branches reached out their arms like streamers to the 
 leeward, as if stretching to escape from the wind. The entire 
 island also seemed perfectly soaked with water. I could compare 
 Ireland to nothing so expressive of my views of it as a huge sponge 
 imbedded in the ocean and perfectly saturated with water. When- 
 ever we stepped upon it the pressure caused the water to bubble 
 out around our feet. And why should it not ? for it had rained 
 almost perpetually since our arrival upon the island. 
 
 Dunluce Castle was formerly the seat of the earls of Antrim. 
 
 * It was near Coleraine that Dr. Adam Clarke was born ; and here his father used to 
 teach a school. 
 
the giant's causeway. 635 
 
 It is situated upon a high insulated rock overhanging the sea. 
 Under this rock is a cave extending from the side next the water 
 quite through to the land side. In the time of its prosperity it 
 must have been a place of great strength ; but, like most ancient 
 fortresses, altogether insufficient for defence against the modes 
 and weapons of attack in modern warfare. Near this castle, on 
 the top of a rising ground, is a well-defined exhibition of the ba- 
 saltic columns, similar to those at the Causeway, and shooting up 
 in fine form many feet above the surrounding base. This is 
 called Craig-a-huller. 
 
 On arriving at the vicinity of the Causeway, wet, almost as a 
 matter of course, from occasional showers which had fallen on us 
 at the castle and by the way, we found no comfortable inn where 
 we might rest and refresh ourselves, or dry our clothes. How- 
 ever, we pressed on to the great object of our curiosity, having al- 
 ready learned by experience, what I think every traveller will 
 learn, that the system even of feeble persons will endure much 
 more fatigue and exposure to damps and chills when the mind is 
 intensely excited than at other times. 
 
 The Causeway is at the foot of a cliff four hundred feet high, 
 and extends partly under water. Our way to it, therefore, was a 
 winding course of tolerably rapid descent down to the sea. We 
 approached at the south, and near the southern extremity we came 
 to a spring of fresh water, over which a woman stood sentinel, as 
 it at first appeared ; but afterward we discovered it was only over 
 a bottle of whiskey which she kept in the spring, with which to 
 tempt the stranger, who, of course, must always stop and drink 
 of the " Giant's Well." As the water, however, was good enough 
 for us without the poison, we contented ourselves with the giant's 
 unadulterated beverage ; and were not a little edified withal at the 
 occasion this gave to our friend of the royal navy to give a tem- 
 perance lecture and circulate some of his tracts, of which he al- 
 ways seemed to have a supply. He did not fail to give his whole- 
 some counsel to all the guides we met with, many of whom were 
 most officiously obtruding their services upon us. The appearance 
 of many, however, indicated that such counsel was lost upon them. 
 
 These guides were numerous and very troublesome, each one 
 wishing to force his services upon us and obtain a fee. One of 
 them, however, who appeared to be a veteran in the service, was 
 
636 IRELAND. 
 
 very musical, and filled up the interludes with accounts of con- 
 versations he had had with the. great characters that had visited 
 the Causeway, and who, it seems, on account of his wit, had en- 
 couraged him to say what he pleased to his superiors ; some of 
 whom, if we may believe his own account of the matter, had some 
 pretty shrewd and cutting retorts from this Irish wit. It was not, 
 however, until the wonders of the scene around us had been ex- 
 amined and re-examined, and the novelty and wonder had consid- 
 erably abated, that we could stop to listen to the low humour of 
 the guide. When Nature makes an exhibition of her wondrous 
 skill and power like this of the Giant's Causeway, all productions 
 of man in words or works seem tame and uninteresting. The 
 astonished mind is preoccupied and lost in pondering upon the 
 process, the time, and the reason of the marvellous work. As to 
 the two former, the process and the time, little can be conjectured 
 with anything like a show of consistency. This record of Nature 
 upon her own tablet was made, if not before the epoch of man's 
 creation, at least before the pen of the historian or the eye of 
 the naturalist could note the event. On the process, the advo- 
 cates of the two schools of geology, the Plutonian and Neptunian, 
 have each adduced their reasons to show, the one that it must be 
 by the action of fire, and the other by water. The more modern 
 conjecture, however, is the more plausible, that it was .the joint 
 product of both agents. Although the advocates of these two 
 geological theories have looked respectively upon the opposite 
 theories with disapprobation, and a shuddering that indicated a 
 disease, in the one case of hydrophobia, and in the other of py- 
 rophobia* further experiments will probably satisfy all parties 
 that each has the truth, but neither exclusively. 
 
 With respect to the reason ox final cause of this formation, we 
 may, at any rate, whatever other purposes have been or may be 
 subserved by it, safely consider this one of the strangest instances 
 of those natural phenomena which indicate the supervision and 
 productive energy of an infinite mind. The agency and character 
 of God are stamped upon phenomena like these with a depth of 
 
 * This word and its application are borrowed from Professor Sedgewick, who, in his 
 address before alluded to in the British Association, speaking of his conversion to the 
 Plutonian theory, called his former abhorrence of this theory a pyrophobia ; a horror of 
 fire, of which disease he was then cored. 
 
THE GIANT'S CAUSEWAY. 637 
 
 impression that the blind fool who hath said in his heart there is 
 no God cannot but see and feel. 
 
 This remarkable formation hath been so often described, that I 
 might almost presume most of my readers are acquainted with its 
 character. It may not be amiss, however, to mention its princi- 
 pal features. 
 
 The Giant's Causeway consists of three divisions, like separate 
 piers, of different lengths, however, and all losing themselves in 
 the bed of the sea ; the longest is visible out of the water for about 
 three hundred yards. The entire mass consists of regularly- 
 formed basaltic pillars or columns, arranged in such close order 
 in a vertical position that you cannot insert a knife-blade in the 
 joints between them. The columns vary somewhat in size, but 
 they average, in general, I should judge, eleven or twelve inches 
 in diameter. The form of the columns is that of a polygon of un- 
 equal sides, varying in number from three to nine, but the hexag- 
 onal form is the most prevalent. Although these sides are of dif- 
 ferent lengths and of different angles, yet they so exactly face 
 a corresponding side in the adjoining pillar, that there is not an 
 interstice either in the principal seams or at the corners that 
 will admit water. It is true, at the Giant's Spring or well al- 
 ready noticed, the water bubbles up between the columns; yet 
 even here, as it spreads out over the heads of the adjacent col- 
 umns, it stands on the surface without penetrating. If the reader 
 would conceive of a molten mass of basaltic matter cooling and 
 settling down together in a compact form, and, as it cools, crack- 
 ing into crystallized prisms of the forms above described, so as 
 to form distinct columns without any separation of the parts, he 
 would then have a tolerable conception of the close joints and 
 compact character of this stupendous specimen of Nature's ma- 
 sonry. Thus far, however, I have noticed but a part of the divis- 
 ions ; each column is also divided into distinct parts of unequal 
 lengths ; these separate joints vary from six inches to several 
 times that length. Nor are the seams a straight horizontal cut 
 across the prism, but are, for the most part, the ball and socket 
 joint, a concave matched to a convex surface, and that so exactly, 
 that the numerous inequalities in the different parts of the interior 
 planes of the surfaces exactly correspond to each other, indica- 
 ting that these horizontal seams were also formed by the cracking 
 54 
 
638 IRELAND. 
 
 of each columnar mass into distinct joints, without any local sep- 
 aration of the parts. There is no uniformity as to whether the 
 top or the bottom of each joint shall be convex or concave ; some- 
 times it is one way, and sometimes the other ; sometimes one 
 joint will have both its ends convex, and in other cases both will 
 be concave, but in every case each is perfectly matched by his 
 fellow. 
 
 Beginning at one extremity or corner of this mass, and remo- 
 ving the surrounding earth and rocks, joint after joint might be 
 removed with the strength of one man, until the whole of this gi- 
 gantic structure should be demolished. The entire length of the 
 columns, judging from the length of what is supposed to be the 
 same range in other parts of the coast, is forty-five feet. The 
 surface is uneven, owing, doubtless, to the action of the water and 
 other external causes, by which the upper joints of some of the 
 columns have been overthrown ; some of them still lie there dis- 
 jointed and prostrate, and others have been carried away. Near 
 the centre a large cluster of columns shoot up above the rest, and 
 have obtained the expressive name of the honeycomb, from their 
 resemblance to that formation. At the time we were there the 
 waves were rolling their white crests upon the Causeway, as 
 though to show their triumph over the works of the giant ; who, 
 it seems, in attempting, according to the tradition of the- natives, 
 to erect a causeway across the sea to Scotland, has not only failed 
 to scale old ocean's bed, but the billows themselves have made 
 his foundations their playground, and dance in triumph over his 
 broken columns. The bold stratified cliffs rising up three hun- 
 dred feet in height to the east of the Causeway present similar 
 formations of basaltic columns, which, in one place, from their 
 resemblance to the pipes of that instrument, are called the or- 
 gan ; another place is called the Giant's Loom, and another his 
 chair ; everything here belongs to the giant, and, in the opinion of 
 the natives, an enchantment still lingers around these localities. 
 Some of Ossian's ghosts still shriek here in the wind, and these 
 basaltic columns, wedged in as they are in their respective local- 
 ities, nevertheless break loose at particular seasons, and dance to 
 the hoarse music of the winds and the waves. 
 
 This entire region is basaltic, and the formation is mostly col- 
 umnar. It extends, as some conjecture, across under the bed of 
 
PORT COON CAVE. 639 
 
 the ocean to Staffa, one of the Hebrides, off the coast of Scotland, 
 where the same phenomena appears on a magnificent scale, the 
 columns being much larger than those of the Irish coast. The 
 same formation also continues to the south, and shows itself at 
 Lough Neagh, passing through that lake in a diagonal direction. 
 
 In leaving the Causeway we mounted the cliff and passed over 
 to Pleaskin and Bengore headlands, that rise in bold precipitous 
 cliffs above the ocean to the height of three hundred and fifty-four 
 feet, one hundred and fifty-four of which is perpendicular, pre- 
 senting, one above the other, two strata of columnar basaltes, the 
 one sixty and the other forty-five feet in depth, separated by a 
 coarse rock of fifty or sixty feet in depth. The view from these 
 cliffs is fine ; but, with weary limbs, wet feet, and a body chilled 
 by the fresh winds from the sea, curiosity flags, and we were in- 
 duced to give over with but a partial survey. On returning, how- 
 ever, we could not be persuaded to forego the pleasure of visiting, 
 in the other direction, Port Coon Cave. This is a deep cave, 
 with an entrance from the sea and another from the land side. 
 The land side entrance is occasioned by a deep natural cut in the 
 cliff, down which you descend almost to a level with the water, 
 and then, turning to the right, you find an opening into the side 
 of the cliff, down a part of which you have descended, and, passing 
 into this, you strike the side of a grotto, which, running under the 
 superincumbent mountain of amorphous basalt, mixed in with other 
 stones, finally opens into the sea. This long cave is like the 
 arched nave of a Gothic church, except that its flooring is, for the 
 most of the way, the rolling waves. These waves enter at the 
 mouth, and, swelling up as they become compressed in the inte- 
 rior of the cavern, they lash the sides, and almost leap to the top 
 of the vaulted arch, roaring and foaming in these echoing caverns 
 until almost the entire mass of liquid brine is worked up into foam, 
 and there it rolls, approaching and receding, in ceaseless uproar 
 and revelry. Creeping into the noisy hall, and climbing along 
 the side gallery as far as I dared — for the spray, acting upon the 
 whinstone, gave it a greasy and extremely slippery character — I 
 seated myself, and gave up the reins to fancy, until I found my 
 own mind growing as wild and frantic almost as the noisy elements 
 around me. The genius of the cavern cast a spell over me and 
 bound me to the spot. It seemed almost impossible to break 
 
640 IRELAND. 
 
 away from the scene. If I raised my voice, it was noiseless even 
 to my own ear amid the roar of the waters. The noise, the fear- 
 ful rush and reflux of the foaming billows, and the gloomy char- 
 acter of the cavern, all conspired to make this a scene unlike what 
 I had ever before beheld. Nurtured here, methought I might 
 have been a poet, and have rhapsodized in these noisy halls 
 in wild and frantic verse. Breaking away, however, from the 
 wizard spell, we hastened back to the company we had left, and 
 returned, highly gratified with our excursion, to Coleraine in time 
 to attend a temperance meeting which the lieutenant had got up 
 for me to address in the evening. 
 
 The next morning, after engaging a man to send me five joints 
 of the Giant's Causeway to Liverpool,* we started in a small 
 jaunting-car, which we hired expressly for the purpose, on our 
 return to Belfast. 
 
 This riding in an Irish car, in pleasant weather, is not without 
 its interest. You have nothing to obstruct your vision in this 
 open vehicle, only, as you ride with your side to the horse, your 
 back is on half the scenery, and you want to come back the same 
 way to see the other side. We passed a number of interesting 
 towns, such as Ballymony, Ballymena, and Antrim. At Bal- 
 lymena it was market-day, and the streets were perfectly crowded 
 with men, women, and children, wading in the mud over shoe. We 
 had to walk at a slow pace through the town, on account of the 
 crowd, to pass which was more difficult, because of the many 
 who were intoxicated, and who therefore took up more room than 
 they otherwise would, and were more negligent in getting out of 
 the way. I think I never saw so much drunkenness in one day 
 and at one place as I saw here. 
 
 These market-days are fairs. Everybody comes that has any- 
 thing to buy or sell ; vegetables, meats, live-stock, wares, or mer- 
 chandise. The great articles in trade here are linen cloth and 
 linen yarn. The country abounds in these articles. We often 
 passed extensive yards and fields that were covered with the cloth 
 spread out to bleach. 
 
 The hotel where we stopped was converted into a market-house, 
 so that it was with difficulty we could find a resting-place for an 
 
 * These came according to agreement, and are now in the museum of the Wesleyan 
 University. 
 
BELFAST. 641 
 
 hour. We were obliged to stop here, for our Irish postillion re* 
 fused to go any farther ; he had got to the end of his acquaintance, 
 and was too homesick to proceed. I could get no other convey- 
 ance ; and finally, by refusing to pay him for what he had done, 
 and by threatening to write back to Coleraine and report him there, 
 I overcame his obstinacy and kept him through. We called at 
 another public house on the road, where we found an earth floor, 
 a turf fire without a chimney, and a poor woman spinning flax, 
 who told us she could earn two or three pence per day ! 
 
 We passed Loch Neagh, a beautiful sheet of fresh water, and 
 the largest in Europe, with the exception of Ladoga, Onega, and 
 Geneva lakes, extending over about ninety-seven thousand acres. 
 This lake often inundates thousands of acres on its shores, and its 
 extent and depth, it is said, are annually increasing. The natives 
 suppose the waters are medicinal, and they also have petrifying 
 properties. Antrim, a village of about two thousand five hundred 
 inhabitants, stands on its banks. 
 
