^'V^ WTOTVK3ttBW MaMM M)MWT tl WW 
 
 THE 
 
 AMERICAN 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 LIBRARY 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 Book 
 
 
 
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THE COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY, 
 
 WASHINGTON, D. C 
 
 SCHOOL OF COMPARATIVE JURISPRUDENCE 
 AND DIPLOMACY. 
 
 J899-J900. 
 
 COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 BY 
 
 HON. DAVID J.' HILL, LL. D. 
 
 SYNOPSIS. 
 
 Copyright, 1899, 
 
 By The Columbian University. 
 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
$v 
 
 \V° 
 
 & LECTURE T. 
 
 Lecture I.— THE STUDY OF DIPLOMACY. 
 
 1. Political Science, beginning with the most rudimentary- 
 
 forms of local authority, culminates in the system of re- 
 lations established between independent States. 
 
 2. It embraces : 
 
 ( 1) The theory of the State ; 
 
 (2) The development of Governments, and 
 
 (3) International relations. 
 
 I. — The Political System of Europe. 
 
 1. A system of States: (1) Organized; (2) independent; (3) sov- 
 
 ereign. 
 
 2. A system of Public Law: (1) Natural ; (2) customary ; (3) con- 
 
 ventional. 
 
 3. Provisions for the adjustment of differences: (1) War, and 
 
 (2) Diplomacy. 
 
 II. — The General Character of Diplomacy. 
 
 1. The transaction of international business is — 
 
 (1) A science, involving the knowledge of international 
 
 relations, and 
 
 (2) An art, requiring skill in negotiation. 
 
 2. It is called "Diplomacy" from the Greek diizXu)[j.a, a docu- 
 
 ment in duplicate. 
 
 3. The relation of Diplomacy to Diplomatics. 
 
 4. Diplomacy may be defined as the intelligent application of 
 
 political knowledge to the affairs of sovereign States in 
 their relations with one another. 
 
 5. Diplomatic ideals: (I) The maximum advantage ; (2) per- 
 
 manent mutual satisfaction. 
 
 III. — The Organization of Diplomacy. 
 
 1. The Foreign Office, its origin and development. 
 
 2. Diplomatic Agents : (1) Ambassadors; (2) Ministers Plenipo- 
 
 tentiary.; (3) Ministers Resident; (4) Charges d' Affaires. 
 
 *"" In Exchange 
 
 Aoac'OiMi TTniverBity 
 
 JAN 1 1935 
 
LECTURE I. 3 
 
 3. Diplomatic Law and Custom. 
 
 4. Treaties and Conventions. 
 
 IV. — The Diplomatist. 
 
 1 . Qualifications : 
 
 (1) Personal; (2) social; (3) linguistic; (4) technical. 
 
 2. Studies : 
 
 (1) General ; (2) special, including (a) International 
 Law, both public and private ; (b) Constitutional 
 Law, comparative and historical ; (c) Political 
 Economy; (d) Geography, physical, political, and 
 commercial; (e) Statistics; JJY the Genealogy of 
 Sovereign Houses ; (g) Treaties and Conventions, 
 with their History, and (h) Current Political De- 
 velopment. 
 
 V. — Diplomatic History. 
 
 1. " History the breviary of the diplomatist." De Tocqueville. 
 
 2. Essential topics : 
 
 (1) General history of civilization; (2) evolution of 
 political ideas ; (3) historical geography ; (4) his- 
 tory of diplomacy. 
 
 3. Sources of Diplomatic History : 
 
 (1) Diplomatic Archives — Treaties, protocols, notes, 
 
 memorandums, instructions, despatches, and re- 
 ports, and 
 
 (2) Literary Expositions — Personal letters, memoirs, 
 
 biographies, essays, and historical narratives. 
 
 4. Relative value and use of these sources. 
 
 VI — Treaties. 
 
 1. Treaties the structural results and landmarks of diplomacy ; 
 
 the turning-points of history, marking its epochs. 
 
 2. Treaties considered as legal instruments ; the pledges and 
 
 proofs of national rights. 
 
4 LECTURE I. 
 
 3. Treaties considered as political acts and as expressions of 
 
 policy. 
 
 4. The interpretation of treaties. 
 
 VII. — Schools tor Teaching Diplomacy. 
 
 1. Projects and beginnings in this direction : 
 
 (1) Project of Henry VIII of England. 
 
 (2) Project of Torcy at Paris in 1712. 
 
 (3) Instruction of Schoepnin and Koch at Strasburg and 
 
 their illustrious disciples. 
 
 2. L'Ecole Libre des Sciences Politiques at Paris. 
 
 3. The School of Comparative Jurisprudence and Diplomacy 
 
 of the Columbian University. 
 
 4. Aims and uses of formal instruction in Diplomacy : 
 
 (1) As a preparation for public service. 
 
 (2) Asa preparation for legal practice. 
 
 (3) As an element of general culture. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture II.— THE UNITY OF EUROPE UNDER THE 
 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 1. The history of the present political system of Europe in- 
 
 cludes: (1) The formation of sovereign States ; (2) the 
 evolution of diplomacy, and (3) the development of in- 
 ternational law. 
 
 2. This system has arisen from an antecedent state of theo- 
 
 retical unity. 
 
 I.— The Roman Empire. 
 
 1. Extent of the Roman Empire. Population about 100 mil- 
 
 lions. 
 
 2. The central authority: (lj The Emperor, who was (a) mili- 
 
 tary chief, (b) first magistrate, and (c) pontifex maximus ; 
 (2) the Senate, a body of dignitaries under the absolute 
 control of the Emperor, the mere shadow of republican 
 forms. 
 
 3. Local administration: (1) The City, a Greco-Latin concep- 
 
 tion (civitas), a totality of men inhabiting a certain terri- 
 tory under a central municipal government, with elective 
 magistrates ; (2) the Province, a conquered territory under 
 the control of a governor appointed by the Emperor, with 
 a provincial assembly of limited authority. 
 
 4. Social classes: (1) Slaves; (2) Freedmen ; (3) Coloni ; (4) 
 
 Plebs, and (5) Nobles— (a) Equestrian Order (fortune of 
 400,000 sesterces) and (6) Senatorial Order (fortune of one 
 million sesterces). Free birth and freedom from ignoble 
 deeds essential to noble rank. 
 
 5. Life under the Empire. Pax Romana. General content- 
 
 ment. National sentiment lost. Reverence for the Em- 
 peror. 
 
 6. Decadence of the Empire : (1) Social hierarchy based on 
 
 wealth; (2) imperial encouragement of (atifundla; (3) 
 b 5 
 
D LECTURE II. 
 
 growth of the impoverished class ; (4) multiplication of 
 taxes ; (5) loss of national character of the army ; (6) re- 
 moval of capital to Byzantium and orientalization of the 
 Empire. 
 
 II. — The Barbaric Invasions. 
 
 1. The barbaric world : (1) Immensity ; (2) fecundity ; (3) mi- 
 
 gratory habits ; (4) devotion to personal leadership. 
 
 2. Period of invasions — A. D. 376-526. 
 
 3. Memorable dates : (1) Removal of the capital to Byzantium, 
 
 321 ; (2) division of the Empire into Eastern and Western 
 by Valens and Valentinian, 364 ; (3) death of Theodosius 
 and final division of the Empire, 395 ; (4) capture of Home 
 by Odoacer and end of the Western Empire, 476 ; (5) con- 
 quests and legislation of Justinian (527-565). 
 
 4. The barbarian kingdoms and the period of anarchy in 
 
 Europe. Theodoric in Italy (487). 
 
 5. Lasting influence of the Empire : (1) The Church ; (2) the 
 
 Roman Law; and (3) the memory of political unity and 
 the ancient pax Romana ; but the Empire had become a 
 mere theory. 
 
 III. — The Empire Restored by Charles the Great. 
 
 1. The Kingdom of the Franks. 
 
 2. Decline of the Merovingian dynasty and election of Pepin 
 
 the Short as King (7-52). 
 
 3. Transaction of Stephen II, the Bishop of Rome, with Pepin 
 
 the Short (753). 
 
 4. Services of Charles the Great, King of the Franks (768), and 
 
 his coronation as Emperor at Rome (800). 
 
 5. Organization of the Empire : (1) Suppression of the duchies ; 
 
 (2) the missi dominici ; (3) the schools of Charles the Great. 
 
 6. Obstructions to the unification of Europe : (1) Difficulty of 
 
 communication ; (2) deficiency of money ; (3) decentraliz- 
 ing tendencies of feudalism ; (4) the national diversities 
 of race and law. 
 
LECTURE II. « 
 
 7. Partitions of the Empire of Charles: (1) During the life of 
 
 his son, Lewis I (814-840) ; (2) at his death— 
 
 ( Lothair becomes Emperor ; 
 ■I Lewis, King of Germany ; 
 ( Charles, King of France. 
 
 8. Battle of Fontenay (841) and the Treaty of Verdun (843), 
 
 "the most permanent in its influence on the map of 
 Europe of any treaty ever made." 
 
 9. Origin of France and Germany, the significance of this par- 
 
 tition. 
 
 10. The debatable ground between France and Germany. 
 
 11. Reunion of territory under Charles the Fat (881-888) and 
 
 extinction of the Carolingian dynasty. 
 
 IV.— The Empire Overwhelmed with Barbarism. 
 
 1. General invasion of Europe: (1) Arabs; (2) Danes and 
 
 Norsemen; (3) Hungarians. 
 
 2. Development of the Feudal System : ( 1) Ownership of land 
 
 and sovereignty united ; (2) institution of serfdom ; (3) the 
 feudal hierarchy ; (4) the cities ; (5) the guilds. 
 
 3. The " phantom emperors" (888-962). 
 
 V. — Restoration of the Empire by Otto the Great. 
 
 1. Otto, King of Germany, crowned at Rome (962). 
 
 2. Theory of ' ' The Holy Roman Empire of the German Na- 
 
 tion" : (1) Divine authority manifests itself civally in the 
 Emperor, spiritually in the Pope, producing a World-State 
 and a World-Church ; (2) Empire and Church are each 
 absolute in their sphere, but parts of one supreme plan 
 of divine government. 
 
 3. Relation of Emperor and Pope under the Ottos : (1) Otto I 
 
 deposes Pope John XII; (2) Otto III nominates suc- 
 cessive reform pontiffs. 
 
 VI. — The Empire and the Papacy. 
 
 1. Doctrine of Cluny, that the Pope must be independent of 
 the Emperor. Rise of Hildebrand, afterward Gregory 
 VII. 
 
8 LECTURE II. 
 
 2. Henry III, Emperor (1046-1056), the most powerful king of 
 
 German history, resists this movement. 
 
 3. War of the Investitures. (1) Independence of the Papacy 
 
 declared (1059) ; (2) Humiliation of Henry IV (1076) 5 
 
 (3) Concordat of Worms (1122); (4) Authority of Inno- 
 cent III (1216) ; (5) Complete triumph of the Papacy 
 (1250). 
 
 4. The Papacy becomes an absolute power. (1) Formation of 
 
 the Canon Law ; (2) Bulls forbidding submission of clergy 
 to lay princes; (3) Claims of supremacy and tribute; 
 
 (4) Conflict of Boniface VIII with Philip IV of France ; 
 
 (5) the Captivity ot Babylon (1305-1370). 
 
 5. The Electoral College. The Golden Bull of Charles IV 
 
 (1356) and the Wahlcapltulationen. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY, 
 
 Lecture III.— TH E ORIGIN OF EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 1. The disintegration of the Empire was followed by the rise 
 
 of great monarchies. 
 
 2. Diplomacy had its origin in the Italian city republics, the 
 
 earliest independent parts of the disintegrated Empire. 
 
 3. The modern States System of Europe grew out of the effort 
 
 to balance the forces brought into being by the rise of 
 the great monarchies. 
 
 I. ; — The Rise of the Great Monarchies. 
 
 1. Feudalism rendered Europe the seat of anarchy and uni- 
 
 versal private war. 
 
 2. General causes leading toward local political centralization : 
 
 (1) the Crusade* (1096-1.270), which (a) aroused the am- 
 bitions of great chiefs, (b) united great masses of men 
 under common leaders, (c) acted as an intellectual stim- 
 ulus, and (d) promoted the growth of commerce ; (2) the 
 growth and foundation of cities, which (a) developed trade 
 and industries, (6) necessitated better communication, 
 (c) increased the third estate, (d) required a better pro- 
 tection of property, and (e) tended to centralize and 
 strengthen government; (3) the increased use of money 
 and establishment of seigniorage, which (a) enabled the 
 people to pay taxes in lieu of feudal service, and (b) thus 
 permitted their rulers to provide paid armies ; (4) the 
 invention of gunpowder (1354) and the use of artillery, 
 which changed the character of warfare ; (5) the dispo- 
 sition of the Third Estate to look to kings as protectors 
 against the rapacities of local lords ; (6) revival of the 
 study of Roman, Law, which was in principle monarch- 
 ical, and extension of the royal courts of justice ; (7) the 
 union of powerful houses by marriage ; (8) the disposi- 
 tion of the Papacy to advance the local monarchies, in 
 order to assume imperial power. 
 
 c 9 
 
10 LECTURE III. 
 
 3. Monarchy was the only practicable refuge from anarchy, 
 and the great kings became the " fathers of their people," 
 the representatives of law, order, and public safety. 
 
 II. — The Formation of France. 
 
 1. Otto the Great was the last Emperor whose suzerainty was 
 
 recognized by France (973), and by the election of Hugh 
 Capet (987) the royalty began to be a reality and became 
 hereditary. The two great tasks of royalty: (1) the 
 recovery of the territory from the great barons, and (2) 
 the expulsion of the English, who, in 1154, under the 
 Angevins, held three-fourths of France. 
 
 2. Philip II, called Augustus (1180-1223), founds the Univer- 
 
 sity of Paris (1200) and attaches the teachers and lawyers 
 to the cause of the Monarchy. 
 
 3. Louis IX (1226-1270), called Saint Louis, establishes the 
 
 coin of the realm and forbids the lords to coin money. 
 
 4. Philip IV (1285-1314), called the Fair, debases the cur- 
 
 rency and increases the army (1303), prohibits private 
 wars (1304), and proclaims himself the sole legislator 'of 
 the Kingdom, denying the jurisdiction of the ecclesias- 
 tical courts. He defeats Boniface VIII (1303) and estab- 
 lishes the Papacy at Avignon (1308). He originates the 
 States General and establishes the Third Estate. 
 
 5. Louis X (1314-1316) enfranchises all the serfs of the royal 
 
 domain (1315). 
 
 6. Louis XI (1461-1483) "assumes the authority of the States 
 
 General (1470) and dominates the Kingdom. He estab- 
 lishes the royal postal system. Use of artillery. 
 
 7. Territorial expansion of France : (1) The Hundred Years' 
 
 War (1336-1451) and the expulsion of the English ; (2) 
 the acquisition of Burgundy, Provence, and Brittany 
 (1483-1497). 
 
 III. — The Formation of England. 
 
 1. William the Conqueror invades and conquers England 
 (1066). 
 
LECTURE ITT. 
 
 11 
 
 2. The Angevin Kings (1154-1450) and their empire— England, 
 
 Fiance, Ireland, Wales, Scotland— not a consolidated 
 monarchy. 
 
 3. The Wars of the Roses (1450-1471), a baronial contest for 
 
 royal supremacy. 
 
 4. Accession of the Tndors. Union of rival claims by mar- 
 
 riage of Henry of Lancaster and Elizabeth of York. 
 Henry VII (1485). 
 
 IV.— The Formation of Spain. 
 
 1. Spain, broken up into small kingdoms, was reduced toward 
 
 the middle of the 15th century to the Christian King- 
 doms of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal, and the Moorish 
 Kingdom of Granada. 
 
 2. Ferdinand of Aragon (1479-1516) and Isabella of Castile 
 
 (1474-1504) united the greater part of Spain by marriage 
 (1409). 
 
 3. The Kingdom of Granada captured and the Moors expelled 
 
 from power (1492). 
 
 4. Unification of the Spanish Peninsula, except Portugal, 
 
 which was not annexed until 1580, and became inde- 
 pendent again in 1640, under a Spanish Monarchy. 
 
 5. Discovery of America (1492) and establishment of the 
 
 Spanish Colonial Empire. 
 
 V.— Other States of Europe. 
 
 1. Germany still in a state of feudal anarchy, but falling under 
 
 the power of the Hapsburgs. 
 
 2. Italy, a mere geographic expression, comprising six princi- 
 
 pal States :'(1) The Duchy of Milan; (2) the Republic of 
 Venice ; (3) the Republic of Florence ; (4) the Republic 
 of Genoa ; (5) the States of the Church, and (6) the 
 Kingdom of Naples; with numerous small States like 
 Savoy and Ferrara. 
 
 3. Switzerland, a group of canton republics, having thrown 
 
 off the yoke of Burgundy, and later of the Empire (1474). 
 
12 LECTURE HI. 
 
 4. The Northern Monarchies: (1) Sweden; (2) Poland; (3) 
 
 Denmark ; (4) Bohemia ; (5) Hungary. 
 
 5. The Ottoman Empire, established at Constantinople by the 
 
 capture of that city in 1453. 
 
 VI. — The Birthplace of Diplomacy. 
 
 1. Early weakening of the Empire in Italy and rise of the City 
 
 Republics— Genoa, Pisa, Florence, Venice. 
 
 2. The commercial interests and military feebleness of these 
 
 Republics leads them to frequent negotiations for unity 
 of action, from which their local jealousies divert them. 
 
 3. Development of diplomatic relations : (1) Ambassadors ; (2) 
 
 instructions ; (3) reports. 
 
 4. Character of Italian diplomacy: (1) Espionage; (2) bribery; 
 
 (3) formation of factions ; (4) intrigues. 
 
 5. Influence of Machiavelli upon Europe: (L) His missions; 
 
 (2) his works. 
 
 6. The system of equilibrium practiced in Italy. 
 
 7. Italy initiates Europe into the relations of international life, 
 
 and about 1500 a European system begins to be formed : 
 (1) Permanent embassies are established ; (2) depart- 
 ments of foreign affairs begin to be formed ; (3) European 
 politics come into being ; (4) national ambitions tend to 
 expand ; (5) diplomacy becomes a vocation and offers a 
 career. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture IV.— THE AMBITIONS OF FRANCE. 
 
 1. France, consolidated and unified by the destruction of feud- 
 
 alism and the expulsion of the English, feels aspirations 
 toward universal monarchy. 
 
 2. Effects of the Renaissance upon the whole of Europe — an 
 
 international influence. 
 
 3. Revival of national sentiment and admiration for monarchy 
 
 as an instrument of culture opposed to Medievalism. 
 
 I. — Projects of Charles VIII in Italy. 
 
 1. The state of Italy: (1) Universal rule of little tyrants ; (2) 
 
 dissolute character of the papacy under Alexander VI 
 (1492-1503) (Rodrigo Borgia); (3) death of Lorenzo de 
 Medici (1402), who had maintained the equilibrium of 
 Italy ; (4) general expectations from foreign intervention ; 
 (5) Italy a prey to the invader. 
 
 2. Preparations of Charles VIII for the invasion of Italy and 
 
 conquest of the East : (1) A large sum of money to Eng- 
 land by the treaty of Etaples (November 3, 1492) ; (2) 
 retrocession of Cerdagne and Roussillon to Spain by the 
 treaty of Narbonne (January 19, 1493) ; (3) cession of 
 Artois and Franche-Comte to the Emperor by the treaty 
 of Senlis (May 23, 1493). 
 
 3. Italian promises : (1) Ludo vie, regent of Milan, who wishes 
 
 to displace his nephew ; (2) Cardinal Julian de la Rovere, 
 who covets the papacy ; (3) Savonarola, who wishes* to 
 chastise Florence ; (4) Venice, which desires to terrify 
 the Turks ; (5) Pisa, which hopes for release from Flor- 
 ence. 
 
 4. Charles bases his rights on his claim to the Kingdom of 
 
 Naples through Charles of Anjou (1266). 
 
 d 13 
 
14 LECTURE IV. 
 
 «.*".. 
 
 5. Descent of Charles into Italy, September 2, 1494. Opposed 
 
 by a coalition between Spain, Milan, Naples, and the 
 Pope, soon joined by Venice. Character of his reception 
 in the Italian cities — Pisa, Florence, Sienna, Some. His 
 exercise of imperial functions. 
 
 6. Abdication of Alphonso II of Naples, surrender to Charles, 
 
 and his entry with imperial insignia. 
 
 7. Initiation of Philippe de Com mines in Italian diplomacy. 
 
 8. Homeward march of Charles VIII, battle of Farnoue (July 
 
 6, 1495), and destruction of the French army. 
 
 II.— Italian Exploits of Louis XII (1498-1515). 
 
 1. Conquest of Milan (1499). 
 
 2. Conquest of the Kingdom of Naples : (1) Alliance with the 
 
 Borgias; (2) the Treaty of Granada (1500) for the parti- 
 tion of Naples between Spain and France ; (3) conflict 
 over the spoils and the withdrawal of Louis XII by the 
 humiliating Treaty of Blois (1504). 
 
 3. The League of Cambray (1508) between France, Spain, and 
 
 the Empire, formed by Pope Julias II (1503-1513) for the 
 destruction of Venice: (1) Allies invade Itaty (1509) ; (2) 
 Julius II abandons the alliance and forms the "Holy 
 League," composed of England, Spain, Venice, and the 
 Pope, to expel the invaders, the Pope becoming a war- 
 rior and Louis XII organizing the bishops against him 
 (1510) ; (3) defection of the Italians and expulsion of the 
 French from Italy, notwithstanding the French victory 
 at the battle of Ravenna (April 11, 1511). * \^ .. 
 
 III. — Francis I Attempts the Conquest of Italy. 
 
 <1 
 1« Character and education of Francis 1 : (1) His mother, 
 Louise of Savoy ; (2) imperial aspirations inspired-J)y her; 
 (3) "unroi gentilhomme." 
 
 2. The Court of Francis : (1) Subjection of the nobility accom- 
 plished ; (2) the court becomes the center of influence ; 
 (3) fortune in the service of the King in war and diplo- 
 macy. 
 
LECTURE IV. 
 
 15 
 
 3. The way to Italy barred to Francis (1) by the Swiss, organ- 
 
 ized for Pope Leo X (1513-1521) by the Cardinal of Sion ; 
 
 (2) by a league between the Pope, the Emperor, Spain, 
 and the Sforzas of Milan. 
 
 4. Francis forms an alliance with Venice and forces his way 
 
 through the Alps (September, 1515). 
 
 5. Battle of Marignan and capture of Milan by the French 
 
 (September 14, 1515). 
 
 6. Diplomatic victory of Leo X: (1) Preservation of Italian 
 
 equilibrium ; (2) domination of the Medici at Florence ; 
 
 (3) autonomy of Naples; (4) the Concordat of Bologna- 
 royal nomination with papal investiture of the French 
 clergy. 
 
 7. The Emperor abandons Italy to France. 
 
 8. Francis I makes plans for election as Emperor (1517). 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture V.— THE SUPREMACY OF THE HOUSE OF 
 
 AUSTRIA. 
 
 1. Francis aspires to imperial honors. 
 
 2. Opposed by Charles V of the House of Austria. 
 
 I. — Rise of the House of Austria. 
 
 1. Rudolph of Hapsburg, an obscure prince, whose ancestral 
 
 estates were in the Aargau, in Switzerland, chosen Em- 
 peror in 1273 because of his feebleness, acquired the Duchy 
 of Austria, which he bestowed upon his son Albert in 
 1282. 
 
 2. From Albert II of Hapsburg (Emperor 1438) the Empire 
 
 becomes practically hereditary in the House of Austria. 
 
 3. Maximilian I (1493-1510) establishes the House of Austria 
 
 in the primacy of Europe. 
 
 4. Consolidation of the House of Austria: 
 
 Austria. 
 
 Maximilian I, 
 d. 1519. 
 
 Netherlands and Aragon and the Castile and 
 
 Burgundy. Two Sicilies. America. 
 
 Mary, Ferdinand VIII, + Isabella, 
 
 d. 1482. d. 1516. d. 1504. 
 
 Philip I, 
 d. 1506. 
 
 -Joanna, 
 d. 1555. 
 
 Charles V, 
 d. 1558. 
 
 Spanish 
 Hapsburgs. 
 
 Ferdinand I, 
 d. 1564. 
 
 Austrian 
 Hapsburgs. 
 
 5. Possessions of Charles V: (I) Spain; (2) Netherlands and 
 Burgundy ; (3) estates in Germany ; (4) America. 
 
 e 17 
 
18 LECTURE V. 
 
 II. —The Imperial Election op 1519. 
 
 1. Plans of Francis I before the death of Maximilian : (1) Ne- 
 
 gotiations with the Electors; (2) advice of Franz von 
 Sickingen; (3) moneyed opposition of Maximilian. 
 
 2. The Empire for sale : (1) Death of Maximilian January 12, 
 
 1519; (2) Francis proposes to spend three millions; (3) 
 wholesale bribery of the Electors. 
 
 3. Henry VIII, of England, becomes a candidate. 
 
 4. The Fuggers subsidize Charles V. 
 
 5. The Elector of Mayence, after exhausting the spoils, carries 
 
 the day for Charles V (June 28, 1519). 
 
 6. The Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry the ally of Charles. 
 
 Influence of Wolsey. 
 
 III. — The Attempts to Dismember France. 
 
 1. Francis I, deceived, becomes aggressive. 
 
 2. Pope Leo X sides with the Emperor. 
 
 3. Defection of Charles of Bourbon. 
 
 4. The Emperor, Charles of Bourbon, and Henry VIII plan 
 
 the partition and effacement of France. 
 
 5. Invasion of Provence (1524) and expulsion of the Spanish. 
 
 6. The battle of Pavia (February 24, 1525), capture, and im- 
 
 prisonment of Francis I. 
 
 IV. — Diplomacy op France against the Emperor. 
 
 1. Louise of Savoy buys off Henry VIII (June to August, 1525). 
 
 2. Treaty of Madrid and release of Francis I (January, 1526). 
 
 3. League of Cognac, the Pope (Clement VII, 1523-1534), 
 
 Florence, Venice, and Milan unite with Francis against 
 the Emperor (May, 1526). 
 
 4. Hungary and Bohemia excited against the Emperor (1526). 
 
 5. Alliance of Francis with Sultan Soliman the Magnificent. 
 
 Turkey enters European politics. 
 
LECTURE V. 
 
 19 
 
 6. Charles of Bourbon sacks Rome (1527), for which the Em- 
 
 peror is held responsible. 
 
 7. The Peace of Cambray, or "Ladies' Peace" (August 3, 
 
 1529), negotiated by Louise of Savoy and Marguerite of 
 Burgundy: (1) France keeps the Duchy of Burgundy, 
 but gives up. Artois and certain cities in Flanders; (2) 
 the two sons of Francis held as hostages in Spain are re- 
 leased for two million ecus; (3) Francis, becoming a 
 widower, agrees to marry Eleanor, sister of Charles V ; 
 (4) Italy abandoned to the Emperor. 
 
 V.— The Alliance of Francis with the Pope. 
 
 1. Negotiations with Henry VIII and his divorce from Cath- 
 
 erine of Aragon (October, 1532). 
 
 2. Marriage of Henry, Duke of Orleans (later Henry II), to 
 
 Catherine de Medici, niece of Pope Clement VII (Octo- 
 ber, 1533). Motives of the Pope. 
 
 3. .Excommunication of Henry VIII and cessation of friend- 
 
 ship with Francis (1534). 
 
 4. The Duke of Savoy divested of his estates, and conquest of 
 
 Piedmont by the French (1535). 
 
 5. War begun on the frontier of Flanders (1536). 
 
 6. Mediation of the Pope, Paul III (1534-1549), and Armistice 
 
 of Nice, arranged by Queen Eleanor with her brother, 
 the Emperor (June 18, 1538). 
 
 7. The revolt of Ghent, visit of the Emperor to Francis, and 
 
 his bad faith in giving Milan to Philip II (1540). 
 
 8. Last struggle of Francis I. The success of the Turks in Hun- 
 
 gary and Algiers turns all Europe against him. Charles 
 V and Henry VIII form a new coalition for the partition 
 of France. The brilliant French victory of Cerisole, in 
 Italy (April 14, 1541), leads to the Peace of Crespy (Sep- 
 tember, 1554), and Henry VIII, by the Treaty of Ardres 
 (January 29, 1546), is reconciled to Francis, who dies in 
 1547. 
 
20 LECTURE V. 
 
 VI. — The Opposition of Henry II and Abdication op 
 
 Charles V. 
 
 1. Invasion of Italy invited by Paul III (Farnese) for the resto- 
 
 ration of Parma and Plaisance, taken from his son (1547). 
 
 2. Henry II regards the north the vulnerable part of the Em- 
 
 pire : (1) Alliance with the German Protestants (January, 
 1 552) ; (2) invasion of Germany and annexation of three 
 bishoprics — Metz, Verdun, and Toul (July, 1552) ; (3) 
 invasion of Flanders (1553-1554). 
 
 3. Charles V accords religious peace at Augsburg (September 
 
 26, 1555), and abdicates (October 25, 1555), leaving Spain, 
 the Netherlands, Italy, and America to Philip II, who 
 had married Mar3 r Tudor (1554), and the Empire to Ferdi- 
 nand I, Duke of Austria. 
 
 4. Truce of Vaucelles (1556), leaving the three bishoprics and 
 
 Corsica to France. 
 
 5. Pope Paul IV (1555-1559) precipitates war in Italy (1557) 
 
 against Spain aided by England ; the French are defeated 
 at St. Quentin (August 10, 1557), and the treaty of Chateau- 
 Cambresis (April 3, 1559) ordains : (1) The abandonment 
 of Calais by the English for a money indemnity ; (2) the 
 reestablishment of the Duke of Savoy ; (3) the practical 
 abandonment of Italy by France ; (4) the marriage of 
 Philip II, now a widower, to Elizabeth, and of the Duke 
 of Savoy to Margaret, daughter of Henry II, who is killed 
 in a tournament during the marriage fetes, July 10, 1559. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture VI— THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL 
 
 LAW. 
 
 1. Europe without authoritative public law. 
 
 2. War the only recourse for the settlement of differences. 
 
 I. — Effects of the Reformation. 
 
 1. Changes in the creed and organization of the Church : (1) 
 
 Luther posts his theses (1517) ; (2) formally denies papal 
 control (1519) ; (3) the Diet of Worms (1521 ) ; (4) Luther's 
 translation of the Bible (1522-1534). 
 
