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 ^ LECTURES 
 
 YOUNG LADIES, 
 
 COMPRISING 
 
 OUTLINES AND APPLICATIONS OF THE DIFFERENT BRANCHES 
 
 FEMALE EDUCATION. 
 
 FOR THE USE OF FEMALE SCHOOLS. AND PRIVATE LIBRARIES. 
 
 DELIVERED TO THE PUPILS OF 
 
 ®ros Jftmalt Seminars 
 
 BY MRS. ALMIRA H. LINCOLN PHELPS, 
 
 (Late Vice Principal of that Institution.) 
 
 AUTHOR OF FAMILIAR LECTURES ON BOTANY, ETC. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 CARTER, HENDEE & CO. 
 
 1833. 
 
» 
 
 J% 
 
 
 [Entored according to Act of Congress, in the year 1833, by 
 
 Carter, Hendee & Co. 
 in the Office of the Clerk of the District of Massachusetts.] 
 
 f •" 
 
 LATELY PUBLISHED, 
 
 Lectures on School Keeping. By Samuel R. Hall. Third 
 edition. 1'his work is intended to be a complete school teacher's 
 manual, and contains all the necessary practical directions for 
 their observance in the instruction and management of schools. 
 It has been productive of much good, and were it in the hands of 
 every teacher and carefully studied, it would produce an improve- 
 ment in our common schools, almost beyond belief. So sensible 
 of this are the enlightened legislators of New York, that they have 
 passed an act authorising the commissioner to procure a copy for 
 every district in the State, and it is to be hoped for the cause of 
 education, that the example may be imitated by other States. It 
 has received unqualified praise from all the Journals, and from all 
 the teachers who have examined it, 
 
 Lectures to Female Teachers on School Keeping. By 
 Samuel R. Hall, author of Lectures on School Keeping. 
 Extract from the Preface. 
 
 * The author has aimed to render all the directions practical, 
 and make the volume a general directory for properly discharg- 
 ing the responsible duties involved in the office of the Primary 
 Teacher. The work is designed, not merely to be read, but to be 
 studied; it may also be made a daily manual, during the time de- 
 voted to teaching. 
 
 INFANT SCHOOL MANUAL, or Teacher's Assistant; 
 Containing a view of the system of Infant Schools. Also, a vari- 
 ety of useful lessons, for the use of teachers. — By Mrs. Howland. 
 New edition enlarged. 
 
 The rapidity with which the two first editions were sold, is evi- 
 dence of the want of such a work as this. This edition has been 
 improved and enlarged, and will be found a valuable assistant to 
 u 'I' " ar d in, or are desirous of qualifying themselves 
 
 for teaching Infant Schools. It will also be useful to every teach- 
 er of young children in common schools or families. 
 
 WAITT AND DOWS PRESS , B O S T O N . 
 
DEDICATION. 
 
 To MADAME LOUISE S. W. BELLOC, 
 
 AND 
 
 MADAMOISELLE ADELAIDE DE MONTGOLFIER. 
 
 To you, sisters in affection, and united in your ef- 
 forts to promote human virtue and improvement, asso- 
 ciated with the friend and benefactor of America the 
 good Lafayette, in the important care of selecting a na- 
 tional library for your beloved country, the following 
 pages are respectfully and affectionately inscribed by 
 one, who is proud to have been acknowledged by you as 
 a friend and an associate in the cause of education. For 
 this distinguished honor, as well as the affection mani- 
 fested by you for my beloved sister, during her residence 
 in France, permit me thus publicly to express my grati- 
 tude. May the friendship which in so interesting a 
 manner has been commenced between us be elevated and 
 permanent in its nature, as the objects which have giv- 
 en rise to it are noble and imperishable. 
 
 Almira H. Lincoln Phelps. 
 
 Mont Cervus, Guilford, Vermont, 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following Saturday Lectures were delivered to the 
 pupils of Troy Female Seminary, while the Author pre- 
 sided over that Institution, during the visit of the Princi- 
 pal in Europe, in 1830 and 1831. Although in being re- 
 vised for the press, they have received alterations and ad- 
 ditions, they are now offered to the public substantially 
 the same, as to the plan and execution, as they were 
 originally delivered. 
 
 This volume, which comprises the first series of a 
 course of Lectures on Female Education, is principally 
 devoted to subjects connected with Intellectual Improve- 
 ment. It is the author's intention to prepare the re- 
 maining series for publication within the ensuing year. 
 
 The second series will, in part, be devoted to the con- 
 sideration of those Affections of the Mind called Emotions, 
 comprehending our Moral and Religious Feelings, the 
 Duties of Woman in domestic life, as a teacher of youth, 
 in society, and towards her Maker. 
 
 It was at first designed that the whole series should be 
 comprised in one volume ; but the subjects which present- 
 ed themselves were too numerous and important to be 
 compressed within the small compass at first intended, 
 and there seemed also to be a natural division between 
 the subjects which constituted the whole course. 
 
 Although Intellectual Improvement is not in reality to 
 
 be separated from Moral Cultivation, since .both should 
 
 proceed together, it is more convenient to treat of them 
 
 separately. Thus we may give the distinct history of 
 1# 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 some one kingdom, without carrying on that of another 
 with which it is intimately connected, any farther than 
 may be necessary in the furtherance of our principal 
 design ; but when we have traced the history of the one, 
 we may then commence that of the other. 
 
 The object of these Lectures was to awaken in the 
 minds of the pupils, habits of thought with respect to the 
 nature and design of education, and the practical appli- 
 cation which ought to be made of its various branches. 
 The young ladies to whom they were addressed were 
 pursuing studies of different kinds ; and it was important 
 that they should know the ' why and the wherefore,' with 
 the broad and general principles of literature and 
 science. Their teachers in the individual classes would 
 no doubt endeavor to point out these ; but every teacher 
 is well aware that by long dwelling upon a particular 
 department of education, he becomes minute, and that 
 there is always danger that the general scope of a 
 science may be lost sight of, in the microscopic views 
 which he is obliged to take. Many a pupil who has 
 studied each page of a text book with close attention, has 
 been found unable to give an explanation of the outlines 
 and general character of the work, or the science on 
 which it treated. 
 
 It was intended in these Lectures to exhibit the na- 
 ture and objects of female education, with outlines of the 
 various sciences connected with it : in nearly all of these 
 the author had at different periods personally instructed, 
 and her views of them were the result of her own 
 experience and observation. 
 
 In appearing again before the public as an author, 
 I feel a degree of timidity unknown on former occasions. 
 In my first work, ' Familiar Lectures on Botany,' my steps 
 were supported by guides who, if not infallible, were de- 
 
PREFACE. 7 
 
 serving"of veneration and confidence. If I wandered from 
 the path of true science, it was with Linnaeus, with Jus- 
 sieu and Mirbel. If, leaving these guides for a time to con- 
 verse familiarly with the fair young beings, of whom the 
 flowers of summer are no unapt emblems, — if, pausing to 
 discourse with them of the goodness of that Great Bene- 
 factor whose blessings are so profusely shed around our 
 pathway, or to suggest from the consideration of the 
 works of nature and the bounties of Providence, reflec- 
 tions touching our own moral and religious obligations, — 
 still my venerable instructers were patiently bearing with 
 my garrulity, and ever ready to help me forward in my 
 attempt to unfold the beautiful system which arranges the 
 objects of an important part of the kingdom of nature. 
 
 In my Dictionary of Chemistry, a work of more 
 severe labor, and less cheered with the glowing hues 
 with which imagination invests the subjects of botanical 
 research, I was secure from apprehension, by the respon- 
 sibilities of the authors whom I translated, and the ap- 
 probation and encouragement of two friends of science 
 who kindly encouraged me in my labors, and gave them 
 the sanction of their names.* Under such auspices, I 
 had little reason to fear that even the parts of that work 
 in which I ventured at originality would meet with 
 severe criticism. The call for three large editions of 
 the Lectures on Botany within two years, with the 
 adoption of my Dictionary of Chemistry into academies, 
 colleges, and medical schools, have encouraged me to 
 offer these Lectures to the public. 
 
 But notwithstanding so many unexpected encourage- 
 ments, it is with hesitation that I now unveil to public 
 observation those scenes ever to be remembered, when 
 
 * Professors Silliman and Eaton. 
 
8 PREFACE. 
 
 surrounded by a numerous assembly of young females,* 
 among whom were my own daughters, and many little 
 less dear to me, I endeavored to impress upon youthful 
 intellects the truths of science, and upon yet unsophisti- 
 cated hearts the love of virtue and sentiments of reli- 
 gion. Although the partial affection of these dear pupils 
 led them to believe that these instructions might be 
 useful to others, strangers may judge differently ; they 
 may view with the cold eye of criticism, attempts to do 
 good which were prompted by a warm heart and 
 zeal to elevate the female character and discharge a 
 sacred obligation. 
 
 Those, who with me, feel deeply on the subject of 
 human improvement, and who may perceive errors of 
 judgment, or faults of execution in the following pages, 
 will, I trust, be willing to communicate with me as friend 
 with friend ; and such may be assured that any criticism 
 or counsel thus offered, will be gratefully received and 
 acknowledged. 
 
 It has been suggested by teachers of experience, that 
 these Lectures would prove valuable assistants in educa- 
 tion, by affording a kind of Synopsis for weekly reviewing 
 lessons in the various departments of study, as well as 
 a suitable reading book for young ladies' schools. f It 
 was indeed partly in the anticipation of such an object 
 that the lectures were originally committed to writing, as 
 the author was little confined to notes, but often pursued 
 the train of thought which was suggested at the mo* 
 ment. 
 
 Amongst the numerous works on education which are 
 
 * The number of pupils was nearly two hundred. 
 
 t Among the number of those who have expressed this opin- 
 ion, I have pleasure in naming Miss Beecher, the respected Prin- 
 cipal of the Hartford Female Seminary, to whom the plan of this 
 work was early communicated. 
 
PREFACE. 9 
 
 now before the public, the author knows of none similar 
 in plan to this. Abridgements and compilations differ 
 much from compounds, which, though formed of pre- 
 viously existing elements, come fresh from the crucible 
 of mind, bearing upon them the author's 'own image 
 and superscription.' 
 
 The names which appear in the dedication of this 
 work may not be extensively known in this country. 
 To those not conversant with French literature, the most 
 distinguished writers are not generally known until 
 time engraves their names upon the records of history. 
 In America, the names of the distinguished women of 
 England are almost as familiar as if the Atlantic did not 
 separate the two countries. The reason of this is obvi- 
 ous; we speak and write a common language, and 
 thought, meeting with no impediment, is wafted across 
 the ocean with a rapidity almost equal to its own opera- 
 tions. Thus the name and writings of Maria Edge- 
 worth, are known to almost every child of our country, 
 while those of Madame Belloc and Madamoiselle de 
 Montgolfier, although no less celebrated in Europe, 
 are by no means familiar to Americans. These two 
 ladies, witha singular devotion of friendship, mutually 
 share in fortune, literary labor and fame.* They have 
 been connected with M. Jullien, one of the most enlight- 
 ened men of the age,f in conducting the Revue Ency- 
 
 * Madame Belloc in a letter to myself, says, ' T ai pour aide une 
 autre moi, meilleur, que moi, et plus capable d'accomplir, c'est 
 uneamie, une soeur d'adoption, avec laquelle depuis douze ans, 
 je suis a moitie de tout ; peines, plaisirs, traveaux, families nous 
 avout tout en commune, c'est en son nom autant qu'au mien que 
 je vous remercie de votre lettre, et que je reclame un peu de votre 
 amitie ; j'aime a pensee qu'avec vous, Madame, nous nous trouve- 
 rons comme avec Madame Willard licis d'une longue et anciene 
 amitie par de profonds rapporte de pensee et de gout.' 
 
 f For an interesting sketch of this Savant see a late communi- 
 cation of Mr. Willis, for the New York Mirror. 
 
10 PREFACE. 
 
 clopedique, a distinguished Literary Journal of Paris ; they 
 take a deep and active interest in many of the schools 
 and charitable institutions of France, and the literature of 
 their country is enriched by many of their valuable and 
 joint productions. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 LECTURE I. Introductory 13 
 
 " II. Different views of young persons re- 
 
 " specting the objects of education. 
 
 " Four classes of pupils: 1st, the gay 
 
 " and fashionable ; 2d, the idle and 
 
 u careless ; 3d, the moral ; 4th, • the 
 
 " pious *. 17 
 
 " III. The nature and objects of education. .25 
 
 " IV. Private and Public Education. — Public 
 
 " Schools.. .-. 33 
 
 " V. Physical Education , 49 
 
 " VI. Division of Mental Faculties. Cultiva- 
 
 " tion of Mental Faculties. Mental 
 
 " Discipline 65 
 
 " VII. Spelling. Articulate Sounds. Read- 
 
 " ing 75 
 
 « VIII. Reading 81 
 
 " IX. Grammar 89 
 
 " X. Ancient Languages 95 
 
 « 
 
 XI. Modern Languages 108 
 
 " XII. Modern ^Geography. Ancient Geog- 
 
 « raphy 116 
 
 " XIII. History 135 
 
 " XIV. Mythology 147 
 
*• 
 
 12 CONTENTS. 
 
 LECTURE XV. Natural Science. Astronomy. Nat- 
 ural Philosophy 161 
 
 " XVI. Chemistry. History of Chemistry 172 
 
 " XVII. Natural History. Zoology. Botany.. 197 
 
 " XVIII. Mineralogy. Geology 213 
 
 " XIX. Mathematics. Arithmetic and Alge- 
 bra. Geometry 236 
 
 41 XX. Rhetoric. Criticism. Composition. ..249 
 
 " XXI. Logic. Moral Philosophy. Intellec- 
 tual Philosophy 264 
 
 u XXII. Accomplishments. Music: Dancing. 
 
 Drawing 280 
 
 Parting Hymn, sung by the Pupils of 
 Troy Female Seminary, at the close 
 of Examination, Feb. 16, 1831 307 
 
LECTURES. 
 
 LECTURE I. 
 
 Introductory. 
 
 My dear Pupils : With feelings of deep anxiety and 
 a solemn sense of my own responsibility, I now ad- 
 dress you. We have just parted with her, from whom I 
 as well as you, have been accustomed to receive advice 
 and instruction. Every receding wave is carrying her 
 from her native country, and her loved and cherished in- 
 stitution. The affectionate and admonitory words which 
 she spake at parting are yet fresh in our minds ; and we, 
 like the Ephesians when St. Paul tore himself from them, 
 sorrow most of all, lest we may see her face no more. 
 But let us hope that a life on which so much depends 
 may be preserved, and that a mind whose efforts have 
 been so greatly blessed for the improvement of her sex, 
 may be restored to us with renewed vigor, enriched by 
 observations of the state of female education in foreign 
 countries, and with increased facilities for usefulness in 
 her own. Let us show our love to this dear friend, not 
 by vainly regretting her absence, but by remembering her 
 words and following her precepts. 
 
 I see by the affectionate beamings of many a youthful 
 countenance, that you are ready to give your confidence 
 and love to one whom Providence has called to fill a 
 station to which her own ambition was far from aspiring. 
 To me, my dear girls, the change is great, from the re- 
 tirement of domestic life, to find myself within a few short 
 years, called to preside over a public institution, number- 
 ing nearly two hundred pupils, many of whom are al- 
 
14 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 ready distinguished for literary attainments, to be the re- 
 sponsible head of so numerous a family, and to find it 
 my duty to direct and advise a body of teachers, combin- 
 ing experience and learning, with talents of a high order. 
 
 It is with humility, in view of my own deficiences, that 
 I speak to you of these responsibilities. I wish you to 
 know and feel the cares and anxieties of my situation ; 
 and may I not count upon each one of you as a friend, 
 ready to give me your encouragement and aid upon all 
 occasions when they can be useful. These occasions, my 
 dear pupils, will be many : to you I must look for industry, 
 to sustain by your improvement the high character of the 
 institution. You must aid me in maintaining good order 
 and in supporting discipline ; you must, by your obedience 
 and attention to the teachers, render their situations 
 agreeable ; and finally, by your affectionate and encour- 
 aging behaviour, support me in the discharge of my du- 
 ties. 
 
 In consenting to take upon myself the charge of this 
 institution during the necessary absence of its Principal, 
 I have done what was demanded by a sense of moral 
 obligation, as well as by sisterly affection ; and in the 
 discharge of my duties, 1 must look for guidance and sup- 
 port to Him to whom we owe all our intellectual faculties, 
 the physical power to execute what the mind dictates, 
 and who will not require more of us than he will enable 
 us to perform. 
 
 In pursuance with the custom of the late Principal, I 
 shall continue to devote a portion of time, on each Satur- 
 day, to giving general instruction on subjects connected 
 with literature,, morals and religion. In these Lectures 
 I shall consider the nature and object of education, the 
 various branches of study here pursued with their prac- 
 tical application, female manners and accomplishments, 
 the peculiar duties of woman in her domestic relations, 
 towards society, and towards her Maker. 
 
 It is of vast importance that you should entertain just 
 views of the bearing which the ideas you now gain, and 
 the habits you now form will have "upon your future des- 
 tinies both for time and eternity. As I look around upon 
 the young and happy faces before me, and consider the 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 15 
 
 changes which a few years will produce, my emotions are 
 too powerful for expression. I see in the gay, unreflecting 
 o-irl, the future wife, the mother, and the candidate for im- 
 mortality, having power not only over her own destiny, 
 but capable of wielding vast influence over other immor- 
 tal beings. Impressed as these solemn truths are upon 
 my mind, I may at times, seem to expect from you too 
 much seriousness and reflection, at an age when gaiety 
 and thoughtlessness are so natural. 
 
 Far be from me the wish to check the spontaneous 
 cheerfulness of your young hearts, to see you sorrow- 
 ful and desponding, or to expect in you an unnatural 
 precocity of judgment and forethought. The world will 
 soon enough change the buoyancy of youthful glee into 
 heaviness. Enjoy then this spring time of your existence, 
 this morning of your life ; but enjoy with moderation, and 
 spare something from the exuberance of your emotions, 
 to soften and cheer the sober and pensive season, which, 
 should your lives be spared, will as assuredly follow, as 
 evening follows morning or as spring is succeeded by 
 autumn. Should you see a group of happy children, sport- 
 ing near the border of some dreadful precipice, which 
 they in their childish glee heeded not, would you think it 
 unkind to check them in their mirth, in order to point 
 out their danger ? or if one should chance to have stray- 
 ed to the verge of the precipice, would you hesitate to 
 seize him even somewhat roughly, in order to save him 
 from destruction 1 Think it not, then, my dear girls, un- 
 kind in those, who by the light of experience see dangers 
 to you invisible, if they raise a warning voice, if they 
 give a temporary check to your gaiety, in order to avert 
 evils which they see impending over you. The eye of 
 experience sees before you trials of virtue, affliction, 
 pain and death; and < after death comeththe judgment.' 
 In view of these solemn and momentous interests, I can- 
 not but watch with deep anxiety and solicitude, even 
 your slightest actions ; these, though individually of little 
 consequence, appear^of vast importance when considered 
 as indications of future character. 
 
 All human beings must suffer pain, and sorrow ; but on 
 woman do the evils incident to human existence fall with 
 
16 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 peculiar severity. Our hearts are sensitive, we are easily 
 elated, or depressed ; the delicacy of our nervous system, 
 renders us subject to a thousand agitations to which the 
 other sex, from greater physical strength and more firmness 
 of nerves are exempt. We are subject to caprices, and 
 need to be fortified by intellectual discipline, and above 
 all, by religious principles to enable us to overcome the 
 weaknesses to which our minds, owing to a peculiar phy- 
 sical organization are subject. 
 
 How much is the delicate frame of woman called to en- 
 dure ! Pain and sickness ; — and, what is more trying to the 
 mind than personal suffering, we must experience the an- 
 guish of watching over the distresses of others ; of wit- 
 nessing death in its triumph over the objects nearest to 
 our affections. Yes, you, whose hearts now beat high 
 with expectation, who feel that the world is matur- 
 ing roses for you to pluck, even you, my daughters, 
 are to find thorns springing up before you. You are 
 destined to watch over the couch of sick and dying 
 friends, parents, brothers and sisters, and perhaps to per- 
 form the last sad offices for some of these your compan- 
 ions who are now before you glowing with health and 
 beauty — some of you will mourn over dying children, some 
 will experience the sorrow and desolation of widowhood ; 
 and all, sooner or later, will taste of death, the com- 
 mon lot of mortals. 
 
 In uttering these predictions, I am not arrogating to 
 myself a supernatural foresight ; life, with some slight 
 variations, will be to you, as to those who have gone be- 
 fore you. The smaller circumstances, the filling up of 
 the picture of your lives, time only will exhibit, but the 
 outlines are too darkly and plainly marked not to be 
 manifest to the eye of experience. Within the last seven 
 years, during which time I have been connected with this 
 institution, many pupils whom I have addressed from this 
 place, and who like you were full of hope and anticipa- 
 tion, have gone forth into the world, only to prove its van- 
 ity and falsehood. Some have felt ^he bitterness arising 
 from the consciousness of having bestowed their young 
 affections upon unworthy objects, some have pined in 
 secret over a hopeless attachment, while others after hav- 
 
DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 17 
 
 ing been nattered and worshipped as angels, have been left 
 to the heart-rending condition of deserted and neglected 
 wives. Some, who to appearance were happily settled in 
 life, have been called to leave beautiful and elegant 
 homes, the arms of fond affection, with all the charms of 
 domestic life, and to lie down in the grave. The most 
 devoted love, the most extensive wealth, 
 
 'Could give no more 
 Than earth enough to make their narrow bed.' 
 
 Even the young and beautiful, when the seal of death is 
 upon her, is given up to corruption, and the worm feeds 
 sweetly upon its victim. 
 
 Is there not enough, then, my beloved pupils, in view 
 of the various trials, which are incident to woman, and es- 
 pecially in view of the final destination of all human beings, 
 to bring you to reflection ? And, oh that you may lift 
 up your hearts in prayer, and beseech your Heavenly 
 Father to fit you for the performance of your duties in life, 
 for the patient suffering of your trials, and for the enjoy- 
 ment of Heaven. 
 
 i Woman's lot is on you ! silent tears to weep 
 
 And patient smiles to wear through suffering's hour, 
 
 And sumless riches from affections deep 
 
 To pour on broken reeds — a wasted shower ! — 
 
 And to make idols and to find them clay, 
 
 And to bewail that worship ! therefore pray ! — 
 
 Earth will forsake — Oh, happy to have given 
 
 Th' unbroken heart's first frag-rance unto Heaven.' 
 
 LECTURE II. 
 
 Different views of young persons respecting the object 
 of education. Four classes of pupils : 1st, the gay 
 and fashionable ; 2d, the idle and careless ; 3d, the 
 moral; Ath, the pious. 
 
 It is of great importance to you all, that you should 
 well understand your own characters, the views which 
 
 2* 
 
18 DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 
 
 you entertain upon the subject of your present advan- 
 tages of education, and the preparations you are making 
 for futurity, both as it respects this life and that which is 
 to come. And yet, how few young persons do reflect 
 deeply upon these things; how often are they careless 
 of the seeds which may be taking root in their minds. 
 What should we think of a farmer, who was either idle 
 in spring, or indifferent whether good seed, or such as 
 would bring forth useless, noxious weeds, were sown 
 upon his grounds? But what is the product of a farm, 
 compared with the fruits of , the human mind? The 
 former transient and perishable ; the latter treasured up 
 in the great record of human actions, and made the 
 criterion by which the destiny of the immortal soul is 
 fixed for eternity. 
 
 Let us suppose each one of you, asking herself for 
 what purpose am I placed in this institution, and how 
 am I improving the advantages here offered me ? After 
 searching into your own hearts, let conscience make her 
 report ; happy indeed are those who will not stand self- 
 accused at that tribunal of moral feeling, which the 
 Almighty has established in your own minds for the 
 regulation of your conduct. 
 
 The different individuals now before rne, with respect 
 to their peculiar views, motives, and characters, may, 
 perhaps with propriety be arranged in four classes. Do 
 not, my dear girls, think me severe in what I am going 
 to say. Like the physician, I must consider the nature 
 of your maladies, in order to point out the remedies. 
 Were you diseased, without any means of cure ; had 
 Providence cursed you with certain moral stains which 
 were irrevocably fixed, I " would lay my hand upon my 
 mouth,' and utter no words of reproach to a misery so 
 hopeless. But blessed be God, a renovating principle is 
 ever ready to operate, if human beings will yield them- 
 selves to its influences. Conscience, like a faithful 
 monitor, is ever warning us of our own danger, and the 
 grace of the Holy Spirit is given to guide us in the path 
 of virtue and happiness. 
 
 I observed that you might, with respect to your present 
 characters, be considered as constituting four distinct 
 
DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 19 
 
 classes ; they are the following ; 1st, the idle and careless, 
 2d, the gay and fashionable ; 3d, the moral; Ath, the pious. 
 I shall first consider the idle and careless, those who 
 think only of present gratification. This class, I am 
 sorry to say, is but too numerous among school-girls. 
 Many of you have been nursed in the lap of affluence 
 and ease, accustomed from your infancy to all the grat- 
 ifications which parental fondness, aided by wealth, could 
 bestow; alas! how little does the doating parent reflect 
 when tenderly nurturing a beloved child, that he may 
 be administering a slow poison, which will infuse itself 
 through the whole moral system, and in future years 
 render his child imbecile and degraded ! 
 
 Luxury has a most decidedly injurious effect upon 
 our moral natures. Do you doubt this? Look into the 
 history of nations and of individuals, and you will see 
 them almost uniformly corrupted by luxury. The 
 Romans were virtuous until enriched by the spoils of 
 vanquished nations. Our own ancestors, in the primi- 
 tive poverty and simplicity of the early days of our coun- 
 try, showed themselves capable of high and noble 
 actions ; their descendants enriched by trade, commerce, 
 and manufactures, are, it is to be feared, degenerating 
 from the lofty character which w r as exemplified in the 
 fathers of the revolution, and in their unostentatious 
 wives and sisters. And yet wealth does not, necessarily, 
 corrupt the mind ; when properly used, it furnishes the 
 means of doing good to others ; of assisting to promote 
 the noble designs of such, as possess vast benevolence, 
 without the pecuniary means of carrying their plans into 
 effect. It is by wealth that we can obtain the best means 
 for our own improvement, in the purchase of valuable 
 books, in visiting interesting works of nature and art, 
 in gaining assistance from the talents and information of 
 others, and in bestowing leisure for mental cultiva- 
 tion. 
 
 But how do the class of pupils, of whom I am speak- 
 ing, view the wealth which their parents ' are careful 
 shall follow them to this retreat? How do they 
 spend the money thus lavished upon them? Besides 
 furnishing themselves on all common occasions with 
 
20 DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 
 
 those eatables which are so injurious to health and 
 consequently to mental energy, we see some descend- 
 ing even to bribe domestics to purchase dainties, at 
 times and in a 'manner forbidden by the rules of the 
 institution? How are holidays spent by such a pupil ? 
 in writing letters to gladden the hearts of absent 
 friends, in looking into the state of her wardrobe, and 
 repairing such articles of dress, as may need it ; in 
 putting her room in order, in paying and receiving the 
 visits of an interesting and intelligent friend, in the 
 perusal of instructive books, or in anticipating some of 
 the coming school exercises in order to be prompt in all 
 her duties ? Would that I might believe that thus all of 
 you did spend the hours which are at your own disposal : 
 but however unpleasant the thought, it cannot be disguised 
 that such seasons are very differently passed by the idle 
 and careless. 
 
 Should we enter the room of such a pupil on a 
 Wednesday or Saturday afternoon,* we should probably 
 see her sitting by a basket of nuts, fruit, or confection- 
 ary, her dress slatternly, her hair disordered, and the 
 appearance of the room in perfect harmony with that of 
 its mistress. Dismissing this disgusting picture, let us 
 consider the effect of such sensual indulgence. Our 
 young miss awakes in the morning with a head-ache, she 
 goes to the breakfast-table with a loathing for simple 
 and wholesome food ; when the bell rings for study, she 
 sits down with a listless and vacant mind, opens a 
 book, looks upon the page, and perhaps reads the words, 
 but if she attempts to investigate a subject which 
 requires any effort of mind, she feels herself inadequate 
 to the task ; at length she appears before her teacher 
 with the degraded sense of her own mental inferiority, 
 and stammers out an excuse about the head-ache, want 
 of time, &,c. We might follow the same pupil to the 
 public examination, and see her exposing her ignorance 
 to the chagrin of her friends, the mortification of her 
 teacher, and her own confusipn. I have already dwelt 
 
 * At these periods the regular exercises of the institution are 
 suspended. 
 
DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 21 
 
 longer upon this character than I intended ; much more 
 might with truth be said, to heighten its deformity, but 
 I gladly turn from it. I am not willing to admit, even 
 to myself that any one of you have sat for the picture so 
 far delineated : but if any can see in it her own like- 
 ness, let me hope that she may be induced to throw 
 aside these habits so injurious to mental improvement, 
 and attempt to render herself worthy of a dignified and 
 honorable station in society. At the tender moment of 
 parting with a daughter, to leave her among strang- 
 ers, a father is very apt, as a last act. of kindness, to 
 bestow a liberal amount of pocket-money ; and the 
 mother and sisters often feel themselves bound to show 
 their affection by enclosing money in letters.* 
 
 The next class of pupils which we are to consider 
 includes the gay and fashionable ; those whose highest 
 object in the attainment of an education is to enable 
 themselves to show off in circles of fashion, to seem to be 
 amiable and learned, instead of being so. We often see 
 such exhibiting, in the pursuit of certain branches of 
 education, a becoming diligence : they are faithful to 
 their lessons in music, dancing, drawing; and, stimulat- 
 ed by the wish of making a figure at examinations, they 
 are sometimes found among the best scholars in literary 
 branches. In attendance upon a bible class or public 
 worship, such pupils are generally remiss, and in the 
 performance of moral duties, we often see a great defi- 
 ciency. They are usually wanting in meekness and 
 lowliness of mind ; if a school-mate is unfashionable 
 in her dress, or rustic in her manners, she is con- 
 demned to neglect and contempt ; or if a teacher, occu- 
 pied with higher objects than personal decoration, ap- 
 pears dressed in a manner not correspondent with the 
 latest fashions, too often do this class of pupils show 
 what is their standard of merit by pertness and disre- 
 spect. We shall consider hereafter the tendency of an 
 undue regard to fashion and fashionable accomplish- 
 ments. In the mean time, may those who are' conscious 
 of erring in this respect, think seriously upon the subject, 
 
 * It is to be hoped that the exposition of the injury caused by 
 these supplies may deter some from such ill-judged kindness. 
 
22 DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 
 
 and strive to gain more just and elevated views of the 
 concerns and objects of this probationary state. 
 
 But there are a third class of pupils who have a higher 
 standard of merit than fashion and who are above the gross 
 enjoyments, the listless ennui which marks a certain class 
 of school-girls. There are those, who, early imbued with 
 virtuous principles, and a regard to moral obligations, 
 would grieve to be found wanting in any duty towards 
 their parents, their teachers, or their companions. Such 
 pupils are exemplary in their deportment and obedient to 
 rules; they endeavor to make the most of the advantages 
 bestowed upon them ; and like the young man, who, af- 
 ter enumerating his many virtues, asked our Saviour, 
 ' what lack I yet?' such may complacently suppose they 
 are doing all that can be required of them ; and yet, one 
 thing they lack ; ' He builds too low who builds beneath 
 the skies.' There is a higher and a holier motive than 
 even duty to a parent or a friend, or benevolence to our 
 fellow-creatures ; piety operating upon the heart is the vi- 
 tal principle which gives life to all its virtues. 
 
 The fourth and last class of pupils are those, who, in- 
 fluenced by the hopes of the gospel, act not with refer- 
 ence to this world only, but to eternity. I am aware that 
 between the two latter classes of pupils it is often difficult 
 to discriminate ; and far be it from me to sit in judgment 
 upon the motives of any — to say of any individual pupil, 
 she is merely a moralist, and of another, she is pious. 
 God, who knows the secret motives of all, seeth those 
 who serve him in sincerity and singleness of heart. 
 'Not every one that saith Lord, Lord, shall enter into 
 the kingdom of heaven, but he that doeth the will of 
 my Father in heaven.' It is not to those who are loud 
 in professions, who forsake their own duties in order to 
 watch the conduct of others; it is not to those who vir- 
 tually say, ' Stand by, I am holier than thou,' that we look 
 as the patterns of christian character. Blessings are pro- 
 nounced upon the meek and lowly, the poor in heart, the 
 peacemakers, and they who suffer for righteousness' sake. 
 
 The members of this institution who profess to be fol- 
 lowers of Christ, ought to be aware of their high respon- 
 sibilities. Your example may invite others to seek that 
 
DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 23 
 
 religion which they see producing in you, good fruits ; or 
 it may disgust them, if accompanied with forbidding and 
 unpleasant manners. To each of you, the question should 
 often arise ; What should be my walk and conversation 
 under my present circumstances? how may I, while here, 
 adorn the religion I profess ? Surrounded as you are by 
 gay, and often thoughtless companions, by those who can- 
 not appreciate your motives of action, it may seem to you 
 a subject of doubt, whether you should not wholly, with- 
 draw yourselves from society, rather than incur the haz- 
 ard of lowering your own standard of duty, or of losing 
 your own seriousness amid surrounding levity. 
 
 The scriptures command christians to come out 
 from the world, to separate themselves from it. Yet 
 our Saviour himself familiarly associated with publi- 
 cans and sinners— he went to their entertainments and 
 conversed with them in public places. At Cana of Gali- 
 lee we find him attending a wedding, and promoting the 
 festivities of the occasion, by miraculously changing wa- 
 ter into wine. The Pharisees indeed reproach him for 
 these things ; they follow him in his hours of social inter- 
 course, and point the finger of scorn, because he associ- 
 ates with sinners 1 Yet the meek and humble Jesus 
 is not deterred from his purpose We see him seated, not 
 among a few, who already esteemed themselves righteous, 
 but with the multitude , we hear him in mild and gentle 
 accents telling them to knock and the door of mercy shall 
 be opened, to ask and they shall receive, to repent and 
 they shall be forgiven, to go in peace and sin no more. 
 His kind and attractive manner first drew the heart to- 
 wards him, and then to the doctrine which he taught. 
 
 We are not then to suppose that our Saviour intended 
 his followers should separate themselves from the world 
 by ceasing to hold intercourse with it ; we cannot be- 
 lieve that the Christian, as some zealots teach, is in the 
 performance of his highest duty, by withdrawing from 
 the world and burying himself in a cloister, in order to 
 give his heart wholly to God and the services of religion. 
 
 How, then, you may ask, are we to separate ourselves 
 from the world 1 We answer, by piety, meekness, and 
 readiness to do good to others, and in all things to adorn 
 
24 DIFFERENT CHARACTERS OF PUPILS. 
 
 your profession ; it is thus that you should distinguish or 
 separate yourselves, being 'while in, above the world.' 
 You need not fear to follow the example of your Saviour, 
 who mixed with the multitude, that he might do them 
 good ; and although you have not the power, miraculous- 
 ly to cure diseases, you may do much towards healing 
 the moral diseases of your thoughtless companions, by 
 seeking occasions to give them good counsel, and proving 
 by your own conduct that ' the ways of wisdom are 
 pleasant, and all her paths peace.' 
 
 This institution has at all times numbered among its mem- 
 bersmany who professed to enjoy the hopes and promises of 
 religion. These have exerted a vast and salutary influence 
 upon other pupils ; yet had they always considered their 
 obligations to let their ' light so shine, that others, seeing 
 their good works, might glorify their Father in heaven,' 
 their influence might still more extensively have been felt. 
 Some have yielded too much to the example of the mere- 
 ly fashionable, the gay and the trifling, and instead of 
 firmly standing upon the ground of christian duty, and 
 refusing to countenance any thing contrary to christian 
 obligation, they have seemed almost fearful of being re- 
 cognized as professors of religion, and with the disciple 
 who denied his Lord, to say by their practice, ' We know 
 not the man.' 
 
 In some cases, pious and conscientious pupils, disgust- 
 ed with the levity and frivolity of many of their fellow stu- 
 dents, have coldly withdrawn from any intercourse with 
 them, and in consequence have gained the reputation of 
 being morose and unamiable. A feeling of mutual jeal- 
 ousy and dislike has thus taken the place of that confi- 
 dence and affection which ought to prevail among mem- 
 bers of the same institution. 
 
 You will at once see the evils which must result from 
 such a state of things ; and permit me to hope that the 
 pious members ofthe institution, will unite with me in en- 
 deavoring to lead the thoughtless to reflection, and to ele- 
 vate the tone of moral and religious feeling among us. 
 And that you may be enabled to be useful, strive to make 
 yourselves agreeable ; join in innocent recreations, and do 
 not despise external graces, or a suitable attention to 
 
NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 25 
 
 dress and accomplishments. Be mild and courteous, 
 dignified and exemplary, and you will command an in- 
 fluence, which neither wealth nor fashion can gain; an influ- 
 ence over the hearts of those around you, and thus have 
 it in your power to arouse the careless and idle to a 
 sense of duty, to enforce upon the gay and thoughtless 
 higher and better motives, and to convince those who 
 depend merely on a cold morality, that human virtue is but 
 a shadow when unaccompanied by religious affections. 
 
 St. Paul, like his divine master became ' all things to 
 all men, that he might by all means save some.' ' Never,' 
 says an English writer,* ' was man more deeply versed 
 than he, in the knowledge of the ways which lead to the 
 human heart ; and never was man more disposed by prin- 
 ciple and by feeling to apply that knowledge to the be- 
 nevolent purpose of opening the heart to the influence 
 of the truth which saves and sanctifies. Who would at- 
 tempt to portray the character of Paul (or who would re- 
 cognize the likeness if attempted) without the kindness, 
 the gentleness, the suavity and sympathy which he him- 
 self copied from the model of absolute perfection.' May 
 you my dear christian pupils, in these respects, imitate 
 St. Paul, even as he imitated Christ. 
 
 LECTURE III. 
 
 Education, its Nature and Object. 
 
 The true end of education, is to prepare the young for 
 the active duties of life, and to enable them to fill with 
 propriety those stations to which, by Providence, they 
 maybe called. This includes also a preparation for eter- 
 nity ; for we cannot live well, even in this world without 
 those dispositions of heart which are necessary to fit us for 
 heaven. To discharge aright the duties of life, requires 
 not only that the intellect shall be enlightened, but that the 
 heart shall be purified. A mother does not perform her 
 
 * Rev. H. F. Burder. 
 
26 NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 
 
 whole duty, even when in addition to providing for the 
 wants of her children, and improving their understanding, 
 she sets before them an example of justice and benevo- 
 lence, of moderation in her own desires, and a command 
 over her own passions : this may be all that is required of 
 a heathen mother ; but the christian female must go with 
 her little ones to Jesus of Nazareth, to seek his blessing; 
 she must strive to elevate the minds of her offspring by 
 frequent reference to a future state ; she must teach them 
 to hold the world and its pursuits in subserviency to more 
 important interests, and to prize above all things that 
 peace, which as the world giveth not, neither can it take 
 away. 
 
 Thus comprehensive, my dear girls, is education ; 
 it consists in training the body to healthful exercises, and 
 elegant accomplishments, in cultivating and developing 
 the mental powers, in regulating the passions, and above 
 all informing religious habits. * 
 
 Many appear to think that the whole business 
 of a teacher is, to impart instruction in the different 
 branches of learning. This is far from being the 
 most anxious concern of one who realizes the impor- 
 tance of early discipline of the passions, and of early 
 associations upon the moral character. Instruction, or 
 the communication of literary and scientific knowledge, 
 is indeed, but a small part of education ; for a person may 
 be learned and yet have been very badly educated. The 
 great thing is to send forth the young fitted for the 
 various exigencies of life, and did we know what would 
 be the future situation of each one of you, we might 
 proceed somewhat differently in our efforts for your 
 improvement, but it is uncertain, which of your attain- 
 ments in literature, and science, or which of your 
 personal accomplishments will be most useful to you 
 
 * M. Jullien, in his ' Essai General d' Education,' says, Educa- 
 tion is an apprenticeship for life ; its true end like that of exist- 
 ence is well-being or happiness. But although all men either by- 
 reflection or instinct seek this end, although all desire to be happy, 
 most are ignorant of what happiness really consists in, what are 
 the elements which compose it, and the means of obtaining it. Rea- 
 son, observation and experience appear to point out three essen- 
 tial and necessary elements of happiness — health of body, eleva- 
 tion of soul and cultivation of intellect. 
 
NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 27 
 
 hereafter ; whether they are to be exercised only for the 
 improvement and delight of the social circle, or to be 
 the means of gaining your own support and that of 
 others, who may be dependent upon you. 
 
 How many females, who, in youth had cherished the 
 expectation of filling a splendid station in life, have been 
 reduced to the necessity of exerting their talents in order 
 to gain a subsistence. You. are all, probably, acquainted 
 with such ; you may perhaps have heard some of them 
 say, that those trials, by throwing them upon their 
 own resources, had developed the latent powers of 
 their minds, and by divesting them of external ad- 
 vantages, had rendered them more intrinsically valua- 
 ble, "rhose of you, who now enjoy the light of pros- 
 perity, may have no fear that your situations will 
 ever change ; you may not conceive the possibility of 
 suffering those reverses, which you have witnessed in 
 others. ° But, riches are proverbially fleeting; a storm at 
 sea may destroy the freighted vessel on which your parents 
 depend for wealth ; fire may consume their property ; 
 the failures of others may involve them ; the channels of 
 trade may be diverted; manufacturing interests may 
 decline, or landed estates may sink in value; — upon 
 these, and a thousand other chances, does the uncertain 
 tenure of worldly wealth depend. 
 
 Some of you may expect distinction on account of 
 friends high in official stations, but long before you are 
 prepared to take an active part in life, they may have 
 sunk into obscurity. In this country, of all others, the 
 distinction which arises from public offices is the most 
 transient and uncertain. We see a man holding the 
 highest offices in the government ; and his family court- 
 ed and flattered on account of the power and influence 
 which this gives him. We look again, and this same indi- 
 vidual, by a change of public sentiment, or some new move- 
 ment of the political machine, is deprived of his honors, 
 his family are neglected and forgotten, while their pre- 
 tended friends are bustling onwards to pay their court 
 to the rising fortunes of another, who becomes for his 
 short hour ' lord of the ascendant.' 
 
 How important, then, that all of you should provide 
 yourselves with resources against a day of change ! 
 
28 NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 
 
 These resources you are now in a situation to secure, in 
 the attainment of that knowledge and those accomplish- 
 ments, which the present wealth of your parents place 
 within your reach. The above suggestions should also 
 induce those who possess present advantages, to treat 
 with attention such as are less favored by fortune, but 
 who deserve respect for their morals and talents, and 
 who may be destined to future eminence. 
 
 There are among those who now listen to me, some 
 who have early tasted affliction ; some to whom ad- 
 versity is familiar ; these, perhaps, have been accus- 
 tomed to regard themselves as destined to glide through 
 life in obscurity, unnoticed and unknown. But the 
 tempest may have bowed you to the earth only that 
 you may arise strengthened and invigorated. You 
 have seen a slender plant drooping its head and 
 lying low beneath the blast ; but the storm passed, and 
 the plant raised itself up, exhibiting new verdure and 
 strength. Even so it may be with you ; the clouds 
 which darken your young days may clear away, and a 
 brighter sky reveal to you paths of usefulness and 
 honor. In your future prosperity, you may be able 
 to assist by your bounty, and honor by your notice 
 some of those who now pass by you with neglect. 
 Take courage, then, and remember that to a certain 
 iegree, especially in our own country, every one is, in a 
 degree, the ' artificer of his own fortune. 5 
 
 Can we find no cause why the children of the rich, 
 setting out in life under the most favorable circum- 
 stances, often sink into insignificance, while their more 
 humble competitors, struggling against obstacles, rise, 
 higher and higher, till they become elevated in propor- 
 tion to their former depression ? Thus you may have 
 seen a tree wither from excess of nourishment and care, 
 while the mountain pine, neglected and exposed to 
 fierce winds and raging tempests, took strong root, and 
 grew into a lofty tree, delighting the eye by its strength 
 and beauty. If we look to our state legislatures, our 
 national congress, and the highest executive and judicial 
 offices in the country, we do not find these places 
 chiefly occupied by those who were born to wealth, or 
 only taught the pride of aristocratic distinctions. Most 
 
NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 29 
 
 of the great men of our country have made their own 
 fortunes ; most of them began life, knowing that they 
 could hope for no aid or patronage, but must rely solely 
 upon the energies of their own minds and the blessing 
 of God. 
 
 Ask the officers of colleges, which of their students are 
 most distinguished for morality and talents — they will not 
 answer that these are usually the sons of the rich and the 
 great, those who feel that they already possess sufficient 
 recommendations to the favor of the world ; — no, we shall 
 be told that the highest places are generally filled by such 
 students as are struggling against difficulties, in the 
 acquisition of that intellectual wealth which they prize 
 above all earthly blessings, and by means of which they 
 hope to render themselves respected and useful. Similar 
 facts may be witnessed in female institutions : we need 
 not look beyond our own walls to see instances of minds 
 debased and enervated, by the consciousness of wealth, 
 and the idea that this alone can procure honor and re- 
 spect. But can you feel esteem for a fellow pupil, who, 
 spending her time in idleness, exhibits in her con- 
 versation and school exercises a vacant intellect ? And 
 when such an one shall go out into the world, and meet 
 with intelligent men and women, will her money compen- 
 sate for her want of knowledge ? True her society may 
 be courted by the mercenary ; but she cannot avoid per- 
 ceiving the motives which influence them. Could we, 
 my dear pupils, read the hearts of many who live in 
 splendor, we should see them writhing under the morti- 
 fying consciousness of their own real insignificance. 
 
 Some of you may be ready to exclaim, is wealth then 
 a curse, and are we to esteem ourselves less fortunate, 
 than if we were poor and depressed 1 Far be it from me 
 to teach you to be ungrateful for the blessings bestowed 
 by Providence — as blessings should you consider wealth 
 and honorable connexions ; — but remember too, that su- 
 perior privileges lay upon you greater responsibilities. I 
 am happy to say that, in this institution, many of its most 
 exemplary and intellectual pupils have been young ladies 
 of high expectations ; and when we find wealth little 
 prized for its own sake, valued chiefly for the opportunities 
 3* 
 
30 NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 
 
 it affords of acquiring knowledge, and rendering its pos- 
 sessor useful, we feel that the character which exhibits 
 this elevation is truly deserving of our regard. 
 
 You perceive how wide and extended a field is that of 
 education, involving, as it does, your temporal and eternal 
 interests. * Get wisdom,' says the wise king of Israel, 
 ' and with all thy getting, get understanding. When 
 wisdom entereth into the heart, and knowledge is pleasant 
 unto thy soul, discretion shall preserve thee, understand- 
 ing shall keep thee. They will hear and increase in 
 learning, and they that have understanding shall attain 
 unto wise counsels. The knowledge of wisdom shall be 
 sweet unto thy soul ; and when thou hast found it, there 
 shall be ^.reward, and thy expectation shall not be cut off.' 
 The knowledge which you are to gain is as various as are 
 the works of God, and the laws of which govern these 
 works. The wisdom of which the sacred writer speaks, 
 implies something more than the knowledge of human 
 sciences ; — the control and right direction of our passions, 
 the knowledge of our own hearts, and above all, the 
 knowledge of God, constitute true wisdom. 
 
 While you are making acquisitions in the various branch- 
 es of study, or gaining knowledge, do not neglect to 
 seek that wisdom, without which knowledge is worse than 
 useless. Talents and learning without wisdom are like 
 fire or instruments of death in the hand of a madman ; 
 desolation and destruction to all that is good and truly 
 valuable in morals and religion mark the footsteps of minds 
 thus balanced. They are the moral Siroccos which, with 
 blighting influence, occasionally sweep over the intellect- 
 ual world. How sickening to our moral nature, to behold 
 one of the noblest works of the Creator, a human mind, 
 employing its high powers in cursing its fellow beings by 
 leading them insidiously from the paths of virtue ! or 
 with the boldness of the fallen angels, openly daring the 
 Almighty by trampling on his laws, and calling on others 
 to follow its impious career ! Such has been the course of 
 some whose infectious writings come to us, stamped with 
 the seal of fashion. Talents have been too blindly wor- 
 shipped, and the fearful tendency of some works of ge- 
 nius has been too often unseen, amid the splendid corus- 
 cations of intellect which have accompanied them. But 
 
NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 31 
 
 the lightning is not less dreadful for its brilliancy, nor the 
 Kalmia less poisonous for the splendid beauty of its color- 
 ing. To be badly great, is to be cursed indeed. It is in- 
 deed commendable to desire to be great, but we should 
 desire to be greatly good. It is true, all cannot be great, 
 but every human being can be good. 
 
 Our object in the following Lectures, will be to consider 
 how you may best attain those qualifications which will fit 
 you for the duties of life, and for enjoying happiness here- 
 after. You who listen to me are all gifted by the Great 
 Creator of mankind with rational and immortal minds. But 
 a few years ago, you were thoughtless, and gay children. 
 You do not remember when you first began to think; 
 that period is involved in as much mystery as the dark- 
 ness of the grave. The dawning of the human intellect, 
 like that of the natural day is gradual and undefined. 
 Memory, straying in the twilight of childhood, impercep- 
 tibly finds herself lost in the darkness of infancy. That 
 children think much, and admire the bright and beauti- 
 ful objects around them, long before they can by words 
 express the operations of their minds, is plainly mani- 
 fested : we have no reason however to believe that infants 
 are moral agents. It is when the child begins to in- 
 quire, ■ What am 1 1 who made me ? and for what purpose 
 am I created V that he becomes an accountable being. 
 
 The child looks upwards ; he beholds the glorious sun 
 and moon, the brilliant canopy of heaven glittering with 
 its spangled myriads, he looks upon the earth, and sees 
 the majestic mountain, the expanse of waters, he beholds 
 the sweet flowers, which seem to speak to his heart by 
 their fragrance, no less than to delight his eyes by their 
 beautiful and delicate coloring; he contemplates the tow- 
 ering oak and the verdant carpet beneath his feet, he 
 listens, and his ear brings to his soul the rush of waters, 
 the dashing of the ocean, the murmur of the rivulet, and 
 the gentle sighing of the breeze. The animal creation 
 fills his heart with joy, the singing of birds, the meekness 
 of some domestic animals, and the swiftness and beauty 
 of others, all strike his observant mind. But with still 
 more interest does he view the intelligent beings around 
 him 
 
32 NATURE AND OBJECT OF EDUCATION. 
 
 That lovely and patient one, whose smiles kindled 
 the first emotion in his young heart, whose gentle 
 bosom had been his pillow in suffering and in joys ; 
 the many kind friends who have been wont to administer 
 to his wants, all are around him, and he feels that it is 
 pleasant to be alive, to experience so much kindness, to 
 behold so many grand and beautiful objects, and to en- 
 joy within himself the sportive glee of his heart, and the 
 bounding elasticity of his young limbs. 
 
 A few more years, and the season of childhood 
 is over — the splendid beauties of the intellectual 
 world then dawn upon the youth, and his heart beats 
 high with new and delightful emotions. But still a few 
 more years, and the scene is again changed ; the friends 
 of his youth are gone — some have been taken by death, 
 and the cold heartlessness of the world has withered the 
 affections of others. His own frame has lost its vigor ; 
 the silver locks, the dim eye, and the tottering step 
 mark the period of old age. Nature herself seems to be 
 growing old ; the sun has risen upon many of his troubled 
 days, and the moon has witnessed wearisome nights. He 
 turns from these things which remind him of his frequent 
 disappointments, and sighing, exclaims ' Oh that I had 
 wings like a dove, then would I fly away and be at rest.' 
 Death which had once appeared so terrible, is now by 
 the christian welcomed as the harbinger of peace, as the 
 entrance into a new scene of existence, where friends 
 will never part nor know distrust, where, sinless and hap- 
 py, all the better feelings of the heart will strengthen 
 and expand, until man shall become perfect and glori- 
 ous, as the angels now are. 
 
 Since this is our destination, to live on earth a few re- 
 volving seasons, and then to die and to be renewed in a 
 state of never-ending existence, let us, while preparing for 
 life, keep in view the great end for which life is given, 
 and endeavor ' so to pass through things temporal, that 
 we lose not the things eternal.' 
 
PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 33 
 
 LECTURE IV. 
 
 Private and Public Education. — Public Schools. 
 
 Much has been said and written on the most proper 
 mode of conducting female education ; — some have con- 
 tended that girls should be brought up under the watch- 
 ful eye of maternal care ; while others have considered 
 the emulation which springs up where there is rivalship, 
 to be important, if not necessary, to the full development 
 of the mental powers. Whether a young lady remains 
 with her mother during the period allotted for her educa- 
 tion, or whether she goes abroad, the character of the 
 latter will depend much upon that of the former. The 
 daughter's ideas of dress, of expense, of what qualities 
 are to be most respected and valued in others, and her 
 religious impressions, all will, in some degree have taken, 
 their color from this earliest guide. 
 
 It would seem that of all others, a mother was the 
 most proper person to superintend the education of a 
 young female. The maternal watch is vigilant and ac- 
 tive : none else can feel the deep and anxious solicitude 
 which marks a mother's care ; and yet this very anxiety, 
 by becoming too intense, may be injurious to the child. 
 The quick imagination of the parent seizes upon the most 
 trifling indications of future character, and she is alter- 
 nately agonized with fear or delighted with hope. These 
 strong emotions are not favorable to a steady and even 
 course of education ; for as one or the other feeling pre- 
 vails, there is danger of trifling actions becoming the 
 subjects of inadequate blame or praise. 
 
 It would seem as if in the shade of domestic life, and 
 under the care of a wise mother, a young female would 
 blossom into maturity, lovely and intelligent and fitted 
 for the discharge of the various duties, which may here- 
 after devolve upon her. This idea has been a favorite 
 one with the poet and novelist, who have delighted in 
 painting their heroines as combining all the simplicity of 
 infancy itself, with the most court-like and elegant man- 
 ners : as entirely ignorant of the world, and yet know- 
 
34 PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 ing all of it that is valuable ; as amiable and docile, 
 without ever having suffered restraint ; as generous and 
 disinterested, and yet knowing only to be indulged and 
 caressed. Now this is all absurd ; reasoning a priori, 
 we should say that to know the world, one must have in- 
 tercourse with it, and facts show that a young girl 
 always kept at home, is awkward and constrained in 
 her manners, often selfish and unamiable in her dispo- 
 sition, and ignorant of the customs of society. Her 
 mother may have moved in the most refined circles, be 
 intimately acquainted with the forms and customs of po- 
 lite intercourse ; she may have been faithful in imparting 
 this knowledge, but mere rules in this case are of as 
 little use, as it would be for a pupil to study the theory 
 of drawing and music, without practice. Selfishness, 
 pride and conceit are also fostered in the mind of one 
 accustomed to feel herself the great centre of attraction, 
 and to consider every one around her as subservient to 
 her pleasure. 
 