 We were glad to find an Irish welcome by our excellent Rev- 
 erend Mr. Waugh and his estimable lady some time after dark on 
 Saturday evening. With these friends and their devout congre- 
 gation we enjoyed a most delightful and refreshing Sabbath. 
 
 Belfast may be styled the northern capital of Ireland. It is a 
 fine, flourishing town, with wide streets, a growing commerce, and 
 a population of about sixty thousand. Protestantism prevails 
 here, as it does, indeed, in all these northern counties ; and town 
 and country seem comparatively flourishing. The prevailing re- 
 ligion is Presbyterianism of the Scottish "stamp, this part of the 
 island being mostly settled by the descendants of Scotch emigrants. 
 Religion has been at a low ebb in these churches, and Unitarian- 
 ism has prevailed to a great extent. Lately, efforts have been made 
 to correct the errors of the church, and draw up the reins of dis- 
 cipline. It was found that many of the clergy were not only lax 
 in doctrine, but in morals ; and quite a proportion, it is said, were 
 fond of strong drink ; many were tipplers. The first blow in favour 
 of temperance was by Professor Edgar of Belfast, who published 
 Doctor Beecher's sermons on that subject. Professor Edgar is 
 still a bold champion for the cause, and is doing much to reform 
 his country, and has now many in the ministry, in his own and 
 other churches, to assist him. 
 
 54 4M 
 
642 IRELAND. 
 
 Government now pays the Presbyterian clergy an annuity, 
 called regium bonum, so that they may be considered as a portion 
 of the religious establishment of the country. Perhaps, in this 
 way, if the government was disposed, it might bring over to its 
 interests the Catholic clergy of Ireland ; and, in truth, if a reli- 
 gious establishment must be kept up, why should not the public 
 support such religious teachers as the great mass of the people 
 desire ? This, I think, would be the only way to free the country 
 from an undue foreign ecclesiastical influence. Certain it is, that 
 so long as the British government, either directly or indirectly, 
 makes war upon the religious feelings of the people, or, what is 
 the same thing, subjects them to taxation and civil disabilities be- 
 cause of their religion, and contrary to their wishes, there will be 
 an irritation of feeling and a spirit of insubordination among the 
 people. If the Irish are ever proud to be called West Britons, 
 as the Scotch are to be called North Britons, it will be the result 
 of according to them, as to Scotland, equal rights and privileges 
 with the English themselves. 
 
 We left Ireland much gratified, on the whole, with our short 
 visit ; only regretting that we had no more time to spend in it. 
 We embarked on board a steamer for Glasgow, which we reached 
 the next morning, after a voyage as delightfully calm and smooth 
 as our passage from Bristol to Dublin had been rough and un- 
 pleasant. 
 
 The principal object of interest on the passage was Ailsa Craig. 
 This is a stupendous insulated rock in the Frith of Clyde, two 
 miles in circumference, and rising in abrupt cliffs, one above an- 
 other, in a pyramidal series, nine hundred feet above the water. 
 On or near the top, it is said, is a spring of fresh water. It is lit- 
 erally covered with seafowls, and is represented also as abound- 
 ing with rabbits. These fowls, as it had become nearly dark 
 when we passed the craig, had retired to their roosts ; but a gun 
 fired from the ship, as we skimmed along the south side of this 
 tremendous pier, called them out, and, to appearance, hundreds of 
 thousands brushed over us like the rush of a tempest. This rock 
 is so white that it can be seen at some distance at all times of 
 night. 
 
643 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII. 
 
 In sailing up the Clyde to Glasgow we passed, among other 
 places, Greenock and Port Glasgow. These are four miles from 
 each other. Greenock has a population of twenty-five or thirty 
 thousand, and may be considered but an appendage of Glasgow, 
 because here, or rather at the port above, all the heavy vessels in 
 the Glasgow trade stop, and their freights are conveyed up and 
 down the Clyde by lighters. 
 
 Glasgow is twenty-four miles from Greenock, up the Clyde, 
 the navigation of which has been so improved of late years that 
 it seems almost like an artificial channel ; smoothed, deepened, 
 and straightened, it affords a delightful channel for the numerous 
 steamers and other craft that ply upon it. Steam navigation has 
 been, in fact, the making of Glasgow. A century since, the pop- 
 ulation was about seventeen thousand; in 1801, eighty-four thou- 
 sand ; in 1821, one hundred and forty-seven thousand; and, at 
 present, about two hundred and forty thousand. It is now only 
 second to Liverpool in commercial importance and population, 
 and almost equals Leeds or Manchester in manufacturing impor- 
 tance. It is claimed that the first attempt to apply steam power 
 to navigation was made here, although not at first successful. The 
 first successful effort was by Mr. Henry Bell, who constructed a 
 boat of three horse power, which made its first trip from Glasgow 
 to Greenock on the 18th of January, 1812. The Scotch, in fact, 
 entirely overlook our countryman, Fulton, in this application of 
 steam to navigation, and take all the credit to themselves. Some 
 of them say even that Fulton got his models and principles from 
 Scotland.* 
 
 Glasgow possesses great advantages in uniting, as it does, all the 
 
 * Patrick Miller first devised the plan, and Bell took his leading principles from Mil- 
 ler. Bell says, moreover, that Fulton received from him, in 1799, descriptions and draw- 
 ings of Miller's plans, by which, in 1801, he constructed the first steamboat. The truth 
 seems to be, however, that John Fitch, a native of Connecticut, constructed the first 
 6teamboat in 1787, and Mr. Fulton had the advantage of his plans. 
 
644 SCOTLAND. 
 
 facilities of commerce and manufactures. The latter are sup- 
 ported chiefly by the great ease with which the building material 
 is procured, which is a beautiful light sandstone that is inexhaust- 
 ibly abundant in the neighbourhood, and of which the whole city 
 is built ; and especially by the abundance and cheapness of coal, 
 which can be procured in any quantity at the rate of from six to 
 seven shillings per ton. This is the wealth of Glasgow. This 
 freights their ships, propels their steamers, swings their looms, 
 and throws their shuttles. They have in operation between three 
 and four hundred steam-engines ; of these about sixty are em- 
 ployed in collieries, eight or ten in stone quarries, and the remainder 
 in steamboats and manufactories, the former bearing to the latter 
 a proportion of about one to three. There are in and near Glas- 
 gow seventy-four cotton-mills ; also extensive chymical-works 
 for the manufacture of sulphuric acid, chloride of lime, soda, &c. 
 These works cover ten acres of ground, and consume six hundred 
 tons of coal weekly. There are also iron-foundries, glasshouses, 
 sugar-refineries, &c, &c. 
 
 The architecture of Glasgow is, in general, of the Grecian style, 
 and there are very many fine public and private edifices, and some 
 very good monuments. There are four principal streets, inter- 
 secting each other at right angles, and dividing the town into four 
 quarters. 
 
 The churches of Glasgow are only sufficient to accommodate 
 about seventy-five thousand of the inhabitants. Reckoning that 
 two thirds of the population possess suitable age and health to at- 
 tend public worship, it would appear that there were not " sittings"* 
 enough for half the population. This is another striking instance 
 to show how tardily governments meet the religious wants of a 
 growing community. Here, as in London, they have been obliged 
 to resort to the voluntary system to make up the deficiencies of 
 government, A society has been formed for " erecting additional 
 parochial churches in Glasgow and its suburbs," which, in two 
 years, has raised upward of twenty-four thousand pounds, and has 
 built or is building six additional churches. 
 
 The operatives that have rushed into Glasgow since the great 
 increase of business are, to a great extent, Irish Catholics ; so 
 
 * A sitting is the common phrase in England and Scotland to indicate a seat in the 
 church for one individual. 
 
JOHN KNOx's MONUMENT. 645 
 
 that, at present, not much short of fifty thousand of the population 
 are Catholics. The morals of the town, it is generally declared, 
 have also greatly deteriorated. Instead of that sober, Sabbath- 
 keeping, regular character that used to distinguish Scottish 
 towns, there is much of profanity, Sabbath-breaking, and irreli- 
 gion. Still, however, the old Scotch character is very prominent ; 
 and I think there is in Glasgow a good share of genuine piety. 
 There is an increasing zeal for the mission cause and other soci- 
 eties ; and I was particularly struck with one method they have 
 of concentrating, in the same building, most of the offices for the 
 Christian charities of the various religious sects. This edifice we 
 visited, and noticed in one room charity-boxes for about thirty 
 different societies ; all in their character and tendency " one con- 
 cern," and spoke a language of union and efficiency at which the 
 god of this world and "" his infidel and earthly auxiliaries might 
 well tremble. These charity-boxes, arranged in beautiful order, 
 looked to me like the heavy ordnance of the church ; and although 
 each piece was manned and charged by different companies, 
 yet they were all of the same army, and were fighting the same 
 common foe. With such a union of design and of action, the 
 battle will ultimately be won. The different congregations also 
 are in the practice of supporting missionaries and teachers for 
 particular fields of labour, such as one in the West Indies, one 
 in the Highlands, &c. In this way much is done for the cause 
 of Christianity. 
 
 The old Cathedral, built in the eleventh century, is an interesting 
 object, as is also the cemetery connected with it, especially a new 
 part that has been laid out on an opposite hill over a deep ravine, 
 across which an elegant bridge has been recently thrown. Here 
 are some fine sepulchral monuments ; among others, one to the 
 great Scotch reformer, John Knox. The inscriptions on it, in ad- 
 dition to those descriptive of Knox's personal character, death, &c, 
 detail a number of events connected with the reformation in Scot- 
 land. The monument was erected 1825 by subscription ; and is a 
 fluted Doric column, crowned with a noble statue of the reformer, 
 with a Bible in his hand, the Protestant text-booh. 
 
 A little to the south of this is another monument to the more 
 modern Protestant champion, William M'Gavin. He is the au- 
 thor of " The Protestant," a work that has been republished and 
 
646 SCOTLAND. 
 
 extensively circulated in the United States. This work, it seems, 
 has, in the opinion of the citizens of Glasgow, who erected this 
 monument, entitled him to a place second only to Knox, who la- 
 boured in the same cause at an earlier date. His statue has one 
 hand supporting the Bible, and the other resting upon the book, 
 as if he was saying to the Romanist, " To the law and to the 
 testimony ; if they speak not according to this rule, it is because 
 there is no truth in them." M'Gavin was a merchant of Glas- 
 gow, and died in 1832. 
 
 This hill is well calculated for tombs, as the base is of the free- 
 stone formation already spoken of, and is so soft it can as readily 
 be cut into catacombs as the Tufa strata of St. Sebastian, near 
 Rome. The top of the hill, however, presents a formation of 
 coarse black granite lying directly over this freestone; so true is 
 it that granite is the product of almost every age in the geological 
 history of the world, although not quite so recent, perhaps, as some 
 alluded to by one of the philosophers at Bristol, who humorously 
 remarked, that in one place it was so recently made it had not yet 
 got cold! 
 
 The Glasgow University deserves more than a passing notice, 
 yet this is all I can give it. 
 
 This is one of four universities of Scotland, which, with a popu- 
 lation of a little over two millions, nevertheless affords 'a liberal 
 patronage to all these universities. In this at Glasgow they have 
 twelve or fourteen hundred students. It has departments of law, 
 theology, medicine, and the arts, employing in the whole eighteen 
 professors. It has a public library of about sixty thousand volumes, 
 besides libraries for all the classes in the different departments. 
 The Hunterian Museum is a fine collection in natural history, in 
 almost all the departments of that science, the work of a single 
 life, that of Doctor William Hunter, who left the collection to 
 the university, together with eight or ten thousand volumes of 
 most rare or remarkable books, a great many coins, and some 
 splendid pictures and prints, and various other curiosities. The 
 whole of this splendid donation, especially the museum of natural 
 history, shows to bad advantage for want of a convenient room. 
 In the university is a sitting marble statue of Watt, by Chantrey, 
 a facsimile of which, although colossal in its proportions, is seen 
 in bronze in St. George's Square, in the centre of the city. Well 
 
EDUCATION. 647 
 
 may Glasgow honour Watt ; to his science they owe the prosper- 
 ity and wealth of their city. 
 
 In the examination-room we saw the " black-stone" which the 
 student sits upon for examination. Formerly it was, by itself, the 
 seat of the 'patient undergoing an examination ; but for a long 
 time it has been handsomely set in a fine covered chair ; a live- 
 minute sand-glass hangs behind, which the beadle turns and 
 watches, and, as soon as the glass runs out, he cries out to the 
 examiner to let him know it is time to let the patient off. This, 
 perhaps, is upon the same principle as that of the physician who 
 stands by in cases of judicial torture, to give notice when, to pre- 
 vent fatal consequences, the sufferer must be released. He must 
 be but a poor fellow, however, who cannot endure more than five 
 minutes on the rack of a college-examination ; and this, which, by 
 way of distinction, is called the Black-stone examination, can be 
 considered little else than a mere form. 
 
 The cause of education is receiving great attention in Glasgow. 
 Mr. David Stow, author of the " Training System for Schools," 
 has bestowed much time and care on the subject of schools, and 
 made great improvements in this department ; and the " Glas- 
 gow Educational Society" is making very promising efforts in this 
 important work. 
 
 I visited the School for the Blind, the Lunatic Asylum, the 
 Magdalen Asylum, and various other institutions, which I cannot 
 stop to describe. They are generally flourishing, however, and 
 appear to have a good share of public patronage. 
 
 By the politeness of Dr. T. of New-York I had an introduction 
 to Sir William J. Hooker, the first botanist of Great Britain, if 
 not of Europe. We shared largely in the courtesy and kind at- 
 tentions of Sir William and his lady, and Sir William's father, 
 resident with him. At his house we met at dinner several gentle- 
 men, clergymen and others, together with Dr. Magill, professor 
 of theology and acting head in the university, with whom we 
 spent a delightful evening. Sir William's collection of plants is 
 immense, and his library, I believe, fills all the rooms of his 
 house ; at any rate, his dining-room was completely lined with 
 bookcases. We also spent a part of another day in examining 
 the Botanical Garden. This was a splendid treat; the garden 
 itself is supported by the citizens of Glasgow, the university hav- 
 
648 SCOTLAND. 
 
 ing subscribed two thousand pounds towards it in the first instance, 
 on condition that a lecture-room should be erected for the use of 
 the botanical professor, and that the use of the garden should be 
 secured for the professor and his classes. The conservatories are 
 extensive, and the collection of plants amounts to about twelve 
 thousand. The garden was opened in 1819. It does great credit 
 to the citizens of Glasgow, to the professor, and to Mr. Murray, the 
 curator. The garden and the residence of Sir William Hooker, 
 who is professor, and who lives near the garden, are two miles 
 from the university, and the classes walk out in the morning to 
 receive their lecture before breakfast. 
 
 We were charmed with our visit to Glasgow ; but we were only 
 transient visiters, and had time only to form a short acquaintance, 
 admire, bid farewell, and depart. 
 