 2. Disruption of the Empire from within: (1) the Smalkaldic 
 
 League (1530) ; (2) alliance of France with the Protestant 
 States (1552) ; (3) Maurice of Saxony abandons the Em- 
 peror (1552) ; (4) the Peace of Augsburg (1555) recognizes 
 Lutheranism. 
 
 3. The abdication of Charles V (1555) was in effect the abdi- 
 
 cation of the Empire. The political and religious unity 
 of Europe was ended. 
 
 4. The Empire and the Church having failed as an interna- 
 
 tional authority, a new agency of international adjust- 
 ment was necessaiy. Amidst the ruin of institutions, it 
 could be sought only in principles. 
 
 5. The only common possession left to Europe was the human 
 
 mind in the presence of nature and history. Science, art, 
 religion, and law were to be fundamentally reconstructed. 
 
 II. — The Wars of Religion. 
 
 1. The period 1555-1648 a continuous conflict between religious 
 
 parties. 
 
 2. Holland revolted against Philip II and established a repub- 
 
 lic with religious freedom (1564-1572). 
 
 f 21 
 
22 LECTURE VI. 
 
 3. England a scene of religious straggle, plot, and persecution 
 
 (1534-1648). 
 
 4. France is rent with civil strife between Protestants and 
 
 Catholics till Henry IV issues the Edict of Nantes (1529- 
 1598). 
 
 5. Germany is filled with discord and almost continuous war 
 
 (1536-1648). 
 
 6. Spain maintains religious unity by means of the Inquisition. 
 
 7. Need of public law based on justice. 
 
 III. — The Predecessors of Grotius. 
 
 1. The early maritime codes, "The Judgments of Oleron," 
 
 "The Consolato del Mare," etc., the only international 
 law of the Middle Ages. 
 
 2. Application of the principles of the Canon Law by ecclesi- 
 
 astical councils — in effect European congresses — to the 
 affairs of nations. 
 
 3. Theological moralists : (L) Francisco Victoria, of Salamanca 
 
 (1480-1546), advocates the. rights of native tribes; (2) 
 Dominique Soto, successor of Victoria (1494-1560), defends 
 the rights of the Indians and opposes the slave-trade ; 
 (3) Francisco Saurez (1548-1617) was the first to point out 
 that a kind of customary law had arisen from the usages 
 of nations. All these writers are chiefly occupied with 
 questions of international morality, such as the justice of 
 war, the right to declare it, the causes which justify it, 
 and the rights of the victor. The human conscience be- 
 comes aware of international rights and duties. 
 
 4. International jurists : (1) Balthazar Ayala (1548-1584), a 
 
 Spanish jurisconsult, under the title of Be jure et officiis 
 belli, writes on the subject of war in a historico-juridical 
 spirit; (2) Conrad Brunius (149L-1563), a German jurist, 
 writes of the rights and duties of ambassadors ; (3) Alber- 
 icus Gentilis (1552-1608), an Italian professor of jurispru- 
 dence at Oxford, publishes his De legatlonibus in 1583 and 
 his Be jure belli in 1589. Lampredi regards him as " the 
 father of the modern science of public law," an honor 
 usually reserved to Grotius. 
 
LECTURE VI. 23 
 
 5. Henry IV of France (1589-1610) must be counted a precursor 
 of Grotius. His " Great Design," reported by Sully, was 
 worthy of the author of the Edict of Nantes (1398). 
 
 IV. — The Life and Personality of Grotius. 
 
 1. Hugo van Groot born in Delft, Holland, April 10, 1583, son 
 
 of a burgomaster. 
 
 2. Latin poet at 8, defended theses in philosophy at 15, prac- 
 
 ticed at the bar at 17. Historian, theologian, jurist, states- 
 man. Presented to Henry IV of France. 
 
 3. Elected Pensionary of Rotterdam, 1610. 
 
 4. Relations to Barneveld. Imprisonment (1618) and liberation 
 
 (1621). Escape to France and presentation to Louis XIII, 
 who accords him a pension. 
 
 5. Composition of his Be jure belli ac pads (1623-1624) ; pub- 
 
 lished 1625. Dedicated to Louis XIII. 
 
 6. Reception of his book. Treated as a classic. 
 
 7. Sent to Paris as ambassador of Sweden byOxenstiern (163")). 
 
 8. Died at Rostock after a shipwreck (1645). 
 
 9. His Mare liberum (1609) answered by Selden (1635). 
 
 V. — The Doctrine of Grotius. 
 
 1. From the authority of the Empire and the Church, no longer 
 
 effective, Grotius appeals to Humanity: (1) " There is a 
 kindred established among us by nature" (Proleg. 14): 
 (2) "The mother of Right— that is, of Natural Law — is 
 Human Nature " (Pro. 16); (3) "That society which in- 
 cludes the whole human race needs the recognition of 
 rights" (Pro. 23); (4) "Natural Law is the dictate of 
 right reason" (X 1). 
 
 2. As the law of human nature is universally binding, there is 
 
 a law of war as well as of peace : (1) " War is never to be 
 undertaken except to assert rights, and when undertaken 
 is never to be carried on except within the limits of 
 rights" (Pro. 25) ; (2) " In the conflict of arms laws must 
 be silent, but only civil laws, not those which are perpetual " 
 
24 LECTURE VI. 
 
 (Pro. 26); (3) "No one readily joins himself to those 
 who think lightly of right laws " (Pro. 27). 
 
 3. Natural Law must be distinguished from Conventional Law : 
 
 (1) "Natural Law is always the same, but institutions 
 change " (Pro. 30) ; (2) " The study of true justice, omit- 
 ting all which is derived from the will of man alone, would 
 afford us a complete body of jurisprudence" (Pro. 31). 
 
 4. Natural Law must be distinguished from the Law of Nations, 
 
 the former being a body of deductions from the general 
 principles of reason, the latter a body of doctrines based 
 on consent: " For what cannot be deduced from certain 
 principles by solid reasoning, and yet is seen and observed 
 everywhere, must have its origin from the will and con- 
 sent of all" (Pro. 40). 
 
 5. The Roman Law " often supplies the best means of showing 
 
 what belongs to the nature of Eight " (Pro. 53). 
 
 6. Defects in the Doctrine of Grotius : (1) As regards slavery, 
 
 which he justifies on the ground («) of contract, for why, 
 if a man may sell his labor for recompense, may he not 
 sell his liberty for subsistence and protection? and (b) of 
 conquest, for, if the conqueror may impose his will upon 
 the vanquished, may he not exact their services? (2) as 
 regards properly, which he considers is acquired by first 
 occupation, neglecting the element of labor ; (3) as re- 
 gards sovereignty, which he identifies with supreme power 
 derived by force, disregarding the state as a moral or- 
 ganism ; (4) as regards neutrality, of which he has no con- 
 ception. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture VII.— THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 1. The Thirty Years' War a crucible in which Europe was 
 
 transformed. 
 
 2. For the first time public law becomes influential in Europe. 
 
 3. A system of pacific equilibrium among the States is sought, 
 
 based on independence and justice. 
 
 4. The point of departure is the question of religious freedom 
 
 raised by the Reformation. 
 
 I. — Preliminaries to the War. 
 
 1. Charles V profits by the religious commotion of Germany to 
 
 establish absolute power. 
 
 2. Proscription of Luther and his adherents (1521). 
 
 3. Fearing destruction, the Protestant princes form the League 
 
 of Smalkald (1536) under John Frederick, Elector of Sax- 
 ony, and Philip of Hesse. 
 
 4. Charles V, engaged in foreign wars, neglects to attack the 
 
 League, and it consolidates its power. 
 
 5. Alliance of Maurice of Saxony with Charles V, in the hope 
 
 of becoming Elector of Saxony, and imperial victory at 
 Muhlberg (1547). 
 
 6. Charles Y, becoming a dictator, dismisses his troops; Mau- 
 
 rice becomes Elector, and, denied justice, revolts and 
 allies himself against the Emperor with Henry II of 
 France (1552). 
 
 7. The Emperor, surprised and defeated, concludes The Trans- 
 
 action of Passau (August 12, 1552), by which a diet for 
 the settlement of differences is promised. 
 
 8. The Diet of Augsburg (1555) results in: (1) Permission to 
 
 each prince to choose between Catholicism and Luther- 
 anism, his choice binding his subjects ; and (2) the eccle- 
 siastical reservation, by which every ecclesiastic becoming 
 Lutheran loses his benefice. 
 
 9 25 
 
26 lecture vn. 
 
 9. Long truce under the tolerant Emperors Ferdinand I (1555- 
 '64) and Maximilian II (1564-76). 
 
 10. The Succession of Juliers (1609), strengthening of the Evan- 
 
 gelical Union and formation of the Catholic League (1610). 
 
 11. Project of Henry IV to cement the peace of Europe by abas- 
 
 ing the House cf Austria and death of Henry ( 1610). 
 
 12. The " Letters of Majesty " issued by Rudolph II ( 1576-1 612) 
 
 and the " Defenestration of Prague " (1618). 
 
 II. The Bohemian Period (1618-1625). 
 
 1. Death of the Emperor Mathias (1612-1619) and accession of 
 
 Ferdinand II. His character and purposes. 
 
 2. Frederick V, Elector Palatine, elected King of Bohemia in 
 
 place of Ferdinand II, deposed (1619). 
 
 3. Forces which the Elector supposed possible to combine 
 
 against the Emperor: (1) England; (2) Holland; (3) 
 Hungary; (4) Bethlen Gabor, Prince of Transylvania; 
 (5) the Duke of Savoy ; (6) France, and (7) the Evan- 
 gelical Union. 
 
 4. Allies of Ferdinand II: (1) The Pope ; (2) Spain; (3) the 
 
 Elector of Saxony, and (4) Maximilian of Bavaria, head 
 of the Catholic League. 
 
 5. The defection of the Elector Palatine's allies and the Treaty 
 
 of Uhn (July 3, 1620). 
 
 7. Battle of Prague (November 8, 1620), flight of Frederick, in- 
 
 vasion of the Palatinate by the Spaniards, and transfer of 
 the Electorate to Maximilian of Bavaria. 
 
 8. Devastation of Bohemia; 27 nobles decapitated, 900 estates 
 
 confiscated, 38,000 families driven into exile. Restitu- 
 tion of Catholicism. 
 
 III.— The Danish Period (1625-1630). 
 
 1. Christian IV of Denmark, disturbed by the danger to the 
 Germanic system and sustained by England and Holland, 
 who fear the revival of imperial power, attacks the Em- 
 peror (1625). 
 
LECTURE VII. 27 
 
 2. Advent of Richelieu to power in France (1626). His policy. 
 
 His task. Subsidy of 600,000 francs to Denmark. 
 
 3. Waldstein, Prince of Friedland : (1) Character; (2) his 
 
 barbaric army ; (3) his troops supported by pillage. 
 
 4. Imperial victory at Liitter (August 27, 1626) and conquest 
 
 of North Germany. 
 
 5. Peace of Liibeck (May, 1629) : (1) Easy terms to Christian 
 
 IV ; (2) the Edict of Restitution (March 6, 1629) ; 3) 
 Germany at the mercy of the imperial army under 
 Waldstein. 
 
 IV.— The Swedish Period (1630-1635). 
 
 1. The Diet of Ratisbonne (1630): (1) The influence of Pere 
 
 Joseph ; (2) reaction against the House of Austria ; (3) 
 Waldstein deprived of command ; (4) refusal to elect Fer- 
 dinand's son King of the Romans. 
 
 2. Gustavus Adolphus: (1) Greatness of Sweden and recent 
 
 victories; (2) devotion of Gustavus to Protestantism ; (3) 
 invasion of Germany (July 6, 1630) ; (4) passivity of the 
 Protestant princes ; (5) the sack of Magdeburg by the im- 
 perials (May 20, 1631); (6) success of Gustavus; (7) the 
 Emperor appeals to Waldstein; (8) battle of Li'itzen and 
 death of Gustavus (November 16, 1632). 
 
 3. Oxenstiern assumes direction of the war and convokes the 
 
 Protestant States at Heilbronn (March, 1633). 
 
 4. By the Treaty of Heilbronn Louis XIII engages to pay 
 
 Sweden one million francs annually during the war. 
 
 5. Death of Waldstein (February 25, 1634). 
 
 6. Battle of Nordlingen, defection of the Elector of Saxony, 
 
 and Treaty of Prague (May 30, 1635). 
 
 7. The Peace of Prague involved: (1) The sacrifice of the 
 
 Elector Palatine and many other princes ; (2) the enrich- 
 ment of the Elector of Saxony, and the Duke of Bavaria 
 confirmed as an Elector ; (3) exclusion from the Diet of 
 Protestant princes possessors of ecclesiastical estates; (4) 
 exclusion of Sweden from the peace. 
 
28 LECTURE VII. 
 
 V.— The French Period (1635-1648). 
 
 1. Decadence of Sweden and danger to the Germanic constitu- 
 
 tion. 
 
 2. Richelieu heads the attack on the Emperor. 
 
 3. The French treaties of alliance : 
 
 (1) Treaty of Rivoli (July 11, 1635), engaging with the 
 
 Duke of Savoy a partition of the Duchy of Milan 
 for military services ; 
 
 (2) Treaty of Paris (October 8, 1635), engaging with the 
 
 United Provinces a partition of the Spanish Neth- 
 erlands ; 
 
 (3) Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (October 26, 1635), 
 
 engaging with Bernard of Saxe-Weimar a subsidy 
 of four millions a year for 18,000 men and promis- 
 ing him Alsatia; 
 
 (4) Treaty of Wismar (March 20, 1636), engaging with 
 
 Sweden a subsidy of a million a year and a com- 
 mon attack on the Emperor ; 
 
 (5) Treaty of Wesel (October 21, 1637), engaging with 
 
 the Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel a subsidy of 200,000 
 rix dollars for 10,000 men; 
 
 (6) Treaty of Paris (June 27, 1641), engaging with John 
 
 IV of Portugal, the crown of that Kingdom for the 
 service of a fleet ; 
 And seventy other treaties of alliance. 
 
 4. Campaigns in the Netherlands, on the Rhine, in Saxony, 
 Italy, and Spain, and finally in Bavaria and Bohemia, 
 where, at Prague, the Thirty Years' War ends (July 2(5, 
 
 1648). 
 
 5. Condition of Germany at the conclusion of the war. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture VIII.— THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 
 
 1 . The Peace of Westphalia was — 
 
 (1) Politically, the reconstruction of Europe ; 
 
 (2) Eeligiously, the establishment of local liberty ; and 
 
 (3) Legally, the formation of a fundamental code for 
 
 the European nations. 
 
 2. It reduced to practice the great conceptions of Grotius. 
 
 I. — The Preliminaries. 
 
 1. Congress of Cologne (1636) and ineffectual mediation of the 
 
 Pope. 
 
 2. The Diet of 1640 and decision to meet for negotiation at 
 
 Miinster and Osnabruck . 
 
 3. Preliminaries of Hamburg, mediation of the King of Oen- 
 
 mark (December 25, 1641), and settlement of a Congress 
 for 1642. 
 
 4. The Emperor repudiates the arrangements, but a congress 
 
 is finally called for July 11, 1613, the French meeting the 
 Emperor's representatives at Miinster, the Swedes at 
 Osnabruck. 
 
 5. Personnel of the plenipotentiaries. Questions of precedence. 
 
 6. Form of negotiations : (1) Mediation ; (2) language ; (3) sepa- 
 
 ration of Catholics and Protestants. 
 
 II — Objects of Negotiation. 
 
 1. Imperial affairs: (1) Amnesty; (2) rights and prerogatives 
 of the States of the Empire; (3) griefs of religion— eccle- 
 siastical reservation, right of reformation, free exercise of 
 religion, collection of church taxes, ecclesiastical jurisdic- 
 tion, plurality of votes in the Diet, deputations of the 
 Empire, etc. 
 
 h 29 
 
30 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 2. Satisfaction of the Powers— indemnity for the cost of war : 
 (1) For France ; (2) for Sweden ; (3) for Hesse-Cassel ; (4) 
 for Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, and Brunswick on account 
 of territories demanded by Sweden. 
 
 III. — The Process op Negotiation. 
 
 1. Last delegates arrive in June, 1645. 
 
 2. First propositions made in June and replies delayed till 
 
 December. 
 
 3. Negotiations really begin in January, 1646. 
 
 4. The Peace signed at Osnabruck August 6, and at Minister 
 
 September 8, and published October 24, 1648. 
 
 5. Ratifications exchanged February 18, 1649. 
 
 6. The Treaties of Westphalia were composed of— 
 
 (1) That of Minister, between France, the Empire, and 
 
 the Emperor ; and 
 
 (2) That of Osnabruck, between Sweden, the Empire, 
 
 and the Emperor. 
 
 7. The war continues between France, aided by the Duke of 
 
 Savoy, and Spain, aided by the Duke of Lorraine. Also 
 between Spain and Portugal. 
 
 8. A separate peace concluded between Spain and the United 
 
 Provinces in January, 1648. Closing of the Escaut and 
 ruin of Antwerp. 
 
 9. Protests against the Peace of Westphalia by the Pope and 
 
 Spain. 
 
 IV. — Results op the Peace. 
 
 1. Territorial arrangements: (1) For France, confirmation of 
 the possession of High and Low Alsatia, of the Sundgau, 
 and of the ten imperial cities of Alsatia, except Strasburg ; 
 right of garrison in Brisach and Philipsburg ; free navi- 
 gation of the Rhine ; recognition of the conquest of the 
 three bishoprics ; cession of Pignerol (Piedmont); (2) for 
 Sweden, possession of Nearer Pomerania, with Stettin, the 
 islands of Wollin, Usedom and Riigen, and the bishoprics 
 of Bremen and Verden, with expectation of the whole of 
 
LECTURE VIII. 
 
 31 
 
 Pomerania and the bishopric of Camin, the port of Wis- 
 mar, and three votes in the Diet; (3) for Brandenburg, 
 the bishoprics of Magdeburg, Minden, Camin, and Hol- 
 berstadt, secularized; (4) for Mecklenburg, the bishoprics 
 of Schwerin and Ratzeburg ; (5) far the Elector of Palatin, 
 restitution of all his domains, except the High Palatinate, 
 left to Bavaria, and restoration of the title of Elector ; 
 (6) recognition of the independence of Switzerland and 
 of the United Provinces. 
 
 2. Religious arrangements : (1) Confirmation of the Peace of 
 
 Passau and of Augsburg (1555) ; (2) extension to the Cal- 
 vinists of the advantages which these two acts had ac- 
 corded to the Lutherans ; (3) suspension of ecclesiastical 
 jurisdiction as between States ; (4) of the fifty members 
 of the Imperial Chamber, twenty-four to be Protestants, 
 and six Protestants always to belong to the Aulic Council. 
 
 3. Constitutional Arrangements : (1) Every immediate State of 
 
 the Empire possesses territorial supremacy within its own 
 borders ; (2) the territorial supremacy extends to eccle- 
 siastical as well as civil and temporal matters ; (3) every 
 immediate State has a seat and vote in the Diet ; (4) no 
 law or interpretation of a law, no declaration of war in- 
 volving the Empire, no peace or alliance of the Empire, 
 no tax, levy, construction of fortresses, etc, can take place 
 without the consent of the States in Diet assembled ; (5) 
 the imperial cities enjoy the same rights and privileges. 
 
 4. Effect on Europe : (1) The peace ends the supremacy of the 
 
 House of Austria ; (2) legalizes the Reformation in prin- 
 ciple and in fact; and (3) establishes the doctrine of 
 equilibrium as a principle of public law. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture IX.— THE SUPREMACY OF FRANCE. 
 
 1. The effect of the Peace of Westphalia was to curb the 
 
 House of Austria and render France the first power in 
 Europe. 
 
 2. Mazarin, in power 1642-1661, continues the policy of Rich- 
 
 elieu. 
 
 3. France, aiming at universal monarchy, menaces Europe 
 
 with empire. 
 
 I. — The Work of Mazarin. 
 
 1. His personality and character. 
 
 2. Completes the Thirty Years' War. 
 
 3. Hoping to obtain the Spanish Netherlands, he continues 
 
 the war against Spain. 
 
 4. Opposition of the Fronde and troubles of Mazarin. 
 
 5. Signs the Treaty of Westminster with Cromwell (November 
 
 3, 1655), which becomes (March 23, 1657) the Treaty of 
 Paris, an alliance with England against Spain, followed 
 by telling victories. 
 
 6. At the death of Ferdinand III (April 2, 1657), Mazarin tries 
 
 to secure the imperial crown for Louis XIV. 
 
 7. Obtains from Leopold, the new Emperor, a capitulation not 
 
 to assist the enemies of France or Sweden. A definitive 
 separation of the two branches of the House of Austria 
 
 (June, 1658). 
 
 8. Formation of the League of the Rhine (August 14, 1658) to 
 
 hold the Emperor in check. 
 
 9. Alliances formed against Spain in Italy. 
 
 10. Renouncing the cession of the Netherlands, Mazarin ar- 
 ranges the Peace of the Pyrenees (November 7, 1659), 
 which includes : (1) the marriage of Louis XIV with 
 
34 LECTURE IX. 
 
 Maria-Theresa, of Spain ; (2) a promised dowry of 500,000 
 ecus of gold, for the payment of which the right of the 
 infanta to the royal succession is renounced ; (3) the ces- 
 sion to France of a score of disputed towns in the Nether- 
 lands ; (4) and of Roussillon and Cerdagne, making the 
 Pyrenees the frontier between France and Spain ; (5) 
 France promises to render no aid to Portugal ; (6) resti- 
 tution of estates to the Prince of Conde and (in part) to 
 the Duke of Lorraine ; (7) amnesty of the Dukes of Savoy 
 and Modena. 
 
 11. France preponderant in Europe. 
 
 II. — The Ambitions of Louis XIV. 
 
 1. Louis XIV, upon the death of Mazarin (1661), decides to be 
 
 his own prime minister. Character of Louis. His plans. 
 
 2. The state of Europe : 
 
 (1) The Empire; (2) Spain; (3) England; (4) Sweden; 
 (5) Holland ; (6) Italy. 
 
 3. The foreign policy of Louis — (1) extension of France and 
 
 (2) dismemberment of Spain. Talent and devotion of 
 de Lionne. 
 
 4. Death of Philip IV (August 24, 1662) and claims of Louis 
 
 XIV through Maria-Louisa. 
 
 5. The right of "devolution," a civil custom of Brabant, and 
 
 the right of ' franc .alleu," a custom of Hainault. 
 
 6. War of Holland and England, position of France and medi- 
 
 ation of Louis XIV, leading to the Treaty of Breda (July 
 31, 1667). 
 
 7. France prolongs the war between Spain and Portugal and 
 
 prepares to occupy Brabant "pacifically" by the " right 
 of devolution." Three armies and a treatise. 
 
 8. England and the United Provinces (Holland) unite with 
 
 Spain to preserve her from dismemberment by the Treaty 
 of The Hague (January 23, 1668). The system of equilib- 
 rium turned against France. 
 
LECTURE IX. 35 
 
 9. By the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (May 2, 1668) the con- 
 quests of Louis are left to him, but his plans are checked. 
 
 10. Secret negotiations with the Emperor. Program: (1) The 
 
 isolation and abasement of Holland ; (2) cession of part 
 of the Spanish Netherlands and colonies to France; (3) 
 cession of certain Flemish ports and islands to England 
 and aid to Charles II against the Protestants; (4) sub- 
 sidies and friendship for the Emperor in exchange for 
 neutrality ; (5) subsidies to Sweden ; (6) alliance with 
 Brandenburg. 
 
 11. Holland offers concessions, but in vain ; immense armament 
 
 of France (1671); invasion of Holland (June, 1672) ; De 
 Groot, fearing the annihilation of Holland, offers great 
 concessions. 
 
 12. Awakening of Holland against the domination of Louis 
 
 XIV, murder of the De Witts and leadership of the House 
 of Orange (1672), whose head, William III, orders the 
 dikes opened to save the country. 
 
 III. — The Diplomacy of William III of Oraxgu. 
 
 1 . The House of Orange. Character and ambitions of William, 
 
 a youth of 22 years. 
 
 2. William organizes a European coalition (Grand Alliance of 
 
 The Hague) against the imperial pretensions of France 
 (August 30, 1673): (1) the Emperor; (2) the King of 
 Spain; (3) the Duke of Lorraine; (4) public opinion in 
 England ; (5) the patriotism of Holland. A work worthy 
 of Richelieu. The greatest diplomatist of his age. 
 
 3. England paralyzes the success of Louis XIV by the Treaty 
 
 of Westminster (February 19, 1674), which confirms the 
 peace of Breda, and the French evacuate Holland, except 
 Maestricht. 
 
 4. The war, however, continues between Holland and her allies 
 
 and France during 1674-77. In 1677 William III marries 
 Mary, daughter of the Duke of York, Protestant heir to 
 the throne of England. Alliance of Westminster (March 
 3, 1678) between Holland and England, which lasts till 
 the American Revolution. 
 
36 LECTURE IX. 
 
 5. The Peace of Nimwegen : (1) Treaty between France and 
 
 Holland (August 10, 1678) ; (2) Treaty between France 
 and Spain (September 17, 1678) ; (3) Treaty between 
 France, the Emperor, and the Empire (February 5, 1679); 
 (4) Treaty between France, Sweden, the Emperor, and 
 the Empire, as Article II of the preceding. 
 
 6. William opposed to the peace, because it yielded too much 
 
 to Louis and compromised himself by deserting his allies 
 prematurely. Louis makes the peace on his own terms, 
 receiving large cessions of territory and a line of strong- 
 holds on the new frontier. 
 
 7. William turns to England for strength with which to cope 
 
 with Louis. Creates a party there and awaits the future. 
 
 IV. — The Usurpations of Louis XIV. 
 
 1. His plans of pacific aggrandizement. The appeal to feudal 
 
 law by Colbert de Croissy. The "reunions; " confisca- 
 tion of territories not contemplated by the Peace of Nim- 
 wegen, but seized under legal pretexts (1680). 
 
 2. The Truce of Ratisbon (November -1, 1684), by which Louis 
 
 retains most of his confiscated territories. 
 
 3. Louis grows arrogant. The Pope apologizes for an affront 
 
 to his ambassador and Europe trembles before him. 
 
 4. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes (October 22, 1685) 
 
 arouses Holland, England, and Protestant Germany 
 against Louis, and gives William III of Orange his op- 
 portunity. 
 
 5. Louis insults and offends the Pope by arresting his nonce. 
 
 6. William III becomes King of England (1688), forms a new 
 
 Grand Alliance against Louis (1689) : (1) Holland ; 
 (2) England; (3) the Emperor; (4) the Elector of Bran- 
 denburg, to which Spain, the Elector of Bavaria, and the 
 Duke of Savoy and others adhere (1 690. ) Louis, in reply, 
 aids James II to invade Ireland. Battle of the Boyne. 
 Failure of the naval descent on England (1692). 
 
LECTURE IX. 37 
 
 i 
 
 7. Louis begins to show signs of wisdom and asks the media- 
 
 tion of Sweden (1693). 
 
 8. The Peace of Ryswick (September 20, 1697) : 
 
 (1) The Treaty between France and Spain returns to 
 
 Spain all the places taken by France since the 
 Treaty of Nimwegen except 82, which are retained! 
 
 (2) By the Treaty between France and England, Louis 
 
 recognizes William III as King of Great Britain 
 and promises not to aid his enemies ; 
 
 (3) By the Treaty between France and Holland, Pon- 
 
 dichery, in India, is transferred to France, and a 
 treaty of commerce is also concluded by which the 
 Hollanders are exempted from the droit d'aubaine 
 in France and in time of war the cargo of a free 
 ship is exempted from seizure, unless contraband 
 of war. 
 
 9. Result of the struggle : As France had defeated the ambi- 
 
 tion of the House of Austria, so Holland has defeated the 
 ambitions of France. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture X— THE SPANISH SUCCESSION AND THE 
 PEACE OF UTRECHT. 
 
 1. Charles II, son of Philip IV, becomes King of Spain in 1655. 
 
 2. Being without brother or descendant, the prospect of his 
 
 death creates the problem of succession to the Spanish 
 crown. 
 
 3. The accession of a French or Austrian prince threatens the 
 
 restoration of empire. 
 
 I. — The Claimants to the Spanish Crown. 
 1. The claims of France: 
 
 Philip III (1598-1621) 
 
 Louis XIII + Anne of Austria Philip IV (1621-1655) 
 
 Louis XIV + Maria Theresa Charles II (1655-1700) 
 
 Louis, Grand Dauphin 
 
 Louis of Burgundy Philip of Anjou Luke of Berry 
 (Philip V) 
 
 2. The claims of Austria : 
 Philip in 
 
 Philip IV Maria + Emperor Ferdinand III (1637-1658) 
 
 Emperor Leopold I + (3) Eleanor of the Palatine. 
 (1658-1705) 
 
 Joseph r (1705-1711) Charles VI (1711-1740) 
 
 39 
 
40 
 
 LECTURE X. 
 
 3. The claim of Bavaria : 
 
 Philip III 
 
 Philip IV Maria + Ferdinand III 
 
 (second marriage) 
 
 \- Maria 
 
 Charles II Margaret Theresa + Leopold I 
 
 (1655-1700) 
 
 Maximilian of Bavaria + Maria Antoinette 
 
 Joseph Ferdinand, 
 Electoral Prince of Bavaria. 
 
 4. Table of comparative proximity : 
 
 Philip III 
 
 Louis XIII + Anne Philip IV Maria -f- Ferdinand III 
 
 + Maria 
 
 Leopold 
 
 Louis XIV + Maria Charles II Margaret Theresa +— — - Eleanor 
 I Theresa - I 
 
 Louis, Grand Dauphin 
 
 Philip 
 
 French claim. 
 
 Maximilian of + Maria Joseph I 
 
 Bavaria Antoinette Charles VI 
 
 Joseph Ferdinand 
 Bavarian claim. Austrian claim. 
 
 II. — The Renunciations, Testaments, and Partitions. 
 
 1. The renunciations : 
 
 (1) That of Maria Theresa, made in the Treaty of the 
 Pyrenees, but repudiated by Louis XIV because 
 
LECTURE X. 41 
 
 the dowry on which it was based had not been 
 paid; 
 (2) That of Maria Antoinette, upon her marriage with 
 Maximilian of Bavaria. 
 