 With respect to literary improvement, it may be 
 thought that the quiet of domestic life is peculiarly favor- 
 able. We will suppose the mother herself to be entire- 
 ly competent to instruct in all necessary branches of fe- 
 male education. Is it certain that she will have the re- 
 quisite time for superintending her daughter's education, 
 and conducting it on those systematic principles which 
 will ensure a suitable attention to each department of 
 knowledge 1 The mother, however competent she may 
 be to the task, however anxious to devote herself to her 
 daughter's improvement, has many other claims upon her 
 than those of maternal duty. As a wife she must share 
 in the cares and anxieties of her husband ; — as the mis- 
 tress of a family she must direct its internal con- 
 cerns, and this alone might render it difficult for her to 
 give that individual attention to literary subjects, which 
 is necessary in an instructer. Society too has its claims; 
 and her time is always liable to be taken up with a friend- 
 ly visit, a ceremonious call, or an appeal to charity : these 
 interruptions break in upon the regularity of the pre- 
 scribed systematic division of time, and the pupil feel- 
 ing it very uncertain that her lesson will, if learned, be 
 
PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 35 
 
 heard, relaxes her diligence and acquires a habit of idle- 
 ness and procrastination. We have said nothing of the 
 claims that younger children may have upon the mother's 
 care, or of various other indispensable duties ; but enough 
 has been obesrved to show, how very difficult it must be for 
 the most intelligent and energetic woman, charged with 
 a variety of cares, to bestow that time and attention upon 
 a daughter's education which is necessary for the suc- 
 cessful cultivation of the youthful mind. 
 
 I have seen the attempt made by an energetic and 
 judicious woman, whose pecuniary circumstances being 
 somewhat embarrassed, and who, entertaining no very 
 favorable opinion of public schools, resolved to educate 
 her daughter. I had known this lady in her youth, and 
 seen her the admiration and pride of society ; I did not 
 not see her again until her eldest daughter was about 
 sixteen. How great was my astonishment, to behold in 
 this daughter, an awkward, ignorant girl, with less 
 polish of manners and less information than is ordinarily 
 possessed by children of ten years of age. All who know 
 anything of instructing, are aware of the time and 
 patience which is requisite, even for teaching a child its 
 letters : add to this, reading, spelling, writing, geogra- 
 phy, grammar, arithmetic, and so on, to the higher 
 branches of education, and it will not appear strange 
 that the lady just mentioned with an extensive circle of 
 acquaintance, and several younger children, should 
 have failed in her attempt to educate her daughter. 
 Seeing at length the impossibility of success answer- 
 able to her wishes, she placed her daughter abroad at 
 a public school ; but the confirmed irregularity of her 
 habits was unfavorable to improvement, and render- 
 ed irksome the systematic rules to which she was 
 subjected. She felt, too, the need of those indulgences 
 which home afforded, and which had greatly tended to 
 render her intellect dull and torpid. From these circum- 
 stances, rather than any natural inferiority of mind, her 
 improvement was not creditable either to herself, or to 
 those under whose care she was placed. 
 
 But may not parents provide private teachers for their 
 children, and thus keep them under their own observa- 
 
36 PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 tion? Doubtless this is more practicable where the 
 expense can be afforded, than for parents themselves to 
 give regular instruction. Young persons thus educated 
 may, with a faithful instructer, make tolerable proficien- 
 cy in literature ; but there is great danger of their 
 becoming selfish and haughty, when all around seem to 
 live for them. Educated under the paternal roof, they 
 can have little idea of a world in which their interests 
 will clash with those of others, and where forbearance 
 and self-denial will be continually needed. Parents 
 may faithfully warn their children of these things ; they 
 may tell them that the world will present a scene very 
 different from that in which their least complaint 
 receives attention, and their slightest unhappiness meets 
 with sympathy ; but the habit of being served and 
 indulged, becomes so strong, that when in after years the 
 scene is reversed, and the petted child is called upon to 
 sacrifice her own ease and comfort for that of others, 
 she finds the task difficult and discouraging, and either 
 shrinks from the performance of known duties, or 
 becomes unhappy in the discharge of them. 
 
 We, see then, that however beautiful in theory it may 
 be to educate girls at home, it is not easy in practice. 
 The mother herself who sets out with the resolution to 
 persevere in teaching her child, or in superintending her 
 education, will at length feel that there are difficulties 
 and evils growing out of her excessive anxiety : she will 
 see that by close and constant contact with her child, 
 and a habit of minute attention, she is prevented from 
 seeing the outline of her character, and forming and 
 executing those general rules to which subordinate ones 
 should be subservient. 
 
 I have heard mothers who had been in the practice 
 of instructing youth, say that they found more difficulty 
 in governing and managing one or two of their own 
 children, than they had done in controlling and instruct- 
 ing a large school. This may be easily accounted for ; 
 an instructer has, or ought to have, her mind free from 
 other cares than those connected with her profession ; 
 if conscientious, she feels a sufficient degree of interest 
 in the progress and character of her pupils to induce 
 
PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 37 
 
 her to make every possible exertion, but she does not 
 suffer that excessive solicitude which often impedes the 
 mother's progress. Physicians frequently profess an un- 
 willingness to prescribe for their own families, on the 
 ground that too great anxiety influences their judg- 
 ment ; — in all cases requiring the full exercise of the rea- 
 soning powers, it is important that the mind should, as lit- 
 tle as possible, be influenced by the emotions. 
 
 Parents are often deceived in the characters of their 
 children. We have at this place frequent opportuni- 
 ties of witnessing this. Sometimes one who brings to 
 the Seminary a bold and conceited girl, (excuse me 
 if the terms seem harsh) says, ' My daughter is exces- 
 sively diffident, and needs to be brought forward and 
 encouraged/ At another time, a child of dull intellect 
 is committed to our care as a remarkable genius, who 
 is capable of comprehending the most abstruse sciences. 
 One who can scarcely raise the eight notes of the ga- 
 mut is frequently considered as possessing great talents 
 for music ; another has learned to daub paper with water 
 colors, and her parents wish that her fine taste in 
 drawing may be cultivated, although the poor girl may 
 not have sufficient correctness of eye to make a horizon- 
 tal or perpendicular line. These mistakes are far from 
 being confined to ignorant parents; parental blindness 
 often falls upon those, who in other respects are wise and 
 enlightened. 
 
 We have, in the preceding remarks, considered 
 private education in its most favorable aspect, not taking 
 into account the numerous cases in which the mother is 
 inadequate to the task of instructing, from her own 
 defective education, or from feebleness of constitution. 
 Many young females being early deprived of a mother's 
 care, the father may be compelled to send his daughters 
 abroad for education. It seems, then, that there is a ne- 
 cessity for female schools ; and yet, strange as the fact 
 may appear, no provision for such an object has ever been 
 made, by the guardians of the public welfare. Napo- 
 leon indeed established the school of St. Denis, for educa- 
 ting the daughters of his legion of honor ; but this was con- 
 4 
 
38 PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 ducted on an imperfect plan, and very limited in its ope- 
 ration. 
 
 The founder of this institution was early impressed 
 with the importance of female education. Her views on 
 this subject are expressed in a small volume published 
 about the year 1818, and called 'Plan of a Female 
 Seminary, by Emma Willard.' The author sketched the 
 plan of a Female Seminary, to be founded and endowed 
 by public munificence. She urged the claims of the 
 daughters of the republic, to share, in some small degree, 
 with the sons, in those privileges for mental improvement 
 which were so abundantly bestowed upon the latter. 
 After pleading the justice of the claim and the expediency 
 of granting it, as proved by a variety of important consid- 
 erations, she thus remarks of female education in reference 
 to national character and glory : — 'Ages have rolled away ; 
 barbarians have trodden the weaker sex beneath their feet ; 
 tyrants have robbed us the of present light of heaven, 
 and fain would take its future. Nations, calling them- 
 selves polite, have made us the fancied idols of a 
 ridiculous worship, and we have repaid them with ruin 
 for their folly. But where is that wise and heroic coun- 
 try, which has considered that our rights are" sacred, 
 though we cannot defend them ? that, though a weaker, 
 we are an essential part of the body politic, whose cor- 
 ruption or improvement must affect the whole? and 
 which, having thus considered, has sought to give us 
 by education, that rank in the scale of being, to which 
 our importance entitles us. History shows not that 
 country. It shows many, whose legislatures have 
 sought to improve their various vegetable productions, 
 and their breeds of useful brutes ; but none, whose pub- 
 lic councils have made it an object of their deliberations, 
 to improve the character of their women. Yet though 
 history lifts not her finger to such an one, anticipation 
 does. She points to a nation, which, having thrown off 
 the shackles of authority and precedent, shrinks not 
 from schemes of improvement, because other nations 
 have never attempted them ; but which, in its pride of 
 independence, would rather lead than follow, in the 
 inarch of human improvement ; a nation, wise and 
 
PRIVATE AND PUBLIC EDUCATION. 39 
 
 magnanimous to plan, enterprising to undertake, and 
 rich in resources to execute. 5 
 
 The late Governor Clinton entered warmly into the 
 views of Mrs. Willard : he encouraged her to petition the 
 legislature of New York, and in a message to that body, 
 publicly expressed his own opinions with respect to the 
 justice of the- claim. The novelty of the petition caused 
 considerable sensation, and gave rise to much discussion, 
 both in the House and abroad. The more enlightened 
 members seemed, generally, in favor of considering fe- 
 males as the legitimate children of the state, and making 
 some provision for their intellectual improvement. There 
 were those, however, who gravely asserted in the public 
 council of the state, that ' learning was of little use to 
 women, as it would tend to lead them from their own 
 sphere of domestic duties, and thus prove injurious to the 
 interests of society.' The bill for an endowment of a 
 Female Seminary, after having received a favorable 
 report from the committee, to whom it was referred, 
 was defeated through the influence of those, who with- 
 out attempting to deny the right which was claimed, 
 thought it should be waived on the ground of the evils 
 which might result, from enlightening the minds of 
 those, who were destined to a limited and subordinate 
 sphere. 
 
 It is upon a similar mode of reasoning that the slave- 
 holding States found their objections to the instruction of 
 those degraded beings, who are entailed upon them, a 
 curse which they would gladly shake off. As respects 
 the slave, this reasoning is undoubtedly correct ; let the 
 black population of the south be taught that they in fact 
 possess the greater physical power ; let their minds be 
 opened to the truths of man's equality by nature, and of 
 the unjust tenure by which they are kept in bondage ; 
 let them have the means of communicating with each 
 other from distant places, thus enabling them to act in con- 
 cert ; let all this be done, and the fair regions of the south 
 would soon present one universal scene of blood and 
 carnage. While we deplore a necessity founded on the 
 principle of self-defence, which holds in darkness so 
 great a portion of human intellect, we cannot but admit 
 
40 PRIVATE AND TUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 that such a necessity does, in the present state of things, 
 exist. 
 
 But let the question come fairly before those who 
 object to female improvement on grounds, which if not 
 similar, are certainly analogous. Neither the tight 
 of holding slaves or keeping them in ignorance is now 
 claimed; it is wholly a matter of expediency. The 
 rights which the stronger sex possess of keeping the 
 weaker in a state of intellectual bondage and darkness 
 is no less questionable. Let it then be considered on 
 the ground of expediency. What w T ould be the state of 
 society, if females were generally taught the laws of the 
 material and mental world, the nature of right and 
 obligation, their own duties, and their high responsi- 
 bilities as moral and intellectual beings 1 Would such 
 knowledge be likely to cause them to forsake the path 
 of duty, and to seek a sphere of action, which, from 
 knowing the constitution of society, and especially the 
 nature of their own obligations, they perceive does not 
 belong to them 1 There is an absurdity in such suppo- 
 sitions ; and if a Mary Wolstoncraft, or a Frances 
 Wright, have thrown aside that delicacy which is the 
 crowning ornament of the female character, if they have 
 urged the rights of their sex to share in public offices and 
 in the command of armies; — if they have demanded that 
 they shall be permitted to leave the sacred hearth, the 
 domestic altar, and all the delights and duties of home, to 
 mingle in political commotions or the din of arms, they 
 have but expressed the overflowings of their own rest- 
 less spirits, their own unnatural and depraved ambition. 
 They are not to be considered as the deputed represent- 
 atives of our sex; they have thrown off the female 
 character, and deserve no longer to be recognized as 
 women ; they are monsters, a kind of lusus natures, 
 who have amused the world to the great injury of that sex 
 whom they have pretended to defend. 
 
 But let us look to such women as Hannah More, Ma- 
 ria Edgeworth, Mrs. Hemans ; and, in our own country, 
 many others equally distinguished in the walks of litera- 
 ture ; — are such disorganizes of society, pedantic, un- 
 feminine, neglectful of duty in their various domestic re- 
 
*»ti6LlC SCHOOLS. 4i 
 
 lations? Are they not generally equally distinguished in 
 private life for their amiable and domestic qualities, and 
 for a faithful discharge of their relative duties, as in pub- 
 lic for their high intellectual powers? 
 
 My dear pupils, may the whole tenor of your own lives 
 be a constant refutation of the degrading assertion, that 
 * woman must be ignorant in order to be useful.' On 
 you the attention of many is fixed, and your future 
 conduct, will be hereafter referred to as proving or 
 disproving the problem, ' Is it for the good of society 
 that women shall receive a liberal and enlarged course 
 of education ?' 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 Public Schools. 
 
 It may be said, there is no difficulty in finding schools 
 enough where young ladies can be placed for their ed- 
 ucation. True, there is no want of schools ; but how 
 miserably defective are many of them, as respects the 
 qualifications of teachers and their facilities for giving 
 instruction. 
 
 Some lady of fashion, after a few years spent in gaining 
 superficial accomplishments, and a few more in showing 
 herself off — by some means, perhaps an unfortunate mar- 
 riage, the loss of friends and fortune, finds herself reduced 
 to the necessity of gaining her own support. She opens a 
 boarding-school, and parents, charmed with the elegant 
 manners of one, whose exterior graces have alone been 
 cultivated, entrust her with the care of instructing their 
 daughters, not only in literature and science, but in mo- 
 rality and religion. But what can be expected of one, who 
 knows nothing of a regular course of mental discipline, 
 and who never felt the obligations of morality or the sanc- 
 tions of religion 1 * We need not be surprised to see the 
 
 * Miss Edgeworth relates a story of an elegant and accomplish- 
 ed French opera dancer, who applied to a gentleman for a recom- 
 
 4* 
 
42 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 pupils of such instructors setting a high value upon ex* 
 ternal graces, and despising alike an unfashionable scru- 
 pulousness of conscience and the real elevation of a cul- 
 tivated mind. They are thoroughly instructed in the art 
 of seeming to be mild and gentle, and are taught to dis- 
 course with seeming knoicledge of things of which they are 
 ignorant. The same period of time, under different aus- 
 pices would have sufficed to have given them the sub- 
 stance instead of the shadow ; to have rendered the gem 
 truly valuable, instead of imparting to it a fictitious lustre. 
 Who that looks upon such a being with a sense of her 
 high responsibilities, but must sigh to behold her devoting 
 the few probationary years of life in the mere acquisition 
 of personal accomplishments 1 Alas, they reflect not that 
 the sweetest voice of music will be silent in the grave, the 
 most graceful form that glides through the dance will 
 moulder into dust ; while the soul, with its treasures of 
 knowledge and piety, will continue to exist through the 
 boundless ages of eternity. 
 
 But I forbear to dwell upon a picture from which the 
 reflecting mind recoils, that of a young female placed in 
 the care of one who would mislead her, with respect to 
 what is truly valuable in education, and the necessa- 
 ry preparation for future life. I would gladly believe 
 such instances of misplaced confidence are rare, and that 
 the greater number of those who engage in the business 
 of education, are aware of their great responsibility, and 
 anxious for the moral character of their pupils, as well as 
 their perfection in personal accomplishments, and their 
 progress in literary attainments. 
 
 And yet, with all the zeal, talents and virtue, which 
 
 mendatic-n to an English family as a governess. On observing 
 that her request appeared to excite some surprise, she said, ' You 
 surely do not doubt my capability — do I not speak French with 
 the true Parisian accent ? and as for music and dancing, I can cer- 
 tainly teach these to any young person.' The gentleman being 
 thus pressed, was obliged to say that most mothers would be in- 
 quisitive about the moral character of the person to whom they 
 entrusted their daughters. It is to be feared that such is the pre- 
 vailing admiration for accomplishments in our country, especially 
 in some of our cities, that a governess or teacher, possessing the 
 qualifications of the opera singer, would find too many parents 
 willing to waive the subject of morality. 
 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 43 
 
 any female teacher ever possessed, she cannot compen- 
 sate her pupils for the want of facilities for improve- 
 ment. Upon the former method of conducting schools, 
 a single teacher often had the charge of forty or fifty 
 pupils, assembled in one apartment, where writing, em- 
 broidery, rhetoric, philosophy, painting, arithmetic, che- 
 mistry and spelling, were all mingled together, in a cha- 
 otic confusion. The teacher, with no kind of appara- 
 tus for illustrations, no leisure for investigation, scarcely 
 had time to hear a rapid recitation from memory of the 
 lessons of each class, and this too while presiding in the 
 school, called upon to make pens, to look over sums, to 
 correct a drawing, or to point out the proper shades 
 for the embroidery of a flower.* This, indeed, is a 
 striking contrast with your present advantages. You 
 smile at the picture, as if it were drawn to amuse you ; 
 but it is taken from reminiscences of my own school days, 
 and the painful and vivid recollections of later years, in 
 which, by sad experience, I learned to feel the trials of 
 presiding over a school thus organized . 
 
 To a mind thirsting for the pure waters of knowledge, 
 it is tantalizing in the extreme, to be condemned to see 
 the fountain in the far off distance, to taste a few scanty 
 drops, and yet never be allowed to gain a nearer access. 
 You who are provided with facilities for attaining this 
 fountain, should learn duly to appreciate and improve 
 them. You can retire to your own rooms for study, 
 and at all suitable times, have access to teachers, who, 
 devoted to their particular departments of learning 
 have the opportunity of preparing themselves for their 
 duties. You have recitation rooms, where each particu- 
 lar branch of knowledge receives undivided attention. 
 In chemistry, mineralogy and botany, the objects of 
 investigation are presented to your senses. The very at- 
 
 • 
 * There are still many female schools in our country where sim- 
 ilar scenes are presented, with the exception, perhaps, of embroid- 
 ery, which is now generally laid aside, although other kinds of 
 needle- work are often substituted for it. But parents should not be 
 so unreasonable as to expect the improvement of their daughters 
 under such disadvantages. It is true that they do sometimes learn ; 
 but at best, both teachers and pupils must proceed under great dis- 
 couragements. 
 
44 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 mosphere around you is redolent of literature ; not that 
 which is exhaled from the muddy waters of abridgements 
 and compendiums, but from the copious and unadultera- 
 ted fountains of knowledge. 
 
 I trust, my dear pupils, that you are grateful for 
 the higher standard of female education which now pre- 
 vails, and for your own advantages. These you owe to 
 the devoted zeal of your beloved Principal, and to the 
 liberality of the city of Troy. The latter has done what 
 the legislature of the state refused to do ; it has advanced 
 funds for the purchase of the extensive grounds now ap- 
 propriated to the use of the Seminary, and for the erec- 
 tion of the spacious and commodious building we now 
 occupy. 
 
 With all the advantages which you enjoy, you are ex- 
 posed to some dangers, from which, under the paternal 
 roof, you might be shielded. I mean dangers arising from 
 bad example, and the too prevalent influence of a false 
 standard of merit. In a public school, where many 
 young persons form a collective mass, there are dangers 
 arising from their effects upon each other. ' As a lit- 
 tle leaven leaveneth the whole lump,' so do pride, vani- 
 ty, and disregard to moral and religious principles, spread 
 from one and contaminate many. 
 
 Each of you are perhaps ready to exclaim, ' Far be it 
 from me to set an example that may injure the charac- 
 ters of any of my companions.' — I can readily believe 
 that none of you would willingly become an agent of, evil, 
 a corrupter of others : none of you would say, ' I consid- 
 er fashisonable dress and manners more respectable than 
 virtuous principles ;' but are there not some of you who, by 
 your actions, lead others to suppose such is your opinion ? 
 When a stranger arrives among you, what is the first inqui- 
 ry of many ? ' Is she handsome ? how is she dressed ? is 
 she rich, fashionable and genteel?' Would it not natu- 
 rally be inferred from this, that you considered these the 
 most important qualifications? How seldom do you hear 
 the questions, ' Is she pious, well informed or amia- 
 ble? ' Now there is always danger that young persons 
 will acquire false ideas of what is truly estimable : espe- 
 cially do their standards of excellence depend much up- 
 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 45 
 
 on the opinions of those around them. All the good in- 
 struction given pupils by their teachers, may be counter- 
 acted by accidental associations. If you are told that 
 virtue is more to be desired than beauty, and piety than 
 elegant accomplishments, and yet you see the virtuous 
 and pious neglected by certain young ladies, while ex- 
 ternal qualifications seem to give a right to a kind of ex- 
 clusiveness and eminence — of how much greater influence 
 may be this example than the precept ! 
 
 Philosophers have not erred in considering the pecu- 
 liar characters of individuals as greatly modified by acci- 
 dental circumstances. The human mind is so constitu- 
 ted that what becomes common ceases to make an im- 
 pression ; the attention is not aroused by the recurrence 
 of what is expected : thus, when you meet in this place, 
 it is a thing of course for you to be reminded of your du- 
 ty, and to hear moral reflections ; many of you, perhaps, 
 compose yourselves into a kind of lethargy, taking for 
 granted that good things will be said, and that they will 
 undoubtedly tend to your benefit, although you may nei- 
 ther listen to the counsel, or practise it. So in your recita- 
 tion rooms, you expect explanations of grammar, rhet- 
 oric, mathematics, &c; and your attention fails of being 
 arrested. Let but the same moral remarks or illustrations, 
 the same explanations be heard by you in some unexpect- 
 ed time or place, and your minds spontaneously open to 
 receive the truths. Thus the Lectures to which you now 
 listen with a respectful, though it may bs in some cases 
 with a vacant manner, may meet your eye, when far from 
 the scenes with which you now are familiar ; far from the 
 friend who now addresses you, and whose voice may then 
 be forever silent. How quickly then would your atten- 
 tion be aroused ; how rapidly would recollection glance at 
 one past scene after another, the various characters and 
 events which since your school days had given coloring to 
 your life ; and how deeply you might regret that you had 
 not listened to that admonition which bade you beware 
 how you suffered your standard of virtue and merit to be 
 unduly influenced by casual circumstances. 
 
 Let fashion direct the form of a hat, the cut of a sleeve, 
 and we will even allow her an influence over manners 
 
46 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 and deportment ; but let her not presume to enter the sa- 
 cred precincts of virtue, to weigh against moral worth 
 the gaudy plumage of which she boasts, or with her light 
 wand to expel conscience, that stern and faithful monitor, 
 from her guardianship over the heart. 
 
 You see, my dear girls, how important it is that your pre- 
 possessions should be on the side of virtue. Among the 
 number with whom you here associate, you will not fail of 
 finding some who entertain false ideas with respect to char- 
 acter ; and you will be in great danger of lowering your 
 own standard of moral feeling, unless you learn to ex- 
 amine for yourselves, and to watch over your accidental 
 associations of thought. 
 
 It is indeed of the utmost importance, that, in public 
 institutions, a high moral standard should exist; that the 
 hearts of its pupils, not only on their own account, but for 
 the sake of those who are associated with them should, as 
 far as possible, be secured in behalf of correct principles. 
 Especially is it necessary that a balance on the side of 
 virtue should prevail; this will produce harmony in the 
 support of what is right and good : — pupils who enter such 
 an institution, find the work of self-government and of vir- 
 tuous training almost accomplished for them. 
 
 In families, we see, in general, prevailing characteris- 
 tics. Some aim chiefly at holding a high rank in fash- 
 ionable life ; — without seeming to possess much natural af- 
 fection, and while in private very deficient in kind and 
 disinterested offices among themselves, they endeavor, 
 by various artifices, to set each other off before the world. 
 This is wholly the result of selfishness : they wish their 
 brother, sister, or cousin to appear genteel, because the 
 reverse, they think, would disgrace themselves. It would 
 be a fatal blow to be thought to have vulgar relations : of 
 the moral character of those relations, they take little 
 trouble ; for, as in the circle in which they are proud to 
 move, morality is out of the question, so long as a fair 
 outside appears, they make clean the externals, but with- 
 in are full of strifes, envyings, and deceit. Sould we take 
 a glance behind the curtain, and view the domes- 
 tic life of a family where no moral or religious prin- 
 ciple binds together those whose interests are constant- 
 
\ 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 47 
 
 ly clashing, and who need mutual self-denial and for- 
 bearance, what scenes would present themselves ! 
 Here the mask is thrown off, and each understanding the 
 game which is going on, can feel no confidence that he 
 or she in their turn is not to be deceived. Are there 
 no females who are gentle as zephyrs before the world, 
 and in private blustering as the north wind 1 are there 
 not those who seem to have two faces, one decked in 
 smiles and tender glances, the other distorted with evil 
 passions ? Suppose one of the other sex meets in the 
 circles of fashion with an angelic creature, whose face 
 seems the very image of moral virtue ; her sweet accents 
 and winning smiles sink into the heart, and he feels that 
 she is the being to make glad his future path in life. With 
 a trembling heart, he asks from her lips the sentence on 
 which his earthly all depends : if he is rich, handsome 
 and genteel, the votaries of fashion does not keep him 
 long in suspense, for the great object of her artifices is to 
 be consummated by such an union. Alas, poor youth, thy 
 destiny in this world is indeed sealed ! thou art like the fly 
 caught in the spider's web ; and too late wilt thou see 
 thine own folly. For a little time the mask may still be 
 worn, and if there are some lingering sentiments of moral 
 beauty in the mind of the fashionable bride, she will per- 
 haps intend always to appear to be, what she knows her 
 husband thinks she is; but at the first opposition to her 
 own will, the first call upon herself-denial and disinterest- 
 edness, the disguise is dropped, and the traces of beauty 
 are no longer visible to the eye of the appalled husband ! 
 
 You may feel that I am severe upon my own sex. The 
 vices and deceptions of the other, it is not now my prov- 
 ince to expose. It is probable, that in most cases, the 
 cheat is mutual ; and when the mask which concealed 
 the character of one, drops off, the assumed disguise of 
 the other is not long retained ; and that both parties are 
 left to gaze upon each other with mutual horror and dis- 
 gust. 
 
 What a picture of human life is this ! And, my dear 
 girls, can you wonder that we, to whom the forming of 
 your characters are committed, should so anxiously de- 
 sire that you may indeed be all that we would have you seem 
 to be ? You are now young ; your hearts are not yet so- 
 
48 PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 
 
 phisticated by the influence of a life of pleasure and dissi- 
 pation. An occasional glance at such scenes must have 
 shown you how strongly fortified your minds should be with 
 the principles of religion and virtue, to enable you to re- 
 sist their allurements. Here then, at this place, where the 
 youthful mind is in a measure to be formed, and where it 
 is to be fortified against the seductions of the world, how 
 necessary it is that an elevated standard of moral char- 
 acter should prevail ! If even here, fashion can enthral 
 you with her fetters, restraining the spontaneous effusions 
 of your youthful hearts, directing by her influence your 
 affections and friendships, what will you become when 
 your present restraints are removed, and the temptations 
 of the world assail you ? Are any of you willing to 
 believe or say, ' My chief ambition shall be to figure 
 in the region of fashion ; the amiable qualities of the 
 heart, the acquirements of intellect and the integrity 
 of virtue shall have no charms for me ! The incense of 
 my heart shall be offered at the shrine of wealth and 
 pleasure ! ' Each of you would now feel insulted by 
 having such sentiments ascribed to you ; and yet there 
 is danger that the fascinations of the world, acting upon 
 a cherished love of admiration and pleasure, may hurry 
 you into the vortex of thoughtless dissipation, ' where vir- 
 tue is forgot, and human follies reign.' 
 
 We wish you to pay such attention to dress and man- 
 ners as may suit those stations in life to which you may 
 be called ; at the same time we would endeavor to con- 
 vince you that these are but the accompaniments, not the 
 chief excellencies of a lady. The whole course of study 
 recommended by the regulations of the institution with re- 
 spect to your care of your rooms, occasional attention to 
 domestic operations under the eye of the superintendent, 
 all are designed to make you domestic, useful and good 
 women. We would not that you should be like the but- 
 terfly, who, when on giddy wing she has sported away 
 the short summer of youth and beauty, sinks into obliv- 
 ion at the first approach of winter ; but like the ever- 
 green, which seems brightest and most beautiful when 
 the frosts prevail, may your old age exhibit the loveli- 
 ness of virtue, and the beauty of that holiness which shall 
 flourish in perennial verdure in the paradise of God. 
 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 49 
 
 LECTURE V. 
 
 Physical Education. 
 
 Before proceeding to consider the subjects connected 
 with intellectual improvement, I shall make some remarks 
 upon the development of the senses, or those external 
 organs, by whose means the soul communicates with ma- 
 terial objects. Although these organs are the gift of na- 
 ture, it is by practice or experience that they become 
 truly useful to man. 
 
 The term physical education is used in reference 
 to the improvements which can be effected in the 
 human frame and the senses, by a proper system of 
 discipline. Among the ancients, physical education 
 occupied a large share of attention : it is now be- 
 coming a subject of inquiry among those who perceive 
 the evils which have resulted to the body from a dispro- 
 portioned cultivation of the intellectual powers. Mind 
 is ultimately the object to be acted upon, in physical as 
 in other branches of education. That department of the 
 mind to which we are now to give our attention, is called 
 by metaphysical writers, by the general term, external 
 states of mind. These external states refer to the mind, 
 as affected by external objects, as affecting the body, or 
 as being affected by the body : they are also known by 
 the general term sensations. With sensation, perception is 
 intimately connected, the latter being the knowledge of 
 the material world which the former communicates ;-thus, 
 you put your hand upon the stove, and you have the 
 sensation of heat; by this you perceive that the stove is 
 hot. The-term consciousness is also superadded by some 
 metaphyscians ; — thus, you feel the heat ; this is a sensa- 
 tion ; you perceive the stove is hot, and you are conscious 
 or know that you do thus feel and perceive. The term 
 consciousness appears superfluous, for we cannot feel or 
 perceive without knowing that we do so. 
 
 Music, drawing, and whatever is addressed to the eye 
 and ear, are physical operations, inasmuch as they re- 
 quire the agency of the bodily organs in their execution, 
 5 
 
50 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 or affect the mind through the agency of corporeal or- 
 gans : but the judgment which decides upon the merits 
 of these performances, end the emotions which they excite, 
 together constituting the complex state of mind called 
 taste, belong to the department of intellectual, rather than 
 physical education. 
 
 Physical education commences almost with existence. 
 The new-born infant shows itself capable of sensations ; 
 if a pin is carelessly placed in its dress, its plaintive cries 
 at once denote that it is born with the power of suffer- 
 ing : it is the sense of touch which is now the organ of 
 communication. This same sense appears almost as 
 early to afford enjoyment : the infant, while gratifying 
 another sense, that of taste, in imbibing the food 
 which nature provides for its sustenance, seems no 
 less delighted in clasping with instinctive fondness 
 the soft, kind hand which sustains its feebleness. If 
 it is disquieted, the gentle tones of its mother lull it to 
 repose ; when it awakes, its eye unconsciously wan- 
 ders until resting upon the maternal smile, a new joy 
 irradiates its countenance. This is the period which 
 seems to distinguish the human being from the young 
 of the brute species : no answering smile of love 
 is ever seen among them ; and although in the acute- 
 ness and perfection of their senses and in the rapid de- 
 velopment of their physical powers, they usually surpass 
 the infant, yet here the little immortal manifests the ra- 
 tional principle which is to endure forever. 
 
 It is with the infant, then, that physical education be- 
 gins. Accustomed to constant rocking, or to being 
 carried about in the arms, it forms a habit which re- 
 quires indulgence. If it is early dosed with laudanum, 
 elixirs, or ardent spirits, that it may be quieted or put to 
 sleep, a habit is formed ; this not only requires indulgence 
 during infancy, but frequently lays the foundation for in- 
 temperance in after life. If the infant's head is suffered 
 to recline usually on one particular side, the habit is 
 formed of keeping the head in that position, and the face 
 itself grows awry. A child may be fed with the most 
 disagreeable nostrums, until a fondness is acquired for 
 that which at first was disgusting to the taste. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 51 
 
 You perceive how early physical habits may be form- 
 ed. Nor are mental habits less early or less strong 
 in their growth and development ; we shall at present 
 confine ourselves to the former. We have already ob- 
 served that the term physical, as applied to education, 
 has relation to the body. Not that the body itself, 
 strictly speaking, can form any habits ; this is noth- 
 ing more than a collection of particles of matter, which 
 have previously existed under the various forms of animal 
 or vegetable substances, and which will again be separa- 
 ted to appear under new aspects, forming parts of organ- 
 ic or inorganic bodies. These material atoms are not 
 subject to any of the laws which govern mind ; but while 
 united to the mind they are governed by it. The body 
 is an instrument which the mind directs; and as in 
 this state of existence they must dwell together, it 
 becomes of great importance that they should mutually 
 promote the welfare of each other. 
 
 The mind may at times sigh for deliverance from its 
 burthensome companion ; it may be conscious that but 
 for this, it could range through the infinity of space, visit 
 distant worlds, and exist in an atmosphere untainted by 
 human follies : yet He, who made man, has thought proper 
 to consecrate a union between matter and mind, so that 
 in this life they compose but one individual. 
 
 Through the agency of the material particles to which 
 it is united, the mind looks out of itself, and by 
 sensations learns the properties of the material world. 
 The senses are all dependent on material organs, though 
 these organs are no more the subjects of sensation, than 
 is an eye-glass of vision, or an ear-trumpet of hearing. 
 The eye and the ear are themselves but as inlets, through 
 which colors and sounds gain access to the mind. 
 
 To learn then the best methods of rendering the bod- 
 ily organs subservient to the good of the mind, is physi- 
 cal education. The body may be considered either as a 
 servant which the Creator of the mind has bestowed up- 
 on it, or as a travelling companion for the jourjiey of life. 
 As we would strive to teach a servant his duty, to render 
 him familiar with the offices which he will be required to 
 perform, so should the body be trained to such exercises 
 
52 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 and duties, to such privations and efforts as the good of 
 the mind may require. Whether, therefore, we regard 
 the body as an instrument to be wielded by the mind, an 
 humble companion, or a servant, the importance of at- 
 tention to it, as closely connected with ourselves (for it is 
 the mind which constitutes our identity) need not be 
 urged. 
 
 The children of persons in the lower classes of so- 
 ciety usually J.ive wholly for the body. Play and labor, 
 eating and sleeping make up the history of their early 
 days. Or if they go to school and learn to read and 
 write, their intellectual exercises are of so low a nature, 
 as to leave the balance greatly in favor of the body. We 
 sometimes see, even under such unfavorable circum- 
 stances, the workings of intellect, as if struggling to 
 escape from the rubbish under which it lies ; — we see 
 spirits endued with great power and force, burst opposing 
 barriers and urge an onward course, mounting upwards 
 like the eagle, impatient to gaze upon the fountains of 
 intellectual light. 
 
 It is, however, rare for the children of very poor 
 and debased parents to make such an escape from 
 the chains in which mind is held by matter. The case 
 of those who rise from obscurity and become intellectu- 
 ally great, does, in general, differ from this. Fortune 
 often depresses parents whose aspiring minds never sink 
 or become debased under any circumstances. Many a 
 coarse and homely hearth sees gather around its evening 
 fire, those who, after a day of toil, enjoy • the feast of 
 reason, and the flow of soul,' which cannot even be com- 
 prehended by many of the triflers who walk over Eastern 
 carpets, and proudly recline on Grecian couches. 
 
 When looking at the sturdy child of poverty, whose 
 ruddy face and sinewy form denote the full develop- 
 ment of bodily powers, but whose dull and vacant eye, 
 indicates the absence of thought, we feel, that the hu- 
 man being has not. risen to the dignity of his nature. 
 Destitute of moral elevation and intellectual culture, 
 man is but little superior to the brute creation : it is only 
 when all his faculties, physical, intellectual and moral are 
 seen to act in harmonious concert, that he appears capa- 
 ble of enjoying or bestowing happiness. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 53 
 
 A sound mind in a sound body (' mens sana in corpore 
 sano ') was an ancient motto, denoting the most perfect 
 state of man as a human being : but as the field of knowl- 
 edge has been widening by new discoveries, the intel- 
 lectual part of mankind have fallen into the error of 
 neglecting bodily health in their zeal for mental improve- 
 ment. As respects our own sex, both fashion, and in- 
 creased attention to the mind, have been alike injurious 
 in producing habits tending to physical derangement 
 and debility. 
 
 We have remarked upon the early formation of physi- 
 cal habits, commencing even in infancy. The senses 
 then learn their duties ; the touch corrects the errors of 
 sight, and all reciprocally aid each other in informing 
 the mind of the properties of matter. 
 
 The sensations are an important class of our mental 
 faculties ; for you must remember, that hearing and see- 
 ing are no less states of the mind, than judging or loving. 
 Education is employed upon mind alone. When the 
 mother would teach her child to walk, she influences its 
 mind to will the use of its limbs. She holds out an 
 orange, and thus by exciting the desire of possessing it, 
 she tempts the child to move. The will, obeying the im- 
 pulse of desire and having power over the bodily organs, 
 raises the feet, and impels the body towards the wished 
 for object. 
 
 The senses need no foreign aid to bring them into use ; 
 yet even with them, habit has great iufluence, as may be 
 seen in those whose business leads them to the exercise 
 of one sense more than another. The feelings of taste 
 earlv mingle with our sensations : all children love mu- 
 sic, and their future taste in this science depends much 
 on their early associations. Pictures delight children, 
 and according as those which are presented to them are 
 well or ill executed, their taste with respect to them will 
 probably be of a delicate or coarse nature. 
 
 All the motions of the body are subject to the influ- 
 ence of habit. Stooping while walking and sitting may 
 become a habit, and it is equally easy to make an up- 
 right posture become such. Walking with the toes turn- 
 5* 
 
54 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 ed in, is a common habit, whereas the more graceful mode 
 of turning them out, and thereby enlarging the base of 
 support and rendering motion or rest easier, might with 
 equal facility be acquired. 
 
 It is however too late to warn most of you of the im- 
 portance of childhood with respect to physical habits ; 
 you have all contracted those of some kind or other, ei- 
 ther good or bad. But it should excite our gratitude to 
 the former of our bodies and the author of our minds, 
 that strong as the power of habit may be, the mind still 
 possesses a controlling power to alter and to correct what 
 we see amiss either in our physical, intellectual or 
 moral habits. 
 
 In common with many others who have taken a 
 share in the education of the young, we feel that phys- 
 ical education has been too much neglected. In the 
 mental efforts which the teachers, as well as pupils of this 
 institution have been obliged to make, in order to attain 
 the desired standard of intellectual improvement, much 
 has been suffered, through a neglect of exercise. 
 
 When the mind is deeply interested in literary 
 and scientific pursuits, it is prone to forget the body ; 
 this, by being suffered to remain long inactive, becomes 
 reluctant to move, and visits back such neglect, by 
 headaches, languors, sleeplessness, indigestion, and a 
 thousand other ills tending to paralyze the mental 
 energies. Aware as we all are of this danger, connected 
 with the pursuits of knowledge, it is to be hoped we may 
 profit by past experience, and retrieve as far as possible, 
 by a systematic course of exercise, the health which has 
 been sacrificed. 
 
 Calisthenics,* or female gymnastics, is very pro- 
 perly becoming a branch of education. I have, how- 
 ever, seen with regret, that many of you appear to en- 
 gage in these exercises with reluctance, as if every 
 moment taken from your studies were time lost. With 
 the view already given of the intimate connection 
 
 * From two Greek words signifying grace and strength. A 
 small work on Calisthenics, recently published by Messrs. Hunt- 
 ington, Hartford, would be found useful in female seminaries. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 55 
 
 between the mind and body, you must be convinced 
 that the latter cannot with impunity be neglected. And 
 yet even our pleasant morning walks seem by some to 
 be counted an unnecessary and tedious task, and youth- 
 ful limbs are sometimes seen dragged heavily along, 
 as if already touched by age and infirmity. An early 
 walk in a fine summer morning to our classic Mount 
 Ida,* will not only afford a needful physical exercise, 
 but presenting you with a lovely picture of the com- 
 bined beauties of nature and art, tend to raise in your 
 minds cheerful images, and to lead your thoughts to 
 the Author of all good. 
 
 Those of you who have become interested in the 
 different branches of natural science, particularly Bot- 
 any and Geology, have found a new interest in the 
 works of nature, and new motives now lead you to 
 ramble over its wild and sequestered scenes. 
 
 As a branch of physical education, dancing is recom- 
 mended by physicians ; when practised merely as a school 
 exercise, it seems not liable to the objections which ma- 
 ny urge against promiscuous dancing assemblies. 
 
 Connected with physical education are music, draw- 
 ing and writing, and indeed every pursuit depending 
 upon bodily action : these will be considered under the 
 Head of accomplishments. 
 
 Riding on horseback is a very healthful as well as 
 graceful exercise ; yet it is somewhat questionable 
 whether there is not too much the appearance of dis- 
 play in a young lady's prancing through the most public 
 streets of a large city. A rural excursion on horseback 
 is more safe and proper. 
 
 Before dismissing the subject of physical education, 
 I would remark, that, influenced by the suggestions of the 
 Principal in her late letters from Paris, and by my own 
 anxiety that you may have greater facilities for exercise 
 in the open air, I have petitioned and obtained from the 
 Corporation of Troy a considerable addition to the semi- 
 
 * A hill on the east which overlooks the modern Troy : here, 
 instead of the din of arms or the stratagems of war, is presented 
 the picture of a young and flourishing city, where commerce and 
 the arts, literature and science, all find a genial atmosphere. 
 
56 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 nary grounds. This acquisition will afford us the means 
 of cultivating flowers, so that we may expect soon to 
 see Flora take her station with the muses. 
 
 The cultivation of flowers, and indeed everything 
 connected with gardening, has a most happy influence 
 upon the disposition as well as the health. I scarcely 
 know of an instance of a lady being at the same time 
 ill-tempered and fond of cultivating flowers. I have 
 known those to whom sorrow had become familiar find 
 in flowers a solace for a wounded heart. To the 
 cheerful they suggest images of hope and happi- 
 ness, and to the disturbed mind they seem to have 
 a power of imparting serenity. It is not after having 
 walked among those eloquent witnesses of the power 
 and benevolence of God, and inhaled the morning 
 air from their dewy petals, that a woman would be 
 likely to be heard using ungentle expressions towards 
 her husband, her children, or domestics. It is when 
 foiled in ambition to outshine others in the circles of 
 fashion, when languid from dissipation,, or disgusted 
 with a round of empty amusements, that a peevish and 
 irritable temper may be expected. 
 
 Beauty is essentially connected with health : exercise, 
 neatness and temperance are essential to both. It is 
 much to be lamented that young girls are so frequently 
 imprudent with respect to the care of health. I have 
 spoken of exercise, but something more is necessary — it 
 should be taken at proper hours, and in a suitable dress. 
 An early morning's walk in a pair of thin prunellas 
 will be more injurious than even the want of exercise. 
 Unless the feet are warm and dry the body cannot be in 
 a state of health and comfort. The good old custom 
 of former times, with respect to the knitting and wearing 
 woollen has given place to idleness, and cotton and silk 
 hose. These materials are too light for our north- 
 ern winters. A young lady who, induced by the vanity 
 of displaying a delicate foot, appears abroad in cold or 
 damp weather with a stocking and shoe fit only for 
 walking over a drawing room carpet, may succeed in 
 attracting admiration ; but she will not fail of receiving 
 severe censure for her imprudence. What man of sense 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 57 
 
 would wish to marry a female who had no prudence 
 with regard to her health 1 Would the fortune or honor 
 of her husband be likely to be more dear to her than her 
 own health and life ? I am sensible that imprudence of 
 this kind is often the result of thoughtlessness rather than 
 vanity ; young persons are not sufficiently aware of the 
 danger of such exposures, and, having experienced little 
 sickness, they forget the frailty of their natures, and 
 what slight causes may give rise to fatal diseases. But 
 having been warned by their friends, and their own sad 
 experience, they are inexcusable if they continue the 
 practice of carelessness involving consequences so 
 serious. 
 
 Intimately connected with the care of health are 
 the modes of carrying the body in writing, sitting at 
 the piano, walking, &c. I shall here offer the re- 
 marks of a physician,* respecting the structure of that 
 part of the human form which becomes bent and dis- 
 torted by the contraction of certain injurious and bad 
 habits. 
 
 ' The weight of the principal part of the body or trunk, 
 the weight of the neck, the head and the two upper 
 extremities, are supported by a single bony column, call- 
 ed the spine. This column is about three inches in 
 diameter. It consists of twenty-four pieces of bone 
 placed one on the other; and between each two is 
 interposed a substance, somewhat resembling caout- 
 chouc, or India-rubber, for the purpose of giving it 
 elasticity. This column is hollow, and contains the 
 spinal marrow. Now the spinal marrow is the origin and 
 source of the nerves, that convey the influence necessa- 
 ry to voluntary motion ; and they are sent off in pairs 
 to the various muscles. The bony pieces of the spine 
 are confined together by many small ligaments, by the 
 elastic substance just spoken of, and by numerous 
 muscles, affixed, not only to connect and support, but 
 also to move them. 
 
 - The bones of the spine, at an early period of life, are 
 
 * See Dr. Warren's lecture on Physical Education before the 
 American Institute of Instruction. 
 
58 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 themselves in part composed of an elastic, cartilaginous 
 or gristly substance ; and are always of a porous and 
 sponge like texture. In consequence of this kind of 
 organization, the spinal column possesses much elastici- 
 ty and flexibility, which enable it to yield and to move 
 in different directions, and expose it to receive perma- 
 nent flexures, when there is a deficiency of natural 
 strength in its composing parts. 
 
 * Causes which affect the health, and produce general 
 weakness, operate powerfully on this part, in conse- 
 quence of the complexity of its structure, and the great 
 burden it supports. When weakened, it gradually yields 
 under its weight, becomes bent and distorted, losing its 
 natural curves, and acquiring others, in such directions 
 
 I as the operation of external causes tend to give to it ; 
 
 "i and these curves will be proportioned, in their perma- 
 
 nence, to the producing causes. If the supporting part 
 is removed from its true position, the parts supported 
 necessarily follow, and thus a distortion of the spine 
 effects a distortion of the trunk of the body. 
 
 ' The change commonly begins at the part which 
 supports the right arm. The column bends towards the 
 right shoulder, forms a convexity on the side where 
 the shoulder rests, and thus elevates the right higher 
 than the other. This elevation, or, as it is commonly 
 called, growing out of the shoulder, is the first phenom- 
 enon that strikes the friends of the patient. Often when 
 observed, it has already undergone a considerable 
 change of position, and the change is not confined to 
 the shoulder, nor to the portion of spine immediately 
 connected with it. On examination, it will be discover- 
 ed that the curvature to the right in the upper part of the 
 column, is accompanied, as a natural consequence, by a 
 bend of the lower part of the left, and a corresponding 
 projection of the left hip. It is perfectly obvious, that 
 the inclination of the upper part of a flexible stick to 
 one side, will leave the lower part on the others ; and 
 when, by this inclination, the vertical support is lost, a 
 disposition to yield at the curving points will continually 
 increase, until it be counteracted by some other power. 
 Thus it happens, then, that any considerable projection 
 
PHYSTCAT, EDUCATION. 59 
 
 of the right shoulder will be attended by a correspond- 
 ing projection of the left hip. 
 
 1 The rising of the shoulder involves other changes in 
 the osseous* fabric. For as the spinal bones support the 
 ribs, when these bones project they necessarily push 
 forward the ribs dependent on them. These ribs form 
 the frame of the chest, and of course the right side of 
 the chest is projected forwards, and causes a deformity 
 in the fore part of the body. Nor do the changes stop 
 here. The posterior ends of the ribs being pushed 
 forwards, and the anterior ends being confined to the 
 sternum, or breast bone, the right edge of the sternum 
 will be drawn forwards, and the left edge consequently 
 turned backwards. The fore parts of the left ribs will 
 be gradually forced inwards or backwards, and thus the 
 left side of the chest distorted and contracted. I feel 
 warranted in the assertion, that of the well educated 
 females within my sphere of experience, about one half 
 are affected with some degree of distortion of the 
 spine.' 
 
 The physician from whom I have borrowed this simple 
 and unaffected description of a part of the human anato- 
 my, proceeds to consider the causes of the distortion and 
 derangement of its various parts. He notices the want 
 of exercise, and the taking of food, improper in quantity 
 or quality. On the latter head I should have spoken, but 
 want of time obliges me to omit this, as well as many 
 other subjects of important interest, connected with 
 physical education. 
 
 ' The habit of bending the neck, while writing or 
 drawing, gradually compresses the vertebrae, and the 
 intervertebral substance on their anterior part, and 
 causes a permanent change in the form of this part of 
 the spinal column. This distortion is so very common 
 among us, that we are apt to consider it a natural 
 formation. In fact, however, it is entirely artificial in a 
 great number of instances. Sometimes it is the conse- 
 quence of negligence, and not unfrequently of timidity. 
 Whether it tends to impair the health, always, I will not 
 
 * Bony, from os, a bone. 
 
60 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 say ; that it sometimes does, I am certain, and its effect 
 in deforming the shape is even greater than a moderate 
 degree of lateral curve. 
 
 'The immediate cause of the lateral curve of the spine 
 to the right, opposite to the right shoulder, is the eleva- 
 tion and action of the right arm in drawing and writing. 
 This posture pulls the part of the spinal column to 
 which the muscles of the right arm are fixed, to the right 
 side. The convexity of the spine thus produced, keeps 
 the right shoulder elevated, and the left consequently 
 depressed. The lower part of the column is thrown to 
 the left side, and this displacement being favored by the 
 disposition to rest on the left foot while standing to 
 speak or read, there comes to be a permanent projection 
 of the left hip. The postures employed in practising on 
 musical instruments sometimes bring on these disorders ; 
 as, for example, a great use of the harp favors the dispo- 
 sition to lateral curvature, from the constant extension of 
 the right arm.'* 
 
 The mode of sitting at the piano ought to be carefully 
 regarded ; if you comprehend the explanations with 
 respect to the construction of the spine, or back bone, you 
 will perceive how important it is that it should be held 
 erect, and that by indulging yourselves in a crooked 
 posture, the figure will at length grow distorted. You 
 know that if you should keep a straight young twig con- 
 fined in a bent position for a length of time, it would 
 become a crooked tree. We should think it a strange 
 taste in a gardener who should thus wish to pervert the 
 beautiful and perfect works of God. A crooked tree 
 might indeed bear good fruit, and if any of you are by 
 nature distorted in body, you must endeavor to supply 
 the deflect by richness of mental culture. 
 
 In France, great pains are taken with children to give 
 them the habit of holding back the shoulders and 
 expanding the chest ; and it is said that the collar bone 
 is longer in French women than in others. The posture 
 in bed should not be habitually such as to cause a 
 crooked position of the spine. High pillows are inju- 
 
 * Dr. Warren. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 61 
 
 nous, as they produce the same effect upon the form as 
 stooping. 
 
 With respect to walking, the carriage of the body 
 must depend greatly on the perfect state of the spine ; 
 the custom of holding the head up, the shoulders back 
 and throwing the chest forward. You may all do much 
 to improve yourselves in these respects by walking in 
 your rooms with a book upon your head. In order to 
 balance the book you must necessarily hold your per- 
 sons erect, and instead of looking down, as young ladies 
 are very apt to do, direct your eyes horizontally. ' How 
 different,' says the physician already quoted, ' are the 
 impressions made on us by a man whose attitude is 
 erect and commanding, and by one who walks with his 
 face directed to the earth, as if fearful of encountering 
 the glances of those he meets ! Such attentions are 
 even of greater importance to the fair sex, where we 
 naturally look for attraction in some form or shape. If 
 nature has not given beauty to all, she has given the 
 power of acquiring a graceful movement and an upright 
 form, qualities more valuable and more durable than the 
 other.' 
 
 One more subject connected with physical educa- 
 tion is the habit of tight lacing. In enabling you to 
 comprehend the manner in which this practice becomes 
 injurious to health and destruction of life, we again refer 
 to Dr. Warren's lecture. 
 
 ' Nature has so contrived the human chest, that there is 
 no superfluous play of the parts composing it. Its 
 movements are just sufficient to give such an expansion 
 to the lungs and such an extent of oxygenation of the 
 blood, as are adequate to the wants of the individual 
 under different occurrences. In females the chest is 
 shorter than in males; and to compensate for this, the 
 motion of the ribs is more extensive, and more frequent. 
 Whatever limits this motion, is peculiarly injurious to 
 the sex, especially as they are more disposed to con- 
 sumption and other chronic affections of the lungs. 
 Now the ligatures in the fashionable dress are placed 
 precisely on that part, where the motion should be the 
 greatest ; that is, the lower part. It is precisely here, 
 6 
 
62 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 that in case of fracture of the ribs when we desired to 
 stop the movements of the chest, we apply a tight band- 
 age, though rarely do we venture to make it so tight as 
 the ordinary corsets. The effect of such pressure, 
 begun at an early period of life, will be understood from 
 what has been stated in regard to the spine. The 
 bones must yield to it ; their shape becomes permanent- 
 ly altered ; the lower part of the breast contracted, 
 the space destined by nature for the heart and lungs 
 diminished, and what the fatal results of all this on 
 these tender and vital organs are, every day's experience 
 shows us. The influence on the health, though slow, is 
 certain. It may not at once produce consumption ; but 
 it lays the foundation for ills it would pain you to hear and 
 me to describe. I will only say, by way of specification, 
 that among other diseases, of which this is the fruitful 
 germ, I have known three instances of perpetual headache, 
 at last bringing on insanity, and terminating in death. 
 The immediate cause of the disease was the compres- 
 sion of the heart and great blood vessels, and the con- 
 sequent accumulation of blood in the head.' 
 
 You cannot fail to comprehend this simple explanation 
 of that part of your own frames which you too frequently 
 expose to derangements, from the foolish ambition of 
 appearing slender and sylph-like. But although the 
 circumference of the waist may be diminished, the 
 appearance of the whole person so far from being 
 improved, is much injured by tight lacing. A rush of 
 blood to the head gives the face a purple and unnatural 
 flush ; the muscles which give play to the arms and 
 shoulders being confined, the motions appear stiff and 
 ungraceful, the breathing is obstructed, and the whole 
 body rendered uncomfortable. In such a situation 
 who can converse with ease and confidence, and delight 
 the social circle by a fine flow of thoughts, and beautiful 
 mode of expression ? The mind, partaking in the suffer- 
 ings of the body, becomes torpid, and instead of giving 
 and receiving enjoyment, in the hours devoted to 
 society, torture on the part of the victim and pity for her 
 manifest sufferings are experienced. 
 