 Our object was to visit the Highlands in as expeditious a tour 
 as possible, and, at the same time, cross the country to Edinburgh. 
 To this end we sent on our "heavy baggage to this latter city by 
 the public conveyance direct, that we might traverse the lakes 
 and Highlands unencumbered. 
 
 Our route was down the Clyde to Dumbarton, fourteen miles 
 from Glasgow. This is the Balclutha of Ossian, and is a place 
 of much interest. The ancient castle was on a twin-headed rock, 
 rising up abruptly from the harbour five hundred and 'sixty feet, 
 about a mile in circumference at the base, and deeply cleft at the 
 top, so as to appear like a mountain with two heads. It com- 
 mands the Clyde and the Leven, which here enters the Clyde, 
 and may be considered the key to the western Highlands. We 
 started next morning in a coach for Loch Lomond. The ride up 
 the Leven was delightful, and the day proved remarkably fine ; 
 we passed a number of interesting seats, and, among others, the 
 birthplace of Tobias Smollett, the historian and novelist, and an 
 obelisk erected to his memory. But the Leven itself is his best 
 monument, which seems to echo back, as it glides down its soft 
 channels, his own sweet song. 
 
 " On Leven's banks, while free to rove, 
 And tune the rural pipe to love, 
 I envied not the happiest swain 
 That ever trod the Arcadian plain. 
 Pure stream ! in whose transparent wave 
 My youthful limbs I wont to lave." 
 
ENTRANCE TO THE HIGHLANDS. 649 
 
 At the outlet of Loch Lomond the steamer waited our arrival. 
 We embarked, and were soon gliding up this beautiful lake, which 
 extends into the very region of romance thirty miles, varying in 
 width from seven miles to a quarter of a mile. The southern 
 part is the widest, and here are a great number of islands, amount- 
 ing, in the whole, to above thirty ; some of these are very beauti- 
 ful, covered with wood, and rising to different heights ; others are 
 more rocky, with a mixture of verdure. One of them, Inch Mur- 
 rin, is occupied as a deer-park by the Duke of Montrose, and is 
 the largest in the lake. Here the scenery is fine, both in the lake 
 and on the shore. The valley of the Endrick opens up before you ; 
 the minarets of the Ross priory, where Sir Walter Scott made his 
 headquarters when he was traversing these regions to catch the 
 inspiration for his muse, are pointed out to the stranger ; as also 
 an obelisk to the memory of George Buchanan, and the residence 
 of Lord Napier, the inventer of logarithms. These objects blend 
 together most delightfully the association of the utile and the 
 dulce, and all are heightened by the bold and the beautiful in the 
 pencillings and colourings of Nature. This, too, is the gate into 
 the Highlands, and now all the magic influences of the mountain 
 scenery begin to entrance the soul. I speak not for others, I can 
 only say what was the effect upon myself ; an effect which, al- 
 though I have felt the like before, yet never to the same extent. 
 It was not because I was now in the region consecrated by the 
 genius and enriched by the creations of the great magician of the 
 north ; it was not because I was in the domain of the M'Gregors 
 and the Colquhouns ; the land of chivalry, of tragedy, of romance, 
 and of song. All this might have operated to heighten the feel- 
 ings of that moment, but it was chiefly the witchery of the mount- 
 ain scenery that cast its spell over my soul, and at first electrified, 
 and then sickened my heart ; sickened me, because all the in- 
 stinctive feeling that could be brought to act on such a subject 
 revolted at the idea of ever dwelling longer in the tame regions 
 of plains and moderate hills. I had been nurtured among the 
 mountains, and all my local affinities are for the mountains still. 
 I felt as though I was impelled almost irresistibly to return home, 
 break off my connexions with the lower country, and fly back to 
 the mountains. It was not the voice of warning, but it was the 
 mysterious voice of taste, of instinct, which rung in my heart, 
 55 4 N 
 
650 SCOTLAND. 
 
 " Tarry not in all the plain, but flee to the mountains." Who 
 that has felt this spell would prefer that he had never felt it ? or, 
 having felt it, would wish to leave the congenial regions that had 
 given it existence ? 
 
 These were the feelings with which I entered the Highlands of 
 Scotland. Ben Lomond rose up on our right three thousand two 
 hundred and sixty-two feet above the surface of the lake, and on 
 whose placid waters it seemed to rest for its liquid base. Other 
 mountains skirt the lake or tower in the distance, while occasional 
 villages on the shore give an air of softness to the more rugged 
 features of the back-ground. All this region belonged to Rob Roy 
 M'Gregor. Many places bear his name or are associated with 
 his history. One is called Rob Roy's Rock. It rises up about 
 thirty feet above the water, where is a flat platform overtopped in 
 the rear by another elevation still higher. Here this cruel chief- 
 tain was accustomed to let down, by a rope tied around the waist, 
 those who refused to comply with his demands. Above this the 
 mountains are more grand and imposing, presenting new and ever- 
 varying features. Here we passed a lively cascade, which turns 
 the mill of Iriversnaid, on the water of the Arkill, where, it is said, 
 Wordsworth penned his " Sweet Highland Girl." Near this is 
 Rob Roy's Cave, the hiding-place of this Highland chief and rob- 
 ber. We passed the mouth of the Arkill, and sailed .up to the 
 head of the lake merely for the purpose of seeing the entire loch, 
 a route which the boat makes daily, in the same manner and for 
 the same purposes with the steamer on Lake Como, to which this 
 water has been compared. Lake Como, however, presents bolder 
 scenery than Loch Lomond. As the boat returned we landed at 
 Inversnaid, to cross over to Loch Katrin or Ketturin. Here we 
 found the advantage of being free from baggage. The road is 
 impassable for carriages, except a sort of rough cart which they 
 roll, I know not how, over the rocks of this rough mountain pass. 
 The travellers, of whom there were quite a number in our com- 
 pany, had to trust to their feet or mount ponies. Mrs. Fisk and 
 myself, together, in fact, with most of our company, chose the lat- 
 ter. The distance over the mountain to Loch Katrin is five miles, 
 and the pass is wild and romantic. On the right rises Ben Lo- 
 mond, piercing the clouds. On the left is a high range of barren 
 eminences, mostly without wood. This, in fact, is the general 
 
LOCH KETTURIN. 651 
 
 character of the Highlands, so that the highest eminences are bleak 
 and bald, which, with their dark colour, gives them a most deso- 
 late character. Along the pass we traversed, however, there was 
 some vegetation and some Highland cottages. We passed one 
 cottage where they were making hay, engaged in which was an 
 old Highlander, who said he had lived a century. Just beyond 
 we stopped to see Rob Roy's fowling-piece. It was a long, sin- 
 gularly-proportioned musket, kept for show by a woman who 
 claimed to be one of his family connexions. In the same neigh- 
 bourhood was the house where his wife was born. She, it seems, 
 was a woman of some talent, although her* birthplace was an 
 humble one, since it was " Rob Roy's Lament," composed by her, 
 that gave him such a " touch of the heartbreak" as finally drove 
 him into the life and profession of a freebooter. He was born a 
 gentleman, and owned all this region east of Loch Lomond ; but 
 was dispossessed of it, by some legal process, by the Duke of 
 Montrose, whose agent, in the absence of M'Gregor, harshly 
 treated his wife. This drove him to desperation ; and he turned 
 his back upon law and civilized society, and lived by robbery and 
 levelling black mail upon the borderers ; that is, they paid him 
 a tax to purchase exemption from depredations upon their prop- 
 erty. 
 
 Near this are the ruins of the fortress of Inversnaid, built to 
 protect the district against the incursions of Rob Roy. On the 
 right we passed the small water called Loch Arklet, from which 
 the aforementioned Arkill takes its rise. And now we approached 
 the descent to Loch Ketturin. 
 
 ' One burnish'd sheet of living gold 
 Loch Ketturin beneath us roll'd, 
 In all her length far winding lay 
 With promontory, creek, and bay, 
 And islands that, impurpled bright, 
 Floated amid the livelier light. 
 
 High on the south huge Ben Venue 
 Down on the lake in masses threw 
 Crags, knolls, and mounds, confus'dly hurl'd 
 The fragments of an earlier world. 
 
 While on the north, through middle air, 
 Ben Ann heaved high his forehead bare." 
 
B52 SCOTLAND 
 
 This beautiful mirror, so deeply set in the bold framework of 
 the mountains, is about ten miles in length by one and a half in 
 breadth. It is in itself a most interesting object of sublimity and 
 beauty, such as Nature has not often constructed, and it is rendered 
 still more interesting by the witchery which the Scotch magician 
 f has thrown around it in the poetic creations of his Highland muse, 
 especially in the "Lady of the Lake," the principal scene of which 
 was here. We found upon the bank a large company, some of 
 whom had just arrived in the passage-boat which, in its return, 
 was to take us down to the lower end of the lake. This boat 
 was propelled by the power of Highland muscles, and plies daily 
 on the lake for the conveyance of passengers. The two compa- 
 nies, the boatmen, and a number of Highlanders of both sexes were 
 here assembled around a miserable hut, which passed, I suppose, 
 for a tavern. If one were disposed to turn from the romantic and 
 the poetic to the coarser associations of common and real life, in- 
 stead of quoting from Scott, he might, in view of the objects around 
 him, strike in with the satirist. 
 
 " Bleak are thy hills, oh Scotia, 
 And barren are thy plains ; 
 Barefooted are thy nymphs, 
 And barer still thy swains."* 
 
 We were enabled, however, for the most part, to keep the mind 
 elevated above grovelling and commonplace associations, and that 
 the more readily because, after we embarked, our head boatman, 
 who was himself a Highlander, when he was not chatting in Gaelic 
 with his companions, repeated page after page from the " Lady 
 of the Lake," and pointed out to us all the interesting localities 
 of that poem. This man was so enthusiastic in his veneration 
 of Scott, that he said, if they would erect a monument to his 
 memory on the promontory which is supposed to be the " Watch 
 Tower" where Roderic Dhu kept his vigils when Fitz James 
 fell in with him, he, poor as he was, would give six months' labour 
 towards the object. 
 
 Before we approached the landing the sun went down, just in 
 time to give a heightened interest to this mountain scenery. We 
 passed the island of the " Lady of the Lake." We did not land, 
 for " Ellen's Bower" has unfortunately been consumed by fire, and 
 
 * For decency's sake I have altered the last line. 
 
HIGHLAND SCENERY. 653 
 
 this has robbed the island of much of its interest. A boat* shot 
 off from the island, however, just as we passed, with a lady in it, 
 which, for aught we knew, might have been Ellen herself, espe- 
 cially as the " pine of Clan Alpine" was standing up in the prow 
 of the boat in all the freshness of its former glory. Beyond the 
 island, on the northern shore, was the spot where Fitz James 
 came dow r n to the bank and wound that blast upon his horn which 
 brought Ellen in her skiff from " the Rocky Isle." There is now, 
 probably, less of wood about the shore and the mountain side 
 than formerly. Still, however, 
 
 " Boon nature scatters free and wild 
 Each plant or flower, the mountain's child ; 
 Here eglantine embalms the air, 
 Hawthorn and hazel mingle there ; 
 The primrose pale and violet flower 
 Find in each cliff a narrow bower." 
 
 But the finest, the rudest, the wildest scene of all is where we 
 landed, The place is called The Trosachs, the meaning of which 
 is "The rough or bristled territory." It seems to have been 
 formed by some convulsion of nature, which resulted, in casting 
 up, in the wildest possible confusion, the varied materials of the 
 mountains and the vales ; and then, over this wild scene, vegeta- 
 tion sprang up, covering the whole 
 
 "With wild rose, eglantine, and broom, 
 Which waste around their rich perfume ; 
 While birch-trees weep in fragrant balm* 
 And aspens sleep beneath the calm." 
 
 The dusk of the evening was settling down upon the valleys, 
 although the tops of Ben Ann and Ben Venue were still lighted 
 by the reflected rays of the departed sun ; the lake was still, the 
 air was fragrant and mild, and all seemed to combine to make the 
 impression of the scene most vivid ; all but the cackling boat- 
 men contending for their pay, and the porters vexing the company 
 about their baggage ; and then there was the haste to get to the 
 inn at a mile's distance, which we had to walk, and the fear that 
 the beds would all be engaged before we could arrive. It is thus 
 that the vulgar concerns of life break in upon our imaginative and 
 poetic reveries, profaning these, as well as our religion, with earth- 
 born inquiries, " What shall I eat ? or what shall I drink ? or 
 wherewithal shall I be clothed?" Make the best you can of 
 55 
 
654 SCOTLAND. 
 
 man, there is much of gross matter about him still. Rhapsodize 
 as you may, you cannot thus check the gnawings of hunger, nor 
 sooth to rest the weary limb. Not all the calls of hunger, or the 
 obstructions of fatigue, or the noise of tasteless boatmen and por- 
 ters, however, could wholly break the spell of that hour and of 
 that scene. Nature may have many such exhibitions, but I have 
 not seen them. The Trosachs stand alone, in my mind, among 
 all the reminiscences of the past; and fancy still calls up the 
 image of that scene as fresh almost as when we set foot upon the 
 shore, and walked the 
 
 " Dark ravine, 
 Where twined the path in shadow hid 
 Round many a rocky pyramid. 
 Shooting abruptly from the dell 
 Its thunder-splintec'd pinnacle. 
 Round many an insulated mass 
 The native bulwarks of the pass, 
 Huge as the tower which builders vain 
 Presumptuous piled on Shinar's plain. 
 Here rocky summits, split and rent, 
 Form'd turret, dome, and battlement ; 
 Or seem'd fantastically set 
 With cupola or minaret ; 
 n Wild crests as pagod ever deck'd, 
 Or mosque of eastern architect." 
 
 We passed the dell where the "gallant gray" of Fijtz James 
 fell in the chase. The scene which had been so wild gradually 
 melted away into a verdant vale, and the rural pathway brought 
 us out to a fine and commodious hotel, fitted up in a taste corre- 
 sponding with the natural scenery around, and affording us excel- 
 lent refreshment and rest. 
 
 The next day a company of us rode post to Stirling. The 
 whole way was enchanting. We passed down the glen which 
 Clan Alpine's chief and Fitz James had travelled before us, and 
 came to " Coilantogle Ford," where they fought, and where the 
 former fell. Ben Ledi and the Grampian Hills receded as we 
 rolled down the valley of the Vennachar. We passed the ancient 
 castle of Doune, whose tower still stands to the height of some 
 eighty feet. We next passed the town of Calendar, celebrated for 
 its muslin manufactory, and reached Stirling in time to visit all 
 that is particularly interesting in this ancient Scottish fortress, 
 which so long commanded the pass to the eastern Highlands. 
 