 2. The testaments and partitions : 
 
 (1) The patriotic party of Spain, to preserve its national 
 
 unity, obtains a testament from Charles II (1687) 
 in favor of Joseph of Bavaria ; 
 
 (2) Louis XIV and William III negotiate a treaty of 
 
 partition (October 11, 1698) by which the Elector 
 of Bavaria would take the crown of Spain and the 
 principal heritage, but France would have a great 
 part of Italy, and England and Holland the Indies 
 and the strongholds on the Mediterranean. 
 
 (3) The sudden death of Joseph of Bavaria at the age 
 
 of five (February 8, 1699) requires a new testa- 
 ment, this time in favor of the Archduke Charles 
 of Austria as King of Spain, and assent is arranged 
 by a second treaty of partition (June 11, 1699), 
 giving either Milan, or Lorraine, or Navarre, or 
 Luxemburg, or Savoy to France, Louis promising 
 not to annex the Spanish colonies and William 
 not to support the reconstitution of the Empire, 
 but Spain repudiates this arrangement. 
 
 (4) A third testament is obtained by the nobles of Spain 
 
 (October 7, 1700) making the Duke of Anjou 
 (Philip of France) heir to the crown. 
 
 3. November 1, 1700, Charles II dies and Louis XIV accepts 
 
 his last testament (November 16), which provides that 
 Spain shall never be annexed to France. William III is 
 deeply angered, but Parliament forces him to accept the 
 testament. 
 
 III. — Europe Arrayed against France. 
 
 1. Louis XIV commits three errors : 
 
 (1) Substitutes French troops for the Dutch garrisons 
 
 in the Spanish Netherlands ; 
 
 (2) Secures French advantages in the Spanish colonies ; 
 
 and 
 
42 LECTURE X. 
 
 (3) Issues "letters patent" securing succession to the 
 crown of France to Philip in case of his brother's 
 death without an heir. 
 
 2. William III forms a coalition against him (September 7, 
 
 1701), based on an arrangement for the partition of Spanish 
 possessions : 
 
 (1) Holland to have the Spanish Netherlands ; 
 
 (2) England to take the Spanish Indies ; 
 
 (3) The Emperor -to have full satisfaction in Italy ; 
 
 (4) Denmark to receive an annual subsidy. 
 
 3. William III dies March 19, 1702, after having set in motion 
 
 machinery for the defeat and humiliation of France. 
 
 4. England, Holland, Denmark, the Emperor, the Empire, 
 
 Portugal, and Savoy unite in declaring war against France 
 (1701-1703) to prevent the union of the French and Span- 
 ish crowns. 
 
 5. The ambition of Louis XIV has destroyed the equilibrium 
 
 of Europe and imperiled the security of France. 
 
 6. The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713). 
 
 7. In 1709 Louis proposes peace, offering to renounce the throne 
 
 of Spain to the Archduke Charles, retaining for France 
 Naples, Sicily, Sardinia, and Tuscany; but Philip V, sup- 
 ported by Spain, demurs. When asked to force his son 
 to renounce the throne, Louis breaks off negotiations, 
 but resumes them -in 1710, offering the neutrality of 
 France and even a subsidy. 
 
 8. The sudden death of the Emperor Joseph (April 17, 1711) 
 
 renders Charles VI, the future Emperor, less available as 
 King of Spain than Philip V. 
 
 IV. — The Peace of Utrecht. 
 
 1. Preliminary negotiations: (1) Mardyke and The Hague 
 
 (1709) ; (2) Gertruydensberg (1710) ; (3) London (1711)- 
 
 2. The Congress of Utrecht (January 29, 1712) : 
 
 (1) The chief powers of Europe represented ; 
 
LECTURE X. 43 
 
 (2) Seven treaties negotiated ; 
 
 (3) Secret negotiations between England and France. 
 
 3. Results of the Peace : 
 
 (1) For England — recognition of the Protestant succes- 
 
 sion ; cession of Hudson's Bay, St. Christopher, 
 Newfoundland, and Acadia; treaties of naviga- 
 tion and commerce; destruction of the forts at 
 Dunkirk ; cession by Spain of Gibraltar and Mi- 
 norca ; English monopoly of the slave trade (Pacto 
 del Asienio) ; 
 
 (2) For Holland — transfer of Spanish Netherlands to 
 
 Austria as a barrier, witri right of garrison, together 
 with many towns taken by France ; a treaty of 
 commerce; 
 
 (3) For the Elector of Brandenburg — recognition as King 
 
 of Prussia ; cession of part of Gueldre ; recogni- 
 tion as independent prince of Neuchatel ; 
 
 (4) For the Duke of Sarog— succession to the throne of 
 
 Spain in default of heirs of Philip V ; cession of 
 the Kingdom of Sicily and other territories; 
 
 (5) France confirms the renunciation of the crown of 
 
 France by Philip V for himself and his heirs and 
 the renunciation of the Spanish crown by the 
 French princes, revokes the "letters patent" and 
 makes it an " inviolable lair that the crowns of Spain 
 and France shall never be united" (April 11, 1713). 
 
 4. The war continues between France and the Empire, which 
 
 is terminated by the Treaties of Rastadt (March 6, 1714) 
 and Baden (September 6, 1714), in which the Emperor 
 and the Empire confirm the Treaties of Westphalia, Nim- 
 wegen, and Ryswick, the Emperor succeeding to the Span- 
 ish Netherlands 1 - certain barriers and restitutions being 
 arranged — and southern Italy. 
 
 V. — Effects of the Peace on Europe. 
 
 1. Upon imperial ambitions : 
 
 (1) The union of either France or Austria with Spain 
 is frustrated and Hapsburgs and Bourbons are 
 balanced against each other ; 
 
44 LECTURE X. 
 
 (2) The Rhine becomes the boundary of France and 
 
 Germany ; 
 
 (3) Italy is neutralized by the Kingdom of Savoy ; 
 
 (4) Holland is saved by the barrier of Austria ; 
 
 (5) Prussia becomes a check to Austria, and the equilib- 
 
 rium of the continent is restored ; 
 
 (6) England gains the dominion of the sea and colonial 
 
 supremacy by preventing the union of France and 
 Spain and the absorption of the Netherlands. 
 
 2. Upon public law : 
 
 (1) The right of peoples to choose their kings is recog- 
 
 nized ; 
 
 (2) Dynastic right, held to be divine, is limited by the 
 
 will of Europe ; 
 
 (3) England's victory founds the right of intervention 5 
 
 (4) The Treaty of Westphalia is confirmed and its prin- 
 
 ciples are extended. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY, 
 
 Lecture XI.— THE RISE OF RUSSIA AND THE BATTLE 
 FOR THE BALTIC. 
 
 1. The Treaties of Utrecht seemed to secure the internal peace 
 
 of Europe by ending the dream of universal monarchy. 
 
 2. They opened, however, a period of dynastic diplomacy to 
 
 preserve and enlarge the power of royal families. 
 
 3. While Europe was thus preoccupied new political forces 
 
 came into the field destined to affect the future of the 
 world. 
 
 I. — The Ottoman Empire. 
 
 1. The Turks in Europe : 
 
 (1) Conquest of Constantinople (1453) ; 
 
 (2) A camp of nomads rather than a state ; 
 
 (3) A constant peril to the House of Austria ; 
 
 (4) The contest for Hungary, whose crown became 
 
 hereditary in the House of Austria in 1687 ; 
 
 (5) The Turks definitely expelled from Hungary by the 
 
 Peace of Carlo witz (1699) and the Peace of Passa- 
 rowitz (1718). 
 
 2. Relations of the Ottoman Empire to France: 
 
 (1) Alliance of Francis I with Soliman the Magnificent 
 
 (1526) ; 
 
 (2) Capitulations of the Sultan and development of 
 
 French commerce ; 
 
 (3) The capitulations, renewed in 1604 and 1673, ren- 
 
 dered Turkey a kind of French colonial empire; 
 
 (4) Under the influence of European commerce and 
 
 civilization a semi-oriental state is formed. 
 
 3. Influence of the Greek element: 
 
 (1) The chief element of civilization in the East was 
 the survival of Greek ideas and institutions ; 
 k 45 
 
46 LECTURE XI. 
 
 (2) The Greek form of Christianity still existed within 
 
 the Ottoman Empire, and Russia, which was cre- 
 ated out of barbaric tribes by the Greek Church, 
 was regarded as its natural protector ; 
 
 (3) The Russian rulers and ecclesiastics accepted the 
 
 task of delivering Europe from the Turk. 
 
 II. — The Development of Russia. 
 
 1. The beginnings of Russia : (1 ) The territory ; (2) the people ; 
 
 (3) the conquest by the Norsemen under Rurik in the 9th 
 century ; (4) Christianization in the 10th century ; (5) in- 
 vasion of the Mongols, 13th century ; (6) Ivan the Great 
 expels the Mongols and establishes an absolute monarchy 
 (1480) ; (7) Ivan IV, the Terrible, extends the boundaries 
 to the Caspian Sea, and the " Grand Duke of Muscovy " 
 becomes "Czar" (1533-1584); (8) Michael Romanoff 
 founds the present House (1613). 
 
 2. The primitive condition of Russia. A vast interior plain, 
 
 without seaports, commerce, arts, or military organiza- 
 tion, ruled by despotic power through ecclesiastical in- 
 fluences. 
 
 3. The work of Peter the Great (1682-1725) : 
 
 (1) Czar with Ivan 1682, becomes sole master 1689 ; 
 
 (2) Aims to expel the Turk and annex Constantinople, 
 
 but sees the insufficiency of Russia ; 
 
 (3) Resolves to give Russia ports on the south and on 
 
 the north and to open the paths of commerce ; 
 (i) Visits Holland and England (1697-1698) to learn 
 ship-building and other arts ; 
 
 (5) Introduces the arts, mechanics, and culture of Eu- 
 
 rope ; 
 
 (6) Abolishes the patriarchate and makes himself the 
 
 head of the church ; 
 
 (7) Destroys the Sireltzi and organizes a regular army ; 
 
 (8) Forms a nobility to extend and support his policy. 
 
 4. The foreign policy of Peter : 
 
 . (1) To give to Russia the commerce of the Baltic ; 
 (2) To penetrate by conquest toward the center of Eu- 
 rope and make Russia a European power; 
 
LECTURE XI. 47 
 
 (3) To build a marine on the Black Sea and push toward 
 
 the Mediterranean ; 
 
 (4) To expel the Turks from Europe and regain Con- 
 
 stantinople when the time is ripe ; 
 
 (5) The obstacles to Peter's ambitions : Sweden, Poland, 
 
 and Turkey. 
 
 III. — The Struggle with Sweden. 
 
 1. The greatness of Sweden after 1 64S — a possible rival with 
 
 France for the first place in Europe. 
 
 2. Sweden makes war a business. Accession of Charles XII, a 
 
 youth of fifteen (1697). League of Denmark, Poland, and 
 Russia against Sweden (1700). 
 
 3. Charles XII: (1) His character; (2) the campaign of 1700; 
 
 (3) defeats the King of Denmark, who signs the Peace of 
 Traventhal (August, 1700) ; (4) defeats Peter the Great 
 at Narva; (5) defeats the King of Poland. 
 
 4. The condition of Poland : 
 
 (1) Vast extent of territory ; 
 
 (2) Political anarchy ; 
 
 (3) Independence and turbulence of the nobles ; 
 
 (4) An elective monarchy with a foreign king; 
 
 (5) Poland exposed to plunder and dismemberment ; 
 
 (6) Liberum veto. 
 
 5. Charles XI[ resolves to force August II, Elector of Saxony, 
 
 King of Poland, to resign his crown and attempts to con- 
 quer Poland (1701). 
 
 6. To weaken August II, Charles invades Saxony (1706), a part 
 
 of the German Empire. August resigns the crown in 
 favor of Stanislaus Lesczinski and Poland becomes a 
 Swedish province. 
 
 7. Peter the Great, in the meantime, conquers the Baltic prov- 
 
 inces — Ingria, Carelia, Livonia, Esthonia — founding his 
 new capital, St. Petersburg (1703), on the Neva. 
 
 8. Charles XII advances on Moscow (1707), and his army is 
 
 destroyed at Pultrava (July 8, 1709.) Charles escapes to 
 Turkey, but Sweden is ruined. 
 
48 LECTURE XI. 
 
 9. August II is reinstated as King of Poland, Peter the Great 
 is master of the Baltic provinces and arbiter of Poland, 
 while Charles fails to array Turkey against him. Russia 
 has entered European politics. 
 
 IV. — The Resistance to Russia. 
 
 1. The greed of the German princes aids the ambitions of 
 
 Russia : 
 
 (1) Frederick I of Prussia proposes to the Czar the 
 
 partition of Poland and the dismemberment of 
 Sweden ; 
 
 (2) The Elector of Hanover and the Duke of Mecklen- 
 
 burg join in the plan; but Peter the Great sees 
 the danger of excess and is satisfied with the Baltic 
 provinces. 
 
 2. France fears the expansion of Russia and incites the Sultan 
 
 to attack the Czar (1711), who is nearly destroyed, but 
 saved by bribery of the. Grand Vizier. Peace of Pruth 
 (July 21, 1711). 
 
 3. Charles XII, expelled from Turkey, returns to Sweden 
 
 (1714) to find the King of Prussia in possession of Pom- 
 erania, the Elector of Hanover in control of Bremen and 
 Verden, and the Czar master of the Baltic, with his troops 
 camped in Mecklenburg to attack Wismar. 
 
 4. The Elector of Saxony, helpless on the throne of Poland, 
 
 appeals to Russia, the Czar sends him troops, and Poland 
 becomes a Russian protectorate. 
 
 5. The Austrians seek to destroy the Ottoman Empire, and 
 
 thereby leave Russia free to secure the Baltic and move 
 toward the Black Sea. 
 
 6. The successes of Russia create alarm. George I of England, 
 
 fearing for his electoral estates in Hanover and that the 
 Baltic may become a Russian lake, forms a coalition of 
 England, Hanover, Denmark, and the Emperor to restrain 
 the growth of Russia (1716). 
 
 7. Peter the Great seeks an ally in France, but the Regent, 
 
 having made engagements with England, declines an 
 alliance (1717). 
 
LECTURE XL 49 
 
 V. — The Triumph of Russia. 
 
 1. The policy of Baron de Goertz, Minister of Charles XII : 
 
 (1) Reconciliation with Russia and division of the 
 
 Baltic ports ; 
 
 (2) Conquest of Norway from Denmark ; 
 
 (3) Recovery of lost territories in Germany ; 
 
 (4) Invasion of England in collusion with Spain (plan 
 
 of Alberoni) and restoration of the Stuarts ; 
 
 (5) Substitution of Stanislaus Lesczinski for August II 
 
 in Poland. 
 
 2. The Treaty of Amsterdam (August 4, 1717) effects an entente 
 
 between the Czar, Louis XV, and Frederick-William I of 
 Prussia. 
 
 3. The Conferences of Aland (1718) : 
 
 (1) Diplomacy of Goertz ; 
 
 (2) Pacific disposition of the Czar ; 
 
 (3) Death of Charles XII (December 11, 1718) ; 
 
 (4) Goertz decapitated ; 
 
 (5) Queen Ulrica-Eleanor continues negotiations, but 
 
 they are fruitless. 
 
 4. The Czar invades Sweden (1719) and the war continues 
 
 (1720-'21). 
 
 5. The Peace of Stockholm (1719-1720) gives to Prussia Stettin 
 
 and part of Pomerania, to Hanover Bremen and Verdun, 
 to Denmark Schleswig, and to England the free commerce 
 of the Sound. 
 
 6. The Peace of Nystadt (January 30, 1721) gives Russia Livo- 
 
 nia, Esthonia, Ingria Carelia, and the southern part of 
 Finland. ) 
 
 7. Results: 
 
 (1) Sweden is reduced to impotence ; 
 
 (2) Poland is ruined ; 
 
 (3) Russia becomes a European power of imperial pre- 
 
 tensions and the mistress of the Baltic. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XII.— THE ERA OF FAMILY POLITICS. 
 
 1. While Russia becomes a European power, dynastic intrigues 
 
 are rife in Europe. 
 
 2. The State System is established, but the period 1715-1748 is 
 
 filled with schemes of succession. 
 
 I. — The Royal Ambitions. 
 
 1. The possibilities of succession : 
 
 (1) The crown of France— Louis XIV, dying in 1715, 
 
 leaves as heir a sickly great-grandson. of 5 years, 
 Louis XV ; 
 
 (2) The crown of England — Queen Anne, dyingin 1714, 
 
 a Jacobite rebellion in 1715 opposes the claims of 
 the new king, George I, Elector of Hanover ; 
 
 (3) The imperial crown — the Emperor Charles VI hav- 
 
 ing no male heir ; 
 
 (4) The crown of Poland — Stanislaus Lesczinski contests 
 
 it with August [I, Elector of Saxony ; 
 
 (5) The eventual succession of the duchies of Parma and 
 
 Plaisance. 
 
 2. The aspirants : 
 
 (1) Philip V of Spain and the Duke of Orleans (Regent) 
 
 aspire to the crown of France ; 
 
 (2) The English Pretender, James Edward, son of 
 
 James II, aspires to the crown of England ; 
 
 (3) A number of contestants for the imperial crown and 
 
 the estates of Austria ; 
 
 (4) Elizabeth Farnese, second wife of Philip V, covets 
 
 the Italian duchies for her son. 
 
 II. — The Schemes of Dubois and Alberoni. 
 
 1. Relations of Dubois and Stanhope : 
 
 (1) Dubois the friend of the Duke of Orleans ; 
 
 (2) Stanhope the agent of George I ; 
 I 51 
 
52 LECTURE XTI. 
 
 (3) The transaction at The Hague ; 
 
 (4) The Triple Alliance (January 4, 1717). 
 
 2. The plans of Alberoni : 
 
 (1) Elizabeth Farnese made Queen of Spain ; 
 
 (2) Desires to secure a crown for her son in Italy ; 
 
 (3) Hopes to place Philip V on the throne of France ; 
 
 (4) Efforts to create a coalition against the Emperor, 
 
 England, and the Duke of Orleans. 
 
 3. The Quadruple Alliance : 
 
 (1) The Emperor excited by the operations of Alberoni ; 
 
 (2) The Quadruple Alliance formed (August 2, 1718) ; 
 
 (3) Accession of Holland (February 16, 1719) ; 
 
 (4) Attack on Spain ; 
 
 (5) Philip V yields to the combination (January 26, 
 
 1720) and Alberoni is disgraced. 
 
 III. — Reappearance of the Imperial Phantom. 
 
 1. The first Treaty of Vienna : 
 
 (1) Philip V — indignant at the rejection of the Infanta, 
 
 affianced to Louis XV, and the marriage of the 
 latter to Maria Lesczinski — sends Pipperda to the 
 Emperor ; 
 
 (2) The Emperor renounces Spain ; Parma, Plaisance, 
 
 and Tuscany are confirmed to Don Carlos, and 
 Philip V guarantees the Pragmatic Sanction ; 
 
 (3) The belief in -a secret article, arranging the marriage 
 
 of Don Carlos with Maria Theresa, terrifies Europe. 
 
 2. The Alliance of Hanover : 
 
 (1) France, England, and Prussia form a coalition 
 
 against the Vienna transaction (September 3, 
 1725) ; 
 
 (2) The Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel, Holland, Sweden, 
 
 and Denmark accede to this league (1726-1727). 
 
 3. To avert war, the Congress of Soissons (1729) is arranged, 
 
 but is rendered fruitless by the Treaty of Seville (Novem- 
 ber 9, 1729), by which Cardinal Fleury detaches Spain 
 
LECTURE XII. 53 
 
 from the Emperor and unites Spain, France, and England, 
 and afterward Holland, to secure Don Carlos in his Ital- 
 ian expectations. 
 
 4. Spain, impatient with Fleury, negotiates the second Treaty 
 of Vienna (March 16, 1731) with the Emperor, England, 
 and Holland, abandoning -France, confirming Don Carlos 
 in his Italian expectations, and guaranteeing the Prag- 
 matic Sanction. The States of the Empire ratif} 7 this ar- 
 rangement (February 20, 1732), and the peace of Europe 
 seems assured. 
 
 IV. — The Polish Succession. 
 
 1. The death of August J I, King of Poland (1733), opens the 
 
 question of the Polish succession. 
 
 2. Stanislaus Lesezinski, father-in-law of Louis XV, aspires to 
 
 restoration, but August III, the new Elector of Saxony 
 and husband of Maria Josephine, an heir to the Austrian 
 crown, is sustained by the Emperor in the interest of the 
 Pragmatic Sanction, by Russia in the interests of its in- 
 fluence over Poland, and by Prussia in the Convention 
 of St, Petersburg (July, 1733). 
 
 3. Notwithstanding this protection of August IIT, the elections 
 
 give the throne to Stanislaus Lesezinski, but a part of the 
 electors proclaim August III king, and Stanislaus, miser- 
 ably supported by France, is obliged to flee (October 5, 
 
 1733). 
 
 4. France, offended with the Emperor, and Spain, coveting the 
 
 throne of Naples for Don Carlos, acting under the inspi- 
 ration of Elizabeth Farnese, form an alliance (October 
 25, 1737) and make war on the Emperor. 
 
 5. The third Treaty of Vienna (November 18, 1738) concludes 
 
 this struggle as follows : 
 
 (1) Stanislaus Lesezinski abdicates the throne of Poland 
 
 and receives in exchange Lorraine and the duchy 
 of Bar, with eventual reversion to France; 
 
 (2) Francis, husband of Maria Theresa, is declared the 
 
 heir of Tuscany, and Parma and Plaisance are 
 ceded to the Emperor, Charles VI; 
 
54 LECTURE XII. 
 
 (3) The Emperor cedes Sardinia to the Duke of Savoy, 
 
 who becomes King of Sardinia, in exchange for 
 the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily, ceded to Don 
 Carlos, son of Philip V ; 
 
 (4) The Pragmatic Sanction is recognized and guaran- 
 
 teed by France. 
 
 V. — The Austrian Succession. 
 
 1. The death of the Emperor, Charles VI (October 20, 1740), 
 
 opens the question of the Austrian succession and of the 
 Imperial crown. 
 
 2. All the powers have now recognized the Pragmatic Sanction, 
 
 fixing the succession on Maria Theresa, but this recogni- 
 tion is nugatory. 
 
 3. The five pretenders to the Austrian possessions : (1) Charles 
 
 Albert, Elector of Bavaria, husband of the second daughter 
 of the former Emperor Joseph I ; (2) August III, Elector 
 of Saxony, husband of the eldest daughter of Joseph I, 
 who renounced his claim to become King of Poland ; 
 (3) Philip V of Spain claims Bohemia and Hungary in 
 virtue of an ancient compact (1617), by which the Em- 
 peror Ferdinand II promised these possessions to the de- 
 scendants of Philip III in defaultof male heirs ; (4) the 
 King of Sardinia claims the duchy of Milan by an ancient 
 marriage contract ; (5) Frederick II of Prussia claims 
 parts of Silesia. The dismemberment of Austria is threat- 
 ened. 
 
 4. The Alliance of Nymphenburg (May 18, 1741) unites France, 
 
 in opposition to Fleury, with Spain, Sardinia, Prussia, 
 and the Electors of Bavaria, Saxony, Cologne, and the 
 Palatine against Maria Theresa. 
 
 5. The fidelity of Hungary and an alliance with England, 
 
 Poland, Eussia and Holland by the Treaty of Hanover 
 (June 24, 1741) enable her to resist. 
 
 6. By the Treaty of Breslau (June 11, 1742) Maria Theresa 
 
 makes peace temporarily with Prussia by abandoning 
 Silesia, but Frederick II soon resumes the war, 
 
LECTURE XIT. 55 
 
 7. The Elector of Bavaria becomes Emperor as Charles VII 
 
 (1742) ; but, dying in January, 1745, his son surrenders 
 his claims by the Treaty of Fussen (April 15, 1745), and 
 Francis I, husband of Maria Theresa, becomes Emperor. 
 
 8. By the Treaty of Dresden (December 25, 1745) Frederick II 
 
 finally secures Silesia. 
 
 9. By an alliance with Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, Treaty of 
 
 St. Petersburg (June 2, 1746), Maria Theresa brings a 
 Russian army into the heart of Germany for her defense. 
 
 10. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 18, 1748) concludes 
 the question of the Austrian succession : 
 
 (1 ) The great treaties — of Westphalia, Rys wick, Utrecht , 
 
 etc. — are confirmed ; 
 
 (2) France restores her conquests ; 
 
 (3) Parma, Plaisance, and Guestalla go to Don Pbilip 
 
 of Spain ; 
 
 (4) The Pragmatic Sanction is sustained ; 
 
 (5) Silesia is guaranteed to Prussia. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XIII.— THR RISE OF PRUSSIA AND THE 
 SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 
 
 1. The decadence of the Empire is marked, after the Treaty of 
 
 Utrecht, by the fact that two electors, both Protestants, 
 Frederick William I of Brandenburg and George I of 
 Hanover, have become Kings of Prussia and England re- 
 spectively. 
 
 2. Here are the beginnings of two new imperial movements, 
 
 that of Prussia on the continent and that of England on 
 the sea. 
 
 I. — The Formation of Prussia. 
 
 1. The Electoral March of Brandenburg. 
 
 2. Union with the Duchy of Prussia (1618). 
 
 3. Gradual accretion of territories under the Hohenzollerns. 
 
 4. Economies and military organization of Frederick William I 
 
 (1713-1740). 
 
 5. Genius and policy of Frederick II, called The Great (1740- 
 
 1780). 
 
 6. The claim to Silesia and seizure of the country (1741). 
 
 7. Frederick II, who thinks only of the interest of Prussia, 
 
 finally deserts the alliance against Austria, when Silesia 
 is abandoned to him by the Treaty of Dresden (Decem- 
 ber 25, 1745). 
 
 II. — The Austro-French Entente and the Secret Diplo- 
 macy of Louis XV. 
 
 1. Austria recuperates her finances and reorganizes her army, 
 in order to recover Silesia. 
 
 in 57 
 
58 LECTURE XTTT. 
 
 2. The diplomacy of Kaunitz : 
 
 (1) The annihilation of Prussia intended ; 
 
 (2) The alliance of Austria and France ; 
 
 (3) Excitation of France against England as a colonial 
 
 rival. 
 
 3. The hereditary enmity of France for Austria leads to the 
 
 secret diplomacy of Louis XV : 
 
 (1) The project of a French prince as king of Poland ; 
 
 (2) Madame de Pompadour and the Court of Saxony ; 
 
 (3) De Bernis, a creature of de Pompadour, foreign 
 
 minister ; 
 
 (4) The Prince de Conti sacrificed to de Pompadour. 
 
 4. The Conferences of Babiole (October, 1755). 
 
 5. The diplomacy of Saxony : (1) Hostility to Prussia; (2) in- 
 
 fluence in France; (3) cooperation with Austria; (4) the 
 Russian alliance. 
 
 III. — Europe Arrayed against Prussia. 
 
 1. The coalition against Prussia completed by the Treaty of 
 
 Versailles (May 1, 1756), to which Russia accedes by the 
 Convention of St. Petersburg (December 21, 1756). 
 
 2. Holland is frightened into neutrality. 
 
 3. Frederick II, aware of his danger, attacks Saxony, Septem- 
 
 ber, 1756. 
 
 4. The common peril cements the alliance of England, Han- 
 
 over, and Prussia, January 11, 1757 : 
 
 (1) England pays one million pounds annually to 
 
 Prussia ; 
 
 (2) Hanover furnishes 60,000 men against France; 
 
 (3) Prussia to detach France from Austria, if possible, 
 
 and no peace to be concluded without the consent 
 of both powers. 
 
 5. Sweden joins the coalition by the Treaty of Stockholm 
 
 (March 21, 1757) and the Elector Palatine soon afterward. 
 
LECTLtRK XTIT. 59 
 
 6. The battles of Rossbach (November 5, 1757) and Lissa (De- 
 
 cember 5, 1757) are decided victories for Prussia and 
 greatly weaken the coalition. 
 
 7. Maria Theresa and Elizabeth of Russia renew their determi- 
 
 nation to crush Frederick II and restore Silesia (March 
 21, 1760), the intrigues of Catharine of Anhalt with the 
 Russian chancellor, on the part of Prussia, having been 
 terminated by his overthrow. 
 
 IV. — The " Pacte de Famille" of the Bourbons. 
 
 1. The House of Bourbon, possessing the thrones of France 
 
 and Spain and of the Two Sicilies, consolidates its power 
 by forming a compact of family alliance, signed at Paris, 
 August 15, 1761. 
 
 2. This compact makes the following engagements : 
 
 (1) The enemy of either branch is to be considered as 
 
 the enemy of both ; 
 
 (2) Mutual guarantee of their possessions ; 
 
 (3) Peace is to be made only with common consent; 
 
 (4) While every Bourbon prince is to enjoy the protec- 
 
 tion of the entire family, no other power is per- 
 mitted to join this compact. 
 
 3. Europe is menaced anew by this secret treaty, but its con- 
 
 tents are unknown. 
 
 V. — The Rescue of Prussia. 
 
 1. The united armies of Austria and Russia sweep over Silesia 
 
 and Pomerania, reach the heart of Prussia, and finally the 
 Russians enter Berlin (1761). Frederick II, shut up in 
 Breslau, sees his kingdom about to be dismembered. 
 
 2. Elizabeth of Russia is suddenly succeeded by Peter III, a 
 
 friend and admirer of Frederick II, and peace is signed 
 between Russia and Prussia at St. Petersburg, May 5, 
 1762. 
 
 3. The Swedes also sign the Treaty of Hamburg (May 22, 1762). 
 
60 LECTURE XIII. 
 
 4. The coalition against Prussia weakens and a definitive peace 
 
 between France, Spain, England, and Portugal is signed 
 in the Treaty of Paris (February 10, 1763), the provisions 
 of which are decisive in the determination of the colonial 
 struggle. 
 
 5. The definitive peace between Prussia and Austria arranged 
 
 by the Treaty of Hubertsburg (February 15, 1763) stipu- 
 lates : 
 
 (1) A general amnesty ; 
 
 (2) The renunciation by Austria of all the territories 
 
 ceded by the earlier treaties to Prussia, with an 
 indemnity for the damages done during the war ; 
 
 (3) Restoration of Silesia and the County of Glatz to 
 
 Prussia ; 
 
 (4) Confirmation of the treaties of Breslau, Berlin, and 
 
 Dresden. 
 