 Corsets, when properly worn, are far from meriting the 
 general condemnation which they have received. They 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 63 
 
 may be so made as to prove a support to the body in- 
 stead of an injury. A busk not too wide or too rigid 
 seems to correspond to the supporting spine, and assist 
 rather than impede the efforts of nature to keep the 
 body erect. 
 
 A degree of tightness, not uncomfortable or impeding 
 any of the functions of respiration, is probably conducive 
 to health. It prevents that weakness of the stomach of 
 which many females, especially those who do not wear 
 corsets, frequently complain. A moderate compression 
 of the chest is thought also by physicians to check a 
 tendency to dropsy. Indeed it is with corsets, as many 
 other things, that it is the abuse rather than the use of 
 them which is to be condemned. 
 
 In concluding my remarks on physical education, I 
 would recommend to you a practice suggested by a 
 French writer,* viz. that of keeping a kind of physical 
 journal, or a record of your observations upon your own 
 peculiar constitutions. In order to make these obser- 
 vations, it will be necessary to pay particular atten- 
 tion to the degree and kinds of exercise most condu- 
 cive to your health, the quantity and kinds of food 
 most salutary, as well as the best seasons for tak- 
 ing particular kinds of food. Thus some persons find 
 that breakfasting upon meat makes them dull and heavy, 
 
 vvliilo the oonotitutiono of olhore roquirco niuie uf SOllU 
 
 food. Late suppers are probably found by all to be 
 injurious. By attention to physical changes, and an 
 observation of those simple remedies which are found 
 efficacious in relieving slight complaints, females may 
 learn to preserve and regulate their own healths without 
 the aid of a physician, except in cases of sudden and 
 acute diseases. A knowledge of Chemistry and Botany 
 will prove of great use to you, with respect to an 
 acquaintance with medicine. Every woman ought to 
 understand the elements and composition of the reme- 
 dies prescribed for her, or by her administered to 
 others. Without a knowledge of Chemistry .she cannot 
 be made to comprehend this, but with it, she holds a 
 
 * M. Jullien. 
 
64 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 key that will unlock the mysteries with which ignorant 
 physicians have sought to envelope the healing art. 
 
 If you ask a physician the component parts of a 
 medicine which he orders, and he is unable to answer, 
 you have reason to doubt his qualifications for his 
 profession. Scientific practioners do not fail to investi- 
 gate the chemical elements of the substances they use, 
 and it is by a knowledge of these elements, and of their 
 modes of combination, aided by experience, that they can 
 calculate on the effects to be produced. A knowledge 
 of Botany will enable you to ascertain with certainty the 
 identity of plants which are important as medicinal 
 agents : the common names of plants, being traditional 
 and local, it is impossible to decide on them with 
 certainty ; but Botany will furnish you with a sure and 
 unerring guide to their true name, as recognized by 
 physicians. 
 
 In the department of your journal devoted to physical 
 changes, it would be well to keep a record of medicines 
 whose effects you had witnessed on yourselves or others, 
 with their composition and nature ; if vegetable remedies, 
 give their botanical names and characters. Females 
 have much need of some medical knowledge, both with 
 reference to their individual maladies and the diseases 
 of those around them : and although accustomed, as 
 
 IllOSt of you havp hpen, to bo watched over and adminio 
 
 tered unto, you can now have little conception of the 
 changes which will take place ; yet the time may soon ar- 
 rive when it will become your turn to watch over, and 
 minister to others. 
 
 According to the arrangement which we have made of 
 the departments of education, we shall next proceed to 
 consider intellectual improvement. 
 
 This will demand much attention, as it involves the 
 subject of mental discipline, and the consideration of the 
 various branches of study in which yo« are now engag- 
 ed. Even the study of moral philosophy, considered as a 
 science, properly comes under the head of intellectual 
 improvement, though as an art, or in its practical appli- 
 cation, it properly belongs to the ethical or moral depart- 
 ment. 
 
DIVISION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 65 
 
 Our attention will now be devoted to the consideration 
 of those means by which the slumbering energies of 
 mind may be aroused, and those energies strengthened 
 and developed. 
 
 In remarking upon the different branches of study, it 
 will be my object, 1st, to give general views of the his- 
 tory and progress of each science; 2d, its prominent prin- 
 ciples and its relations to other sciences ; 3d, its objects 
 and practical applications. I may depart from this 
 method in some cases, as where it seems most proper to 
 consider first the principles of a science, or where it ap- 
 pears unnecessary to treat of the history of a science 
 distinctly from its outlines. 
 
 LECTURE VI. 
 
 Division of Mental Faculties. — Mental Discipline. — ■ 
 Cultivation of Mental Faculties. 
 
 The mind is the object on which education operates, 
 Even those habits which seem to depend wholly upon the 
 body, we see have their origin in the mind, without whose 
 vivifying influence the human machine would be as in- 
 active as the marble statue, or the body from whence the 
 soul has departed. Physical education has relation to 
 the mind, as governing the body, and capable of making 
 it the willing and ready instrument of a variety of sensa- 
 tions and muscular movements. Physical education also 
 includes that care of the body which is due to it as the 
 tenement of the soul, and on whose sound condition the 
 welfare of the latter so much depends. 
 
 Before proceeding with our remarks on intellectual im- 
 provement, it may be proper to give the outlines of a 
 classification of the states of mind which has of late been 
 received with great approbation both in Europe and Arae- 
 
 6* 
 
66 DIVISION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 
 
 rica ; I mean that of Dr. Brown, to which allusion has al- 
 ready been made. According to this, all our mental 
 phenomena may be referred to three great classes, first, 
 External states of mind; these include all our sensations, 
 as derived from smell, taste, touch and sight, and also all 
 the feelings which arise from the action of the muscles ; 
 or which are raised in the mind from external objects, or 
 from changes of the body, which is external with respect 
 to the mind. Second, Intellectual states of mind ; these 
 include what some writers have called the reasoning pow- 
 ers, the powers of the understanding , intellectual powers, 
 &,c. Third, Emotions ; these include what have been 
 termed active powers ; but Dr. Brown very properly as- 
 serts, that the mind when in that state called hope, or joy, 
 is no more active than when engaged in reasoning, or im- 
 agining ; a classification must, therefore, be defective 
 which makes a property common to both classes the 
 foundation of a distinction. 
 
 The intellectual states of mind and the emotions uni- 
 tedly form a more general division, called internal states, 
 in contra-distinction to external. These internal states are 
 such as the mind could experience, were it separated from 
 the body. If we could imagine a living human being 
 with the entire loss of all his bodily senses,* although he 
 would be cut off from all external objects, yet we can 
 conceive that he might remember the past, he might grieve 
 for his melancholy fate, and might hope for death to 
 set his spirit free from its living and breathing tomb. It 
 is this capacity of the mind to * enter into its own sanctu- 
 ary and to commune with itself,' which, as Dr. Brown re- 
 marks, renders it ' truly immortal' and independent of the 
 perishable atoms to which it is now united. 
 
 Fearing that I may not have done justice to Dr. Brown's 
 
 * This supposition is not as absurd as may at first be imagined. 
 Aged persons sometimes gradually lose their sight, hearing, taste, 
 and smell ; and yet they are no less living beings than before the 
 loss of their senses. We cannot suppose that the only remaining 
 sense, that of touch, is the link between life and death. Instan- 
 ces too have occurred, in which persons have been under the in- 
 fluence of a general paralysis ; that is, they have been wholly 
 incapable of muscular motion, and almost insensible to touch, and 
 this without being rendered incapable of thinking or reasoning. 
 
DIVISION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 67 
 
 classification, I will repeat it in his own words. 'We 
 have sensations, or perceptions of objects that affect our 
 bodily organs ; these, I term the sensitive or external af- 
 fections of the mind; we remember objects, we imagine 
 them in new situations, we compare their relations ; these 
 mere conceptions, or notions of objects and their quali- 
 ties, as elements of our general knowledge, are what I 
 have termed the intellectual states of mind; we are mov- 
 ed with certain lively feelings, on the consideration of 
 what we thus perceive, remember, imagine, or compare, 
 with feelings for example, of beauty or sublimity or as- 
 tonishment, or love, ox hatred, or hope, or fear ; these and 
 various other vivid feelings analagous to them, are our 
 emotions. There is no portion of our consciousness 
 which does not appear to me to be included in one or 
 other of these three divisions. To know all our sensi- 
 tive states, all our intellectual states, and all our emo- 
 tions, is to know all the states or phenomena of the mind.' 
 
 In treating upon physical education, we have consid- 
 ered the mind in relation to its external affections. We 
 shall now proceed to consider our second division of the 
 departments of education — intellectual improvement; 
 this will comprehend Dr. Brown's second division, or the 
 intellectual powers. 
 
 In entering upon the subject of intellectual improve- 
 ment, a vast field opens before us ; it will be impossible 
 to do more than to take a rapid and cursory view of 
 the many important subjects which present themselves. 
 We shall consider in what manner the mental powers 
 should be disciplined in order that they may strengthen 
 and develope themselves, and then proceed to notice the 
 various branches of literature and science which are the 
 subjects of your present studies. 
 
 We have seen under the head of physical education, how 
 much depends on habit, and it was remarked that intel- 
 lectual habits are as early formed and of as permanent a 
 nature as those which relate to the body. Mr. Locke ob- 
 serves, ' We are born with faculties and powers, capable 
 of almost anything ; but it is only the exercise of those 
 powers which gives us ability and skill in anything, and 
 leads us towards perfection. As it is in the body, so it 
 
68 DIVISION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 
 
 is in the mind ; practice makes it what it is, and most 
 even of those excellences which are looked on as natural 
 endowments, will be found, when examined into more nar- 
 rowly, to be the product of exercise, and to be raised to 
 that pitch only by repeated actions.' Many of you can 
 bear witness to the truth of Mr. Locke's assertion, respect- 
 ing the power of habit. You will recollect the difficulty 
 you at first found in investigating the subjects you were 
 required to study. Accustomed as many of you had 
 been to a mechanical parrot-like mode of recitation, where 
 the memory and not the understanding was taxed, you 
 felt that it would be impossible to study and recite as 
 your classmates did. You heard them give long analyses 
 of works on rhetoric, history, or philosophy, explain- 
 ing in their own words with clearness and facility the 
 ideas of their authors ; and you believed yourself wholly 
 incompetent to the attainment of such powers. You 
 heard with astonishment those of your own age demon- 
 strating with clearness and force some of the most diffi- 
 cult mathematical propositions, and you gave them credit 
 for faculties of a higher order than you possessed. You 
 now look back on those feelings with mingled emotions 
 of shame and pride ; of shame that you should thus have 
 undervalued your own talents, and pride that you have 
 overcome obstacles and acquired a habit of patient inves- 
 tigation. This habit is of infinitely more importance 
 than all other intellectual attainments. Were a person 
 accustomed to reasoning, reflecting, comparing and judg- 
 ing, to be required to give up those mental habits, or the 
 knowledge gained by their means, he would not hesitate 
 to part with acquisitions already made, rather than to 
 lose the 'instruments by which they had been gained. 
 Persons who have gained wealth can lay aside those hab- 
 its of business by which it had been amassed, feeling as- 
 sured that they shall be able to meet their future wants ; 
 but the treasures of knowledge, although rich, may not 
 thus answer for future occasions ; — in the ever varying, 
 ever changing scenes of life, we are continually placed 
 in new situations, where we need to make new compari- 
 sons, and act on new principles : thus we require the in- 
 struments of mental labor to be ever bright and ready for 
 use. 
 
CULTIVATION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 69 
 
 In the view we are now taking of education con- 
 sidered in reference to the nature of the mind, it may be 
 well to note those mental faculties which it. is the object 
 of intellectual improvement to cultivate and develope. I 
 shall not, as we proceed, confine myself to that peculiar 
 view of the mind which the author whose general divis- 
 ions I have adopted has given, but shall use the terms 
 reason, judgment, memory, &c. according to their general 
 acceptations, viz., as distinct powers : they may be con- 
 sidered as genera, belonging to the class intellectual pow- 
 ers. I shall use this arrangement for the sake of conve- 
 nience, although the minuter analysis of Dr. Brown very 
 justly reduces the many supposed intellectual powers un- 
 der the two generic terms, simple and relative suggestion, 
 the former including conception, memory, imagination 
 and habit; the latter reason, judgment, abstraction, the 
 power of generalizing, &c. 
 
 We may now consider the human mind as a gar- 
 den laid out before us : he who created this garden, 
 planted in it the seeds of various faculties ; these do in- 
 deed spring up of themselves, but without education, 
 they will be stinted in their growth, choked with weeds, 
 and never attain that strength and elevation of which they 
 are susceptible. In one part of our garden the germ 
 of reason is seen to unfold itself, in another appears that 
 
 of memory, in another that of judgment, until all the fac- 
 ulties of the intellect are in their full progress of develop- 
 ment. The emotions and passions are mingled with 
 powers of slower growth : while the intellectual gardener 
 cultivates the latter with assiduous care, he knows that 
 the passions need his most vigilant attention ; that if they 
 grow rank andunpruned, like the fatal Bohan Upas, they 
 will poison and destroy the vital principle of virtue, and 
 root out the moral harmony on which the beauty of the 
 whole depends Leaving the passions and emotions to be 
 hereafter considered, our concern now is with those men- 
 tal germs which belong to the intellectual department. 
 The skilful gardener knows that his roses require one mode 
 of culture, his tulips another, and his geraniums another; 
 and that attention to one of these, will not bring forward 
 the other. So ought the mental cultivator to understand 
 
70 CULTIVATION OF MENTAL FACULTIES. 
 
 that the germs of the various faculties should be simul- 
 taneously brought forward. This truth seemed not to 
 have been understood by those, who, bending all their ef- 
 forts towards the cultivation of the memory, neglected 
 the other powers of the mind. 
 
 To show you more plainly what is meant by these 
 remarks, I will state a very common fact with respect 
 to pupils whose memory has been cultivated at the 
 expense of their other faculties. Many such have 
 entered this institution, flushed with the hope of standing 
 highest in their classes, as they had done where only mem- 
 oriter recitations were required. Confident of knowing 
 ' every word of her lesson,' such a pupil has entered her class 
 expecting that all would admire the fluency with which 
 she should 'say it off.' Her teacher, instead of suggest- 
 ing the mere words of the lesson, perhaps demands the 
 nature of the subject she has been studying : this 
 unexpected question confuses her ; for the truth is, she 
 has never investigated it at all ; she had not learned that 
 words are nothing, except as they are the medium of 
 communicating ideas; she had always taken the shadow 
 for the substance, and is now astonished that she had never 
 before thought it necessary to understand what she 
 learned. 
 
 The mental habit of exclusively connecting words by 
 
 the mere relation of contiguity, i«» very injurious to 
 
 the mind : when a pupil becomes aware of the un- 
 profitableness of the exercise, it is often difficult to call 
 forth the reasoning powers, which have hitherto lain 
 dormant. On the other hand, that exercise of memory 
 which depends on contiguity or juxta-position, should 
 not be neglected. In the acquisition of certain scien- 
 ces, and in certain departments of literature, it is impor- 
 tant that some things should be learned by rote ; as in 
 languages, the declensions and conjugations of words ; 
 and in arithmetic the numeration and other tables ; 
 portions of scripture and hymns also should be taught to 
 children, even though they are above their compre- 
 hension, for in after life they may be remembered with 
 deep interest and satisfaction. As the other powers 
 develope, the faculty of remembering words in a certain 
 
I I I.TIVATION Of MKMAI, FACULTIES. 71 
 
 order is weakened ; thus it is that per§oni accustomed 
 to deep thinking, find it almost impossible to tarn 
 anything by rote; tins is because their powers of reason- 
 ing and judging hare been much more exercised than 
 their memoryt Those who acquire habits of committing 
 words to memory, often acquire a wonderful facility in 
 tJjis respecti as actors, who learn long parti in a play 
 in a very short time ; and some orators and preacher*. 
 who are said to commit to memory the whole of their 
 discourses before they appear in public. 
 
 We should not however expect that a mind, fertile in 
 suggestions of analogy, glancing quick from cause to 
 
 effect, and from Secondary to primary causes, would 
 
 possess this kind of JoeaJ memory in a great degree. Of 
 some persons distinguished Tor the greatness of their con* 
 eeptions, and richness of their acquirements, it lias been 
 
 found that even their own productions, have in progress 
 pf tittle been forgotten by them; — others when writing 
 upon a Sttbjeet t£ey had before treated of, seem to foj 
 
 what they had before written j their thoughts taking anew 
 turn, their language and arrangement are found t<> be - 
 
 sentially different. Jt is not my present intention to ^ivc a 
 
 dissertation on the mind, any farther than to show that its 
 nature mustbc studied by these who would succeed in its 
 
 cultivation, and that it is important for you, as pupils, to 
 learn as much as possible of your own mental constitu- 
 tions. Beside the general Jaws, which are common to all 
 
 mind-, each has its constitutional differences, and its 
 peculiar habits. Where you find your mind most weak 
 
 by nature, you should strive most to Strengthen it by 
 
 suitable exercises. Where you find your intellectual 
 
 habits defective, you must endeavor to change and 
 improve them. For those who have been Uttle accus- 
 tomed to the exercise of the reasoning powers, it is well 
 
 to enter upon a course of mathematical studies. Locke 
 says, ( I consider mathematics as a way to settle in the 
 
 mind a habit of reasoning closely and in a train; not 
 that I think it necessary that all : should be deep mathe- 
 maticians, but ihat having got the, way of reasoning 
 which that study brings the mind to, they might be able 
 
 to transfer it to other parts of knowledge as they have 
 occasion.' 
 
72 MENTAL DISCIPLINE. 
 
 The same writer observes in another part of his 
 ' Essay on the Human Understanding,' that an acquaint- 
 ance with even the first book of Euclid's Elements 
 of Geometry is of great use to the mind, as unfolding a 
 beautiful and systematic method of reasoning. 
 
 I shall close this Lecture, by giving a few rules, to 
 assist you in the attempt to improve and discipline 
 your own mental powers. 
 
 First, Study the nature of your own minds. 
 
 In order to assist you in this, compare yourselves with 
 others. Observe their recitations, the particulars in 
 which they excel or are deficient. Notice whether they 
 find the same difficulties that you do. It is also a very 
 useful exercise for two or more pupils of nearly equal 
 abilities, to write upon some one given subject, and then 
 compare their ideas and manner of treating the same 
 subject. While you should be careful not to set your 
 mark too low, and thus fail of what you might attain ; 
 it is also important that you do not tax yourselves too 
 heavily and thus injure the mind by overstraining its 
 powers. 
 
 Second, Never consider a lesson learned until you can 
 give the author's ideas in your own words, or at least till 
 you can point out the prominent parts of which it consists. 
 
 This method of studying is the reverse of learning by 
 rote ; it is acquired by practice, and is the only proper 
 way of attempting to gain knowledge. It is impossible, 
 after having read several pages of a work, to remember 
 every idea which an author has advanced ; you should 
 therefore strive to comprehend the main scope of his 
 argument, and not dwell upon the less important ideas. 
 Many pupils, from attempting to remember everything, 
 fail in attaining a clear knowledge of anything. This 
 habit of discriminating the more from the less important 
 ideas in reading and studying, will be of great utility in 
 after life. A facility is thus gained of collecting, almost 
 at a glance, the subject of a whole page. 
 
 It is by following the rule above given, that some 
 of your fellow students have been able to give an 
 analysis of the unabridged volumes of Brown's Philoso- 
 phy of the mind. They could never have accomplished 
 
MENTAL DISCIPLINE. 73 
 
 so Herculean a task, but that they first learned the leading 
 argument of each page, then of each lecture, and then 
 of the principal departments of the work ; and thus 
 were able, in a few months,* to give with clearness the 
 general arrangement of the whole work, with the minor 
 divisions, and the principal ideas under each. 
 
 Third, — Accustom yourselves to express your ideas on 
 the various subjects of study, in writing. 
 
 The practice of writing an analysis, or making a 
 sketch of the lessons you are studying, is a very good 
 one ; but this cannot be done until you have prepared 
 yourself for it by previous study. By attempting to 
 make an outline before a view of the whole has been 
 taken, the mind is confused rather than assisted. It 
 is well to make the sciences you study the subjects of 
 your weekly compositions, sometimes taking them in 
 one point of view, sometimes in another. 
 
 Fourth, — Improve the best hovrs of the day to secure 
 those lessons which require the greatest mental effort. 
 
 The season most favorable for study is with most 
 persons, the morning ; the body being then refreshed by 
 sleep, and the mind by a suspension of effort ; your 
 most difficult lessons, as mathematics, or philosophy, 
 should be studied. Drawing, music, botany, chemistry, 
 and other pursuits which, are not of an abstract nature, 
 can excite an interest even when the mind is fatigued. 
 But when the mind appears in any degree overstrained, 
 it should be suffered to relax, until it spontaneously recov- 
 ers its tone. It is evident that in all intellectual as well 
 as mechanical labors, the work accomplished must be in 
 proportion to the power exerted. When the mind is 
 languid it is impossible for it to put forth power, time can- 
 not make up for mental energy. One hour of success- 
 ful effort is worth more than days of weak attempts. 
 In order to keep the mind active, regularity must be ob- 
 served in exercise, diet, and sleep : they gain nothing 
 who disregard the body in their zeal for mental improve- 
 
 * This study is generally pursued in the institution in connexion 
 with some other branches. 
 
74 MENTAL DISCIPLINE. 
 
 
 
 ment ; if disordered or enfeebled, it will certainly react 
 upon the mind. 
 
 Fifth, — Endeavor to fix your attention exclusively upon 
 the study in which you are engaged. 
 
 Attention is indeed every thing ; without it nothing 
 requiring mental effort can be well done. In bodily op- 
 erations we may acquire so great a facility of execution 
 that we have no need of attention : thus a musician can 
 perform a familiar air without thinking of his notes. 
 Some feminine employments, as sewing or knitting, ope- 
 rations which at first seemed complicated, in time be- 
 come so familiar as to require no attention ; the hands 
 seem instinctively to perform the accustomed move- 
 ments : but mental exercises demand attention. 
 
 It is perhaps the most difficult task of young students 
 to gain that command of their trains of thought which 
 scientific research requires. How many are diverted 
 from the subject upon which they engage, by the most 
 trifling circumstances ; even the appearance of a fly upon 
 a window, an object in the street, or a slight noise in an 
 adjoining apartment, are each sufficient to call off their 
 attention. And if even no pretence should offer, the 
 mind wearied with the unusual attempt at investigation, 
 gladly goes in search of some more pleasing exercise of 
 its powers. The enjoyments of home are called up; the 
 days or weeks are counted which have intervened since 
 the dear spot was left, and the many which are to pass 
 until examination is over and these tedious books can 
 for a time be laid aside. 
 
 But I will not attempt to imagine all the reveries in 
 which a school girl may indulge, even when demurely 
 looking at her book, during the allotted time for learning 
 her lessons. Your own consciences can say how often 
 the ringing of the recitation bell has found you unpre- 
 pared, after such unprofitable aberrations of thought. But 
 let me urge all who are conscious of such injurious hab- 
 its, to strive to acquire an ascendancy over yourselves, 
 by carefully guarding the avenues of your minds. Be 
 resolute against admitting desultory thoughts, when you 
 need all your concentrated mental powers to bear upon 
 the subject before you. The task will at first be diffi- 
 
SPELLING. 75 
 
 cult, but you may in time have the satisfaction of feeling 
 that you can fix your attention, or govern your trains of 
 thought. 
 
 Sixth, — Endeavor to understand as far as possible the 
 nature, objects and ultimate end of the studies you pursue. 
 
 Thus, when questioned as to your progress in education 
 you may be able to state what you have done, what you 
 design to do, and the bearing which all this is intended 
 to have upon your future life. With such ideas as these 
 fixed in your mind, you will not, when hereafter questioned 
 as to what you did in school, have occasion to say with the 
 young lady, who, returning from a boarding school, and 
 bein 6 asked what she had studied, answered, that she 
 ' could not tell without looking at her books, and they 
 were all in her trunks.' , 
 
 May you, my dear pupils, have your intellectual and 
 moral natures imbued with the instructions you are now 
 receiving ; and may the fruits of an enlarged and liberal 
 education appear in elevation of character, and the adapta- 
 tion of your minds to the various exigencies of life ; — 
 may you be not only intelligent and intellectual women, 
 but good members of society, faithful and judicious in 
 all your relations in life, and above all, pious and consist- 
 ent christians. 
 
 LECTURE VII. 
 
 Reading. — Spelling. — A rticulate Sounds. 
 
 From our previous remarks upon intellectual improve- 
 ment, it may be inferred that a proper discipline of the 
 mind is of still greater importance to the young, than 
 the mere acquisition of knowledge. 
 
 The various branches of modern education have been 
 considered under two heads : 1. Such as seem chiefly 
 valuable on account of their effect in strengthening and 
 developing the mental powers. 2. Such as are chiefly 
 useful for the knowledge they convey. In the former 
 
76 SPELLING. 
 
 class are ranked mathematics and languages; in the lat- 
 ter, geography, history, &,c. 
 
 We cannot, however, make any definite classification of 
 the different departments of learning on these principles, 
 since the acquisition of any one science has a beneficial 
 effect on the mind, whose capacity for receiving increases 
 in proportion as it receives. On the other hand, there 
 is no science but may be highly useful in its applications. 
 
 Geography, which is considered chiefly useful for the 
 knowledge of facts which it communicates, affords exer- 
 cise for many of the faculties of the mind; the memory 
 in retaining facts, the power of comparison when viewing 
 different countries with their peculiarities as to physical 
 and moral condition, of abstraction when a river or moun- 
 tian are considered without reference to any other cir- 
 cumstance. Geometry, which is so higly recommended 
 by Locke and others, for its influence in training the 
 mind to habits of reasoning and methodical arrangement, 
 has its practical applications to astronomy, drawing, nat- 
 ural philosophy, and mechanics. 
 
 With respect to the various branches of natural science, 
 botany, chemistry, &c, it would be difficult to say 
 whether they are most to be valued for their intrinsic 
 utility, or for their salutary influence upon the mind. 
 The inquiry is often made of what use can it be for a fe- 
 male to study botany or chemistry. Such, inquiries show 
 either an illiberal spirit, or great ignorance. Considered 
 in reference to the mind only,, these studies are of vast 
 importance ; botany accustoms the mind to systematic 
 arrangement, definite rules of classifications, and strict 
 attention to the import of terms ; chemistry, by its minute 
 analysis, gives a habit of discrimination and observation, 
 which is of the utmost importance to all, especially to 
 those who are about commencing the journey of life. 
 Neither are these sciences without their important prac- 
 tical applications ; these will be considered when we come 
 to treat of each individually. 
 
 I shall now proceed to the various branches of fe- 
 male education, endeavoring to give general views of 
 the different sciences, their origin and history, their ad- 
 vantages and practical applications. The first step in 
 
SPELLING. 77 
 
 the literary education of a child after it has learned the 
 alphabet, is that to put the letters together, forming the 
 compound sounds called syllables; and then to unite 
 these syllables into words. This process is called spelling, 
 and also orthography, from the Greek orthos, correct, and 
 graphia, writing, meaning to write words correctly. The 
 term orthoepy from orthos, correct, and cpo, I speak, sig- 
 nifies correct pronunciation. 
 
 The habit of spelling correctly is an acquirement so 
 necessary, that the want of it cannot be overlooked in 
 any one who makes pretensions to an education above 
 the lowest grade. There are, indeed, persons who, al- 
 though deprived of the means of early improvement, have, 
 by industry and talents, gained wealth and influence 
 without being able to spell correctly. But such feel their 
 deficiency with the keenest sense of mortification, and 
 would be the first to caution young persons against care- 
 lessness in this respect. 
 
 It might seem as if in addressing: the members of this 
 institution, it were unnecessary to dwell for a moment on 
 the importance of a branch of education which it is the 
 business of primary schools to teach, and which you 
 ought to be perfected in, before your entrance into this. 
 Yet I am sorry to say, that too many, who are ambitious 
 of the higher walks of literature, are careless in this re- 
 spect. 
 
 Owing to the defective method of teaching spelling in 
 many primary schools, pupils often leave them with little 
 practical knowledge of this important branch. To learn 
 to spell long columns of words, arranged without any re- 
 ference to their meaning, proves not to be of much use 
 when the pupil attempts to write. I have known a pupil 
 who was distinguished as the best speller in a common 
 school, and who seldom was known to ' miss a word in her 
 lesson/ scarcely able to write a letter which could be read, 
 from the badness of its orthography. She had been accus- 
 tomed to connect the letters with the sound of the words. 
 In schools where the only method of spelling is with the 
 voice, it is customary for the pupils in studying their les- 
 sons to move the lips, and many cannot study without 
 
 doing this. In writing, theeye must be practised in order to 
 
 7# 
 
78 SPELLING. 
 
 detect erroneous spelling. It is for this reason that we 
 approve and practise the mode of teaching spelling by 
 dictation, or the pupils writing words upon a slate, or a 
 blackboard, after the dictation of the teacher. By care- 
 fully following this mode, you may soon correct any bad 
 habits with regard to spelling, which you have been suf- 
 fered to form. 
 
 I trust you are all aware that with respect to young la- 
 dies who enjoy your advantages, bad spelling cannot be tol- 
 erated. This would not only be disgraceful to yourselves, 
 but to the institution to which you belong. Some may 
 feel that they are too old, and have too much to do to join 
 the class in dictation, who are yet conscious that they are 
 deficient in spelling. To such, a dictionary must be a con- 
 stant writing companion. Yet should you, after all your 
 care, have the mortification of seeing your compositions 
 returned from the teachers with the spelling corrected, 
 let me recommend to you to make a memorandum of the 
 words misspelt, with their true orthography, so that you 
 may be sure of not committing the same error the second 
 time.* I have known pupils acquire such an inveterate 
 habit of misspelling certain words, that after frequent cor- 
 rections, their compositions would continue to exhibit the 
 same mistakes ; this is not only careless in the extreme, 
 but disrespectful, showing that neither self-interest, or 
 a regard to her teacher,, operates in the mind of one 
 who is thus, after repeated admonition, guilty of the same 
 fault. 
 
 There are some words of irregular orthography, which 
 many are liable to mistake ; as receive, in which the e pre- 
 cedes i, contrary to more frequent usage, as in friend, be- 
 lieve, &c. where e follows i. Words which take an addi- 
 tional syllable in respect to doubling the final letter ; from 
 permit, we have permitted, while from visit we have 
 visited. The rule for doubling the t in the first case, and 
 not in the second, is that in permit the accent is on the 
 
 * In making out such a list of words, only the correct mode of 
 spelling should be copied;. If the false orthography is set by the 
 side of the true, the person will always be in doubt as to the right 
 way ; for by the principle of association the one is no less readily 
 suggested than the other. 
 
ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 79 
 
 last syllable, and in visit, on the first ; it being a general 
 rule, that a word ending with a consonant, and having the 
 last syllable accented, doubles the consonant on the ad- 
 dition of another syllable, while a word ending with a 
 consonant and not having the accent on the last syllable, 
 does not double the final consonant. 
 
 A few rules for spelling should be written in your 
 memorandum book ; for dictionaries will not assist you in 
 the case of many derivative words. Thus, from the primi- 
 tive word holy come the degrees of comparison holier, ho- 
 liest ; but if the y at the end of a word have not a conso- 
 nant before it, it is not changed into i on the addition 
 of another syllable, as from joy is derived joyful. 
 
 Connected with the subject of spelling, is that of the 
 sounds and powers of letters. With modern im- 
 provements in education, there is a neglect of some parti- 
 culars which were more thoroughly attended to when 
 many fountains of knowledge were sealed, which are now 
 open to the young student. Formerly the introduction to 
 Webster's Spelling Book, containing in some three or four 
 pages, rules for accent, the sounds of letters, &c, fur- 
 nished matter for months of study. Although we would 
 not wish to bring back those barren days of education, it 
 cannot be denied that the scarcity of school books ensured 
 a more thorough knowledge of some of the elementary 
 branches. 
 
 I have sometimes found, to my great surprise, a young 
 lady quick to comprehend mathematical truths, who 
 knew something of Latin, and was perhaps a proficient in 
 French, puzzled to tell the difference between accent 
 and emphasis, or to give a rule for pronouncing g Yikej 
 in giant, and with a hard sound in go, or for giving c diff- 
 erent sounds in cedar and cable. 
 
 There is in the study of articulate sounds and the powers 
 of letters, much deep philosophy ; and whoever thinks it 
 beneath attention, little understands its importance or diffi- 
 culties. It is easy to tell the difference between a vowel 
 and consonant, a mute and a semivowel; but to" understand 
 fully the nature of articulation, we must study the various 
 modifications which the air sent out by the lungs, is ca- 
 pable of, in order to produce the wonderful variety of 
 sounds within the compass of the human voice. 
 
80 ARTICULATE SOUNDS. 
 
 Dr. Paley observes, ' the lungs are to animal utterance 
 what the bellows are to the organ ; they are air vessls 
 which become inflated and then collapsed as the air is in- 
 spired or expired.' You can perceive that in respiration 
 the chest alternately expands and contracts. This mo- 
 tion is caused by the action of the lungs, which are two 
 spongy lobes, or divisions suspended in the chest, being 
 connected with the trachea, or wind-pipe at the upper 
 part. The air which enters the lungs is received into the 
 minute cavities of which they are composed ; these are 
 called air cells. We cannot at this time describe the 
 manner in which the air is expelled from the lungs, the 
 effect of respiration upon the blood, and the motion, of the 
 heart caused by the constant rushing of the blood from this 
 to the lungs and from the lungs to the heart, with the 
 change that takes place in the nature of the blood after 
 coming in contact with the'oxygen of the air, which is in- 
 haled by the lungs ; though all this is easily explained and 
 comprehended. 
 
 At present we are only to consider the lungs in refer- 
 ence to their office in furnishing the air necessary for ar- 
 ticulating sounds. This air passes back through the 
 windpipe, which is that tube that we can feel externally 
 to be composed of cartilaginous rings. The top of the 
 windpipe is called the larynx ; at the upper part of this, 
 and behind the tongue, is the glottis, a very small open- 
 ing through which the breath and voice are conveyed. 
 It is in the passage of the air through this minute aper- 
 ture that articulate sounds are formed. By means of va- 
 rious muscles or threads, which draw in different direc- 
 tions, the glottis is susceptible of many degrees of expan- 
 sion, and it is by varying this cavity that the different 
 vowels are sounded. The air in passing a large cavity, 
 produces a low or flat sound, through a small cavity, a 
 high or sharp sound. This may be seen in the vowels 
 a, e, i, o, u, which proceed in regular order from low and 
 flat to high and sharp sounds. 
 
 Oral language, or speech, consists of articulate sounds ; 
 brutes utter various inarticulate sounds, expressive of 
 their peculiar feelings. The cat when quietly reposing by 
 the parlor fire, expresses her satisfaction by a gentle pur- 
 
READING. 81 
 
 ring ; when her capricious little mistress amuses herself 
 by "tormenting her, she vents her sorrows in piteous mew- 
 ing ; and when roused to anger by the cruelty of the 
 dog, she growls her indignation. Mankind also have 
 means of expressing violent emotions by inarticulate 
 sounds, as by laughing, crying, or screaming. But it is 
 only by articulate sounds and their representatives, that 
 intercourse can be satisfactorily carried on between ra- 
 tional minds ; these are the links which bind together our 
 spirits — they are wings by whose means the soul is borne 
 from its corporeal prison to unite in the interchange of 
 thought and feeling with kindred souls. 
 
 May this gift of a bountiful Creator never be perverted 
 by you, my dear pupils, to unworthy purposes ; may your 
 words be a true index of your hearts, pure, gentle and 
 kind. A deceitful world may tell you that falsehood 
 and dissimulation are necessary, but believe it not. True 
 politeness js] consistent with sincerity or singleness of 
 heart, and if you once lose this, and commence a system 
 of duplicity your \vhole lives may become a tissue of ar- 
 tifice and hypocrisy. Let your hearts be pure, and you 
 need not fear to have their true image reflected to the 
 world. He who gave you the power of language, adapt- 
 ing your bodily organs in so wonderful and complicated 
 a manner to this object, requires that you order your 
 speech in sincerity and wisdom. 
 
 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 Reading. 
 
 If God had formed us for solitude, he would not have 
 given us the wish to converse with other minds ; or if, 
 like brutes, we had been irrational, we should not have 
 needed language. Speech peculiarly distinguishes man 
 from the other living beings on earth. 
 
 The word language is derived from the Latin lingua, 
 
82 READING. 
 
 tongue, and originally signified only the communication 
 of ideas by articulate sounds. Its signification is now 
 extended not only to the communication of ideas by 
 writing, but we speak of the language of the passions, as 
 expressed by various natural signs. The division which 
 is generally made of language is into oral * and written. 
 The sciences which have an especial relation to language, 
 considered as an instrument of conveying those thoughts, 
 are grammar, rhetoric, logic and criticism. Grammar 
 teaches us to arrange words, answerably to certain rules 
 of agreement and government ; rhetoric teaches the use 
 of figurative language, and gives directions for attaining 
 clearness and precision in style ; logic teaches the meth- 
 od of arranging words in a certain manner, in order to 
 establish the truth or falsehood of propositions ; criticism 
 teaches on what principles of the mind depend our tastes 
 for various kinds of style, and brings to the test of those 
 principles the writings of various authors. All other 
 sciences are communicated by means of language, but 
 these have for their object language »itself, or in other 
 words, in these sciences language is not only the instru- 
 ment with which the operation is carried on, but the ob- 
 ject upon which it is performed. 
 
 Before proceeding to consider the principles on which 
 language is founded, we will make some remarks upon 
 reading, which is the next step to spelling, in the scale 
 of literary knowledge ; indeed modern education usually 
 proceeds with both at the same time, not waiting for a 
 child to be able to spell words of several syllables, before 
 he is allowed to experience the new emotions connected 
 with an exercise which brings the thoughts of others to 
 him when he is alone, and opens to him a new and de- 
 lightful source of enjoyment. As soon as a child knows 
 its alphabet, it can be taught that m y spell my, and that 
 cat spell cat ; he can then put the words together and 
 read, my cat. In a short time he can be taught to read 
 little stories composed of words of one syllable, and from 
 this, the transition is easy to words of more than one syl- 
 lable. 
 
 * From os, oris, the mouth. 
 
READING. 
 
 83 
 
 It is but a few years since teaching a child to read 
 was a very different process from this. The little mar- 
 tyr in commencing his education, was sent to school to 
 be confined for many long hours in the day, upon a hard 
 seat, with only the occasional change of being called up 
 for a few minutes to say his letters. The alphabet pre- 
 sented was often in a small, obscure type, and printed on 
 bad paper. The teacher pointing to the letters, pro- 
 nounced their names, requiring the child to repeat them 
 after him. This becoming an exercise wholly mechanical, 
 day after day passed bringing the poor child apparently 
 no nearer the completion of the formidable task of learn- 
 ing its letters. From the principle of association he be- 
 comes able to call one letter after another when they are 
 presented in regular order; but taken separately and in 
 any other place than the accustomed column of letters, 
 they are as unintelligible as Hebrew or Greek charac- 
 ters. I have known children of good abilities tortured 
 for months and even years in this absurd and stupifying 
 method of teaching ; and when the teacher, in despair, has 
 put them upon spelling, the work has been found to be 
 accomplished ; as a few exercises of this kind connect 
 in the child's mind the form with the sound of the let- 
 ters. 
 
 But here again the child's progress is interrupted by 
 the mistaken idea, that before beginning to read, he 
 must be able to spell words of several syllables. He 
 reads abasement, ambiguity and cotemporary, with a mind 
 entirely vacant of thought ; indeed, he is not aware that 
 the words have any meaning, or any other use than to 
 fill the columns in his spelling book. The reading les- 
 sons first presented were often dry and abstract proposi- 
 tions, wholly beyond the comprehension of any child, 
 even one whose mental powers had been properly culti- 
 vated. In the most popular spelling book* which has 
 been in use for the last half century in our common 
 schools, the first lessons in reading are of this nature. 
 There are, however, in the book, some things of a differ- 
 ent kind ; and the story of the ' old man who found a rude 
 
 * Webster's. 
 
84 READING. 
 
 boy upon one of his trees stealing apples/ is perused by 
 the young student with great delight, for the simple rea- 
 son, that he can understand it. 
 
 The method of infant school education affords a pleas- 
 ing contrast to that just described. Knowledge is here 
 made easy and pleasant; the intellectual faculties are 
 roused by objects addressed to the senses. Pictures with 
 their names attached are presented to the children ; and 
 in deciphering these names, they learn to consider words 
 as representatives of things. In process of time, it is easy 
 for them to learn that words may also be the representa- 
 tives of ideas. 
 
 The different manner in which children read, who are 
 taught by these two processes is apparent. A child un- 
 accustomed to consider written language as the sign for 
 things and ideas, or to read without knowledge or inter- 
 est, would have no idea of emphasis or intonations. The 
 habit of reading mechanically once formed, is with dif- 
 ficulty broken, even after the development of reason, and 
 the cultivation of taste exhibits written characters as kin- 
 dled by the fire of genius, or glowing with the most im- 
 passioned feeling. 
 
 To early defects in education, we must attribute the 
 fact, that there are among us, few good readers. There 
 are many requisites for good reading, besides early hab- 
 its. It requires not only knowledge of language, of the 
 derivation and signification of words, but an acquaint- 
 ance with the passions of the human heart, and with the 
 different tones in which they should be expressed. It re- 
 quires also a quick conception to seize upon the meaning 
 of a passage, so that for the moment, the author's spirit 
 shall seem to be transferred to the breast of the reader. 
 All this is necessary in order to read well ; is it there- 
 fore wonderful that there are so few good readers 1 How 
 common is it to hear a pathetic passage read with an air 
 of indifference, and without the slightest intonation of the 
 voice, a lively description without animation, or an argu- 
 mentative discourse without emphasis or force. 
 
 Rules for reading may do something, example may do 
 much ; but after all, good reading must be the effect of 
 feeling, taste and information. You can understand, 
 
READING. 85 
 
 that, important as this attainment is, it is dependent on 
 almost every other branch of education. By the general 
 improvement of your minds, therefore, can you be ex- 
 pected to arrive at that perfection in this accomplish- 
 ment, which a well educated woman ought to exhibit. 
 
 It is not unusual for parents on committing their 
 daughters to our care, to express a wish that they may be- 
 come good readers, before they proceed to other branches 
 of education. But reason and experience pronounce it 
 impossible for an ignorant person to read well; such an 
 one may acquire an habit of calling words correctly, of 
 minding stops and marks, and observing all the artificial 
 rules for reading, but the soul will be wanting ! — I would 
 rather hear a person read, who did not even know that a 
 comma was a pause of one syllable and a semicolon two, 
 and yet could comprehend an author's meaning, and ap- 
 ply the rules which nature suggests, than one who had 
 acquired a servile habit of applying arbitrary rules, 
 without taste or feeling. Not that I would have you 
 disregard rules, but you should remember that they 
 have been suggested by nature, as that the sense of 
 a passage, and not its punctuation, should guide your read- 
 ing. Nothing is more common than errors in printing, 
 by which, owing to the misplacing of a comma, or other 
 pause, the sense of a sentence is destroyed. You must 
 then learn to judge for yourselves where the sense requires 
 a pause ; and as to emphasis and intonations, they must 
 absolutely be left to your own judgement. In selecting 
 passages to read before the school,* let me advise you 
 never to begin with any thing you do not well understand. 
 A knowledge of languages, particularly the Latin and 
 French, is of great use in assisting a reader in the pro- 
 nunciation of words derived from foreign sources. 
 
 This however is not an occasion for particular di- 
 rections as to your improvement in reading ; the in- 
 structions which you are receiving! in this branch, 
 
 * On Wednesdays a certain number of pupils read before the 
 whole school pieces of their own selection. 
 
 t The excellent treatise on elocution, by Porter, is made a text 
 book for reading exercises and instructions. 
 
 8 
 
86 READING. 
 
 added to your general course of education can scarcely 
 fail of giving you this accomplishment. Some ladies 
 have appeared to think it unfeminine to read or speak 
 in an audible manner, affecting a low and lisping tone, 
 probably from the idea that this is an indication of a gen- 
 tle and delicate spirit ; but I trust you have all too much 
 taste and good sense, not to feel how false and ridiculous 
 are such notions of female delicacy. The time has gone 
 by, when it was necessary for a female to seem ignorant 
 or childish in order to be interesting. Women are now 
 looked upon as rational beings, endowed with faculties 
 capable of improvement, and bound in duty to as- 
 sume a hiah rank in the scale of intelligence. Even 
 beauty has learned, that connected with ignorance and 
 folly, she must give precedence to the plainest features 
 irradiated with intelligence and good sense. I speak 
 not now of a ball or a fashionable party, where ex- 
 ternal appearance chiefly is regarded, but of the great 
 theatre of human life, where character developes itself, 
 and where all find their own proper level, intellect and 
 morals being the graduating scale. 
 
 I shall close this lecture by a quotation from an au- 
 thor,* who has done much for the education, and has 
 ever shown himself interested in the improvement of our 
 sex. ' Elocution is not sufficiently attended to, in the 
 course of female education. I know, great improvements 
 have been made of late, in this respect, but much yet 
 remains to be done. It is not enough that a young lady 
 should be taught to read with a correct pronunciation, 
 and emphasis, and without any palpable fault. She 
 should be taught to enter into the feelings of the author ; 
 and to make the hearers feel as if he was really address- 
 ing them. One very striking fault in the reading of ma- 
 ny persons is, that they do not adapt their manner to the 
 peculiar character of the composition, but always read 
 in one uniform style. Perhaps there are some reasons 
 why young ladies are in danger of doing this more than 
 the other sex ; or rather, why it is more difficult, in their 
 case, to remedy this defect. Their reading is confined 
 
 * Gallaudet. 
 
READING. 87 
 
 to the fire-side, and to the domestic circle ; and ther6 
 seems to be, therefore, less of inducement for them to aim 
 at the life, and variety, and force, so essential in public 
 speaking. Still, these, and every other good quality of 
 the most eloquent delivery, ought to bold a high rank 
 among female accomplishments. I cannot understand, 
 why it should be thought, as it sometimes is, a departure 
 from female delicacy to read in a promiscuous, social cir- 
 cle, if called upon to do so from any peculiar circumstan- 
 ces; and to read, too, as well as Garrick himself would 
 have done, if the young lady possessed the power of do- 
 ing it. Why may she not do this with as much genuine 
 modesty, and with as much desire to oblige her friends, 
 and with as little ostentation, as to sit down, in the same 
 circle, to the piano, and play and sing in the style of the 
 first masters'? If to do the former is making too much 
 of a display of her talents, why should not the latter be 
 so ? Nothing but some strange freaks of fashion have 
 made the difference. But, at any rate, amid her family 
 anl friends, to how many otherwise, tedious, or useless, 
 hours of life, may a. female impart both delight and im- 
 provement by the charm of reading well. If a wife, she 
 can solace many a season of a husband's weariness or 
 sickness. If a mother, what an advantage to her off- 
 spring, to have before them, as they are growing up, a 
 living model, in the person of one whom they are led to 
 reverence and love, of an accomplishment which our 
 schools, and academies, and colleges, find it so difficult 
 to impart. This latter consideration, in my view, has 
 immense weight ; for our habits of pronunciation, speak- 
 ing, and reading, are first formed in childhood, and in 
 the domestic circle ; and being once formed, it is a task 
 of extreme difficulty to alter them.' 
 
 It has been observed that a person may have genius 
 without being a good reader, but no one can be a good 
 reader without genius. When you find how many are 
 the requisites for this accomplishment, you will learn not 
 to esteem it lightly, or as a thing which may be gained 
 in childhood, but one towards whose perfection all the 
 different branches of knowledge tend. If you were 
 called upon to give a preference either to reading or 
 
88 GRAMMAR. 
 
 music, I hope you would all prefer returning to your 
 friends perfected in the former rather than the latter ac- 
 complishment ; for although music is a refined and in- 
 tellectual enjoyment, the occasions for it in ordinary 
 life, are far less frequent than for reading aloud. In all 
 the pursuits of youth this should ever be the main object 
 of inquiry, What attainments will render me most useful 
 and agreeable to others, and tend most to my own eleva- 
 tion and happiness 1 
 
 LECTURE VIII. 
 
 Grammar. 
 
 It is not until after a child has learned to use nouns, 
 verbs, prepositions, and other parts of speech, that he 
 knows them as such ; in other words, he becomes famil- 
 iar with language before he learns its philosophy. So it 
 is with much of our knowledge ; we are conversant with 
 the subjects, before we understand their natures. 
 
 The mechanic becomes familiar with the use of the pul- 
 ley, wedge and inclined plane, and is able to perform various 
 operations by their aid, without knowing any thing of 
 mechanical philosophy. We exercise our various mental 
 faculties, reason, remember, and compare, long before 
 we are able to comprehend the nature of these operations. 
 
 Language was not formed according to the rules of 
 grammar, but grammar was made to conform itself to those 
 forms of language which had previously been established. 
 A child learns to speak without knowing anything of the 
 rules of grammar ; and people ignorant of the principles 
 and rules of language, are often able to write with toler- 
 able accuracy. Such persons, however, feel their own 
 deficiency in this respect ; they know that they are contin- 
 ually liable to errors. A mariner might chance to steer 
 his bark aright without a compass, but he would feel 
 much more secure if provided with the means of as- 
 certaining the correctness of his course. 
 
GRAMMAR. 89 
 
 Man perceiving effects, is led to trace them to their 
 causes, though in this process he often proceeds by 
 slow degrees. God views the first as "first; that is, 
 causes, and the effects following them. Human na- 
 ture must be satisfied to advance from the more im- 
 perfect and complex, to the more perfect and simple; 
 for in general, objects are first familiar to us as complex. 
 A child can readily understand this proposition, — the 
 sun shines ; but it requires study and reflection to be 
 able to analyze it into an article, a noun, and a verb; 
 to separate these again into syllables, the syllables into 
 letters, and then to explain the difference in the sounds 
 and powers of these letters. The lowest human beings in 
 the scale of knowledge, (with the exception of the deaf 
 and dumb,) have some kind of spoken language. Many 
 savage tribes know nothing of written language. In our 
 country there are, however, few so ignorant as not to know 
 how to read and write ; but there are many who know 
 nothing of grammar, or those rules and principles on 
 which their own language is founded ; and there are 
 still fewer who comprehend those broad and general 
 principles of grammar, which are common to all lan- 
 guages, and make up the science of universal gram- 
 mar. 
 
 No person can be considered as having a liberal educa- 
 tion, who has not studied, at least one language besides 
 his own ; and yet there are pedantic grammarians, who, 
 with no other knowledge than that gained from the 
 study of the English language, assume to understand 
 the principles on which it is founded, and to be able to 
 give rules for every doubtful case in parsing : more 
 knowledge of the intricacies of language would teach 
 such, that the English being composed of a mixture of 
 other languages, on principles common to them, and yet 
 in many cases essentially varying from these principles, 
 necessarily presents many irregularities ; instead, there- 
 fore, of attempting to prove all cases to be conformable 
 to rules, we must often cut the gordian knot, by admitting 
 a case to be anomalous, or sanctioned only by cus- 
 tom. 
 
 8* 
 
90 GRAMMAR. 
 
 The study of languages, then, besides affording an ex« 
 cellent discipline for the mind, and presenting new and 
 rich sources of knowledge, is important in teaching the 
 principles of our own language. But all cannot enjoy 
 the opportunities necessary for this acquisition ; many 
 enter this institution restricted to a few months, during 
 which it is desirable that they should make such attain- 
 ments as will be most important in after life. It would 
 be absurd for a person to attempt to lay a broad founda- 
 tion, knowing that he should never be able to erect a su- 
 perstructure upon it. 
 
 A young lady having merely received the rudiments 
 of an English education, as afforded by a common 
 school, and who is allowedd, for six months or a year, 
 the advantage of a higher school, should not be encour- 
 aged to attempt more than she can accomplish within 
 the allotted period. The higher branches of education, 
 and the accomplishments of music, drawing, &c, should 
 not take the place of grammar, geography, arithmetic, 
 and history. The natural sciences, are within the reach 
 of every one, who can count the stamens of a flower, can 
 see the difference between quartz and mica, or can 
 observe the different properties of oxygen and nitrogen. 
 In these sciences, every lecture is exhibiting nature in a 
 new aspect, and storing the mind with facts and observa- 
 tions which will be useful and interesting in every 
 station and under every circumstance of life. 
 
 English grammar is becoming a very common study. 
 It is now almost universally taught in our common 
 schools, and constitutes one of the earliest, as well 
 as the latest pursuits of all classes of students. It 
 has its simple distinctions which can be understood by 
 the child, and it contains subtleties which elude the 
 grasp of the strongest and most mature intellect. 
 
 In the former and less improved state of education, a 
 pupil commencing the study of grammar, was required 
 to commit to memory page after page of principles, 
 rules and exceptions : these he was required to repeat 
 before commencing the important process of parsing. 
 In some cases, teachers continued to keep their pupils 
 
GRAMMAR. 91 
 
 to the recitation of grammar lessons, concealing their 
 own want of knowledge of the science, by pretend- 
 ing that it was necessary to understand every word 
 of their book before they could begin to make an 
 application of its principles and rules. Other teachers 
 there were, who really believed that this repeating by 
 rote constituted the whole mystery of the science, and 
 doubted not but in hearing their pupils recite, they were 
 teaching grammar in the most profitable manner. 
 
 Since those days of grammatical darkness and error, 
 books have been prepared on new principles of teaching, 
 and the inductive method has been generally adopt- 
 ed.* Here the pupil begins at once to distinguish 
 a sentence into its different parts. Rules are not pre- 
 sented until the mind is led to perceive their applica- 
 tion. There is, however, still a tendency to a great fault 
 in both the teaching and learning of grammar ; this is, 
 to make parsing the ultimate object, instead of the 
 application of grammatical rules to writing and con- 
 versation. 
 
 We do not often hear people say / is, you am, fyc. 
 But ladies who claim to be well educated not unfre- 
 quently say ' I will lay down,' using the word lay, which 
 is the past tense of the verb to lie, as if it were the future. 
 We often hear adjectives improperly used as adverbs, as 
 * she looks beautiful,' instead of beautifully. Will is used 
 for shall, as ' / will not have time ; ' the improper use of 
 these two auxiliaries is well illustrated in the anecdote 
 of the foreigner, who falling into a river, piteously 
 exclaimed, 1 1 mill drown, nobody shall help me.' That 
 foreigners should thus mistake the power of two words 
 so analogous in many respects, is not strange; but those 
 
 * No elementary work has probably been of greater general 
 utility than ' Grccnleafs Grammar Simplified.'' The teacher who 
 is ignorant, of the science, cannot but be made acquainted with it 
 by the simple and easy manner in which parsing, or the analyti- 
 cal part of grammar is taught. A smaller work on the same 
 principles has been prepared by Mr. Greenleaf, with the inten- 
 tion of having it afforded at so low a rate as may enable even the 
 poorest scholar of a common school to possess a copy. Brown's 
 and Kirkham's grammars are valuable for more advanced pupils. 
 