STIRLING*— EDINBURGH* 655 
 
 Stirling is seated on a hill that rises from the plain of the valley 
 of Forth, the top of which is an abrupt basaltic rock, on the high- 
 est elevation of which is situated the castle. This castle was for 
 a long time considered impregnable. It had connected with it a 
 royal palace. All are still standing, although in a state of dilapi- 
 dation. This castle has been a bloody place ; the room is still 
 shown where William the Eighth, Earl of Douglas, was stabbed by 
 James II., even while under the royal safe-conduct. The truth is, 
 these northern chieftains, from royalty downward, cold as their 
 country is, were a hot-blooded race. The terrace around the cas- 
 tle is one of the most splendid observatories to be found in any 
 country : the distant ranges of the Grampian and other mountains ; 
 the melting down of their rude outlines into the mellower lineaments 
 of the bordering hills ; and, finally, the vale itself, the meandering 
 river, the villages, and the meadows, all spread out beneath and 
 around, form a grand panorama rarely equalled. Near by is the 
 place where the Knights of the Round Table used to hold their tour- 
 naments, and the " ladies' hill," where the fair sex sat to behold 
 these martial sports. No fewer than twelve battle-fields may be 
 seen from this terrace ; among which, about two miles to the 
 southeast, is the field of Bannockburn. 
 
 After dining we took the public coach for Edinburgh. Before 
 leaving the county of Stirling we crossed the ancient Roman 
 wall built about A.D. 140, by Antoninus, to check the irruptions 
 of the northern barbarians. The ploughshare now passes over this 
 ancient bulwark ; and instead of a wall extending from the Clyde 
 to the Forth, quite across the island, a canal connects the waters 
 of the western and eastern seas, on which a great commercial 
 business is carried on. A striking mark of distinction between 
 the two periods. Where we crossed the wall recent excavations 
 had uncovered two or three stone coffins, in which human bones 
 were found. 
 
 We did not arrive until evening; and, on entering the city, the 
 contrast from an open unsettled country to a beautiful and bustling 
 city was very striking ; the more so because it was sudden ; 
 there was none of that sprinkling of neighbouring villages and 
 suburban country-seats so common in the neighbourhood of most 
 cities, and of this, indeed, in other directions. 
 
 We passed Prince's-street, which is the great thoroughfare of 
 
656 SCOTLAND. 
 
 the city, having the new town on our left and the old town on 
 our right. Immediately bordering upon our right, however, for a 
 part of the distance, was a deep ravine called North Loch. This 
 loch, as it is called, was formerly a morass, and formed the eastern 
 boundary of the city. It has been drained, and the west end has 
 been filled up to the length of seven hundred and sixty feet, so as 
 to form an eligible connexion between the old and new towns. The 
 breadth here is one hundred and sixty feet, and the depth of the 
 earth thrown in is eighty feet ; making, it is said, a mound of earth 
 consisting of one and a half millions of cartloads. Beyond this loch 
 towered the castle ; and there, too, were the fourteen-storied houses 
 of the old town, of which everybody almost has heard. On the 
 left were some of the finest edifices, public and private, in the city ; 
 and the whole was finely illuminated with gaslights.* At the 
 lower end of this street we found fine accommodations, where we 
 rested on Saturday night from the labours of a busy and an inter- 
 esting week ; a week which had been the more grateful because, 
 exposed as we had been, we had been favoured throughout with 
 most delightful weather ; a circumstance so rare in our experience 
 on these islands, that we prized it the more, occurring as it did at 
 a time when we most needed it. 
 
 A Sabbath in Scotland, and especially in Edinburgh, reminded 
 me of one of those New-England Sabbaths (that are now less 
 common, I am sorry to say) of the days of my childhood, and 
 more frequent now in New-England than in any other country I 
 have visited, Scotland excepted. Indeed, Edinburgh seemed pe- 
 culiar in this respect, insomuch that the rumbling of the wheels of 
 a carriage was rarely heard through the day ; the people seem to 
 regard the letter of the law : " In it thou shalt not do any work, 
 thou, nor thy cattle." 
 
 On Monday we commenced visiting this beautiful city, and 
 forming some acquaintance with this interesting people. We had 
 introductions to some of the professors of the university; and al- 
 though the greater portion were absent, as it was vacation, still 
 we found several who treated us with great politeness, and with a 
 frankness, too, that I could not but admire. Indeed, I find this 
 almost uniformly among gentlemen of science and literature. 
 There is a nobleness of mind, a frankness of manner, a discards 
 
 * Gaslights are very much, used in private houses in Edinburgh, 
 
EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY BUILDINGS. 657 
 
 ing of the trammelling forms of etiquette, which cannot be said 
 of any other class of men. These are the souls that seem worthy 
 the high destinies of rational, and the high enjoyments of social 
 beings. I cannot describe the pleasure I took in the society of 
 these gentlemen the little time I had to spend with them, nor the 
 reluctance with which I tore myself from them ; and now, when 
 I look back upon that elegant city of the north, and recall with 
 great pleasure her architecture and her splendid institutions, her 
 squares, her crescents, and her monuments, nothing so delights 
 me in the retrospect as that noble courtesy with which I was re- 
 ceived and entertained by these gentlemen. "Who would not be 
 pleased with a residence in Edinburgh, the seat of science and 
 of manly intellect ? Among the first objects of interest was the 
 university. Perhaps my readers will be weary of so many notices 
 of universities ; but I will promise, on this subject, to be short, and 
 only notice a few points. 
 
 First, as to the edifices. These are, principally, a noble quad- 
 rangle on the west side of the great gulf; that is, in the old town, 
 and have been built anew within a few years. Government gave 
 ten thousand pounds per annum for a number of years, until the 
 whole was rebuilt in a style of architecture and with such accom- 
 modations as do great credit to the university and all concerned 
 in its erection. The large library-room is a most splendid hall, 
 and contains one hundred thousand volumes. One arrangement 
 struck me as very convenient. The more common books, and 
 such as were for every-day use, were selected out, and constituted 
 the "working library." These books might be drawn out; the 
 others were reserved for consultation, but not for circulation. 
 There are a number of other libraries in Edinburgh, the largest 
 of which, that belonging to the society of Writers to the Signet,* 
 is said to contain one hundred and fifty thousand volumes. 
 
 The university museum is the work principally of one man, 
 Professor Jameson, who still holds the chair in the department of 
 natural science. It is beautifully arranged in two large rooms, 
 each twenty feet long by thirty wide, besides smaller side rooms. 
 The lower room is mostly devoted to quadrupeds. In the upper 
 room is a collection of birds, amounting to about three thousand ; 
 
 * This is a law corporation, and here a course of instruction is given in civil law, the 
 Scotch law, and in conveyancing. 
 
 40 
 
658 SCOTLAND. 
 
 here also, and in other apartments, are shells, insects, minerals, 
 preparations in comparative anatomy, &c, all extensive, beauti- 
 fully arranged, and kept in the nicest order. 
 
 The Scotch universities differ from the English in many respects. 
 The Senatus Academicus, or the executive authority, is vested, 
 where it should be, in the principal and professors of the univer- 
 sity. These are divided into four faculties, viz., of arts, law, 
 medicine, and theology. The classes in the different faculties are 
 conducted, in a great measure, independent of each other. The 
 students choose their own mode of living, their own dress, and the 
 amount and kind of studies they pursue, save that, to enter the 
 Christian ministry, they must go through a given course ; as also 
 to graduate in the department of medicine. In the constitution 
 of the faculties, it is a singular feature in the university of Edin- 
 burgh, that the magistrates of the city possess the right to nomi- 
 nate to all the vacant chairs except six, which belong to the crown, 
 and two others, in which they have joint patronage with the crown. 
 
 This is rather an anomaly ; and it is to be feared, although they 
 have had and still have many able men in their chairs, that, in the 
 same proportion as the city magistracy comes under the influence 
 of party politics and popular elections, they will find such a con- 
 trol in the appointment of the professors by a city magistracy a 
 most unfortunate business to the university. One thing, however, 
 may save them. As there are no funds for the professors, and 
 nothing but their merit will either support their institution or se- 
 cure bread to the incumbents, there will be little inducement for 
 novices to aspire to the office, or for the magistrates to appoint 
 them. Their poverty may be their security ; and that they might 
 be in no danger of lacking this protection, about sixteen thousand 
 pounds which belonged to the university, and which was in the 
 hands of the town council, has been lost by the town council be- 
 coming bankrupt ! 
 
 The first botanic garden in Scotland, it is said, was formed by 
 Sir Andrew Balfour, in 1670 ; this was changed from time to time, 
 and enlarged, until, finally, it has obtained, probably, a permanent 
 location a little out of town, to the north of the village of Canon- 
 mills, where a tract of twelve acres has been secured and enclosed. 
 The garden was opened in this place in 1824, and is now a splen- 
 did collection of plants from all parts of the world. It has been 
 
MONUMENTS IN EDINBURGH. 659 
 
 lately enriched with numerous American plants, especially from 
 California and the more northern shores of the Pacific. The 
 glazed houses are extensive and fine, and in them I saw the most 
 luxuriant vegetation of the tropical plants that I ever beheld. It 
 is said, indeed, that rarely in the tropics themselves is such a 
 vegetation seen. Doctor Graham, the professor of botany, has 
 charge of this garden, and receives from government annually for 
 its support one thousand pounds. 
 
 For the ornamental part of Edinburgh, as well as for a fine 
 view of the town and surrounding country, the stranger is attracted 
 to the Calton Hill, which is situated at the southeast part of the 
 new town. It should be called Monumental Hill. Here is the 
 new observatory, which was erected and is sustained by an asso- 
 ciation called the " Astronomical Institution." This is fitted up 
 with the necessary instruments. Here also are some beautiful 
 monuments : one to the memory of Nelson ; to Dugald Stewart; 
 to David Hume ; to the poet Burns ; and to Professor Play fair. 
 But the most remarkable is one which has been designed and 
 commenced on the model of the ancient Parthenon of Athens, 
 and called a " national monument." It is to be a Christian tem- 
 ple of worship and a place of sepulture. The foundation was laid 
 in the presence and under the patronage of the king, George IV., 
 in 1822. The portion finished has cost thirteen thousand five 
 hundred pounds, and the edifice seems but just commenced. The 
 columns that have been reared, however, are indescribably beau- 
 tiful, formed of entire blocks of white freestone from the Craig- 
 leith quarry, one and a half miles west of the city ; the same ma- 
 terial as that with which the principal part of the new town is con- 
 structed. 
 
 Another splendid monument is that erected to the memory of 
 the late Lord Melville, in St. Andrew's Square. This is built 
 after the model of Trajan's column at Rome, with the exception 
 that the shaft is fluted instead of being ornamented with sculpture. 
 The height is one hundred and thirty-six feet, and is surmounted 
 by a statue of Lord Melville fourteen feet in height. This was 
 erected by the officers and seamen in the naval service, on the 
 ground of his " unw r earied and successful exertions to promote the 
 interests of the British navy." 
 
 Another prominent point of Edinburgh is the castle. This is 
 
660 SCOTLAND. 
 
 on the west end of the old town, on the top of a rugged rock, 
 covering an area of about seven acres, and separated from the 
 houses of the city by a space of about one hundred yards in width. 
 It is a prominent and an imposing object, and was once a place 
 of great strength. Here we saw the Scottish regalia. These 
 had been a long time concealed, but were discovered by commis- 
 sioners appointed for that purpose in 1818, in a large oaken chest. 
 They are now kept in great state in the " crown-room," an apart- 
 ment which has been fitted up for the purpose, under a crimson 
 canopy, and guarded by two wardens, who wait there to attend 
 upon strangers that call to view these relics. They consist of a 
 crown, sceptre, and sword of state, and the lord-treasurer's rod 
 of office. 
 
 We were expecting, when we visited the castle, to be enter- 
 tained with the bagpipes as we went in at the regular review of 
 the regiments stationed there. They played but little, however. 
 This music, so celebrated in Scotland, is only interesting, I think, 
 from its being national. It may sound well among the wild %raigs 
 of the Highlands, but it can hardly be called civilized music. 
 
 This castle has endured several sieges ; was the birthplace of 
 James VI. of Scotland or James I. of England; and was the 
 last fortress to yield to the regent after the imprisonment of 
 Queen Mary. It is now, however, only used as barracks. for sol- 
 diers. 
 
 The Holyrood house is one of the most interesting ancient ed- 
 ifices of Edinburgh. It is at the eastern extremity, and in quite 
 the lowest part of this city of hills and valleys. It is a beautiful 
 building, in a quadrangular form, built round a court of ninety-four 
 feet square. It has castellated towers, and also circular and point- 
 ed turrets, a cupola, &c. It is kept in a very good state of repair, 
 but seems to be of little use at present, being rather kept, like 
 the regalia of Scotland, for show, and as a remembrancer of the 
 past. It affords a retreat for exiled royalty occasionally ; for here 
 the Count d'Artois, afterward Charles X. of France, with the 
 Dukes d'Angouleme and Berri, resided during their exile, and 
 here the same royal family lodged a while after their second exile 
 in 1831. 
 
 We were led to Queen Mary's apartments, and saw in one of 
 the rooms her bed, and other furniture, and trinkets still remaining. 
 
EDINBURGH. 861 
 
 The curtains are of crimson damask, with green silk fringes and 
 tassels ; it is, however, so decayed that it can hardly support its 
 own weight. Into this room is a private passage, through which 
 Darnley and his accomplices entered on the 9th of March, 1566, 
 to murder Rizzio, Queen Mary's favourite. We were shown the 
 little chamber or closet, about twelve feet square, where the queen, 
 and Rizzio, and a few domestics were at supper when the mur- 
 derers rushed into the room. Rizzio took shelter behind the 
 queen, but all to no purpose ; they dragged him out, and in the 
 next apartment they murdered him, piercing his body with fifty- 
 six wounds. They pretend still to show the stain in the floor 
 made by his blood. Connected with the palace are the ruins of 
 the ancient abbey, originally built in 1128 by David I., as a mon- 
 ument of his being miraculously delivered from a hart while hunt- 
 ing here, which had turned upon him and endangered his life. 
 The deliverance was by means of a miraculous cross put into his 
 hands. Hence the name of Holyrood ; for rood signifies a pole 
 or a rod, and sometimes a cross. 
 
 Time would fail me to speak of the many modern buildings 
 which are specially worthy of notice ; they are numerous and 
 very fine. Edinburgh boasts of a resemblance to the ancient seat 
 of the arts, the classic Athens, and not without some propriety. 
 Her classic architecture, her noble institutions, her philosophers, 
 and her schools, place her high among the cities of modern times ; 
 and, in the opinion of some, she is most elegant. It is difficult 
 making just comparisons between cities, because their features 
 are so unlike. Edinburgh is certainly, in many respects, peculiar. 
 The two parts, old and new, have the appearance of being built 
 on two parallel swells, running east and west, with the deep gulf 
 already mentioned running between them ; but, on further exam- 
 ination, we find the old town especially divided into still smaller 
 eminences, with deep cuts between, so that, while you are passing 
 over a bridge on a level with the street, you look off and see an- 
 other street far below and directly under you, running in the other 
 direction. This it is that gives rise to the high houses so often 
 spoken of. At the base of a hill, by the side of a street in the 
 valley, they begin to build, and, after running up several stories to- 
 wards the top of the hill and against its side, the edifice changes 
 fronts, and opens on the opposite side upon another street. This 
 56 
 
662 SCOTLAND. 
 
 becomes the ground-jloor to those high-street gentlemen, and of 
 the poor fellows that live below they know nothing. They belong 
 to another section of the city. The old town has interest in it, 
 but the new has elegance and beauty. 
 