 6. In a secret article, the King of Prussia promises his vote to 
 
 the Archduke Josepb of Austria in case of an imperial 
 election. 
 
 7. Effect of the Seven Years' War on Europe : 
 
 (1) Territorial lines are practically restored, but Europe 
 
 has lost 886,000 men ; 
 
 (2) France has lost 200,000 men, her navy, her credit, 
 
 her commerce, and her best colonies ; 
 
 (3) Austria has gained nothing and definitively lost 
 
 Silesia ; 
 
 (4) Prussia has gained great military reputation, as- 
 
 serted her rivalry with Austria, and enlarged her 
 possessions, but at terrible cost ; 
 
 (5) England has established her colonial empire and 
 
 her dominion of the sea. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XIV.— THE STRUGGLE FOR COLONIAL 
 
 EMPIRE. 
 
 1. The discovery of America by Columbus (1492), the finding 
 
 of a new ocean route to India by Vasco da Gama (1498), 
 and the circumnavigation of the globe by Magellan (1519- 
 1522) opened a new world to conquest. 
 
 2. Europe aspired to a world dominion, and the maritime na- 
 
 tions began to dream of a' colonial empire. 
 
 3. Spain and Portugal were the first contestants, and Pope 
 
 Alexander VI divided the world between them by a line 
 drawn north and south, first 100 leagues (1493), then 375 
 leagues (1506), west of the Azores. AH the land to be dis- 
 covered east of this line belonged to Portugal, all to be 
 discovered west of it to Spain. 
 
 I. — The Early Colonial Movements. 
 
 1. The Spaniards acquired Mexico (1519), Peru (1532), and 
 
 gradually spread over the West Indies and Central and 
 South America. Their quest was gold. 
 
 2. The Portuguese established trading posts on the west coast 
 
 of Africa, the East Indian Archipelago, and India, and 
 took possession of Brazil (1532). Their ambition was 
 trade. 
 
 3. The English were slow to enter the contest. They were 
 
 aroused to activity by jealousy of Spain and Portugal, 
 but John Cabot's voyages in search of a northwest pas- 
 sage to India were fruitless, except as they established a 
 vague claim to the northeast coast of America. In the 
 age of Elizabeth their rivals were exploited by a piratical 
 warfare, and permanent colonies were not established 
 until 1006 and later, under King James. 
 
 61 
 
62 LECTURE XIV. 
 
 4. The French were even less enterprising than the English, 
 
 but under Henry IV awoke to the fact that an empire 
 was being divided (1589-1610). They settled a few feeble 
 colonies in the St. Lawrence and Mississippi basins. 
 
 5. The Dutch began their colonial expansion after their inde- 
 
 pendence of Spain (1575-1580), when Portugal had been 
 temporarily absorbed by Spain, and endeavored to ac- 
 quire Spanish and Portuguese trade and territory. This 
 carried them into the Indian ocean, where their colonial 
 interests still chiefly lie. 
 
 6. Eesults : 
 
 (1) The Mediterranean no longer the world's center; 
 
 (2) Venice falls into decay ; 
 
 (3) The Atlantic becomes the thoroughfare of nations. 
 
 II. — Colonial Expansion of England. 
 
 1. The defeat of the Spanish Armada (July, 1588) brings Eng- 
 
 land to a consciousness of her maritime genius and power. 
 An age of great sailors— Drake, Hawkins, Frobisher. 
 
 2. Piracy on Spain, made a profession, prepares the way for 
 
 commerce, and commerce leads to colonies: (1) East In- 
 dian Company chartered (1600) ; (2) Virginia and Ply- 
 mouth Companies (1606). 
 
 3. The seventeenth century a period of colonial settlement and 
 
 extension of trade. The American colonies formed (1 606- 
 
 (1702). 
 
 4. Cromwell's Navigation Act (1651), ordaining the shipping 
 
 of goods in English ships or ships belonging to the coun- 
 try of exportation. The Dutch declare war to preserve 
 their commerce, but are defeated. 
 
 5. The Dutch wars with England over commerce and the col- 
 
 onies (1664-1674), and the cession to England of New Am- 
 sterdam, which becomes New York. 
 
 6. Coincidence of interests between England and Holland by 
 
 the election of William III of Orange King of England 
 (1688). Conquest of Ireland (1690). 
 
LECTURE XIV. bo 
 
 7. Portugal becomes dependent upon England by theMethuen 
 
 Treaty (December 27, 1703), which gives England: (1) 
 Mastery of the entire Portuguese industry, and (2) ad- 
 mission to South America by the ports of Brazil. See the 
 treaty in Martens, Recueil, tome VIII, p. 41. 
 
 8. War of the Spanish Succession: (1) Capture of Gibraltar 
 
 (1704) ; (2) conquest of Minorca (1708). 
 
 9. Colonial import of the Peace of Utrecht (1713) : 
 
 (1) Concessions of France: No commercial advantage for 
 
 France to besought in Spanish America; destruc- 
 tion of the port of Dunkirk; restitution of the 
 Hudson's Bay region ; cession of St. Christopher, 
 Nova Scotia, and Newfoundland, reserving only 
 fishing lights; a treaty of commerce and naviga- 
 tion granting most favored nation privileges ; abo- 
 lition of LouisXIV's ordinance of 1681,which made 
 good prize of a ship bearing an enemy's goods. 
 
 (2) Concessions of Spain: Agreement not to sell to 
 
 France or any other nation any territory or lord- 
 shin in America ; cession of the port and citadel 
 of Gibraltar; cession of Minorca ; exclusive grant 
 of the slave trade, known as el Pacto del Asiento, 
 for thirty years from May 1, 1713; abandonment 
 of territory at the mouth of the River La Plata as 
 a landing place for the negroes until sold ; direct 
 trade with Spanish colonies with one vessel of 
 500 tons. 
 
 III. — The Ascendency of Enoland. 
 
 1. The diplomacy of England pursues commercial and colonial 
 advantages, while continental Europe exhausts itself in 
 strife: (1) The Emperor in seeking the crown of Spain ; 
 
 (2) France in the hope of overstepping the Pyrenees; 
 
 (3) Spain in defending the claims of a foreign king; 
 
 (4) Holland in a vain effort to annex the Austrian Nether- 
 lands. England alone lays the foundation of a veritable 
 empire. 
 
64 LECTURE XIV. 
 
 2. George I, guided by Stanhope, becomes the mediator and 
 
 arbiter of Europe, playing the powers against one another 
 (1716-1720). Triumph of England in the fall of Alberoni 
 (1718) and destruction of the Spanish fleet (1719). 
 
 3. Pacific policy of Walpole and the new diplomacy of com- 
 
 merce: (1) Philip V attempts a French alliance against 
 England (1720), but the Infanta is sent home and the 
 Kegent cultivates England (1723); (2) Philip, guided by 
 Ripperda, successor to Alberoni, makes an alliance with 
 the Emperor (first Treaty of Vienna, 1725), who had- 
 founded in 1722 an East India Company at Ostend ; 
 (3) Walpole wins away the Emperor by acceding to the 
 Pragmatic Sanction, and the Emperor suspends the Ostend 
 Company for seven years (1727) ; (4) yielding to the Span- 
 ish demand for the Italian duchies, Walpole conciliates 
 Spain (second Treaty of Vienna, 1731), and the Emperor 
 definitely abandons the Ostend Company ; (5) during 
 the peace the great manufacturing towns of England 
 grow up, the colonies are augmented, and commerce is 
 established ; (6) all Europe shares in the benefits of the 
 growing commerce. 
 
 4. Party passion in England, jealous of Jthe Spanish commer- 
 
 cial renaissance under Patino and the prosperity of France, 
 forces war on Walpole. Incident of "Jenkins' ear" 
 
 (1738)." 
 
 IV. — The Decisive Battle for Colonial Supremacy. 
 
 1. England, isolated, is at war with Spain and France (1740). 
 
 2. The problem of the Austrian Succession suddenly plunges 
 
 all Europe into war to despoil the Hapsburgs (1741). 
 
 3. Fall of Walpole (1742) and sending of subsidies by England 
 
 to Maria Theresa, while the English fleets sweep the seas 
 and the King of France abandons his colonies. 
 
 4. The Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) arrests the war in Eu- 
 
 rope, but it continues betwepn France and England in 
 India and America (1750-1754), at Pondichery and in the 
 Ohio valley. 
 
LECTURE XIV 
 
 65 
 
 5. Apathy of France, recall of Dupleix, and return of Clive to 
 
 India (1754), which gives India to England. 
 
 6. Beginning of the Seven Years' War (1756), which preoccupies 
 
 Europe while England wins the French colonies. The 
 work of William Pitt. 
 
 7. The Peace of Paris (February 10, 1763) : 
 
 (1 ) England acquires all the French colonies in America 
 
 except a few islands ; 
 
 (2) The Mississippi becomes the western frontier of 
 
 the English possessions ; 
 
 (3) Louisiana is ceded to Spain in exchange for Florida, 
 
 ceded to England ; 
 
 (4) Dunkirk is demolished ; 
 
 (5) France recovers her possessions in India only on 
 
 condition of employing no forts or garrisons. 
 
 8. Captain Cook takes possession of New Zealand and Australia 
 
 in the name of England (1768). 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XV — EUROPE DURING THE AMERICAN 
 REVOLUTION. 
 
 1. The superiority of England as a naval and colonial power, 
 
 established by the Peace of Paris (1763), excites the jeal- 
 ousy of all the maritime nations of Europe. 
 
 2. The revolt of the American colonies furnishes an occasion 
 
 to isolate and reduce England which is encouraged by the 
 diplomacy of the colonists. " No other war of modern 
 times has been attended by such consequences for uni- 
 versal history. " — Heeren. 
 
 I. — The Pretensions of England. 
 
 1. Regarding the Colonies : (1) England attempts to pay a part 
 
 of the interest on her war debt, which had become enor- 
 mous in 1763, by taxing the American colonists (March 
 22, 1765); (2) the Stamp Act, being repudiated by the 
 colonies as unjust without representation, is revoked 
 (March 5, 1766) ; (3) the " principle" of rightful taxation 
 is maintained by Townshend in a revenue bill imposing 
 port duties on paper, glass, paints, and tea (June 29, 
 1767); (4) this is revoked and the proposition of Lord 
 North adopted, to demand a duty on tea alone (March 5> 
 1770) ; (5) the Boston " tea party " having occurred, Lord 
 North passes the Boston Port Act (March 14, 1774), clos- 
 ing the port of Boston, which results in the call of the 
 Continental Congress and the American Revolution. 
 
 2. Regarding the European Powers: (1) England, become the 
 
 possessor of a vast colonial empire, desires to secure and 
 consolidate it; (2) the pretension that England is sover- 
 eign of the " Narrow Seas," advocated by Selden in his 
 Mare Clausum (1635), is still maintained; (3) the whole- 
 sale confiscation of the cargoes of neutral vessels in time 
 of war by England is especially irritating to the maritime 
 powers, and is considered as a denial of the liberty of the 
 high seas ; (4) offense is also given by the Navigation 
 o 67 
 
68 LECTURE XV. 
 
 Laws (not fully repealed until 1849), which required that 
 " goods sent to or from the United Kingdom to or from 
 its possessions, or from one colony to another, must be 
 carried in British ships, or in ships of the country in 
 which they were produced and from which they were 
 imported." 
 
 II. — The State of Europe in 1776. 
 
 1. Of England: (1) The corruption of Parliament and the am- 
 
 bitions of George III; (2) the people of England averse 
 to oppressing the colonists ; (3) the subserviency of Lord 
 North to the King ; (4) the isolation of England ; (5) the 
 want of troops and the employment of mercenaries. 
 Conventions of Cassel and Han nan (January and Feb- 
 ruary, 1776). 
 
 2. Of Franee: (1) Choiseul, as prime minister (1763-1770) de- 
 
 termined to humiliate England ; (2) reorganization of 
 army and navy; (3) Louis XVI becomes king (1774); 
 (4) failure of French diplomacy under the ministry of 
 d'Aiguillon (1771-1774); (5) the statesmanship of Ver- 
 ge nnes. 
 
 3. Of Spain : (1) Bound to France by the Pacte de Famille 
 
 (August 15, 1761) ; (2) loss of initiative and pacific policy 
 of Charles III; (31 timidity regarding her colonies. 
 
 4. Of Holland: (1) The Commercial Treaty of 1674 and its re- 
 
 strictions on Dutch trade; (2) relation of the Stadholder 
 with England ; (3) the restlessness of the patriotic party 
 in 1776. 
 
 5. Of Austria: (1) The declining influence of Kaunitz after the 
 
 accession of Joseph II as Emperor (1765) ; (2) advantage 
 of the French alliance in preserving the Austrian Nether- 
 lands and Italy from invasion ; (3) J oseph II interested 
 in the eastward extension of the Empire. 
 
 6. Of Prussia: (1) Reorganization of Prussia after the exhaus- 
 
 tion of the Seven Years' War ; (2) policy and economies 
 of Frederick the Great; (3) friendship for Russia based 
 on the alliance with Peter III (1762) and hopes of profit. 
 
LECTURE XV. 69 
 
 7. Of Russia: (1) Accession of Catharine II (1762) and con- 
 firmation of the alliance with Prussia (April 11, 1764); 
 (2) intervention in the affairs of Poland in conjunction 
 with Frederick II (1766) ; (3) war incited between Turkey 
 and Russia by the diplomacy of Yergennes (1768) ; (4) 
 Austria intervenes to secure her share of the eastern 
 spoils (1770) ; (5) interview of Frederick II and Joseph II 
 at Neustadt (September 3, 1770) and proposal to Catha- 
 rine II of the partition of Poland by Prince Henry (Jan- 
 uary, 1771) ; (6) secret treaty against Russia between 
 Austria and Turkey (July 6, 1771) ; (7) the First Partition 
 of Poland (July 25, 1772) ; (8) the Treaty of Kutchuk- 
 Kainardji (July 19, 1774), and end of the Russo-Turkish 
 war. 
 
 III. — The Reception and Influence of the American 
 Diplomatic Agents. 
 
 1. In France: (1) Silas Deane, sent to Paris as business agent 
 
 (March, 1776), negotiates with French officers with little 
 skill, makes no progress with the government, and is re- 
 called (December, 1777) ; (2) Franklin elected commis- 
 sioner to France (September 27, 1776) to join Deane and 
 Arthur Lee ; (3) favorable reception of Franklin in France ; 
 (4) subsidies obtained by Franklin; (5) enthusiasm of 
 the young nobility and departure of Lafayette for Amer- 
 ica; (6) France tries to draw Spain into an alliance with 
 the American Colonies (1777-1778) ; (7) the surrender of 
 Burgoyne at Saratoga (October 17, 1777) determines 
 France to conclude a Treaty of Commerce and a Treaty 
 of Alliance with the American Congress (February 6, 
 1778); (8) war hardly expected, but soon begun (July, 
 1778). 
 
 2. In Spain: (1) Arthur Lee goes to Spain, but is repudiated 
 
 by the Spanish Government (March, 1777) ; (2) succeeds 
 in procuring some secret financial aid (May, 1777); (3) 
 Spain, after much hesitation and attempts at mediation, 
 joins France and declares war on England (June 16, 
 1779) ; (4) John Jay goes on a mission to Spain (Septem- 
 ber, 1779), but is received only informally (February 24, 
 1780). 
 
10 LECTURE XV. 
 
 3. In Holland: (1) Henry Laurens, appointed to negotiate a 
 
 loan in Holland, having been captured during his voy- 
 age, John Adams is sent as minister (June 20, 1780), but 
 refused recognition ; (2) exasperated by the attacks on 
 her commerce, Holland joins France and Spain in war on 
 England (January, 1781); (3) Adams negotiates a Treaty 
 of Commerce with Holland (October 8, 1782). 
 
 4. In Prussia: (1) Frederick II is the first to promise condi- 
 
 tional recognition to the Colonies, but declines to receive 
 a representative ; (2) refuses to grant the use of a port ; 
 (3) prohibits the marching of mercenaries through his 
 territories and threatens to tax them as cattle. 
 
 5. In other Countries: (1) Dana is not recognized in Russia; 
 
 (2) Austria refuses to receive an envoy ; (3) Izard never 
 reaches Florence, whither he was sent. 
 
 IV.— The Bavarian Succession. 
 
 1. Death of Maximilian Joseph, Elector of Bavaria (December 
 
 30, 1777), opens the question of succession. 
 
 2. His heir, Charles Theodore, recognizes the Austrian claims 
 
 (January 3, 1778). 
 
 3. Charles Augustus, Duke of Zweibriicken, withholds his rati- 
 
 fication and appeals to France and Prussia (May, 1778). 
 
 4. Show of hostilities and Treaty of Teschen (May 13, 1779), 
 
 by which (1) Austria restores the lands seized from Bava- 
 ria; (2) the expectation of Anspach and Baireuth is con- 
 ceded to Brandenburg ; (3) Charles Theodore cedes the 
 " quarter of the Inn " to Austria ; (4) Russia, as mediator, 
 obtains the right to interfere in the affairs of Germany. 
 
 V. — The Armed Neutrality of the North. 
 
 1. Diplomacy of Sir James Harris at St. Petersburg. 
 
 2. England's maritime aggressions resented by Catharine II. 
 
 3. Declarations of the Armed Neutrality (February, 1780) : 
 
 (I) Neuter ships may navigate freely from port to port 
 on the coasts of belligerents ; 
 
LECTURE XV. 71 
 
 (2) Free ships make free goods, except contraband of 
 
 war ; 
 
 (3) A blockade must be effective in order to be real. 
 
 4. Accessions : (1) Sweden (July, 1780) ; (2) Denmark (August, 
 
 1780) ; (3) Holland (January, 1781) ; (4) Prussia (May, 
 
 1781) ; (5) Austria (October, 1781) ; (6) Portugal (July, 
 
 1782) ; (7) the two Sicilies (February, 1783). 
 
 5. England, at war with France, Spain, Holland, and America, 
 
 is menaced by all the chief powers of Europe. 
 
 VI. — The Peace of Versailles. 
 
 1. Vergennes opposes the American conquest of Canada. 
 
 2. Shelburne becomes prime minister of England (July 1, 
 
 1782). 
 
 3. The preliminaries of peace signed by England and the 
 
 United States (November 30, 1782). 
 
 4. Preliminaries of peace between England, France, and Spain 
 
 signed (January 20, 1783). 
 
 5. The Peace of Versailles signed (September 3, 1783). 
 
 6. Peace between England and Holland (May 20, 1784). 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XVI.— THE SCHEMES OF AGGRANDIZEMENT 
 BY RUSSIA AND AUSTRIA. 
 
 1. The First Partition of Poland stimulates the territorial am- 
 
 bitions of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 
 
 2. The preoccupations and economic exhaustion of England 
 
 and France leave the powers of eastern Europe free to 
 follow their own interests. 
 
 3. With Austria and Prussia mutually distrustful, Russia be- 
 
 comes for the time the most important State in Europe. 
 
 I. — The Alliance of Russia and Austria. 
 
 1. Character and policy of Catharine II : 
 
 (1) German origin of Catharine; (2) Russia sent t<> 
 school to Europe; (3) reforms of Catharine; (4) 
 influence of Panin and the Prussian alliance 
 (1764-1779); (5) rise of Potemkin, renewal of de- 
 signs on Turkey and abandonment of Prussia. 
 
 2. Character and plans of Joseph II : 
 
 (1) Joseph becomes Emperor, 1765; (2) the death of 
 Maria Theresa (November 29, 1780) gives him 
 complete authority ; (3) the typical benevolent 
 despot ; (4) his administrative revolution ; (5) 
 his incoherent States to be consolidated and Ger- 
 manized ; (6) " Josephism," the Edict of Tolera- 
 tion (October 13, 1781), and the opposition of the 
 Church. 
 
 3. Meeting of the Emperor and the Czarina at Mohilev and 
 
 visit of the Emperor to St. Petersburg (1780). 
 
 4. Alliance between Catharine II and Joseph II arranged by 
 
 letters (June, 1781). 
 
 5. Motives of the arrangement: (1) On Catharine's part, the 
 
 connivance of Austria at Russia's designs on Turkey ; (2) 
 on Joseph's part, Russia's assistance in his scheme to 
 annex Bavaria and permission to obtain Bosnia and 
 Servia. 
 
 — • > 
 
74 LECTURE XVI. 
 
 II. — The Austro-Rcssian Negotiations Concerning Turkey. 
 
 1. The Czarina's project (September 10, 1782) : (1) The forma- 
 
 tion of an independent hereditary monarchy of Molda- 
 via, Wallachia, and Bessarabia, under the Greek religion ; 
 (2) the expulsion of the Turk from Constantinople and 
 the re-establishment of the ancient Byzantine Empire, 
 with her grandson, Constantine, as Emperor; (3) for 
 Russia, Ocluikov, the territory between the Bong and the 
 Dneister, and an island or two in the Archipelago ; (4) 
 compensation for Austria in Italy. 
 
 2. The counter-project of Joseph II (November 12, 1782). He 
 
 consents to the partition, but demands for Austria : (1) 
 Part of Wallachia, all of Bosnia, and a portion of Servia ; 
 (2) Venice and her Italian possessions ; (3) Istria and 
 Dalmatia. In order to obtain the approval of France and 
 Prussia, he proposes that Egypt be given to France and 
 a part of Poland to Prussia. 
 
 3. Catharine, displeased with the extent of Joseph's demands, 
 
 hesitates to conclude a partition ; Joseph, averse to a Rus- 
 sian occupation of Constantinople, qualifies his assent by 
 the condition that it is binding only in case Turkey be- 
 gins a war. 
 
 4. Resolved to obtain some satisfaction, the Czarina announces 
 
 the annexation of the Crimea (April 8, 1783), which the 
 Sultan acknowledges by the Treaty of Constantinople 
 (January 6, 1784). 
 
 5. Joseph wishes compensation, but Vergennes, who has has- 
 
 tened the peace with England in order that France may 
 prevent the dismemberment of Turkey, will not accept 
 Egypt as the price of partition and dissuades Joseph from 
 his plans. By subsidizing Gustavus III, he creates a 
 counterpoise to Russia's schemes through fear of war with 
 SAveden. (Alliance of France and Sweden, July 19, 1784.) 
 
 III. — The Emperor's Movements for Expansion. 
 
 1. Against Holland : (1) Taking advantage of Holland's trou- 
 bles with England (January, 1782), Joseph II destroys 
 the " barriers " erected by the treaties of 1715 and 1718 ; 
 (2) he next demands the evacuation of Maestricht and 
 
LECTURE XVI. (0 
 
 certain villages and the payment of certain indemnities 
 by Holland (April, 1784); (3) finally, he issues an ulti- 
 matum, demanding the opening of the Escaut to free navi- 
 gation and direct commerce with the Indies (August 23, 
 1784) ; (4) the Dutch prepare a stout resistance, the King 
 of France offers his mediation, and the Treaty of Fon- 
 tainebleau (November 8, 1784) settles the dispute, by which 
 Joseph renounces his pretensions to the freedom of the 
 Escaut, but obtains two forts and prevents the interdic- 
 tion of trade with the Indies to his subjects, which Charles 
 VI had permitted in 1739. 
 
 2. Against Bavaria : (1) Joseph II offers to Charles Theodore, 
 elector and sovereign of Bavaria, the Spanish Nether- 
 lands in exchange for his hereditary States, giving him 
 eight days for a decision and threatening to despoil him 
 by force if he does not accede (January, 1785) ; (2) Fred- 
 erick IF, learning of the scheme, appeals to France and 
 Russia to sustain the Treaty of Teschen and preserve the 
 Constitution of the Empire ; (3) Joseph II, though sus- 
 tained by Russia, abandons his purpose ; (4) Frederick II 
 combines the smaller German princes— Saxony, Brune- 
 wick-Luneburg, Saxe- Weimar and Gotha, Zweibrueken 
 and Mechlenburg, Hesse-Cassel, Osnabruck, Anhalt, 
 Baden, Maintz, and others— into the Furstenbund, to 
 preserve the Germanic liberties (July, 1785), and dies a 
 year later (August 17, 1786}. 
 
 IV. — Revival of the Aistro-Russian Plans. 
 
 1. Catharine intrigues against Turkey in Egypt, Greece, Mol- 
 
 davia, and elsewhere (1786). 
 
 2. She undertakes a journey to the Crimea (January, 1787), 
 
 visiting the King of Poland en route, and is joined by 
 Joseph II. The alliance revived and the Greek Empire 
 again proposed. Russian navy on the Black Sea. 
 
 3. The " commercial frontiers " of the maritime powers now in 
 
 danger: (1) Vergennes urges France to preserve the Ot- 
 toman Empire,, but dies February 13, 17X7: (2) Pitt 
 wishes to restrain Russia by supporting Turkey, but is 
 feebly sustained by the British public, who do not vet 
 
76 LECTURE XVI. 
 
 comprehend the issue; (3) the other maritime powers 
 fear entanglements ; (4) the dismemberment of the Otto- 
 man Empire appears imminent. 
 
 4. The Sultan, urged by England, declares war on Russia (July 
 26, 1787) ; Catharine accepts the conflict and Joseph II 
 joins her (February 9, 1788). The doom of Turkey seems 
 certain. 
 
 V. — The Rescue of Turkey. 
 
 1. Under the indecisive rule of Montmorin, successor of Ver- 
 
 gennes, France remains neutral: 
 
 2. England, fearing for her commerce in the Mediterranean 
 
 and the Baltic, if Russia triumphs, stimulates the Turks 
 and subsidizes Gustavus III of Sweden to strike Russia 
 upon the north. 
 
 3. Prussia, jealous of both Russia and Austria, excites revolt 
 
 in Poland to invite the attention of Russia there. Fred- 
 erick William II forms an alliance with Poland (Febru- 
 ary, 1790). 
 
 4. Joseph II, reduced to the defense of Hungary, with the 
 
 Netherlands, Bohemia, and Galicia in revolt, dies (Feb- 
 ruary 20, 1790). 
 
 5. The Triple Alliance — England, Prussia, and Holland— while 
 
 united in opposition to Russia, disengages the new Em- 
 peror Leopold from the Russian alliance by the Conven- 
 tion of Reichenbach (July 27, 1790), and peace between 
 Austria and Turkey is made by the Treat.y of Sistova 
 (August 24, 1791), after nearly a year of truce. 
 
 6. Russia, having signed the Peace of Verela (August 15, 1790) 
 
 with Sweden, concludes the Treaty of Jassy (January 4, 
 1791) with Turkey. 
 
 7. Results: (1) Catharine has failed in her great schemes of 
 
 destroying the Ottoman and creating a Greek Empire, 
 but the power of Russia is evinced; (2) Prussia has lost 
 the primacy of Germany by the death of Frederick II ; 
 (3) Austria has regained her leadership under Leopold II, 
 who reorganizes his Empire. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XVII.-THE REPUBLICAN PROPAGANDA 
 AND ITS RESULTS. 
 
 1. The sympathy of Europe during the American Revolution 
 
 was with the colonists, partly on account of the general 
 hostility to England and partly because of the political 
 principles set forth in the Declaration of Independence. 
 
 2. No European nation enjoyed a written constitution, and the 
 
 American example excited universal interest. 
 
 3. The literature of the time widely diffused republican prin- 
 
 ciples, but existing institutions prevented their practical 
 adoption. 
 
 I. — The Republican Movement in Holland. 
 
 1. Organization of the Dutch Republic: (1) The States-Gen- 
 
 eral ; (2) the powers of the Stadtholder ; (3) the growth 
 of executive authority. 
 
 2. The opposition of parties: (1) The party of the Stadtholder, 
 
 William V ; (2) the party of the Patriots ; (3) the effect 
 of the war with England on party sentiments. 
 
 3. The influence of American doctrine: (1) Van der Capellen 
 
 and his adherents (December, 1775) ; (2) Van der Kemp's 
 republican pamphlet (October 17, 1781) ; (3) the success of 
 America a stimulus to the Dutch republic. 
 
 4. The French influence and policy : (1) De la Vauguyon sent 
 
 to the Hague (1776) ; (2) political purposes of France ; (3) 
 military and commercial alliance of France and Holland 
 (November 11, 1785) ; (4) predominance of French influ- 
 ence and dominance of the Patriots, by which the Stadt- 
 holder is stripped of power (July, 1786). 
 
 5. The battle of diplomacy for the Dutch alliance: (1) Sir 
 
 James Harris sent to Holland (December, 1784) ; (2) concil- 
 
 o (77) 
 
78 LECTURE XVII. 
 
 iatory missions of Goertz and Rayneval (September, 1786) ; 
 (3) arrest of the Princess Wilhelmina (June, 1787), the 
 Patriot revolution, and the intervention of the King of 
 Prussia with an armed force (September, "1787) ; (4) sup- 
 pression of the Patriots, their expulsion and the re-estab- 
 lishment of the Stadtholder's power; (5) the French, 
 under Montmorin's weak policy, offer no resistance. 
 
 6. The Triple Alliance between England, Prussia, and Holland 
 
 (April 15, 1788). 
 
 7. The republican party is destroyed, and the Stadtholder be- 
 
 comes in effect the monarch of Holland. 
 
 II. — The Belgian Revolution. 
 
 . 1. In the execution of his sweeping reforms. the Emperor 
 Joseph II reconstructs the government of the Austrian 
 Netherlands (January, 1787). 
 
 2. The States of Brabant resent the new order by refusing to 
 
 vote the annual subsidies (April 17, 1787). 
 
 3. Austrian troops sent to compel obedience (June 24, 1787). 
 
 4. The States of Belgium join in the revolt, and the Emperor 
 
 revokes their liberties (January 7, 1789). 
 
 5. An armed conflict ensues, and the Patriots resist the imperial 
 
 troops (October 27, 1789). 
 
 6. Brabant declares its independence (December 13, 1789) and 
 
 is joined by other provinces, establishing a congress at 
 Brussels (January 7, 1790). 
 
 7. The discords of the aristocratic and the democratic parties 
 
 weaken the revolution, Joseph II dies (February 20, 
 1790), the Triple Alliance mediates between Leopold II 
 and the Congress, and a peace is arranged (December, 
 1790), by which the old order is restored, and the sover- 
 eignty is guaranteed to the Emperor by the Alliance. 
 
 8. The revolt is renewed, owing to the pertinacity of the demo- 
 
 cratic party, led by von Vonck, and the obstinacy of 
 Leopold II, who dies March 1, 1792. 
 