92 GRAMMAR. 
 
 who study the English grammar should apply in practice 
 their knowledge, that shall used in the first person, 
 singular, simply foretels, while will, in the same person 
 and number, implies a resolution or determination. 
 
 It is necessary then that you should bear in mind 
 that parsing, and learning rules, are mechanical and 
 useless, unless you make the application of these 
 exercises, to writing and conversation. The slightest 
 offence against grammatical accuracy should be avoided 
 by people of education, and yet such offences are much 
 more common than you may at first imagine. The 
 substituting which for who, the use of the perfect for 
 the imperfect tense, or the imperfect for the pluper* 
 feet, the improper use of the potential mode, &c. give 
 rise to errors, which though not of the grossest kind, 
 are yet quickly perceived by a philologist. Perhaps 
 I have here used a term not familiar to all of you ; I will 
 therefore observe that philology is derived from the 
 Greek phileo, I love, and logos, a word, and signifies a 
 love for, or a knowledge of words. According to the 
 present acceptation of the term, philology implies a criti- 
 cal knowledge of language, considered both rhetorically 
 and gramctically. To be a philologist requires a higher 
 effort of mind, a more enlarged view of language than to 
 be a grammarian. But in order to be a grammarian, it 
 is not sufficient that you should be able to parse 
 sentences in that kind of parrot-like manner which 
 is often acquired ; you must be able to perceive the 
 meaning of an author, the connexion between the words 
 of a sentence, however distant, and to supply words 
 in elliptical cases. Some of the English poets are pecu- 
 liar, for their great use of ellipsis, some especially, in 
 the expression of sudden passion, leaving not one word 
 merely, but several, to be supplied by the reader. 
 
 A fashion has too much prevailed among you of consid- 
 ering English grammar as a study only proper for young- 
 er pupils, and some have exhioited a degree of impa- 
 tince at being occasionally called upon to devote some 
 time to the review of this science. But no young lady 
 need fear that grammar can present to her nothing new, 
 or that one hour in a week devoted to the analysis of 
 
GRAMMAR. 93 
 
 English poetry, will not afford her an opportunity for 
 intellectual exertion. 
 
 You may say, ' If grammar requires deep thought, why 
 are children so early put to the study of it?' We would 
 answer, that there are simple truths in this science which 
 children can soon comprehend, as the distinction be- 
 tween the parts of speech ; they can readily understand 
 the nature of a noun, and this knowledge gives them 
 many new ideas. We tell them that every tiling in ex- 
 istence is a noun, all that they can see, hear, touch, 
 smell, or taste, are nouns ; at first, it might seem to them 
 that no other words would be necessary but the names of 
 these things ; but of the names of real objects in nature, 
 how small a part of our vocabulary of words consists. 
 The child soon learns that we must have words to ex- 
 press actions done to, or done by these things which we 
 call nouns, and thus the mind can readily comprehend 
 that there may be words which do not stand for things, 
 but relate to their manner of acting, or their state of ex- 
 istence, and that these words are called verbs. It is easy 
 also for a child to understand that these things called 
 nouns have different qualities; as fire is hot, snow is 
 white; that one person is good, and another bad, and 
 that the words denoting these qualities are called adjec- 
 tives, which means words added to nouns. Thus you 
 observe the young mind, by the study of grammar, is led 
 to form an idea of things or material objects, of actions 
 or modes of existence, and of qualities which do not ex- 
 ist of themselves but are inseparable from the things in 
 which they are found. Now all this is philosophy, but it 
 may be easily comprehended by a child old enough to 
 understand the difference between two and four. 
 
 Thus simple are the elements of grammar. But it 
 contains divisions and subdivisions, exceptions to general 
 rules, and exceptions differently modified ; so that, as be- 
 fore remarked, while children can understand its ele- 
 ments, the philosopher is lost in its intricacies. While 
 employed in this study, you are giving exercise to your 
 mental powers, invigorating them for new labors, and at 
 the same time are gaining knowledge, which will be 
 called into use with every sentence you speak or write. 
 
94 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 It is very important that those who are preparing them- 
 selves for teachers, should obtain a thorough knowledge 
 of English grammar. In correcting the inaccuracies in 
 spoken and written language, a teacher should not only 
 be able to point out defects, but the rules which are vio- 
 lated. 
 
 In concluding my remarks upon a branch of educa- 
 tion so important, and yet, through inattention and care- 
 lessness, so often pursued with little advantage, let me 
 admonish you against that mental indolence which fre- 
 quently defeats the efforts of parents ana* teachers. 
 Knowledge cannot, like houses and lands, be purchased 
 by money. All that your parents or teachers can do, 
 is to place within your reach the instruments of ac- 
 quiring it ; if you refuse to use them, if your minds are 
 not active, to observe, compare, and remember, it will be 
 in vain that you are placed in situations where facilities 
 for improvement are offered. Books and lectures are of 
 no avail to that mind which is too inert to rouse itself into 
 action, and seize the truths which are exhibited. There 
 is in the mind a tendency to sloth, but it also con- 
 tains principles which counteract this love of ease. 
 Of these are a desire for knowledge, an ambition 
 to excel, and in many persons the higher moral mo- 
 tive of cultivating the talents committed to their charge, 
 from a sense of duty to God. But these incitements to 
 action are sometimes feeble ; how often are the minds 
 of some pupils slumbering in a torpid inactivity, while 
 others are exerting all the energies of their faculties to 
 impart instruction to them ; how often is the listless eye 
 fixed in vacancy of thought upon some trifling object, or 
 the mind wandering on some past pleasure, or anticipat- 
 ing some future enjoyment, while their teachers, with in- 
 tense anxiety to discharge their high responsibilities, are 
 exerting all their powers to explain something which they 
 feared might not be understood, or to communicate such 
 knowledge as the pupil will need in her future progress in 
 life. Would not a spectator, ignorant of the truth, sup- 
 pose that the teacher, and not themselves, was to be the 
 gainer by their attention ? 
 
ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 95 
 
 I have read of a certain professor,* who always lec- 
 tured to one particular student, regulating his dis- 
 courses by his appearance : when lie looked as if he 
 did not comprehend the subject, the professor per- 
 ceived that his explanation had not been clear, and 
 endeavored to illustrate his ideas more fully ; when 
 the student's countenance was illumined with the glow 
 of intelligence, the professor knew that he was under- 
 stood, and that his instructions had taken effect. How 
 many different expressions do I at this moment behold 
 before me ! How many youthful countenances, lighted 
 up by the spirit within, animate me in the discharge of 
 my duties ! 
 
 Would that all of you could realize the importance of 
 this present season of preparation for your future lives. 
 The scriptures point out two classes of people, the wise 
 and the foolish. Though intellectual gifts are not al- 
 ways most conspicuous in the most virtuous, it is gener- 
 ally the case that the latter more assiduously seek to 
 make a suitable improvement of advantages afforded 
 them. In every large collection of human beings assem- 
 bled for the purpose of instruction, we are struck by con- 
 trasts ; some seek to know the truth and to learn their 
 duty, while others, alas, too many, appear forgetful of 
 the momentous interests which hang upon the present 
 moment. Have we not reason to believe that these 
 will at last be found among those to whom it will be 
 said, ' Depart from me ; ye have chosen your own 
 ways, ye have loved pleasure rather than wisdom.' 
 
 LECTURE X. 
 
 Ancient Languages. 
 
 In proceeding to consider the study of the ancient 
 languages, I would wish you to understand that I do not 
 recommend them, except where circumstances permit a 
 
 * Professor Jardine, of Edinburgh. 
 
96 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 
 
 liberal course of education. You will recollect the re- 
 marks on this subject in our last lecture, and will not 
 therefore be likely to imbibe the mistaken idea, that all 
 young ladies are called upon to become Latin and Greek 
 scholars, or even to attempt acquiring the rudiments of 
 any other language than their own. 
 
 It is the pride of this institution, that the daughter of 
 the most humble mechanics and farmers, and of the wealth- 
 iest and most powerful of our citizens, here meet on 
 terms of equality, except as virtue and talents make a 
 distinction. Our country is probably the only one in the 
 world which exhibits such a scene. In England, the 
 nobility would feel it a degradation to have their daugh- 
 ters educated in common with the untitled. The gentry 
 who may not aspire to mingle with the nobility, still re* 
 coil from plebeian contamination. In the English univer- 
 sities, it is true, all may find admittance who are suitably 
 qualified for entrance, but the sons of the nobility have 
 their peculiar privileges. The commoners are not per- 
 mitted to eat with them, and by this and various other 
 distinctions are constantly reminded of their own infe- 
 riority. 
 
 Unfortunate state of things, when the one class, be- 
 ing led to feel that rank alone can give elevation, are 
 thus deprived of an important stimulus to mental effort, 
 and the other, depressed by the abjectness of their 
 situation, can scarcely hope, by the greatest efforts, to 
 rise sbove the sphere in which they find themselves 
 placed ! 
 
 In our country, in female as well as male institutions, 
 these things are different. We know of no hereditary 
 claims to respect, which can set aside the superior claims 
 of merit ; and if the attempt is made to render any 
 school in our country of an exclusive character, it must, 
 from the very genius of our government, and the nature 
 of our institutions, prove as abortive as it is ridicu- 
 lous. 
 
 Some may indeed, from a desire of this exclusiveness , 
 pay such extravagant demands for the education of their 
 daughters as cannot be afforded by persons of moderate 
 fortunes ; but the children thus educated will be obliged 
 
ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 97 
 
 when they come forth into the world, to run the race of 
 life by the side of those, who, having been inured to 
 competition, are strengthened and prepared for the con- 
 test. When distanced in this race, and left to see their 
 despised inferiors far before them, it will but add to their 
 chagrin, that they had once been flattered with the idea 
 of possessing peculiar advantages. 
 
 I have perhaps digressed too far from the subject of this 
 lecture, but it has been to show you that although a dif- 
 ferent course of study may be recommended to pupils 
 under different circumstances, we hold to principles 
 congenial with the spirit of our republican government. 
 
 Mankind must act according to existing circumstances, 
 and prospects which are at the time being presented. In 
 accordance with these views, I must advise you to such 
 studies and pursuits as now seem most likely to be use- 
 ful to you in after life. And yet we well know that 
 appearances may be illusory. Many a piano and harp 
 have been destined to an auction sale, while their accom- 
 plished mistresses have been forced to exchange elegant 
 houses and furniture for the coarsest accommodations. 
 On the other hand those who never aspired to any ac- 
 complishments, whose minds have been only adorned with 
 plain good sense ; and this perhaps little cultivated, are 
 by an unexpected combination of circumstances, brought 
 forward into high and conspicuous stations. But notwith- 
 standing the possibility of these reverses, the present sta- 
 tion and the pecuniary means of the parent must regulate 
 the education of the child. 
 
 When the situation of a parent allows the opportunity 
 of a liberal course of study, I consider that the languages 
 should form the basis of education : that girls as well as 
 boys should be put to the study of Latin as soon as they 
 are able to read intelligibly.* A child of six or seven 
 
 * I am aware that this is a controverted point ; but I believe 
 that persons engaged in education are becoming more confirmed 
 in their opinions, in favor of giving to young females some know- 
 ledge of the ancient languages. Mr. Emerson's lecture on Fe- 
 male Education, delivered before the American Institute of In- 
 struction, contains some excellent and judicious remarks on this 
 subject. 
 
98 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 
 
 years of age can learn the conjugations of verbs, the de- 
 clensions of nouns, pronouns and adjectives. The 
 memory at this age is active and retentive, and if the 
 other mental powers are at the same time cultivated, 
 there will be no danger of their suffering by the efforts 
 of this. 
 
 The exercise of translating from one language to 
 another, calls up the powers of comparison and abstrac- 
 tion, quickens the imagination, matures the judgment, 
 and gives enlarged views of the general principles of 
 language. 
 
 In addition to the utility of the study of Latin in the 
 discipline of the mind, we must count among one of its 
 important advantages, the facilities which it gives for the 
 attainment of those modern languages which are deriv- 
 ed from it. Our own language, has borrowed much from 
 the Latin. The Saxon was the language of England 
 when that country was subdued by the Romans under 
 Julius Caesar. Like all conquered nations the English 
 gradually suffered a change in their language, and thus 
 the language of the Romans became incorporated with 
 that of the Saxons; and in process of time, the Danish 
 and Norman conquests effected still greater changes. 
 
 The Latin language, like the character of the people 
 by whom it was spoken, is forcible and majestic. Among 
 its most distinguished prose writers were Cicero, Tacitus, 
 Sallust, Livy and Caesar ; its most celebrated poets were 
 Horace, Ovid and Virgil. This language is still used 
 by the Roman Catholics in their public prayers, and is 
 spoken familiary by the learned of Europe, particularly 
 in Germany. 
 
 An elegant writer,* observes, ' there is not a single 
 language of modern Europe, in which literature has 
 made any considerable advances, which is not directly of 
 Roman origin, or has not incorporated into its very 
 structure many of the idioms and peculiarities of the 
 ancient tongues. The English language affords strong 
 illustration of the truth of this remark. It abounds 
 with words and meanings drawn from classical sources, 
 
 * Judge Story. 
 
ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 99 
 
 Innumerable plirases retain the symmetry of their 
 ancient dress. Innumerable expressions have received 
 their vivid tints from the beautiful dyes of Roman and 
 Grecian roots.' 
 
 The same writer, remarking upon the rich treasures 
 of ancient literature, and the idea that these can be 
 conveyed to the mind through the medium of transla- 
 tions, says, ' these may be read in our vernacular tongue 
 — aye, as one remembers the face of a dear friend, 
 by gathering up the broken fragments of his image, 
 — as one listens to the tale of a dream well told, — as 
 one catches the wave of the ocean in the ripple of a 
 rivulet, — as one sees the blaze of noon in the first glim- 
 mer of the twilight.' 
 
 It is not however to be expected that among the 
 many pursuits to which the female mind must be direct- 
 ed, and with the comparatively short period which is 
 allowed them for education, that many young ladies will 
 acquire that facility in reading Latin which is necessary 
 to the enjoyment of its classical literature. But a know- 
 ledge of the principles on which this noble language is 
 constructed, and a limited acquaintance with its beauties 
 are invaluable. 
 
 Why should these be denied to us merely because we 
 are women? I know it has been customary among 
 many to ridicule the idea of females pursuing what 
 are called masculine studies. The excellent and wise 
 Hannah More was so intimidated by this, that in her 
 CJcelebs she makes her heroine dread the discovery of 
 her studying Latin, as if it were a crime, and over- 
 whelms her with blushes and confusion when the se- 
 cret is revealed. 
 
 When such occurrences shall no longer be rare, then 
 will they cease to excite astonishment, and females may 
 be allowed to read Virgil, or even Homer, as undisturb- 
 edly as if they were working lace or embroidering 
 muslin. 
 
 In some essays on female education ascribed to her 
 ladyship the Countess of Carlisle, I find the following 
 remarks : ' As for Homer and Virgil, I fancy you must 
 foe content to taste these as pure as the labors of the 
 
100 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 
 
 learned afford them; the Greek and Latin tongues 
 forming no part in the polite system of female education 
 at present, nor certainly ever can in the useful.' It is 
 probable that had her ladyship been permitted to test 
 the utility of these studies by experience, she might have 
 judged differently ; she would probably have gained from 
 them a better knowledge of the construction of English 
 sentences than is exhibited in the preceding quotation, 
 some parts of which it would certainly puzzle a gramma- 
 rian to parse according to any rules of the English gram- 
 mar. It is a little surprising that she should have deci- 
 ded so positively on this subject, especially as she had 
 observed in a preceding sentence, that ' it is a property 
 of ignorance to esteem nothing valuable that it does not 
 comprehend.' 
 
 Before dismissing the subject of the Latin language, 
 it may be profitable to those of you, who have recently 
 commenced in this study, to receive a few general direc- 
 tions for translating and parsing.* 
 
 In translating Latin into English, 
 
 1. Find what is the nominative case or subject of the verb. 
 
 2. Find the words which belong to the noun or subject of the 
 sentence ; these words are sometimes adjectives, which in English 
 are usually placed before tbe noun ; but in Latin are often placed 
 after, and sometimes separated by many intervening words from 
 the noun to which they belong. It is the agreement of adjectives 
 to their nouns, in number, gender and case, which enables us to 
 ascertain to which of the nouns in a sentence they belong. It 
 may be observed, as there are no words in Latin which answer to 
 our articles a and the, in translating we add these articles ac- 
 cording to our understanding of the sense ; thus, the word rex 
 may be read either a king or the king. This want of the article 
 in Latin is considered a defect, as it often makes the sense ap- 
 pear doubtful. 
 
 3. Besides the adjectives which are connected with the noun 
 there may be also a noun in the genitive case which, depend- 
 ing on the former noun, should be construed immediately after it. 
 
 4. A 'participle may belong to a noun, and require to be con- 
 strued before the verb. 
 
 5. The verb is a very important word in a sentence. When a 
 noun is translated, the verb to which it is subject naturally be- 
 comes a subject of thought ; and although we often bring in 
 
 * Cleveland's First Lessons in the Lafin Grammar is an excellent work for be- 
 ginners ; after this, the Liber Primus and Latin Reader may follow. The custom 
 of commencing the reading of Latin with the poets, is not recommended. 
 
ANCIENT LANGUAGES, 101 
 
 many other words before the verb, it will be more easy to 
 arrange those words in proper order, when we know what the 
 verb is; therefore as a general rule, it is best to ascertain imme- 
 diately after translating the noun, to what verb it is nominative. 
 
 6. If the verb is active, it will naturally be follov ed by a 
 noun in the accusative case, but this noun may not b« placed 
 directly after the verb as in English, but if the sentenc je long, 
 the accusative case may be at some distance from the verb. 
 
 7. After a preposition, it is necessary to look for a noun t liier 
 in the accusative or ablative case. 
 
 8. As the Latin language is very concise and elliptical, there 
 are often many words to ue supplied in order to complete the 
 sense when translated into English 
 
 The rules I have now given for translating may be remember- 
 ed by you, because they are few and very general. I will tres- 
 pass on your patience by adding a few directions for parsing 
 Latin. 
 
 1. You know that Rule I. (Adams' Latin Grammar,) teach- 
 es that the adjective must agree with its substantive in several 
 particulars, as case, number and gender. In order to ascertain 
 these particulars, you must find to what declension the adjective 
 belongs; then, by declining it according to the rule for the de- 
 clension of adjectives, (which you can find by referring to your 
 grammars, if it is not in your memoritr,) you will come to the 
 termination similar to the word before you ; thus you will be able 
 to tell the case, number and gender of your adjective. And as 
 for the noun to which it belongs, when you find one of the 
 same case, number and gender, you may safely conclude they go 
 together. 
 
 2. "When you parse a noun, you must first find of what declen- 
 sion it is; then you may, by varying it according to tii't de- 
 clension, ascertain its number and case. The gender will de- 
 pend in some degree upon the declension which to the noun be- 
 longs ; for instance those of the first declension, are feminine ; 
 those of the second declension which end in us, are mascu- 
 line ; those which end in um are neuter. There are a few ex- 
 ceptions to these general rule? but in learning any science it 
 is best to get clear ideas of the general rules, and learn the ex- 
 ceptions ; afterwards, for it is usually the case that in attempting 
 to learn everything at once, the ideas become confused, and 
 nothrng is clearly understoou. 
 
 3. if the noun which you are parsing be in the nominative 
 case, you must find the verb it governs; if it is in the genitive, it 
 will most generally be governed by some other noun ; if it is in the 
 dative, it will be governed by some adjective or verb ; if in the ac- 
 cusative, it will be governed by an active verb or preposition, or 
 placed before the infinitive mode; if in the vocative, it will stand 
 unconnected with other words, or have an interjection joined 
 with it; if in the ablative, it will be governed by a preposition, 
 depend on circumstances of time, manner, &c, or be connected 
 with a participle. 
 
 9* 
 
102 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 
 
 You are not to expect in this sketch all the important rules 
 for parsing; you are here merely shown a manner of generaliz- 
 ing'; each one should, however, follow that mode of condensing 
 rules and principles which most accords with the laws and opera- 
 tions of her own mind. This process should be performed in 
 every study you pursue ; when you have done this, and not till 
 then, you may consider that the knowledge communicated to you 
 has become truly your own. 
 
 In the study of the Latin or any other language, you may feel 
 encouraged by the consideration that every step you advance is 
 rendering the next more easy, and especially by the thought that 
 when your mind has once acquired a knowledge of the general 
 principles of language, you will find the acquisition of new 
 tongues can be made with great facility. After learning one 
 foreign language you can probably learn two more with less 
 labor. In possession of three languages, you could probably ac- 
 quire six in less time than the first — and so on in a compound ratio. 
 This may seem extravagant, but the testimony of those who have 
 been distinguished for their extensive acquaintance with lan- 
 guages goes to confirm the opinion. 
 
 I shall now proceed <,o give some general rules for Quantity, 
 Accent, and Latin verse* 
 
 You will remember that Quantity is the space of time taken up 
 in pronouncing a syllable. Accent is the tone of voice with 
 which a syllable is pronounced. 
 
 Rules for Quantity. 
 
 Syllables with respect to their quantity are either long or 
 short. A long syllable requires double the time of a short one in 
 pronouncing. Some syllables are common; that is, sometimes 
 long and sometimes short. 
 
 1. A vowel before another vowel is short, as meus. 
 
 2. A vowel before two consonants, or before a double consonant 
 is long, (by position, as it is called) as drma dxis. 
 
 3. A vowel before a mute and liquid is common, (that is some- 
 times long and sometimes short) as volucris, tenebra. 
 
 4. A contracted syllable is long, as nil for nihil. 
 
 5. A diphthong is always long, except that prae in composition 
 before a vowel is usually short, as prdeire. 
 
 Final Syllables. 
 
 A in the end of words declined by cases, is short, as musd. An 
 exception to this is, that the ablative of the first declension is 
 long, as musd. E, at the end of a word is short, as note. (Excep- 
 tions must be made of monosyllables and nouns of the first and fifth 
 declensions). J, final, is long with few exceptions. O, final, is 
 common. U, final, is long ; Y, final, is short, nsfructu, moly. As, 
 cs and os in the end of a word are long, as mas, quits. 
 
 * Every English as well as Latin scholar should be acquainted with theise rales, 
 as on these chiefly depend English pronunciation and versification. 
 
ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 103 
 
 Rules for Accent. ( 
 
 Every monosyllable is accented, Ex. — Tu. In words of two 
 syllables the first is accented Ex. musa. In polysyllables the 
 accent is on the penultimate, if it is a long syllable ; but if the 
 penultimate be a short syllable, the accent must then be placed 
 on the ante-penultimate. 
 
 You will observe that ultimate, means last ; penultimate, last 
 but one ; ante-penultimate, last but two. 
 
 There are three accents, distinguished by their different 
 sounds ; Acute, or sharp accent, raises the voice in pronuncia- 
 tion, as in profer > (proffer) Grave, or bass accent, depresses the 
 voice or keeps it in its natural tone as docth (learned). This 
 accent probably belongs to all syllables which have no other. 
 Circumflex accent first raises and then sinks the voice, on the 
 same syllable, and is therefore only placed on long syllables, as 
 am.tr e fto love). 
 
 Of Verse. 
 
 A verse is a certain number of long and short syllables dispos- 
 ed according to rule. It is so called from the Latin verb verto 
 (to turn), for when the number of syllables requisite is com- 
 pleted, we always turn back to the beginning of a new line. 
 The parts into which we divide a verse, to see if the number of 
 syllables is correct, are called feet. 
 
 Poetic Feet. 
 
 Poetic feet are oreither two, three, or four syllables. When a 
 single syllable is taken by itself, it is called Casura, which is 
 commonly a long syllable. 
 
 Feet of two Syllables. 
 
 Spondeus consists of two long syllables, as omnes. Pyrrhickius 
 consists oi" two short syllables, as deus. Iambus consists of one 
 short and one long syllable, as dmdns. Trochdeus consists of one 
 long and one short syllable, as servus. 
 
 Feet of three Syllables. 
 
 Dactylus consists of one long and two short syllables, as scrl-> 
 b$re. Anapaestus consists of one long and two short syllables, as 
 pieta3s. Amphimacer consists of a long, a short, and a long sylla- 
 ble, as charitds. Tribrachys consists of three short syllables, as 
 dominus. 
 
 Scanning* 
 
 The measure of verse, or the resolving it into the several feet 
 of which it is composed, is called scanning. 
 
 Hexameter. 
 
 The hexameter, or heroic verse, consists of six feet; of these, 
 the fifth is a dactyle, and the sixth a spondee ; all the rest may be 
 
104 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 
 
 either dactyles or spondees. A regular hexameter verse cannot 
 have more than seventeen syllables, or fewer than thirteen. 
 Sometimes a spondee is found in the fifth place ; it is then called 
 spondaic verse ; it is used when anything grave, slow, sad or large 
 is expressed. It commonly has a dactyle in the fourth place, and 
 a word of four syllables at the end. 
 
 Sometimes there remains a superfluous syllable at the end. 
 But this syllable must either terminate in a vowel, or in a vowel 
 with the consonant m after it, so as to be joined with the follow- 
 ing verse, which in the present case must always begin with a 
 vowel. 
 
 The Ccesura is, when, after a foot is completed, there remains 
 a syllable at the end of a word to begin a new foot. The Caes- 
 ura is variously named, according to the different parts of the 
 hexameter verse in which it is found. The most common and 
 beautiful Caesura is when it falls upon the fifth half foot, or the 
 syllable after the second foot; this is called the Penthemim. 
 "When the Caesura falls on a syllable naturally short, it renders 
 it long. The chief melody of a hexameter verse in a great 
 measure depends upon the proper disposition of the Caesura. 
 
 Figures in Scanning. 
 
 Synalcepha, is the cutting off a vowel or a diphthong, when the 
 next word begins with a vowel ; it is sometimes neglected, and 
 seldom takes place in the interjections, &c. Long vowels and 
 diphthongs when not cut off are sometimes shortened. 
 
 Ecthlipsis is when m is cut off with a vowel before it at the 
 end of a word, because the following word begins with a vowel. 
 
 Synceresis, is the contraction of two syllables into one. Dlterc- 
 sis divides one syllable into two. Systole is when a long sylla- 
 ble is made short. Diastole is when a syllable usually short is 
 made long. 
 
 Figures of Diction. 
 
 Prosthesis is when a letter or syllable is added to the begin- 
 ning of a word, as gnavus for .iavus . Epenthesis is when a letter 
 or syllable is interposed in the middle of a word, as induperator, 
 for imperator. Syncope when a letter or syllable is taken from 
 the middle of a word, as dixti for dixisti. Apocope when a letter 
 pr syllable is taken from the end. Metathesis is when a letter or 
 syllable is transposed. Antithesis is when cne letter is put for 
 another. 
 
 We will now dismr~ ! the Latin, and hasten to nni 1 
 our view of the dead languages with a few remarks up- 
 on the study of Greek and Hebrew. 
 
 The elements of the Greek language are by no means 
 as difficult of attainment as is generally believed. The 
 alphabet may be learned in a few hours, and after stu- 
 
ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 105 
 
 dying a pronoun, a verb, and a noun, the pupil can com- 
 mence the translation of such simple sentences as con- 
 tain words analogous to those whose declension and 
 conjugation have been studied.* Other nouns, .verbs, 
 &/C. can then be studied, and application be made as 
 before. In this way, even a few weeks of study of the 
 Greek language may prove of great advantage. 
 
 To be a Greek scholar, it requires more time and la- 
 bor than females in general can give from their other 
 pursuits ; and should some proceed so far in the study as 
 to perceive the difficulties still to be surmounted, a sense 
 of their own comparative ignorance should tend to ren- 
 der them humble and unpretending, rather than confi- 
 dent and pedantic. 
 
 This harmonious and beautiful language is that of 
 Aristotle, Pindar, Homer, and many other sublime writ- 
 ers, whose works contain the germ of most of the sci- 
 ences and discoveries upon which the moderns have so 
 much prided themselves. 
 
 * It was Homer,' says an energetic writer, t ' who gave 
 laws to the artist; it was Homer, who thundered in the 
 senate ; and more than all, it was Homer who was sung 
 by the people ; and hence a nation was cast into the 
 mould of one mighty mind, and the land of the Iliad 
 became the region of taste, the birth place of the arts. 
 Nor was this influence confined within the limits of 
 Greece. Long after the sceptre of empire had pass- 
 ed westward, genius still held her courts on the banks of 
 Ilysius, and from the country of Homer gave laws to the 
 world. The light, which the blind old man of Scio had 
 kindled in Greece, shed its radiance over Italy, and thus 
 did he awaken a second nation to intellectual existence. 
 And we may form some idea of the power which this one 
 work has to the present day exerted over the mind of 
 
 * A small work recently published by Professor Goodrich, en- 
 titled, ' Lessons in Greek Parsing,' conducts the pupil in this 
 easy and agreeable manner through the elements of the language. 
 The author, in having made the access to this beautiful language 
 thus easy, deserves more from the public than many a ponderous 
 writer of unread quartos. 
 
 t President Wayland. 
 
106 ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 
 
 man, by remarking, that nation after nation, and century 
 after centurv, has been able to do little more than trans- 
 pose his incidents, new name his characters, and para- 
 phrase his sentiments.' 
 
 The language of Homer, with the fortunes of Greece, 
 has undergone an essential change, and is modified with 
 the intermixture of the Turkish and some other modern 
 languages. The modern Greek, though highly melodi- 
 ous, is far less distinguished for sublimity than the an- 
 cient. 
 
 Many of our scientific terms are derived from the 
 Greek. In botany, the names of the classes and orders 
 of plants may be traced to this source ; as monodelphia, 
 from monos, one, and adelphia, brotherhood. In che- 
 mistry, we have the word oxygen, from oxus, acid, and 
 gennao, to produce. Many words, not considered tech- 
 nical, are of Greek origin, as athletic,* gy mnastic,f 
 theatre,| &c; theology, from theos, God, and logos, a. 
 word or discourse, signifying the science which treats of 
 God ; physics, from phisis, material nature, and meta- 
 physics, signifying the study of what is above or beyond 
 matter. 
 
 Those of you, who have merely learned enough of the 
 Greek language to trace the derivation of words, may 
 consider that you have gained a key to an important 
 branch of knowledge ; by means of which your own lan- 
 guage will appear in a new and interesting light. 
 
 The Greek language is that in which the New Testa- 
 ment was written. To be able to read this holy volume 
 in the original, is a very important attainment, and on 
 account of the simplicity of the style, less difficult than 
 is generally imagined. To an English lady,§ literature 
 is indebted for an excellent translation of Epictetus, one 
 of the Grecian poets. 
 
 The Hebrew is the language of the ancient Israelites, 
 and that in which the Old Testament was written. It is 
 
 * From the Greek athletis, a wrestler. 
 
 t From gymnasium, a place where athletic exercises were per- 
 formed. 
 
 t From theatron, a place where shows were exhibited. 
 § Mrs. Elizabeth Carter. 
 
ANCIENT LANGUAGES. 107 
 
 supposed to be the most ancient language now known, 
 The Jews still make use of it in their synagogues. A knowl- 
 edge of the Hebrew is highly important for ministers 
 of the gospel, in order that they may understand the 
 scriptures of the Old Testament in their original strength 
 and beauty. Few ladies attempt this study. Its connex- 
 ion with our own language, or with science is but slight. 
 The alchymists however had borrowed many terms from 
 this language, and these words along with the fragments 
 of the science have become incorporated with chemis- 
 try. 
 
 For the encouragement of those who may desire to be- 
 come acquainted with languages, I will mention the ac- 
 quisitions of a young lady with whose biography I hope 
 many of you are already familiar ; I mean Elizabeth 
 Smith, of England, who died at the commencement of 
 the present century. — Her biographer observes that she 
 early showed a great desire for instruction, and devoted 
 that time which is often spent in trifling amusements to the 
 acquisition of knowledge. Under adverse circumstances of 
 fortune, which allowed her few advantages, she early learn- 
 ed the Spanish and Italian languages, and became fami- 
 liar with geometry. After this, she acquired the German, 
 Latin, Greek, and Hebrew lauguages, and made consid- 
 erable progress in the Arabian and Persian. She was, 
 says her biographer, ' a very fine musician, and those 
 ladies who devote almost their whole time to this single 
 accomplishment, may feel astonished that one of their own 
 sex should have been able to unite with it such proficien- 
 cy in abstruse sciences. She was at the same time remarka- 
 ble for attention to domestic employments, and for her deli- 
 cate taste in dress, displaying as much skill in making a 
 gown or cap as in explaining a problem in Euclid or a 
 difficult passage in Hebrew.' Of her Hebrew translations 
 one of the most learned scholars of Europe observes, 
 * This work strikes me as conveying more of the true 
 character and meaning of the Hebrew than any other 
 translation that we possess.' This character,, so perfect 
 in intellect, so pure and amiable in morals, possessed al- 
 so that crowning ornament, without which, as a whole, it 
 would have been imperfect — piety. She was called to an 
 
108 MODERN LANGUAGES. 
 
 early grave ; but the embalming spirit of religion had 
 anointed her body for burial, and preserving in all their 
 loveliness the beautiful lineaments of her mind, prepar- 
 ed it for a high station among those pure and holy in- 
 telligences, who differ in degree of knowledge and happi- 
 ness, as ' one star differeth from another star in glory.' 
 
 LECTURE XI. 
 
 Modern Languages. 
 
 Some of the modern tongues are generally admit- 
 ted to be desirable accomplishments for young ladies. 
 Facilities for acquiring these are, however, less frequent 
 than for learning Latin and Greek. I refer here to those 
 cases in which girls are educated at, home during the 
 first twelve or fourteen years. 
 
 People who reside in the country, unless in the vicinity 
 of literary institutions, seldom have an opportunity of 
 learning the modern tongues from well qualified teachers, 
 as such can find more eligible situations in populous 
 places. But there are few country towns where some 
 persons might not be found competent to teach the dead 
 languages. The clergyman, lawyer or doctor of the parish 
 would probably be willing to devote a small portion of 
 time to a review of classical studies, or a young lady's 
 father or brother may be able to assist her in acquiring 
 the elements of the dead languages. A pupil thus pre- 
 pared to commence French, or any other modern lan- 
 guage, may be expected to make rapid progress. 
 
 Few except the natives of a country are competent to 
 teach its language. There are probably some English 
 teachers of the French, who by long practice have acquir- 
 ed a tolerably correct pronunciation ; but in general it is 
 not advisable to commence this language under any but 
 a native teacher. The Spanish pronunciation, being 
 much more easy to an English tongue, may be better 
 
MODERN LANGUAGES. 109 
 
 taught by an English teacher than the French or Italian, 
 The Italian is less difficult than the French. 
 
 Books which attempt to give the sounds of French 
 words by combinations of English letters, always mislead a 
 student. For example, in a work professing to be a guide to 
 French pronunciation, I find a direction to pronounce the 
 word brouillard, a storm, thus, broolar ; the I being mark- 
 ed as silent, the pronunciation would be brooar. Those 
 of you who are accustomed to the peculiar changes of 
 some of the organs of speech in the pronunciation of the 
 French liquid sounds, will at once perceive the impossibili- 
 ty of expressing the same by any combination of English 
 sounds. I might add many other examples equally tending 
 to show that the French, as a spoken language, must be 
 learned orally. Those who have not the advantages of ac- 
 quiring the French accent, may, even without a teacher, 
 learn to translate the language. While no other tongue 
 is so difficult to pronounce as the French, no other is so 
 easily translated into English. 
 
 At the present time, the French is more generally 
 spoken than any language in the world. It is a medium 
 of communication common to the polite, as is the Latin 
 to the learned. It is the language in which the diplo- 
 matic correspondence of the different courts of Eu- 
 rope is usually carried on. It is a familiar sound in the 
 streets of St. Petersburg, Rome, Madrid, London and 
 New York. The educated South American speaks 
 French almost like a Parisian ; and few of the inhabit- 
 ants of the West Indian islands are ignorant of the lan- 
 guage. In many parts of Canada and Louisiana it is 
 the prevailing tongue. 
 
 You see then how valuable must be a language so 
 extensive in its use ; and the opportunity which is here 
 enjoyed of acquiring it in its native elegance of pronun- 
 ciation, should be prized and improved by those who are 
 thus privileged. 
 
 The French literature is rich and diversified. It is 
 not, however, to be expected that all who -study this 
 language will become so familiar with it as to be able 
 to speak or even to read it with fluency ; but it should be 
 accounted no useless attainment to be able to translate ths 
 10 
 
110 MODERN LANGUAGES. 
 
 occasional French sentences which you will meet with 
 in the course of your English reading. At the present 
 day, scarcely a new publication appears, which does 
 not contain more or less French words and senten- 
 ces. They are also much introduced into conversa- 
 tion ; and we are constantly hearing people, (and 
 among these, some who know nothing of the lan- 
 guage except as they provide themselves for partic- 
 ular occasions,) expressing themselves after the French 
 tournure, and in French phrases. 
 
 Many of the French words which may be considered 
 as adopted into our own language are still pronounced 
 with their original French sounds, as debut, depot, eclat, 
 &c. It would appear ludicrous to a polite ear to hear 
 these words pronounced according to the analogies of 
 the English. 
 
 A sketch of the history of the French language, with 
 some remarks upon its literature may not be useless or 
 uninteresting to you. The French language, is compar- 
 atively of modern origin. France was anciently called 
 Gaul, or Gallia. The first inhabitants of this country 
 mentioned in history were the Celts. Some vestiges of 
 their language are said to appear in the dialect of the 
 peasants of Brittany in France, called the Armoric. 
 When Gaul was conquered by the Romans under Julius 
 Caesar, the Latin was introduced, as it was into England 
 about the same time. The language of the Franks and 
 other savage tribes gradually became incorporated with 
 that of the Gauls and the Romans ; and the whole form- 
 ed a corrupt dialect which was called the Romance, or 
 Roman rustic;* because spoken by the peasantry, who 
 
 * The following is a specimen of the old romance, or Roman 
 rustic, as exhibited in Morland's history of the churches of the 
 valleys of Piemonts. 
 
 ' Car la plus fort arm a dura que lo Diavol ay a son las fennas, 
 laqual cosa es demonstra, car lo Diavol eslegic la fenna a decebre 
 lo premier home. Et Balaam acer eslegic aquestas a degittar lo 
 filli d' Israel.' 
 
 ' Now the strongest arms the Devil hath are women, which 
 thing is shown in that the Devil made choice of the woman to de- 
 ceive the first man by. And Balaam made choice of them to re- 
 ject the children of Israel.' 
 
MODERN LANGUAGES. Ill 
 
 had mixed their own language with Latin words and 
 idioms. This dialect was divided into two branches, 
 which received their names from the respective modes 
 of pronouncing the terms for the affirmative yes. In 
 the southern part of France, this was expressed by Oc, 
 and their dialect was called, langue d' Oc (the language 
 of Oc) or Occitanic dialect. North of the Loire, where 
 yes was expressed by oui, the language was called 
 langue d'Oui; from the latter was derived the Modern 
 French. In the 12th century the south of France was 
 united under one government called Provence, and the 
 langue cl 'Oc then took the name of Provencal.* At 
 this time the Northern dialect assumed the name of 
 French. The accent of the people in the south of 
 France, at this time, differs considerably from that of 
 the Parisian. 
 
 It was about this period that the Troubadours, or 
 wandering minstrels, gave to the French people a taste 
 for poetry and romance. The Crusades had served to 
 foster the most extravagant passions, and had given rise 
 to the most romantic incidents. The human mind 
 glowing with new and tender images, and luxuriating in 
 the unrestrained freedom of those lawless days, exhibited 
 a strange mixture of wildness and refinement. This 
 was a period peculiar to itself, and one which has furnished 
 modern fiction with its choicest materials. The very 
 name of Chivalry, knight or troubadour, seems to call 
 up the spirit of curiosity and give interest to a tale or 
 song.f 
 
 The song of the Troubadour was heard with equal 
 delight in the castle and in the cottage, by courtly 
 dames and humble peasants. None of the productions 
 of those poets are now celebrated in literature. 
 
 The fifteenth century produced a poet of great taste 
 and sweetness, Charles d' Orleans, father of Louis XII., 
 and uncle of Francis I. He composed most of his po- 
 
 * The mark under the c, in the word Provencal, 'is the French 
 cedilla, which denotes that c has the sound of s. 
 
 t Mrs. Hemans' popular song of { The knight look'ddown from 
 the Paynim's Tower,' is thus most happily chosen for effect. 
 
112 MODERN LANGUAGES. 
 
 etry while imprisoned in England, whither he was carried 
 after having been captured at the battle of Agincourt. 
 Cotemporary with this poet, was Clotilde de Sarville, 
 many of whose thoughts were strikingly beautiful, and 
 whose style was highly polished for the time in which 
 she wrote.* 
 
 * It may not be uninteresting to the pupil in French to note the 
 peculiar orthography of that remote period, while all may delight 
 in those sweet and touching expressions of maternal love of this 
 female writer of the fifteenth century. 
 
 Verslets a mon Premier ne. 
 
 1 O cher enfantelet, vray pourtraict de tou pere, 
 Dors sur le seyn que ta bousche a presse I 
 
 Dors, petiot ; cloz, amy, sur le seyn de ta mere 7 
 Tien doulx oeillet par le somme oppresse. 
 
 1 Bel amy, cher petiot, que ta pupille tendre, 
 
 Gouste ung sommeil qui plus n'est faict pour moy t 
 
 le veille pour te veoir, te nourrir, te defendre — 
 Ainz qu'il m'est doulx ne veiller que pour toy ! 
 
 ' Estend ses brasselets; s'espand sur lui le somme : 
 Se clost son o3il : plus ne bouge — il s'endort — 
 
 N'estoit ce tayn flowry des couleurs de la pomme, 
 Nele diriez dans les bras de la mort ? 
 
 ' Arreste, cher enfant ! — j'en fremy toute engtiere ! 
 
 Reveille-toy ! chasse ung fatal propoz ! 
 Mon fils ! — pour ung moment — ah ! reyoy la lunicre t 
 
 Au prilx du tien rends-moy tout mon repoz ! 
 
 ' Doulce erreur ! il dormoit — c'est assez — respire ; 
 
 Songes legiers, flattez son doulx sommeil ! 
 Ah ! quand voyray cestuy pour qui mon coeur souspire,. 
 
 Aux miens costez, jouir de son reveil ? ' 
 
 Lijves to my First Born. 
 
 ( Sweet babe ! true portrait of thy father's face, 
 Sleep on the bosom that thy lips hare prest ! 
 
 Sleep, little one ; and closely, gently place 
 Thy drowsy eyelids on thy mother's breast. 
 
 ' Upon that tender eye, my little friend, 
 
 Soft sleep shall come, that cometh not to me ' 
 
 I watch to see thee, nourish thee, defend — 
 'Tis sweet to watch for thee — alone, for thee. 
 
 6 His arms fall down ; sleep sits upon his brow ' r 
 His eye is closed : he sleeps — how still and calm I 
 
 "Wore not his cheek the apple's ruddy glow, 
 
 Would you not say he slept on death's cold armi 1 
 
MODERN LANGUAGFS. 113 
 
 In 1539, Francis I., called the Father of letters, estab- 
 lished a professorship of the French language, and for- 
 bade the use of the Latin in public documents and judi- 
 cial proceedings. During his reign the language was 
 greatly improved, and literary men received the most 
 munificent encouragement. Clement Marot, a poet of 
 those days, is said to have used every effort to re- 
 form the. barbarities of his language, and to intro- 
 duce refined and elegant expressions. He acknowledged 
 that to the conversation of polished females he was in- 
 debted for the improvements which he introduced. 
 
 In 1635, the Acadamie Francaise, consisting of forty 
 members, was established by Cardinal Richelieu. To 
 this body was consigned the care of the language and 
 literature of the nation. 
 
 In ]694, was published the dictionary of the Academy, 
 which continued to be the standard of the French lan- 
 guage until the revolution of 1789; since which time, 
 new words and phrases, corresponding to a new state of 
 things, have gradually been intioduced. 
 
 To Malsherbes, a man of great genius and learning, 
 whose labors preceded the reign of Louis XIV. is ascrib- 
 ed the honor of having rescued the French language 
 more effectually from foreign idioms than any other 
 writer had done. So peremptorily did he insist on this 
 point, that he was called the ' Tyrant of words and syl- 
 lables; and it is said, that when in the hour of death his 
 confessor was expatiating on the joys of heaven, he beg- 
 ged him not to speak on such a subject in language so 
 vulgar and inaccurate. 
 
 The reign of Louis XIV. is considered as the Augus- 
 
 ' Awake, rriy boy ! — I tremble with affright ! 
 
 Awake, and chase this fatal thought! — unclose 
 Thine eye but for one moment on the light ! 
 
 Even "at the price of thine give me repose ! 
 
 1 Sweet error ! — he but slept— I breathe again — 
 Come gentle dreams, the hour of sleep beguile ! 
 
 Oh ! when shall he, for whom I sigh in vain, 
 Beside me watch to see that waking smife ? ' 
 
 For this translation, and some facts relating to French literature, 
 the author is indebted to the Morth American Review. 
 
 10* 
 
Hi MODERN LANGUAGES. 
 
 tan age of French literature. Montaigne at this period 
 complained of the fluctuating character ofhis language, 
 and endeavored to give it energy and stability. Cor- 
 neille, Moliere, Racine and Voltaire successively occu- 
 pied the public with their dramatic writings. Fenelon, 
 the amiable and pious author of Telemachus, distinguish- 
 ed himself for several valuable and interesting works. 
 Rousseau rendered himself famous for talents, and infa- 
 mous for the abuse of them. Condillac was an able met- 
 aphysical writer of a later period ; although professing 
 himself a disciple of Locke, he seems to have miscon- 
 ceived the opinions of that writer in some important 
 points, especially with regard to sensations ; these Locke 
 considered to be the moving cause of certain mental 
 operations, which, being independent of matter, were 
 therefore entirely different from sensations. He termed 
 them ideas of reflection. Condillac erroneously supposed 
 the language of Locke to be, that all our mental opera 
 tions were sensations, and the shadoivs of sensations. 
 Mr. Locke's ideas of reflection were called, in the system 
 of Condillac, sensations. Mr. Locke termed feelings, or 
 reflections, the mind looking in„ upon itself ; while 
 Condillac probably understood him to mean the reflect- 
 edimages of sensations. But although we admit that sen- 
 sation seems to awaken in the mind the germ of thought, 
 we cannot consider our intellectual states of mind 
 or our emotions merely as sensations under a new form. 
 
 Among the female writers in the French language, 
 are Madame de Genlis, distinguished for the num- 
 ber of her works, (amounting to more than one hun- 
 dred volumes), Madame de Siael, a woman of a pow- 
 erful and masculine intellect, and Madame de Sevigne, 
 whose letters are considered as patterns of epistolary 
 writing. I would also mention Madame Campan, whose 
 ideas on female education were more just and solid than 
 moot of her cotemporaries. 
 
 Wc have already devoted more time to the considera- 
 tion of language? than was at first intended, and must 
 omit enlarging upon the Spanish and Italian literature. 
 These are much less extensive than the French ; yet these 
 languages possess claims to the attention of the student 
 
MODERN LANGTTAfStffl. 115 
 
 who has leisure and opportunity for acquiring them. 
 The Spanish excels in dignity, the Italian in sweetness. 
 From their analogy both with the French, and Latin a 
 knowledge of those languages may be easily obtained by 
 one who understands either of the two latter. 
 
 With this lecture will close our view of languages, to 
 which branches of study we have hitherto given our 
 attention, have all a relation as to one common object. 
 Several of the first lectures of our course were prelimi- 
 nary considerations on the subject of education in gen- 
 eral. In commencing with the individual branches, we 
 considered the process of combining articulate sounds 
 in a manner to form words, the importance of a know- 
 ledge of orthography, and pointed out some methods for 
 correcting bad habits of spelling. 
 
 Secondly, we remarked upon the process of learning 
 to read, the requisites for the good reader, a peculiar im- 
 portance of this qualification to our own sex, and some 
 of the defects most common in this department of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 Thirdly, we remarked upon that science which gives 
 rules for the construction of sentences, and by means of 
 which language receives its character and permanency* 
 That mode of speech which has no grammatical stand- 
 ard, can be considered only as a kind of savage dialect. 
 As a people become civilized, they naturally fix the 
 boundaries and idioms of their language. 
 
 Fourthly, from the consideration of grammar, or the 
 study of our own language, we proceeded to consider the 
 use of the Latin, as a branch of female education. On 
 account, of its utility in giving correct ideas of our own 
 and other modern tongues, and especially its important 
 aid to mental discipline, it was recommended to those 
 who can have the advantages of a liberal course of study. 
 Our view of ancient languages closed with some brief 
 remarks upon the Greek and Hebrew. 
 
 Fifthly, we considered the study of modern languages, 
 devoting our attention chiafly to that of the French, 
 which, on account of the greater extent to which it is 
 spoken and the superior richness of its literature, de- 
 mands the greatest attention. 
 
116 MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Wo are now to commence with a different department 
 of education, to begin a review of certain other branch- 
 es of study, which, like those we have already examined, 
 have an intimate relation to each other. Several of our 
 next lectures will be devoted to modern and ancient ge- 
 ography, modern and ancient history, and mythology, 
 between all of which their is a connexion more or less 
 intimate. In these studies, although language ceases to be 
 the immediate subject of our inquiry, we are still de- 
 pendent upon it as a medium of communication. 
 
 We are now. to consider the earth, with respect to its 
 general and particular divisions; its features both of land 
 and water ; the races and nations of human beings who 
 have dwelt upon its surface, with its various revolutions, 
 civil, political and moral. As we ascend into antiquity, 
 our lights become dim and uncertain, and carry us into 
 the fabulous regions of mythology. Most of the ancient 
 divinities are supposed to be distinguished persons, who, 
 for their good or evil deeds, were immortalized by be- 
 coming objects of worship ; the favor of some being im- 
 plored, while the wrath of others was deprecated. 
 
 LECTURE XII. 
 
 Modern Geography. — Ancient Geography. 
 
 In pursuing the course at first marked out for our 
 Saturday's lectures, I find the subject of intellectual im- 
 provement expanding so much before me, that it will be 
 necessary to pass over in a more cursory manner than 
 could be wished, the various branches of education 
 which occupy the attention of the individual members of 
 an institution, including pupils differing widely from each 
 other in age and literary acquirements. 
 
 On account of this diversity, I sometimes feel an em- 
 barrassment respecting the style in which you should be 
 addressed, and the kind of information most proper to 
 
MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 117 
 
 be communicated ; for in endeavoring to accommo- 
 date myself to the capacities of the more advanced pu- 
 pils, there is danger that others may be uninterested and 
 uninstructed ; while on the other hand, to address my- 
 self generally to the younger, and less understanding 
 class of pupils, would be to discourage those who give 
 tone and character to the institution, and for whose im- 
 provement it is more especially designed. 
 
 But it is not useless for the advanced pupil occasion- 
 ally to look back to the elements of sciences which have 
 become familiar, and to take general views of what has 
 been passed in detail. When laboring to reach the sum- 
 mit of Mount Ida* you have not been as sensible of the 
 actual appearances, and especially of the relative situa- 
 tions of the various streets and buildings which you 
 passed, as when you could look down from a command- 
 ing height on those objects ; you then enjoyed the scen- 
 ery as a whole, and saw the separate objects combining 
 to form one beautiful scene. So it is in science, each 
 separate principle and fact at first engages the atten- 
 tion, one difficulty arises as another is conquered, until 
 the mind delights to pause in the ascent, and look 
 down on the prospect beneath. It is thus that it becomes 
 invigorated for new toils. 
 
 If younger pupils shall sometimes hear subjects dis- 
 cussed which they do not comprehend, it may serve to 
 quicken their diligence to attain knowledge which they 
 perceive to be familiar to others. It is well, too, for them, 
 that their Curiosity should be excited — well for them to 
 perceive the many paths of knowledge which lie before 
 them, and in exploring which, although there is labor, 
 there is also an ample reward. 
 
 It was my intention to have given a sketch of the his- 
 tory, uses and applications of the different branches of 
 female education ; but, as before remarked, in order that 
 the literary department of our course shall not occupy a 
 much greater space than its relative importance demands, 
 it will be necessary to be more general than may be in- 
 
 * An eminence east of Troy, and a favorite walk of the pupils 
 of the seminary. 
 
118 MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 teresting to you, or satisfactory to myself. I said the 
 relative importance, for in comparison to the moral and 
 religious formation of the youthful mind, literary attain- 
 ments dwindle into insignificance.* 
 
 We will now proceed to notice the science of geogra- 
 phy. On the importance of this study it is unnecessary 
 to^dwell, since it is usually a favorite pursuit with most 
 young persons, and in most schools receives a large 
 share of attention. 
 
 Great improvements within a few years have been 
 made in the methods of teaching geography, and in the 
 books used for that purpose. Twenty years since, the best 
 works used were those of Dwight, Morse and Guthrie. 
 Dwight's geography was in the form of question and an- 
 swer ; it was unaccompanied by an atlas or maps of any 
 kind. Morse's first work, though superior to Dwight's 
 contained no attempt at classifying facts in a philosoph- 
 ical manner ; a pupil might study it diligently for months, 
 and yet, for want of some connecting principle, the 
 knowledge acquired' would neither be useful or per- 
 manent. Guthrie's geography was a voluminous work, 
 containing a great mass of matter, but equally unphilo- 
 sophical in its arrangement as other cotemporaneous 
 works. 
 
 It is within the last fifteen years, that the present meth- 
 od of teaching geography by maps, has been introduced. 
 For some time after geographies were accompanied with 
 atlasses, no attempt was made to teach the drawing 
 of maps, except in a laborious and unprofitable man- 
 ner, which occupied weeks, and even months, with 
 little other advantage than that of giving to the pu- 
 pil neatness of execution. This method consisted of 
 delineating maps upon paper, and coloring and print- 
 ing them. These maps had a very pretty appear- 
 
 * It was the intention of the author when preparing these lec- 
 tures for the press, to have included in one volume the different 
 departments of education, as well as lectures on the duties of ed- 
 ucated women in their various relations ; but the literary depart- 
 ment seemed to embrace too many subjects to be examined with- 
 in the space at first allotted to it. The more important subjects- 
 which remain, the author proposes to include in a second volume. 
 
MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 119 
 
 ance, but, as they were often drawn by tracing on 
 paper laid over the original ; the mind of the pupil 
 was usually too intent on the mechanical performance 
 to think of the relative situation of places. A young 
 lady, after spending three months at a boarding school, 
 and having drawn and painted a map, was considered 
 as well versed in geography, though in truth she might 
 be almost as ignorant of the science as the uncon- 
 scious material on whose surface her map had been de- 
 lineated. 
 
 The system of teaching geography as, published by 
 Mrs. Willard and Mr. Woodbridge, in their series of geo- 
 graphical works,* was introduced by the former into her 
 school in Middlebury, Vermont, about the year 1816. 
 She had no books which contained her plan, and taught 
 her pupils from her own manuscripts. She made 
 great use of maps in every recitation. The exercise 
 of the pupil in drawing maps upon the black board 
 is an improvement of still later date. You can all 
 bear witness that this is a most effectual method of im- 
 printing on the mind the contiguity and relative situa- 
 tions of countries. Another great improvement in teach- 
 ing this science is that the pupil now commences with 
 his own town and country, and proceeds from thence to 
 distant places. 
 
 It seems, at this period, absurd to imagine a child re- 
 ceiving for his first lesson in geography, a description of 
 
 * Some years before the publication of these books. Mrs. Wil- 
 lard communicated to me her intention of preparing a geography 
 on a new plan She remarked that on the method then in use 
 the principles of generalization seemed to be left out of the ques- 
 tion ; that instead of taking up each country singly, giving an 
 account of its civilization, manufactures, state of education, reli- 
 gions, &c, these subjects should be treated of under separate 
 heads, and thus comparison and generalization be made to aid the 
 memory, while at the same time this method of arrangement 
 would prove a useful discipline to those mental powers which 
 were by its means called into operation. Mrs. W. remarked, that a 
 work on such a plan would cause a new era in teaching the sci- 
 ence of geography. I considered this at the time a bold, assertion j 
 but the general adoption of this method, the distinctive features 
 of which are more fully developed in the Universal (Geography 
 ao admirably executed by Mr. "Woodbridge, establish its truth 
 
120 MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the solar system ; for the next, a mathematical account 
 of the divisions of the earth, and then of being carried to 
 Africa, Europe, and Asia, before a word is said of his 
 own country. We now reverse this method, and in Mrs. 
 Willard's ' Geography for Beginners,' the teacher is di- 
 rected to present the child with a map of his own town, 
 to direct his attention to the river before his own door, 
 to the mountains which are in sight, and the towns 
 which bound his own native place.* 
 
 The word geography is derived from the Greek ge, 
 the earth, and grapho, to delineate; but its primitive 
 signification of a delineation of the earth has been grad- 
 ually extended, so that now, geography includes a de- 
 scription of climates, soil and productions, and even of 
 the moral and intellectual character of mankind. 
 
 The science of geography is intimately connected with 
 astronomy ; even our knowledge of the figure of the earth 
 is derived from observing its shadow upon the moon, 
 when in eclipse. An eclipse, as you well know, is 
 caused by the shadow of the earth falling upon the 
 moon ; this shadow being always bounded by a cir- 
 cular line, proves that the body which caused it is 
 round. In the early ages of mankind the earth was 
 supposed to be a round flat surface, terminated by an 
 immeasurable gulf. Each barbarous nation supposed 
 itself in the centre of this great plain. Some supposed that 
 the earth rested upon the back of an enormous elephant ; 
 and the elephant rested upon a huge tortoise ; but here 
 arose a greater difficulty than at first, since the whole 
 was then to be supported by same new monster. You 
 perceive how ridiculous are such hypotheses ; but they 
 are not more so than a thousand others which were 
 received by mankind in their rude state. 
 
 * By teaching pupils in this simple manner, an instruct- 
 or would have no cause to fear those blunders which are 
 sometimes made by pupils when taught definitions before they 
 are made to understand facts. A teacher, who had faithfully la- 
 bored to prepare a class for examination, asked a young Miss who 
 stood at the head, ' What is Geography?' The pupil, much to 
 the entertainment of the audience and chagrin of her instructer, 
 promptly and audibly answered, * Geography is a large ball, or 
 globe. 1 
 
MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 121 
 
 By astronomy we learn the existence of what is called 
 the Solar System, having for its centre the sun, around 
 which revolve several wo;lds or planets : the earth we 
 inhabit being the third in order from the sun, and travel- 
 ling in a path called its orbit, around this great luminary, 
 once, in a period of time, which we call a year. This 
 journey causes summer and winter : for when the earth 
 is in that part of its orbit where the sun shines directly 
 upon it, we have summer, and when in that part where 
 the sun's rays fall obliquely we have winter. Our days 
 are longer in summer, and shorter in winter, from our 
 change of situation with respect to the sun. 
 
 Although it is the real motion of the earth around the 
 sun which causes the changes in their relative situations, 
 yet to us, the sun is apparently approaching to, and 
 receding from the earth. In March and September, 
 the sun appears to be at the equator, and the days and 
 nights are equal in all parts of the world.* After the 
 20th of March, the sun appears to advance towards us, 
 and in June it appears at the tropic of Cancer, which is 
 its northern boundary; after this it turns back and pur- 
 sues its course towards the southern tropic, which it 
 reaches in six months. 
 
 We learn by astronomy that the planets, and our 
 earth among the number, turn as if upon an axis once in 
 a given period of time. The earth turns completely 
 round, in a period of time which we call a day. This 
 day we divide into twenty-four parts, each of which we 
 call an hour. But the term day is used in another 
 sense, viz. to denote the presence of the sun, while its 
 absence is called night. Thus when the earth, in its 
 turning round, carries the side we are upon away from 
 the sun, we have night; when we are carried towards 
 the sun, we have day. 
 
 The division of the earth into zones is made with 
 reference to the sun — those parts of the earth over which 
 the sun is sometimes directly overhead are called the torrid 
 or burning zone. In the temperate zones the sun is 
 
 * These periods are called the equinoxes, from aqus, equal, and 
 nox, night ; the night then being equal to the day. 
 
 11 
 
122 MODERN GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 never vertical, but the length of the days is not over 
 twenty-four hours. The other two zones are the frigid ; 
 on these the sun shines very obliquely. They have days 
 varying in length from twenty-four hours to six months. 
 That department of geography which treats of the various 
 circles supposed to be descr ibed on its surface, as parallels 
 of latitude, meridians, &c, is called mathematical geo- 
 graphy. 
 
 But we have not yet considered what supports the 
 earth. Wonderful as it may seem the earth stands upon 
 nothing ; like the moon and sun it is suspended in the hea- 
 vens without support. You know that even a little ball will 
 not remain in the air without being supported by some- 
 thing : why does the ball fall to the ground? Why do 
 all heavy bodies fall 1 We answer, that they are attract- 
 ed to the earth by a force called gravitation. Now the 
 earth, strange as it may seem, is kept from falling by 
 the very power which causes a stone to fall. 
 
 The sun, by the force of gravitation, attracts the 
 earth towards it; but the earth, when commencing its 
 course, received from its Creator an impulse tending to 
 carry it in a direction directly contrary to the sun: 
 the force of gravitation tends as you see to carry it 
 directly towards the sun ; but the earth obeying neither 
 force, though influenced by both, takes a middle course, 
 and is thus kept moving round the sun. The connexion 
 of the earth with the sun and other heavenly bodies is 
 called Astronomical Geography. 
 
 Physical or Natural Geography is a very comprehen- 
 sive science ; it includes a knowledge of the materials 
 of which the earth is composed. This- knowledge 
 embraces the science of Geology, which names and 
 arranges the rocks and other materials which compose 
 the earth ; and of Chemistry , which teaches the constitu- 
 ent elements of these substances. Thus you see, that 
 sciences which may appear distinct, have an intimate 
 connexion with each other, since geology and chemistry 
 are necessary to a complete knowledge of geography. 
 Physical geography also comprehends a knowledge of 
 those substances which grow out of the earth, and this 
 knowledge is called Botany. 
 
MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 123 
 
 We will suppose ourselves to be seated in a balloon, suffi- 
 ciently elevated above the surface of the earth to be able 
 to distinguish its general figure and surface. Let us 
 look first at its figure. We behold, suspended as it would 
 seem in empty space, though in reality surrounded by the 
 material substance air, a large ball, not exactly round, 
 but a little flattened at each end or pole. This ball pre- 
 sents an uneven surface : while it is turning around from 
 west to east, let us examine the various objects which 
 appear. For this we must approach nearer. Here we 
 see a long strip of land extending almost from one pole to 
 the other ; nearly in the centre it seems penetrated by 
 an arm of the ocean : this must be the great American 
 continent, separated by the Gulf of Mexico into a north- 
 ern and southern part. 
 
 We will suppose that our balloon is somewhat lowered 
 and directed over the northern part of this great conti- 
 nent ; and what do we now see? On two sides are vast 
 oceans, washing its eastern and western coasts, and on 
 the north an ocean of ice separates it from the north 
 pole. Do you observe that chain of lakes? These are 
 called the Great Lakes, being the largest in the world. 
 Let us approach nearer. Do you hear a sound like the 
 rush of mighty waters? It is the thundering Niagara, 
 which had poured forth its mass of waters, long be- 
 fore man had heard the roar of its cataract. But 
 what becomes of this vast collection of water? It 
 hurries onward, forming mighty rivers and lakes, until it 
 becomes lost in the great ocean, which you see on the 
 east. 
 
 But we must not, in the sublimity of this scene, forget 
 that we have other observations to make. Let us direct 
 our course towards the middle of this country, which we 
 call North America. There, from the north, flows a 
 majestic river, receiving in its course many noble 
 streams ; one, rapid and turbulent, bringing along mud 
 and roots and trunks of trees torn up in its fury, comes 
 foaming from the west ; another, scarcely less rapid in 
 its course, comes from the east : the parent river, 
 embracing them both with many other tributary streams,, 
 bears them on to the southern gulf 
 
124 MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 You see here an extensive country, through which 
 the rivers descend from the north, from the east and 
 west: this is called a basin, and many delightful val- 
 leys and pi sins does it contain ; its sides on the west and 
 east are the Rocky Mountains, and the Apalachian on 
 the north, a high ridge which divides the waters that 
 flow towards the northern ocean from those which run 
 towards the southern gulf. 
 
 We will now go eastward, and pass that great chain 
 of mountains which may well be called the back bone 
 of our country. We are now on its eastern side. Look, 
 and you will see many rivers flowing towards the 
 eastern ocean. Do you observe the north-eastern part 
 of the section of country we are now viewing'? You 
 may there see mountains with snow-covered tops; and 
 farther west, another chain whose summits and sides are 
 always verdant : between these mountains, pursuing a 
 southern course, a river is seen whose progress at first seem 
 hurried, but by degrees its youthful impetuosity subsides, 
 and, with calm and placid motion, it bears itself on to 
 an arm of the ocean, running in from the east, and 
 forming the southern boundary to a lovely country. The 
 valley of this river is adorned with the ornaments of art 
 and the richest gifts of nature. This valley, and an 
 extensive territory on the east and west of it are called 
 New England, or the country of the pilgrims. History 
 will tell you why these names are given. 
 
 But our aerial journey is becoming too long : we must 
 retrace our way from the happy valley of the Connecti- 
 cut. Let us go westward, and descend near to the earth 
 — here we see our own Hudson, carrying on its bosom 
 innumerable little objects, passing and repassing in rapid 
 motion, as if actuated by a spirit of intelligence ; but, al- 
 though not gifted with intelligence themselves, they are 
 directed in their course by intelligent minds, and filled 
 with rational beings, intent on business or pleasure. These 
 steam-boats exhibit one of the proudest victories which 
 mind has ever achieved over matter; two destructive 
 elements being made subservient to man's convenience, 
 and obedient to his will. 
 
 We have now arrived at the place where the Hudson 
 
MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 125 
 
 viver ceases to be navigable ; and here, in a little flour- 
 ishing city on its eastern bank, we will alight from our 
 imaginary balloon, and close our voyage of discovery. 
 
 Such are some of the ohservations of physical geogra- 
 phy ; in order to understand it, you must in imagination 
 combine at one view the great features of nature — 
 oceans, lakes and rivers, continents and islands, table- 
 lands, basins, plains, valleys, and deserts : these are all 
 the subjects of this science. 
 
 The geological character of mountains, and the for- 
 mation of countries are also to be noticed. When you 
 know the geological features of a country, you can form 
 a probable estimate of the character of its soil, the quan- 
 tity of its water, and the number and appearance of its 
 caves. You can tell whether it is likely to contain coal 
 or salt mines, iron or precious metals, and even the 
 plants which would probably be found in it. What is 
 still more wonderful, you can form some judgment of 
 the moral character of a people, fiom the nature of the 
 soil. Switzerland is famous for its rugged soil, its pure 
 air and water, and its patriotic and independent inhabit- 
 ants. It is a primitive country, and such a formation 
 requires hard labor for its cultivation. The effect of la- 
 bor is to form the character of a people to habits of or- 
 der and industry, and to render them independent of oth- 
 ers : independence produces a nobleness and elevation 
 of feeling, and courage to resist oppression. 
 
 A country having a secondary or alluvial formation, is 
 generally fertile ; nature almost spontaneously brings 
 ibrth sustenance for its inhabitants. Not compelled to 
 labor, and ignorant of intellectual enjoyments, man ue- 
 generates ; he seeks only to gratify his senses, and easi- 
 ly becomes a slave to those who will protect and 
 defend him. Slavery, in its turn, still further debases the 
 wretched human being. The situation of the peasants 
 of Turkey, of Spain and Italy, may illustrate the influ- 
 ence of a fertile soil upon the moral character of a peo- 
 ple. 
 
 But I have, in remarking on national character, anti- 
 cipated what belongs to Civil or Political Geography, 
 whose province it is to describe the moral condition of 
 U* 
 
126 MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 mankind, including their religion, forms of government, 
 moral and intellectual improvement. This view of the 
 world is sometimes called Historical geography. 
 
 You will now see that geography is not a science of 
 memory alone, consisting of mechanical recitations of 
 the names of places, and the situations of countries, 
 rivers and mountains. It is necessary to learn to view 
 things in detail, and then in general, to compare and 
 reflect in order to become acquainted with geog- 
 raphy. And thus you perceive, that although this 
 science is highly useful for the information which it com- 
 municates, it also, when properly investigated, serves to 
 develope and improve the faculties of reason and judg- 
 ment, and elevate the moral character. 
 
 Besides Mathematical, Astronomical, Physical and 
 Political geography there is another department of this 
 science called Statistical geography, or that which gives an 
 account of the length and breadth, population, bounda- 
 ries and commerce of different countries. 
 
 The study of geography tends to give enlarged and 
 comprehensive views respecting the earth we inhabit. 
 While this science was unknown, and mankind in igno- 
 rance of the world on which they lived, the most dark 
 and superstitious fears prevailed with respect to the 
 living beings who were supposed to exist in certain un- 
 known regions. Even the Romans, enlightened as they 
 were for the period in which they flourished, supposed 
 the hordes of barbarians who poured in upon them, were 
 absolutely without limits, as to numbers, or in the extent 
 of their country. Panic-struck by these terrors, the 
 Romans thus became an easy prey to a people whom 
 they thought it would be in vain to resist. 
 
 The descendants of the Romans, afterwards con- 
 demned the philosopher Galileo to perpetual imprison- 
 ment, for daring to assert that the earth was round, and 
 moved on an imaginary axis. Spigelius, a bishop of 
 Topsal in Sweden, was burnt at the stake, for expressing 
 his belief in the gobularform of the earth, and that there 
 might be people who had night when it was day in 
 Sweden, and day when it was night there, or that were 
 
MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 127 
 
 their antipodes* This doctrine was by the superstitious 
 and ignorant monks declared to be ' a proposition absurd 
 in its very nature, false in philosophy, heretical in 
 religion, and contrary to the holy Scriptures.' 
 
 The discovery of the true figure of the earth has been 
 of incalculable advantage to mankind. Indeed, we 
 cannot, without pity, think of the period when the 
 European knew nothing of the earth, but of his own 
 comparatively little continent. All else was dark and 
 mysterious as the regions beyond the grave. 
 
 You have read of the difficulties encountered by 
 Columbus in obtaining the assistance necessary to pros- 
 ecute a voyage, in which he believed that some great 
 discovery awaited him. We cannot, however, appreciate 
 the feelings which agitated him, as hope and fear for the 
 desired aid prevailed. By study and observation he 
 had become convinced of the spherical figure of the 
 earth, and at first only thought of finding a better way 
 of sailing to the East Indies than by the long and dan- 
 gerous passage around the Cape of Good Hope ; but on 
 further reflection, he thought a wise Creator would not 
 have made the proportion of water so much greater than 
 that of land, and therefore inferred the existence of 
 another continent. 
 
 While his mind was laboring with these grand ideas, 
 and impressed with the immense importance of ascertain- 
 ing the correctness of his reasoning, he was, as is often the 
 case with those who attempt great things, treated by many 
 as a madman, or a fool. We may, my dear pupils, justly feel 
 a pride in the thought, that a woman was the first to com- 
 prehend the sublime conceptions of Columbus ; and provi- 
 dential indeed does it appear that this woman was a sove- 
 reign, able as well as willing to aid the genius which 
 her mind appreciated. Isabella — let the daughters of 
 Columbia ever hold thy name in reverence ! let them re- 
 member that, without thy aid, their own dear country 
 might even now have been a wilderness, shared by 
 the savage heathen and the scarcely more savage beast 
 of the forest ! 
 
 * Antipodes is from two Greek words, anti, opposite, and podos, 
 feet ; meaning people who live on opposite sides of the globe, and 
 whose feet are therefore directly opposite. 
 
128 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Ancient Geography. 
 
 Geography is properly divided into Ancient and Modern. 
 Acient geography commences with describing coun- 
 tries known in the remotest antiquity respecting which 
 we have any information. Although writers agree in 
 dividing both geography and history into ancient and 
 modern, they differ as to the point of time most proper 
 for their separation. While some fix this at the extinc- 
 tion of the western empire of the Romans, A. D. 476, 
 others prefer to divide at the commencement of the New 
 Western Empire, under Charlemagne, A. D. 800. A 
 third period, and one which evidently seems the most 
 proper, is the birth of our Saviour. 
 
 This is considered as having taken place 4004 years 
 after the creation. The whole Christian world now reck- 
 on time from the birth of Christ : thus we date A. D. 
 [Anno Domini, in the year of our Lord) 1831 ; that is, 
 so many years have passed since his birth. So in public 
 acts, officers of the government date from the indepen- 
 dence of our country, it being at this time the fifty-seventh 
 year of American Independence. 
 
 Should there be those eighteen hundred years hence 
 who should dispute the fact of such an event as the re- 
 volution in which America became an independent na- 
 tion, and at. the same time should public acts continue 
 to be dated from this event, would not this very circum- 
 stance substantiate the fact? 
 
 When did any people or any individual begin to date 
 from an event which never took place ? Were there no 
 other proof of the appearance in the world of Jesus Christ, 
 it would seem as if the fact of so great a portion of 
 mankind reckoning from such an event might convince 
 the most sceptical. Or, if he was nothing more than an 
 obscure carpenter, who imposed on a few ignorant fisher- 
 men, until he was finally put to death for his blasphemies, 
 how has it happened that his birth, after a period of more 
 than 1800 years, is considered a more important event than 
 the creation itself? Even the Deist, who ridicules the Chris- 
 tian for what he calls his credulity, dates from the birth of 
 
ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 129 
 
 Christ. Which, we would ask, is the more credulous, 
 the sceptic who believes things can happen without a 
 cause, or he who relies on evidence the most certain ? 
 
 The study of ancient geography is not to be commen- 
 ced before some aquaintance with modern. After learn- 
 ing in the latter the situations and boundaries of places, 
 it is not difficult to connect with them the names by 
 which they were anciently known : thus Caledonia easi- 
 ly becomes associated with the more modern name Scot- 
 land, Hibernia with Ireland, Hispania with Spain, Gaul 
 with France, &c. Ancient geography teaches how 
 much the boundaries and extent of countries have changed 
 and what part of the world was known or unknown to 
 the ancients.* 
 
 A knowledge of Ancient geography is very important 
 to a right understanding of the sacred writings, and 
 Ancient History. The nations mentioned in the Old 
 Testament have long since ceased to exist. Of the As- 
 syrian, Babylonian, Egyptian and Syrian empires, noth- 
 ing but the names now remains. Their proud capitals, 
 Nineveh, Babylon, Thebes, Tyre and Sidon have disap- 
 peared fiom the earth, and scarcely do we know the 
 places which they once so proudly occupied. 
 
 The cities of the Canaanites, the Midianites, and Phi- 
 listines, with those of their conquerors, the Jews, are 
 all swept from existence. The boundaries of these 
 nations, ancient geography cannot well define; all 
 that it can do, is to point out their supposed loca- 
 tion. Of the people who inhabited these ancient coun- 
 tries, not a remnant remains, except of the Hebrews 
 or Jews ; and they wandering and dispersed over the 
 face of the earth ; though, still preserving their ancient 
 customs and religion, prove the truth of the sacred volume, 
 which, while it prophesied their fate as a nation, foretold 
 that they would continue a separate people. A part of 
 
 * For further particulars respecting the proper method of pur- 
 suing this study, reference may be had to Mrs. Willard's An- 
 cient Geography, which brings within a small ccmpass most of 
 the important tacts of the science, and designates a philosophical 
 mode of classifying and arranging them. Lavoisne's Ancient At- 
 las is very valuable for the advanced student, but is on a scale too 
 large for schools. 
 
130 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the prophesy respecting them, viz. that they shall be 
 collected and restored to their ancient city, Jerusalem, 
 still remains to be fulfilled. The Christian world are 
 looking for this event, as the commencement of the Mil- 
 lenium or that period, ' when the whole earth shall 
 be covered with the knowledge of the Lord as the waters 
 cover the sea.' 
 
 A knowledge of Ancient geography is of great assist- 
 ance in understanding the historical parts of the New 
 Testament. The events there recorded become more 
 deeply impressed upon the mind when the location of the 
 places where they occurred is understood. This science 
 points out Bethlehem, where our Saviour was born ; Naza- 
 reth, where he dwelt with his parents ; the river Jordan, 
 where he was baptized ; the desert of Judea, where he fast- 
 ed forty days ; Cana, where he wrought his first miracle ; 
 the various countries over which he traveled ; the lakes 
 and seas which he crossed, and finally, Jerusalem, where 
 he was crucified. 
 
 Ignorant of the situation of these places, it is 
 impossible for a person to feel that interest in the narra- 
 tive with which they are connected, that would otherwise 
 be experienced. Suppose upon an ancient map you fol- 
 low our Saviour in the various events of his life : you 
 find the Mount of Olives, overlooking Jerusalem, where, 
 beholding that city, he wept over it ; here the garden 
 of Gethsemane, where, being in agony under the burthen 
 of our sins, he prayed; and there another mount, that of 
 Calvary, where, the great work of our redemption being 
 completed, ' the Saviour bowed his head and said, It is 
 finished.' Does not the tracing of these locations help 
 you to believe and realize the great truths of Christianity 1 
 
 Without being accustomed to the assistance of sensi- 
 ble delineations, people are in danger of reading the his- 
 torical parts of the Scriptures, as they would some tale of 
 fancy, which, floating through the imagination, leaves 
 upon the mind no lasting impression. Not that one can- 
 not be a Christian without a knowledge of ancient geog- 
 raphy, or indeed if ignorant of every human science ; for 
 blessed be the name of Him who has given us ' the word 
 of life,' it is so simple that even ' the way-faring man 
 
ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 131 
 
 need not err therein.' The truths of Christianity appeal to 
 the heart, not to the understanding, and are accessible to 
 the most unenlightened. Religion, without science, is 
 infinitely preferable to all knowledge without religion. 
 But when religion and science meet in the same mind, 
 both assume a higher character. Science may well be 
 considered as the handmaid of piety ; for it will ever be 
 such, unless perverted and abused. 
 
 The physical department of Ancient geography varies 
 but little from the modern in comparison with the 
 changes in Civil geography. Yet even this does vary, 
 and the very face of nature is changing. It is the busi- 
 ness o( Geology, a science which throws much light upon 
 Ancient Physical geography, to trace the progress of cre- 
 ation, until the earth became a solid mass, fitted for the 
 production of vegetable life and a habitation for man and 
 beast. We learn that after this period, various agents 
 have been, and still are, constantly producing changes in 
 the features of our globe. Some operate slowly, as the 
 air, which gradually dissolves solid substances, separ- 
 ating rocks into stones and crumbling these into pebbles 
 and sand. This sand, by the water of rivers is washed 
 towards their mouths, forming new land or deltas, or ac- 
 cumulating in the middle of rivers, and forming islands. 
 Thus the higher parts of countries are gradually crumb- 
 ling away, while the lower parts accumulate. Rivers 
 are often blocked up by such accumulations, and their 
 channels turned in new directions. 
 
 The region around us is probably much changed 
 since the creation, or even since the flood, an event 
 which produced a change in the physical aspect of the 
 globe, greater than any other, or perhaps all others, 
 which have ever occurred. It is impossible to pronounce 
 with certainty, respecting the changes which may have 
 taken place in the region watered by the Hudson and its 
 branches ; but while passing down its current and ob- 
 serving the adjacent country on each side, I have been 
 strongly impressed with the belief that the valley of this 
 river was once a vast lake connected with the lakes on 
 our northern border ; that the highlands and pallisadoes 
 were the southern boundary of this lake. The waters 
 
132 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 forcibly operating upon these barriers, might by degrees 
 have worn them away, until, opening for itself a pas- 
 sage, this mighty mass rushed onward to the ocean. 
 This however is mere hypothesis, which should never be 
 confounded with demonstrated theories. Each one of you 
 has a right to make her own suppositions, and to decide 
 upon the probability of the event which has been suggested. 
 If the region about us has once been covered with water, 
 it seems probable that Mount Ida and Mount Olympus 
 were islands in this great lake. 
 
 About two miles from this city, on the east, there is a 
 beautiful valley ; by following its course, you will find it 
 winding its way towards the Hudson, resembling in ap- 
 pearance the bed of a river whose channel has been 
 turned, or whose waters are dried up. 
 
 On the west side of the Hudson there is a singular 
 ravine, often called the dry river; this, instead of the 
 sloping banks of the beautiful vale on the eastern side, 
 has abrupt and ragged shores, and a rocky, uneven bed : 
 a little rill yet lingers among the rocks, convincing 
 us, if further evidence were needed, that here has been a 
 noble arm of the Hudson. Although on the eastern side, 
 the vale of which I have spoken, bears less incontestible 
 marks of its having been the bed of a river, I have 
 little doubt but that too was covered with water tributary 
 to the large river. Referring then to the supposition 
 that the Hudson river is but the remains of a great lake, 
 which suddenly discharged its waters into the Atlantic, 
 we might suppose that when this event took place, many 
 rivers were formed by the inequalities of the surface ; that 
 these rivers in time have changed their channels, or 
 gradually subsided into dry land. 
 
 These hints are offered with a view to induce you to 
 pay more attention to the natural features of the different 
 places where you reside or through which you may trav- 
 el ; to remark the indications of changes in physical geog- 
 raphy, which will present themselves, when journeying 
 through any region of country. Even scenes most famil- 
 iar to you may never have been viewed in reference to any 
 investigation respecting the causes of the appearances 
 which present themselves : by bestowing a little attention 
 
ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 133 
 
 to these subjects, nature will appear in a new aspect and 
 you will almost begin to fancy that you have hitherto 
 walked blind-folded through her curious and wonderful 
 scenes. 
 
 Although in many cases we merely infer changes in 
 the physical character of countries from certain indica- 
 tions, yet we learn from history, of cities being sunk by 
 earthquakes or overwhelmed by the lava of volcanoes, of 
 islands suddenly sinking into the earth, and of other 
 islands being thrown up from the bottom of the sea. 
 
 But have you yet studied the Ancient Geography of 
 your own country 1 — We have said that geography should 
 begin at home ; why then have none of you been taught the 
 Ancient Geography of the United States 1 — It is because 
 we have no ancient geography. We are not only a new na- 
 tion, but the country we inhabit is new ; — not of a newer 
 creation than that which we call the old world, but until it 
 was discovered in 1492, it had been inhabited by a race of 
 men, who, ignorant of the arts of printing or writing, left 
 no records of what they or their country once were. 
 Our ancestors a little more than two hundred years since 
 came to this newly discovered country ; they found here 
 a savage people, who knew nothing of the arts and re- 
 finements of civilized life ; who had no history, no an- 
 cient or modern geography of their country. They 
 told oar ancestors what their fathers had said to them, 
 of their comino- from the far west towards the east. But 
 tradition points out no ancient cities like those which 
 from time to time have nourished in the old world. 
 
 The most ancient towns in New-England are Ply- 
 mouth, Boston, Hartford, and New-Haven ; in the Mid- 
 dle States, New- York and Albany ; and in the Southern 
 States, Jamestown and Savannah. These are however 
 young and mostly flourishing. Antiquity has not yet 
 shrouded any of our cities or heroes in the obscurity and 
 indistinctness necessary to the sublime. Our Washing- 
 ton is remembered by many who now live, and who 
 knew him to be but a man, though a great and good one. 
 Had he lived in ancient days, his memory would have re- 
 ceived divine honors : he would have been enrolled among 
 12 
 
134 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the demi-gods, with Perseus, Hercules, ^Esculapius, and 
 other heroes and benefactors of mankind. 
 
 The study of ancient geography, in bringing you ac- 
 quainted with places no longer in existence, cannot fail 
 to suggest the transient nature of all human glory and 
 perfection. The works of man are all perishable ; and 
 yet these are more enduring than their authors. 
 
 To toil a few short years, and then pass away, is the 
 destiny of man, as regards this world ; but the most mo- 
 mentous consequences depend on these few years ; even 
 the eternal destiny of the immortal soul. Could we pen- 
 etrate the unseen world of spirits, as we can in some de- 
 gree the dim twilight of antiquity, we should behold the 
 effects of the short period of earthly existence upon our 
 fellow moitals who have gone before us ; for the scriptures 
 affirm, that ' their works follow them.' 
 
 This consideration should then give new vigor to our 
 efforts ; — true, marble palaces and temples, and all the 
 works of art crumble into ruins, yet the moral deeds of 
 mankind, though it may seem that they too are carried 
 down the mighty stream of time, are arrested in their 
 progress, recorded in that awful register of human ac- 
 tions which is to remain sealed till the 'great day of ac- 
 counts.' Who among us will not have a fearful list of 
 omissions of duty, of commissions of offences to answer 
 for ? Not a single human being is without sin, not one 
 is guiltless. And yet we read in the word of God, that 
 without holiness no man shall see the Lord. What then, 
 shall we do? are we to be forever lost, shut out from his 
 presence, who alone can make us glorious and happy? 
 Where shall we obtain the holiness that we need ? Where 
 shall we wash away the guilt with which our souls are 
 stained ? 
 
 Listen, my dear pupils, to the words of the book of 
 life. ' The blood of Christ cleanseth from all sin. He 
 was wounded for our transgressions, he was bruised for 
 our iniquities, with his stripes we are healed. His blood 
 is shed for the remission of sins. If we confess our sins 
 he is faithful and just to forgive us our sins, and cleanse 
 us from all unrighteousness.' 
 
HISTORY. 
 
 135 
 
 LECTURE XIII. 
 
 History. 
 
 Having acquired some knowledge of geography, the 
 mind naturally seeks for information respecting the living 
 and moral agents, who have inhabited the earth since the 
 period of its creation. There are two methods of studying 
 history ; first by commencing with the earliest periods of 
 society, and descending to the present time ; or second, an 
 inverse or ascending order. 
 
 Which of these methods is that of nature? Does 
 the child feel most interested in hearing accounts of 
 what befel his grandparents, or in learning the fortunes 
 of Alexander or Caesar? We know that he will take 
 a deeper interest in the history of his own ancestors, 
 and of events which have had an important influence 
 upon his own circumstances in life. Pioceeding then 
 upon this view of the operations of the mind, we would 
 recommend that the beginner should commence with 
 the history of his own age and country. It would be de- 
 sirable that every child should first be presented with 
 the history of his own town, then of his own state, and 
 after, that of the whole United Republic. This method 
 has but recently been the subject of discussion among 
 those who have the charge of youth ; and with the books 
 now before the public, it is not easy to conduct a course of 
 history in the manner above suggested. In this institution 
 we have only partially adopted it ; as Mrs. Willard's Amer- 
 ican History is too large for younger pupils, we still con- 
 tinue to give them the former course, viz. ancient histo- 
 ry first, then modern, closing their historical studies with 
 the American History* This method is agreeable to 
 the order of time ; indeed when a pupil commences with 
 his own age, and country, and ascends in the course of 
 time, he should, at the last pursue the descending course, 
 
 * The publication of the Abridgment of this History since this 
 lecture was written, has obviated the objection above made, viz. 
 the want of a suitable work for beginners on the new plan. 
 
136 HISTORY. 
 
 as in this way can be taken a more philosophical view of 
 the connexion between causes and their corresponding 
 effects. 
 
 The term history is derived from the Latin word histo- 
 ria, and literally signifies a relation of facts; thus we term 
 that science which considers facts with respect to the ob- 
 jects of the different kingdoms of nature, animal, vegeta- 
 ble and mineral, Natural History, 
 
 We are now lo confine our attention to Civil Histo- 
 ry, or that branch which presents us with a record of 
 the characters and actions of mankind. Cicero defines 
 civil history to be ' the testimony of time, the light of 
 truth, the messenger of antiquity , and the school of life. 3 
 History is a word of extensive application, but when 
 used to signify a particular branch of education it has re- 
 lation to the origin, progress and decline of nations, to 
 the distinguished individuals who have exerted an influ- 
 ence upon the public welfare ; and to the progress of lit- 
 erature, science and arts. History is indeed something 
 more than a knowledge of facts ; it leads to a considera- 
 tion of those principles in human nature which give their 
 origin to the various forms of society, from which spring 
 the institutions, laws, and usages of man in his rudest as 
 well as most polished state. History teaches the princi- 
 ples on which nations are founded, and points out the 
 means of improvement, as well as the causes of their de- 
 pravity and decline. 
 
 But it is the mind matured and practised to judge of 
 causes by effects, that must consider history under its 
 true philosophical aspect ; by the young pupil it must 
 be chiefly viewed in relation to events. 
 
 Civil history is either sacred or profane. Sacred his- 
 tory is that which is contained in the bible. To this ho- 
 ly volume we are indebted for our knowledge of the ori- 
 gin of our planet. 
 
 ' In the beginning God created the heaven and the 
 earth. 5 When was this beginning ? — This is a fearful and 
 overwhelming question, carrying the mind back to that 
 period when the Deity existed alone in the majesty of his 
 own glory, and the vast conception of his infinite mind 
 had not yet become manifest in material creations- 
 
HISTORY. 137 
 
 But matter must have had a beginning ; — it could not 
 have created itself; — God must have existed forever, 
 for he is the first cause of all things, and there is none 
 greater than himself. Nothing can be brought into ex- 
 istence without a cause ; what then could have created 
 God ? We see that should we attempt to go further, 
 and find some power which could have created the Dei- 
 ty, we must go another step, and ask how that power came 
 to exist, and thus we might go on ad infinitum ; not in 
 any manner removing the dilhculty, but multiplying mys- 
 teries at every proposition. This is what the Pagans 
 did in their mythology. For although they called Jupi- 
 ter the father of gods and men ; they accounted for his 
 existence, by saying that he was the son of Saturn ; 
 Saturn was the son of Heaven and Earth, who were the 
 children of Chaos. How Chaos or matter, in an unform- 
 ed state, came into existence, the Pagans, in their wis- 
 dom, did not attempt to explain. 
 
 But let us turn from the clildish absurdities of hea- 
 thenism to the light of revelation. ' In the beginning 
 God made the heaven and the earth.' God then has 
 existed from eternity; ' he is from everlasting to everlast- 
 ing, without beginning of days or end of time.' Here I 
 would ask you for a moment to consider the language of 
 the sacred history ; — was this beginning , the period when 
 our earth began to take its present form ? This is the 
 belief of many, especially of those who are little ac- 
 quainted with geological facts, and who have not paid 
 strict attention to the import of the language. 
 
 The opinion of others is that the ' beginning,' was that 
 eventful period, when the elements of all the matter 
 which now exists in the universe were brought into 
 existence. Respecting what took place after this august 
 beginning of material existence, except as relates to our 
 earth, the sacred writings do not inform us. The histo- 
 ry of other worlds is not known to us ; nor for how many 
 centuries of ages they might have been going on to per- 
 fection, before the Almighty thought proper .to shape into 
 its present form the matter which composes our globe. 
 It seems probable that between the fact recorded in the first 
 verse of Genesis, and that in the succeeding verse, a vast 
 12* 
 
138 HISTORY. 
 
 interval of time had elapsed. But the sacred historian 
 leaves that period as not relating to man, and hastens to 
 speak of the earth. This, he says, ' was without/brm, and 
 it was void, (or a chaotic mass) and darkness was upon 
 the face of the deep, and the Spirit of God moved upon 
 theface of the waters.' It appears that this formless mass 
 was in a fluid state ; and geology furnishes abundant 
 evidence to prove that from such a state our globe must 
 gradually have become consolidated. 
 
 The spirit or power of God now operating upon this 
 chaotic mass, from darkness produced light, and a 
 series of changes at length brought the earth into a hab- 
 itable state. Man was then formed, not of matter creat- 
 ed newly for that purpose ; but his body was made of the 
 dust of the earth, and animated by the breath of the 
 Almighty. 
 
 In the history we are now examining, we thus learn the 
 production of our earth, and the origin of the human 
 race. We find Adam and his companion, placed in the 
 delightful garden of Eden, favored with the company 
 of angels, and personal communion with God himself. 
 But yielding to temptation, cmr first parents disobeyed 
 the commands of their Maker, and thus * brought death 
 into the world and all our wo.' Here we see the origin 
 of evil; a subject, about which metaphysicians have 
 been much perplexed. For the same ambition which 
 led our first parents to sin, still urges their descendants, 
 to study into things transcending their own limited 
 faculties, and to pass by those simple records which the 
 Almighty himself has caused to be written for their 
 instruction. 
 
 Let us now take a rapid review of the records of 
 our race after sin had entered the world. A brother, 
 urged by envy raises his hand against an innocent 
 brother, and for the first time death appears among men. 
 Cain is driven forth a vagabond upon the face of the 
 earth. It appears that he built a city called Enoch, 
 after the name of his son ; this city was probably nothing 
 more than a collection of his descendants into one place, 
 where they inhabited rude and temporary dwellings. 
 
 Although some ' walked with God/ yet there were 
 
HISTORY. 139 
 
 many who followed their own evil devices, until wick- 
 edness had so much increased upon the earth, that the 
 Almighty resolved upon the destruction of the whole 
 human race by a deluge. Noah and his family alone 
 were spared, by taking refuge according to divine coun- 
 sel, in an ark, constructed in a peculiar manner. The 
 deluge is supposed to have taken place about lbOO years 
 after the creation. The earth was re-peopled by the 
 three sons of Noah. Before the flood mankind lived to 
 the age of several hundred years ; after this time the 
 period of human life gradually shortened to seventy or 
 eighty. 
 
 The scene of the great events which we have now so 
 hastily sketched, was in Asia. The place where was 
 situated the garden of Eden is not known ; for after the 
 fall, its beauty and loveliness disappeared, thorns and 
 thistles sprung up, and man was obliged to gain his 
 subsistence by the sweat of his brow. 
 
 No records except the sacred writings give us any know- 
 ledge of the history of man previous to the period of the 
 deluge. These writings were carefully preserved by the 
 Jews. They were the descendants of Abraham, a man es- 
 pecially consecrated by God as the father of a chosen race. 
 Moses, the author of the five first books of the Bible, or 
 of the pentateuch as they are sometimes called, is the 
 most ancient historian of whom we have any knowledge. 
 Sacred history, after the deluge is mostly confined to 
 the Jewish nation. 
 
 Profcne history is so called in contradistinction to sa- 
 cred. Of profane historians, the most ancient is Homer ; 
 but his relations are so mingled with fiction, that his feeble 
 light serves but to manifest the thick darkness of the 
 period in which he lived. His poems chiefly relate to 
 Greece and the coasts of Asia Minor, the Trojan war, 
 and the exploits of Grecian and Trojan heroes. 
 
 The first writer of profane history who can be relied 
 upon is Herodotus, who wrote after the invasion of 
 Greece by Xerxes ; Thucydides and Xenophon appear- 
 ed soon after, and these three writers may be considered 
 as the fathers of Grecian history. At this period, 
 eloquence w as the idol of the Grecian people ; and as 
 
140 HISTORY. 
 
 their historians read their own works in popular assem- 
 blies, they sought rather to adorn them with the beauties 
 of style than to give a dry narrative of facts : their writ- 
 ings were but a kind of historical romance, in which 
 their own countrymen figured as heroes, and their own 
 country was extolled with all the enthusiasm of the most 
 glowing imagination. They were the Scotts and Coo 
 pers of ancient days. 
 
 The Roman historians, Polybius, Tacitus and Sallust 
 were more philosophical and dispassionate. Livy was 
 richer in the ornament of language, but less correct. 
 Caesar wrote chiefly of his own wars, and described 
 military operations in a more vivid and distinct manner 
 than any succeeding writer has done. Had Napoleon 
 Bonaparte written the history of his own campaigns, he 
 would probably have equalled Julius Caesar in concise- 
 ness and vividness of language as he did in military 
 skill and unbounded ambition. 
 
 As we descend to more modern times we meet in 
 French with the writings of Bossuet, Voltaire, &,c. Among 
 English writers, Hume, Robertson and Gibbon are con- 
 spicuous. 
 
 Our own country, young in its literature, already pos- 
 sesses historians of acknowledged merit. To trace our 
 history, from the little band of pilgrims who first landed 
 on Plymouth rock, through the trials of our forefathers 
 by savage cruelty, famine and pestilence, and to follow the 
 patriots of the revolution through their struggle for inde- 
 pendence, are employments which have warmed the heart 
 and engaged the pen of many a gifted American. 
 
 But what, let me ask is the advantage of studying his- 
 tory 1 Is it necessary only that your minds should be 
 stored with a mass of facts 1 that you should know that in 
 such a year the pilgrims landed, that in such a year com- 
 menced, and in such a year ended the revolutionary war? 
 All knowledge to be useful must have its practical ap- 
 plication. In the character of the New-England fathers 
 we see many noble examples of heroism amidst dangers 
 and discouragements. In American history we see many 
 of our own sex leaving their native country, and the 
 elegancies of refined society, that they may, in a savage 
 
HISTORY. 141 
 
 wilderness across the distant ocean find a ' Faith's pure 
 shrine, and freedom to worship God.' From such exam- 
 ples we should derive important moral lessons ; — from the 
 conduct of those who have preceded us, we can gain 
 that most important knowledge, the knowledge of human 
 nature, of ourselves. 
 
 From whence come wars and fightings 1 Come they 
 not from the evil passions of men ? But none of you are 
 heroes or conquerors, who would wade through blood to 
 reach a throne, or post of honor ! True, but have none 
 of you, some darling object in the attainment of which, 
 you would trample on the feelings, or wound the hearts 
 of your companions. Do you never wage the war of 
 tongues, which often sting like adders, and poison the 
 peace of a fellow being? When you read in history the 
 fate of the ambitious and contentious, you should learn 
 from this, that they who sow the seeds of strife reap 
 the fruit of bitterness. 
 
 The chain of historical knowledge is by no means an 
 unbroken one. There have always been many nations, 
 ignorant of written language ; and the historical re- 
 cords of antiquity are far from being all known to us. 
 The histories of the eastern or oriental natiuiis, Egyp- 
 tians, Syrians, Chaldeans and Persians have mostly per- 
 ished. The Greek and Roman histories, and the holy 
 scriptures, contain all the authentic accounts of a pe- 
 riod anterior to the foundation of Rome. The Roman 
 history is the only one which throws light upon a period 
 of nearly five hundred years after Christ. After the fall 
 of the empire of the west, the kingdoms of Spain, France, 
 Italy and England, have each its particular history ; and 
 about this time commence the histories of Germany, 
 Hungary, Sweden and Denmark. 
 
 Respecting the countries now Mahometan, Egypt, 
 Syria, Persia, and the northern part of Africa, we know 
 little of their history for the last thousand years. The 
 Chinese history is chiefly a collection of fables and ab- 
 surd traditions. Of the American Indians we have no 
 authentic history beyond the time of the discovery of the 
 western continent. We see how little then is known of 
 the whole actual extent of the globe during the course of 
 
142 HISTORY. 
 
 ages which have passed since the creation. Yet there 
 are histories without number, but it is only by a careful 
 selection and perusal of the best authors, that much ad- 
 vantage can be derived from them. In early youth, his- 
 tory interests the mind chiefly on account of the pleasure 
 derived from narrative. As the pupil advances in life, his- 
 tory ought to be regarded under a new aspect, and studied 
 both for the sake of gaining information and forming the 
 mind to habits of discrimination and reflection. One who 
 reads history merely for amusement, or who loads the 
 memory with facts, without regard to their importance, 
 or examination of their causes, may read much, and 
 yet neither know men, manners, laws, arts and sciences, 
 neither the past or the present world, nor the relations 
 which they bear to each other. 
 
 A modern French writer* on education advises the stu- 
 dent in history to make use of books of extracts, in which 
 facts and principles may be noted in a definite and sys- 
 tematic order. By this means, the student will, in pro- 
 cess of time, possess a collection of practical truths, and 
 of illustrations of principle, arranged in order and fur- 
 nishing instruction at once solid, diversified and complete. 
 The following are some of the subjects proposed for 
 heads or titles of the historical common place booh. 
 
 1. Education, or tlie art of forming the character of 
 man. Collect and class as far as possible, by age and by 
 nation, the laws, customs, and facts relative to public 
 or private education, in different ages and among differ- 
 ent people. 
 
 2. Politics or the art of rendering a people happy. 
 Collect the facts, observations, laws, customs, and man- 
 ners which appear to have had an influence upon this 
 subject. 
 
 3. Women — Their influence considered among all peo- 
 ple andin all ages. Collect the facts, observations, anec- 
 dotes, portraits of characters; in.short, anything which 
 has had an influence, and still has a bearing upon the 
 condition of females. Point out the effects, salutary or 
 
 * M. Julien, now Editor of the { Revue EncyclopediqueJ one of 
 the first literary journals in France, 
 
HISTORY. 143 
 
 otherwise, which different modes of religion, education, 
 state of society and manners have had upon the con- 
 dition and character of women, and, through them, upon 
 the whole human race. 
 
 4. Comparison of great men. Arrange according 
 to age, nation and rank the distinguished persons of his- 
 tory. Describe their characters, the qualities for which 
 they were distinguished, the points of resemblance be- 
 tween them, the nature and degrees of influence ex- 
 ercised by them upon the age in which they live, their 
 profession, and their country. 
 
 5. Religion. Study in different ages of the world, 
 and among all nations, the different characters of relig- 
 ious belief and institutions, their influence upon human 
 character and happiness, the means employed for their 
 support, and the effects produced by them upon society 
 at large. 
 
 This manner of reading, studying, analyzing, and gen- 
 eralizing, will have an important influence in forming the 
 judgment, strengthening the memory, and giving enlarg- 
 ed and correct views of persons and actions, with habits 
 of careful observation, and of impartial comparison. 
 
 The method above delineated is particularly recom- 
 mended for your private reading, especially when you 
 shall have left school, and can no longer have the advan- 
 tage of hearing observations and explanations on the sub- 
 jects of your study. The same method might be followed 
 with equal advantage in the pursuit of other branches of 
 knowledge as well as history. It would be advisable for 
 every young lady, after leaving school, to commence a 
 systematic course of historical reading. During the pro- 
 gress of school education, not more than an outline of 
 general history can be given. This outline, however, 
 will be of great importance in subsequent reading. A 
 good system of chronology, or classification of events in 
 the order of time, cannot be too early learned: with this, 
 and an outline of general history, the facts afterwards 
 gained will naturally arrange themselves under their re- 
 spective epochas. On the contrary, without a syste- 
 matic arrangement of historical facts, reading will he 
 •of little use. 
 
144 HISTORY. 
 
 Parents sometimes say they are indifferent as to hav- 
 ing their children study history at school, as they can 
 read it at home. But history ought to be studied, in or- 
 der that it may be afterwards read to advantage. It 
 should early be associated with geography ; and maps 
 should be drawn and used at each day's recitation. 
 As I intend hereafter to give you my ideas on the sub- 
 ject of a choice of books for reading after you have left 
 school,* I shall not at this time enter minutely into the 
 consideration of a course of historical reading. 
 
 After becoming acquainted with Scripture History, it 
 would be well to read Josephus's Jewish Antiquities, and 
 Rollin's Ancient History. 
 
 By the assistance of these works and the use of an- 
 cient maps, you will acquire correct and extensive views 
 of ancient history. Plutarch's Lives of the illustrious 
 men of antiquity, is a work highly interesting as well as 
 useful. It not only gives the history of great men as 
 they appeared in public and political life, but shows their 
 private and domestic characters, and unfolds their secret 
 sentiments and springs of action. When contemplating 
 the characters of the great and good, we feel the in- 
 fluence and utility of that principle of our nature which 
 Lord Kames has happily called the sympathetic emotion. 
 We are seized with the desire of imitating and re- 
 sembling what we admire. Were this sympathetic 
 emotion always confined to virtue, the influence of bad 
 examples would be less hurtful to society ; but unhap- 
 pily, every thing which the young mind admires, it is 
 prone to imitate. 
 
 A daring, and audacious courage always finds admi- 
 rers ; and that ambition which would wade through 
 blood to reach a distinguished post, seems grand and 
 heroic. It is however very important that the young 
 should learn to look on actions and motives as stripped of 
 their dazzling accompaniments; then will virtue and 
 greatness alone, excite the sympathetic emotion which 
 prompts the desire of imitating. Then will the character 
 
 * This subject will be treated of iu the second volume of the 
 Lectures. 
 
HISTORY. 145 
 
 of the just and benevolent Trojan appear far more lovely 
 and desirable than that of the aspiring and ambitious Cae- 
 sar, and the grasping selfishness of Buonaparte sink before 
 the generous magnanimity of a Washington. 
 
 The Travels of Anacharsis the Younger is a work 
 of much merit. The author is the Abbe Barthelemy ; 
 he who assumes the name of Anacharsis after the Scy- 
 thian sage of that name, who was ranked with Thales, 
 Solon, and others, termed the seven wise men of Greece. 
 
 Barthelemy, under the name of Anacharsis, supposes 
 himself to be travelling in Greece at the time of Philip 
 of Macedon, and during the youth of his son Alexander 
 the Great ; yet as the historical events related and the facts 
 given are all in strict accordance with the truth, he is thus 
 enabled to present a lively picture of the events of that pe- 
 riod. He carries his history back to the earliest periods of 
 Greece. He lays before us the laws, form of government, 
 customs, religion, and domestic life of the various people 
 who composed the confederation of the Grecian repub- 
 lic : he explains their mythology, gives the characters 
 and opinions of their philosophers, describes their poetry 
 and improvements, in the arts of painting, music, and sculp- 
 ture. You seem to be transported to Greece in the days 
 of her glory, and to see before you her beautiful works 
 of art, to hear the thundering eloquence of her ora- 
 tors, the majestic numbers of her poets, and the wis- 
 dom of her sages. After this work should follow 
 some good history of the rise, progress, and decay of the 
 Roman empire. The Roman historians you will read 
 in pursuing your classical studies, but it is not to be ex- 
 pected that many of you will become sufficiently familiar 
 with their original language to read it with facility. 
 Gibbon's Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire is well writ- 
 ten, and were it not for the hostility to the christian 
 religion which occasionally soils his otherwise beauti- 
 ful pages, it might be recommended ; — indeed, as it is, 
 there is little danger that any one educated and set- 
 tled in a religious faith should be otherwise affected by 
 his occasional sneers, than with pjjy for the mind which 
 could thus blind itself to what is most glorious of all the 
 works of Almighty benevolence. 
 13 
 
146 HISTORY. 
 
 Vertot's Roman Revolution gives an interesting ao* 
 count of the origin, manners and customs of that repub- 
 lic; it exhibits the political agitations to which these 
 people were subject, with their effect in changing and 
 modifying their government. 
 
 The history of the middle ages is well given by Con- 
 dillac. Accustomed to reason with metaphysical accura- 
 cy, this philosopher was well qualified for a historian, 
 whose duty it is to trace effects to their cause. He ex- 
 plains the origin of the feudal power or authority of the 
 barons; the causes which produced the institutions and 
 enthusiasm of chivalry, and its influence upon the 
 manners, morals and religion of those days, lie shows 
 the causes which retarded the progress of science dur- 
 ing that dark period, when almost all the learning was in 
 the hands of .superstitious monks, and enthusiastic alchy- 
 inists, and gives a clear and interesting account of the 
 revival of learning in the fifteenth century. 
 
 Although history is usually divided into Ancient and 
 Modern, it seems very proper to consider that of the mid- 
 dle or dark ages under one point of view. Middle Histo- 
 ry is considered as including that portion of time which 
 intervened between the destruction of the western empire 
 in the year 700, and the revival of letters at the discovery 
 of America in the fifteenth century. 
 
 \ iern Histories are numerous. Among the most 
 useful are Hume's England, Robertson's Charles V., 
 V r ire's Charles XII., Milot's France, Rayn-al's Political 
 an Philosophical History of the Indies, Bigland's View 
 of le World, Marshall's Washington, and Pitkin's and 
 Will ird's United States. 
 
 There is one view in which history appears peculiarly 
 interesting to femaies; it is with respect to the gradual 
 changes which have taken place in the condition of their 
 own sex. 
 
 In the garden of Eden, woman was cherished as the 
 te j^r friend and intelligent companion of man. We 
 have reason to believe this, both from the language of the 
 Scrpture, ' She is bone of my bone, and flesh of my 
 flesh,' and from the perfect condition of man at that 
 period. 
 
MYTHOLOGY. 147 
 
 For in order that society should exist in its perfect 
 state, woman must hold that rank and exercise that influ- 
 ence for which God designed her. But alas! woman 
 was frail, she listened to the voice of flattery, disobeyed 
 the command of God, and influenced her companion to 
 become an accomplice in guilt. From that time, she was 
 degraded, and long ages saw her a servile being, counted 
 with his flocks and herds as the property of man. 
 
 At length light dawns upon the condition of this poor, 
 abject being, whose spirit had been bent and broken oy 
 servitude. The voice of pardoning mercy says, ' Wo- 
 man go and sin no more.' The Saviour of the world 
 looks with pity upon the suffering being, who clings to 
 him as her friend and heavenly benefactor: she follows 
 him with the constancy of her nature, through evil 
 report and good report; is last at his burial, and first at 
 his resurrection. 
 
 Since those glorious events, our sex have been honored 
 wherevor the name of the Redeemer is worshipped. Ma- 
 ny like Lois and Eunice, the grandmother and mother of 
 Timothy, bishop of Ephesus, have been the honored in- 
 struments of promoting the cause of true religion, and 
 their praise has Leen heard in the churches. 
 