 The literary and benevolent institutions and associations of 
 Edinburgh are numerous. It has a great number of hospitals 
 well endowed and well conducted. As in many other cities of 
 the United Kingdom, the different trades are all incorporated, and 
 none can do business in those trades without being regularly ad- 
 mitted bv the respective fraternities. Of these there are fourteen ; 
 one of which, however, is the college of surgeons, who are put 
 down among the trades, because formerly here, as in many other 
 places in Europe, the barbers were imbodied with the surgeons, 
 and shaving was, in fact, considered a part of a surgeon's profes- 
 sion and business, as though the same person must cut hair who 
 amputated limbs. They are now separate, however. These 
 trades formerly had the privilege of choosing each a deacon or 
 delegate to the town council. The Merchant Company, which 
 also was incorporated, chose the remainder, the whole amounting 
 to thirty-three. In 1833, however, this close-borough system, 
 which extended, in some form of limitation, to all the royal burghs, 
 was broken up by an act of parliament, so that now all have an 
 equal right to vote for town magistrates who can vote for mem- 
 bers of parliament. 
 
 The magistracy of Edinburgh consists of these thirty-three 
 counsellors, who choose a lord provost and four bailies from their 
 number. 
 
 Edinburgh is not immediately accessible by ships ; its port is 
 Leith, two miles distant. There is a fine street extending from 
 the city to Leith, and now mostly built the entire distance. The 
 population of Leith in 1831 was twenty-five thousand eight hun- 
 dred and fifty-five, and of Edinburgh one hundred and sixty-two 
 thousand one hundred and fifty-six. 
 
 There is much in and about Edinburgh to be visited, and which 
 it might be interesting to describe, but I must hasten. 
 
 We left Edinburgh September twenty-first for the north of 
 England. Our ride, for the most part, was without any special in- 
 terest. We occasionally found some battle-fields and some old 
 
NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 663 
 
 castles; among others, at a little distance from us, Abbotsford 
 Abbey, the residence of Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 The moors are a desolate region on the borders between Eng- 
 land and Scotland, mountainous, and covered with peat and heath- 
 er, forming a natural boundary between the two countries. These 
 moors contain an abundance of fine game, and are let out for 
 sporting at a yearly or monthly rent. 
 
 Our first day's ride was one hundred and four miles, to New- 
 castle-upon-Tyne. Here we found ourselves in the midst of the 
 coal region ; and it is to their coal, in fact, that this section owes 
 its wealth and importance. To the different coalbeds railroads 
 are constructed ; and so numerous are these in some neighbour- 
 hoods, that they appeared more frequent than the cart-paths in a 
 common farming country. 
 
 Newcastle, as its name imports, is situated on the river Tyne, 
 which is navigable here for vessels of three or four hundred tons. 
 The larger vessels stop at Shields, at the mouth of the river, twelve 
 miles from Newcastle. This town is rather crowded, and many 
 of the streets are very steep, as it is built upon a very hilly site. 
 We had an opportunity, however, of seeing very little of it, as we 
 hastened on to Yorkshire to fulfil engagements previously made. 
 The town is situated in quite the south part of the county of Nor- 
 thumberland, the most northern county of England, and contains 
 about forty-three thousand inhabitants. It exports six hundred 
 thousand chaldrons of coal in a year ; and, in addition to this, it 
 exports lead, salt, salmon, grindstones, and some of her ships are 
 engaged in the Greenland fisheries. It manufactures iron, and 
 steel, and woollen cloth, and glass. It is matter of history, that 
 coal was dug here, under the patronage of royal charter, as early 
 as the thirteenth century, although, about a century afterward, 
 it was forbidden, by royal proclamation, to use coal for fuel in 
 London, because it prevented the sale of wood, which abounded in 
 the neighbourhood of the city. How strangely have times altered ! 
 I have not seen a wood fire in England, Ireland, or Scotland. The 
 very bowels of the earth seem to be in a progress of being dug 
 out; the very rivers are undermined, and whole districts of coun- 
 try in some places are settling down to fill up the excavations. 
 
 Our route from Newcastle was to York, seventy miles, through, 
 for the most part, a beautiful and rich country. We passed 
 
664 ENGLAND. 
 
 through the town and county of Durham. Durham is situated on 
 a rocky eminence, in a bend of the river Wear, which flows al- 
 most round it. The ancient and imposing castle is now the palace 
 of the Bishop of Durham. Here are also the remains of an old 
 abbey, which is quite an interesting ruin ; and a newly-founded 
 college or university ; population ten or eleven thousand. The 
 Cathedral is a noble pile, rising up from an eminence eighty feet 
 above the level of the river, four hundred feet in length, and with 
 a principal tower two hundred and fourteen feet in height. The 
 see of Durham is said to be the richest in England. 
 
 The coachman and many of the passengers could talk of little 
 else but the Doncaster races. These are annual, about the last of 
 September, and continue four days. The English excel all others, 
 I believe, in their fondness for strife to obtain mastery in all pos- 
 sible forms. In some of these, such as boxing, cock-fighting, 
 &c, they retain savage customs for the gratification of this de- 
 praved principle ; and then they have their races, their running 
 and walking matches, their boatraces, their steeple-chases, and the 
 like, among all ranks, and to the great gratification of all grades of 
 society. In Bristol it appeared to me that almost the whole city, 
 men, women, and children, were out at a boatrace. Often you will 
 see in the private parlours of the principal hotels a print of some 
 celebrated pugilist, as he appeared when he was fighting sq and so, 
 with an account of all his celebrated fights where he had whipped 
 and been whipped ! One would think that such exhibitions would 
 shock a refined and a Christian nation ; but here they are exhibited 
 as very desirable ornaments to gentlemen's and ladies' parlours ! 
 Some of the noblemen and great characters of the nation encourage 
 these races and fights. They say it keeps up the spirit of the na- 
 tion ; ay, truly, if the spirit of the nation is the spirit of Satan. But 
 the fact is, the entire course of education in England, and especially 
 at their higher seminaries, their public schools and universities, is 
 on the principle of rivalry and ambition. A spirit in its nature 
 the very opposite of the gospel, and well calculated to gender 
 strifes, oppositions, and efforts of rivalry through life. 
 
 We spent two nights in the ancient ciry of York, where we were 
 kindly received by friends to whom we had introductions, and were 
 much entertained by the interesting objects of the city, and espe- 
 cially by the York Minster or Cathedral, which is the great lion 
 
YORK MINSTER. 665 
 
 of the place. This cathedral is one of the finest and largest 
 Gothic structures in the world. It is in the form of a cross, and 
 both the nave and the transept have each two aisles. It has a lan- 
 tern in the centre, and a beautiful choir. This latter, however, 
 was mostly consumed by fire in 1829, together with the splendid 
 screen that separated it from the nave and the organ. This fire 
 was the work of a fanatical incendiary by the name of Jonathan 
 Martin, who got the impression that he was commissioned from 
 on high to oppose the established church especially, and do what 
 he could towards humbling its pride. And how could he do this 
 better than to burn this magnificent temple ? He was acquitted 
 before a judicial tribunal on the ground of insanity ; and was 
 committed as a lunatic to St. Luke's Hospital in London. The 
 part destroyed, however, has been beautifully restored. The 
 greatest length of this edifice is five hundred and twenty-four 
 feet and a half; that of the transept two hundred and twenty-two 
 feet ; the choir is one hundred and thirty-one ; the nave two hun- 
 dred and sixty-four in length, one hundred in breadth, and ninety- 
 nine in height. Its towers are two hundred and thirty-four feet 
 high. Some of its windows are very fine, with rich painted glass. 
 " The east window" says one, " is the wonder of the world for 
 masonry and glazing." It is divided into two hundred compart- 
 ments, and the subjects of the paintings are chiefly selected from 
 the Bible. The glazing was a three years' work. The window 
 is seventy-five feet high and thirty-two broad. The new organ 
 is a splendid affair ; it has four thousand five hundred pipes, some 
 of which are tw T enty inches in diameter. The screen is of the 
 florid Gothic, but so completely is the stone cut up by the re^ 
 markable sculpture, that the solidity is destroyed, and the airy 
 screen stands forth in all the open tracery of a reticulated gossa-- 
 mer's web ; more heavy, certainly, but copied as far as great things 
 can imitate small. The columns are clustered, and support arches 
 of surprising height and span. There are also in the church 
 many sepulchral monuments, but I cannot stop to describe either 
 these or the house itself minutely. I had heard much of this 
 wonderful edifice, but it quite equalled my expectations. A book, 
 might be written in describing it. 
 
 York was once a residence for Roman emperors, and was long 
 called the capital of the north of England. When it is known^ 
 56 4P 
 
666 ENGLAND. 
 
 however, that its population is only about twenty-eight thousand 
 it will hardly be supposed to be entitled now to that appellation. 
 Its situation on the river Ouse is not favourable for commerce, as 
 only vessels of small burden can come up to the city. As it is 
 the capital and seat of justice for the largest county in England, 
 and also the seat of a bishop's see, it derives from these circum- 
 stances considerable importance. 
 
 Yorkshire, of which York is the capital, is in length, from east 
 to west, one hundred and fifteen miles, and in breadth eighty, 
 and contains three millions, eight hundred and forty-seven thou- 
 sand, four hundred and twenty acres ; larger, in fact, than several 
 of our small states. This county is not the most important in 
 agricultural products ; some parts are comparatively barren, and 
 not a little portion broken and mountainous. Yorkshire, however, 
 is a most important section of England in point of manufactures. 
 
 In our route from York to Leeds, twenty-four miles, we crossed 
 a bold bleak mountain covered with peat and heather. Through 
 this mountain, three miles, a canal passes ; but, as we were in a 
 stagecoach, we had to mount it, and upon the top we had plenty of 
 rain and tempest. ; but, descending, we had something worse, an ac- 
 cident which was, apparently, in a hair's breadth of proving fatal. 
 The crossbar to which the whiffletrees are attached broke, and 
 let the traces upon the horses; this frightened them into a run, and 
 threw them mostly out of the control of the coachman. He 
 succeeded, however, as we approached a team, to turn them a 
 little one side, in doing which the wheel struck a stone, and the 
 coach ran for some feet on a poise, leaving us for the moment in 
 suspense whether we should settle down right or wrong side up. 
 Fortunately, we came down, as they say in England, " all right," 
 and the horses kept their speed to the foot of the mountain, when, 
 passing the tavern where they were kept, they gradually abated 
 their pace until they were stopped. Thus narrowly, through a 
 kind Providence, did we escape a general wreck. These stage- 
 coach wrecks are not uncommon in this country ; several have 
 come under our notice since we have been here. Their horses 
 are high-mettled, their loads large and very topheavy, so as to be 
 easily capsized, and their speed great ; so that, with the best and 
 smoothest roads in the world, they nevertheless often get wrecked. 
 
 Our lodging while at Leeds, as in most other cases when we 
 
LEEDS. 667 
 
 were entertained by private hospitality, was a little out of town. 
 In this case it was at a little earthly paradise called Round hey, 
 three miles from Leeds, in the hospitable mansion of Thomas 
 Burton, Esq., a gentleman of noble feeling and cheerful tempera- 
 ment, well calculated to enjoy life himself, and make everybody 
 happy around him ; and, in this respect, seemed happily connected 
 with an amiable wife, and blessed with pleasant children. Nor 
 was the pleasure of our lodging limited to the family. Here 
 was a little neighbourhood of piety, courtesy, and intelligence ; a 
 lovely specimen of the appropriate blending of refinement and de- 
 votion. With such a family and in such a circle we could not 
 but enjoy much during the brief period of our stay, which was 
 about one week. Our intercourse, too, with the town was consid- 
 erable, and our acquaintance pleasant. With every facility for 
 visiting the town, we had no occasion to regret that we did not 
 lodge in it ; nor do I wonder that almost all who are able prefer 
 a residence out of the smoky manufacturing towns of England. 
 They are constantly enveloped in a dense cloud of smoke, and, foi 
 much of the time, very dirty. 
 
 Leeds, with its liberty, contains one hundred and twenty-four 
 thousand inhabitants. The principal business is the manufacture 
 of broadcloth. It has also manufactories of linen, thread, sack- 
 ing, canvass, kerseymeres, carpets, and cotton. It has water con- 
 nexion with both seas ; with the North Sea by the river Aire, on 
 which it is situated, and the Humber ; with the Irish Sea by the 
 Liverpool canal. 
 
 Among the edifices there is little worthy of special notice. 
 Like most of the principal towns of England, however, it has a 
 philosophical and literary hall, and a very good museum, particu- 
 larly rich in vegetable and animal fossils taken from the coal- 
 mines. Here also we saw a mummy, which, according to the 
 hieroglyphics, was named Natsif Amon, and lived in the reign of 
 Rameses V. 
 
 The greater portion of cloth manufactured in and about Leeds 
 is in a domestic way ; and we were informed that these small 
 private manufactories were doing better than the large establish- 
 ments. These small manufacturers only make the white cloth; 
 it is purchased, dressed, and finished by the merchants. The 
 quantities sold are immense, considering the time spent in trans- 
 
668 ENGLAND. 
 
 acting the business. They have vast buildings called cloth halls, 
 one for white cloth and one for coloured. These halls are very 
 extensive, and have the appearance of a quadrangular range of 
 buildings round one of the squares of the city. Here, on Tues- 
 days and Saturdays, the cloth markets are held. The doors are 
 thrown open at the ringing of the bell. The merchants go along 
 by two rows of tables, arranged for the purpose, and covered with 
 cloth ; few words are spoken ; the price is registered on a book, 
 and the purchaser moves on to the next ; no bantering or extrava- 
 gant recommendations ; each is his own judge, and decides im- 
 mediately ; and the whole is finished in about an hour. 
 