LECTURE XVIT. 79 
 
 9. Under Francis II a French invasion places the country 
 under the control of France. 
 
 III. — The -Revolutionary Provocations of France. 
 
 * * 
 
 1. France has obtained from the United States the idea of a 
 
 written constitution, and the States-General are convened 
 May 5, 1789, for the first time since 1614. 
 
 2. The principles adopted by the Constituent Assembly raise 
 
 the question, Who has the right to make war and peace? 
 
 (1) The aftair of Nootka Sound (May, 1790); 
 
 (2) The fate of the Pacte de Famille ; 
 
 (3) The question of treaty obligations ; 
 
 (4) The effect of the abolition of feudalism on the Alsa- 
 
 tian fiefs. 
 
 3. The Constitution of 1791, which places the people above 
 
 the King, is regarded as a menace to every monarch in 
 Europe. 
 
 4. The flight of Louis XVI to Varennes (June 21, 1791), his 
 
 capture and return to Paris. 
 
 5. The Emperor Leopold issues the Manifesto of Padua (July 
 
 6, 1791), inviting the sovereigns to join him in making 
 the King's cause their own. 
 
 6. The Declaration of Pilnitz (August 27, 1791), signed by the 
 
 Emperor and the King of Prussia to frighten France. 
 
 7. France, exasperated, wishes for war; declared by the 
 
 Legislative Assembly April 20, 1792 ; Louis XVI dismisses 
 his ministers when they insist on his signing the decree, 
 and the people invade the Tuileries. 
 
 8. The Declaration of the Duke of Brunswick, holding the 
 
 people of Paris responsible for the King's safety, leads to 
 open insurrection (August 10, 1792) and the King's sus- 
 pension and imprisonment. 
 
 9. France is declared a republic by the National Convention 
 
 (September 20, 1792) on the day of the battle of Valmy. 
 won by the French. 
 
80 LECTURE XVII. 
 
 10. Encouraged by the speedy conquest of Savoy, Nice, and Bel- 
 gium, the Convention sends missionaries of " the Rights 
 of Man and the Sovereignty of the People " into all the 
 countries of Europe and begins ' ' the war of the people 
 against all kings " (November 19, 1792). 
 
 IV. — France at War with Europe. 
 
 1. Belgium, the Rhine provinces, Savoy, and Nice welcome 
 
 the French armies as liberators, and these territories are 
 declared a part of France (December 9-13, 1792). 
 
 2. Louis XVI, tried and convicted of treason, is executed 
 
 (January 21, 1793), giving a pretext to Spain, Holland, 
 and England to unite with Austria and Prussia against 
 France, which promptly accepts the challenge (February 
 1, 1793). 
 
 3. Sweden, Denmark, and Venice declare their neutrality, but 
 
 Portugal, Tuscany, the Two Sicilies, and the Empire are 
 arrayed against France before the end of March, 1793. 
 
 4. Russia takes occasion to consummate the second partition 
 
 of Poland, with the cooperation of Prussia (January 4, 
 1793), Austria being too much preoccupied to claim her 
 share. March 25, 1793, Russia joins England in the 
 coalition against France. 
 
 5. The annexation of Belgium frightens Holland, which repels 
 
 the invasion of Dumouriez. His defeat at Neerwinden 
 (March 21, 1793), followed by his resistance of the Con- 
 vention and his desertion to Austria, together with the 
 civil war in the Vendee, reveals three facts to France : 
 
 (1) The failure of the republican propaganda; 
 
 (2) The desperate circumstances of the republic; and 
 
 (3) The necessity of a strong government. 
 
 6. The Revolutionary Tribunal of Paris and the Reign of 
 
 Terror are the bloody instruments designed to save- 
 France from destruction. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XVIII.— THE ASCENDENCY OF THE FRENCH 
 
 REPUBLIC. 
 
 1. The brilliancy of French victories in the field in this period 
 
 has caused the successes of diplomacy to be overlooked. 
 
 2. The work of Barthelemy in Switzerland. 
 
 I. — Subsidence of the Spirit of Conquest in France. 
 
 1. The report of the Committee of Public Safety, declaring that 
 
 the Republic desires peace (December 4, 1794), marks the 
 abandonment by France of the propaganda against mon- 
 archy. 
 
 2. The conquest of Holland (January, 1795) without annexa- 
 
 tion and the organization of an independent Batavian 
 Republic indicate a more pacific disposition on the part 
 of France. 
 
 3. The final partition of Poland by Russia, Prussia, and Aus- 
 
 tria (November, 1795) diverts their attention in part from 
 France; Spain is weary of war, and England alone is 
 disposed to continue its chastisement of the French Re- 
 public. 
 
 4. The Batavian Republic is recognized by France, and the 
 
 Treaty of The Hague (May 16, 1795) creates an alliance 
 between the two republics : 
 
 (1) The house of Orange is stripped of its property ; 
 
 (2) Holland pays an indemnity of a hundred million 
 
 florins to France ; 
 
 (3) The Escaut, the*Rhine, and the Meuse are opened 
 
 to free navigation. 
 
 II. — The Treaties of Basel. 
 
 1. The disorganization of the coalition against France begins 
 
 with the treaties negotiated by Barthelemy at Basel. 
 
 2. Prussia, resenting England's failure to pay the subsidies 
 
 agreed upon because Frederick William II has withdrawn 
 his troops beyond the Rhine and has not defended Hol- 
 land, signs a treaty of peace with France at Basel (April 
 
 r (81) 
 
82 LECTURE XVIII. 
 
 5, 1795): (1) Prussia promises to furnish no aid against 
 the French Republic ; (2) the French troops are to con- 
 tinue to occupy Prussian soil beyond the Rhine till a 
 general peace is made ; (3) the King of Prussia offers his 
 good offices with the princes of the Empire who desire to 
 treat with France. 
 
 3. Following up a series of brilliant victories in the field, 
 
 France makes peace with Spain in the Treaty of Basel 
 (July 22, 1795): (1) the Republic is recognized by Spain ; 
 (2) commercial relations are reestablished ; (3) the good 
 offices of Spain are accepted for mediation with the Kings 
 of Naples (the Two Sicilies), Sardinia, Portugal, and the 
 Duke of Parma. 
 
 4. The Landgrave of Hesse-Cassel accepts the good offices of 
 
 Prussia and signs a peace (August 28, 1795) : (1) the Land- 
 grave renounces his English subsidies; (2) France con- 
 tinues to occupy the fortress of Rhinefels and some other 
 posts. 
 
 5. France now occupies Belgium, has an alliance with Hol- 
 
 land, and is at peace with Prussia and Spain. 
 
 III. — England Reanimates the Coalition. 
 
 1. England, alarmed at the situation, has sought a new alli- 
 
 ance with Russia in the Treaty of St. Petersburg (Febru- 
 ary 18, 1795): (1) England agrees to furnish the provision - 
 ment and transportation, in case of traversing a foreign 
 territory, of the Russian army ; (2) Russia agrees to de- 
 fend England against attack by a foreign power. 
 
 2. England also strengthens her relations with Austria in the 
 
 Treaty of Vienna (May 4, 1795): (1) guarantees an Aus- 
 trian loan of nearly five million pounds sterling ; (2) 
 the Emperor engages to maintain 200,000 troops ; (3) by 
 a later arrangement Russia is to be invited to join Eng- 
 land and Austria in a triple alliance. This is effected 
 September 28, 1795. 
 
 IV. — The Pacific Diplomacy of France. 
 
 1. The forces employed by France in Spain being turned into 
 Italy, the King of Sardinia makes peace by the Treaty of 
 
LECTURE XVIII. 83 
 
 Paris (May 15, 1796): (1) Savoy and Nice are ceded to 
 France; (2) the French emigrants are expelled from Sar- 
 dinian territory ; (3) the artillery and munitions found 
 in the places occupied may be used by the French troops ; 
 (4) free passage of troops is granted in the States of Sar- 
 dinia. These concessions are followed by the battle of 
 Lodi, and deliver Lombardy, except Mantua, to Bona- 
 parte. 
 
 2. Treaties with Naples (October 11, 1796), Genoa (October 9, 
 
 1796), Parma (November 5, 1796) soon follow the success 
 of Bonaparte in Italy, and several princes of the Empire, 
 Wurtemberg, Baden, etc. , are detached from the coalition. 
 
 3. A new treaty of neutrality is concluded with Prussia (Au- 
 
 gust 5, 1796), by which her territories become an effective 
 barrier for France and Holland on the north, and, in a 
 secret treaty, Prussia agrees not to oppose the cession of 
 the left bank of the Rhine to France at the conclusion of 
 peace, if assured the bishopric of Monster and the country 
 of Recklinghausen, with compensation to Hesse, etc. The 
 Elector of Saxony accepts the treaty of neutrality. 
 
 4. By the treaty of San Ildefonso France makes an offensive 
 
 and defensive alliance with Spain (August 19, 1796) effect- 
 ive in the present war only against England. A French 
 fleet with 20,000 men is sent against Ireland, but fails. 
 The English win Saint Lucia and Saint Vincent from 
 France and Ceylon from Holland. 
 
 5. The Pope signs the Treaty of Tolentino (February 19, 1797) : 
 
 ( 1) closing his ports to the enemies of France ; (2) ceding 
 Avignon, Venaissin, Bologna, Ravenna, and Ferrara; 
 (3) Holland is included in the peace. 
 
 6. France and Sardinia form an offensive and defensive alli- 
 
 ance, Treaty of Turin (April 8, 1797), the latter reserving 
 neutrality as to England. 
 
 7. The Preliminaries of Leoben (April 28, 1797) practically 
 
 conclude the war with Austria, the Emperor recognizing 
 the Rhine as the frontier of France and giving up the 
 Milanese in exchange for Venice. Bonaparte has gath- 
 ered the fruits of his victories and is appointed the pleni- 
 potentiary of the French Republic to conclude a treaty 
 with Austria. 
 
84 LECTURE XVIII. 
 
 8. Portugal makes peace with France, under a menace from 
 Spain (August 20, 1797), and, in spite of an English fleet, 
 ratifies the treaty. 
 
 V. — The Establishment of Republics. 
 
 1. Bonaparte, avoiding the annexation to France of his Italian 
 
 conquests, sets up republican governments: (1) Genoa 
 and the surrounding districts become the Ligurian Re- 
 public ; (2) Lombardy, Modena, Ferrara, Bologna, etc., 
 the Cisalpine Republic. 
 
 2. Belgium, incorporated with France, the Batavian Republic 
 
 (Holland), the Helvetian Republic, created in Switzer- 
 land by the interference of France (April, 1798), with the 
 Roman Republic, created at Rome (February, 1798), and 
 the Parthenopean Republic, established at Naples (Jan- 
 uary, 1799), seem to augur a republican regime in Europe. 
 
 VI. — The Treaty of Campo-Formio. 
 
 1. The peace made by Bonaparte between France and the 
 
 Emperor is signed at Campo-Formio October 17, 1797, 
 following the preliminaries of Leoben, and provide for : 
 (1) the cession of the Austrian Netherlands and the 
 Venetian islands, Corfu, Zante, Cephalonia, etc., to 
 France ; (2) the cession of Venice, lstria, Dalmatia, and 
 the Adriatic islands to Austria; (3) the Emperor's recog- 
 nition of the Cisalpine Republic ; (4) participation of the 
 Batavian Republic in the treaty ; (5) the assembling of a 
 congress of the plenipotentiaries of the Empire and the 
 French Republic at Rastadt to conclude a general peace. 
 
 2. The secret articles enumerate numerous cessions to France, 
 
 with compensations to the German princes, making the 
 Rhine a free river and the frontier of France. 
 
 3. England alone remains at war with France. The invasion 
 
 of England by France is considered, but Bonaparte pre- 
 fers to attack her power in the East. Diplomatic activity 
 of England. 
 
 4. The Congress at Rastadt (December 9, 1797). Bernadotte 
 
 mobbed at Vienna (April, 1799). Assassination of the 
 French plenipotentiaries. Renewal of war between 
 France and Austria. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XIX.— THE FORMATION OF THE NAPOLEONIC 
 
 EMPTRE. 
 
 1. The quarrel between the Directory and the Legislature ren- 
 
 ders France ripe for*a strong government in the fall of 
 1799. 
 
 2. Napoleon Bonaparte, seeing his opportunity, leaves his 
 
 army in Egypt and hastens to France, October, 1799. 
 
 3. The revolution of 18th Brnmaire (November 9, 1799) ren- 
 
 ders Napoleon the master of France as First Consul. 
 
 I. — The First Consul Secures Peace for France. 
 
 1. Napoleon, on becoming First Consul, finds France engaged 
 
 in war with a powerful coalition composed of England, 
 Austria, Russia, the Two Sicilies, and Turkey, soon to 
 be joined by Portugal, and the hope of peace dissipated 
 by the termination of the Congress of Rastadt. 
 
 2. The military situation renders Napoleon a necessity to 
 
 France. 
 
 S. Napoleon writes directly to George III (December 26, 1799) 
 concerning peace, but in vain. 
 
 4. Mission of Duroc to St. Petersburg and the winning of the 
 
 Emperor Paul I by Napoleon ; revival of the Armed 
 Neutrality of the North against England (August, 1800). 
 
 5. Duroc sent to change Prussia's neutrality to a French alli- 
 
 ance, and the obstinacy of Frederick William III. 
 
 6. Napoleon's recognition of Pope Pius VII. 
 
 7. Campaign of Marengo (May-June) and of Hohenlinden 
 
 (May-December), 1800. 
 
 8. The Treaty of Luneville (February 9, 1801): (1) Peace is 
 
 established between the Emperor and France; (2) the 
 cession of Belgium and the Rhine frontier are confirmed 
 to France ; (3) the Emperor assumes indemnities to the 
 hereditary princes on the left bank of the Rhine ; (4) the 
 independence of the Batavian, Helvetic, Cisalpine, and 
 Ligurian republics is guaranteed. 
 
 (85) 
 
86 LECTURE XIX. 
 
 9. Death of Paul ] (March 23, 1801) ; Alexander I resumes the 
 relations of Russia with England against France ; disso- 
 lution of the Armed Neutrality of the North. 
 
 10. Disorganization of the coalition against France: (1) The 
 
 Two Sicilies make peace by the Treaty of Florence 
 (March 28, 1801); (2) Portugal withdraws from the coali- 
 tion by the Treaty of Madrid (September 29, 1801); (3) 
 Russia is pacifically inclined and signs the Treaty of 
 Paris (October 8, 1801), engaging neutrality; (4) Turkey 
 signs preliminaries to the general peace. 
 
 11. The peace of Amiens (March .27, 1802) : 
 
 (1) England recognizes the Batavian Republic and re- 
 
 stores to it and to Spain all territories taken ex- 
 cept Ceylon and Trinidad ; 
 
 (2) The French fisheries are restored ; 
 
 (3) Compensation to the House of Orange is recognized ; 
 
 (4) The possessions of Portugal are left as before the 
 
 war ; 
 
 (5) Turkey accedes (June 25, 1802) and opens the Black 
 
 Sea to France. Europe is again at peace. 
 
 (6) Malta is to be surrendered to the Knights of St. 
 
 John. 
 
 12. By plebiscite Napoleon becomes Consul for life (August 2, 
 
 1802), with 3,568,885 votes for and 8,374 against. 
 
 II. — The Recoxstttution of Germany. 
 
 1. The cessions made to France by the Peace of Luneville re- 
 
 quire a reconstruction of the Empire. This is provided 
 for by a deputation which is named October 2, 1801, and 
 meets at Ratisbon (August, 1802). 
 
 2. The " Recez " or report (February 25, 1803) : 
 
 (1) Abolishes the " Circles " of the Empire ; 
 
 (2) Creates one ecclesiastical and nine lay electors, in 
 
 place of three ecclesiastical and five lay electors; 
 
 (3) Secularizes many ecclesiastical possessions ; 
 
 (4) Makes a new territorial distribution ; and 
 
 (5) Indemnifies the princes whose territories are ceded 
 
 to France by secularization and readjustment. 
 
LECTURE XIX. 87 
 
 3. Effects of the reorganization : 
 
 (1) Austria is weakened in Germany ; 
 
 (2) Bavaria is greatly enlarged ; 
 
 (3) Prussia acquires great gains ; 
 
 (4) The Free Cities are reduced from 52 to 6 ; 
 
 (5) The majority of the Electors become Protestant ; 
 
 (6) Germany is composed of fewer and larger states. 
 
 III. — The Reorganization of France. 
 
 1. Increase of territory by extension to the Rhine; division 
 
 into new " departments ;" nine made of Belgium. 
 
 2. Switzerland remodeled and brought into closer relations 
 
 with France by the Act of Mediation (February 19, 1803). 
 
 3. The Republic of Geneva first recognized as independent and 
 
 then constituted the Department of the Leman. 
 
 4. Savoy and the County of Nice made into " departments." 
 
 5. Piedmont, instead of being amalgamated with the Cisalpine 
 
 Republic, made into six " departments." 
 
 6. A system of Prefets, Sous-Prefets, and Maires created for 
 
 the departments, arrondissements, and communes. 
 
 7. A system of national education devised, ending in the Uni- 
 
 versity, established later. 
 
 8. Restoration of the navy and new colonial policy ; opera- 
 
 tions in San Domingo; Louisiana obtained from Spain in 
 exchange for the Kingdom of Etruria. 
 
 9. The Concordat with Pius VII (July 15, 1801). 
 
 IV. — The Humiliation of Austria. 
 
 1. England refuses to surrender Malta, and points to Na- 
 
 poleon's annexations as breaches of the treaty. The 
 First Consul resents the freedom of the English press. 
 War breaks out in May, 1803. 
 
 2. Conspiracies against Napoleon's life; execution of d'En- 
 
 ghien ; Europe enraged against Napoleon. 
 
 3. Spain, Portugal, and Holland pressed into an alliance with 
 
 France (October-December, 1803). 
 
88 LECTURE XIX. 
 
 4. The camp at Boulogne prepared for a descent upon England; 
 
 failure of the attempt. 
 
 5. Napoleon, proclaimed Emperor (May 18, 1804), writes 
 
 another letter to the King of England concerning peace, 
 but England continues the formation of a new coalition 
 against him. 
 
 6. England unites Sweden (December, 1804), Russia (April 11, 
 
 1805), and Austria (August 9, 1805) against Napoleon. 
 
 7. By the threat of invasion Napoleon secures the neutrality 
 
 of the King of the Two Sicilies, and by the brilliant 
 campaign of 1805 soon forces Austria, after taking Vienna 
 (November 13) and the battle of Austerlitz (December 2), 
 to sign the Treaty of Presburg (December 26, 1805), by 
 which the House of Austria is completely abased and 
 stripped of her Italian territories, and Bavaria and Wur- 
 temberg are enriched with spoils in Germany, whose 
 princes are recognized as kings. Russia withdraws her 
 troops from the Empire. 
 
 8. England, having annihilated the French and Spanish fleet 
 
 at Trafalgar (October 21), is safe from the master of 
 Europe. 
 
 V. — The Confederation op the Rhine. 
 
 1. The imperial plans of Napoleon are executed by Talleyrand, 
 
 who brings under the protection of the French Emperor, 
 by the great compact known as the Confederation of the 
 Rhine (July 12, 1806), Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, and 
 thirteen other German states : (1) these states separate 
 themselves from the Empire ; (2) the imperial laws are 
 abrogated; (3) a new diet is established at Frankfort; 
 
 (4) the Emperor of the French is declared " Protector ; " 
 
 (5) numerous duchies and cities are incorporated with 
 the confederated states ; (6) the Confederation forms a 
 defensive alliance with the Emperor of the French. 
 
 2. Other states join this Confederation (1806-1810), making 
 
 thirty-six in all. 
 
 3. The Emperor Francis II resigns the imperial dignity (Au- 
 
 gust 6, 1806), and the Holy Roman Empire is dissolved. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XX.-THE SUPREMACY OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 . Although the summer of 1806 marks a great extension of 
 Napoleon's power, there is a general disposition for peace, 
 England being under the pacific ministry of Fox, Russia 
 disposed to make a separate peace with France, Prussia 
 still neutral, and Austria completely humbled. 
 
 !. The death of Fox (September 13, 1806), the refusal of Rus- 
 sia to ratify a separate peace negotiated with France, and 
 the anger of Prussia at the formation of the Confederation 
 of the Rhine combine to render possible a new coalition 
 against Napoleon. 
 
 L— The Subjugation of Prussia. 
 
 L. Frederick William III, offended at the conduct of Napoleon 
 in forming the Confederation and with his proposition to 
 return Hanover to England after it had been promised to 
 Prussia, orders the Emperor of the French to retire be- 
 hind the Rhine (October 6, 1806). Napoleon advances 
 and wins the battle of Jena (October 14), enters Berlin 
 with a French army (October 24), and, Russia coming to 
 the aid of Prussia, proceeds to occupy Poland. 
 
 2. Prussia, which had been drawn into war with England on 
 
 account of Hanover, makes peace by the Treaty of Memel 
 (January 28, 1807), renouncing her claim to Hanover and 
 offering England free navigation and commerce. 
 
 3. By the Treaty of Bartenstein (April, 1807) Alexander I and 
 
 Frederick William III make an offensive and defensive 
 alliance, but the Napoleonic victory at Friedland (June 
 14, 1807) induces Russia to consider peace. 
 
 4. The Peace of Tilsit negotiated in the middle of the Niemen. 
 
 "Je hais les Anglais autant que vous," says Alexander. 
 < ' A lors la paiv est faite," says Napoleon. The old empires 
 of the East and of the West are intended to be re-estab- 
 lished. Two treaties are negotiated : (1) Between France 
 and Russia, establishing peace, restoring the King of 
 Prussia to his dominions, with certain exceptions, Prus- 
 sian Poland being assigned to the King of Saxony as part 
 t (89) 
 
90 LECUTRE XX. 
 
 of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, a part of eastern Prussia 
 going to Russia, France retaining the Rhenish provinces, 
 the Confederation of the Rhine being recognized by Rus- 
 sia, as also the kingship of Napoleon's brothers — Jerome 
 over Westphalia, Louis over Holland, and Joseph over 
 Naples; (2) between France and Prussia, the latter re- 
 nouncing the Polish provinces, ceding the country between 
 the Elbe and the Rhine for the benefit of Westphalia, 
 made up of this and other territory, and recognizing the 
 Bonaparte brothers as kings. Prussia also signs secret 
 articles making further territorial arrangements, provid- 
 ing for the provisional annexation of Hanover to West- 
 phalia, and agreeing to make common cause with France 
 if England has not treated with France before December 
 1,1807. 
 
 Russia also promises her mediation with England, 
 failing which an offensive and defensive alliance with 
 France becomes operative, and Denmark, Sweden, and 
 Portugal are to be induced to close their ports to England. 
 
 5. Napoleon now has no enemy but England. He has reached 
 the zenith of his glory. 
 
 II. — Napoleon Arrays the Continent against England. 
 
 1. The Continental Blockade. Attempt to ruin England by 
 
 depriving her of markets. 
 
 2. The Berlin Decrees (November 21, 1806), declaring the 
 
 British Islands in a state of blockade. All English mer- 
 chandise to be confiscated. 
 
 3. Destruction of the Danish fleet, during peace, to prevent 
 
 seizure by Napoleon (September, 1807). 
 
 4. English commerce not destroyed, but the continental na- 
 
 tions impoverished. 
 
 5. Invasion of Portugal by Napoleon for refusing to observe 
 
 the blockade. Treaty of Fontainebleau (October 29, 1807) 
 for a combined attack on Portugal by Spain and France. 
 Project of dismemberment. 
 
 6. The Milan Decree (December 17, 1807). Any ships touch 
 
 ing at a British port to be seized and treated as prize. 
 
LECTURE XX. 91 
 
 7. Sweden alone, under Gustavus IV, friendly to England. 
 Gustavus refuses to accede to the Continental Blockade. 
 Napoleon takes Swedish Pomerania (1807), invades Fin- 
 land (1808), Gustavus IV becomes insane, and is de- 
 throned (1809). 
 
 III. — Napoleon's Rearrangement of Europe. 
 
 1. Napoleon, become Emperor, aims to secure his power by 
 
 establishing vassal kings dependent upon France: The 
 Batavian, Cisalpine, and Parthenopean republics are 
 transformed into kingdoms : 
 
 (1) Holland, after the brief rule of Schimmelpennick 
 
 (1805-1806), becomes a kingdom, with Louis 
 • Bonaparte as king (June, 1806); 
 
 (2) The Cisalpine Republic — Lombardy, the Duchies of 
 
 Modena and Parma, with Bologna and Ferrara — 
 with Venice added in 1806, becomes the Kingdom 
 of Italy, of which Napoleon himself is King, rul- 
 ing through a viceroy, Eugene de Beauharnais ; 
 
 (3) The Parthenopean Republic (the Two Sicilies), over- 
 
 thrown by Ferdinand (1799), is recovered by 
 France, and Joseph Bonaparte is made King of 
 Naples (March, 1806). Other Italian provinces 
 fall under the power of Napoleon, and by 1810 
 all Italy is under the French Empire. 
 
 2. Germany is in like manner reconstituted : 
 
 ( 1 ) Bavaria, united with the Electorate of the Palatinate 
 
 and the Duchy of Zweibriicken and increased by 
 the Tyrol, the cities of Nuremberg and Ratisbon 
 (1805), and the Principality of Salzburg (1809), is 
 made a powerful kingdom under Maximilian 
 Joseph, who owes his power to Napoleon ; 
 
 (2) To check that state, Frederick, Duke of Wiirtem- 
 
 berg, is made a king, with additions of territory ; 
 
 (3) Charles Frederick, Duke of Baden, is made Elector 
 
 (1803) and Grand Duke (1805) ; 
 
 (4) The Kingdom of Westphalia is formed for Jerome 
 
 Bonaparte, being composed of Hesse-Cassel, the 
 Prussian territories west of the Elbe, the bishop- 
 rics of Paderborn and Hildesheim, the Old Mark 
 
92 LECTURE XX. 
 
 of Brandenburg, a portion of Hanover, and other 
 lands ; 
 
 (5) The Grand Duchy of Berg is created from several 
 
 duchies and bishoprics around Dtisseldorf for 
 Murat, Napoleon's brother-in-law; 
 
 (6) Saxony, raised to a kingdom (1806), situated be- 
 
 tween Prussia and Austria, becomes a seat of 
 Napoleon's power under Frederick Augustus I, 
 who is also made Grand Duke of Warsaw ; 
 
 (7) The remaining German principalities, so far as they 
 
 are allowed to exist, are included in the Confed- 
 eration of the Rhine, leaving in Germany, out- 
 side of the Napoleonic system, only Prussia and 
 Austria, both much reduced and surrounded by 
 enemies. 
 
 3. The conquest of Spain, weakened by the queen's passion for 
 Godoy and the feebleness of Charles IV, follows the con- 
 quest of Portugal. Charles IV abdicates in favor of Fer- 
 dinand VII, who throws himself into the power of Napo- 
 leon. The crown of Spain is conferred upon Joseph 
 Bonaparte (June 6, 1808), that of Naples being given to 
 Murat. Spanish patriotism stoutly resists Napoleon's de- 
 signs. Joseph is forced to leave Madrid (July 20, 1808). 
 
 IV.— The Kevelation of Napoleon's Limitations. 
 
 1 . The stubborn resistance of the Spaniards requires Napoleon's 
 
 presence and the withdrawal of troops from Germany. 
 To withdraw them with safety to his authority he needs 
 the aid of Alexander I, already influenced against Napo- 
 leon by England and the conquest of Spain ; hence the 
 Congress at Erfurt. 
 
 2. The Congress of Erfurt and Treaty between the two Em" 
 
 perors (September 27-October 12, 1808): 
 
 (1) Peace to be made with England on the principle 
 
 uli possidetis ; 
 
 (2) England to recognize, as a condition of peace, Rus- 
 
 sia's possession of Finland, Moldavia, and Wal- 
 lachia ; 
 
 (3) If Austria declares war on France, Russia to declare 
 
 it on Austria. 
 
LECTURE XX. 93 
 
 3. Alexander I perceives that he, not Napoleon, is the arbiter 
 of Europe. 
 
 i. England forms an alliance with Spain by the Treaty of 
 London (January 14, 1809). Napoleon is preoccupied in 
 Spain. 
 
 5. Austria reopens the war against Napoleon, who arrives in 
 
 Germany, and on May 12 takes Vienna. Defeated at 
 Wagram (July 6), Austria signs the Treaty of Schoen- 
 brunn (October 14, 1809). 
 
 6. The Peninsular War (1809-1812); Joseph Bonaparte driven 
 
 from Madrid a second time. 
 
 7. States of the Church united to the French Empire (May 
 
 17, 1809); exasperation of Catholics. 
 
 8. Marriage of Napoleon with Maria Louisa of Austria (April 
 
 2, 1810). 
 
 9. Abdication of Louis Bonaparte and annexation of Holland 
 
 to the French Empire (July 9, 1810). 
 
 10. North Germany from Holland to the mouth of the Weser 
 
 annexed (December 13, 1810). 
 
 11. Napoleon's aristocracy. Western Europe has an absolute 
 
 master. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XXI.— THE FALL OF NAPOLEON. 
 
 1. The effect of the Continental Blockade upon Europe reveals 
 
 the despotic character of Napoleon's rule and alienates 
 the people of every country. 
 
 2. Alexander I, in view of the creation of the Grand Duchy of 
 
 Warsaw, which threatened the re-establishment of Po- 
 land, the annexations and pretensions of Napoleon, and 
 the ruinous consequences of the Continental Blockade, 
 becomes less friendly to Napoleon. 
 
 3. Napoleon, on the other hand, offended by the delay of the 
 
 Czar in granting him a Russian grand duchess in mar- 
 riage and by the neutrality of Russia in the last struggle 
 with Austria, feels disposed to punish his ally. 
 
 I. — The Invasion of Russia. 
 
 1. England having mediated a peace between Russia and Tur- 
 
 key (Treaty of Bukarest, May 28, 1S12, the last treaty 
 signed by these powers separately), much to Russia's ad- 
 vantage, the rapprochement of England and Russia becomes 
 evident. 
 
 2. Napoleon, seeing in Alexander I his only dominant rival, 
 
 had already signed a defensive alliance with Prussia 
 (February 14, 1812) and with Austria (March 14, 1812) 
 in preparation for an attack upon Russia, which had de- 
 clined to obey his orders to confiscate neutral ships sus- 
 pected of having violated the Berlin and Milan decrees. 
 