 LECTURE XIV. 
 
 Mythology . 
 
 The study of Mythology, which formerly held a high 
 rank in the education of both sexes, especially in Europe, 
 has been superseded by more valuable sciences. It now 
 appears absurd to introduce to the young mind the dis- 
 gusting fables of ancient heathenism. Nothing can be 
 more injurious in its tendency, upon the glowing imag- 
 ination of youth, than many of the stories connected with 
 the Grecian Mythology; and yet they are so interwoven with 
 ancient classical literature, and so frequently alluded to by 
 modern writers, especially some of the best English po- 
 
148 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 ets, that an acquaintance with these fictions seems neces- 
 sary to those who aim at a knowledge of general literature. 
 It becomes then important that mythology should be puri- 
 fied of its grossness as far as possible, before a know- 
 ledge of it is communicated to the young.* 
 
 The term mythology is derived from the Greek mutJios, 
 fable, and logos, knowledge. It is a science which 
 treats of the fabulous opinions and doctrines of the an- 
 cients respecting the deities, which they supposed pre- 
 sided over the world, or influenced its affairs. The 
 arts of painting and sculpture have done much to immor- 
 talize the Grecian mythology. Some of the noblest speci- 
 mens of ancient arts are to be seen in the embodying 
 of mythological fable ; as the famous statues of the Venus 
 de Medici, Apollo, Belvidere, &c. Architecture has 
 also lent its aid to perpetuate this false and absurd re- 
 ligion. Marble temples of the most exquisite workmanship 
 and the most beautiful proportions, were erected in hon- 
 or of the gods and goddesses. At Ephesus was the fa- 
 mous temple of Diana, at Athens that of Olympian Jove, 
 and at Delphos, that of Apollo. Within each temple 
 was placed a statue of the deity, and before this the priest 
 offered sacrifice. 
 
 The Athenians becoming tired of these idle ceremo- 
 nies, and losing all faith in their idols, at length erected 
 an altar to the ' Unknown God. 5 Paul seizing upon this 
 indication of a willingness to be taught a better faith, de- 
 clared to them' ' Whom therefore ye ignorantly worship. 
 Him declare I unto you.' 
 
 I will now attempt to give a brief sketch of the sys- 
 tem of Mythology as taught by the Grecians, and with 
 some modifications received by the Romans. 
 
 1 . The origin of the gods, and the celestial deities. Refer- 
 ring to the beginning of all things, mythology supposes 
 there was a time when only Chaos and Night existed ; they 
 were the parents of Earth, who was the mother and wife 
 of Uranus (or Heaven.) From Earth springs the hundred- 
 
 * A translation of Moritz's Mythology, published by the Messrs. 
 Carvill, of New York, is probably one of the best books for the 
 young pupil which can be found on this subject in the English 
 language. 
 
MYTHOLOGY. 149 
 
 armed giants, Cottus, Gyges and Briareus, the huge, one- 
 eyed Cyclops, Brontes, JSteropes and Arges. The gigantic 
 Titans, Oceanus, the Titanides (or female Titans) are 
 all the children ofEarth. Saturn, the youngest of the 
 Titans marries Rhea, and from them descend Jupiter, 
 Vesta, Ceres, Neptune, Juno, and Pluto. Jupiter, assist- 
 ed by the Cyclops, who prepare his thunderbolts, de- 
 clares war against Saturn and his brethren the Titans. 
 
 The modern gods, or the descendants of Saturn and 
 Rhea, now become distinct from the Titans, or ancient 
 deities. War ensues between the two parties. After a 
 conflict often years, Jupiter, by obtaining the assistance 
 of the hundred armed giants, becomes victorious, and 
 hurls his enemies into the gulf of Tartarus. 
 
 The ancient realm of the Titans is now divided among 
 the three victorious sons of Saturn. Jupiter takes the 
 government of the heavens and earth, Neptune of the 
 seas, and Pluto of the infernal regions. The hundred 
 armed giants are appointed to guard the entrance into 
 Tartarus, the prison of the Titans. 
 
 Earth, indignant at the treatment of her children, the 
 Titans, brings forth a new race to be their avengers ; 
 these are the giants, who wage war anew upon Jupiter. 
 The giants being subdued, Typhon, another child of Earth, 
 and Tartarus appears. The upper part of the monster's 
 body was covered with impenetrable feathers, and the 
 lower parts enveloped in the folds of horrible serpents. 
 This formidable enemy is at length conquered and se- 
 cured under mount Etna. After this, two sons of Nep- 
 tune, of immense strength and size of body, attempted 
 to scale the heavens, by piling mountains on mountains, 
 placing upon Olympus, Ossa, and upon Ossa, Pelion ; 
 Apollo defeats this bold design by destroying the rebels 
 with his arrows. Saturn, after his defeat, is said to have 
 fled to Latium, where under his reign peace and justice 
 flourished, and the earth spontaneously brought forth her 
 increase, this was called the golden age. This account 
 of Saturn is founded upon the supposed fact, that a 
 king of Latium built, near the Tiber upon the hills, 
 where Rome was afterwards founded, a city called Sa- 
 tuinia. Saturn is represented upon ancient medallions, 
 13* 
 
150 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 with a scythe in his hand ; he is a symbol of time which 
 destroys all things, as he destroyed even his own chil- 
 dren. 
 
 Prometheus, a son of one of the Titans, amusing him- 
 self in fashioning a figure after the image of the gods, 
 is suddenly seized with the desire to perfect his work by 
 giving it life and animation. Accordingly he steals from 
 heaven a spark of the sacred fire, by means of which the 
 inert mass becomes endued with warmth and intelligence ; 
 this image he called man. Jupiter, resenting this in- 
 fringement of his own creating power, orders Prometheus 
 to be fastened to a rock, with a vulture feeding upon his 
 bowels, which as fast as they were consumed continued to 
 grow, so that he could have no hope that his torments 
 would ever end. Pandora is sent by Jupiter to present 
 mortals with a box, containing all the miseries to which 
 human life has since been subject. Hope at the same 
 time was given, to save them from despair. Jupiter, re- 
 solving to destroy the race of men, sends upon the earth 
 a deluge, which overwhelmed all but two persons, Du- 
 calion and Pyrrha. Hercules afterwards reconciled 
 Jupiter to Prometheus, and, killing the vulture, delivered 
 him from his agonies. 
 
 We see even that heathenism itself had borrowed 
 light from the sacred oracles. The wars of Jupiter with 
 the Titans and the giants, and their confinement in 
 Tartarus, are analogous to the scripture account of the 
 war against the fallen angels, and their expulsion to the 
 regions of darkness. The deluge of the heathens seem 
 evidently to refer to the flood which God brought upon 
 the earth for its wickedness ; and Ducalion appears to 
 be but another name for Noah. Hercules, who was the 
 saviour of the world, delivering it from monsters, who 
 had power over its inhabitants, seems to be an im- 
 perfect and depraved conception of that Saviour who 
 was afterwards to limit the power of Satan upon earth, 
 to save man from the agonies of the vulture sin, which 
 had so long preyed upon his heart, and to reconcile him 
 to an Almighty Sovereign. And yet these representa- 
 tions, analogous in some respects to facts communicated 
 in the Scriptures, are so obscured by gross and palpable 
 
MYTHOLOGY. 151 
 
 fictions, that we scarce know whether most to pity or 
 despise those who invented and believed them. 
 
 Jupiter is called the father of gods and king of men ; 
 he is sometimes termed Jupiter Olympus, from the moun- 
 tain on which he was supposed to hold council with the 
 gods.* The top of Olympus was supposed to rise far above 
 the clouds, into a region of pure ether; here the gods sip- 
 ped nectar, and enjoyed the music of Apollo's lyre, or con- 
 versed upon, and determined the destinies of mortals. 
 Jupiter Amnion was worshipped in Lybia. He is also 
 called Jove, and is generally represented in antique 
 gems, as seated upon a throne, holding a sceptre in his 
 left hand, and the thunder-bolts in his right, with an 
 eagle at his feet. Juno, the queen of heaven, the sister 
 and wife of Jupiter, is represented in ancient sculpture 
 as seated in a chariot drawn by peacocks, or sitting 
 upon the eagle of Jupiter, having in one hand a sceptre, 
 and with the other hand holding a veil spangled with 
 stars, which floats over her head. The character of 
 Juno has ever had too many prototypes among our sex; 
 beauty often inspires its possessor with the desire of 
 power which destroys that softness and delicacy that 
 ensure permanent affection. Scornful and imperious 
 Juno may excite admiration, but love can be felt only 
 for a character in which there is something gentle and 
 tender ; thus Venus, with downcast looks and tearful 
 eyes, appears more lovely than she, ' who walked a god- 
 dess, and who moved a queen.' 
 
 Stung with jealousy by the preference which Paris, 
 a Trojan prince, gave to the beauty of Venus, Juno in- 
 stigates the Grecian states to make war upon Troy ; 
 after a ten years siege accomplishes the destruction of 
 that city, and the hated race of Priam, father of Paris. 
 But Trojan ./Eneas, the son of Venus and Anchises, 
 escapes with the remnant of his companions, and, after 
 suffering various ills ' by sea and land on account of the 
 
 * ' Panditur inter ea domus omnipotentis Olympi, 
 Conciliamque vocat Diviim pater atque hominum rex. '--Virgil. 
 
 Meanwhile the palace of all-powerful Olympus is opened, and 
 the father of the gods and king of men summons a council. 
 
152 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 merciless anger of cruel Juno,* he arrives in Italy 
 and lays the foundation of the Roman empire.'t Even 
 sullen Juno, | who through jealousy, had kept the hea- 
 vens and earth and sea in a tumult, is at last appeased 
 and becomes the friend of the Romans. 
 
 Venus, the goddess of love and beauty, is sometimes 
 considered as having sprung from the foam of the sea, 
 and called Aphrodite; but among the modern deities, 
 she is a daughter of Jupiter and Dione. In the charac- 
 ter of Venus, we see beauty and softness, without wis- 
 dom or force. Although aware of the dreadful ruin 
 which would fall Upon the Trojans, in consequence of 
 the misdeeds of Paris, yet so much did she value her 
 reputation for beauty, that in order to secure his decis- 
 ion in her favor, she promised him for a wife the fairest 
 woman upon earth, Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of 
 Sparta. Beauty has ever been the cause of much suf- 
 fering and folly, and will continue to be so, until 
 females shall learn to consider it as subordinate to wis- 
 dom, and to be cautious lest they sacrifice the nobler 
 aspirations of the heart to the pride of external charms. 
 
 Venus, attended by the graces and her son Cupid, is 
 represented as seated in a chariot drawn by doves. 
 The famous statue of this goddess, called the Venus 
 de Medici, proves the perfection to which the ancients 
 carried the art of sculpture. Temples to Venus were 
 erected in Paphos, Cytherea and Lydia. 
 
 Minerva, the goddess of wisdom sprung forth in complete 
 armor, from the head of Jupiter. Not being the offspring 
 of woman, she is represented as devoid of female tender- 
 ness, and the softer qualities of the sex. While the 
 intellectual powers are, in her character, exhibited in 
 their greatest perfection, the emotions seem to form but 
 a small part of her mental constitution. She conducted 
 
 * 'Saevae memorcm Junonis ob iram.' 
 t ' Genus unde Latinum, 
 Albanique patres, atque altae moenia Romae.' 
 
 From whence the Latin race, 
 The Alban fathers, and the walls of lofty Rome. 
 
 X l Agpera Juno, 
 Qua3 mare nunc terrasque metu coelumque fatigat.' 
 
MYTHOLOGY. 153 
 
 wars and invented useful arts. She was the friend of 
 Ulysses, and under the form of the aged Mentor, watch- 
 ed over and counselled his son Telemachus. 
 
 For a perfect female character, it would be necessary 
 that the soft and tender heart of Venus should be added 
 to the judging head of Minerva, and the dignity without 
 the hauteur of Juno. As to personal beauty, this de- 
 pends so much upon the expression of mental qualities, 
 united to grace and dignity of demeanor, that the plain- 
 est daughter of Eve who should thus unite sensibility 
 wisdom, and dignity, would appear beautiful and lovely. 
 
 Minerva is usually represented with a helmet upon 
 her head, and in her right hand a spear, and the formi- 
 dable aegis or shield with the head of Medusa in her left. 
 The owl, which is sacred to her, is usually seen near her. 
 This goddess showed that she was not wholly desti- 
 tute of that weakness which (whether deserved or 
 not, you must each judge for yourselves) the world 
 have persisted in ascribing to her sex. Having invent- 
 ed the flute, she was one day playing on this instrument, 
 when she perceived by the reflection of herself in a 
 river, that the effect upon her personal appearance was 
 far from being to her advantage ; upon this the fable 
 says, she threw her flute away ! Of all the satires of the 
 ancients upon women, this is one of the most severe. 
 
 Apollo, in the Grecian mythology, is made to sustain 
 various characters. He is the charioteer of the sun, the 
 god of music, medicine, poetry, prophecy, the fine arts and 
 archery. He is called Sol, Phoebus and Helios. Apol- 
 lo and Diana were twins, the children of Jupiter and 
 Saturn ; they were born upon the Isle of Delos. Some 
 of the goddesses wrapt him in soft garments, while 
 others fed him with nectar and ambrosia. He had no 
 sooner tasted the food of the gods, than throwing off his 
 swathing bands he appeared as a blooming youth, and 
 exclaimed ; ' the golden lyre shall be my joy, the carved 
 bow my pleasure ; and in oracles, I will reveal the events 
 of futurity.' Thus speaking, he marched forth majestical- 
 ly and at length arrived at the foot of mount Parnassus, 
 from whence he ascended to the mansions of celestial 
 beings. Here, welcomed by the graces, he charmed the 
 
154 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 deities with the tones of his lyre, while the muses re- 
 sponded to his harmonic numbers. 
 
 Diana, the sister of Apollo, is represented by the moon, 
 as Apollo is by the sun. Three of the goddesses, Mi- 
 nerva, Vesta, and Diana, devoted themselves to celibacy, 
 refusing to yield to the power of Venus, the goddess of 
 love. Diana is the patroness of the chace : she was 
 usually represented by ancient sculptors with a bow 
 and arrow suspended from her shoulder, and a torch in 
 her hand. 
 
 Mars, the god of war, was the son of Jupiter and Juno ; 
 his characteristics were impetuosity and courage, unre- 
 strained by wisdom. On complaining to his father, Ju- 
 piter, that Diomedes, aided by Minerva, had wounded him 
 in a combat before the walls of Troy, he was thus re- 
 proved ; ' Trouble me not with thy complaints, who are 
 to me the most odious of all the gods that dwell on Olym- 
 pus, for thou knowest of no other pleasure but strife, 
 war, and contest ; in thee dwells the whole character of 
 thy mother, and hadst thou been any other than my own 
 son, thou wouldst long ago have been plunged deeper in- 
 to Tartarus than the Titans. 5 Bellona, the sister of Mars, 
 is his charioteer. 
 
 Mercury was the son of Jupiter, and Maia the daughter 
 of Atlas. He was born in the morning, and at noon leav- 
 ing his cradle, he saw by the threshold a tortoise, which 
 he thus addressed : ' Thou art now the dumb, but after 
 thy death thy song shall be heard.' Having killed the 
 animal, he fitted to the shell, seven strings, from which 
 he drew forth sounds which so delighted him that he 
 broke forth into praises of the domestic utensils about 
 his mother's dwelling, until his song soared at length 
 to the sublimest subjects. Mercury was the swift mes- 
 senger of the divinities, and the god of language ; the 
 tongues of victims were offered to him in sacrifice. He 
 was also the pattern of trade and of cunning devices. 
 The Greek name for Mercury was Hermes, a word sig- 
 nifying to interpret. It is generally believed that, under 
 these names, divine honors were paid to some person, 
 who in a remote period of antiquity had enchanted man* 
 kind by his poetry and benefited them by useful inven- 
 tions. 
 
 I 
 
MYTHOLOGY. 155 
 
 Bacchus, the god of wine, was celebrated by the most 
 tumultuous and licentious rites. He is usually repre- 
 sented as followed by Silcnus, an old man seated upon 
 an ass and reeling with intoxication, while sarcastic 
 satyrs and sportive fawns are dancing around him. 
 
 Vulcan, a son of Juno, being deformed and lame, 
 was by Jupiter, thrown from Olympus down to earth. 
 Ho was aftei wards admitted to the assembly of the gods 
 whom he amused with his awkwardness and wit. He 
 was the husband of Venus, to please whom, he, with the 
 aid of the Cyclops, manufactured arms for ./Eneas.* 
 To him was committed the business of making Jupiter's 
 thunderbolts : his principal forge was under Mount Etna. 
 
 Ceres, the goddess of corn, taught mortals to cultivate 
 the earth ; she was the mother of Proserpine, whom 
 Pluto privately seized and carried off to the infernal re- 
 gions to his queen. Ceres having learned the abode of 
 her daughter, obtained Jupiter's consent for her release 
 from hell, provided Proserpine had not tasted the food of 
 those realms of darkness; but this, not being the case, 
 she could never be wholly restored to her former com- 
 panionship with the celestials. 
 
 Vesta was worshipped by the ancients, as the deity 
 who presided over domestic comfort, as the one who 
 taught families to gather around the sacred hearth, and 
 to prepare food with fire.t She, they believed, taught 
 man to build a shelter for himself and those he loved; 
 thus the entrance into a dwelling was called the vestibule, 
 and considered as sacred to Vesta. 
 2. Marine Deities. The sea was made subject to Neptune, 
 
 * ' Terram, exercebant vasto Cyclops in antro, 
 Brontesque, Steropesque et nudus membra Pyracmon.' 
 The Cyclops in their vast cave, labored upon the steel, Brontes, 
 And Sterope.s, and ihe naked limbed Pyracmon. 
 
 t The domestic hearth was consecrated to Vesta; thus, ./Eneas : 
 ' Cineram et sopitos suscitat ignes, 
 Pergameamque Larem, et candae penetralia Vesta, 
 Farre pio, et plena veneratur acerra.' 
 ./Eneas awakes the embers and dormant fire, and suppliant wor- 
 ships his Trojan — household god and the shrine of ancient Vesta, 
 with a holy cake and full censer. 
 
156 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 the brother of Jupiter. He was the father of the mon- 
 strous cyclop, Polyphemus,* who had been deprived of his 
 eye by Ulysses. For this injury, Neptune pursued him 
 with his vengeance, causing him to suffer shipwreck and 
 all the perils of the sea ; but from these he was preserved 
 by the aid of Minerva. Neptune produced the winged 
 horse Pegasus. At a certain time, he was sent by his 
 master to command the Muses to put a stop to their 
 songs and mirth, which so shook the surrounding regions, 
 that Helicon itself was dancing beneath their feet. Hav- 
 ing reached the top of Mount Helicon, Pegasus execu- 
 ted his commission by pawing violently upon the ground ; 
 whereupon that fountain burst forth from which poets 
 have since drank the divine inspiration; this was called 
 Hippocrene. Neptune is represented in antique sculp- 
 ture, as holding in his hand a trident or fork with three 
 teeth instead of a sceptre ; he is drawn by sea horses ; 
 his son Triton is blowing a trumpet made of a sea shell, 
 and the dolphins are sporting around his chariot. Amphi- 
 trite is the wife of Neptune and queen of the sea ; she 
 appears seated in a car shaped like a shell and drawn by 
 dolphins ; the sea nymphs hold the sail which is swelled 
 by the breath of Zephyrus (the west wind) ; like her 
 husband, she holds a trident in her hand, by which she 
 rules her empire. 
 
 Proteus, a son of Oceanus, is the keeper of Neptune's 
 seals ; he is considered an allegorical representative of 
 nature, assuming every variety of appearance, fire, water, 
 animal, plant, or mineral ; to those only who grasped him 
 firmly, he revealed his real character. 
 
 3. Infernal Regions and Deities. The dominions of Plu- 
 to included both Tartarus, the abode of the wicked, and 
 Elysium, the dwelling of the good and happy. The At- 
 lantic Ocean was considered the boundary of the earth, 
 Mount Atlas sustained the sky upon its broad shoulders, 
 and near the western horizon were the gardens of Hes- 
 perides, with their golden fruits. 
 
 The river Acheron was the passage from the earth to 
 
 * 'Monstrum horrendam, ingens informe ; cui lumen ademptus.' 
 A huge, misshapen, horrible monster ; to whom sight was wanting. 
 
MYTHOLOGY. 157 
 
 the dominions of Pluto, over which Charon ferried de- 
 parted souls, and on the opposite bank was the three- 
 headed dog Cerberus. Cocytus, Styx, Phlegethon and 
 Lethe were rivers of Tartarus ;* Milton says : 
 
 1 Four infernal rivers disgorge 
 Into the burning lake their baleful streams : 
 Abhorred Styx, the flood of deadly hate; 
 Sad Acheron, of sorrow black and deep; 
 Cocytus, named of lamentation loud 
 Heard on the rueful streams; fierce Phlegethon, 
 Whose waves of torrent fire inflame with rage, 
 Far off from these a slow and silent stream, 
 Lethe, the river of oblivion, rolls 
 Her watery labyrinth, whereof who drinks, 
 Forthwith his former state and being forgets, 
 Forgets both joy and grief, pleasure and pain.' 
 
 Pluto was called by the Greeks, Hades the Invisible 
 or Unknown. He was sometimes called Stygian Jove. 
 At Alexandria in Egypt, he was worshipped under the 
 name of Jupiter Serapis. He was considered as presid- 
 ing over the dead and funeral obsequies. The seizure 
 of Proserpine by Pluto is considered an allegorical repre- 
 sentation of youth and beauty falling a prey to sudden 
 death. In these gloomy abodes Pluto and Proserpine are 
 seated in that eternal and mournful silence, which is 
 characteristic of their empire. 
 
 Plutus is the god who presides over riches ; deformed 
 and wretched, he is represented as seated on a throne of 
 gold under a canopy siudded with precious gems. This 
 allegory shows the unsatisfying nature of wealth ; thus 
 Milton, 
 
 ' Let none admire 
 
 That riches grow in hell ; that soil may best 
 
 Deserve the precious bane.' 
 
 * ' Huic via, Tartarei qumfert Jlchcrontis ad undas : 
 Turbidus hie coE.no, vastaque voragine gurges 
 Jiestuat, alque omnem Cocyto eruct.at arenam 
 Portitor has horrendus aquas er fiumina servat 
 Terribili squalor e Charon.' 
 
 Here is a path which leads to the waters of Tartarean Acheron, 
 here a turbid and impure gulf boils with mud and vast whirlpools, 
 and vomits all its sand into Cocytus. A grim ferryman guards 
 these floods and rivers, Charon, frightfully squalid. 
 
 14 
 
158 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 4. The Fates, (Parcce) were the destinies who presided 
 over the lives and fortunes of man ; Clotho holds the dis- 
 taff, Lachesis spins the thread of life, and Atropos, with 
 the terrible scissors, cuts it off. 
 
 The Furies, were Tisiphone, the avenger of murder ; 
 Megaera the wrathful, and Alectu the restless — these are 
 frightful beings, with snakes, instead of hair, and gar- 
 ments smeared with blood. The Furies were so dreaded 
 by men, that their names were seldom pronounced. 
 They were supposed to pursue the guilty with never- 
 ceasing tortures; thus Orestes for the murder of his 
 mother was forever followed by their vengeance. 
 
 5. Besides the Celestial, Marine and Infernal gods, the 
 ancients paid divine honors to a race of Demi-gods, or 
 heroes, who had distinguished themselves for some great 
 exploits ; as Perseus who cut off the head of the dreadful 
 Medusa, and devoted it to Minerva ; by her it was placed 
 in the centre of her shield, the mighty csgis. Perseus, 
 delivered Andromeda the daughter of Caseopeia from a 
 monster ; these names have been immortalized by being 
 transferred to the constellations. 
 
 Bellerophon signalized himself by the, destruction of 
 the monster Chimera ; Hercules was distinguished for ma- 
 ny great acts, by which he freed the earth from plagues 
 of various description. The names of Theseus, Jason, 
 and many other famed heroes, are recorded in the an- 
 nals of mythology. Some of them undoubtedly were 
 distinguished men of a remote period, others are proba- 
 bly wholly fabulous beings. 
 
 6. Too much of our time has already been given to the 
 consideration of Mythological fictions, and yet we cannot 
 close the subject without noticing a class of imaginary 
 beings, who in the minds of men seemed to form a con- 
 necting link between the gods and men — these were the 
 nine Muses, daughters of Mnemosyne (memory) to 
 whom their venerable mother imparted the treasure of 
 her wisdom : 
 
 Clio was the Muse of history, 
 Calliope, of epic poetry, 
 Melpomene, of tragedy, 
 Thalia, of comedy, 
 Polyhymnia, of eloquence, 
 
MYTHOLOGY. 159 
 
 Urania, of asironomy, 
 Euterpe, of* the flute, 
 Terpsichore, of the dance, 
 Erato, of song. 
 
 7. The Sirens were represented as monsters, who ap- 
 peared from the waist upward like beautiful females; they 
 attempted to rival the Muses, but the songs of the former 
 were false and seductive, while those of the latter were 
 true, and Jed to virtue. Cupid, the son of Venus, was 
 the god of love ; he was a beautiful blind boy, generally 
 represented as holding in his hand a bow and arrows. 
 
 8. The Graces were Aglaia, Thalia, and Euphrosyne ; 
 they were sent to mortals to inspire kind and agreeable 
 feelings; without their aid, beauty itself was considered 
 incapable of commanding homage. They were repre- 
 sented as three sisters, who in their various attitudes, ex- 
 pressed every variety of personal dignity and elegant 
 motion; exemplifying by their union the tender emotions 
 of love, friendship and kindness. 
 
 9. Rural Deities^ — These were Nymphs or beautiful 
 creatures who presided over the springs and fountains, the 
 forests and hills ; to each of these was supposed to be- 
 long its living and animating spirit. The Naiad sat at 
 the fountain pouring forth the warbling brook from her 
 pitcher. The Dryads animated the solemn gloom of the 
 forests, and the Hamadryed was confined to her individ- 
 ual tree. In the felling of each tree, it was supposed its 
 wood nymph perished. 
 
 10. The Satyrs and Fawns, formed a connecting link 
 between man and the brute creation, having the semblance 
 of a human being, united to the horns and feet of a goat: 
 they were followers of Bachus. 
 
 Pan was the principal of the rural deities. He in- 
 vented the reed, or the shepherd's flute. He was feared 
 by herdsmen and shepherds, who ascribed all unusual 
 inexplicable sounds to Pan j hence it is said the term 
 panic-struck was derived. , . 
 
 Among the Romans every family had its tutelary di- 
 vinity. Terminus was the guardian of landmarks; 
 Pales, the goddess of shepherds ; Flora, of flowers ; Pomo- 
 na, of fruits; Comus, of wit; Momus, of sarcasm ; Hymen,, 
 of marriage ; Orpheus, of music ; iEsculapius, of medi- 
 cine ; Hygeia, of health. 
 
160 MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Among the favorites of the gods was Ganymede, a de- 
 scendant of Danlanus, the founder of Troy ; he was the 
 most beautiful of men, and was chosen by Jupiter to bear 
 nectar to the gods. Hebe, the former cup-bearer, having 
 been careless enough to fall when performing this office, 
 was considered too ungraceful to serve at the table of the 
 gods. 
 
 Of the thirty thousand deities, said to have been re- 
 cognized by the Grecian Mythology, we have named 
 those who are most frequently alluded to by the poets. 
 From the quotations we have made from Virgil, (and 
 these might have been greatly multiplied,) you will see 
 that the zEneid, without some knowledge of these fic- 
 tions, would be divested of much of its interest, and in- 
 deed would not be understood in many of its passages. 
 
 Miss Edgeworth remarks, ' Classical poetry without the 
 knowledge of mythology is unintelligible. Divested of 
 the charms of poetry, and considered without classical 
 prepossession, mythology presents a system of crimes 
 and absurdities, which no allegorical, metaphysical, or 
 literal interpreters of modern times, can perfectly recon- 
 cile to common sense, or common morality ; but our po- 
 ets have naturalized ancient fables, so that Mythology is 
 become essential to modern literature. The associations 
 of taste, though arbitrary, are not easily changed in a 
 nation, whose literature has attained to a certain pitch of 
 refinement, and whose . critical judgments must conse- 
 quently have been for some generations traditional. 
 There are subjects of popular allusion, which poets and 
 orators regard as common property ; to dispossess them 
 of these seems impracticable, after time has sanctioned 
 the prescriptive right.' 
 
 Seeing so much, in the long vista before us, which 
 must be accomplished in order to redeem the pledge giv- 
 en in the outline of my Lectures, I gladly turn from the 
 episode with which I have indulged you, to subjects of 
 deeper interest than mythological fable. In our next 
 lecture we will consider these studies which have for 
 their object, the real existences, with which the great au- 
 thor of our own being, has surrounded us. 
 
 How grand, how sublime do the truths of revealed 
 
NATURAL SCIENCE. 161 
 
 religion appear to us when contrasted with those fa- 
 bles which the heathen poets thought worthy of so 
 much pomp of language ! ' I am the Lord, and there is 
 no God beside me,' is the language of " the High and 
 Holy One who inhabiteth eternity." — He needeth no long 
 train of subordinate agents to accomplish his purposes : 
 * He speaks and it is done !' 
 
 ' The earth is the Lord's, and the fullness thereof.' — It 
 is this fullness, those works which their Creator pronoun- 
 ced ' good,' that, in the study of Natural Science, we are 
 led to examine, to analyze into their original elements, 
 and arrange according to their various relations, and the 
 laws of that most wonderful of the Almighty's works, 
 the human mind. 
 
 LECTURE XV. 
 
 Natural Science, Astronomy, Natural Philosophy, 
 
 The erroneous opinions which have prevailed with 
 respect to education, appear nowhere in a more striking 
 light, than in the neglect with which nature has been 
 treated, by those who aspired to teach useful knowledge, 
 and to bring forward the young, fitted for the duties of 
 life. Books in abundance were given the pupil, rnd a 
 knowledge of their contents was considered a sufficient 
 preparation for the world into which they were about to 
 enter. How wonderful that the great book of nature 
 should have been passed unheeded, — that the air they 
 breathed, the water they drank, the fire that warmed 
 them, the stones beneath their feet, the mountain masses, 
 the glittering mineral, the flowers which th^y loved to 
 look upon, the noble animals and the little insects, the 
 pearly treasures of the ocean and streamlet- — how won- 
 derful that all these should have been deemed incapable 
 of interesting the attention of the young. 
 
 There have indeed ever been some lovers of nature, 
 14* 
 
162 NATURAL SCIENCE. 
 
 some who sought to penetrate her mysteries and unfold 
 her laws; but ihe generality of students in our popular 
 schools, have, it might seem, almost studiously been 
 kept ignorant of those mysteries and laws; — ignorant, of 
 their very existence. A plant was seen simply as a 
 thing ornamental, useful or noxious. The idea of its rela- 
 tion to other plants, to the atmosphere, soil and light, 
 of its being a part in the vast series of creation, never 
 was suggested during my own school education ; all sub- 
 jects connected with natural science, being kept out of 
 view, in female academies, as much as alchymy or he- 
 raldry now are. 
 
 Natural Philosophy in the form of a little catechism, 
 was indeed introduced, but it was wholly a matter of faith ; 
 the idea that anything contained in the book could be 
 proved by experiment, could be made manifest to our 
 ears and eyes, never presented itself. Chemistry when 
 it first begun to be taught in female schools, was only 
 theoretical. It was to be sure a hard task to learn by 
 heart, without the least idea of their properties, such 
 names as oxygen and nitrogen — to remember that air 
 was composed of these, and that water was composed 
 of oxygen and hydrogen. Of the real existence of 
 these substances we had as little conception as of the mon- 
 ster Chimera, or any other fabulous creation. The 
 subject of chemical analysis can indeed only be compre- 
 hended by the assistance of the senses. 
 
 At the present time, Natural Science is receiving by 
 those who superintend the education of youth, that at- 
 tention which it so deservedly merits. The term Natu- 
 ral Science signifies a knowledge of nature, and thus 
 comprehensive, it includes not only the consideration of 
 all substances upon the globe and the atmosphere around 
 it, but of the heavenly bodies. This general science of 
 nature, is also termed physics, a word derived from 
 phusis, nature. Under the head of Natural Science, 
 according to the definition just given, may be ranked 
 its subdivisions, Astronomy, Natural Philosophy, Chem- 
 istry, Natural History. — Under Natural History are its 
 subdivisions, Zoology, Botany, and Mineralogy ; and 
 under the latter is the subordinate branch, Geology. 
 
ASTRONOMY, 163 
 
 Astronomy . Astronomy is a term derived from aster, 
 a star, and nomos, a Greek word signifying name. We 
 have made some allusions to this science under the head 
 of geography, and our time will not permit us to dwell 
 with minuteness on each branch of study, however inter- 
 esting and important. 
 
 There is certainly no science which seems more cal- 
 culated to exalt the soul and fill it with sublime concep- 
 tions of the great Author of nature, than Astronomy. 
 The mere sight of the heavenly bodies, without any 
 knowledge of the regularity of their motions; the uni- 
 formity of the laws which govern these motions ; the vast 
 distances which separate these bodies, and yet their 
 relations to each other; the mere sight of the heavens 
 without any knowledge of all this, is sufficient to inspire 
 the human soul with wonder and admiration : but when 
 science unfolds her discoveries, then truly does man 
 stand abashed before Him who ' sitteth in the circle of 
 the heavens, who made heaven and the heaven of hea- 
 vens with all their host, who preservest them all, and by 
 whom He is worshipped.' In the words of an elegant 
 writer,* a serious contemplation of the sublime objects 
 which astronomy has explored, must, therefore, have a 
 tendency to inspire us with profound veneration of the 
 Eternal Jehovah, — to humble us in the dust before his 
 august presence — to excite admiration of his condescen- 
 sion and grace in the work of redemption, — to show us 
 the littleness of this world, and the insignificance of 
 those riches and honors to which ambitious men aspire 
 with so much labor and anxiety of mind, — to demonstrate 
 the glory and magnificence of God's universal kingdom, 
 — to convince us of the infinite sources of varied felicity 
 which he has in his power to communicate to holy 
 intelligences, — to enliven our hopes of the splendors of 
 the ' exceeding great and eternal weight of glory,' which 
 will burst upon the spirits of good men, when they pass 
 from this region of mortality, — and to induce us to aspire 
 with more lively ardor after that heavenly world, where 
 the glories of the Deity and the magnificence of his 
 works will be more clearly unfolded. 
 
 * Thomas Dick. 
 
164 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 Natural Philosophy. From the consideration of the 
 heavens, we descend to those branches of the study of na- 
 ture which relate to the globe, with the objects upon its 
 surface, and the atmosphere around it. Natural Philoso- 
 phy acquaints us with the general properties and mechan- 
 ical laws of bodies, the physical laws of attraction, light 
 and electricity : it is founded on observation, and experi- 
 ment, and derives important assistance from mathematical 
 science.* Taking this definition for our guide, we will 
 briefly consider some of the many subjects embraced in 
 this comprehensive science. 
 
 1. The general properties of bodies. Our knowledge 
 of the properties of matter depends wholly on our senses ; 
 and when we say that it has a certain number of pro- 
 perties, we should always consider that this number is 
 only relative to our senses. Take from man the sense of 
 vision, and he would have no idea of color as a property 
 of matter ; take away the sense of touch and muscular 
 power, and he would have no conception of hardness or 
 softness as a property of matter. So of our other senses, 
 the loss of any one of which would abridge matter of 
 some of the properties that we now ascribe to it. 
 
 But suppose, on the other hand, that a new sense were 
 added to man : is it not probable that he would perceive 
 new qualities in matter, such as his 'philosophy has 
 never yet dreamed of?' We see then how limited is 
 our knowledge of the material world. The mind has its 
 five servants, the senses, to labor in the great work of 
 finding out the mechanism of a world ; and the sphere 
 of their operations is so limited and circumscribed, that 
 there are probably, in nature, kingdoms and provinces 
 which they have no power to enter, and which are to 
 them wholly unperceived. 
 
 How august, how mysterious appears the world of 
 matter around us, when considered in this light, and 
 how does the enumeration of the few properties, which 
 our philosophy ascribes to it, strike us with a sense of 
 our own limited faculties, which perceive so little of the 
 rich variety, the stupendous majesty of the eternal 
 
 * See the author's Dictionary of Chemistry, p. 11. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 165 
 
 world. And yet we know much — for though our list of 
 the properties of matter be small, the various respects, 
 the infinite relations of each one of these properties is 
 truly astonishing. 
 
 Matter is known to us only through the medium of 
 the mind, as affected by the senses. We call that body, 
 matter, or material substance, which can affect one or 
 more of our senses. The sight, touch, hearing, taste 
 and smell, are all called upon to give the mind knowledge 
 of the existence of matter, and the impossibility of sup- 
 posing an effect without a cause, renders the existence 
 of the cause which acts upon our senses, as certain as 
 the existence of the senses which are acted upon.* 
 
 How far matter extends is a subject on which philoso- 
 phy is still as much in doubt as in the commencement of 
 her researches. Newton discovered the principle of 
 gravitation, and on the supposition of its existence, 
 explained the relation of the planets, and various 
 other phenomena of nature. But what gravitation 
 is, philosophy has not presumed to explain. The fra- 
 grance of a body, we know to be minute particles of the 
 body itself, which, diffusing itself into the atmosphere, 
 reach our organs of smelling, and thus produce a certain ef- 
 
 * Dr. Brown supposes that of all our senses, none but that of 
 touch, aided by muscular action, could give us an idea of an ex- 
 ternal world. ' With no sense but that of smell,' he says, ' the 
 fragrance of a rose would appear bat as a pleasant feeling, spring- 
 ing up spontaneously in the mind. Music, or sounds of any kind, 
 with the sense of hearing only, would give us no idea of any thing 
 without ourselves. Taste, separated from the tactual feeling, 
 would not suggest an external object; even vision, he thinks 
 would but paint upon the retina of the eye an indistinct mass of 
 color without figure^ or without informing the mind of the exist- 
 ence of an external object.' But, according to Dr. Brown, the 
 muscular sense is the key which unlocks the mysteries of the 
 world without us, and renders our other senses of use. We may 
 go along with Dr. Brown through the consideration of the senses 
 of smell, hearing and even taste ; but when he would deny the 
 power of unaided vision, to suggest an external object, we feel 
 that he is drawing too largely upon our credulity, and suspicions 
 being awakened of the legitimacy of his reasonings, Ve are inclin- 
 ed to take back the assent we yielded to the first of his assertions, 
 with respect to the independent agency of each sense in teaching 
 the existence of matter. 
 
166 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 feet on the mind, which is termed a sensation. Is gravita- 
 tion a subtle yet powerful fluid, emanating from one body 
 and drawing another towards it 1 Is it material ? Or 
 what unknown secret sympathy can actuate masses of in- 
 ert matter, causing them to rush towards each other in 
 a cold and dead embrace 1 These things are suggested, 
 not with a view to confuse your minds, or to lead you to 
 think that all philosophy is but speculation, all science a 
 collection of enigmas. But there are questions in sci- 
 ence, which are vain and useless; questions that have 
 occupied, to no purpose, the time and talents of those who 
 desired to benefit the world. Lord Bacon observed, that 
 there was more true philosophy to be found in the work- 
 shops than in the schools ; in the former, all was practi- 
 cal ; in the latter, utility was sacrificed to speculation. 
 
 Yet there are now certain principles established in 
 science which are subject to no fluctuations, and which 
 afford a firm basis for future discoveries. Questions as 
 to the essence of matter, the secret springs of the ma- 
 chinery of the universe, and the first causes of things, are 
 by common consent exploded as profitless and unfathom- 
 able. To watch nature in her operations, to note the 
 process by which these operations are carried on, and, 
 from particular cases, to form general conclusions, is now 
 the professed aim of men of science. Important applica- 
 tions are thus made of principles discovered, which tend 
 to advance the improvement and happiness of society. 
 
 The subjects embraced by this science are numerous, 
 and highly important. Mechanics investigates the laws 
 o/ gravitation, as they operate in the different phenome- 
 na of motion and of central forces. It considers the theo- 
 ry of machines, the properties of the mechanical powers, 
 with the principles on which they are made to operate, 
 and the effects to be produced. From this branch of 
 Natural Philosophy have originated some of the most 
 wonderful discoveries and inventions which mark the 
 history of man. Agriculture, manufactures, architec- 
 ture, navigation, the fine arts, and even the sciences them- 
 selves, owe to mechanical philosophy the instruments by 
 which they are severally enabled to carry on their opera- 
 tions. It is the mainspring in social and civilized life ; 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 167 
 
 and he who discovers a new principle in mechanics, or a 
 new application of a previously discovered principle, is 
 more useful to the world, than he who writes volumes 
 of idle hypotheses, however rich the language, or fascin- 
 ating the manner in which they are communicated. 
 * Happy he, whose name descends to posterity as the au- 
 thor of a useful invention, or the discoverer of a new prin- 
 ciple. We cannot honor too much the man, who opens a 
 new career of knowledge to the human mind. The 
 difficulty of the first discovery is always the greatest; and 
 the merit of inventing is always greater than that of per- 
 fecting ; as in total darkness it is more difficult to strike 
 a light, than to kindle others by the flame of the first.'* 
 
 The remaining branches of natural philosophy, we 
 have scarcely time to mention. Hydrostatics, which 
 treats of the pressure and equilibrium of water, is derived 
 from the Greek, hudor, water, and stat, a derivation from 
 the Latin verb to stand. 
 
 Hydraulics, derived from hudor and aulos, a pipe, is a 
 branch of hydrostatics, and signifies the science of con- 
 veying water by pipes. 
 
 Pneumatics, from pneuma, air, and mathesis, learning, 
 treats of the nature and properties of the atmosphere. 
 
 Acoustics, from akouo, I hear, treats of sound, its laws, 
 and the various phenomena connected with it. 
 
 Optics, from ops, the eye, treats of vision, and the laws 
 which govern the transmission and reflection of light. 
 
 Electricity was so named from its having been dis- 
 covered in amber, which in Greek is called electron. 
 This science explains the operations of one of the most 
 wonderful and all-pervading principles in nature. The 
 electric fluid appears to be diffused as extensively as mat- 
 ter itself, and to operate not only in the terrific pheno- 
 menon of lightning, but to be active in some of the most 
 silent and gradual changes in nature. Chemical attrac- 
 tion has of late been suspected to be owing to a union of 
 the negative and positive electricities, and even the phy- 
 siology of organized life has been thought to bear some 
 mysterious relation to the electric fluid. 
 
 Galvanism, so named from Galvani, the discoverer, is 
 
 * Encyclopedic Portative. 
 
168 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 considered as a modification of electricity, differing how- 
 ever in this circumstance, that in the former, the effects 
 are mostly produced by the chemical action of bodies up- 
 on each other, while in the latter, the effects seem to be 
 more the result of mechanical action. 
 
 Magnetism. This singular principle resides in the load- 
 stone, or the dentoxide of iron. The magnet is known by 
 its property of attracting steel and iron. It is an iron, 
 composed of 72 parts of metal and 28 of oxygen. A 
 fragment of this metal, if placed upon a pivot, always 
 points to the north and south, being always provided with 
 two poles : opposite poles of two magnets attract, while 
 similar poles repel each other. The most important 
 use of the magnet is, the certainty with which it guides 
 the mariner through the trackless ocean ; and were this 
 the only advantage to be derived from its discovery, the 
 benefits would be incalculable. The magnetic fluid ap- 
 pears to have an intimate connexion with electricity and 
 galvanism, as those have with light and heat : it has been 
 suggested that all these agents are but modifications of 
 one great principle.* 
 
 Sketch of the History of Natural Philosophy. Hav- 
 ing now remarked, in a very general manner, upon the 
 subjects embraced under Natural Philosophy, we will 
 glance at the origin and progress of this science. The 
 ancient philosophers in their schools, considered without 
 any reference to their different objects, the various kinds 
 of knowledge. They united natural with moral philos- 
 ophy. Their progress in the latter science was much 
 greater than in the former. 
 
 Thales, one of the seven wise men of Greece, - lived 
 four hundred years before Christ ; he was the founder of 
 the Ionian school. He is the most ancient of the Greek 
 philosophers who applied themselves to the study of na- 
 ture ; he explained eclipses, discovered electricity in 
 amber, and made some important experiments. 
 
 ■ Electricity, Galvanism, and Magnetism are usually treated of 
 under the head of Chemistry, as well as Natural Philosophy : in- 
 deed, some chemists have been led to conjecture that all chemi- 
 cal decomposition is performed by the agency of the opposite 
 electricities. 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 169 
 
 Pythagoras, one hundred years after Thales, in his 
 school rendered illustrious by the discovery of the true 
 system of the earth, taught something of the theory of 
 sounds, and other subjects connected with natural phi- 
 losophy ; but as he built theories upon hypothesis and not 
 experiment, nothing was added by him to the science. 
 He is celebrated for having suggested the true theory of 
 the earth, afterwards revived by Copernicus. 
 
 Democritus, four hundred seventy years before Christ, 
 employed himself in the study of Mechanical Philoso- 
 phy ; he suggested the atomic theory of bodies; viz. that 
 all bodies consisted of certain minute parts, or atoms, 
 which were indivisible ; these were called ultimate atoms. 
 Democritus was considered as guilty of contempt towards 
 man, because he occupied himself more in the study 'of 
 matter than mind. His works being lost, all that con- 
 tinned to be known on the subject of natural philosophy, 
 was what related to certain of the arts, such as the work- 
 ing of metals. It was thought beneath the dignity of 
 science to descend to what was merely useful. Plato 
 reproached geometry for descending to assist the neces- 
 sities of man. 
 
 Aristotle, whose name has for so long a time been 
 held in almost idolatrous reverence by the followers of 
 science, seems not to have arrived at any general princi- 
 ples by his manner of investigating. His facts were in- 
 sulated and incomplete, and furnished no means of gen- 
 eralizing ; indeed his metaphysical ideas were averse 
 to generalization. Thus we find the progress of physics 
 retarded by false views then entertained of the nature 
 of the mind. The science founded on facts is compara- 
 tively of modern origin ; the laws of science derived from 
 the comparison of well established facts, are still more re- 
 cent. 
 
 Archimedes, of Syracuse, flourished abouj two hundred 
 fifty years before Christ. He united to the most pro- 
 found knowledge of mathematics, a close observation of 
 natural phenomena, and an uncommon genius for inves- 
 tigation. He discovered the manner of ascertaining 
 the specific gravity of bodies, by weighing them in water ; 
 experimented upon solar rays by concentrating them to 
 15 
 
170 NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 a focus, and made many observations upon the refraction 
 of light. This philosopher seemed intuitively to conceive 
 that the proper method of philosophising was to collect 
 facts, to combine them, and thus establish general laws 
 — that afterwards by applying these laws to nature, a new 
 mode of discovery might be obtained, leaving it to future 
 experience to prove the theories thus suggested.* 
 
 After Archimedes, no genuine priest of nature appears 
 in a loner career of ages : as men had before seemed to 
 want science, science now wanted men. And until Bacon 
 and Galileo, in the seventeenth century, nothing of impor- 
 tance vvas added to physical science. Bacon did not in- 
 deed add to science by any actual discoveries, but he point- 
 ed out the mode by which investigations should be con- 
 ducted, in order that advances might be made. Experi- 
 ment and observation, were by him consideied the only 
 sure routes to an accurate knowledge of nature. 
 
 Galileo about this time made an accurate calculation 
 of the ratio of falling bodies, giving the first application 
 of mathematics to physics. Torricelli, the pupil of Gali- 
 leo, invented the barometer ; Bayle invented the air 
 pump. The scientific societies of London and Paris 
 were founded, encouragement was offered for discove- 
 ries, new works were published, and at length science 
 was enlightened with the discoveries of Newton. The 
 methods of observation and calculation of this great man, 
 have been followed by later philosophers, and the study 
 and knowledge of his works have been considered as 
 sufficient to entitle them to a high rank. The influence 
 of this powerful genius in all the sciences of observa- 
 tion would be a subject worthy of interest ; if we add 
 his own discoveries, those which he has suggested, and 
 the improvements which these have produced in other 
 sciences, we can form some idea of the vast influence 
 which one great mind may exercise upon the knowledge, 
 virtue and happiness of the world. 
 
 Since the time of Newton, many important discove- 
 ries have been made in mechanical philosophy. The arts 
 
 * For an interesting sketch of the History of Physical Science, 
 the r ader is referred to a small French work — ' V Encyclopedic 
 Portative. ' 
 
NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 171 
 
 of steam navigation, construction of rail-roads, &c. are at 
 this period effecting a change in the future condition of 
 the world, greater than we at present can conceive ; and 
 the improvements which may arise upon those already 
 made are beyond the utmost stretch of imagination. 
 
 Before closing our remarks on the study of Natural 
 Philosophy, permit me to remind you, that this is em- 
 phatically a science of facts. While pursuing it, 
 turn your thoughts to the real appearances of nature 
 around you, consider the knowledge of books as no- 
 thing, but as it serves to turn your attention to the 
 changes which are constantly taking place. If you en- 
 ter a mechanic's shop, examine the implements, or ma- 
 chinery, with a view to the application of your theo- 
 retical knowledge. Do not scorn to listen to the most 
 simple account of mechanical operations ; they are car- 
 ried on by principles, which you have learned from books, 
 and which the mechanic, though ignorant of science, un- 
 derstands practically. If you are travelling in a steam- 
 boat or upon a rail-road, make yourselves acquainted 
 with the principles by which the motion is produced or 
 which are involved in the construction of the machine- 
 ry ; or if you understand these principles, do not fail to 
 notice whenever you see them practically illustrated. 
 
 Our sex have, in genera], far less observation than the 
 other. We incline too much to live in the little world 
 of our own thoughts. Let two young persons of different 
 sexes, unaccustomed to travelling, find themselves for the 
 first time on board a ship or a steam-boat. The female 
 probably occupies herself with thoughts of the friends 
 from whom she has parted, or of those whom she expects 
 to meet; memory and imagination are busy, but her 
 powers of observation slumber, unless perhaps exercised 
 in noticing the dresses of those around her, their pecu- 
 liarities of manners, and probable standing in society. 
 The young man, very likely, examines the construction 
 of the ship, or steam-boat, its size, the velocity with 
 which it moves, and the appearances of the different 
 natural objects which present themselves. 
 
 I am far from asserting that there is always this differ- 
 ence in the operations of the mind in the sexes ; for there 
 
172 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 are females of close observation upon works of art and 
 nature, and men who observe superficially. The effect 
 of the study of the different branches of Natural Science 
 is to produce habits of observation, and in this respect 
 as well as their general tendency to enlarge the mind, 
 and to render life more happy and elevated, they are 
 deserving the attention of females. 
 
 LECTURE XVI. 
 
 Chemistry. — History of Chemistry . 
 
 The science of Chemistry is of peculiar interest to our 
 sex; its applications to domestic economy are numerous 
 and important. These applications are however yet but 
 little understood ; the reason of this is, that chem- 
 ists, are not housekeepers, and housekeepers are not 
 chemists. The various processes in culinary operations 
 are mostly performed on chemical principles, yet those 
 principles are seldom known or thought of by those who 
 perform the operations. I am aware that many a good 
 housewife might smile at my remarks, and say she 
 would not exchange her experience for all the theories 
 which chemistry can give. It is very true that your 
 excellent mothers and grandmothers may possess that 
 experience in domestic concerns which enables them to 
 perform complicated operations with ease and safety; 
 but even thry, I think, would delight to understand the 
 causes of effects which they have been for so many 
 years witnessing, and agents in producing. 
 
 For instance, no article is in more common use in 
 house-keeping than pearlash. In making gingerbread 
 this is used to render it light. The common method is, 
 to put vinegar into the pearlash, and while it is efferves- 
 cing, to add it to the other materials. 
 
 But why does pearlash make gingerbread light? If 
 you were to make this inquiry of many women, they 
 
CHEMISTRY. 173 
 
 would look astonished at what they would conceive to be 
 a ' foolish question : ' they would say perhaps, ' because 
 it is natural,' or ' because it does,' or because * it is so 
 made,' &,c. I would not unnecessarily expose a weak- 
 ness of my sex, but we are quite too apt to give for a 
 reason, that which is no reason at all. 
 
 The simple explanation of the process above men- 
 tioned is this ; pearlash is a carbonate of potash, or 
 potash united to carbonic acid; vinegar contains a pe- 
 culiar acid called acetic acid; for this acid, potash has a 
 greater affinity than for carbonic acid. When vinegar is 
 added to carbonate of potash, the potash choosing the 
 acetic acid of the vinegar begins to expel the carbonic 
 acid, this produces an effervescence ; the effervescing 
 mass being added to the flour, the carbonic acid in the 
 form of little bubbles of air, instead of passing into the 
 atmosphere, becomes entangled in the gluten of the 
 flour, swells it out, and thus makes the gingerbread 
 light. The potash forms with the acetic acid the new 
 combination, acetate of potash. 
 
 When bread is suffered to rise or ferment too long, 
 the acetous, or souring fermentation begins, and the 
 dough becomes sour. In order to remedy this, a solu- 
 tion of pearlash (carbonate of potash) is introduced; the 
 acetic acid (which causes the sourness,) is ahsorbed by 
 the pearlash and the carbonic acid of the pearlash is set 
 free. This escaping in the form of little air bubbles 
 increases the lightness of the dough. 
 
 You will perceive from the examples now given, that 
 chemistry is a science which is intimately connected 
 with the peculiar business of women. But as I have 
 already remarked, the applications of this science to 
 domestic operations, although numerous and important, 
 are yet far from being as extensive as we might expect 
 from the perfection which chemistry has attained. It 
 is to be hoped that as educated women engage in the 
 duties of housewifery, culinary chemistry will receive 
 more attention than it has heretofore done.* * 
 
 * A chemical text-book for female schools is now in progress; 
 this is intended to embrace all the known applications of chemis- 
 try to the business of house-keeping, in its various branches. 
 
 15* 
 
174 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 I shall now proceed to give a general view of chemi- 
 cal science, with an outline of its history. In doing 
 this, I shall refer to my Dictionary of Chemistry, which 
 contains articles prepared in accordance with my 
 present views of the manner in which these subjects 
 may profitably be presented to the mind. Where the 
 pupil already has a knowledge of the science, such out- 
 lines are highly useful in condensing and systematizing 
 what is learned ; when the subject is new, sketches 
 may excite sufficient curiosity and interest to lead the 
 mind to desire more information. It was indeed, when 
 engaged in writing the articles for the work above nam- 
 ed, that the thought first occurred to me of the bene- 
 fits which you might derive from similar sketches of the 
 leading principles, histories, and practical applications, of 
 the various branches of study, which enter into the plan 
 of education pursued in this institution.* 
 
 Chemistry is a science no less elevated in its general 
 views than various in its applications ; its object is to 
 examine the elements oxjirst principles of substances and 
 their laws of combinations, its application to other scien- 
 ces, to arts, medicine, manufactures and housewifery, 
 are numerous and important. It may be divided into 
 organic and inorganic Chemistry. 
 