 We visited some of the large factories, and were astonished at 
 the immense business done here. The many strong representa- 
 tions of children's being overworked, and put too young to service 
 too severe for their age, appears not to be without good founda- 
 tion, although they may have been overcoloured in some instan- 
 ces. We saw many young children, pale and thin, who seemed 
 to be poisoned by the warm and fetid atmosphere which they 
 continually breathed, and worn down with too much labour. 
 Many of these, doubtless, are put to this service by unfeeling pa- 
 rents, who riot upon the lifeblood of their children, by working 
 them, at this tender age, beyond due bounds, that they may have 
 the more to consume on their licentious appetites. It seems to 
 be the natural operation of business that products are reduced 
 to the least possible productive price. This reduces the oper- 
 ative to a bare livelihood ; and if to his necessities he adds ex- 
 cesses, suffering must follow ; and if he is allowed to press his 
 children into the work, his unfeeling, sensualized soul will be like- 
 ly to avail itself of this means for his increased gratification. This 
 excessive labour from early childhood prevents mental cultivation, 
 and the rising generation become little else than mechanical au- 
 tomatons in the performance of their task, and sensualists in their 
 desires and indulgences. It is thus that the selfishness of man, 
 no matter what shape it comes in, leads to the oppression of one 
 part of our race by the other. Many good men see it and re- 
 gret it, but they cannot turn the scale ; and seem obliged, for the 
 time, if they do business in the world, to adopt the current features 
 and habits of the business community. 
 
 In no part of the kingdom, probably, has Methodism taken such 
 
PROVINCIALISMS. 669 
 
 strong hold of the population as in Yorkshire ; and the character 
 of the people gives their religion a peculiar cast. They are an 
 ardent people ; the commonalty very simple in their manners, but 
 apparently remarkably sincere in their piety. Their dialect is 
 very strong and expressive, at the same time that it is very odd ; 
 this gives their religious communications a peculiar cast, and all 
 their conversation, in fact, a remarkable interest. One of them, 
 in a lovefeast, who had been very wicked, was saying he was the 
 greatest sinner in the world. Another, sitting behind him, pulled 
 his coat, and. in a suppressed voice, said, "Joh?i ! John ! y o' for- 
 gets Vm here /" One is tempted to ask them questions just to 
 hear their answers. Their prepositions and conjunctions are 
 mixed up and interchanged for each other in such grotesque order, 
 and their vowels are sounded so queerly, that every sentence is 
 amusing. The following answer to the question " when will your 
 master return ?" put to a woman who kept the gate at a porter's 
 lodge, is quite tolerable compared with many : "If he don't come 
 for the end of the week, he will be here as Thursday next !" The 
 dialects of the different sections of the country vary much from 
 each other, and all very much from good English. I speak, of 
 course, of the lower classes. Between them and the common peo- 
 ple in the United States there is no comparison ; the latter are al- 
 together before them in speaking the English language. Many 
 parts they speak so badly, I find it almost impossible to under- 
 stand them. Mrs. Trollope, among other things, has undertaken 
 to give specimens of our provincialisms. These, however, are 
 almost all evident fabrications, for she has given those of her own 
 country, and none of ours. The truth is, the English are sur- 
 prised that any persons from America should speak the language 
 with grammatical propriety. It was often remarked to us, that 
 they thought it singular we should speak the English language so 
 well. One gentleman, a respectable banker, concluded I must 
 have come from one of the West India Islands, where I had had 
 good opportunities of associating with the English from home. 
 Others supposed we were English born, and had emigrated to the 
 United States, from which we had returned on a visit. Some per- 
 sons of respectability gravely inquired whether the English lan- 
 guage was generally spoken in the United States ; and others, 
 whether our citizens were generally white. One young lady, in 
 
670 ENGLAND. 
 
 a very respectable dining-party, remarked that she could not bear 
 to hear of the United States, they were such savages there. On 
 being told by one of the ladies that Mrs. Fisk was from that 
 country, she replied, she supposed, of course, she was not born 
 there ! 
 
 The truth is, the English, as a whole, know much less of us than 
 we do of them. Of course I do not speak of all. There are many 
 who know us well ; many who have travelled in the United States ; 
 many others who do business with us ; others, again, who, as 
 statesmen or as scholars, know us because they know all the 
 world ; but these are few in comparison with the many who know 
 little of us. And it seems to be the object of many of the tory 
 newspapers to perpetuate this ignorance, or, rather, what is worse, 
 to magnify our vices and follies, and conceal our virtues. Every 
 little mob or local outrage, of which we certainly have too many, 
 enough to make us blush and be ashamed, is magnified, and the 
 whole represented as the legitimate result of republicanism ; and 
 as being not exceptions to the general state of things, but the pre- 
 vailing characteristics of the nation* Even the " Watchman," a 
 paper in London devoted to the interests of the Methodists, con- 
 descends sometimes to give currency to such representations. I 
 mention this not by way of censure or complaint, but to show 
 how extremely prevalent such sentiments are ; sentiments which, 
 while they tend to alienate the affections of the two nations from 
 each other, do immense mischief to the cause of humanity and 
 Christianity. The truth is, our mobs are fewer and much less 
 violent than they are in the United Kingdom, and for most we 
 have we are indebted to the recent emigrants from some of the 
 British isles. If his majesty would keep all such of his subjects 
 at home as are disposed to be factious, we should have very lit- 
 tle trouble in all our maturely organized states in maintaining 
 the authority of the laws. It is greatly to be hoped that this 
 country may soon know us better, and then she will do us bet- 
 ter justice. 
 
 But I had commenced speaking of the Methodism of Yorkshire 
 when I struck off into the preceding episode. As Yorkshire is 
 the Goshen of Methodism, so Leeds is the capital. The chapels 
 here are large and well built ; of several belonging to the town, 
 three will hold two thousand five hundred each. Near one of 
 
DISSENTERS. QUAKERS. 671 
 
 these is still standing an old chapel where Mr. Wesley first called 
 for volunteers for the United States ; and the spot is pointed out 
 in which Messrs. Boardman and Pilmore rose up and said, " We 
 will go" This was the beginning of the cause in America. 
 " How great a fire a little matter kindleth." The circuits belong- 
 ing to Leeds give six thousand nine hundred and fifty-four* mem- 
 bers ; add to these the members of the Manchester circuits, five 
 thousand two hundred and fifty-four,t and of Sheffield four thousand 
 five hundred and seventy-nine, and we have for these three towns, 
 two of Yorkshire and one on its very borders, and their immediate 
 villages, a membership of sixteen thousand seven hundred and 
 eighty-six. 
 
 The dissenters also flourish well in these towns. The first 
 Sabbath we spent in Leeds was the lime of the annual effort for 
 the missionary cause among the dissenters. We went to hear 
 Rev. Mr. Parsons, who was represented as one of their most cel- 
 ebrated speakers. He had a very offensive impediment in his 
 speech, and appeared, withal, to have memorized his sermon, so 
 that the performance was, in that respect, too much like a re- 
 hearsal. It had, however, some force, and native fire, and brilliancy 
 in it. I must confess that most of the dissenting preaching I heard 
 there had too much of the artificial about it ; a straining after the 
 brilliant in style. This detracts very much from the pleasure, and 
 still more from the profit of listening to their discourses. Rev. 
 Mr. Binney, of London, however, was an exception to this remark. 
 There are quite a number of Quakers also in Yorkshire. With 
 a very intelligent member of this society I commenced an acquaint- 
 ance at Bristol, and resumed it while in Leeds. From him I learned 
 more of the existing controversy among the Friends in England 
 than I had before known. It appears that the same doctrinal 
 questions which have divided those societies in the United States 
 are deeply agitated here ; and are in great danger of dividing the 
 English societies also. A Mr. Crewdson, of Manchester, who has 
 been a very active member in the Bible cause, perceiving that the 
 leven of Elias Hicks was working in England, wrote a small book, 
 
 • * At Leeds, a few years since, there was quite a schism in the society on account cf 
 the introduction of an organ into the chapel. Their numbers have increased more rap- 
 idly since than before, and so have organs here and elsewhere. Most of the principal 
 chapels in the large towns have organs. 
 
 t Manchester has lost more than two thousand by the late schism. 
 
672 ENGLAND. 
 
 called the " Beacon," in which he pointed out the errors of Hicks, 
 and ably refuted them, warning the Friends of England to be on 
 their guard against those dangerous heresies. For this book he 
 was arrested by the society ; and, finally, his authority as a public 
 teacher taken from him, and they are still labouring with him. 
 He has published a " defence" of his " Beacon." The ground ob- 
 jected to is, that he has departed from the original doctrine of the 
 Friends, especially in the doctrine of the operations of the spirit. 
 He has, as they think, attributed too much to the letter and too 
 little to the spirit. He acknowledges that he differs from Barclay, 
 Fox, Penn, and others, but claims he is right according to the 
 Scriptures. In this he seems to have mistaken the question ; for 
 the question is not whether the Quakers are right, but whether 
 Isaac Crewdson is a Quaker. If the Quakers are wrong, as 
 he maintains, it does not follow that, as a member of the society, 
 he has made up the right issue. If he can convince them, very 
 well ; if not, he cannot complain that, true to their own rules, they 
 discard him. The truth is, as I think, he is in the main right; 
 and if he can convince the whole society that they are wrong, it 
 will be a great achievement. Many are convinced, and the result, 
 be the issue of his trial as it may, will be disastrous to the integ- 
 rity of the body. The Quakers are much less numerous than one 
 would think who has noticed the prominency of this sect in sci- 
 ence and in benevolent institutions, public subscriptions, &c, and 
 who has noticed the frequency of the well-known dress in the pub- 
 lic streets. Twenty thousand is the utmost limit that I have 
 heard them estimated at in the United Kingdom. 
 
 The Woodhouse Grove School, belonging to the Wesleyan 
 Conference, is in this neighbourhood. We rode out to it, and 
 were much pleased with our excursion. Its location is as fine as 
 that of Kingswood is dull. The hills were covered with verdure, 
 and the scenery was picturesque. I addressed the boys, visited 
 all the grounds and apartments, and was pleased with everything 
 I saw connected with the establishment, except the fact noticed 
 here and at Kingswood, that the poor boys seem homeless for the 
 want of some spot they might call their own, where to deposite 
 their toys, to write a letter, to read, or to think. This keeping 
 boys always in a flock is not, in my opinion, the best way. There 
 is, in this way, a set of feelings, an important class of mental 
 
THOUGHTS ON " HOME." 673 
 
 states, that are never cultivated, to say nothing of the irksomeness 
 of such a situation. 
 
 The wisdom of the Conference is exhibited, both here and at 
 Kingswood, in the selection they have made for governors to the 
 schools. They are the patriarchs of their respective establish- 
 ments, and their wives are an honour to their station and to their sex. 
 The value of these schools to the nation and to the Methodist 
 cause may be inferred from the fact, that there are now in the 
 Methodist ministry about fifty who were sons of Methodist minis- 
 ters, and most of whom were educated in these schools. 
 
 In going and returning on this excursion we passed the beauti- 
 ful ruin of Kirkstall Abbey, founded in 1157 for monks of the 
 Cistercian order. It is in a picturesque vale, through which 
 passes the river Aire. The crumbling turrets and splendid Gothic 
 windows are hung round with the mantling ivy, and the courts are 
 overgrown with trees, through which the whispering winds seem 
 still to preserve, in undying echoes, the low muttered prayers, the 
 vespers, and the matins of the long-since-departed brotherhood. 
 
 With more than usual regret we parted with our friends in 
 Leeds, where, notwithstanding a severe cold caught on the top of 
 a stagecoach m coming from Scotland had greatly curtailed my 
 social and public pleasures and duties, we had, nevertheless, en- 
 joyed a week of uncommon interest. But we were only ex- 
 changing one scene of hospitality and fellowship, of interesting 
 observation and remark, for another; one company of most at- 
 tentive and courteous friends for another. The English improve 
 upon acquaintance ; and, in addition, when once the stranger is 
 fairly introduced and becomes generally known, their natural re- 
 serve and coldness towards him is thrown off. On these accounts 
 we found the longer we stayed in the country, the more pleasant 
 our stay ; save that home, a departure for which was drawing 
 near, naturally occupied more of our attention, and exerted over 
 our feelings a constantly-increasing attraction. At night, when 
 we retired, we thought and talked of home ; in the morning, when 
 we awoke, the sound of " home, sweet home," rung in our ears like 
 the distant music of an iEolian harp inviting us away. The com- 
 pany, and the numerous objects and occupations of the day, how- 
 ever, broke the spell, and kept our minds in active interest. 
 
 After a ride of forty-six miles we entered Manchester, and were 
 57 4Q 
 
674 ENGLAND. 
 
 I 
 
 surprised to see, as we entered the town, my own name, in pro- 
 digious capitals, stuck up in every place of public bills. The 
 first associations were not very pleasant. In our country we put 
 up these public bills for playactors and harlequins, and for thieves. 
 I was not a performer on the stage. Could it be that " a hue and 
 cry" was out after me for some crime ? The associated thought, 
 however, was very transient, since I had before seen the like in 
 England for holier purposes. Besides, I saw on the same bill the 
 name of Doctor Bunting, in whose company no one need be afraid 
 to be found under any circumstances. The doctor and myself 
 were to preach the next day, and take up a collection for that poor 
 unfortunate chapel which had been the bone of contention in the 
 late chancery suit, and which was deeply involved in debt, at the 
 same time that it had been stripped of its congregation by the 
 secession.* 
 
 This mode of advertising special public efforts in the cause of 
 the church appears to me not only laudable, but very beneficial. 
 Why should we, in this respect, suffer the children of this world 
 to be wiser in their generation than the children of light 1 
 
 Another glaring and immense bill still hung from the public 
 places in Manchester, announcing a public entertainment which 
 had just passed, and one that has become very common in Eng- 
 land, called a Musical Festival. These are got up at a great ex- 
 pense, professedly with a view of aiding some public charities 
 by the sale of the tickets ; but a great portion of the income is ab- 
 sorbed by the expenditures. It is a strange mixture of worldly 
 pleasure and religion, charity and profligacy. It is the spending 
 of one pound for a good cause, for the purchase of an indulgence 
 to spend five for questionable and decidedly sinful purposes. It 
 is, in short, an attempt to sanctify worldly merriment, feasting, 
 and rioting, by the sanctity of approved names and an intermixture 
 of religious performances. With many the bait takes ; but most 
 of the pious have discovered the snare, and have guarded them- 
 selves against it. At this festival one celebrated Italian singer 
 fell a martyr to her ambition— Madame Malibran. She was in- 
 terred in the old Collegiate church, where, but a day or two before, 
 she had charmed admiring thousands by the magic of her voice. 
 
 * This effort was to some good purpose. The collection was above four hundred 
 pounds sterling, or about two thousand dollars. It is thus they do things in England. 
 
COTTON-TRADE OF MANCHESTER. 675 
 
 When we arrived at the hotel we were met by friends to con- 
 duct us to the residence of Percival Bunting, Esquire, son of the 
 president of the Conference, where we lodged during our stay in 
 Manchester. From this gentleman and his estimable lady, and 
 their respective family connexions, we received such marks of at- 
 tention and kindness as will always embalm their memory in our 
 affection. Our stay, on the whole, in Manchester, was about two 
 weeks. Our intercourse "with many there, ministers and laymen, 
 was of the most gratifying kind ; and the numerous manufacturing 
 establishments which we visited, the different meetings we attend- 
 ed, the various edifices and institutions we examined, were all 
 sources of great interest. Upon these I cannot dwell in detail. 
 