 3. The French troops had crossed the Niemen when Russia 
 
 and England concluded the Treaty of Oerebro (July 18, 
 1812), by which (1) relations of friendship were reestab- 
 lished, and (2) reciprocal aid in case of aggression was 
 promised. 
 
 4. The Treaty of Velikie-Louki is signed by Russia and Spain, 
 
 a council seated at Cadiz acting in the name of Ferdinand 
 VII (July 20, 1812). 
 
 u (85) 
 
96 LECTURE XXI. 
 
 5. The French army occupies Moscow (September 14, 1812) and 
 
 on the 16th the city is destroyed by fire- Alexander de- 
 tains Napoleon with negotiations until October 15, and 
 the winter becomes the ally of Russia. 
 
 6. Napoleon deserts his ruined army on December 5 and 
 
 hastens to Paris. 
 
 7. In the meantime Wellington has defeated the French army 
 
 at Salamanca (July 12) and occupied Madrid (August 12), 
 but the Anglo- Portuguese army is forced to retire into 
 Portugal, and Joseph Bonaparte returns to Madrid. 
 
 IT. — The Last ^Coalition against Napoleon. 
 
 1. The retreat of the French from Russia incites Prussia to 
 
 throw off the mask and declare war (March 16, 1813), 
 having concluded the Treaty of Kalisch with Russia 
 (February 28, 1813), engaging to furnish 80,000 men and 
 Russia 150,000 against Napoleon, and not to negotiate a 
 separate peace. Russia also agrees not to lay down arms 
 until Prussia's territories of 1806 are restored. 
 
 2. Sweden, of which the French general Bernadotte has become 
 
 King, having remained neutral after Napoleon's refusal 
 to aid in the conquest of Norway, allies itself with 
 England by the Treaty of Stockholm (March 3, 1813), 
 furnishing 30,000 men against France. Sweden also con- 
 cludes treaties with Spain (March 19, 1813) and Prussia 
 (April 22, 1813), .having previously made a treaty of 
 peace with Russia (July 12, 1812). 
 
 3. Napoleon advances into Saxony, winning the battle of 
 
 Lutzen (May 3), and defeats the allied armies at Bautzen 
 (May 20), making his headquarters at Dresden, and the 
 Armistice of Pleswitz is signed (June 3, 1813). 
 
 4. The Congress of Prague (July 5, 1813) is called, with Austria 
 
 as mediator. The demands of Austria are : (1) the dis- 
 solution of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and partition of 
 its territory by Prussia, Austria, and Russia; (2) rees- 
 tablishment of Hamburg, Bremen, and I^ubeck in their 
 ancient freedom; (3) renunciation by Napoleon of his 
 title of mediator of the Confederation of the Rhine and 
 
LECTURE XXI. 
 
 97 
 
 of the Swiss Confederation ; (4) reorganization of Prussia 
 with the Elbe as a frontier ; (5) cession of the Illyrian 
 provinces and Trieste to Austria; (6) guarantee that the 
 limits of the powers should be preserved; (7) return of 
 independence to Holland and Spain. 
 
 5. Although Napoleon is allowed to retain Belgium, the left 
 
 bank of the Rhine, and Italy, he refuses to accede to 
 these terms, hostilities are renewed (August 10), and 
 Austria throws her strength with the allies (August 12, 
 1813). August 14 Napoleon accepts the terms, but too 
 late. 
 
 6. Austria signs an alliance with "Russia and Prussia (Septem- 
 
 ber 9, 1813) and with England (October 3, 1813), furnish- 
 ing 60,000 men against France. 
 
 7. England, Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, and Spain are 
 
 now combined against Napoleon. 
 
 III.— Dissolution of the Confederation of the Rhine and 
 General Uprising. 
 
 1. The Confederation of the Rhine, weary of Napoleon's 
 
 domination and apprehending his defeat, begins to aban- 
 don him. 
 
 2. Bavaria is the first to desert him, signing the Treaty of 
 
 Ried (October 8, 1813) with Austria, engaging not to 
 make a separate peace and to cooperate in the field. 
 Bavaria furnishes 36,000 men. 
 
 3. The battle of Leipsic (October 16-19) destroys Napoleon's 
 
 forces, and his troops retreat toward the Rhine, the 
 Bavarians joining the allies to attack them. 
 
 4. All Germany, ripe for a war of liberation, now rises to sup- 
 
 press Napoleon. The Dutch rebel and declare for the 
 Prince of Orange. Italy is in insurrection and France is 
 weary and exhausted. In Spain Wellington drives Joseph 
 Bonaparte from Madrid and the French troops from Spain 
 and invades France at Bayonne (October-December). 
 
 5. After the battle of Leipsic, Wiirtemberg (November 2, 
 
 1813) and Baden (November 20) desert the Confederation 
 
98 LECTURE XXI. 
 
 and join Austria and Prussia, while Saxony is in the 
 hands of the allies. An army of 520,000 men is arrayed 
 against Napoleon. All Europe is against him except 
 Denmark, — which had formed an alliance with him (July 
 10, 1813) to save the conquest of Norway by Sweden, — 
 and Murat, King of Naples. 
 
 IV. — The Proposals of Frankfort. 
 
 1. Two influences prevent the invasion of France and the de- 
 
 struction of Napoleon: (1) the desire to balance the 
 strength of Russia and prevent her absolute dictation ; 
 and (2) the fear of rousing France to desperation and re- 
 consolidating Napoleon's power over her. 
 
 2. Metternich, representing the allies at Frankfort, sends to 
 
 Napoleon (November 9, 1813) the following proposals : 
 (1) recognition of the natural frontiers of France, the 
 Ehine, the Alps, and the Pyrenees; (2) restitution of in- 
 dependence to Holland, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, and 
 Spain. 
 
 3. Napoleon appears disposed to accept these propositions as 
 
 the basis of a peace, but does not send Caulaincourt to 
 discuss them until late in December, and then demands 
 possession of cities on the right bank of the Rhine, and 
 that kingdoms shall be formed for Jerome in Germany 
 and Eugene de Beauharnais in Italy. 
 
 4. Alexander I, seconded by Frederick William III, desires to 
 
 invade France, as Napoleon has invaded Russia and 
 Prussia, and England joins them in wishing to reduce 
 France to the limits of 1792. Napoleon's delay in ac- 
 cepting is made a ground of advance, and France is in- 
 vaded (December 31, 1813). Napoleon's brilliant resist- 
 ance, but France not united. Murat joins Austria (Jan- 
 uary 11, 1814), and Denmark unites with the allies 
 (January 14, 1814). 
 
 V. — The Congress of Chatillon and Last Efforts for Peace. 
 
 1. A. Congress is assembled at Chatillon (February 3-March 
 19, 1814), at which it is demanded that France be reduced 
 to the limits of 1792.. Napoleon refuses to abandon Bel- 
 
LECTURE XXI. ' 99 
 
 gitim, but England, through Lord Castlereagh, insists; 
 exhaustion of France and loss of initiative; Napoleon's 
 error in refusing the terms offered. 
 
 2. The Treaty of Chaumont (March 1, 1814) hinds England, 
 
 Russia, Austria, and Prussia to a defensive and offensive 
 alliance if France refuses to accept her ancient limits, 
 each maintaining 150,000 men and England contributing 
 -£5,000,000 a year till the end is accomplished ; Napoleon's 
 resistance, the battle of Paris (March 30, 1814), and occu- 
 pation of the capital. " The army will fight no more! " 
 
 3. Talleyrand, visited by Alexander I and Frederick William 
 
 III, organizes a provisional government. 
 
 4. Abdication of Napoleon (April 6, 1814) at Fontainebleau. 
 
 5. Treaty of Fontainebleau (April 11, 1814), by which Napo- 
 
 leon renounces for himself and his heirs the Empire and 
 Kingdom of Italy and receives the Island of Elba. 
 
 6. The First Treaty of Paris (May 30, 1814) between Austria, 
 
 Russia, Prussia, Great Britain, and France, by which 
 Louis XVI II agrees that France shall be reduced to the 
 limits of 1792. Germany is to become a Confederacy 
 instead of an Empire. Holland and Belgium are to be 
 united under the House of Orange. Italy is to be di- 
 vided into independent states. 
 
 7. On the same day a treaty is signed by France and Sweden, 
 
 by which Norway, taken from Denmark, is recognized as 
 a Swedish possession. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XXII.— THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA. 
 
 i. The fall of Napoleon involves the necessity of restoring the 
 equilibrium of Europe, which he has destroyed. 
 
 2. For this purpose article 32 of the first Treaty of Paris' 
 
 (May 30, 1814) provides for a general European Congress 
 to be held at Vienna. 
 
 3. Between the last-named treaty and the Congress of Vienna 
 
 the following separate treaties of peace were signed : 
 
 (1) Between Austria and Bavaria, by which Bavaria 
 
 cedes to Austria the Tyrol, the Voralberg, and 
 Salzburg (June 3, 1814) ; 
 
 (2) Between France and Spain, that between Napoleon 
 
 and Ferdinand VI T, made December 11, 1813, not 
 having been ratified (July 20, 1814) ; 
 
 (3) Between Denmark and Prussia, in which Prussia 
 
 agrees to procure for Denmark compensation for 
 Norway, ceded to Sweden, Pomerania having been 
 yielded by Sweden to Prussia (August 25, 1814). 
 
 I. — Convocation of the Congress. 
 
 1. Called for August 1, the congress is postponed by an ar- 
 
 rangement made in London until October 1, and by a 
 declaration on October 8, further postponed till Novem- 
 ber 1, 1814. 
 
 2. The great powers (Russia, Austria, Prussia, and England) 
 
 hesitate to open the congress, intending to settle every- 
 thing themselves, and general sessions are never held. 
 
 3. The Emperor Francis acts as host. The Emperor of Russia, 
 
 the Kings of Prussia, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg, the 
 Prince of Orange, the Grand Dukes of Baden, Saxe- 
 Weimar, and Hesse-Cassel, and the Dukes of Brunswick, 
 Nassau, and Saxe-Coburg, with many members of their 
 families, are present in person. 
 
 v (101) 
 
102 LECTURE XXII. . 
 
 4. Fifty-eight separate governments are represented by about 
 
 two hundred persons, including among the plenipoten- 
 tiaries, for Russia, Counts Rasumovski, von Stackelberg, 
 and Nesselrode, aided by Stein, former Prussian minister, 
 Pozzo di Borgo, Count Capo d'Istria, etc. ; for Austria, 
 Prince Metternich, State Chancellor; for England, Lords 
 Castlereagh (Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs), Cath- 
 cart, Clancarty, and Stewart, aided by the Duke of Wel- 
 lington and others; for Prussia, Prince von Hardenberg, 
 State Chancellor, and William von Humboldt ; for France, 
 Prince Talleyrand, the Duke de Dalberg, the Marquis de 
 la Tour du Pin, and Count Alexis Noailles ; for Denmark, 
 Count Bernstorff; for Spain, Gomez de Labrador; for 
 Portugal, Palmela-Sousa Holstein, and others ; for Sweden, 
 Count de Laevenhelm. 
 
 5. Talleyrand is treated coolly at first, but makes France the 
 
 champion of the secondary states, and by defending 
 legitimacy and playing upon the fears and jealousies of 
 "the Four" becomes a force in the negotiations. 
 
 II. —The Work of the Congress. 
 
 1. The chief problems before the congress are (1) the redistri- 
 
 bution of territory with reference to legitimacy, security, 
 and indemnity, and (2) the reorganization of the German 
 states. 
 
 2. The principal discussions are by "the Four," to which 
 
 France is soon added, for general European questions 
 Spain, Portugal, and Sweden joining for certain purposes, 
 and the German states, especially Bavaria, Hanover, and 
 Wurtemberg, taking part in the German questions. 
 Metternich is elected president of the congress. 
 
 3. The following commissions are organized : (1) On verifica- 
 
 tion of powers; (2) on Switzerland; (3) on statistics; (4) 
 on abolition of the slave trade ; (5) on the free navigation 
 of rivers; (6) on rank of powers and diplomatic agents; 
 (7) on the pretensions of Marie-Louise ; (8) on the affairs 
 of Sardinia, etc. 
 
LECTURE XXII. 103 
 
 4. The territorial pretensions of Russia— Finland, Bessarabia, 
 
 the Persian border provinces, and the whole of Poland. 
 
 5. The claims of Prussia to the whole of Saxony. 
 
 6. The interests of Austria, England, and France in these de- 
 
 mands. 
 
 7. Talleyrand, Castlereagh, and Metternich sign a secret treaty 
 
 (January 3,1815), forming an alliance to resist the schemes 
 of Russia and Prussia, to which Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, 
 and Holland are invited to accede. 
 
 8. Napoleon escapes from Elba (March 1, 1815) and proceeds 
 
 at once toward Paris ; the Bourbons in flight and Napo- 
 leon again master of France ; the Hundred Days. 
 
 9. A declaration signed by all the powers at the congress 
 
 (March 13) puts Napoleon under the ban ; his arrival at 
 Paris known at Vienna March 24. A new treaty is 
 signed (March 25) by England, Austria, Russia, and 
 Prussia, by which each power agrees to place 150,000 
 men in the field and to continue the campaign until 
 Napoleon is destroyed. By convention of March 31, 
 signed by all the powers, 794,000 men are promised, and 
 England, by special agreement of April 30, furnishes an 
 annual subsidy of five million pounds sterling. 
 
 10. Austria and Russia sign a treaty of friendship, effecting a 
 
 final repartition of Poland, and the same day Prussia and 
 Russia sign another to the same effect (April 21, 1815). 
 The city of Cracow is by this treaty constituted a repub- 
 lic and its constitution fixed. 
 
 11. Prussia and Saxony sign a peace by which Saxony cedes to 
 
 Prussia a part of its territory occupied by 700,000 out of 
 2,000,000 inhabitants (May 18, 1815). 
 
 12. Austria and Sardinia sign a treaty by which this kingdom 
 
 receives, with some exceptions, the limits of 1792 and the 
 former Republic of Genoa, and in turn cedes to the Swiss 
 canton of Geneva the greater part of Savoy (May 20, 
 1815). 
 
104 LECTURE XXII. 
 
 13. Prussia and Denmark exchange certain territories, Lauen- 
 
 burg going to Denmark and Swedish Pomerania and the 
 island of Riigen going to Prussia (June 4, 1815). 
 
 14. While these arrangements are being made, Napoleon per- 
 
 ceives that all Europe is against him, and on June 15, 
 1815, at the head of 129,000 men, he takes the offensive. 
 On the 16th he defeats Blucher at Ligny. On the 18th 
 the battle of Waterloo is fought. On the 22d he abdi- 
 cates in favor of his son. On July lo he surrenders to 
 the British on board the Bellerophon. 
 
 III. — Results of the Congress. 
 
 1. Formation of the Germanic Confederation (June 8, 1815) : 
 
 (1) Thirty-eight members, including Austria, Prussia, 
 Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Saxony, Hanover (raised to a king- 
 dom) the Grand Duchy of Baden, etc. ; (2) all the princes 
 have the right to send ambassadors, make alliances, etc> 
 but engage not to take steps against the common interest ; 
 
 (3) a Bundestag,or Diet, is to assemble at Frankfort-on-the- 
 Main, composed of the representatives of the members of 
 the Confederation, under the presidency of Austria; 
 
 (4) an army of 300,000 men is to be maintained, divided 
 into ten army corps. 
 
 2. The Final Act of the Congress of Vienna (June 9, 1815) is 
 
 signed by the eight powers, England, Austria, Spain, 
 France, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, and Sweden, and 
 makes the following provisions : (1) England has Malta, 
 Heligoland, and the protectorate of the Ionian islands ; 
 
 (2) Austria recovers northern Italy, Lombardy, Modena, 
 Tuscany, Venice, Illyria, Dalmatia, Tyrol, and the Voral- 
 berg ; (3) Russia receives eastern Galicia and the Grand 
 Duchy of Warsaw; (4) Prussia secures the Duchy of 
 Posen, Swedish Pomerania, the island of Riigen, the 
 northern portion of Saxony, and a vast territory on the 
 left bank of the Rhine; (5) Sweden has Norway, taken 
 away from Denmark ; (6) Denmark receives the Duchy 
 of Lauenburg and enters the Germanic Confederation ; 
 (7) Bavaria receives the Palatinate on the Rhine and 
 Wtirtzburg ; (8) Luxemburg becomes a grand duchy and 
 
LECTURE XXII. 105 
 
 is made a part of Holland and the Confederation ; (9) 
 Holland becomes a kingdom, composed of Holland and 
 Belgium ; (10) Switzerland is increased by three cantons 
 and neutralized; (11) Sardinia is recognized as a king- 
 dom, with Savoy and Genoa added; (12) the Duchy of 
 Parma is assigned to the Empress Marie-Louise during 
 her life; (13) the States of the Church are reconstituted 
 within their ancient limits ; (14) the kingdom of the Two 
 Sicilies is reconstituted by the reunion of Naples and 
 Sicily and restored to the Bourbon family; (15) Spain is 
 restored to Ferdinand VII; (1G) Portugal is restored to 
 the House of Braganza. 
 
 3. The slave trade is to be abolished by France after five years 
 
 and by Spain after seven. 
 
 4. Nine articles are inserted in the Final Act regulating the 
 
 navigation of rivers, which is henceforth practically free. 
 
 5. The labors of the congress are terminated with the signing 
 
 of the Final Act (June 9, 1815), but we must seek its com- 
 pletion in the second Treaty of Paris (November 20, 1815). 
 by which peace was finally concluded between the allies 
 and France in four separate, but identical, instruments, 
 which provide (1) that the limits of France shall be those 
 of 1790, with a few slight exceptions; (2) that France 
 shall pay an indemnity of 700,000,000 francs ; (3) that 
 she shall maintain an army of 150,000 men to guard her 
 frontiers at Conde, Valenciennes, Bonchain, Cambrai, 
 etc. , for five years ; (4) that the first Treaty of Paris 
 (May 30, 1814) and the Final Act of the Congress of 
 Vienna be confirmed. 
 
 6. Preponderance of Russia on land and of England on the 
 
 ocean. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XXIII.— THE HOLY ALLIANCE. 
 
 1. The opposition to Napoleon had necessitated a combination 
 
 of the great powers, England, Austria, Russia, and Prus- 
 sia, who collectively assumed the control and leadership 
 of European affairs. 
 
 2. Once accomplished, the safety of Europe seemed to require 
 
 a continued guardianship by these powers, who feel 
 called upon to maintain the existing order of things. 
 
 3. Henceforth European questions are to be regulated by the 
 
 supervision of the great powers under the guise of the 
 " Concert of Europe." 
 
 I. Origin and Purposes of the Holy Alliance. 
 
 1. Having destroyed "l'Ange noir," as Madame de Kriidener 
 
 called Napoleon, Europe ought now, she thought, to bow 
 before "l'Ange blanc," as she named Alexander-" the 
 universal saviour." 
 
 2. Alexander meets this remarkable woman, and is filled with 
 
 her mysticism and enthusiasm, in Switzerland, just be- 
 fore the Hundred Days. In Paris, after the final fall of 
 Napoleon, he visits her several times daily, "praying 
 together and invoking the guidance of the Spirit." 
 
 3 The Treaty of the Holy Alliance, signed by the Emperors 
 of Russia and Austria and the King of Prussia (Septem- 
 ber 26, 1815), is a solemn compact based on the Holy 
 Scriptures, (1) affirming the brotherhood of all men, (2) 
 the three monarchs regarding themselves as " the dele- 
 gates of Providence'' to govern three Christian nations 
 under the guidance of Jesus Christ, and (3) inviting all 
 powers accepting the same principles to join in this Holy 
 Alliance. 
 
 w 
 
 (107) 
 
108 LECTURE XXIII. 
 
 4. Lord Castlereagh and the Duke of Wellington refuse to sign, 
 
 the latter saying, " The thought of Your Majesty would 
 not be understood by our Parliament.". Louis XVIII 
 signs without hesitation, and the greater part of the 
 Christian powers accede to this treaty. 
 
 5. Europe, when the alliance becomes known, in February, 
 
 1816, discovers in it the organization of a syndicate of 
 monarchs for the repression of liberal ideas and repre- 
 sentative government — a union of the princes against the 
 people. 
 
 6. Article 6 of the Treaty of Chaumont had already provided 
 
 for certain "reunions" of the powers, in pursuance of 
 which the Congresses of Aix-la-Chapelle, Troppau, Lay- 
 bach, and Verona were subsequently held. 
 
 7. Real intention of the alliance. 
 
 II. — The System of Metternich. 
 
 1. Alexander not an opponent of liberalism for western Europe, 
 
 but Metternich a stalwart advocate of conservatism and 
 enemy of the French Revolution and all its doctrines. 
 
 2. Intervention of the powers to sustain the status quo produced 
 
 by the Congress of Vienna is Metternich's sovereign rem- 
 edy for Europe. 
 
 3. The principles of nationality and the sovereignty of peoples 
 
 had been repressed by the congress, and here lay the 
 danger for Austria, a composite state ruled by absolutism. 
 
 4. The question of the evacuation of France by the allies leads 
 
 to the Congress of. Aix-la-Chapelle, in which Austria, 
 England, Prussia, Russia, and France participate, Spain 
 being excluded because of her colonial revolutions, the 
 opposition of England, and the prudence of Metternich 
 and Alexander. The Treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle (No- 
 vember 15, 1818) lay down the principle that the powers 
 will act in concert in special reunions upon the means 
 the most proper to employ to prevent the sad effects of a 
 new revolutionary bouleversement by which France may 
 be menaced, and revive the Treaty of Chaumont as to 
 
LECTURE XXIII. 109 
 
 the means of execution. Their purpose is to constitute 
 the pentarchy into a counter-revolutionary league by 
 recognizing the principle of intervention as a right be- 
 longing to the powers. 
 
 5. The Articles of Confederation of Germany, article 13, pro- 
 
 vided : " In all countries of the Confederation there shall 
 be a constitution with representation." The Grand 
 Duke of Saxe-Weimar had granted one in 1816 to his 
 state. The King of Bavaria followed in 1818, and other 
 states were promised constitutions. The King of Prussia 
 wavered, Hardenberg being won over by Metternich at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle; assassination of Kotzebue. 
 
 6. The German Congress at Carlsbad convenes August 6, 1819; 
 
 the Carlsbad Decrees : ( 1) Freedom of press restricted ; 
 (2) commission to investigate intrigues; (3) suppression 
 of the Burschenschaft ; (4) the universities under inspect- 
 ors; (5) all German governments must submit to the 
 conclusions of the Diet. 
 
 7. Decrees confirmed by the Diet; persecution of professors ; 
 
 execution of Sands (May 20, 1820) ; triumph of Metter- 
 nich in Germany. 
 
 8. The popular demands for the restoration of the constitution 
 
 of 1812 in Spain and in Naples becoming irresistible 
 without outside repression, the Congress of Troppau is 
 called (October 20, 1820) to consider the duty of the 
 allies. Metternich endeavors to extend to Europe the 
 principles he has imposed on Germany. He lays down 
 the doctrine that "a government may control political 
 changes in another state when they menace its security." 
 
 Ill- — The Execution of Mktteknich's System. 
 
 1. Metternich's doctrine of intervention is opposed by France 
 
 and England, themselves constitutional states with pop- 
 ular representation, and fearing Austria's further pre- 
 ponderance in Italy. 
 
 2. Alexander proposes that Ferdinand IV be sustained against 
 
 revolution and afterward accord a constitution to Naples. 
 Austria will not have a constitutional state in Italy. . 
 
110 LECTURE XXIII. 
 
 3. Revolutions breaking out in Piedmont and Portugal, Met- 
 
 ternich wins over Alexander, and, without the knowledge 
 of England and France, Austria, Russia, and Prussia pre- 
 pare a protocol (November 19, 1820) and issue ;a circular 
 (December 8), informing Europe that states modified by 
 revolution will be considered out of the alliance, and that 
 friendly measures, then force, will be employed to sup- 
 press revolt. 
 
 4. This principle is applied to Naples, and Ferdinand IV is in- 
 
 vited to Laybach, whither the congress adjourns from 
 Troppau. Arrived at Laybach, after having sworn at 
 Naples to defend the constitution, Ferdinand writes a 
 letter to his parliament, demanding submission to his 
 authority. An Austrian army enters Naples to enforce 
 this demand (March 24, 1821) against the protests of 
 England and France. 
 
 5. In France the ultra-royalists obtain control, while in Eng- 
 
 land Castlereagh, though protesting, makes no opposi- 
 tion. The three absolute monarchies, therefore, domi- 
 nate. 
 
 6. The Congress of Verona opens in October, 1822, to examine 
 
 the affairs of Italy. France now wishes to oppose revo- 
 lution in Spain as dangerous for herself, but alone. The 
 four governments — Austria, Russia, Prussia, and France — 
 now demand the immediate restoration of the king. 
 Wellington alone opposes. A circular note ordering their 
 ambassadors to quit Spain if the demand is not accorded 
 is sent by the four powers on December 13, and the Con- 
 gress of Verona is closed December 14. This circular is 
 the last manifesto of the Holy Alliance. 
 
 f 7. Louis XVIII and his Prime Minister, Villele, do not desire 
 a war, but Montmorency, his Minister of Foreign Affairs, 
 pressed by Alexander and aided by Chataubriand, pushes 
 on the war, aided by the clerical party. The circular 
 notes arrive at Madrid January 5, 1823, and on the 9th 
 San Miguel replies that Spain will maintain her constitu- 
 tion. The Cortes sustain the decision and the ambassadors 
 withdraw. 
 
LECTURE XXIII. Ill 
 
 8. A French army invades Spain (April 7 to October 1, 1823), 
 
 a war ensues between French and royalists against the 
 liberals, and on November 13 Ferdinand VII enters 
 Madrid in triumph. " The years of Colomarde " and the 
 " Destroying Angel." 
 
 9. George Canning, who succeeded Lord Castlereagh as Min- 
 
 ister for Foreign Affairs of England in 1822, having sug- 
 gested in 1823 that the United States of America should 
 take ground against the intervention of the Holy Alliance 
 to prevent the revolutions then going on against Spain in 
 South America, President James Monroe embodied in a 
 message to Congress (December 2, 1823) a formulation of 
 opinion long entertained in the United States, as follows : 
 " We should consider any attempt on their part to ex- 
 tend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as 
 dangerous to our peace and safety." This is the essence 
 of the "Monroe Doctrine." 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY, 
 
 Lecture XXIV.— THE INDEPENDENCE OF GREECE. 
 
 1. At the Congress of Vienna, Greeks and Servians sought the 
 
 protection of Europe against the severities of the Otto- 
 man Turks, but were denied a hearing as being " outside 
 the pale of civilization." 
 
 2. Three influences had combined to arouse the revolutionary 
 
 spirit of the Greeks throughout the Ottoman Empire: 
 (1) the contact with French ideas in the Ionian islands, 
 and through the soldiers and scholars who diffused French 
 doctrines ; (2) the intellectual movement and restoration 
 of the Greek language by Koraes and others, and (3) the 
 growth of Greek commerce in the Mediterranean. 
 
 3. By the Treaty of Kainardji (1774) Russia had obtained the 
 
 right to protect the Greek Christians, and the Greeks be- 
 lieved that Russia would aid them in throwing off the 
 Turkish yoke. 
 
 I. — The Revolutionary Movement in Greece. 
 
 1. The Greeks, obtaining no aid from the Congress of Vienna, 
 
 organize the Hetaerla Philike (1814) at Odessa, whose ob- 
 ject is the expulsion of the Turk from Europe and the re- 
 establishment of a Greek empire. 
 
 2. Capo d'Istria is urged to become the head of the secret so- 
 
 ciety, but declines to compromise the Czar, who is, never- 
 theless, believed by the Greeks to be its secret head. 
 
 3. In 1820 nearly every Greek belongs to this fraternity, which 
 
 plots an insurrection. 
 
 4. In March, 1821, Constantine Ypsilanti, a Greek colonel in 
 
 the Russian army, begins a fruitless revolt at Jassy, in 
 Roumania. Alexander I disavows the movement and 
 rebukes Ypsilanti, who takes refuge in Austria. 
 
 x (113) 
 
114 LECTURE XXIV. 
 
 5. April 2, 1821, the Morea rises in revolt. 
 
 6. Execution of the Patriarch at Constantinople (April 22, 1821), 
 
 recovery of his body, and general religious excitement in 
 Russia. 
 
 7. Alexander, under the influence of Metternich, assents to the 
 
 declaration against the Greek rebellion at Laybach, but 
 realizes the feeling in St. Petersburg on his return. 
 
 8. Strogonoff, Russian ambassador, leaves Constantinople July 
 
 27, 1821. 
 
 II. — The Policy of Canning. 
 
 1. The cruelty of the Turks and the sturdy patriotism of the 
 
 Greeks at last (1822) stir the hearts of Europe, but do 
 not move the governments to action. 
 
 2. Capo d'Istria, perceiving that Alexander will not act deci- 
 
 sively, resigns his office as minister of foreign affiairs and 
 leaves St. Petersburg for Geneva (August, 1822). 
 
 3. Canning, coming to the foreign office at this time (1822) 
 
 protests against the intervention of the Holy Alliance in 
 Spain and advocates the independence of nations. 
 
 4. The Greeks continuing their revolt in several islands and 
 
 the Morea, Canning recognizes their belligerency (Feb- 
 ruary, 1823), and a great wave of Philhellenism sweeps 
 over England. Influence of Lord Byron. 
 
 5. Alexander proposes to regulate the affairs of the Balkan 
 
 peninsula by a new congress at St. Petersburg, called in 
 October, 1823, but it does not begin its sessions until Feb- 
 ruary, ,1825, and no sovereigns are present except the Czar 
 himself. England takes no part, and the congress ends 
 with a protocol requesting the Sultan to accord satisfac- 
 tion to his subjects, and proposing mediation in case of 
 refusal (April 7, 1825). 
 
 6. Alexander finally concludes to regulate the Eastern Ques- 
 
 tion in conjunction with Canning, but dies before acting 
 (December 5, 1825). Military insurrection in Russia. 
 
LECTURE XXIV. 115 
 
 7. Nicholas I, his successor, a soldier without mysticism, who 
 
 regards the interests of Russia as supreme, has no faith 
 in the Holy Alliance and resolves to act independently 
 of Metternich. 
 
 8. Nicholas decides not to leave the protection of the Greeks 
 
 to the English, hut to cooperate with them against Turkey 
 in Russia's interest. 
 