 Organic Chemistry is confined to the investigation of 
 the elements of vegetable and animal substances, and 
 the laws which govern their combinations. This depart- 
 ment, including the whole of animal and vegetable 
 poisons, and their antidotes, is intimately connected 
 with the study of medicine. The same elements, dif- 
 ferently proportioned and combined, constitute all or- 
 ganic and inorganic substances. 
 
 Inorganic Chemistry includes the study of the ele- 
 ments of all matter confined to the combination of these 
 elements in inorganic bodies. The ancients conceived 
 that there were but four elements, or first principles, viz. 
 earth, air,Jire, and water. Chemistry has shown that 
 all these substances, except fire, (the nature of which is 
 
 * The remainder of the Lecture on Chemistry was taken from 
 the author's Dictionary of Chemistry, published by Messrs. Car- 
 vill,ofNewYork. 
 
CHEMISTRY. 175 
 
 still doubtful,) are compound; air is composed of two 
 gases, called oxygen and nitrogen ; water , of oxygen and 
 hydrogen ; and earth of a variety of substances, which in 
 their turn may be decomposed. 
 
 JNature offers substances in four different states, solid, 
 liquid, gaseous, or aerilorm, and imponderable, or such 
 agents as are not known to possess weight. All matter 
 is composed of molecules, particles, or atoms; these are 
 subject to two opposing laws, the force of attraction, 
 which tends to keep the atoms in contact, and that of 
 caloric, or heat, which separates or repels them. 
 
 Simple substances are those whose atoms are homogen- 
 eous, orof the same nature. Thus zinc is considered as 
 a simple substance, because it contains no other atoms 
 than those of zinc. 
 
 Compound substances are such as contain two or more 
 simple elements; thus, brass is a compound body, which 
 on being decomposed is found to contain atoms of zinc 
 and copper. The particles which constitute a simple 
 body are called integrant molecules, and the force which 
 keeps them together is called cohesion. The particles 
 which form a compound substance, are called constituent 
 molecules and the force which unites them is termed 
 affinity. Thus, zinc is formed of integrant molecules 
 united by the force of cohesion, and brass is formed of 
 constituent molecules united by the force of affinity. 
 
 Affinity. Affinity is that kind of attraction which 
 unites the heterogeneous molecules, or atoms of compound 
 bodies. A knowledge of chemical affinity is very impor- 
 tant in investigating chemical changes ; the first conse- 
 quence of this law is a change of state of the bodies ; 
 thus the union of two gasses, oxygen and hydrogen, 
 produces water. A second and important consequence 
 is a change of the property of the new substance ; thus 
 from the combination of an acid and an alkali possessing 
 opposite properties, results a salt resembling neither of 
 the original substances. It is at present believed by 
 most chemists, that chemical affinity depends essential- 
 ly upon the electrical state of the substances, that elec- 
 tricity is divided into two fluids 4 the one positive, the other 
 negative, and that molecules of the same kind of electri- 
 
300 
 
 it 
 
 a 
 
 tt a 
 
 100 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 ammonia 
 
 100 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 nitrogen 
 
 100 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 a u 
 
 100 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 it it 
 
 100 
 
 a 
 
 tt 
 
 a a 
 
 176 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 city repel, while those of opposite electricities attract 
 each other. 
 
 Theory of Atoms. By atoms or particles are under- 
 stood parts incapable of division or diminution ; much pre- 
 cision is given to the science of chemistry by admitting that 
 bodies consist of atoms which unite in certain proportions ; 
 thus in water we suppose two atoms of hydrogen united 
 to one of oxygen ; or which is the same thing, two hun- 
 dred atoms of the former to one hundred of the latter. 
 The theory of the proportions between the elements of 
 bodies is not hypothetical, but in many cases has been 
 proved by experiment ; thus the following proportions 
 are universally observed. 
 
 200 atoms of hydrogen and 100 of oxygen=water. 
 
 100 " nitrogen=ammoniacal gas. 
 50 " carbon==salt of ammonia. 
 50 " oxygen=protoxide of nitrogen. 
 100 " =deutoxide of " 
 
 150 '• =nitrous acid. 
 
 250 " =nitric acid. 
 
 Simple Elements. The number of simple elements 
 admitted by chemists, varies with the progress of the 
 science ; such substances as no chemical force can de- 
 compose are called simple ; many which are thus named, 
 will, no doubt, in process of lime be decomposed, while 
 other elements, now unknown, will be brought to light, 
 and found to be important agents in chemical changes. 
 
 Instead of the four elements of the ancients, chemists 
 at present admit more than 50 elemenlary bodies, if we 
 include the imponderable agents, chlorine, and some 
 other analogous substances; and the newly discovered 
 bodies, Nomine, pluranium and thorium. 
 
 These may be comprehended under two grand divi- 
 sions ; 1. Imponderable agents, or such as have no 
 
 known weight; as 
 
 Caloric, 
 
 Light, 
 
 Electricity, 
 
 Magnetism. 
 II. Ponderable bodies, or such as have known weight; 
 these may be divided into four classes. Class 1. Sup- 
 porters of Combustion; as oxygen, &c. Class 2. Com- 
 bustibles not metallic ; as hydrogen, &C. Class 3. MetaU 
 
4 CHEMISTRY. 177 
 
 loids ; as silicon the base of silex, calcium of lime, &c. 
 Class 4. Metals ; as gold, silver, &c. 
 
 Language of Chemistry. Among the most important 
 chemical agents is oxygen, the discovery of which 
 wholly changed the aspect of the science and gave rise 
 to our present nomenclature, or names of substances. 
 The term combustible, considered as synonymous with 
 oxygenable, is applied to all simple substances which can 
 be made to unite with oxygen ; this union is accompa- 
 nied with a disengagement of caloric or heat (though in 
 some cases imperceptible,) and often of light; the sub- 
 stance which has thus united with oxygen is said to be 
 burnt, or oxygenated. 
 
 The compounds which result from the union of oxy- 
 gen with simple bodies have received the name of oxides 
 and acids. When oxygen unites with a body but in one 
 proportion, forming either an oxide or an acid, the sub- 
 stance with which it combines is termed its radical; as 
 in the oxide of zinc ; here zinc is the radical or base of 
 the oxide. If the oxygen combines in two or three pro- 
 portions, the first oxide is called protoxide, the second 
 deutoxide, the third tritoxide. Wnen a body is oxidized 
 in the highest degree, it is termed the peroxide ; for 
 example, the combinations of oxygen and manganese, 
 which present us with all these varieties of oxides. 
 
 A similar rule governs with respect to the names of 
 acids; if the oxygen forms but one acid, to its radical 
 is added the termination ic, as boracic acid. But if oxygen 
 combines in several proportions, the lowest proportion is 
 expressed by ous, and the highest by ic as sulphurous and 
 sulphuric acids ; to these terminations, are also added 
 hyper, which signifies more, and hypo, less; thus hypo- 
 sulphurous acids denotes a body possessing a less quan- 
 tity of oxygen than sulphurous acid, &c. 
 
 Oxygen is not the only agent which unites to com- 
 bustible bodies to produce acids; hydrogen, chlorine, 
 with some other substances, possess this property ; thus 
 we have hydrochloric and hydriodic acids y resulting 
 from the union of hydrogen with chlorine and iodine. 
 When too binary,* burnt substances combine, a new 
 
 * The term binary is derived from bl* } two ; a binary compound 
 
178 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 compound results, which when the constituents are an 
 acid and a metallic oxide, is called a salt. The salts 
 are very numerous; they are named by varying the ter- 
 mination of their acid; when the acid terminates in ous 
 and ic, the salts end in ite and ate; thus by the term 
 sulphate of tin, we understand the combination of tin 
 with sulphuric acid ; sulphite of tin expresses the com- 
 bination of the metal with sulphurous acid. 
 
 Imponderable Agents. 1. Caloric. It would not 
 be possible to explain the sensation of heat to one 
 who never experienced it, any more than we could by 
 words give to the blind an idea of colors, or to the deaf, 
 of sounds. A person says, ' T am warm,' or extending 
 his hand to a fire, says ' the fire is hot ;' in the first case 
 he properly expresses the sensation of heat; in the 
 second, the cause of this sensation. The fire itself is not 
 suppossed to be hot, but only to possess the property of 
 producing in the animal system, the sensation of heat. 
 The cause of heat is distinguished from heat by the term 
 caloric. 
 
 2. Light, as is well known, proceeds from the sun and 
 the fixed stars, as direct sources ; from the moon and 
 other planets by reflection, and from various terrestrial 
 substances, while experiencing combustion from phos- 
 phorescent matter, foe. The nature of light and caloric 
 is at present unknown ; from the intimate connexion 
 between them, they have by some been considered only 
 as modifications of the same substance. 
 
 Among the most important properties of caloric are, 
 1, its tendency to an equlibrium : 2, its power of dilating 
 bodies ; 3, its susceptibility of being reflected from one 
 body to another ; 4, its power of increasing chemical 
 action. 
 
 3. Electricity. From whence arises the peculiar 
 sensation which is experienced when a piece of zinc 
 placed upon the tongue, is brought in contact with a 
 piece of copper placed under this organ? What power 
 was that which, under the eyes of Galvani, animated the 
 
 is one in which but two elements are united ; a ternary compound 
 consists of three elements ; a quaternary, of four, &c. 
 
CHEMISTRY. 179 
 
 limbs of a dead frog, when two metals, placed at the 
 extremity of a naked nerve, were made to communicate 
 by means of a metallic wire? What dazzling brilliancy 
 flashes in the skies, or darts downward upon earth, 
 fraught with terror and destruction ? It is the electric 
 fluid. But what is the nature of this fluid which divides 
 the material world into two great masses, the positively 
 and negatively electrified? Is it simple or compound? 
 Why is its presence so uniformly accompanied with light 
 and heat 1 Are light and caloric anything more than 
 modifications of this fluid, and is not electricity indeed 
 the union of these two substances'? Electricity, what- 
 ever it may be in itself, exercises an important influence 
 in chemical changes. The instrument called the voltaic 
 pile, causes the decomposition of a compound body, 
 which is submitted to its action ; the elements possessing 
 the positive electricity, go to the negative pole* and 
 those which have the negative electricity go to the posi- 
 tive pole of the pile. 
 
 4. The magnetic fluid gives to a mineral called the 
 load-stone (deutoxide of iron) the property of directing 
 its two extremities, either to the north or south pole of 
 the earth ; of attracting by its northern extremity the 
 southern extremity of another magnet, while it repels its 
 northern extremity or pole. It has recently been dis- 
 covered that the magnetic needle changes its direction 
 under the influence of the voltaic pile ; that the con- 
 ducting wires communicate magnetic properties to steel 
 and iron wires. It has therefore been conjectured that 
 magnetic attraction is but another modification of elec- 
 tricity. If these suggestions are founded in truth, we 
 may perhaps regard all the imponderable agents as the 
 result of one grand agent. 
 
 Ponderable Substances. 
 
 Class 1. Supporters of Combustion. All substances 
 upon the globe except those already described, under the 
 
 * The two extremities of a voltaic battery are called poles ; this 
 instrument was first called the Galvanic battery, from Galvani ; 
 afterwards, on being modified by Volta, it received its present 
 name. 
 
180 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 head of imponderables, are known to possess weight ; the 
 specific gravity even of the lightest gases have been as- 
 certained. After the discovery of oxygen, this gas was 
 for some time considered as the only supporter of combus- 
 tion, or the only substance which, by uniting with others, 
 could produce the phenomena of combustion. At present 
 four other analogous substances are ranked with oxygen 
 viz. chlorine, iodine, fluorine, and bromine. When any 
 one of these substances, existing in a binary compound, 
 is submitted to the action of the voltaic pile, the support- 
 er of combustion goes to the positive, and the combusti- 
 ble to the negative pole. 
 
 1. Oxygen unites with almost all substances, forming 
 acid and oxide compounds ; its name is derived from the 
 Greek, and signifies to generate oxides ; these and most 
 of the acids being under the influence of this agent. Its 
 properties are very numerous, since its combinations ex- 
 ist in most bodies in the three kingdoms of nature. It 
 has been observed by a celebrated chemist, that ' Oxygen 
 may be considered as the central point, around which 
 chemistry revolves.' 
 
 The phenomena of combustion bear an intimate rela- 
 tion to oxygen ; so that the slightest union of this gas 
 with another substance, although neither accompanied 
 with sensible heat or light, is considered as a low degree 
 of combustion. Stahl supposed that the fire exhibited in 
 combustion was occasioned by the loss of an imaginary 
 substance, which he termed phlogiston, or the principle 
 of heat. Lavoisier proved the materiality of ogygen, by 
 showing that it was absorbed by the burnt substance ; 
 but neither of them accounted for the heat produced at 
 the moment of combustion, nor for the luminous appear- 
 ance or flame which accompanied it. 
 
 By observing the usual circumstances of kindling a 
 fire, we perceive that the temperature of the combustible 
 body is first increased by a borrowed heat. Now it is 
 known that electricity is developed by an increase of 
 heat, and that a union of the two electric fluids causes 
 an elevation of temperature : thus, when the caloric is 
 first added, the two electricities are brought forth; the 
 negative from the oxygen, and the positive from the com- 
 
CHEMISTRY. 181 
 
 bustible substance ; and the union of these two electri- 
 cities is supposed to produce the heat which attends 
 combustion. When we assist combustion by the action 
 of the bellows, we direct a current of air upon the com- 
 bustible substance ; the oxygen being impelled upon its 
 surface, the fire becomes more intense. By repeating 
 the action of the bellows, we successively elevate the 
 temperature, until the combination of the two electrici- 
 ties is sufficiently energetic to give rise to flame. The 
 importance of oxygen as a supporter of combustion, is 
 manifested by various experiments ; — even metals inflame 
 and burn spontaneously in this gas. 
 
 2. Chlorine was formerly called oxymuriatic acid, from 
 its supposed constituents, oxygen and muriatic acid. It 
 is at present, by the French and most English chemists, 
 regarded as a simple substance ; and muriatic acid is 
 now called hydro-chloric acid, being, as it is supposed, 
 a combination of hydrogen and chlorine. Chlorine may 
 be obtained by heating the pulverized peroxide of man- 
 ganese with hydro-chloric acid ; the hydrogen of the lat- 
 teT uniting with the oxygen furnished by the manganese, 
 disengages its chlorine in the form of a yellowish green 
 gas. Chlorine forms with oxygen several acids, as chlo- 
 ric, oxygenated chloric, &c. Its union with metals pro- 
 duces chlorides; these dissolved in water are hydro-chlo- 
 rides. 
 
 3. Iodine, at the common temperature, exists in a 
 solid form; its color is a bluish gray; by heat it be- 
 comes a violet colored gas; it forms with oxygen, iodic 
 acid, and with hydrogen, hydriodic acid; combined 
 with sulphur phosphorous, and with metals, it forms 
 iodides. Iodine is obtained from sea-weeds, mineral 
 waters, minerals and sponge. 
 
 4. Fluorine is considered as the base of fluoric acid, 
 but as its actual existence has not been proved, it must 
 be regarded in the light of an imaginary substance. 
 Whether fluorice acid consists of oxygen united to the 
 combustible base fluorine, or whether, as is supposed by 
 some, this base is united to hydrogen, (hence the term 
 hydro fluorice, instead of fluorice acid,) seems not yet 
 determined. This acid united to lime, constitutes the 
 
 16 
 
182 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 fiuate of lime, or the beautiful Derbyshire spar : with 
 other bases it forms various jluates. 
 
 5. Bromine, which has been recently discovered and 
 added to the list of simple substances, is obtained from 
 sea-water and the ashes of the same marine plants that 
 furnish iodine ; it is a dark red liquid, so volatile as at 
 the common temperature to throw off red vapours; with 
 oxygen it forms bromic acid, which, uniting with various 
 bases, forms bromates and bromides. 
 
 Combustible Substances. Combustible substances are 
 such as possess the property of uniting with oxygen and 
 other supporters of combustion to form oxides and acids; 
 they may be divided into the following classes : 
 
 COMBUSTIBLES NOT METALLIC. 
 
 METALLOIDS. 
 
 METALS. 
 
 Ponderable Substance^. 
 
 Class 2. Combustibles not metallic. 
 
 1, Hydrogens a term derived from the Greek, signifying 
 to produce water, because this liquid is formed by the com- 
 bination of hydrogen with oxygen : in the language of 
 chemistry, water is the protoxide of hydrogen (or hydrogen 
 with one proportion of oxygen ; ) when another proportion 
 of oxygen is added, it becomes a dcntoxide of hydrogen, 
 or oxygenated water. Hydrogen combined with oxygen 
 and carbon exists in all vegetable matter; by the addi- 
 tion of nitrogen we have the constituents of animal sub- 
 stances. Hydrogen forms acids known by the general 
 name oUiy dr acids ; with chlorine it forms hydrochloric, 
 with iodine hydriodic acids, &c. with sulphur, carbon, 
 &c, it forms sulphuretted hydrogen or hydrosulphric 
 acid, carburetted hydrogen, &lc. It is highly combusti- 
 ble, and burns with much flame, furnishing, by' its union 
 with carbon, the gas used in cities for lighting streets, 
 shops, &,c. On account of its being specifically lighter 
 than atmospheric air, it is used for inflating balloons. 
 
 2. Boron, combined with oxygen constitutes the base 
 of boracic acid; it is by the decomposition of this acid 
 that boron is obtained, it being never found pure in 
 nature. 
 
CHEMISTRY. 183 
 
 3. Carbon, when pure and crystallized, constitutes the 
 diamond : it exists in charcoal with hydrogen, salts, and 
 other products of combustion, and may be obtained from 
 this combustion. Many attempts have been made to 
 crystallize carbon, in order to obtain diamonds, but 
 hitherto none have been successful. With a certain 
 proportion of oxygen, carbon forms carbonic acid with a 
 less proportion of oxygen, the oxide of carbon, or carbon- 
 ic oxide gas. 
 
 Carbon forms, with hydrogen, carburctted hydrogen, 
 or gas light ; with the alkalies it forms carbonates, as 
 carbonate of lime, (marble,) carbonate of soda, &c. A 
 peculiar property of carbon is that of absorbing putrid 
 miasmata, or gasses ; a knowledge of this fact has given 
 rise to some important applications to culinary opera- 
 tions, medicine, &c. 
 
 4. Phosphorus has received its name from two Greek 
 words,* signifying to bring light, this substance being al- 
 ways luminous in the air. With oxygen in different pro- 
 portions it forms phosphoric acid, phosphorous acid, hy- 
 pophosphorous acid, and oxide of phosphorrus. With 
 hydrogen it forms phosphuretted hydrogen, which in- 
 flames spontaneously in the air, producing the chal- 
 atious, or ignesfatui, which appear about burying-pla- 
 ces and marshes. Bones and other animal-substances 
 when decomposing, disengage oxygen, phosphorus, and 
 hydrogen ; these united form phosphuretted hydrogen, 
 which being specifically lighter than the atmosphere, 
 ascends, and by its spontaneous combustion produces 
 those luminous vapors, which the superstitious and igno- 
 rant have referred to supernatural causes. 
 
 5. Sulphur, united to oxygen, forms sulphuric and 
 sulphurous acids ; these acids, united to bases, form 
 sulphates and sulphites. With hydrogen, sulphur forms 
 sulphuretted hydrogen, and with the metals, various 
 sulphurets, as sulphuret of lead, &-c. 
 
 6. Selenium is less known than any of the non-metal- 
 lic combustibles ; it forms with oxygen selenic and selen- 
 ious acids and the oxide of selenium. Selenious acid 
 
 * Phos, light, and phero, I carry. 
 
184 CHEMISTRY* 
 
 forms, with bases,, salts caMed selenites; selenie acid 
 orms salts called seleniates. 
 
 7. Nitrogen * when first discovered was called azotic, 
 which signifies a depriver of life : this term appearing 
 objectionable, as it is not a direct destroyer of life, that 
 of nitrogen has been given from the circumstance of its 
 being an essential ingredient in nitric acid. Nitrogen 
 combines with oxygen in five different proportions, form- 
 ing 
 
 Protoxide of Nitrogen, 
 
 Deutoxide of Nitrogen, 
 
 Hypo-Nitrous Acid, 
 
 Nitrous Acids, 
 
 Nitric Acid. 
 
 With hydrogen it forms ammonia; with carbon, cyano- 
 gen; with chlorine and iodine, a chloride and an iodide. 
 The compound substance cyanogen (signifying by its name 
 the generator of blue) is the base of prussic acid (hydro- 
 cyanic acid,,) which, uniting to iron, forms the color 
 called prussian blue. 
 
 Ponderable Substances-. 
 
 Class 3. The 3Ictalloids, or Earthly and Alkaline 
 ' Combustibles. 
 . The termination oids is from the Greek, and signifies 
 like or similar ; thus the term metalloids denotes like 
 metals. The substances comprehended in this class are, 
 in the strictest sense, metals ; but they differ from other 
 metals in their strong affinity for oxygen, which renders 
 it extremely difficult either to obtain or preserve them in 
 a state of purity. It is but recently that they have been 
 known to exist ; potash, soda, lime, &c, were considered 
 as pure alkalieSj.until Davy, by means of the voltaic pile, 
 decomposed potash, and obtained a metal and oxygen; 
 the metal he called potassium : thus it was discovered 
 
 * In giving nitrogen a place among combustibles, it must be 
 understood that it is not combustible in the common acceptation 
 of the term, as it does not take fire upon being brought in con- 
 tact with a burning substance ; but it is combustible in the chemi- 
 eal sense of the term, since it unites with oxygen and other sur>- 
 yorters of combustion.. 
 
CHEMISTRY. 185 
 
 that potash is not an elementary substance but an oxide 
 of potassium. Reasoning from analogy, Davy and some 
 of the French chemists were led to believe that soda, 
 lime, and other alkaline substances, had metallic bases: 
 a series of brilliant and convincing experiments have 
 now established this fact. Metals of this class seem 
 naturally divided into two sections. 
 
 Section 1. Earthy metals, or metals which are the 
 bases of earths ; these are 
 
 Silicon, the metal of Silex, 
 
 Zirconium, 
 Aluminum, ' £ 
 Yttrium, •« 
 Thorium, " 
 Glucinum, " 
 Magnesium, " 
 
 Zirconia, 
 ' " Alumine, 
 ' " Yttria, 
 ' " Thorine, 
 < " Glucina, 
 ' " Magnesia. 
 
 Section 2. Alkaline metals. 
 
 Calcium, the metal of Lime, 
 Strontium, " " " Strontian, 
 Barium, " " " Barytes, 
 Sodium, the metal of Soda, 
 Potassium, " " " Potash, 
 Lithium, " " " Lithia. 
 
 Class 4. Metals. 
 
 This class contains substances which have in general 
 less affinity for oxygen than the metalloids ; many of 
 them, such as silver and gold, cannot be easily oxida- 
 ted ; iron unites much more readily with oxygen, as may 
 easily be perceived by exposing any iron vessel to the 
 action of the atmosphere ; in a short time it will be found 
 rusted, according to the common term, but which chem- 
 ically is said to be oxidated, the metal having combined 
 with oxygen from the atmosphere. Any article of gold 
 or silver is not thus acted upon by the atmosphere, nor 
 even by water, which iron soon decomposes, by uniting 
 with its oxygen. 
 
 We find, then, in examining the classification of 
 elements or simple substances, 
 
 16* 
 
IS6J CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Imponderable bodies, 4/ 
 
 Supporters of Combustion, 5 
 
 Combustibles not metallic, 7 
 
 Metals including metalloids, about 40* 
 
 Binary Compounds. 
 Binary compounds (from bis, two) are such as are 
 formed by the union of two simple substances ; these 
 compounds are of three kinds; 1st, those which are 
 neither oxides nor acids ; 2d, oxides; and 3d, acids. 
 
 The binary compounds, which possess neither the 
 properties of acids or oxides, are to be found in the 
 union of the simple combustibles among their own class; 
 as, carburetted hydrogen, consisting of carbon and hydro- 
 gen ; cyanogen, of carbon and nitrogen ; chloro-carbon- 
 ous gas of chlorine and carbon. Sulphur with bases 
 forms binary compounds, called sulphurets. Steel is a 
 binary compound, formed of carbon and iron. Oxygen 
 in one, two, three, and even four proportions, forms a 
 great variety of binary compounds ; as with sulphur it 
 forms in the highest proportion sulphuric acid, in a 
 lower proportion it forms sulphurous acid, &,c. The 
 most important acids are mostly binary compounds. 
 
 With the metals, oxygen forms oxides, protoxides, &c t 
 There are eight non-metallic oxides, viz. 
 
 The Protoxide of Hydrogen, or water, 
 
 Peroxide of Hydrogen, 
 
 Oxide of Phosphorus, 
 
 Oxide of Carbon, 
 
 Oxide of Chlorine, or Euchlorine, 
 
 Protoxide of Nitrogen, or Exhilarating Gas, 
 
 Deutoxide of Nitrogen, 
 
 Oxide of Selenium. 
 The metallic oxides are very numerous; the peroxide 
 of manganese is of great importance in chemistry, it 
 being used for procuring chlorine oxygen, &c. The 
 deutoxide of iron possesses magnetical attraction ; it is 
 called the load-stone or map-net. The deutoxide of 
 lead is commonly known by the name of white lead. 
 With the earthy and alkaline metals, oxygen forms vari- 
 ous oxides ; as the oxide of silicon or silex, the oxide of 
 calcium, or lime ; the oxide of sodium, or soda; the oxide 
 of potassium, or potash, &c. 
 
 * For the arrangement of metals and their properties, see 
 Dictionary of C hemistry — article Metal*. 
 
CHEMISTRY. 187 
 
 Acids. 
 Acids are distinguished by a sharp and pnngent taste : 
 they change vegetable blue colors to red, and combine 
 with meiallic oxides to form salts, or to alkaline oxides 
 (as soda and potash) in order to neutralize or be neutral- 
 ized by them. It was long believed that the acidifying 
 power was confined to oxygen : hydrogen is now sup- 
 posed to possess this property : thus the acids are now 
 divided into oxacids and hydracids. The oxacids are 
 numerous; some of the most important are, 
 
 Nitric Acid, composed of Nitrogen and Oxygen, 
 Sulphuric Acid, " " Sulphur and Oxygen, 
 Carbonic Acid, " " Carbon and Oxygen. 
 
 There are four hydracids, viz. hydro-suJphuric, (usu- 
 ally called sulphuretted hydrogen,) hydriodic, hydro- 
 chloric, and hydro-selenic. 
 
 Quaternary Compounds. 
 
 Salts. Salts are compounds of oxides with acids : as 
 the acids are binary compounds, the salts are of course 
 quaternary or quadruple combinations : they are of three 
 kinds; 1st, neutral, presenting neither acid or alkaline 
 properties; 2d, with excess of oxide; 3d, with excess of 
 acid. The salts are divided into genera, each genus 
 consists of the combination of one acid with various 
 oxides, and is subdivided into three series, neutral, 
 super (over), and sub (under.) In all salts of the same 
 genus, and at the same degree of saturation, the quantity 
 of acid is to the quantity of oxide in a uniform propor- 
 tion. 
 
 Genera of Scdts. 
 
 Borates. The most important species is the sub-borate of soda. 
 It is found in some lakes. 
 
 Carbonates. This genus is distinguished by being decom- 
 posed with effervescence, owing *to the escape of carbon- 
 ic acid. Among the most important species of this genus are 
 carbonate of lime, consisting of chalk, limestone, &c. ; sub- 
 carbonate of soda, commonly called soda ; carbonate of am- 
 monia, produced by the decomposition of animal matter ; car- 
 bonate of iron, a valuable mineral ; carbonate of copper, of various 
 colors, as blue, green, &c. ; carbonate of lead is white lead ; sub- 
 carbonate of potash is the potash of commerce. 
 
 Phosphates. In this genus is the phosphate of lime, which forms 
 an important part of the bones of animals, and is used for the 
 manufacture of phosphorus. Phosphate of cobalt, by calcining 
 with alum, forms a beautiful color, called Thenard's blue. 
 
188 CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Sulphates. The most common species which exist in nature 
 are those of lime and barytes. Sulphate of Lime is gypsum, or 
 plaster of Paris. Sulphate of Magnesia is Epsonis salts. Sulphate 
 of Potash. Alum is a double sulphate of potash and alumine. 
 Sulphate of Soda is Glauber's salts. Sulphate of Iron, combined 
 with nutgalls, forms ink. Sulphate of Copper (Deuto) is copperas, 
 or blue vitrei. 
 
 Nitrates. But three species of this genus are found in nature. 
 Nitrate of Potash is saltpetre ; it is of important use in the man- 
 ufacture of gun-powder. Nitrate of Bismuth is used in the man- 
 ufacture of pearl white. Nitrate of Silxcr is lunar caustic. 
 
 Chlorates. None of this genus are found native. It contains 
 the Chlorates of Potash (oxymuriate of potash,) soda, lime, &c. 
 Ilidro Chlorates were formerly called muriates. When crystal- 
 lized or dried, they lose the hydrogen of their acid, and become 
 chlorides ; these in their turn, when dissolved in water, form 
 hydro-chlorates. Hyrdo-chl orate of lime (muriate of lime) is of use 
 in medicine and in chemical experiments. Hydro-chlorate of 
 ammonia is manufactured by the reaction of marine salt upon the 
 sulphate of ammonia. 
 
 Chlorides* There are many metallic chlorides, as chlorine 
 has a strong affinity for metals. Chloride of Calcium is distin- 
 guished by having affinity for water. Chloride of Sodium is 
 common salt; its properties are known in all civilized countries. 
 Chloride of Soda has of late been found useful in removing 
 offensive gases from the atmosphere, and preventing infection 
 from sick persons or dead bodies. The chlorine is supposed to 
 decompose the noxious exhalations, by uniting with the elements 
 of which they consist, particularly the hydrogen. Chloride of 
 Lime is commonly called bleaching powder ; its properties are not 
 unlike those of the chloride of soda. Chloride of Mercury is sub- 
 divided into the li-chloride (deuto-chloride) which is corrosive 
 sublimate, and the proto- chloride, which is calomel. There are 
 many other important species in this genus, as the chlorides of 
 manganese, iron, silver, &c. 
 
 Hydrio dates. But one species of importance is known, viz. 
 the Hydriodate of Potash. 
 
 Chromates. The most important species is the Chromate of Lead, 
 which is of a beautiful yellow. There are other genera of salts, as 
 the nitrites, sulphites, phosphites, &c, which are formed by combi- 
 nations of nitrous, sulphurous and phosphorus acids with bases; 
 the properties of theee, although in many respects differing from 
 the salts formed with the higher acids, are not in general very 
 dissimilar. 
 
 The organic kingdom furnishes an almost infinite 
 variety of important compounds; vegetable acids are 
 very numerous; the acetic, tartaric, oxalic, malic, kinic, 
 foe. are all of use in medicine and in the arts. Among 
 
 * The chlorides, although mentioned here, are not proper salts; 
 they are analogous to oxides^ iodides > and bromides. 
 
HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 18& 
 
 the vegetable alkalies are morphia, the narcotic principle 
 of opium, cinchonia and quinia, extracts of the Peruvian 
 bark, with many others. Oils, resin, wax, alcohol, 
 ether, sugar, starch, tannin, lignin, and various coloring 
 substances, are all products of the vegetable kingdom. 
 Salts are formed by the union of the vegetable alkalies 
 with acids, as the sulphate of quinine, of morphine, &c. 
 
 Amimal Chemistry presents a new set of compounds, 
 as fibrin, gelatine, acids, and oils; it investigates the 
 compounds of all animal matter, as bones, teeth, blood, 
 and the various secretions ; and traces all those to their 
 final or ultimate elements, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and 
 nitrogen. 
 
 Chemistry takes a wider range than any other depart- 
 ment of Physical Science ; in the mineral kingdom it 
 penetrates the hardest materials, and inquires into the 
 nature of their elementary constituents. In the vegeta- 
 ble substances, chemistry with scrutinizing glance de- 
 tects their medicinal and nutritious qualities : do these 
 require to be sepaiated from their various combinations, 
 this almost magic art can disentangle and set them free. 
 In the animal kingdom, chemistry performs a high and 
 solemn office, teaching proud man himself, that his own 
 material frame, beautiful in its aspect and noble in its 
 bearing, is in truth but a compound of a few simple 
 elements, which, as they have previously existed in other 
 combinations,twill again be dissipated to become parts 
 of the worm that ' feeds sweetly ' upon the decaying 
 body, and of the noisome weed or lowly plant, that springs 
 from the soil which covers his earthly remains. 
 
 History of Chemistry. 
 
 The term chemistry is by some supposed to be derived 
 from the Greek word kemia, or the Arabian chamia, 
 which signify to burn ; and that this science at first 
 signified the examining of substances by fire. "By others, 
 the word chemistry is supposed to have been used by the 
 Egyptians in a sense equivalent to the present meaning 
 of the term Natural Philosophy. Science among the 
 
190 HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 Egyptians, was for a long time confined to the wise men, 
 or magi, who carefully concealed their knowledge from 
 the people. Plutarch supposes that the study of nature, 
 for this reason, was called chemistry, which word in his 
 opinion signified the secret science. Whatever might 
 have been the degree of knowledge of nature possessed 
 by the Egyptians, they were probably acquainted with 
 the most important facts on which the science of chem- 
 istry is founded. 
 
 The Israelites gained from the Egyptians some know- 
 ledge of the art of working metals, and of dyeing red, 
 blue, purple and scarlet. The Phoenicians are supposed 
 to have understood the manufacture of glass, perfumes, 
 and imitations of precious stones. This knowledge was 
 successfully communicated to the Carthaginians and 
 Greeks, and by them to the Romans ; the two latter 
 people seem, however, to have possessed but a very limit- 
 ed knowledge of any chemical operations, or any branch 
 of analytical science. Plato seemed sensible of this when 
 he makes an Egyptian priest say to Solon, ' You Greeks 
 will be always children ; for you have neither the an- 
 tiquity of knowledge, nor the knowledge of antiquity.' 
 The religious belief of the Greeks and Romans, may 
 afford some excuse for their ignorance of nature : who 
 among them would have dared to take water from a 
 fountain or a river, and decompose it by fire ? They 
 would consider it as a sacrilege against rtie Naiad, or 
 the protecting divinity of the stream : the grand priest 
 would have exclaimed against the impious wretch, and 
 the people in their indignation would have torn him to 
 pieces. 
 
 Although the Egyptians were idolaters, yet less imagin- 
 ation was mingled with their religious belief; and free 
 from many of the superstitions which kept other nations 
 in intellectual bondage, they dared to look into the 
 secrets of nature. Pliny the elder, places the Egyptians 
 as first in the knowledge of the sciences. Democritus of 
 Thrace, who flourished 500 B. C. travelled into Chal- 
 dea, Persia and Egypt: in the last country he gained a 
 knowledge of chemistry that appeared to Pliny almost 
 super-human ; and yet this classical and venerable land 
 
HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 191 
 
 has transmitted to us scarce a vestige of any discoveries ! 
 But we cease to be surprised at this, when we reflect that 
 the library of Alexandria, which contained their treas- 
 ures of knowledge, was successively destroyed by the 
 victorious Romans and Mahometans. 
 
 Science, driven from Egypt, Greece, and Rome, in the 
 4th century ; took refuge in Arabia, and chemistry ap- 
 peared under the name of Alchemy. 
 
 The alchemists imagined that gold existed in all 
 metals ; and it was their great object to ascertain the 
 manner in which it might be separated from its combi- 
 nations, and obtained pure : they expected to find some 
 substance which would enable them to perform this 
 great operation : this imaginary substance, which some 
 pretended to have discovered, was called the philosopher's 
 stone. Those who studied alchemy pretended to great 
 secrecy, affirming that some heavy calamity would fall 
 upon any one who should reveal the principles of the 
 science ; keeping themselves separate from the world, 
 they invented mysterious characters, by which the initiat- 
 ed could hold correspondence without danger of dis- 
 covery. 
 
 Among the alchemists, notwithstanding the folly of 
 their pursuit, and the baseness of their deceptions, we 
 find the names of a few distinguished for talents and 
 learning. Albert the Great, a German, who lived in the 
 12th century, wrote a work upon alchemy, in which he 
 described the chemical process then in use. His trea- 
 tise on metals was written with clearness, and showed a 
 mind familiar with many of the phenomena of nature. 
 His countrymen astonished at the extent of his know- 
 ledge, accused him of magic, and threw him into prison. 
 His pupil, Thomas Aquinus, wrote upon alchemy, and 
 for the first time the word amalgam was introduced into 
 chemistry. In his writings, astrology and alchemy were 
 united. 
 
 In England, contemporary with Albert the Great, was 
 Roger Bacon, the most enlightened and judicious of all 
 the alchemists. In his treatise ' De mirabili potestate 
 artis et natural (the wonderful power of art and 
 nature,) he protested against the foolish belief in magic, 
 
]92 HISTORY OP CHEMISTRY. 
 
 charms, and necromancy ; he asserted that superstition 
 tyrannized over the human mind through ignorance of 
 natural phenomena. He was acquainted with the 
 camera obscura, telescope, and the use of gun-powder. 
 Notwithstanding he carefully concealed his labors, he 
 was accused of magic, and imprisoned. Raymond Lully 
 treated of the preparations of acids and phosphorus. 
 
 About the middle of the 12th century, Arnoldde Villa 
 Nova, a physician, consulted by kings and popes, direct- 
 ed alcohol and the oil of turpentine to be used in medi 
 cinal preparations. John and Isaac Holland published 
 several treatises on chemistry, with plates representing 
 the apparatus which they used. They made experi- 
 ments upon human blood, which have aided the most 
 recent discoveries. They invented the art of enamelling 
 and coloring glass and precious stones. 
 
 Basil Valentine, a German monk, taught that all sub- 
 stances were composed of salt, sulphur and mercury: 
 he was the first who applied chemistry to medicine. 
 The most important of his works was called ' Currus 
 Triumyhalis Antimonii,' (triumphal chariot of anti- 
 mony;) in this he gave such an account of his experi- 
 ments with this metal, as excited an interest among all 
 the physicians of Europe. 
 
 An opinion had long prevailed among the alchemists 
 that a medicine might be discovered which should be an 
 universal cure or panacea * for all diseases ; some 
 asserted that this could be found in the philosopher's 
 stone, which not only converted metals into gold, but, 
 among other extraordinary virtues, possessed the power 
 of rendering man immortal upon the earth. 
 
 Of all the alchemists, none appear to have pretended 
 to so many discoveries as Parcaelsus, a native of Switzer- 
 land, born in 1493. He confidently boasted that he was 
 in possession of an elixir which would render him im- 
 mortal , but he died in the prime of life, leaving his 
 followers overwhelmed with shame and dismay. The 
 last of the alchemists was Van Hehnont, who boasted of 
 
 * This term is derived from two Greek words, pan, all, and 
 akos, medicine, signifying to cure all. . 
 
HISTORY OP CHEMISTRY. 193 
 
 being in possession of the universal remedy to which he 
 gave the name of alkahest. 
 
 The alchemistical system crumbling into ruins, chem- 
 istry, like the fabled Phoenix, arose from its ;ishes. 
 Bcccher, a professor of medicine in Germany, taught 
 that the earth was not a simple element, but a combina- 
 tion of elements; he attempted to establish chemistry on 
 its true basis, that of analysis: his experiments were of 
 great use to succeeding chemists. 
 
 p. Stahl, the pupil of Beccher, remodelled and simplified 
 the theory of his predecessors, attempted to explain the 
 process of combustion, and to reduce the phenomena of 
 chemistry under a certain number of heads. His theory 
 of combustion supposed that a certain substance, which 
 he called phlogiston, formed a part of all combustible 
 bodies, and that its separation constitutes fire. On 
 account of the boldness of his investigations, he was 
 called the sublime Stahl. He is the first chemist who 
 appeared to have any clear ideas of chemical affinity ; 
 he even suggested the theory of double elective at- 
 traction. 
 
 At this period many learned men were engaged in 
 chemical pursuits, and the science was enriched by the 
 discoveries of Boyle, Agricola, Glauber, Kunckcl, 
 Libavius, Bohnius, Lemcry, and others. 
 
 Boerhave, an accomplished philosopher and celebrat- 
 ed physician, published a system of chemistry in 1732, 
 which contained a more ample collection of chemical 
 experiments, and more clear and precise directions for 
 repeating them, than any previously offered to the world. 
 He gave an account of vegetable analyses, more simple 
 and scientific than any which had before appeared. 
 
 Notwithstanding all these improvements, chemistry 
 was yet in a very imperfect state ; some of the absurd 
 notions of the alchemists still remained, and loose and 
 unsatisfactory reasonings, founded on vague analogies, 
 were employed. It was not for a common mind to 
 attempt to remove the shackles of prejudice which ages 
 had been riveting upon the human intellect. At this 
 time appeared Bergmann, a man gifted with a quick and 
 discriminating genius, a moral courage that could look 
 17 
 
194 HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 above 'the world's dread laugh,' and a devoted enthu- 
 siasm for the science of chemistry. 
 
 With a true analytical method he scrutinized nature, 
 with a view to ascertain her laws of aggregation ; he 
 arranged the well-known tables of elective attractions, 
 and published many important experiments upon volcan- 
 ic products. The clearness of his conceptions, the 
 accuracy of his observations, and the methodical ar- 
 rangement which he introduced into the science of 
 chemistry, entitled Bergmann to a rank among its 
 greatest benefactors., A native of the same country, 
 and contemporary with Linnaeus, it was his high destiny 
 to labor with almost equal success in the cause of nat- 
 ural science. While Linnaeus was investigating the 
 external forms of nature, with a view to the systematic 
 arrangement of the animal, vegetable, and mineral 
 kingdoms, Bergmann was analyzing and arranging the 
 elements of which they are composed. With the frank- 
 ness and generosity which marks a noble mind, he sent 
 to Linnaeus an account of his experiments and observa- 
 tions. The latter equally generous, forwarded Bergman's 
 communication's to the academy of Stockholm with this 
 inscription, ' Vide,' et obstupui (I have seen, and am 
 amazed). 
 
 Scheele, the pupil and friend of Bergmann, enriched 
 chemistry with new and important facts : he died in 
 1786, two years after the death of his predecessor ; his 
 name is commemorated in that of a compound of cop- 
 per and arsenic, (arsenite of copper) called Scheele' s 
 green. By a late distinguished chemist,* he is called 
 the Newton of chemistry. 
 
 Soon after the death of Bergmann and Scheele, a 
 series of splendid discoveries marked the advancement 
 of chemical science in Great Britain. Dr. Black discov- 
 ered the existence of latent caloric, and that limestone 
 is a compound of lime and an aerial fluid, which he 
 called fixed air, now called carbonic acid gas. This 
 discovery gave rise to pneumatic chemistry, or that 
 branch of the science which relates to gasses. 
 
 * Thomson. 
 
HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 195 
 
 Mr. Cavendish soon after this discovered hydrogen 
 gas. In 1770, Dr. Priestley commenced a series of pneu- 
 matic discoveries : he observed that by heating certain 
 metals a kind of air was obtained, much purer than the 
 atmosphere, and in combustible substances with great 
 brilliancy. It is scarcely necessary to say that this was 
 oxygen gas. 
 
 While the science of chemistry was receiving these 
 important acquisitions in one part of Europe, Lavoisier 
 in France had already commenced his brilliant, career, 
 and opened to his countrymen that pathway to scientific 
 distinction, which so many have since pursued with 
 almost unrivalled success. Lavoisier found that the 
 recent discoveries with respect to gasses could not be 
 reconciled with the phlogistic theory of combustion; 
 and after years of patient and laborious investigation, 
 he published the grand theory which considered oxygen 
 as the supporter of combustion. This theory at first 
 met, with general opposition, but gradually gained sup- 
 porters until Cavendish, Berthollet, Black, Morveau, 
 I^ourcroy, and Kirwan, (the latter of whom had strong- 
 ly opposed it) were found among its disciples. 
 
 In 1787, Lavoisier, Fourcroy, Berthollet, and Guyton 
 de Morveau, were appointed by the French academy to 
 decide upon a nomenclature of chemistry r with great care 
 and research they formed t.rjat, which is now the almost 
 universal language of the science. 
 
 Great Britain may boast of many distinguished mod- 
 ern chemists ; of Davy, the powerful advocate of the 
 chloridic theory, and the inventor of the safety lamp; 
 Murray, Brande, and Thomson, with many others, whose 
 labors have enlightened the present age, and whose 
 works will render their names familiar to succeeding 
 generations. 
 
 On the continent, Berzelius, Vauquelin, Berthollet, 
 Gay-Lussac, Thenard, Dumas, Dulong, Pelletier, and 
 others, have carried their researches and analyses to a 
 degree of accuracy and clearness hitherto* unrivalled. 
 The year 1829 is memorable for the loss sustained by 
 science, in the death of two of her most distinguished 
 
196 HISTORY OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 votaries ; but long will the halo of glory encircle the 
 venerated names of Vauquelin and Davy. 
 
 In America, Franklin, fearlessly encountering the 
 lightning from heaven, proved its identity with electri- 
 city, and taught mankind to guard against this awful 
 agent of destruction. Hare, Silliman,* Eaton, with 
 other veterans in the science, and less experienced 
 chemists, are interrogating nature with a brighter pros- 
 pect of discovery than that which encouraged the efforts 
 of their predecessoro : for, as the field of discovery and 
 improvement is infinite, in proportion as facilities for 
 them are multiplied, so are the motives for exertion. 
 As correct would it have been, at the period when earth, 
 fire, and water were considered as the four elements of na- 
 ture, for an investigating mind to have rested in this 
 belief, as at this day to suppose that we have arrived at 
 the maximum of human knowledge, or have already 
 learned as much of the properties of nature as its Al- 
 mighty Creator wills that we should know. 
 
 From the nature of chemical experiments , which in 
 most cases require either firmness of nerve, unshrinking 
 courage, or physical strength, and sometimes all these 
 qualities combined, woman may not aspire to add to the 
 stock of chemical science, discoveries of her own ; but, 
 gifted with the intellectual power to trace the relation of 
 cause and effect, and comprehend the wonderful pro- 
 perties of matter which science reveals, she may dare to 
 raise the curtain which conceals the operations of nature, 
 and, entering her laboratory, behold the grand experi- 
 ments there exhibited : nor should it be considered a 
 small privilege that she is permitted to share in the 
 sublime discoveries of science, and to feast on the ban- 
 quet of knowledge, prepared by others. 
 
 Is it not more noble for an immortal soul thus to em- 
 ploy itself in learning the second causes by which the 
 Deity operates in the material world, than to waste the 
 precious hours of existence in dreaming over sickly 
 
 * Perhaps no chemical work has ever been published, which 
 exhibits objects of the science in a clearer light than Professor 
 Silliman's late work on chemistry. - 
 
 f 
 
NATURAL HISTORY. 197 
 
 works of fancy? Can the admirers of sublimity and 
 beauty find none in the study of nature? or can the 
 lover of the marvellous find no wonders in her opera- 
 tions? There is in chemistry, poetry to satisfy the 
 most extravagant fancy, and in the sublime truths of 
 the science are mysteries far surpassing the boldest con- 
 ceptions of human genius. 
 
 LECTURE XVII. 
 
 Natural History. — Zoology. 
 
 In the study of nature, we become famiiiar with the 
 works of God ; we contemplate the heavens above, the 
 materials of the earth beneath, the objects around us, and 
 we feel that they must have had a divine author. Whether 
 we view the works of nature on a large scale, as exhibit- 
 ed in the more magnificent parts of creation, or with 
 microscopic eye examine the structure of a crystal, an 
 insect, or a blade of grass, we are alike struck with 
 wonder and awe ; we bow in adoration to Him for whose 
 comprehension nothing is too great, and whose minute 
 providence is over all, even the least of his works. The 
 study of nature has a tendency both to humble and 
 exalt man in his own eyes. When he compares his own 
 powers, physical and mental, with that omnipotence 
 which the works of nature manifest, he feels that he is 
 ' less than nothing and vanity ;' but when he finds within 
 himself faculties capable of investigating the properties 
 of these wonderful objects, of arranging them in classes, 
 of discovering their laws of organization, and of decom- 
 posing them into their original elements, he feels him- 
 self ennobled ; he realizes that these faculties must be 
 those of a soul capable of still higher attainments. It is 
 indeed salutary to hold converse with the works of God, 
 the volume of nature which has been emphatically 
 termed, ' elder scripture writ by God's own hand.' 
 17* 
 
198 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 We have observed that all material bodies, all animals,, 
 plants, and minerals, are subject to chemical observations 
 and experiments ; — but for this, they must be pulverized, 
 dissolved, distilled or melted. By a series of these pro- 
 cesses, the chemist arrives at the knowledge of the ele- 
 ments which compose the various bodies, organic and 
 inorganic, which he meets with. 
 
 In Natural History, a term which comprehends 
 Zoology, Botany, and Mineralogy, we view animals, 
 plants, and minerals, as they exist in their complete 
 state : we observe their external forms, and the various 
 changes which nature produces in them. The first 
 object of the naturalist is to know the productions of 
 nature, and to distinguish the various kinds or species 
 from each other. The next is the arrangement of these 
 species under more general divisions, and again to sim- 
 plify these divisions, until, under a few classes, he 
 arranges the almost infinite variety of animal, vegetable 
 and mineral productions. 
 
 Zoology. 
 
 The term zoology is derived from the Greek zoe, life, 
 and logos, discourse : this science examines and classes 
 those organized beings which are termed animal. The 
 distinction between animal and vegetable life is not, in 
 all cases, so clear as might be imagined, yet in general 
 it is sufficiently apparent. ' The animal has the power 
 to move about, and to seek the nourishment most agree- 
 able ; it utters audible sounds, and possesses sensation 
 and apparent consciousness. The plant, on the contrary, 
 is confined to a particular spot, having no other nourish- 
 ment than substances which themselves come in contact 
 with it ; exhibiting no consciousness, nor to common 
 observation any sensation. It is only when we examine 
 with close attention the various phenomena in the vege- 
 table and animal kingdoms, that we learn to doubt as to 
 the exact boundaries by which they are separated. 
 
 For a general view of the science of zoology, I shall 
 avail myself of the sketch appended to the ' View of Na- 
 ture ' in my Lectures on Botany. One great distinction 
 
ZOOLOGY. 199 
 
 in the animal kingdom is with respect to the vertebrae,, or 
 back bones ; such animals as have these, are called 
 vertebral, such as have not, are called avertebral. 
 
 There are four great families of vertebral animals, 
 viz. 
 
 1. Quadrupeds. The science of which has no popu- 
 lar name. This family includes only four-footed animals ; 
 as ox, dog, mouse. 
 
 2. Birds. The study of which is called ornithology, 
 from ornis, a bird, and logos. This family includes the 
 feathered tribe; as pigeon, goose, wren. 
 
 3. Amphibious animals (from amp hi, both, and bios, 
 life, signifying to live in two ways.) The science which 
 treats of these is called amphibiology : it includes those 
 cold-blooded animals which are capable of living on dry 
 land, or in the water ; as tortoise, lizard, serpent, frog. 
 
 4. Fishes. The science of which is called ichthy- 
 ology from ichthus, a fish, added to logos. It includes 
 all aquatic animals which have gills and fins; as shad, 
 trout, sturgeon, eel. 
 
 The avertebral animals are divided into two classes. 
 
 1. Insects. The science of which is called entomology 
 (from entomos an insect ) It includes all animals with 
 jointed bodies, which have jointed limbs; as flies, spi- 
 ders, lobsters. 
 
 2. Vermes. The science of which is called hermin- 
 tlwlogy. It includes all soft animals of the avertebral 
 division, which have no jointed limbs, with or without 
 hard coverings : as angle-worms, snails, oysters, and in- 
 fusory animals, (animalculce). 
 
 According to the classification of Linnaaus, with some 
 modifications by Cuvier, the Animal Kingdom is ar- 
 ranged under four grand divisions, viz. 
 
 Vertebral, Molluscous, Articulated, and Radi- 
 ated. These are subdivided into classes and orders. 
 
 First Grand Divsion. — Vertebral Animals. 
 
 Class 1. Mammalia, or such as at first are nourished 
 by milk. This class have lungs, and peculiar organs 
 for imbibing their food, during their first stage of exist' 
 ence. 
 
200 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 The First order is called Bi-mani (from bis two, 
 mani hands;) this order includes man only ; we find 
 here no generic or specific differences, but the following 
 varieties. 
 
 1. Caucasian race, anciently inhabiting the country 
 about the Caspian and Black. Seas; from these we are 
 descended. 
 
 2. The Mongolian, the ancient inhabitants about 
 the Pacific Ocean, from whom the Chinese are de- 
 scended. 
 
 3. The Ethiopian or Negro race. 
 
 The Second order contains the quadru-mani, from 
 quatuor, four, and mani, hands. These have thumbs or 
 toes, separate, on each of the four feet. We here find 
 orang-outang (sometimes called the wild man) and the 
 monkey. 
 
 The Third order contains carnivorous animals, or 
 flesh feeders, having no separate thumbs, or having great 
 toes without nails ; as the dog and cat. 
 
 The Fourth order contains the Gnawers, having no 
 canine teeth (those which are called eye-teeth), feeding 
 almost wholly on vegetable substances ; as the Rat and 
 Squirrel. 
 
 The Fifth order is Edentata, or animals wanting 
 teeth ; as the sloth and armadillo. 
 
 The Sixth order, Pachyderma, thick skin animals 
 with hoofs ; as the elephant, horse, and hog. 
 
 The Seventh order contains the Ruminating animals, 
 such as chew the cud, having front teeth (incisors) 
 below only, and feet with hoofs cloven ; as the ox, sheep, 
 and camel. 
 
 The Eighth order, Cete, contains aquatic animals, such 
 as live in water, having no kind of feet, or whose feet 
 are fin-like limbs; as the whale and dolphin. 
 
 We have enumerated all the orders of the class Mam- 
 malia, as it is the one on which man is placed ; we 
 shall now notice the remaining classes of animals, with- 
 out going into so minute a detail of their orders. 
 
 Class II. Contains Birds (Aves), which are distin- 
 guished by having the body covered with feathers and 
 down, long naked jaws, two wings formed for flight . they 
 
ZOOLOGY. 201 
 
 are called bi-ped (from bis two, and pedes feet.) The 
 orders in this class, are chiefly distinguished from each 
 - other by the peculiar make of the bill and feet. 
 
 Class III. Amphibia, contains amphibious animals 
 including what are commonly called reptiles. It is divid- 
 ed into four orders. 
 