 Manchester is the great cotton mart. All over the town and 
 all around it, and in the neighbouring towns and villages, cotton- 
 factories abound. Manchester seems, from a very early date, to 
 have been a manufacturing town ; but its principal growth, and 
 the growth of its manufactures and trade, have been mostly since 
 the commencement of the seventeenth century. From the close 
 of the seventeenth to about the middle of the eighteenth century 
 the cotton-trade had nearly doubled ; but this was still small ; and 
 it was not until after 1769 that those improvements in machinery 
 which have been the making of the cotton-trade were introduced, 
 one after another, by Arkwright, Hargreaves, Crampton, and oth- 
 ers. Crampton invented the mule-jenny in 1779. He, like most 
 of inventers, died in poverty, but the world has been enriched by 
 his genius. These and other improvements, some of which have 
 been introduced from America, have had a tendency to change 
 the entire character of the manufacture. Instead of spinning and 
 weaving in families, in a domestic way, the factory-system was 
 introduced. Large establishments and concentrated operations 
 under one roof were the result. The gain, in point of political 
 economy, has been immense ; the advantage to morals, to personal 
 independence and happiness, is more questionable. 
 
 Some idea may be formed of the great increase of this trade by 
 the following statements. 
 
 In 1829, seven millions of spindles were in operation. In 1835, 
 eleven millions, one hundred and fifty-two thousand, nine hundred 
 and ninety. In 1 800, fifty-six millions of pounds of cotton were 
 imported into England. In 1834, two hundred and ninety-five 
 
676 ENGLAND. 
 
 millions, six hundred and eighty-four thousand, nine hundred and 
 ninety-seven pounds. In 1835, three hundred and thirty millions, 
 eight hundred and twenty-nine thousand, eight hundred and thirty- 
 four pounds. 
 
 It is thought that such arrangements are now preparing as will 
 increase the number of hands in the cotton-trade to forty-five 
 thousand eight hundred and fifty more than the present number ; 
 and the business is supposed already to give support to one mil- 
 lion five hundred thousand persons.* 
 
 We went into one factory where were six or seven hundred 
 looms in one room. It was magnificent to see and deafening to 
 hear. It was lighted by a succession of roofs in the following 
 form /\A/\, the perpendicular parts of which were all glass 
 windows. Thus, by standing on one side of the vast room, you 
 see a profusion of light, but no windows ; but, by standing on the 
 other side, you see a continual succession of windows. 
 
 In addition to cotton cloth, there are factories for small cotton- 
 wares, such as bobbins, tapes, dec, with very curious machinery; 
 a factory for the Mackintosh or wateT-proof cloth ; for the India- 
 rubber webbings, &c, &c. ; and also very extensive silk manu- 
 factories. These, however, are on the decline. They hardly 
 found themselves able to compete with the Continent in this trade, 
 notwithstanding their machinery is far superior to that of the 
 French or Italians ; owing, I suppose, to the difference in the 
 price of labour and to the difference in the climate. 
 
 Manchester contains about one hundred and fifty thousand in- 
 habitants ; or, if you include Salford, which joins it, and does, in 
 fact, form a part of it, as much as Southwark is a part of London, 
 you have about two hundred thousand ; or, if you include the 
 whole of what is called Manchester parish, which contains a num- 
 ber of neighbouring villages, you have nearly or quite three hun- 
 dred thousand. I make these different statements to show how 
 many different and seemingly contradictory accounts may be given 
 of the population of many of the English towns, growing out of 
 the difference in the extent comprehended in the estimate. 
 
 In our way to Sheffield we stopped one night at Stockport, 
 with our excellent friend Reverend F. A. West, who was a fel- 
 
 * The late disastrous change in affairs will undoubtedly put a great check upon these 
 arrangements. 
 
DERBYSHIRE PEAK. 677 
 
 low-lodger with us at Birmingham. Stockport is another appen- 
 dage of the Manchester trade, six miles distant, containing about 
 sixty thousand inhabitants, and an abundance of factories, some of 
 which are very large. One of them has in one room, or shed, as 
 they call them, twelve hundred looms. As soon as one is outside 
 of Manchester, where he can look off at a distance, his first im- 
 pression is, that the entire environs and neighbouring villages are 
 filled with monumental towers, running up towards the clouds 
 from one to three hundred feet ; but, as a black column of smoke 
 is rolling from the top of them, he soon perceives they are con- 
 nected with the manufactories. They are built thus high, partly 
 and chiefly, I believe, because they secure in this way a better 
 draught and a more perfect combustion, and also because the 
 smoke is carried off better and with less annoyance in the higher 
 regions of the atmosphere. There is also some pride and ambi- 
 tion in building to a height that will equal or outcap their neigh- 
 bours. 
 
 The distance to Sheffield from Manchester is thirty-eight or 
 forty miles. Our route was over what is called Derbyshire Peak, 
 and through the town of Castleton. In this route we had some 
 of the finest scenery that England can boast of. The mountains, 
 like all other mountains of Great Britain, are without trees, and 
 covered with heather and peat. Over their bald heads the road 
 winds its course, while at every turn the romantic vales, and 
 scattered villages, and winding streams below, present new and 
 charming aspects. At the top of the peak we passed Mam Tor, 
 or the shivering mountain, which receives its name from its trem- 
 bling occasionally. The secret of this is, the mountain is com- 
 posed of shale and gritstone. The shale is decomposed by the 
 frost and rain, and, as the mountain is nearly perpendicular, it 
 falls off and rolls into the valley below, producing a great noise, 
 which is often heard at some distance. Here are strong indica- 
 tions of violent convulsions and extraordinary geological changes. 
 Marine exuvice are found here. Mines under the foot of the 
 mountain, at the depth of one hundred feet from the surface, ex- 
 hibit the phenomenon of trees found entire ; and the whole shows 
 that a part of the mountain has fallen off and covered the valley 
 below. We passed through a chasm called the Winnets, a con- 
 traction, as is supposed, of Windgates, because, from its elevation 
 57 
 
678 ENGLAND. 
 
 and the peculiar conformation of the mountains, the wind presses 
 through with great force. 
 
 As you descend, the vale of Castletonlies before you ; and near 
 the bottom is the lead mine called Odin (so named by the ancient 
 Saxons, who also wrought this mine). It is a rare perpendicular 
 vein, the top of which is in the shale, but the ore is principally in 
 the limestone. It is worked horizontally more than a mile. This 
 entire region is peculiarly rich in rare minerals. Here, and here 
 only, in a mountain called Win Hill, is found the beautiful fluor 
 spar called blue John. We found at a shop in Castleton, oppo- 
 site to the inn where we stopped, numerous superb ornaments 
 made of this spar. It occurs in massy crystallizations, and ex- 
 hibits the most beautiful and rich colours, and in veins that seem 
 wreathed into festoons by Nature in her most sportive mood. 
 
 Castleton takes its name from Peveril Castle, which stands on 
 a hill near by. These hills and mountains are also full of caverns, 
 some of which are very remarkable ; the most so is that called 
 Peak's Hole. We did not enter it, as our stay would not permit. 
 The description of it is, that the entrance is by a lofty arch sev- 
 enty feet in height and one hundred and twenty feet span, and 
 the length of the first hall is one hundred and eighty feet. After 
 passing a narrow aperture, part of the way by water, another hall 
 is reached, two hundred and fifty feet in length, two hundred in 
 width, and one hundred and twenty in height, and then another, 
 and so on, to the distance, in the whole, of two thousand two hun- 
 dred and fifty feet from the entrance. The whole is through a 
 limestone formation, with frequent specimens of calcareous spar. 
 There is another cavern, called the DeviPs Hall, which conducts 
 you six hundred feet below the surface. Our time and circum- 
 stances, however, forbade our spending time to examine these won- 
 derful curiosities. 
 
 Our ride through the vale and along the Derwent Water was 
 delightful ; again we mounted a high range of hills and another 
 bleak aspect of moors. We passed the region, too, where Mary 
 Queen of Scots was for a long time confined, and a part of the do- 
 mains of the Duke of Devonshire, whose almost unbounded wealth 
 cannot sustain his boundless profligacy ; and, arriving at Sheffield 
 in the afternoon, we took lodgings, according to previous arrange- 
 ment, with Mr. Henry Longden, son of him of the same name 
 
THE POET MONTGOMERY. 679 
 
 whose memoirs are so favourably known in the United States. 
 With this kind and hospitable family we spent several days, and 
 through their introduction we made many agreeable acquaintances 
 in this interesting town; among others, Mr. John Holland, the 
 author of the life of Rev. John Summeriield, and the poet James 
 Montgomery, Esq. With Mr. Montgomery we were much pleased. 
 We spent an evening with him, and had his company also from 
 Sheffield to Manchester. Mr. Montgomery's age is about sixty- 
 three or sixty-five ; under the common size ; his hair white and 
 head bald on the top ; a most beautifully turned and symmetrical 
 forehead, large nose, short chin, small face, and a large, floating 
 blue eye, worthy, certainly, of his poetic fame. He was very so- 
 ciable, and expressed himself on a variety of topics with much ease. 
 He said, in writing poetry, he knew of no inspiration but what was 
 gained by close thought and hard study. His " Pelican Island," 
 he said, was continually floating in his mind, in dim and undefined 
 outlines, for two or three years ; but he could get no satisfactory 
 view of it, until, from a view of a natural landscape, the whole burst 
 upon him at once almost, so that he went to his desk " and poured 
 the contents of his inkstand upon the paper" 
 
 Mr. Montgomery also remarked that this was not the age of 
 poetry ; that poets and poetry were at a great discount. The age 
 was too political, too commercial, too business-like, and too pros* 
 perous for poetry.* He seems, however, to write still, at least 
 some short and fugitive pieces, in proof that neither age nor the 
 spirit of the times can check the poetic emotions of his own heart. 
 His poems have lately been collected and published in three vol- 
 umes, a copy of which he presented to our university. He also 
 presented Mrs. Fisk with a little volume of poems, accompanied 
 by a manuscript copy of an original poem by himself. 
 
 Mr. Montgomery stands very high in Sheffield, and deservedly 
 so. He is much interested in the missionary cause, in schools, 
 and in various benevolent institutions. He is a Moravian in his 
 church relationship ; but, as there is no Moravian society in Shef- 
 field, his usual practice is to attend the established church once a 
 day, and once at the Methodist chapel. For many years Mr. 
 
 * Speaking of American poets, Mr. Montgomery said he thought they succeeded best 
 when they wrote American poetry ; when it was inspired by the scenes and events of their 
 own country. 
 
680 ENGLAND. 
 
 Montgomery was editor of the Sheffield Iris, a paper that was de- 
 voted to the cause of liberty ; and so free was the editor in ex- 
 pressing his sentiments of the ruling powers and their measures, 
 that he was twice imprisoned at York, and fined fifty pounds. 
 These were such political offences as, at the present, are as current 
 as the periodicals of the day. This fact, more than anything else, 
 shows the change that has passed over the British nation within 
 the present century. The Iris has been out of Mr. Montgomery's 
 hands for a number of years, and has degenerated into a low rad- 
 ical paper ; a grade of politics with which the former editor has, 
 I believe, no sympathy. Sheffield, however, as well as Manches- 
 ter and Birmingham, and most of the new manufacturing towns, 
 is decidedly whig in its politics. 
 
 The great business of Sheffield, as the world knows, is cutlery. 
 Plating, also, and the best, perhaps, in the world, is carried on 
 here, as also the casting of stoves, grates, and hollow- ware. Steel 
 making is also a great branch of business here. We went 
 through various establishments in these different departments of 
 business. 
 
 In the manufacture of steel there are three processes by which 
 the different kinds are produced. When iron is baked, blistered 
 steel is the result ; by repeated casting, cast steel ; and by re- 
 peated and thorough weldings or kneadings, shear steel. Steel 
 is beginning to be made in the United States, as also many other 
 of the Sheffield products ; and, by means of the tariff, we are sup- 
 planting many of these products, so far as our own consumption 
 is concerned. This was a subject of complaint among the produ- 
 cers there, and one gentleman undertook to convince me that our 
 protecting duties were all wrong ; and, if they must be perpetual, 
 so doubtless they are, except in such peculiar products as may 
 be necessary for a nation's defence and support, and which are li- 
 able to be cut off by international wars ; but as the protection of 
 our iron products, as well as some others, is proposed only to give 
 an opportunity to call out and make fair proof of the resources of 
 our country, I did not feel all the force of his arguments, espe- 
 cially as I could not but think they all had in them a large mix- 
 ture of self-interest. 
 
 Mr. Rodgers's knife, razor, &c, manufactory was one of the 
 greatest interest that I visited. It was the name I used to read 
 
SHEFFIELD MANUFACTURES. 681 
 
 upon my penknife in my boyhood, and this was the establishment 
 where it was made. The reputation of the house is sustained, I 
 believe, and their trade is great. In their showroom is a most 
 splendid display of wares and toys. Among the latter is a fac- 
 simile of a knife presented to the king, having two hundred blades 
 and instruments of various kinds attached to one handle. Another 
 knife, not bigger than a pheasanfs egg, had seventy-five blades. 
 There are a great many Lilliputian toys, one of which, a pair of 
 scissors, Mrs. Fisk had presented to her, about half an inch in 
 length. In short, if any one wishes to see the perfection of art, 
 let him visit this shop. We followed through the various rooms, 
 from the first rude block to the polished knife ; the changes are 
 numerous. 
 
 Many of the workmen in the Sheffield business are very dis- 
 solute in these times of prosperity ; they work only about half 
 of the time, and, by means of the " trades' unions" and combina- 
 tions, they control their masters and fix their own wages. This 
 warfare between the employers and the employed is a most un- 
 happy one to all parties. If the master does not submit, he is 
 forsaken by his hands, and his contracts must fail. If the labour- 
 ers do not submit, they are punished by their fellows with perse- 
 cution and personal violence ; and all this, in most cases, that they 
 may have the more time and the more money for idleness and 
 rioting. The present is their harvest; a change of times will 
 leave them at the mercy of their masters, and the result may be 
 readily foreseen. 
 
 The grinders are a rough as well as a short-lived race, rarely 
 exceeding the age of thirty-five years. This was stated especially 
 of a class of grinders who occupy successively positions on a 
 stream of water a little out of town. An invention has been made 
 to protect them against inhaling the grit that is supposed to shorten 
 their days ; but they said among themselves, in this way the bu- 
 siness will be overstocked with hands, and will, of course, com- 
 mand less wages ; with the motto, therefore, " a short life and a 
 merry one," they discarded the aid, work on, and die prematurely 
 to keep the business good ! 
 
 Sheffield is situated in a valley, and the site itself is quite un- 
 even ; this inequality, however, adds greatly to the interest of the 
 4R 
 
682 ENGLAND. 
 
 town, and the scenery around is very fine. It has a population of 
 about sixty thousand. 
 