 9. Wellington is sent by Canning to St. Petersburg to arrange 
 
 with Nicholas for enforced mediation (April 4, 1826). 
 
 10. The fall of Missolonghi (April 12, 1826), after a siege of a 
 year's duration, and the atrocities of the Egyptian troops 
 determine Russia to sustain with force the proposition of 
 England. The system of Metternich is now turned against 
 absolutism. 
 
 III. — The Diplomacy of Intervention. 
 
 1. The protocol of April 4, 1826, proposes that Greece remain 
 
 tributary to Turkey, but requires the withdrawal of the 
 Turkish soldiers and population from Greece, which is to 
 be allowed to elect its own authorities. 
 
 2. This protocol, secretly signed, is submitted to the other 
 
 courts of Europe. Austria receives it with disgust and 
 conspires against Canning. Prussia declines to join Russia 
 and England. France, notwithstanding the absolutism 
 of Charles X, who had succeeded Louis XVIII in 1824, 
 joins with Russia and England. 
 
 3. By the Treaty of London (July 6, 1827) the protocol of St. 
 
 Petersburg is adopted by Russia, England, and France : 
 (1) the three powers offer mediation and demand an armis- 
 tice; (2) Greece will remain under the suzerainty of the 
 Porte, paying an annual tribute ; (3) the Greek people 
 will choose their own administration ; (4) the Greeks will 
 take possession of all Turkish property, paying an in- 
 demnity ; (5) the limits will be fixed by special negotia- 
 tions, and neither side is to seek an increase of territory. 
 By the secret articles the Powers will take measures to 
 suspend hostilities if this mediation is not accepted. 
 
116 LECTURE XXIV. 
 
 4. The Greeks accept the armistice. The Turks promise to 
 
 observe it, but fail to do so. The allied powers send their 
 fleets to Navarino to intimidate the Turks. 
 
 5. Canning's motive in this diplomacy is to prevent a war be- 
 
 tween Russia and Turkey, which might result in an ex- 
 tension of Russian power in the East. His death (Au- 
 gust 8, 1827). Greatness of his policy. 
 
 6. Wellington succeeds Canning as minister of foreign affairs 
 
 and hesitates to execute the Treaty of London. 
 
 7. Refusal of the Turks to accept the armistice, intervention of 
 
 the admirals of England and France (September, 1827), 
 and battle of Navarino (October 20), in which the allied 
 fleets destroy that of Ibrahim Pasha. 
 
 8. The ambassadors of the three powers leave Constantinople 
 
 (December 8, 1827). Weakness of Wellington in not pur- 
 suing Canning's policy. 
 
 IV. — The Establishment of Greek Independence. 
 
 1. Expulsion of Christians from Constantinople and declara- 
 
 tion of war by Russia (April 26, 1828), which agrees to 
 confine its operations to the Black Sea and to act under 
 the Treaty of London in Greece. Delicacy of the cam- 
 paign of 1828 on account of Austria and England. 
 
 2. The second Treaty of London (July 19, 1828) charges France 
 
 with the duty of expelling Ibrahim from the Morea. On 
 August 29 14,000 French troops take possession, and on 
 September 7 a convention is signed by the Russian, En- 
 glish, and French admirals with Ibrahim's representative 
 arranging the evacuation of the Morea. Greece is saved. 
 
 3. The Russian invasion of Turkey is terminated by the Treaty 
 
 ofAdrianople (September 14, 1829) : (1) The Hospodars 
 of Wallachia and Moldavia become rulers for life instead 
 of for seven years, under the suzerainty of the Porte, but 
 with the protection of Russia; (2) no Mussulman is to 
 reside in these provinces ; (3) no fortified post is to be 
 maintained by Turkey on the left bank of the Danube ; 
 
LECTURE XXIV. 117 
 
 (4) the navigation of the Black Sea and the Dardanelles 
 is declared free to all powers at peace with the Porte ; 
 
 (5) an indemnity in money is promised to Russia, to be 
 fixed by subsequent agreement, which gives Russia a 
 pretext for interference at any time. 
 
 4. In April, 1827, Capo d'Istria had accepted a call to be Pres- 
 
 ident of Greece for seven years. His visit to the courts 
 of Europe. Russia demands personal rather than pop- 
 ular government, and that Greece remain tributary to the 
 Sultan. Capo d'Istria desires independence, but believes 
 in strong government. 
 
 5. The powers desire a Greek monarchy. Leopold of Saxe- 
 
 Coburg, widower of Charlotte, daughter of George IV, 
 accepts the Greek crown (February 11, 1830). Capo 
 d'Istria dissuades him. Leopold renounces the crown 
 (May, 1830). Despotism of Capo d'Istria. His assassi- 
 nation (October 9, 1831). 
 
 6. The Treaty of Constantinople (July 21, 1832) fixes the fron- 
 
 tier of Greece, the indemnity to be paid for certain dis- 
 tricts, and makes peace with Turkey. It is signed by 
 England, France, Russia, and Turkey. 
 
 7. On August 30, J 832, the Powers issue a proclamation to the 
 
 Greek people announcing their independence and pre- 
 senting as their King Prince Otho of Bavaria, who is sent 
 to reign over the new Kingdom of Greece at Athens, on 
 February 1, 1833. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY, 
 
 Lecture XXV.-THE DISSOLUTION OF METTERNICH'S 
 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 1. The reconciliation of France with the Allies of 1815 was 
 
 effected by Louis XVIII' s intervention to suppress the 
 Spanish revolution in 1821. France had become the ally 
 of Russia and was no longer considered a seat of revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 2. Charles X, the embodiment of reaction and clericalism, had 
 
 called to office Polignac as his chief Minister (August 9, 
 1829), after the fall of Martignac, an advocate of moderate 
 reform. 
 
 3. In the beginning of 1830 Europe seemed resigned to abso- 
 
 lute rule, and France condemned to the reactionary policy 
 of the Bourbon monarchy. 
 
 I—The Schemes of Polignac and the Revolution of 1830. 
 
 1. Representing the principles of reaction and absolutism, 
 
 Polignac advised Charles X to a close alliance with 
 Nicholas I as the strongest aid to his general policy. 
 
 2. He proposed (September, 1829) a plan for the remodelling 
 
 of Europe : (1) Expulsion of the Turks from Europe ; (2) 
 Russia to take Moldavia and Wallachia; (3) Austria to 
 annex Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Turkish Dal- 
 matia; (1) the rest of the peninsula, Greece, and the 
 islands to be formed into a new state under the King of 
 the Netherlands ; (5) the Kingdom of the Netherlands 
 would cease to exist ; Holland to go to Prussia along with 
 Saxony, and Belgium and Luxemburg to be annexed to 
 France ; (6) Rhenish Prussia to be given to the King of 
 Saxony ; (7) Bavaria to be expanded westward to include 
 the Rhenish Palatinate ; (8) England to receive the Dutch 
 colonies ; (9) J:he Barbary States of Africa to become in- 
 dependent. 
 y (119) 
 
120 LECTURE XXV. 
 
 3. During the winter 1829-1830, Polignac conducted secret 
 
 negotiations to realize these plans. 
 
 4. Alleging as an excuse the insult offered to the French con- 
 
 sul, Deval, in 1827, by the Dey of Algiers, the conquest of 
 Algiers was undertaken (May, 1830), notwithstanding the 
 opposition of England. 
 
 5. Prorogation of the French Chambers and request of the 
 
 Lower House that the King dismiss his ministers (March, 
 1830). Adverse elections (June) and Polignac' s recom- 
 mendation to suspend the Constitution. Promulgation 
 of the Ordinances (July 26) and beginning of the revolu- 
 tion (July 27). 
 
 6. Louis Philippe made " King of the French" (August 7). 
 
 7. The hand of Talleyrand. 
 
 8. New friendship of France and England. 
 
 II. — The Revolution in Belgium. 
 
 1. The revolution, spreading from France, soon becomes serious 
 
 in Belgium, which revolts against union with Holland by 
 insurrection at Brussels (August 25, 1830). 
 
 2. The Belgians institute a provisional government and call a 
 
 national assembly (October 4). 
 
 3. The danger is greater, as the clubs and journals of Paris pro- 
 
 claim the rights of independence. 
 
 4. The King of the Netherlands, having failed to subdue the 
 
 Belgians by force, appeals to the four great powers which 
 in 1814 assured him possession of the country. Russia 
 cannot offer immediate aid. Austria is absorbed in Italy. 
 Prussia responds, but Mole, French Minister of Foreign 
 Affairs, threatens to send troops if Prussia invades Bel- 
 gium, and maintains the principle of non-intervention. 
 
 5. Talleyrand, ambassador at London, declares that France 
 
 will submit to the regulation of Belgian affairs by the five 
 great powers, and a conference of the resident ambassa- 
 
LECTURE XXV. 121 
 
 dors of the five powers is called at London (October, 1830), 
 and in a protocol of November 4 an armistice is proposed! 
 The legitimacy of the insurrection is thus recognized. 
 
 6. A Whig ministry, headed by Lord Grey, succeeds that of 
 
 Wellington (November 20), with Lord Palmerston as 
 Minister for Foreign Affairs in place of Lord Aberdeen. 
 William IV had become King in place of George IV (June 
 26, 1830). 
 
 7. A national congress meets in Brussels on November 10 and 
 
 solemnly proclaims the independence of Belgium on No- 
 vember 18. On the 22d it formally excludes the house of 
 Orange-Nassau from the throne. 
 
 8. Metternich reconstitutes the triple alliance — Austria, Prus- 
 
 sia, and Russia — which issues a circular affirming the 
 right to police Europe and by force of arms to destroy 
 the common enemy, the revolution (December, 1830). 
 Troops are mobilized. 
 
 III. — The Revolution in Poland. 
 
 1. The concentration of intervention upon Belgium,- which 
 
 France is pledged to prevent, is averted by the revolution 
 in Poland. Insurrection breaks out in Warsaw, and Con- 
 stantine, brother of Nicholas I, is compelled to flight 
 (November, 1830). 
 
 2. General Chlopicki is declared dictator (December 5), and 
 
 the Russian troops are driven out. The attempt to renew 
 the Holy Alliance is paralyzed. 
 
 3. The conference at London recognizes the independence of 
 
 Belgium (December 20) and imposes an armistice on the 
 King of the Netherlands (January 9, 1831). 
 
 4. Louis Philippe sends the Duke de Mortemart to St. Peters- 
 
 burg as ambassador to assure the Czar that the Poles will 
 receive no aid from France (January, 1831). 
 
 5. The Treaty of London, known as " The Eighteen Articles," 
 
 is signed by Austria, England, France, Prussia, and Rus- 
 sia (January 26, 1831), providing (1) that Holland shall 
 
122 LECTURE XXV. 
 
 be reduced to the limits of 1790, and Belgium shall com- 
 prehend the rest of the Kingdom of the Netherlands ; 
 (2) the rivers shall be open for free navigation in both 
 states ; (3) Belgium shall form an independent state, to 
 be perpetually neutralized. 
 
 6. By a protocol of January 27 the debt of the Netherlands is 
 
 to be divided into 31 parts, of which Belgium is to pay 16- 
 
 7. The Belgian Congress elects the Duke of Nemours, son of 
 
 Louis Philippe, as king by a majority of one (Februaiy 
 3, 1831), but Louis Philippe, affected by Palmerston's 
 attitude, feels compelled to refuse the crown for his son 
 (February 7). 
 
 8. The congress elects Leopold of Saxe-Coburg king (June 4), 
 
 who accepts the crown and enters Brussels July 21. 
 
 9. The Dutch troops, 70,000 strong, inarch to oppose Leopold 
 
 (August 2), who appeals to France and England, and is 
 saved by the French army and the English fleet. 
 
 10. Poland, abandoned by France and England, is invaded and 
 overwhelmed by Russia (January-June, 1831). 
 
 IV. — The Revolution Becomes European. 
 
 1. In England the revolution of July in Paris had been greeted 
 
 with joy by the people, and there were riots in London. 
 Lord Grey's policy of parliamentary reform becomes tri- 
 umphant ; the Reform Bill (1832). 
 
 2. In Italy Carbonarism is revived, and revolution breaks out 
 
 in Modena, Parma, and the States of the Church, but 
 Naples and Piedmont are too completely under the yoke 
 to rise. Mazzini organizes " Young Italy " and " Young 
 Europe." Austria crushes the insurrections by force. 
 
 3. In Switzerland the democracy rises against the ancient oli- 
 
 garchical rule, and important constitutional gains are 
 made by the people. 
 
 4. In Germany the Tugendbund and Burschenschaft are revived, 
 
 and constitutional changes are demanded and in part 
 secured in Brunswick, Hesse, Saxony, and Hanover. 
 
LECTURE XXV. 123 
 
 5. By the Treaty of London, called "The Twenty-four Arti- 
 
 cles" (November 15, 1831), the five powers make a new 
 territorial arrangement for Belgium, by which Holland 
 is required to cede a part of Luxemburg to Belgium, re- 
 taining the remainder and receiving as indemnity a part 
 of Limburg. The King of the Netherlands protests 
 against this, but the powers insist. 
 
 6. Leopold I of Belgium marries the Princess Louise, daughter 
 
 of Louis Philippe (1832). 
 
 7. The Hamburg Festival (May 27, 1832) ; demand for a con- 
 
 federation of republican Europe; revival of absolutism 
 by the Diet at Frankfort and repression of the " dema- 
 gogues." 
 
 8. The Treaty of London (May 21, 1833) concludes the peace 
 
 between France, England, and Holland after an invasion 
 of Belgium to expel the Dutch king : (1) The King of Hol- 
 land engages not to commence hostilities against Belgium ; 
 (2) the Escaut and the Meuse will be open to navigation ; 
 and (3) the contracting parties agree to conclude a defini- 
 tive treaty fixing the relations between Belgium and 
 Holland. King William does not fully accept the re- 
 quirements of the Powers regarding Belgium until 1838. 
 
 9. The recognition of Louis Philippe a repudiation of the prin- 
 
 ciple of "legitimacy." 
 
 10. By the separation of France and England from the absolute 
 powers the system of Metternich is practically dissolved. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XXVI.— THE RIVALRY OF RUSSIA AND 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 1. The revolution of 1830 in France and the triumph of the 
 
 Whigs in England divided Europe into two parts— the 
 East, remaining absolutist, and the West, now become 
 liberal. 
 
 2. Russia, Austria, and Prussia, still unchanged, continue to 
 
 act together on the lines of 1814, Nicholas I representing 
 the predominating influence. 
 
 3. England and France, under parliamentary government, are 
 
 now united in friendship, and Lord Palmerston becomes 
 the personal force of the liberal interests in diplomacy. 
 
 I. — Intervention in Spain and Portugal. 
 
 1 . Ambiguous position of Louis Philippe, " the king of the bar- 
 
 ricades "—at home opposed by legitimists and republicans 
 and abroad regarded as a parvenu. 
 
 2. Ferdinand VII of Spain, having no male heir, resolves to 
 
 promulgate the succession of his daughter Isabella, a child 
 of his fourth wife, Christina, thus excluding his brother, 
 Don Carlos, from the throne (1831). 
 
 3. In June, 1833, the Cortes swear to recognize Isabella, whose 
 
 mother, Christina, becomes regent upon Ferdinand's 
 death (September 29, 1833), and Carlos makes war upon 
 her. 
 
 4. The Queen Regent adopts liberal principles. Don Carlos 
 
 being supported by the clerical and absolutist parties, 
 Christina invokes the aid of England and France, who 
 recognize her, while the absolutist states sustain the claims 
 • of Don Carlos. 
 z * (125) 
 
126 LECTURE XXVI. 
 
 5. In Portugal the same situation arises, Queen Maria repre- 
 
 senting constitutionalism, Don Miguel absolutism. 
 
 6. Palmerston advises the governments of the two queens to 
 
 unite in an alliance with England and with each other, 
 and Talleyrand joins France to this combination, thus 
 forming the Quadruple Alliance (April 22, 1834), to offset 
 the absolutist league of Russia, Austria, and Prussia. 
 
 7. The two pretenders are driven out of Portugal by an English 
 
 fleet and a Spanish army without the active military aid 
 of France, which England did not desire. The absolutist 
 league lends no active support to the pretenders. 
 
 8. The Carlist war is renewed and continued (1834-1839). 
 
 II. — The Pretensions op Mehemet-Ali. 
 
 1. Mehemet-Ali, Pasha of Egypt, who had aided the Sultan 
 
 Mahmoud against the Greeks, claimed the government 
 of Syria, promised to him for his assistance, and after 
 waiting three years, decided to take possession (1831). 
 
 2. The action of Mehemet-Ali developed (1) the support of 
 
 • France, which regarded him as a friend and regenerator 
 of the Ottoman Empire; (2) the opposition of Russia, 
 which considered itself the protector of the Empire and 
 furnished the Sultan 15,000 troops, and (3) the interfer- 
 ence of England, for Palmerston believed in maintaining 
 the integrity of the Empire and feared the intrusion of 
 Russia. 
 
 3. The united efforts of England and France result in the retreat 
 
 of the Russian fleet and the establishment of Mehemet- 
 Ali in Syria as governor under the Sultan. 
 
 4. Russia, however, receives as its reward the Treaty of Unkiar- 
 
 Skelessi (July 8, 1833), which establishes a Russian pro- 
 tectorate and closes the Dardanelles to all foreign ships 
 when Russia is at war. The protest of the Western Powers 
 follows. 
 
LECTURE XXVI. 127 
 
 The Eastern Powers — Russia, Austria, and Prussia — dis- 
 turbed by the interventions of England and France and 
 by the agitations of revolutionists, arrange an interview 
 of the monarchs at Munchengraetz (September, 1833), 
 which results in the secret Treaty of Berlin (October 15, 
 1833), by which they revive the doctrine of intervention 
 of 1820. 
 
 III. — The Alienation of England and France. 
 
 1. Louis Philippe, becoming more pronounced in his mo- 
 
 narchical ambition, wishes to draw closer to the absolute 
 sovereigns and to relieve himself of control by English 
 liberalism. 
 
 2. Louis makes overtures to Prussia and Austria by sending 
 
 his son, the Duke of Orleans, to seek a wife in these 
 courts. Cold reception in Austria. The Duke, repelled 
 higher up, takes as a wife Helen of Mecklenburg (May 
 30, 1837). 
 
 3. England is aware of the estrangement of Louis Philippe, 
 
 but Palmerston, restored to the foreign office after the 
 vain efforts of Wellington and Pitt to form a Tory Min- 
 istry (December, 1834-April, 1835), endeavors to show 
 France the need of England's friendship by obstructing 
 its plans, particularly in Spain. 
 
 4. Louis Bonaparte, expelled from Switzerland, is allowed to 
 
 take up his residence in London (1838). 
 
 5. Lord Ponsonby induces the Sultan to demand that Louis 
 
 Philippe recognize the Ottoman suzerainty over Algiers 
 (August, 1838). 
 
 6. Sir Henry Bulwer induces the Sultan to conclude a favor- 
 
 able treaty of commerce with England and prepares to 
 occupy Aden and secure advantages for possessing the 
 isthmus of Suez (1838). 
 
 7. The conference on the affairs of Belgium reopens in London 
 
 (1838), and Louis Philippe is compelled to ratify the final 
 
128 LECTURE XXVI. 
 
 arrangements, which he opposes, including the erection 
 of Luxemburg as an independent state for the safety of 
 Prussia (April, 1839). 
 
 8. The foreign policy of Louis Philippe becomes unpopular in 
 
 France and riots break out in Paris (May 12, 1839). 
 
 9. The reopening of the Eastern question concludes the es- 
 
 trangement. 
 
 IV. — The Crisis in the Orient. 
 
 1. Mahmoud, never reconciled to his concessions to Mehemet- 
 
 Ali in Syria, resolves to dispossess him, and the Sultan 
 moves his army into Syria against him (April-June, 1839). 
 
 2. Eussia regards itself as sole protector of the Sultan and is 
 
 about to assert its rights as such. England proposes joint 
 action with France in sending their fleets through the 
 Dardanelles. Austria desires a conference to substitute 
 the collective guarantee of Europe for the exclusive 
 Russian protectorate (May, 1839). France, friendly to 
 Mehemet-Ali, hesitates to oppose him. Nicholas I wishes 
 to recognize no authority over Turkey but his own. 
 
 3. Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mehemet-Ali, attacks and defeats 
 
 the Turkish army in Syria (June 24) ; Mahmond dies at 
 Constantinople (June 30) ; Achmet, hostile to the Grand 
 Vizier, Chrosrew, mutinies with the entire Turkish fleet 
 (July 4). 
 
 4. A joint note prepared by Metternich is sent to the Turkish 
 
 government, signed by the ambassadors of the five Powers, 
 requesting the Sublime Porte to abstain from final action 
 without their concurrence (July 27, 1839). This act places 
 Turkey under the collective tutelage of Europe. 
 
 5. England proposes to strip Mehemet-Ali of his conquests. 
 
 France resists this proposition and claims for him hered- 
 itary possession of all his territories (August-September;. 
 
 6. Russia, desiring to isolate France, now worshipping the re- 
 
 mains of Napoleon, proposes to support the position of 
 England and to renounce the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi. 
 
LECTURE XXVI. >29 
 
 7. The diplomatic duel of Palmerston and Thiers. 
 
 8. By a treaty signed by England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia 
 
 with the new Sultan, Abdul-Medjid (July 15, 1840), with- 
 out the participation of France, the four Powers agree to 
 enforce a plan by which Mehemet-Ali may accept within 
 ten days the hereditary sovereignty of Egypt, with a life 
 title as Pasha of Acre, and the administration of south- 
 ern Syria, paying tribute to the Sultan and restoring his 
 fleet. The Pasha refuses, Lord Napier bombards and 
 almost destroys his forts, and France is wild with excite- 
 ment. 
 
 9. Thiers is superseded as foreign minister by Guizot (October 
 
 20, 1840). 
 
 10. Mehemet-Ali having finally accepted the hereditary posses- 
 
 sion of Egypt without Syria, the crisis ends with the 
 Treaty Of London, called " The Convention of the Straits " 
 (July 31, 1841), signed by England, Austria, France, 
 Prussia, and Russia, by which the Sultan closes the 
 straits to foreign vessels of war, the Powers agreeing to 
 respect this rule. 
 
 11. The Eastern crisis is ended, but the Eastern question still 
 
 remains unsolved. 
 
 12. To Russia's purpose to control and finally absorb the Otto- 
 
 man Empire is opposed England's determination to pre- 
 vent that control and defeat that absorption. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XXVII.— THE REVOLUTION OF 1848 AND ITS 
 INTERNATIONAL RESULTS. 
 
 1. " The era of good feeling " between the French and English 
 
 governments under the ministries of Guizot and Aber- 
 deen (1841-1845). Exchanges of royal visits. 
 
 2. Popular hostility in spite of governmental harmony between 
 
 France and England on account of the English insistence 
 on the right of search and the tariff union between E ranee, 
 Belgium, and Switzerland. 
 
 3. Visit of Nicholas I to England (1844) to dispose of " the 
 
 sick man " at Constantinople. 
 
 4. The Spanish marriages, restoration of Palmerston (June, 
 
 1846), and end of the friendship between France and 
 England. 
 
 5. Absorption of the Republic of Cracow by Austria (1846- 
 
 1817) with consent of Prussia and Russia, which receive 
 in return parts of Galicia. 
 
 6. England, though isolated, intervenes in Portugal, Italy, and 
 
 Switzerland (1847-1848). 
 
 I. — The General Outburst of Revolution. 
 
 1. All Western Europe ripe for revolution. 
 
 2. Growing pretensions of Louis Philippe and hatred of the 
 
 Guizot ministry. The reform banquets (1847) and their 
 suppression (February, 1848). The revolution of Feb- 
 ruary. 
 
 3. Spontaneous revolutionary movement throughout Europe, 
 
 except in England, Spain, Portugal, Sweden, Norway, 
 and Russia ; for electoral reform in Belgium, Holland, and 
 Denmark ; for national reorganization in Hungary, Bo- 
 
 (131) 
 
132 LECTURE XXVII. 
 
 hernia, and Schleswig-Holstein ; for constitutional reform 
 and national unity in Italy, Switzerland, and Germany. 
 
 4. The estates of Austria convene (March 13). Insurrection 
 
 in the streets of Vienna to the cry " Down with Metter- 
 nich." The Emperor Ferdinand IV in concealment. 
 Bohemia and Hungary in full revolt. Promise of a con- 
 stitution proclaimed (April 25). 
 
 5. Italy in commotion. Radetzki forced to evacuate Milan 
 
 (March 18). Daniel Manin made chief of the Republic 
 of St. Mark at Venice. Rome and Florence aspiring to 
 become republics. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, 
 enters Milan (March 26) to support the revolution. 
 
 6. In Bavaria, Baden, Wiirtemberg, and Saxony the fall of 
 
 Metternich is hailed with joy and the people proclaim 
 their grievances. 
 
 7. In Prussia Frederick William IV (who came to the throne 
 
 June 7, 1840) decides (March 18) to issue a royal edict 
 announcing that the King favors constitutions for all the 
 German states and a general parliament. 
 
 8. The German reunion at Frankfort (May 18) to formulate a 
 
 constitution and call for a national assembly. 
 
 9. France, become a republic, is regarded as a support for re- 
 
 publicanism elsewhere, notwithstanding the declaration 
 of Lamartine that France does not intend aggression 
 against any other, government (March 5\ Struggle be- 
 tween the Republicans and Socialists. Election of Louis 
 Bonaparte as President of the French Republic (Decem- 
 ber 10, 1848), with 5,400,000 votes, against 1,400,000 for 
 Cavaignac, Republican, and 370,000 for Ledru Rollin, 
 Socialist. 
 
 II. The Reaction toward Absolutism. 
 
 1. Prince Schwartzenberg becomes prime minister and prac- 
 
 tical ruler of Austria (November 21, 1848). 
 
 2. A constitution is granted by Austria (March 4, 1849), but is 
 
 never applied, and is finally declared abrogated by im- 
 perial decree. 
 
LECTURE XXVIt. 133 
 
 3. Charles Albert, King of Sardinia, who has aided the Italian 
 
 revolution, abdicates in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, 
 and the intercession of France and England procures an 
 armistice (March 26, 1849), which permits Austria to oc- 
 cupy a part of Sardinian territory. 
 
 4. Hungary proclaims its independence, with Kossuth as dic- 
 
 tator (April 14), but a Russian army comes to the aid of 
 Austria (May) and the Hungarians are soon subdued. 
 
 5. Prussia aspires to the leadership of the German states, and 
 
 the National Assembly at Frankfort adopts an imperial 
 constitution and elects Frederick William IV Emperor 
 (March 23), but Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, and Hanover 
 rejecting the constitution, the King of Prussia declines 
 the imperial crown ( April 28, 1849). The assembly dwin- 
 dles to 105 members, is removed to Stuttgart (May 30), 
 and is finally dispersed by the police (June 19). 
 
 6. The King of Prussia, declining the imperial crown from the 
 
 assembly, professing to believe it should be conferred by 
 the princes, puts down insurrection by force, not only in 
 Prussia, but in Saxony and Hanover (May, 1849), by re- 
 quest of their kings. 
 
 III. — Austria's Check ox the Ambitions of Prussia. 
 
 1. The Treaty of the Three Kings (May 26, 1849) is the reward 
 
 of Frederick William IV for his services to Saxony and 
 Hanover, their kings forming an alliance with him, the 
 nucleus of an imperial programme. 
 
 2. The troops of Frederick William repress the democratic 
 
 rising in Baden (June, 1849). 
 
 3. France, not desiring Austria to control all Italy, intervenes 
 
 at Rome to reestablish the Pope, and, though intending 
 to preserve liberal institutions, overthrows Mazzini's 
 republic by its army (June 29, 1849). Attitude of Pope 
 Pins IX. 
 
 4. By the mediation of France and England Sardinia is restored 
 
 to Victor Emmanuel upon payment of an indemnity to 
 Austria (August 6, 1849). 
 
134 LECTURE XXVII. 
 
 5. Austria, now rid of preoccupation in Italy and Hungary, 
 
 turns its attention to the Prussian Union created by the 
 alliance of the Three Kings, which reproduced essentially 
 the constitution of Frankfort on a monarchical basis and 
 is augmented by the adherence of 28 members, chiefly 
 small states. The Kings of Wiirtemberg and Bavaria re- 
 fuse to join. 
 
 6. Schwartzenberg desires to reconstitute the Germanic Con- 
 
 federation with Austria prepondering in the Diet, and 
 proposes a convention instituting a mixed commission of 
 four, two appointed by Austria and two by Prussia, to 
 conduct affairs ad interim. 
 
 7. Supported by Russia, Austria intimidates Prussia, and Fred- 
 
 erick William IV yields to Austria's plans by a treaty 
 (September 30, 1849) with Francis Joseph (who came to 
 the throne in 1848) instituting the commission, and all 
 the other states adhere (October-November). Austria 
 thus represents the leadership of opposition to Prussian 
 ambition. 
 
 8. The adherence to the treaty of the Three Kings now dis- 
 
 solves in spite of Prussia's protests. 
 
 9. Project of von Beust to combine the secondary states with 
 
 Saxony, Bavaria, Hanover, etc., as a balance of power 
 against both Austria and Prussia and treaty between 
 Saxony and Bavaria for this purpose (February 27, 1850). 
 
 10. Failure of the reunion at Erfurt, called by Prussia to frame 
 
 a constitution (March 20, 1850) by absence of the repre- 
 sentatives expected. 
 
 11. Antagonism of Prussia and Austria over the reunion called 
 
 by Austria at Frankfort (April 26, 1850). 
 
 12. Defeat of Prussia in the affaires of Schleswig-Holstein and 
 
 Hesse and humiliating agreement at Olmiitz (November 
 29, 1850) by which Frederick William IV renounces the 
 Prussian Union and yields entirely to the wishes of 
 Austria. 
 
LECTURE XXVII. 135 
 
 IV. — Prussia's Counterpoise to Austria. 
 
 1. The reunion for revising the German constitution is trans- 
 
 ferred from Frankfort to Dresden (December 23, 1850) to 
 please Prussia, which leads an opj)osition to Schwartzen- 
 berg's plan for Austrian preponderance. 
 
 2. Austria strives to exclude from the future Diet ail the smaller 
 
 states, the clients of Prussia, and to place all the power 
 in the hands of eight states, Austria holding the presi- 
 dency and the majority being under its influence. 
 
 3. Effort of Austria to introduce into the Confederation its 
 
 Italian and Slavic states. 
 