 In Sheffield I found many warm-hearted and devout Christians ; 
 indeed, I think I met with a greater number of truly fervent and 
 deeply devoted Christians here than in any other place I visited in 
 England. No Methodist in Sheffield asked me whether I thought 
 religious revivals advantageous to the cause of Christianity. 
 With these they are very familiar, and to them the church owes 
 much of her prosperity. 
 
 In addition to the regular societies of the old connexion, the 
 Kilhamites, or " New Connexion," have several chapels, and so 
 also have the " Primitive Methodists," so called ; so that, taking 
 the whole, there is probably a greater influence in favour of the 
 general doctrines and principles of the Wesleyans in Sheffield, 
 according to the population, than in most towns of the kingdom. 
 
 A proprietory school is about to be established here of a high 
 character, under the patronage of the Methodists, for the purposes, 
 of general education ; the first of the kind in the connexion, with 
 the exception of those for the minister's children already noticed. 
 Should these schools become common in Great Britain, and should 
 they add to these a grand central collegiate institution, it would 
 do more towards establishing their societies and keeping up their 
 characteristic influence as a denomination than any other step they 
 can now take. 
 
 We were nearly a week in Sheffield, and saw much that I can- 
 not describe ; for I find I am swelling my volume beyond the 
 limits of modern journals ; and, as there is a fashion in all things, 
 if I am unfashionably long, I shall be counted dull and uninter- 
 esting for this if for no other cause. 
 
 We returned to Manchester by a new route, over another sec- 
 tion of the heights and moors, which was quite interesting, although 
 not equal to the " Peak." During a few more days of delay at 
 Manchester, I had an opportunity of attending several missionary 
 meetings, this being the time for their annual visitation by the 
 deputations appointed by Conference. These missionary efforts 
 are generally introduced by a sermon ; then, in the week following,- 
 a platform meeting is got up, with a number of addresses, and fre- 
 quently this is followed up by a missionary tea. In this way the 
 public feeling is inspired in behalf of the cause, the fruits of which 
 
ROUTE FROM MANCHESTER TO LIVERPOOL. 683 
 
 are received, not merely in the public collections at the time, but 
 in the silent streams that are flowing in through the year by means 
 of the collectorsy who go about and call on the individuals from 
 whom they expect to receive aid, and by means of private dona- 
 tions, yearly subscriptions, &c. 
 
 On the nineteenth of October we bade farewell to our friends'at 
 Manchester, and started for Liverpool, which we reached in two 
 hours ; passed in our way a natural curiosity in the form of a large 
 bog, the largest we had seen, called Chat Moss. It is five miles 
 wide and six long, and it is said to be thirty feet deep, and is very 
 wet and spongy. The railroad passes through the centre of it. 
 
 We passed also on the route the little borough of Newton, 
 which, before the Reform Bill, sent two members to parliament, 
 although there did not appear to be half a dozen houses in the 
 place, while the large town of Manchester had none. With such 
 facts respecting the old representation, is it not strange that there 
 should have been a single opposer to the Reform Bill ? 
 
 We found the tunnel of the railroad, as we enter Liverpool, 
 completed ; by which we were conducted into the very heart of 
 the town by passing two miles underneath the surface. In this 
 way all annoyance to the town is avoided ; and, what is of more 
 consequence in the present case, a hill is perforated. A most 
 beautiful architectural front has been erected at the termination of 
 the railroad, and convenient depots prepared. 
 
 We took lodgings at our old friend's, Thbmas Sands, Esq. 
 Here we spent a few days in preparing for our departure, during 
 which a Sabbath intervened, and I preached my last sermon in Eng- 
 land. And it may be in place here to remark, that, for the same 
 length of time, I have never preached with so little satisfaction 
 to myself as during my stay in England. This I attribute mainly 
 to two causes. My health in England has been generally bad ; 
 the climate, however healthy it may be to others, is wretchedly 
 bad for me. The humidity of the atmosphere, combined with 
 the abundant smoke, seems to be anything but salutary for weak 
 lungs. Another cause is the almost entire want of ventilation in 
 their chapels. They are very much afraid of the air, even in the 
 warmest of the weather. Many of the chapels are so constructed, 
 in fact, that they cannot be ventilated except by a contrivance 
 they have of raising one, or, at the farthest, two squares in a win- 
 
684 ENGLAND. 
 
 dow ; and where they might ventilate they take no pains to do 
 it. The consequence is, as might be expected, with crowded 
 congregrations a man with weak lungs can do but little. The 
 physical effort to speak so as to be heard reacts upon the mind, 
 a^d language and ideas fail with the voice. 
 
 The construction of their houses, also, is a violation of all the 
 approved principles of acoustics. The pulpit is a sentry-box, just 
 about big enough to bury one in a perpendicular posture up to the 
 middle ; and is elevated high in air, with the altar, and frequently 
 some " free sittings" in the rear ; so that it is in advance from the 
 end of the chapel about one fourth of the distance towards the op- 
 posite end. This position, with a high ceiling to help on the em- 
 barrassment, makes the whole an awkward and a heavy business. 
 The truth is, they have been so accustomed on the eastern conti- 
 nent to houses of worship constructed for anything rather than 
 public speaking, that even when they build for public speaking 
 their old habits and acquired tastes perpetuate the error. Happily 
 for us in the United States, we have broken away from this error, 
 however many new ones we may have acquired. 
 
 The Methodist chapels are, in the great whole, rented in slips 
 to families, contrary to the practice in the greater portion of the 
 Methodist churches in the United States ; all have, however, more 
 or less of free sittings, and, in some instances, these free sittings 
 .are fenced out by a low partition from the other parts of the house, 
 so that the occupants do not go in and out at the same door with 
 the others ; nor can they approach the altar without passing out 
 and coming in another way ; yet the English have no prejudice 
 of caste ! All this sin lies at the door of Americans ! and some 
 in England are schooling us most stoutly for our wicked distinc- 
 tions ! If we have sins, we are certainly none the less guilty be- 
 cause our neighbours have sins also ; but still there might be some 
 advantage in having reprovers to whom the sentiment, "Physician, 
 heal thyself;" or that other, " First cast the beam out of thine own 
 eye, and then thou shalt see clearly to cast the mote out of thy 
 brother's eye," did not apply with so much emphasis. 
 
 The church service is read in a great many of the Methodist 
 chapels in the principal places of England and Ireland. It every- 
 where, however, seems to be an appendage that does not belong 
 to the system, and sits awkwardly upon it ; it is David in Saul's 
 
REV. MR. M'NEAL. 685 
 
 armour. By saying this I mean nothing disrespectful of the 
 church service. This is undoubtedly good, although the stereo- 
 typed praises that are heaped upon it, which seem to forbid any 
 complaint of any part of this venerable liturgy, is no part of my 
 creed. It undoubtedly might be improved in many parts, and the 
 Wesleyans do abridge it ; but a greater improvement, after all, 
 would be for them to omit it altogether. There is not an agree- 
 ment among them in reference to it ; and I noticed, in those 
 churches where the service was read, the attendance was limited 
 compared with the congregation that got in by the time the extem- 
 pore services commenced. It seems to be an attempt to incorpo- 
 rate partially upon a system something redundant and foreign. 
 
 The last Sabbath evening before leaving Liverpool I called at 
 the church of Rev. Mr. M'Neal, a church clergyman, whose zeal, 
 evangelical sentiments, and reputed popular talents as a preacher 
 had given him much celebrity. We found the house thronged, 
 and could only get a standing position within the doors, where we 
 stayed long enough to ascertain that, whatever merit may be at- 
 tached to some of Mr. M'Neal's performances, his discourse of 
 that evening had nothing either of eloquence or logic to entitle him 
 to the character of a great preacher. But no man should be judged 
 by one discourse. It appears, however, that it takes much less tal- 
 ents to make a man a popular preacher in the established church, 
 if he only adopt a warm and an evangelical mode of preaching, than 
 it does out of the establishment. This shows the strong feeling 
 in favour of the national church. 
 
 Mr. M'Neal more than hinted at a sentiment that is getting 
 quite common among a portion of those clergymen who are styled 
 evangelical, viz., the doctrine of Christ's personal reign upon the 
 earth. This is supposed to be connected with very extraordinary 
 judgments, that will destroy a great portion of the inhabitants of 
 the earth ; so that the triumphs of Christ's kingdom are not to be 
 the triumphs of grace so much as the victories achieved by the ex- 
 ertion of a destructive power, which shall purify the earth by de- 
 populating it ; and then the Saviour is to erect his temporal and 
 secular throne in the midst of the few in whom the Son of man, 
 when he cometh, shall find faith on the earth. 
 
 This period is thought to be very near. Many expect to live 
 to see it ; and one clergyman in Bedfordshire, I was told when 
 58 
 
686 ENGLAND. 
 
 there, had said he expected to walk arm in arm with the Lord 
 Jesus Christ. This sentiment gives a peculiar cast to the religious 
 character and preaching of those who embrace it. One of the bad 
 effects is, that, to a great extent, it cuts off missionary efforts on 
 the part of its advocates. Why should they engage in an enter- 
 prise to convert the world when they never expect the world to be 
 converted ? 
 
 Our host of Manchester, with his honoured father, the president 
 of the Conference, came down to Liverpool, and spent the last 
 night with us previous to our embarking for America. The lat- 
 ter, with our hostess of Liverpool and other members of the fam- 
 ily, accompanied us to the ship, and showed us all the kind atten- 
 tion we could desire at our departure. A mournful pleasure made 
 up the feelings of that morning. It was a matter of joy that we 
 were about to embark for our much-loved country and home, but 
 it was painful to part from friends whose faces we expected to see 
 no more ; but they will live in our memory and in our affections. 
 
 England has disappointed me in some respects, and yet I can 
 hardly tell why. Not a single feature had I imagined which I 
 have not found, except, perhaps, she is more cold, more selfish, 
 and more conceited than I had imagined; and yet she is warm, 
 and liberal, and of great moral worth. If these statements are 
 paradoxical, I cannot help it. I draw the character as it appears. 
 If you want to excite a whole nation for some real or imaginary 
 wrong, a better subject than England cannot be found ;: and yet, 
 if she is invited to take the stranger by the hand, the motion is re- 
 luctant, and the touch is cold and feeble. She has heat, but it re- 
 quires strong friction to call it out; besides, it is more of a social 
 than individual heat ; her combustibility is less like her own bitu- 
 minous coal, and more like our anthracite. She burns best in 
 masses and in a strong draught; but, when once ignited, the heat 
 is intense. 
 
 I speak of selfishness and liberality, because these seem to me 
 to be strangely mixed in the English character. If the inconve- 
 nience and labour be indirect, and the proper occasion presents, 
 the English are liberal, they are munificent ; but if the labour and 
 sacrifice be direct and immediate, they will not be bothered. They 
 do noble things in a noble way. Of course I speak of general 
 character and national tendencies. There- are individual exeep- 
 
PASSAGE HOME. 687 
 
 tions ; and vital godliness, with other influences, greatly modify 
 these national tendencies.* 
 
 The foreigner would not hesitate to accord to England a high 
 rank ; possibly some might be willing to say, taking her all in all, 
 the highest rank of moral and physical worth ; but he would 
 choose to do it voluntarily, without prompting or demand on the 
 part of her who is to be commended. It vexes him that she claims 
 it; that she has found out, at least, all her own excellences, and 
 prizes them quite up to their real value, and demands of every 
 stranger, as her right, that he should sign the verdict. And it 
 vexes him more that, while she blazons her own excellences upon 
 her crest, and publicly advertises them both at home and abroad, 
 she will not own her faults ; and it vexes him most of all, that, not 
 content with her own fame, she tries on all occasions to make him 
 feel his inferiority. 
 
 But, " England, with all thy faults, I love" and honour " thee still." 
 Shores of Albion, farewell ! Friends of England, farewell ! We 
 meet no more till we meet above. 
 
 It was our good fortune to take passage in our old and tried sea- 
 boat, the Roscoe, with our old and tried commander, Captain De- 
 lano. We had also a kind, and, on the whole, very pleasant com- 
 pany of cabin passengers. Our voyage, as the return voyages 
 generally are, was some days longer than our passage out, extend- 
 ing, from wharf to wharf, to twenty-nine days. Our seasickness, 
 however, was not so excessive ; not that either Mrs. Fisk or my- 
 self got over the disease ; I was as sick the last day but one as I 
 had been at any period of the voyage ; but there were intervals of 
 comfortable days, and the system was not so deranged and pros 
 trated as in our outward-bound voyage. I will not, however, 
 dwell on this subject ; it is over, and it must be a strong call to 
 induce me to try it again. 
 
 As my journal has been swelled beyond my original design, I 
 will take up no more time or paper with reflections and comments, 
 although much might be said that, perhaps, under other circum- 
 
 * I have reason to acknowledge English and Irish liberality, as they gave me about 
 two thousand dollars for our university, including a donation of valuable books from the 
 Conference worth one hundred pounds sterling. To this I ought to add a beautiful 
 collection of plants and minerals by Rev. H. Fish, sent since I left, and worth, perhaps, 
 one hundred pounds sterling, 
 
088 CONCLUDING REMARKS. 
 
 stances, would not be without its interest. I cannot close, how- 
 ever, without recording our acknowledgments to that watchful 
 and protecting Providence which has guarded us, in the most per- 
 fect safety and exemption from injury, or insult, or pecuniary loss 
 during a tour of about sixteen thousand miles, performed in the 
 course of fifteen months, through some fifteen or twenty different 
 sovereignties, whose inhabitants speak a great variety of different 
 languages and dialects, and of whose laws and customs we were 
 in many instances ignorant. Scarcely a casualty has befallen us 
 worth recording ; little or no property stolen ; nothing of one dol- 
 lar's value left by forgetfulness. In short, with the exception of 
 the cases of sickness already mentioned, our entire journey has 
 been prosperous. Wearied we have often been, from the reason, 
 chiefly, that we had too much to accomplish in a given time ;, 
 perplexed we have often been, as who would expect exemption 
 from little vexations under such circumstances. Happily, how- 
 ever, for man, the fatigue and the vexations pass away almost with 
 the occasion, or are but dimly seen in the retrospective distance, 
 while the prominent objects of observation and interest brighten 
 in the sunshine of memory, and glow in increased beauty in the 
 kindlings of an untired and vivid imagination. With us, the wea- 
 riness is gone, the perplexities are over, but the scenes are not 
 faded, the events have not lost their interest. The welcome of 
 friends, their kind inquiries, the oft-repeated question and answer, 
 the sweets of home, the kindlings of patriotism which one expe- 
 riences when, returning from foreign travel, he contrasts the cher- 
 ished institutions of his own country with many he has visited 
 abroad, all serve to prolong the vision and heighten the interest. 
 One only drawback in this regard has fallen to my lot, and that 
 is the preparation of this volume for the press. But this, too, is 
 now finished, and its fate is committed to the judgment of the pub- 
 lic. If that judgment prove favourable, the toil and the perplexity 
 of the composition will also be forgotten. 
 
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