 4. France, by a manifesto addressed to the other powers (March 
 
 . 5, 1851), becomes the advocate of the treaties of 1815, 
 which have fixed the constitution of the Confederation, 
 and opposes the destruction of the European equilibrium 
 by the plans of Austria. Russia and England join in a 
 protest against change. 
 
 5. The conference at Dresden is closed (May 15, 1851) with the 
 
 defeat of Austria's designs. 
 
 6. The old Bundestag resumes its sessions at Frankfort (May 30, 
 
 1851). Schwartzenberg again tries to secure the incorpo- 
 ration of the non-German states of Austria in the Con- 
 federation, but fails. 
 
 7. Austria succeeds, however, in destroying the work of the 
 
 German Parliament of 1848 by abolishing the funda- 
 mental rights proclaimed Jby that body (August 23, 1851). 
 Metternich, returning from exile, rejoices in the restora- 
 tion of absolutism and the suspension of the constitution 
 of 1849 in Austria, but is not restored to power. 
 
 8. Crisis of the Zollverein (April-September, 1852). 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XXVIII.— THE REVIVAL OF FRENCH INFLU- 
 ENCE AND THE CONGRESS OF PARIS. 
 
 1. The Revolution of 1848 had reawakened the national aspi- 
 
 rations of Italy and Germany, cruelly suppressed by the 
 intervention of absolutism. 
 
 2. Louis Bonaparte, a professed believer in the principle of 
 
 nationality, makes his first coup d'itat December 2, 1851, 
 by which he is reelected President of the French Republic 
 for ten years with almost absolute power. 
 
 3. In the balance between the established interests and the 
 
 progressive movements France enters upon a new career 
 of international preponderance. 
 
 I. — Reopening of the Eastern Question. 
 
 1. Reforms of Abdul-Medjid in the Ottoman Empire projected 
 
 by Reschid Pasha. Antagonism of " Old Turkey" and 
 " Young Turkey." Disposition of Nicholas I to intervene 
 
 (1841-1848). 
 
 2. Russia and Austria combine to enforce upon Turkey the de- 
 
 livery of the revolutionary refugees of 1848, but England 
 and France sustain the Sultan in refusing, and Nicholas I 
 withdraws his army beyond the Pruth (1849-1851). 
 
 3. Reschid carries his reforms into the Balkan provinces and 
 
 enforces them upon Abbas Pasha, successor of Mehemet- 
 Ali, in Egypt (May, 1852). 
 
 4. Nicholas I foments insurrection in Montenegro, where the 
 
 ecclesiastical ruler attempts to set up a dynasty (February , 
 1852). The Sultan sends an army to subdue him, and 
 Austria endeavors to moderate the Turks. 
 
 5. Quarrel of France and Russia over their rights in the holy 
 
 places in Palestine and the right of protection over Chris- 
 
 bb (137) 
 
138 LECTURE XXVIII. 
 
 tians. Firman of February 9, 1852, in favor of France, 
 its temporary repudiation, and the reestablish ment of 
 French influence. Hostility of Russia. 
 
 6. Coup d'etat by which Louis Bonaparte becomes Napoleon III 
 
 (December 2, 1852) and attitude of the powers toward 
 him. Russia's dislike, but final recognition. Napoleon III 
 needs a war to establish his prestige. 
 
 7. Mission of Menchikoff to Constantinople, massing of Rus- 
 
 sian troops on the Pruth and naval movements (February, 
 
 1853). 
 
 8. Nicholas' I, relying upon the neutrality of Austria and 
 
 Prussia, tries to appease England by offering Egypt and 
 Cyprus to England under the pacific ministry of Lord 
 Aberdeen, with Lord Clarendon in the foreign office, 
 hoping to receive Moldavia, Wallachia, Servia, and Bul- 
 garia for Russia, with Constantinople to be held as a 
 pledge. Nicholas does not fear France alone and again 
 advances the theory of the " sick man." 
 
 9. Menchikoff issues an ultimatum (May 5) demanding of the 
 
 Sultan the Russian protection of the Greek Church, with 
 its temporal privileges accorded and a close alliance. 
 England and France, aware of his intention, though 
 veiled by secrecy, cooperate to defeat him. The Sultan, 
 Reschid Pasha, now restored to the foreign office, rejects 
 the ultimatum (Ma.y 20) and Menchikoff departs. Nessel- 
 rode issues a new ultimatum (May 31), threatening to 
 seize Moldavia and Wallachia. 
 
 10. England and France send fleets (June 1-3) prepared to enter 
 
 the Dardanelles. The Sultan publishes a hatti-sheriff as- 
 suring full religious liberty in his empire (June 6) ; but, 
 ignoring a proposition for a general European conference, 
 Nicholas I takes possession of Moldavia and Wallachia 
 (July 4, 1853). 
 
 11. Embarrassed situation of Austria, the conferences at Vienna 
 
 in the interest of peace, the obstinacy of Russia and Tur- 
 key's declaration of war (October 4, 1853). 
 
LECTURE XXVIII. 139 
 
 II.— The Crimean War and Austria's Hesitation. 
 
 1. Efforts of Nicholas I to arouse Greece and Persia to conflict 
 
 with the Sultan and to secure the favorable neutrality of 
 Austria and Prussia (October-December, 1853). 
 
 2. Lord Aberdeen fails to restrain England from extremes in 
 
 support of Turkey, and the fleets of England and France, 
 already at the entrance of the Dardanelles in June and 
 in the Bosphorus in September, threaten to take posses- 
 sion of the Black Sea (December 27, 1853). 
 
 3. The Conference at Vienna adopts a protocol (April 9, 1854) 
 • proposing, on behalf of England, France, Austria, and 
 
 Prussia, an arrangement on the following conditions : (1) 
 The integrity of the Turkish Empire ; (2) the evacuation 
 of the principalities by the Russians ; (3) the independ- 
 ence of the Sultan, with free grant by him of the liberties 
 of his Christian subjects ; (4) necessary guarantees to 
 regulate the political relations of Turkey for the preser- 
 vation of the European equilibrium. 
 
 4. Austria hesitates to move, and Prussia is even more con- 
 
 servative, but England and France, after Nicholas I has 
 refused to evacuate, unite with Turkey (April 10) in a 
 convention not to make peace with Russia separately 
 until the Russian evacuation is secured. 
 
 5. The military aid of Austria is important to success against 
 
 Russia, but Buol is restrained by Prussia, where Bis- 
 marck's influence is now beginning to be felt. Qualified 
 agreement between Austria and Prussia (April 20, 1854). 
 
 6. Russia is forced to evacuate the principalities (June), and 
 
 Austria, under a treaty with the Porte, holds them sub- 
 ject to final settlement while the siege of Sebastopol is 
 prosecuted. 
 
 7. By the notes of August 2, 1854, Austria seems to join with 
 
 the allies to press the war, but finds means of procrasti- 
 nation. These notes agree on placing the principalities 
 under the collective protection of Europe and the aban- 
 donment of Russia's protection over all subjects of Turkey. 
 
140 LECTURE XXVIII. 
 
 8. Austria confirms the arrangement of the notes of August 2 
 
 with France and England by treaty (December 2, 1854), 
 agreeing not to make a separate peace with Russia, and 
 to defend the principalities. 
 
 9. Sardinia, following the plans of Cavour, joins the alliance 
 
 against Russia (January 26, 1855). 
 
 10. Palmerston succeeds Lord Aberdeen and gives new vigor to 
 
 the war (February, 1855). 
 
 11. Prussia strives to restrain Austria and seems to menace 
 
 France (January-February, 1855). 
 
 12. Nicholas 1 dies (March 2) and is succeeded by Alexander II. 
 
 Failure of the conference at Vienna (April- June, 1855). 
 Austria commences to recede from her allies (July- 
 August) . 
 
 13. Fall of Sebastopol (September 8, 1855). France disposed to 
 
 peace. Tenacity of England. Alliance of Sweden with 
 France and England (November 21, 1855). Distress of 
 Austria over the reception of Victor Emmanuel and Ca- 
 vour at Paris. Ultimatum of England, France, and Aus- 
 tria (December 16), which Alexander II at first refuses 
 to accept (January 5, 1856), but finally is induced, under 
 the influence of Prussia, to adopt as a basis of peace 
 (January 16). A general congress is agreed to. 
 
 III. — The Congress of Paris. 
 
 1. The Congress of Paris convenes February 25, 1856. 
 
 2. Sardinia is admitted, but Prussia is excluded until, by the 
 
 favor of France, it is admitted when the business is over 
 (March 18). 
 
 3. The final act of the Congress (March 30, 1856) stipulates : 
 
 (1) The admission of the Sublime Porte to the advan- 
 tages of the public law and the concert of Europe ; (2) the 
 engagement of the signers to respect the independence 
 and territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, every 
 infraction of these to be regarded as a matter of Euro- 
 
LECTURE XXVIII. 141 
 
 pean interest ; (3) the concert of Europe is to be invoked 
 before the resort to force; (4) the convention of 1841 
 closing the straits is confirmed ; (5) the Black Sea is neu- 
 tralized and no arsenals are to be maintained in its ports ; 
 (6) the Danube is opened to free navigation ; (7) the Rus- 
 sian frontier is rectified by adding a part of Bessarabia 
 to Moldavia ; (8) Moldavia and Wallachia— the proposi- 
 tion to unite them into one state having failed — are placed 
 under the suzerainty of the Porte with the guarantee of 
 the powers. 
 
 4. Correlative to these stipulations the Sultan issues a firman 
 
 according and guaranteeing their respective rights to all 
 his subjects, and great reforms are expected (February 18, 
 1856). 
 
 5. In a treaty of April 16, 1856, the Congress formulates the 
 
 following principles : (1) Abolition of privateering; (2) a 
 neutral flag covers an enemy's merchandise, except con- 
 traband of war ; (3) neutral merchandise is not subject to 
 seizure, except contraband of war, even under the enemy's 
 flag; (4) blockades are not obligatory unless effective; 
 (5) resort to the good offices of a friendly power is desir- 
 able before the appeal to arms. 
 
 6. General results : Russia has lost all the gains of the century 
 
 in the East ; Austria is isolated and disliked ; France and 
 England are partly alienated ; Prussia is in the way of 
 recuperation ; Sardinia has succeeded in winning friends 
 and in raising the Italian question. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY* 
 
 Lecture XXIX.— THE STRUGGLE FOR ITALIAN UNITY 
 AND THE DEFEATS OF AUSTRIA. 
 
 1. Passion of Napoleon III for the principle of nationality. 
 
 Europe to be a group of independent emancipated races. 
 
 2. Predilections of Napoleon III for Italy. Character, pur- 
 
 poses, and influence of Cavour. Napoleon's dislike of 
 Austria. 
 
 3. Condition of Italy : Ferdinand II of Naples (King Bomba) ; 
 
 influence of Cardinal Antonelli on Pius IX ; the Austrian 
 domination ; Sardinia the hope of Italy. 
 
 I. — The Policy of Napoleon III Toward Europe. 
 
 1. Importance of isolating Austria as a preliminary to the 
 
 liberation of Italy. 
 
 2. Diplomatic rupture of Austria with Sardinia on occasion of 
 
 Francis Joseph's visit to Italy (December, 1856). 
 
 3. The affair of Neuchatel and Napoleon Ill's friendly inter- 
 
 vention in behalf of Prussia (March 5, 1857). Bismarck 
 advises Frederick William IV, who distrusts the French, 
 to an entente with France. 
 
 4. The resignation of Nesselrode and advent of Gortchakoff, 
 
 who dislikes Austria, and Napoleon Ill's friendly ap- 
 proaches to Alexander II. The Roumanian question. 
 Russia sees an advantage in the idea of nationality as 
 applied to the Danubian principalities. 
 
 5. The rapprochement of France, Prussia, and Russia seeming 
 
 to threaten the Porte, England joins Austria in oppos- 
 ing the union of Moldavia and Wallachia. 
 
 6. Meeting of Napoleon III and Alexander II. Napoleon to 
 
 support Russia in the Roumanian affair, Alexander not 
 
 cc (143) 
 
144 LECTURE XXIX. 
 
 to interfere with French policy in Italy. The French and 
 the Russian ambassadors leave Constantinople (August 
 6, 1857). 
 
 7. Indisposition of France and England for war with each 
 
 other. Visit of Napoleon III at Osborne House (Au- 
 gust 6, 1857). Programme of Napoleon: (1) division of 
 northern Africa; (2) cooperation of France and England 
 in China ; (3) moderation in the Danubian provinces. 
 
 8. Frederick William IV is superseded by his brother William 
 
 as regent in Prussia (October, 1857). 
 
 II. — The Secret Diplomacy op Napoleon III. 
 
 1. Orsini's attempt on Napoleon's life (January 14, 1858) and 
 
 the Emperor's dread of Italian plots. He is strengthened 
 in his purpose to attack Austria through Italy. 
 
 2. Fall of Palmerston's ministry (February 19, 1858) on account 
 
 of the bill " Conspiracy to Murder," which is received as 
 the evidence that England is bullied by Napoleon. 
 
 3. The interview of Napoleon and Cavour at Plombieres (July 
 
 20, 1858) and the conspiracy for an attack on Austria, 
 Sardinia to take Northern Italy and France to receive 
 Savoy and Nice. 
 
 4. Preliminary efforts to prepare the way ; the Danish ques- 
 
 tion ; the Roumanian question. 
 
 5. Effectual union of Moldavia and Wallachia by the device of 
 
 separate states in alliance with a central commission for 
 their common interests. The scheme is completed by 
 the election of the same prince, Colonel Couza (January- 
 February, 1859). Servia demands the abdication of 
 Karageorge witch (December 24, 1858) and elects Miloch 
 Obrenowitch as prince, substituting Russian for Austro- 
 Turkish influence. 
 
 6. Efforts of France and Sardinia, prepared to attack Austria, 
 
 to induce Austria to declare war, and ineffectual attempts 
 of England to settle the Italian question without war. 
 Russia proposes a congress that never meets. 
 
LECTURE XXIX. 145 
 
 7. Austria, foreseeing the designs of France and Sardinia, 
 
 endeavors vainly to enlist Prussia, and, relying on the 
 benevolent neutrality of England, if an alliance cannot 
 be attained, sends an ultimatum to Sardinia demanding 
 disarmament (April 23, 1859). Cavour refuses, and war 
 follows. 
 
 8. France announces to Europe that it will not abandon Sar- 
 
 dinia to an unjust attack (April 26) ; but in spite of Eng- 
 land's endeavors under the ministry of Lord Derby to 
 secure peace, the Austrian troops cross the Tessin (April 
 29). France declares war (May 3, 1859). 
 
 III. — Establishment of the Kingdom of Italy. 
 
 1. Austria is defeated at Magenta (June 4) and at Solferino 
 
 (June 24) with immense losses. 
 
 2. The Peace of Zurich (November 10, 1859) : (1) Sardinia ob- 
 
 tains Lombardy ; (2) the dukes of Tuscany, Parma, and 
 Modena are restored to their states ; (3) the formation of 
 a confederation of the Italian states under the Pope is 
 agreed upon ; (4) Austria is stripped of everything in 
 Italy except Venetia. 
 
 3. Dilemma of Napoleon III : If he sustains the Pope and re- 
 
 stores the princes, he satisfies neither Sardinian nor 
 Italian aspirations ; if he overthrows the Pope's temporal 
 power and expels the princes, he offends the Catholic 
 party and the advocates of legitimacy. Indecision and 
 compromise. 
 
 4. The treaty of Turin (March 24, I860), by which Sardinia 
 
 cedes Savoy and Nice to France. The Emperor of the 
 French takes pourboire ! 
 
 5. Operations of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples (May-Septem- 
 
 ber, 1860), with secret aid of Sardinia; expulsion of 
 Francis II (successor of Ferdinand II) ; effort of Cavour 
 to secure the withdrawal of French troops from Rome, 
 and recall of the French minister. 
 
146 LECTURE XXIX. 
 
 6. Entry of the Sardinian army into the Kingdom of Naples, 
 
 and withdrawal of Garibaldi, who delivers the power to 
 Victor Emmanuel (November 7, 1860). England compels 
 the departure of the French fleet (January, 1861), and 
 Naples capitulates (February 13). The Parliament at 
 Turin proclaims Victor Emmanuel ''King of Italy" 
 (February 18). Death of Cavour (June 6, 1861). 
 
 7. Napoleon III engages that the French will evacuate Kome 
 
 in 1866, and Victor Emmanuel promises not to attack the 
 States of the Church (September 15, 1864). Florence be- 
 comes the temporary capital of Italy. 
 
 IV. — The Struggle for the Danish Duchies and the 
 Humiliation op Austria. 
 
 1. In Austria provincial diets are established by Francis Jo- 
 
 seph (October 20, 1860), and a constitution is granted 
 with a bicameral legislature and a responsible ministry 
 (February 26, 1861), by which his popularity is strength- 
 ened. 
 
 2. Formation of the National Verein and meeting of a congress 
 
 at Frankfort under Austrian auspices (August 16, 1863), 
 which Prussia refuses to attend. 
 
 3. William I, regent, becomes King of Prussia (January 2, 
 
 1861). Contest of the royal and the legislative power. 
 Bismarck assumes direction of affairs. Ambitions of 
 Prussia and hostility to Austria. 
 
 4. The Schleswig-Holstein question reopened. The treaty of 
 
 London (May 8, 1852) had assigned the throne of Fred- 
 erick VII of Denmark to Christian of Gliicksburg and 
 obtained from the Duke of Augustenburg a renunciation 
 for a price. In 1863 Frederick VII dies and Christian IX 
 ascends the throne. Christian publishes a law com- 
 pletely incorporating Schleswig with Denmark (Novem- 
 ber 18, 1863) and giving Holstein a particular administra- 
 tion under the Danish, ministry. The German Diet 
 intervenes in behalf of Holstein, and Christian resists the 
 army of execution sent by the Diet. 
 
LECTURE XXIX. 147 
 
 5. Prussia and Austria form an alliance to supersede the act 
 
 of execution by the Diet. The Danes are driven out and 
 lose the duchies which are ceded to Prussia and Austria 
 (October 30, 1864\ 
 
 6. Treaty of Gastein (August 14, 1865), by which the claims of 
 
 the Duke of Augustenburg are repudiated, Austria admin- 
 istering Holstein and Prussia Schleswig, Kiel becoming 
 a federal port. 
 
 7. Dispute over the Treaty of Gastein (January-March, 1866), 
 
 the German governments (Bavaria, Saxony, etc.) siding 
 with Austria. 
 
 8. Secret alliance of Prussia with Italy (April 8, 1866) and war 
 
 against Austria by the allies. Holding their ground in 
 Italy, the Austrians are defeated in Bohemia, at Sadowa 
 (July 3). The Prussians enter Frankfort and the Diet 
 flees to Augsburg (July 18). 
 
 0. lustria cedes Venetia to Napoleon III, hoping for his in- 
 tervention and mediation, and thinking thus to save it 
 from going to Italy. 
 
 10. The Peace of Prague (August 24, 1866) : (1) Venetia is added 
 to the Kingdom of Italy ; (2) all the rights of Austria in 
 the Danish duchies are transferred to Prussia; (3) an in- 
 demnity of 20 million thalers is imposed on Austria ; (4) 
 the Germanic Confederation is dissolved and Prussia is 
 to establish a new confederation excluding Austria. 
 
COURSE IN EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY. 
 
 Lecture XXX.— THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR AND 
 THE UNIFICATION OF GERMANY. 
 
 1. Prussia annexes Hanover, Nassau, Hesse- Cassel, Frankfort, 
 
 and Schleswig-Holstein, and imposes a money indemnity 
 on Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, and Baden for their participa- 
 tion in the war of 1866. Formation by Prussia of the 
 North German Confederation (1866). 
 
 2. France is humiliated by her failure to secure some annexa- 
 
 tions from Germany in 1866, which Napoleon believed 
 to be promised him by Bismarck at Biarritz in October, 
 1865; by the expulsion of the French army from Mexico 
 and the overthrow of Maximilian's empire (1867), and by 
 Bismarck's prevention of the purchase of Luxemburg 
 from Holland (1S67). Napoleon's bitter hostility to 
 Prussia. 
 
 3. Austria, defeated and repressed, undergoes internal reor- 
 
 ganization by the recognition of Hungarian autonomy 
 and the constitution of the dual monarchy, Austria- 
 Hungary (1867). 
 
 I. — The Fall of the French Empire. 
 • 
 
 1. From 1866 to 1870 France descends rapidly in the path of 
 
 decadence. Financial exhaustion. Demoralization of the 
 army. Revival of socialism. Rochefort. Gambetta. 
 Napoleon III, though sustained by the plebiscite of 1870, 
 has lost his influence. Programme of the "liberal em- 
 pire" under the ministry of Ollivier (January 2, 1870). 
 Killing of Victor Noir by Pierre Bonaparte (January 10). 
 
 2. Prussia after Sadowa is flushed with victory, and the army, 
 
 the best in Europe, is in perfect condition. Bismarck 
 needs a war with France to seal his victories and consoli- 
 date Germany. Napoleon's satisfaction that Germany is 
 
 dd (149) 
 
150 LECTURE XXX. 
 
 cut into "three slices" (Prussia, South Germany, and 
 Austria) is resented at Berlin. In reply and to warn him 
 not to take Luxemburg, all the German newspapers pub- 
 lish the text of the secret treaties by which Bismarck has 
 made William I commander-in-chief of all the German 
 states (March 19, 1867). 
 
 3. The Hohenzollern candidature for the Spanish crown. The 
 
 Spanish revolution of 1868 had driven Isabella from her 
 throne. Napoleon opposed the candidacy of the Duke of 
 Montpensier, and the crown was offered to Leopold of 
 Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen. Gramont, minister of for- 
 eign affairs of France, opposes this candidacy before the 
 corps Ugislatif as against the interests and honor of France 
 (July 6, 1870). Leopold withdraws, and the King of 
 Prussia gives his approbation to his retirement (July 12). 
 
 4. The Empress Eugenie wishes war. Duvernois tells the 
 
 corps Ugislatif that "guarantees for the future" are nec- 
 essary. Gramont charges Benedetti to demand of the 
 King of Prussia the assurance that he will not authorize 
 a new proposition (July 13). The king replies at Ems 
 that he has nothing more to say, and Bismarck makes this 
 public (July 14). The French cabinet announces that 
 the King of Prussia has " outraged " the French ambas- 
 sador, refusing by note to grant him an audience (July 
 15). Thiers asks that the note be sent to the corps legis- 
 latif, but Gramont will not produce it! The Chamber 
 votes a credit of 5.00 millions of francs, Ollivier assumes 
 responsibility for the war " with a light heart," and war 
 is declared on July 17. 
 
 5. Napoleon, apparently deceived by the representations of 
 
 Gramont, relies upon the alliance of Austria and Italy, 
 which has not been secured. On July 28, leaving the 
 regency to the Empress, he assumes command of the 
 Army of the Rhine for the invasion of Germany. Bis- 
 marck publishes Napoleon's secret proposal of 1867 to 
 recognize all of Prussia's annexations if William I would 
 aid him in conquering Belgium ! 
 
 6. Alsace is invaded by the Germans (August 4), and the army 
 
 of MacMahon is crushed and forced to retreat (August 6). 
 
LECTURE XXX. 151 
 
 7. False news of a victory is spread through Paris, and the 
 
 city is wild with joy. A few hours afterward the truth 
 is known, and the tide of public indignation is turned 
 against the ministry, which is overthrown (August 9) 
 amid a popular tumult. 
 
 8. The new ministry of Count Palikao entertains Paris with 
 
 falsehoods while the Germans close in on the armies of 
 France at Metz and Sedan. The Emperor surrenders 
 himself and his army to the King of Prussia at Sedan 
 (September 1, 1870). 
 
 9. The corps Ugislatif decrees the end of Napoleon's dynasty 
 
 (September 3), and a revolution breaks out in Paris (Sep- 
 tember 4). Journey of Thiers to London, Florence, St. 
 Petersburg, and Vienna to procure an alliance for France 
 or at least a diplomatic intervention. Government of the 
 National Defense. The siege of Paris (September 18, 
 1870- January 29, 1871). The entrance of the Prussians. 
 The Third Republic set up at Bordeaux (February 13, 
 1871). The Commune and second siege of Paris (April- 
 May, 1871). 
 
 II. — The Preliminaries of Versailles and the Treaty of 
 
 Frankfort. 
 
 1. The Preliminaries of Versailles (February 26, 1871): (1) 
 
 France accepts a new frontier; (2) agrees to pay an in- 
 demnity of five thousand million francs ; (3) the Germans 
 are to evacuate Paris and the French to pass to the left 
 bank of the Loire ; (4) the French occupants of the terri- 
 tory ceded are to be allowed to emigrate if they wish ; (5) 
 after the definitive treaty of peace the German troops are 
 to be withdrawn only upon payment of the indemnity. 
 
 2. The Treaty of Frankfort (May 10, 1871) stipulates: (1) The 
 
 new frontier gives Alsace and a portion of Lorraine, in- 
 cluding the fortresses of Metz and Strasburg, to Germany ; 
 (2) the French occupants have till October 1, 1872, to de- 
 clare their nationality ; (3) the French government must 
 repay the taxes of the territory ceded and other sums ; 
 (4) all religious authority over the territories ceded is re- 
 nounced by France ; (5) the payment of the indemnity 
 
152 LECTURE XXX. 
 
 is regulated ; (6) the most favored nation clause is exacted 
 by Germany in commercial affairs ; (7) expelled Germans 
 are restored to their properties in France ; (8) maritime 
 prizes taken before March 2, 1871, are to be reciprocally 
 restored. 
 
 3. In order to hasten the deliverance of France from the 
 
 German occupation, France authorizes a loan of two thou- 
 sand million francs (June 21, 1871). The subscription, 
 opened June 28, surpasses four thousand million in six 
 hours. 
 
 4. The Germans evacuate July 22 three departments. Rapid 
 
 progress of the payments, ending the occupation Septem- 
 ber 16, 1873. 
 
 III. — Effect of the Franco-Prussian War on Europe. 
 
 1. The Papal States during the French occupation for the pro- 
 
 tection of the Pope remained under his authority after 
 the rest of the peninsula had been united in the Kingdom 
 of Italy. In the Franco-Prussian war Napoleon III re- 
 calls the French troops from Rome (August, 1870), and 
 after Sedan the Italian troops invade the ecclesiastical 
 territory and occupy Rome (September 20, 1870). Under 
 universal suffrage the Papal States are annexed to the 
 Kingdom of Italy by a vote of 130,000 to 15,000. 
 
 2. Russia, desiring to change the arrangements of the Congress 
 
 of Paris, takes advantage of the situation. After the bat- 
 tle of Metz, Gortchakoff issues a circular (October 29, 1870) 
 announcing that rights founded on treaties do not pre- 
 serve the moral sanction of former times. 
 
 3. The Treaty of London (March 13, 1871) is an attempt to 
 
 readjust the affairs of the East by abrogating the arrange- 
 ments of the Treaty of Paris for restraining the maritime 
 power of Russia in the Black sea. 
 
 4. Prussia, having allayed trouble for a time, proceeds with 
 
 the work of Germanic unification. Bismarck unites the 
 states of the South with the North German Confederation 
 (November 15-25), and the idea of reviving the empire is 
 
LECTURE XXX. 153 
 
 soon circulated. The Reichstag offers the imperial crown 
 to William I (December 10, 1870). 
 
 IV. — The Treaty of San Stepano and the Congress of Berlin. 
 
 1. The pan-Slavic propaganda of 1875. Insurrection of Servia 
 
 and Montenegro. The Bulgarian massacres. Interven- 
 tion of Russia. 
 
 2. Conference at Constantinople (December, 1877). Turkey- 
 
 indisposed to receive counsel. Even England is checked 
 by public opinion. Russia invades Roumania. 
 
 3. The Treaty of San Stefano between Russia and Turkey 
 
 (March 3, 1878) : (1) Independence of Montenegro, Servia, 
 and Roumania ; (2) Bulgaria made an autonomous trib- 
 utary prinipality ; (3) promise of reforms ; (4) indemnity 
 to Russia ; (5) cession of territory to Russia in Asia Minor. 
 Russian predominance in the Balkans. 
 
 4. General surprise in Europe and alarm in England. 
 
 5. The Congress of Berlin (June 13-July 13, 1878) : (1) Bulgaria 
 
 is constituted into an autonomous tributary principality, 
 its fortresses destroyed, and delivered from Turkish oc- 
 cupation ; (2) Eastern Roumelia is formed for the protec- 
 tion of Turkey, with administrative autonomy, but under 
 the military direction of the Sultan ; (3) Bosnia and Herze- 
 govina are to be occupied and administered by Austria ; 
 (4) the independence of Montenegro, Servia, and Rou- 
 mania is recognized by Turkey and by the Powers ; (5) 
 the cession to Russia of Kars, Batum, etc., is confirmed ; 
 (6) reforms are promised in Armenia ; ( 7) religious lib- 
 erty is to be maintained throughout the Ottoman Empire ; 
 (8) the treaties of Paris (1856) and London (1871) are 
 maintained, except as modified by this treaty. 
 
 6. England, by special arrangement with the Sultan, obtains 
 
 possession of Cyprus. 
 
 7. Enfeeblement of Turkey in Europe by the constitution of 
 
 the independent Balkan States. Russia also curbed by 
 these " buffer " states. 
 
ERRATA. 
 
 Page 19, third line from bottom, for 1554 read 1544. 
 
 Page 25, fifteenth line from top, for 1536 read 1530. 
 
 Page 27, second line from top, for 1626 read 1624. 
 
 Page 34, thirteenth line from bottom, for Maria Louisa read 
 Maria Theresa. 
 
 Page 39, fourth line from top, for 1655 read 1665 ; also in the table 
 
 on same page, read Philip IV (1621-1665) and Charles II 
 
 (1665-1700). 
 Page 41, eighth line from top, for 1687 read 1697. On same page, 
 
 lines sixteenth and seventeenth from top, strike out at 
 
 the age of five. On same page, thirteenth line from bottom, 
 
 for October 7, 1700, read October 2, 1700. 
 Page 113, fourth line from bottom, for Constantine Ypsilanti read 
 
 Alexander Ypsilanti. 
 Page 116, ninth line from top, for Canning as minister of foreign 
 
 affairs read Canning as prime minister. 
 Page 123, eleventh line from top, for Hamburg Festival read 
 
 Hambach Festival.