 1. With shells over their back, and four feet; as 
 the tortoise and turtle. 
 
 2. Covered with scales, and having four feet; as 
 the crocodile and lizard. 
 
 3. Body naked, destitute of feet; as serpents and 
 snakes. 
 
 4. The body naked, and having two, or four feet; 
 as the frog and toad. 
 
 Class IV. Contains Fishes (Pisces), natives of the 
 water, unable to exist for any length of time out of it; 
 swift in their motions, and voracious in their appetites, 
 breathing by means of gills, which are generally united 
 in a long arch ; swimming by means of radiated fins, and 
 mostly covered with scales. 
 
 Second Grand Division. 
 
 Class V. 3follusca, bodies soft without bones, but 
 their muscles attached to a skin which forms a calcare- 
 ous covering, called a shell, and is in many cases, pro- 
 duced from their skin. These animals possess no 
 organs of sense but those of taste and sight, and these 
 are often wanting. The nautilus and cuttle-fish are of 
 the highest order of Molluscous animals. 
 
 One order contains animals without head, having a 
 shell usually of two pieces; these are called Bi-valves ; 
 as the oyster, clam, and snail. The study of concholo- 
 gy (from conchus a shell) has relation to this class of 
 animals. 
 
 Third Grand Division. 
 
 We proceed next to those animals called Articulated; 
 these have jointed trunks and mostly jointed limbs. 
 They possess the faculty of locomotion, or changing 
 place : some have feet, and others are destitute of them; 
 the latter move by trailing along their bodies. 
 
 Class VI. Annelida, contains such animals as have 
 
202 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 red blood, without a bony skeleton ; bodies soft and 
 Long, the covering divided into transverse rings; they 
 live mostly in water ; some of them secrete calcareous 
 matter, which forms a hard covering or shell ; as the 
 earth or angle-worm, and leech. 
 
 Class VII. Crustacea, contains animals without blood, 
 with jointed limbs fastened to a calcareous crust; they 
 breathe by a kind of gills. 
 
 Class VIII. Arachnida, contains spider-like animals 
 without blood, having jointed limbs, without horns: 
 they breathe by little openings, which lead to organs 
 resembling lungs, or by little pipes distributed over the 
 whole body : these do not pass through any important 
 change of state, as insects do ; they have mostly six or 
 eight eyes, and eight feet, and feed chiefly on living 
 animals. Examples of this class are the spider and scor- 
 pion. 
 
 Class IX. Insecta, or insects, without blood, having 
 jointed limbs and horns : they breathe by two pipes, 
 running parallel to each other, through the whole body ; 
 they have two horns; they are mostly winged, having 
 one or two pairs : a few are without wings ; mostly with 
 six feet. They possess all the senses whish belong to 
 any class of animals except that of hearing. 
 
 The winged insects pass through several changes or 
 metamorphoses. The Butterfly is first an egg; this 
 when hatched is long and cylindrical, and divided into 
 numerous rings, having many short legs, jaws, and sev- 
 eral small eyes; this is the larva, or caterpillar. At 
 length k casts off its skin, and appears in another form 
 without limbs. It neither takes nourishment, moves, 
 nor gives any sign of life • this is called the chrysalis. 
 In process of time, by examining it closely, the imperfect 
 form of the butterfly may be seen through the envelope ; 
 this, it soon bursts, and a perfect butterfly appears. 
 When about to pass into the chrysalis state, of which 
 they appear to have warning, the insect selects some 
 place where it may repose safely during its temporary 
 death.* The silk-worm spins itself a silken shroud, and 
 from this all our silk is obtained. 
 
 * May not this be considered as a lesson to man to anticipate 
 
ZOOLOGY. 203 
 
 Fourth Grand Division. — Radiated Animals. 
 
 Class X. Zoophites, or animal plants. Here we find 
 the lowest beings in the animal kingdom. Some of the 
 orders of this class contain animals which have neither 
 heart, brains, nerves nor any apparent means of breath- 
 ing. These are sometimes called animal plants ; many 
 of them, as the corals, are fixed to rocks, and never 
 change place. The term coral includes under it many 
 species: the red coral used for ornaments is the most 
 beautiful. The substance of coral, when subjected to 
 chemical analysis, is found to consist chiefly of carbonate 
 of lime; the hard crust which envelopes the animal sub- 
 stances, is an excretion formed by it in the same way as 
 the shells of the oyster and lobster are produced, or as 
 nails grow upon the fingers and toes of the human body. 
 The quantity of this carbonate of lime elaborated by the 
 little coral animal is truly wonderful ; islands are formed 
 and harbors blocked up by it. Some of the zoophites 
 are fixed, by a kind of root, to the bottom of the sea ; 
 some, as the sea-nettle, which appears like the segment 
 of a circle, are carried about by the motion of the wa- 
 ters, without any voluntary motion, as are also the sea 
 daisy, sea mary-gold, and the sea carnation, so named 
 from an apparent resemblance to those plants. We find 
 here the sea-fan, the sea-pen and the madrepore, the 
 latter of which are often thrown together in vast quan- 
 tities. 
 
 The Sponge also belongs to this class of strange 
 animal substances ; it consists of a fibrous mass, contain- 
 ing a jelly-like substance, which, when touched, discov- 
 ers a slight sensation, the only sign of life manifested by 
 it. There are many species of sponge ; those most val- 
 ued in the arts are found in the Mediterranean Sea and 
 Indian Ocean. Some grow upon rocks, and are found 
 covering the interior of submarine caves. The Spon- 
 gia parasitica is seen growing upon the back and legs 
 of a species of crab^ sometimes as many as forty indi- 
 vidual sponges extend themselves over the the crab, 
 
 and provide for the change in his existence, which his bodily in- 
 firmities and daily observation teach him is to be his own lot ? 
 
204 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 impeding the motion of its joints, spreading like a cloak 
 over its back, or forming for its head grotesque and 
 towering ornaments, from which the poor crab vainly 
 attempts to disencumber itself. 
 
 Some species of the sponge grow to a very large size ; 
 one has been found in the East Indies in the form of a 
 cup, capable of containing ten gallons of water. The 
 fibrous part of the sponge is the skeleton of the animal : 
 the large apertures serve to carry out fluids from within ; 
 while the water by which the animal is nourished is 
 imbibed by minute pores : this continual circulation of 
 water is one of the most important functions of the liv- 
 ing sponge. 
 
 These animals resemble plants in their manner of 
 producing others ; they form a species of germ, like the 
 bud growing upon the stalk ; this falls off from the stem, 
 and becomes a perfect animal. If a part of one of those 
 animals is separated from the rest, it will itself be as 
 perfect a living animal as was the whole before. A 
 polypus can be divided into as many animals as it con- 
 tains atoms ; some of this order are very properly called 
 hydras (many headed). Besides these, there is another 
 order of animal substances, infusoria, which appear like 
 a homogeneous mass, having no appearance of any limbs 
 whatever ; these are either angular, oval or gobular. 
 
 At the head of the animal kingdom we found man, suf- 
 ficiently resembling brute animals in his material frame to 
 constitute part of an extensive class, embracing the ape, 
 elephant, and dog ; yet between the lowest degree of in- 
 telligence in the human race, and the highest faculties 
 of brutes, there is a line of distinction marked by the 
 hand of the Almighty, in characters too obvious for 
 doubt. God said, ' Let us make man in our own image ; 
 and he breathed into him the breath of life. And man 
 became a living soul. 3 
 
 Some writers have attempted to show that man differs 
 only from the inferior order of animals in possessing a 
 greater variety of instincts. But however wonderful may 
 appear the instinctive perceptions of brutes, they are 
 destitute of reason, and incapable of being the subjects 
 of moral government. We must, therefore, both from 
 
ZOOLOGY. 205 
 
 our own observation and the declarations of scripture, 
 infer, that the faculties of man differ, not in degree only, 
 but distinctly in their nature, from those of all other be- 
 ings upon our globe. 
 
 1 Man,' says Buffon, ' by his form, and the perfection 
 of his organs, and as the only being on earth endowed 
 with reason, seems properly placed at the head of the 
 kingdoms of nature. All in him announces the lord of 
 the earth ; his form marks his superiority over all living 
 beings ; he stands erect in the attitude of command ; he 
 can gaze upon the heavens ; on his face is imprinted the 
 character of dignity ; the image of his soul is painted 
 upon his features, and the excellence of his nature pene- 
 trates through his material organs and animates the ex- 
 pression of his countenance.' 
 
 In the orders of animals next to man, we find the 
 senses of sight, touch, taste, and smell, equally perfect as 
 those possessed by him, and in some cases they are even 
 more acute; but as we proceed downwards through the 
 gradations of animal existence, we perceive the number 
 and acuteness of the senses to diminish; we find some 
 beings with but four senses, some with three, others with 
 two ; and lastly, in the Zoophites, we find only the sense 
 of touch, and that so faintly exhibited, as almost to lead 
 us to doubt its existence. 
 
 The branches of zoology which may be pursued most 
 easily and most agreeably by females are concliology and 
 entomology. Concliology presents to the eye of taste 
 many splendid and curious objects. Fashion with her 
 potent wand seems to have ordered shells a place in 
 the saloon and boudoir, and it now remains for science 
 to make her claim to the right of arranging them accord- 
 ing to her own methodical and philosophical rules. 
 
 ' To procure shells in their native situation is by no 
 means difficult; they may be picked up in ledges, and 
 on banks; drawn out of ponds and rivers, along with 
 weeds ; collected on the sea shore, or among rocks ; or 
 they may be found among the refuse, in fisherman's 
 nets. To obtain an extensive collection in this way, 
 would, however, require much time and travelling, or 
 the kind aid of many friends : enough, however, to illus- 
 18 
 
206 ZOOLOGY. 
 
 trate the classes, orders, and many of the families, may 
 be thus easily assembled, and afford much practical 
 instruction. We recommend such a commencement 
 before recourse be had to the more usual mode of 
 obtaining a collection ; namely, that of purchase. If 
 the latter means be resorted to, the buyer should be 
 satisfied that each shell is perfect and full grown, and, 
 if only one of the kind be selected, well colored, and as 
 much in its natural state as a freedom from foreign 
 matters will permit : all degrees of artificial polish, or 
 form, should be considered as blemishes; except in 
 articles of ornament. The size should be suited, a3 
 nearly as possible, to that of the purchaser's cabinet. 
 It will be found of advantage to the student, to endea- 
 vor to fill up her series of families, or genera, before she 
 is anxious about particular species ; unless she would 
 confine her collection to some one tribe, which, after 
 she has obtained a little general information, is a good 
 practice. A collection is best kept in small trays, in 
 shallow drawers of equal depth ; and such specimens as 
 are too large for the drawers, will form a handsome 
 article of furniture arranged in a glass case. Our rea- 
 son for recommending drawers of an equal depth, is, 
 that a systematic arrangement may be followed which 
 would add greatly to the value of any collection, and 
 would be entirely destroyed by having regard to every 
 variation of size. No other care will be requisite, than 
 to exclude the dust, or occasionally wash the specimens 
 tenderly with soap and water.' * 
 
 Entomology is an interesting branch of Natural 
 History. There is a difficulty in the pursuit of this, 
 which does not exist in the study of shells, since in the 
 latter case, in obtaining specimens, we do not usually 
 need to destroy animal life; the inhabitant of the shell 
 being in most cases decayed, before its covering passes 
 into our hands. It is the tenement, and not the organ- 
 ized being which is the object of our classification. 
 But in the examination of insects we cannot but expe- 
 rience uneasiness at the idea of causing pain, even to a 
 poor beetle — and then the giddy butterfly so joyous and 
 
 * Young Lady's Book. 
 
ZOOLOGY. 207 
 
 sportive, we cannot but feel some regret to abridge its 
 ephemeral existence, and to know that its beauty has 
 accelerated its doom — emblem but too apt of many 
 an unfortunate of our own sex ! And yet, waiving the 
 consideration of suffering, which may be, in a degree, 
 imaginary, since there are various ways in which insects 
 may be deprived of life without pain, there is much to 
 interest the mind in the study of Entomology, — much to 
 awaken new admiration, for the works of Nature, and to 
 show forth the wonderful power and wisdom of the great 
 Creator. The least insect, considered as the workman- 
 ship of God, becomes to us a curious manifestation of 
 his skill. We find insects like all other organized beings 
 arranged by nature into genera, as in the butterfly, 
 papilio ; the bee, apis ; the fly, musca, &>c. Orders and 
 classes are a less natural division formed by men of 
 science for the purpose of more convenient reference 
 and arrangement. 
 
 The study of zoology will naturally lead you to think 
 more of the structure of your own frame ; and how- 
 ever startling the idea may be, I cannot but consider 
 some knowledge of the human anatomy as desirable for 
 females. You will pardon me if I here allude to the 
 utility of this knowledge as exemplified in the case of 
 my own mother, in whose recent loss I have had the kind 
 sympathy of many an affectionate heart among my pupils. 
 
 She early acquired a habit of examining the anatomy 
 of such animals as are used for food ; joints of meat, 
 fowls, &/C. she dissected with particular attention to the 
 form and position of the different bones. Thus she soon 
 became an adept at carving, (an art which every mistress 
 of a family ought to understand) and, reasoning from 
 analogy, formed a tolerably correct idea of the human 
 anatomy. In rearing a large family, she often found 
 this knowledge of great use. In more than one case, 
 where accidents either in her own family and immediate 
 neighborhood had caused dislocation of joints, and im- 
 mediate surgical aid could not be obtained, she has 
 replaced bones, and secured them by proper ligatures. 
 
 You may now shrink from the thought of performing 
 such an office ; but in the varied scenes of life many 
 trials may be required of your skill, fortitude and 
 
208 BOTANY. 
 
 strength of nerves, from which sensibility may revolt — 
 but which is the truly good and interesting neighbor, 
 daughter, wife, or mother, — she who can command her 
 own feelings sufficiently to perform painful offices for 
 the relief of those she loves, and even for the sake of 
 common humanity, or she who, like Niobe, dissolved in 
 sentimental grief, commisserates, without attempting to 
 relieve? Youth and beauty may now gain for you a 
 short-lived admiration, an evanescent love; but the time 
 will soon arrive when you will be respected and honored 
 only as you are wise and useful. 
 
 Botany. 
 
 The study of Botany is highly calculated to interest 
 females, and to enlarge and discipline the mind. This 
 idea and the conviction that no popular work existed 
 which could lead the pupil step by step from the most 
 simple elements to the general principles of the science, 
 gave rise to my Familiar Lectures on Botany.* Since 
 the publication of that volume, I have had the satisfaction 
 of knowing that the science of which it treats has been 
 extensively introduced into female seminaries and 
 schools, of every grade, from the highest to the lowest 
 The mistaken idea that Botany was a dry and difficult 
 study, had deterred most females from attempting to 
 gain any scientific knowledge of the vegetable king- 
 dom. So far however is this from being the case, that 
 there is no study in which the leading principles of 
 arrangement can be more readily comprehended and 
 remembered. Scientific names may not be so easily 
 retained in memory, but it is the system, and not the 
 names, which is of the most importance. It is however 
 far less difficult to remember technical terms than is often 
 imagined, especially when these are referred to their 
 primitives, and their original signification understood. 
 
 In exhibiting some of the advantages of the study of 
 
 * At the request of many teachers of common school?, the author 
 has been induced to commence a smaller work, which may be 
 afforded at such a price as will allow of general use, and in a 
 style adapted to the capacities of children. This work will soon 
 be offered to the public. 
 
BOTANY. 209 
 
 botany, I shall make use of the Introductory Lecture in 
 the work to which I have just referred. 
 
 The universe consists of matter and mind. By the 
 faculties of mind with which God has endowed us, we 
 are able to examine into the properties of the material 
 objects by which we are surrounded. 
 
 If we had no sciences, nature would present exactly 
 the same phenomena as at present. The heavenly 
 bodies would move with equal regularity, and preserve 
 the same relative situations, although no system of 
 Astronomy had been formed. The laws of gravity and 
 of motion would operate in the same manner as at pres- 
 ent, if we had no such science as Natural Philosophy. 
 The affinities of substances for each other were the 
 same, before the science of Chemistry existed, as they 
 are now. It is an important truth, and one which can- 
 not be too much impressed upon the mind in all scien- 
 tific investigations, that no systems of man can change 
 the laws and operations of nature ; though by systems, 
 we are enabled to gain a knowledge of these laws and 
 relations. 
 
 The Deity has not only placed before us an almost 
 infinite variety of objects, but has given to our minds the 
 power of reducing them into classes, so as to form beau- 
 tiful and regular systems, by which we can comprehend, 
 under a few terms, the vast number of individual things, 
 which would, otherwise, present to our bewildered minds 
 a confused and indiscriminate mass. This power of the 
 mind, so important in classification, is that of discover- 
 ing resemblances. We perceive two objects, we have an 
 idea of their resemblance, and we give a common name 
 to both ; other similar objects are then referred to the 
 same class, or receive the same name. A child sees a 
 flower which he is told is a rose ; he sees anothor resem- 
 bling it, and nature teaches him to call that also a rose. 
 On this operation of the mind depends the power of 
 forming classes, or of generalizing. 
 
 Some relations or resemblances are seen*at the first 
 glance ; others are not discovered until after close 
 examination and reflection ; but the most perfect classi- 
 fication is not always founded upon the most obvious 
 resemblances. A person ignorant of botany, on behold- 
 18* 
 
210 BOTAN5T. 
 
 ing the profusion of flowers which adorn the face of na- 
 ture, would discover general resemblances, and perhaps 
 form in his mind some order of arrangement; but the 
 system of botany now in use, neglecting the most con- 
 spicuous parts of the flower, is founded upon the obser- 
 vation of small parts of it, which a common observer 
 might not notice. 
 
 System is necessary in every science. It not only 
 assists in the acquisition of knowledge, but enables us to 
 retain what is thus acquired; and, by the laws of asso- 
 ciation, to call forth what is treasured up in the store- 
 house of the mind. System is important not only in the 
 grave and elevated departments of science, but is essen- 
 tial in the most common concerns and operations of 
 ordinary life. In conducting any kind of business, and 
 in the arrangement of household concerns, it is indis- 
 pensable to the success of the one, and to the comfort of 
 those interested in the other. The very logical and sys- 
 tematic arrangement which prevails in Botanical science, 
 has, without doubt, a tendency to induce in the mind 
 the habit and love of order; which, when once estab- 
 lished, will operate, even in the minutest concerns. 
 Whoever traces this system, through its various connex- 
 ions, by a gradual progress from individual plants to 
 general classes, until the whole vegetable world seems 
 brought into one point of view ; and then descends in 
 the same methodical manner, from generals to particu- 
 lars, must acquire a habit of arrangement, and a per- 
 ception of order, which is the true practical logic. 
 
 The study of botany seems peculiarly adapted to 
 females, the objects of its investigation are beautiful and 
 delicate ; its pursuits, leading to exercise in the open 
 air, are conducive to health and cheerfulness. It is not 
 a sedentary study which can be acquired in the library, 
 but the objects of the science are scattered over the 
 surface of the earth, along the banks of the winding 
 brooks, on the borders of precipices, the sides of moun- 
 tains, and the depths of the forest. 
 
 A knowledge of botany is necessary to the medical 
 profession. Our Almighty Benefactor, in bestowing 
 upon us the vegetable tribes, has not only provided a 
 source of refined enjoyment in the contemplation of 
 
BOTANY. £11 
 
 their beautiful forms and colors ; in their fragrance, by 
 which, in their peculiar language, they seem to hold 
 secret communion with our minds; He has not only 
 given them for our food and clothing, but with kind, 
 parental care, has, in them, provided powers to counter- 
 act and remove the diseases to which mankind are sub- 
 ject. For many ages plants were the only medicines 
 known, or used; but modern discoveries in chemistry, 
 by forming compounds of previously existing elements, 
 have, in some degree, superseded their use. Although 
 the science of medicine has received much additional 
 light from chemistry, it may perhaps in modern days 
 have occupied the attention of medical men too exclu- 
 sively ; inducing them to toil in their laboratories to 
 form those combinations which nature had done, much 
 more perfectly, in the plants which they pass unheeded. 
 It is probable that the medicinal productions of the 
 animal and mineral kingdoms, bear but a small propor- 
 tion to those of the vegetable. 
 
 When our forefathers came to this country, they 
 found the natives in possession of much medical know- 
 ledge of plants. Having no remedies prepared by scien- 
 tific skill, the Indians were led, by necessity, to the use 
 of those which nature offered them ; and by experience 
 and observation, they had arrived at many valuable con- 
 clusions as to the qualities of plants. Their mode of 
 life, leading them to penetrate the shades of the forest, 
 and to climb the mountain precipices, naturally associat- 
 ed them much with the vegetable world. The Indian 
 woman, the patient sharer in these excursions, was led 
 to look for such plants as she might use for the diseases 
 of her family. Each new and curious plant, though not 
 viewed by her as a botanist would now behold it, doubt- 
 less was regarded with scrutinizing attention ; the 
 color, taste, and smell, were carefully remarked as indi- 
 cations of its properties. But the discoveries and obser- 
 vations of the Indians have perished with themselves; 
 having no system for the classification or description of 
 plants, nor any written language by which such a sys- 
 tem might have been conveyed to others, no vestige, but 
 uncertain tradition, remains of their knowledge of the 
 medicinal qualities of plants. 
 
212 BOTANY. 
 
 The study of nature in any of her varieties is highly 
 interesting and useful. But the heavenly bodies are 
 far distant from us, and were they within our reach, are 
 too mighty for us to grasp : our feeble minds seem over- 
 whelmed in the contemplation of their immensity. 
 
 Animals, though affording the most striking marks of 
 designing wisdom, cannot be dissected and examined 
 without painful emotions. 
 
 The vegetable world offers a boundless field of inquiry, 
 which may be explored with the most pure and delight- 
 ful emotions. Here the Almighty seems to manifest 
 himself to us with less of that dazzling sublimity which 
 it is almost painful to behold in His more magnificent 
 creations; and it might almost appear, that accomodat- 
 ing the vegetable world to our capacities, He had espe- 
 cially designed it for our investigation and amusement. 
 
 The study of Botany naturally leads to greater love 
 and reverence for the Deity. We would not affirm that 
 it does in reality always produce this effect ; for, unhap- 
 pily, there are some minds which, though quick to per- 
 ceive the beauties of nature, seem, blindly, to overlook 
 Him who spread them forth. They can admire the 
 gifts, while they forget the Giver. But those who feel 
 in their hearts a love to God, and who see in the natural 
 world the workings of His power, can look abroad, and, 
 adopting the language of a Christian poet, exclaim, 
 
 ' My Father made them all.' 
 
 In following the course laid down in the botanical text- 
 book now used in the Seminary, the pupil is first intro- 
 duced to the analytical part of botany ; she is presented 
 with flowers of the first ten classes, and having learned 
 to distinguish them scientifically, is then introduced to 
 those which are more complex in their relations, until 
 the representatives of the twenty-one classes of vege- 
 tables are all brought under review. 
 
 After having learned to assign plants to their appro- 
 priate classes, the pupil is taught the relations of each 
 part of a vegetable to the whole organized being, the 
 external varieties of roots, stems, leaves, corollas, &c, 
 with their physiological uses. In the third part of the 
 
MINERALOGY. 213 
 
 Lectures on Botany, the pupil is taught the various sys- 
 tems which have at different times been introduced by 
 men of science, with the rules of classification and 
 arrangement which have been deduced from the nature 
 of the mind, and of the objects to be classed; and made 
 more minutely acquainted with the system of Linnaeus, 
 and of the natural history of individual plants. 
 
 Lastly is given a general view of the vegetable world, 
 as respects geographical situation, and their successive 
 changes during the year, their habits, food, diseases, 
 &-c, with observations upon the relations which the 
 vegetable world, bears to the other kingdoms of nature. 
 
 For a sketch of the history of botanical science, I 
 must refer you to some of the last lectures in the work, 
 whose outlines I have now laid before you. Before 
 leaving this subject, 1 must again repeat what has so 
 often been urged upon you, that botany is a practical 
 science; that during the season of flowers, you should 
 diligently collect specimens of every new species that 
 appears. The technical descriptions in the latter part 
 of your text book, will not be found sufficiently compre- 
 hensive fcr those who pursue the science thoroughly. To 
 such, the manual of Professor Eaton, or some other mere* 
 ly descriptive work, will be necessary.* 
 
 LECTURE XVIII. 
 
 Mineralogy and Geology. 
 
 1 Lo ! Vanity, with dazzling gems adorned, 
 
 Flaunts proudly by : 
 "While Science pores upon a specimen 
 Rough from the bosom of its native mine.' 
 
 The science of Mineralogy has not yet received from 
 our sex that attention which it deserves, or which it is 
 
 * The science of botany, it will be seen, is more briefly treated 
 of in these lectures than most other branches of education ; this 
 
214 MINERALOGY. 
 
 undoubtedly destined to command. We do not expect, 
 or wish to see you devoting that time to this study 
 which may be needed for other pursuits ; but a very 
 little attention to the subject, especially after you have 
 become acquainted with chemistry, will enable you to 
 comprehend the general features of the science, and will 
 render cabinets of minerals something more to you than 
 collections of glittering stones. Let us suppose (a very 
 common case) a coterie of fine ladies visiting a scientific 
 collection, and while the learned professor or proprietor is 
 politely explaining to them the properties and peculiari- 
 ties of the substances, or the mode of arrangement 
 which he has adopted, they are evidently paying no 
 attention to all this, but exclaiming to each other ' how 
 sweet this is,' ' how splendid,' ' what beautiful ornaments 
 that would make,' — or perhaps lounging away the time, 
 with entire indifference as to the objects which they had 
 professedly come to examine. Now all that I plead for, 
 is, that you may have enough of science to lead you to 
 wish for more ; enough to render you interesting com- 
 panions to men of science. They will not generally ex- 
 pect more of you, than that you should be attentive 
 listeners, or be able to suggest subjects for their explana- 
 tion. Yet should you chance to become sufficiently 
 acquainted with any branch of science to enable you to 
 impart information, I know of no law, either of morality 
 or propriety, which would be violated by your modestly 
 imparting that knowledge to others ; neither do I think 
 any man of real science would be displeased to find a 
 lady capable of supporting conversation on scientific 
 subjects. 
 
 I shall now, as briefly as possible, give you some of the 
 
 is owing to the peculiar nature of the study, which, in order to 
 be understood, should be illustrated either by drawings or natural 
 flowers. A mere outline of botan} r can be of little use to those 
 who are unacquainted with the science : to those who have a 
 practical knowledge of it, compendiums are neither very inte- 
 resting or useful. Like the objects of the study, botany needs to 
 be seen as a whole, in order to show its beauty and utility. Those 
 who only look at the Greek names of classes and orders, not un- 
 frequently acquire a prejudice against the science, which one ju- 
 dicious lecture from a practical botanist might remove. 
 
MINERALOGY. 215 
 
 leading traits in the science of mineralogy, with its sub- 
 ordinate branch, geology. 
 
 Minerals are inorganized bodies, possessing neither 
 life, nor the power of voluntary motion. Mineralogy 
 teaches the properties and relations of minerals, and the 
 method of describing and arranging them : it compre- 
 hends not only the study of solid bodies, such as earths 
 and metals, but gasses and liquids — of all matter that is 
 not either animal or vegetable. 
 
 Minerals are homogeneous, (simple) or heterogeneous 
 (compound). Simple minerals are so called, not in refer- 
 ence to the elements which compose them, for in this 
 view few are simple ; but as they appear to the eye to 
 consist of one uniform mass. The simple minerals only 
 are the subjects with which mineralogy is concerned. 
 Thus lime is simple in its structure, though chemically 
 considered, it consists of carbonic acid and lime. 
 
 Compound Minerals present to the eye an aggregation 
 of different substances; as granite, which is composed of 
 .quartz, mica, and feldspar. The compound minerals 
 usually exist in large masses ; as rocks, and mountains : 
 the study of these constitute geology. Some knowledge 
 of the simple minerals is necessary before commencing 
 geological studies. ' The distinctions which exist be- 
 tween different rocks must depend on the nature of the 
 simple minerals which enter into their compositions, or 
 on the mode of aggregation, and the diversity of aspect, 
 exhibited by compound minerals, even when bearing 
 the same name, is so great, as to render it necessary 
 very critically to examine the simple minerals of which 
 they are composed. 5 * 
 
 We perceive then the intimate relation between min- 
 eralogy and geology. Mineralogy has also a very 
 intimate connexion with chemistry. A mineralogist 
 may examine ail the external characters of a min- 
 eral, hardness, color, fracture, lustre, specific gravity, 
 &,c, and according to circumstances, give it a name 
 and place in his classification ; but, in order to know 
 its constituent elements, its degree of fusibility, the 
 
 * Cleaveland's Mineralogy. 
 
216 MINERALOGY. 
 
 manner in which it is affected by acids and other sub- 
 stances, chemistry must afford its aid. Berzelius, a 
 celebrated Swedish mineralogist, remarks that each 
 science, in order to be perfect should contain with- 
 in itself all that is necessary to its full developement, 
 and yet so far from this, at the present day there is a 
 connexion more or less intimate between all the branches 
 of human knowledge, so that they may be considered as 
 forming one Universal science, the knowledge of any one 
 branch, throwing light upon all the others. 
 
 One of the most curious and interesting branches of 
 Mineralogy, is the study of crystals, or as it is termed 
 crystallography. The very singular and mysterious 
 agency which operates in the atoms of different substan- 
 ces, producing in each its determinate form, as of cube, 
 prism, rhomboid, &c, is no less wonderful than the 
 phenomenon of the vital principle in organized beings. 
 
 The mode of obtaining crystals of alum, blue vitnol, 
 &/C, for baskets and other ornamental work, is familiar 
 to many ladies : they know that the mineral must first 
 be dissolved in water, and the solution slowly evaporated, 
 that the particles of alum or other substance separating 
 from the water, will unite and form little crystals which 
 float on the surface, until their weight, increased by the 
 accretion of new particles, causes them to fall through 
 the liquid. 
 
 Alum (sulphate of alumitc and potash) forms crys- 
 tals of eight sides, or octahedrons. 
 
 Blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) forms prismatic crys- 
 tals of four, six, or more sides. 
 
 Common salt (chloride of sodium, or muriate of 
 soda) crystallizes in cubes. The crystalization may be 
 disturbed, so as not to present the primitive form of the 
 crystals ; but it is ascertained that every mineral has a 
 tendency to its peculiar form of crystalization. The 
 ultimate atom of the mineral is supposed to be of the 
 same figure as the primitive form of its crystal. 
 
 The term crystal is from the Greek hrustallos, which 
 signifies ice. The ancients believed that crystallized 
 quartz, or rock crystal, was water congealed by extreme 
 cold. Mineralogists were for some time divided as to the 
 
MINERALOGY. 217 
 
 proper methods of classing the substances which were 
 objects of their investigation. While some contended 
 that the species of minerals, should be formed wholly 
 upon their external characters ; others as strongly insist- 
 ed upon an arrangement founded wholly on chemical 
 principles, or the constituent elements of the minerals. 
 The wiser course has of late been allowed of permitting 
 mineralogy to receive the light which chemistry is able to 
 throw upon it, without relinquishing any advantage 
 which it may otherwise possess. 
 
 In arranging a cabinet of minerals, it is necessary 
 to fix on some method of classification, as a guide.* 
 Cleaveland makes four classes of minerals ; 1st, substan- 
 ces not metallic, composed entirely, or in part, of an acid. 
 This class, he divides into four orders; these he divides 
 into genera, and these again into species. 
 
 The 2d class is Earthy Compounds, or Stones. 
 The 3rf class is Combustibles. 
 The 4th class is Ores. 
 
 If you have but few substances at first, and commence 
 arranging these scientifically, your interest in the subject 
 will increase, and your collection will no doubt receive 
 additions from various quarters. Every walk and every 
 journey, may present you with something for your cabi- 
 net, and a new interest will thus be given to the face of 
 nature. I should here observe, that you must not expect 
 to be able, without assistance, to ascertain the name of a 
 mineral, as easily as you find by botanical analysis the 
 name of a plant. In mineralogy, you must at first depend 
 chiefly on the opinions of those who have a practical 
 knowledge of the science; that is, you will need at first to 
 have a. practical mineralogist label your specimens, except 
 in the case of such common substances as you already 
 know by their popular names. After having seen and 
 handled a mineral, and placed it in its proper siluation 
 in your cabinet, you will seldom forget its appearance 
 and name ; you will, by attention, acquire an astonishing 
 
 * Cleaveland's Mineralogy is perhaps more generally followed 
 than any other in this country. Emmons's is a less expensive 
 work, and very clear and concise. 
 19 
 
218 GEOLOGY. 
 
 quickness and facility in distinguishing specimens ; and 
 names which at first seemed hard and difficult to be 
 remembered, will become as familiar as the words chair, 
 table, &c. 
 
 We will suppose you have a specimen of the anthra- 
 cite coal, called Lehigh, Schuylkill, &lc. according to the 
 name of the river near which it is obtained. You wish 
 to know where to place this mineral in your collection, 
 and to ascertain its character. In the first place, you 
 must consider in which class it is placed. The third class 
 (in Cleaveland's work) contains combustibles; this sub- 
 stance being a combustible, you will perceive must be 
 in the third class of minerals ; where you will find the 
 species hydrogen gas, sulphur, bitumen, amber, and dia- 
 mond which burns brilliantly in oxygen gas ; and next to 
 diamond, you find anthracite, which is the sixth species 
 in the class. You are then directed to the page which 
 contains a minute description of the substance in ques- 
 tion, with its varieties, localities, and uses. 
 
 In this way, you may proceed with any other mineral, 
 whose common name is known to you ; but without much 
 practical knowledge, you will not acquire sufficient accu- 
 racy in chemical analyses, or in ascertaining the specific 
 gravity, and some other external characters of minerals, 
 to be able to learn, by your own investigations, the names 
 of such minerals as are unknown to you. 
 
 Geology. 
 
 To females, geology is chiefly important, by its effect 
 in enlarging their sphere of thought, rendering them 
 more interesting as companions to men of science, and 
 better capable of instructing the young. Especially does 
 geology afford important aid to religion by confirming the 
 truth of revelation. Infidels are confounded by the un- 
 deniable truth, that as the structure of the earth is investi- 
 gated, and the secrets of its interior brought to light, the 
 strictest coincidence is observed between them, and the 
 facts recorded in Scripture. ' I believe,' says Professor 
 Silliman, ' the period is not far distant, when geology 
 will be admitted into the train of her elder sister, astron- 
 
GEOLOGY. 219 
 
 omy, and that both will be eventually hailed as the friends 
 and allies of revealed religion.' 
 
 The physical history of the Deluge is everywhere in- 
 scribed upon the surface of the earth; upon its chasms 
 and cliffs, its valleys and mountains. For a knowledge 
 of the moral cause of these convulsions, we must look to 
 the Scriptures ; we there find that c God seeing the wick- 
 edness of man was great on the earth, that every imagi- 
 nation of the thoughts of his heart was only evil continue 
 ally, and that the earth was filled with violence, resolved 
 to destroy man by a flood of waters.' We find that ' the 
 waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty 
 days, and that all the hills under the whole heaven were 
 covered.' 
 
 This one grand proof of the Scriptures, offered by geo- 
 logical science, is enough to entitle it to the attention of 
 the Christian, for it furnishes sensible demonstration, 
 broad and stable as the earth, of the truth of that book, 
 which traces man from his creation and first planting 
 upon this globe, and carries him into eternity, raising 
 the curtain between him and the invisible world of spir- 
 its. Were it not for this book, we should have no knowl- 
 edge but that afforded by the dim and uncertain light of 
 nature, that our souls were immortal, and that man dieth 
 not like ' the beasts that perish.' Geology leads us to 
 view the globe upon a great scale, to meditate upon the 
 bold and romantic scenes of nature, to survey mountains 
 and valleys, as sunk or raised by great convulsions of the 
 earth, to trace the hand of time in shattering and crumb- 
 ling the hardest rocks; to mark the little brook and the 
 majestic river, alike bearing in their course the sands 
 thus formed, and depositing them upon their banks, or at 
 their mouths, thus forming new land in the dominions of 
 water; and again, to see lands in their turn inundated, 
 and overflowed. 
 
 To one acquainted with geological facts, and interest- 
 ed in the science, even the barren rock, the bleak moun- 
 tain, and the gloomy mine, are objects of attention. An- 
 cient buildings and venerable ruins are interesting, both 
 as triumphs of the art of man, and memorials of the de- 
 £ay of his labor, but mountains and precipices are the 
 
220 GEOLOGY. 
 
 workmanship of Almighty hands. Volcanoes and earth- 
 quakes are overwhelming manifestations of His power. 
 In beholding these phenomena, we feel indeed that ' the 
 Lord reigneth, and is clothed with majesty.' 
 
 We shall not attempt to give a view of all the impor- 
 tant principles of geology, but present you with a very 
 general sketch of the science, hoping it may not be unin- 
 teresting to those who already possess some knowledge 
 of the subject, and may induce others to devote some at- 
 tention to this interesting branch of natural science. 
 
 The elementary substances which form the solid mat- 
 ter of the globe, are, 1st, Earths; 2d, Metals; 3d, Inflam- 
 mable Principles ; and 4th, Alkalies. 
 
 The Earths are Silez. 
 
 Alumine. 
 
 Lime. 
 
 Magnesia. 
 Principal Metals. Iron. 
 
 Manganese. 
 Inflammable Principles. Sulphur. 
 
 Carbon. 
 Alkalies. Potash. 
 
 Soda. 
 
 These are the elementary substances which enter into 
 the composition of the principal masses of minerals found 
 upon the surface of the globe, and in the interior as far 
 as man has yet penetrated; gold, silver, diamond and 
 other rare minerals are found in smaller masses, and in 
 veins constituting but one part in twenty of the solid parts 
 of the globe. 
 
 Earths. 
 
 Silex, or Siliceous earth, exists nearly pure in flint and 
 quartz ; it produces a great degree of hardness in all 
 stones, of which it forms a part. Silex forms a part of 
 almost all rocks and stones. Alumine (Argilla) or pure 
 clay, is seldom found, although it is very common in a 
 mixed state ; it is soft and smooth to the touch. Rocks 
 which contain a considerable proportion of alumine are 
 termed argillaceous. Lime (Calx.) This earth combined 
 with an acid called carbonic, forms limestone, marble 
 and chalk, (carbonates of lime) distinguished from each 
 other by different degrees of hardness. Lime united 
 
GEOLOGY. 221 
 
 with sulphuric acid, forms a stone called gypsum, (sul- 
 phate of lime) which is softer than limestone, and does 
 not, like that, effervesce with acids. Lime, mixed with 
 common clay, forms marl. 
 
 Magnesia is seldom found pure in nature; it forms an 
 ingredient in some rocks, to which it communicates a 
 smoothness, a striped texture, and sometimes a greenish 
 color. 
 
 Metals. 
 
 Iron forms a part of many rocks and stones, giving 
 them a variety of coloring, and increasing their weight. 
 Manganese communicates to rocks a dull reddish color, 
 inclining to purple, and a dry and burnt-like appearance. 
 
 Inflammable Substances. 
 
 Sulphur is found in large masses, combined with oxy- 
 gen, forming sulphuric acid ; it unites with lime, and forms 
 gypsum, or plaster of Paris. 
 
 Carbon, or Charcoal, is a constituent of many slate 
 rocks, giving them a dark color ; it is the principal con- 
 stituent of that kind of coal which is found in beds. Car- 
 bon combined with oxygen, forming carbonic acid, is 
 combined with all limestone rocks. 
 
 Alkalies. 
 
 Potash and Soda. These alkalies do not exist in rocks 
 to a great degree, but soda forms an important constituent 
 of the water of the ocean and rock salts. 
 
 Besides the elementary substances above enumerated, 
 we will mention muriatic acid, which, combined with 
 soda, forms salt; and phosphoric acid, which, combined 
 with lime, is a principal constituent of animal bones ; the 
 latter acid is found in some limestone beds, but rarely 
 occurs in the mineral kingdom. 
 
 The few elementary substances which we have now 
 described, form, either separately, or combined, all the 
 simple minerals which compose rocks. 
 
 You will find it difficult, without some knowledge of 
 ehemistry, to understand in what manner these elemen- 
 tary substances combine with others, forming a great 
 19* 
 
22*2 GEOLOGY. 
 
 variety of minerals, or rather you may be surprised that 
 when closely combined, they can be separated from the 
 materials with which they are united. The examination 
 of the elementary bodies, Earths, Metals, Inflammable 
 Principles, and Alkalies, properly belongs to the depart- 
 ment of Chemistry ; and the study of simple minerals, 
 belongs to the science of Mineralogy. 
 
 It is difficult to procure pure specimens of all the ele- 
 mentary principles, but the simple minerals are very 
 common, and should be procured in the commencement 
 of geological studies. The most important simple mine- 
 rals, which enter into the formation of rocks, are as (ol- 
 io ws : 
 
 Quartz. Hornblende. 
 
 Felspar. Limestone. 
 
 Mica. Gypsum. 
 
 Talc. Slate, or Argillite. 
 
 Chlorite. 
 
 These minerals are termed the alphabet of geology, 
 and you could no more learn to read words, without a 
 knowledge of the letters which form them, than you could 
 learn to distinguish the different rocks, without a knowl- 
 edge of the simple minerals of which they are composed. 
 We will now examine the most striking characteristics of 
 these minerals. 
 
 1. Quartz. This is the hardest mineral of which rocks 
 are composed ; it strikes fire when struck with steel ; it 
 is commonly white, though sometimes red, brown, or yel- 
 lowish, and sometimes transparent. It is composed of 
 silex, with a small portion of alumine. It is infusible, or 
 cannot be melted when unmixed ; but with soda or any 
 other alkali, it melts easily and forms glass. Quartz ex- 
 ists in veins, and sometimes in large beds ; even whole 
 mountains are found composed of this mineral, in grains 
 united without any cement, called granular quartz. 
 Combined with alumine and iron, quartz forms jasper. 
 
 2. Felspar is less hard than quartz, is more brittle, 
 and possesses a shining lustre. It is of various colors, 
 white, yellowish, green, and flesh-colored. Felspar con- 
 tains more of alumine and less of silex than quartz, with 
 13 parts in a hundred, of potash. 
 
GEOLOGY. 223 
 
 3. Mica consists of very thin glittering leaves, (lamina) 
 which may be easily separated with a kniie. Mica is of 
 different colors, white, black, and sometimes yellow, like 
 gold ; for which it has been mistaken by those who only 
 judge of minerals by a superficial observation. 
 
 4. Talc. This is similar in many respects to mica; the 
 plates are not like mica, elastic ; it is usually of a green 
 color, sometimes of a silvery white ; it feels smooth like 
 soap, to the touch. 
 
 5. Chlorite, (derived from a Greek word, chloros, sig- 
 nifying green) is of a green color, and often passes by 
 insensible gradations into talc ; it contains less of silex 
 than is found in either mica or talc, but more of magne- 
 sia and the oxide of iron, to which its owes its color. 
 
 6. Hornblende is of a blackish, or dark green color, 
 heavier than quartz or felspar, but not so hard, when 
 scratched with a sharp pointed instrument ; the streak is 
 a light green ; this mineral is sometimes found in large 
 masses, forming entire mountains, but more frequeniy it 
 is found as a part of compound rocks, called trap rocks, 
 the origin of which has, among geologists, given rise to 
 various opinions. Hornblende contains more of the 
 oxide of iron, than any of the simple minerals; for this 
 reason, it is more deeply colored. % 
 
 A very common mineral called serpentine, from its spot- 
 ted color, resembling the serpent's skin, is formed by a 
 combination of hornblende with talc, or chlorite, often 
 passing by insensible gradations into one or the other of 
 these minerals. 
 
 7. Limestone, or Carbonate of Lime, when pure, is 
 composed of lime and carbonic acid, in the proportions 
 of fifty-seven parts lime, and forty-three carbonic acid; but 
 the limestone is often combined with magnesia, alumine, 
 silex, or iron. All limestones may be scraped with a 
 knife ; they effervesce when acids are applied to their 
 surface : this latter property is an important test of the 
 presence of lime in rocks. There are a great many varie- 
 ties of limestone rocks, from the hardest marble to chalk. 
 Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is of a whitish color ; it is 
 much softer than carbonate of lime ; it is found in beds, 
 but not constituting rocks and mountains, like limestone. 
 
224 GEOLOGY. 
 
 It is, as its chemical name, sulphate of lime, would de- 
 note, a compound of lime and sulphuric acid. It is also 
 called plaster-stone, and, from the place where it was first 
 discovered, plaster of Paris. 
 
 8 Slate, or Argillitc, (in German called schistus) is 
 of a bluish or gray color, with a silky lustre ; the struc- 
 ture is such, that in general it admits of being split into 
 thin plates, as in the slate which is used for the roofs of 
 houses, and in writing slates. By being united with a 
 greater poition of carbon, it passes into a soft, dark, slaty 
 bed, called shale. 
 
 We have now enumerated the elementary principles 
 which enter into the composition of minerals, and con- 
 sidered the simple minerals, which, either separately 
 or combined, form rocks and mountains. In order 
 to know minerals, specimens must be examined, and 
 carefully compared with descriptions ; so that you can, 
 without any difficulty, distinguish a piece of quartz, or 
 mica, or any of the other simple minerals, and can also 
 recognize them when you find them in a state of combi- 
 nation with others. This then will be the first stage in 
 your geological study to know the elementary principles, 
 and the simple minerals ; and to procure specimens of 
 the latter, your first step towards collecting a geological 
 cabinet. You will of course understand, that each speci- 
 men is to be labelled and arranged in the order in which 
 these have been described. 
 
 We will now explain to you, how the simple minerals 
 just examined are combined to form the compounds 
 which constitute rocks and mountains. You must, howev- 
 er, recollect that in many cases, these simple minerals 
 themselves are found in large masses ; rocks and even 
 mountains of quartz are known to exist ; limestone under 
 various forms, often that of pure carbonate, is said to 
 constitute about one-eighth of the known substance of 
 the earth. Slate, or argillite, in nearly a simple state, 
 forms rocks and mountains ; but there are compound 
 rocks to be considered, which in the structure of the 
 earth are of far greater importance, than the simple 
 minerals. 
 
GEOLOGY. 225 
 
 Compound Rocks. 
 
 Granite. Here is a piece of a rock, called granite; 
 you will perceive three distinct substances, which you 
 will recognize to he quartz, mica, and felspar: the 
 quartz is white, and has a crystalline appearance; it 
 seems to consist of irregular grains, or, according to the 
 geological term, it is granular* The mica is distin- 
 guished by its shining black scales, which you can easily 
 divide by the point of a penknife. The felspar is here 
 flesh-colored ; it seems to consist of finer particles than 
 the quartz, resembling the rough edge of procelain 
 ware. 
 
 You must not, however, expect td find exactly the 
 same appearances in every specimen of granite ; some- 
 times the quartz is gray, or smoky, the mica varying in 
 color through various gradations, from a silvery white to 
 black, and the felspar is often of a snowy whiteness. 
 Granite also varies in its constituent parts. We some- 
 times find talc in the place of mica, forming Talcy 
 granite, chlorite forming Chlontic Granite, and horn- 
 blend, forming Sienite.^ 
 
 Gneiss. This name was given to the rock we are now 
 to examine, by German miners; it resembles granite, in 
 being composed of the same materials, but with less 
 felspar and quartz, and these in grains finer and less 
 distinct than in granite. The mica is often arranged 
 in thin leaves,! or layers ; the perfect gneiss rocks may 
 be split in the direction of the leaves of mica. 
 
 Although between a perfect specimen of gneiss and 
 one of granite, we might perceive a marked difference, 
 yet when the granite appears in fine grains with more 
 of mica and less of felspar, it passes into gneiss, and it 
 is by no means easy to ascertain the exact point where 
 the one passes into the other. 
 
 Mica Slate is composed chiefly of quartz and mica, 
 the latter being most abundant, often reflecting the rays 
 
 * This is said lo have given rise to the name Granite. 
 
 t So named from Sienna, in Egypt? where this rock was an- 
 ciently used for monuments. 
 
 $ This kind of structure is called foliated, from the Latin word 
 folium, a leaf. 
 
226 GEOLOGY. 
 
 of light with much brilliancy. This rock is more slaty 
 than gneiss: the layers of mica are sometimes contorted 
 or bent out of a straight course. Mica slate sometimes 
 varies into gneiss and granite, though in its perfect state 
 its character may be easily recognized. 
 
 The three rocks which we have now examined, viz. 
 granite, geniss, and mica slate, are, as \ou see, all com- 
 posed of similar ingredients, but in different proportions 
 and differently arranged ; they form a great portion of 
 the principal mountain ranges upon the face of the 
 globe. 
 
 Having now instructed you in such preliminary know- 
 ledge as seemed necessary to enable you to comprehend 
 the general principles of the science, I shall now offer 
 the following outline of geology. 
 
 Geology is the science which exhibits the structure of 
 the globe, and the materials of which it is composed, as 
 far as they have been revealed to human observation. 
 It is supposed by most geologists that the materials of 
 the earth were once in a fluid stale, and that the heaviest 
 minerals took the lowest place. It appears evident that 
 the earth very gradually became fitted for the habitation 
 of men and animals. The six days of the Creation, 
 spoken of in the first of Genesis, are supposed to have 
 been six periods of time, of a length which must have 
 comprehended many ages. That the day spoken of in 
 Scripture was neither a period of twenty-four hours or 
 from sun-rise to sun-set, is manifest not only from geo- 
 logical observation, but from the language of the bible. 
 After enumerating the various days or periods of the 
 creation, the sacred historian speaking of them all under 
 one general head says, ' In the day in which God made 
 the world,' &c. It is also said in scripture that 'with 
 the Lord a thousand years are as one day, and one day 
 as a thousand years. 5 
 
 Without attempting to go minutely into the subject of 
 the earth's formation as explained and taught by mod- 
 ern geology, I shall merely notice a few of its most 
 prominent facts and principles. 
 
GEOLOGY. 227 
 
 It is found to be a fact that there is a class of rocks, 
 the materials of which are heavier and more compact 
 than any other, and which never contain any remains 
 of animals or vegetables ; they evidently appear to have 
 lain below all the rock formations which have been dis- 
 covered. These are called primitive rocks, being, as 
 it is supposed, the first formed. They are the follow- 
 ing: 
 
 First Class of Rocks. 
 
 Granite, Granular Quartz, 
 
 Gneiss, Granular Lime Rock, 
 
 Mica Slate, Sparry Lime Rock, 
 
 Hornblende Rock, Primitive Argillite. 
 Talcose Rock, 
 
 Granite, as has been remarked, is composed of quartz, 
 felspar, and mica; it is found in vast quantities in many 
 countries; it constitutes a large portion of many of the 
 highest mountains; it forms a siliceous soil, not favor- 
 able to vegetation, and makes a beautiful and durable 
 building stone. 
 
 Geneiss. This rock is composed of the same mate- 
 rials as granite, viz. quartz, felspar, and mica; but the 
 mica is arranged in parallel layers. 
 
 Mica Slate is composed chiefly of quartz and mica ; 
 the mica usually predominates. It disintegrates more 
 rapidly than granite or gneiss. 
 
 Hornblende Rock consists of hornblende and felspar; 
 when the felspar is in disseminated masses, it is called 
 Sienite. The predominant color of the rock is green, 
 sometimes inclining to brown. The sienite variety is 
 susceptible of a high polish, and forms beautiful pieces 
 for ornaments. 
 
 Talcose Rock, is an aggregate of talc and fine grains 
 of quartz, aid generally some mica. It is a slaty rock, 
 and of a silver-gray color. 
 
 Granular Quartz is made up of grains of quartz, 
 without any appearance of cement : when white, its sand 
 is used in making glass. 
 
 Granular Lime Rock is made [up of grains hav- 
 ing a crystalline appearance : it receives a high polish, 
 
228 GEOLOGY. 
 
 and is much used for monuments, pillars, and in build- 
 ing. 
 
 Sparry JAmc Rock is made up of fine grains of car- 
 bonate of lime : it resembles Nova Scotia plaster. From 
 this stratum, nitrogen gas, in vast quantities, is supposed 
 to issue. 
 
 Primitive Argillite is a homogeneous rock, of a slaty 
 structure. It is used for roofing buildings. 
 
 A long period must have been required to bring the 
 materials of these primitive rocks into the compact and 
 hardened state in which we now find them ; for although 
 the Deity could, in an instant, have changed the most 
 subtle gasses into rocks and stones, we have no reason 
 to believe that he did not operate by second causes as 
 much in the formation of the world as he has since done. 
 Chemical and mechanical agencies undoubtedly were 
 brought into action to produce the intended effects: the 
 dry land at length appeared, the waters being gathered 
 together into oceans, seas, lakes and rivers. 
 
 After the first crust was formed around the earth, it 
 is supposed that some great convulsion in the interior, 
 either by means of volcanic fires, or the sudden percus- 
 sion of internal gasses producing earthquakes, burst 
 asunder this outer coat, and shattered into fragments, or 
 broke into larger masses, the rocks of which it was com- 
 posed. 
 
 At the breaking up of the rocky pavement of the 
 globe, and crumbling of primitive rocks, of wlich this 
 pavement was composed, a new formation was made of the 
 fragments of the other rocks, united together by a kind 
 of cement. This induces the opinion that volcanic fires 
 were agents in producing the great commotion which 
 tore up the foundations of the earth. Fire would of 
 course melt or fuse, in a degree sufficient to form the 
 cement ; for instance, where granite was thrown by the 
 side of limestone, the silex of the one in contact with the 
 alkali of the other would form a substance like glass, 
 which you know is produced by the melting of sand and 
 alkali together. 
 
 This second class of rocks are called transition 
 rocks, because they are supposed to have been formed 
 
GEOLOGY. 229 
 
 at the changing or transition of the world from an unin- 
 habited to a habitable state. 
 
 The rocks belonging to this class are, 
 
 Transition Argillite, Graywacke, and 
 
 Calciferous Sand Rock, Old Red Sand Stone. 
 
 Metalliferous Lime Rock, 
 
 Transition Argillite is a soft, homogeneous rock, 
 mostly of a bluish or dark color. It composes the rocks 
 of the Cohoes Falls.* There seems to be very little dif- 
 ference between this and the Primitive Argillite, and it 
 is thought proper, by some geologists, to include them 
 all in one class. 
 
 Calciferous Sand Rock is composed of grains of quartz 
 and carbonate of lime. 
 
 Metalliferous Lime Rock is of a gray or slate color. 
 It derives its name from being often found to contain 
 silver and other metals. 
 
 Grayioackc is an aggregate of sand cemented by clay ; 
 it often contains scales of talc and mica. The color is 
 usually gray. This rock constitutes most of the Cat- 
 skill and Alleghany Mountains. 
 
 Old Red Sand Stone is an aggregate of angular 
 grains of quartzose sand, held together by a ferrugin- 
 eous argillaceous cement. It forms a loose, red soil : it 
 is valuable for building : when wrought, it is called Free 
 Stone. It forms the bank of Connecticut River. 
 
 In the transition formation, we find the fossil remains 
 of plants and animals ; the plants are all of that kind, 
 called in Botany stiped, that is, having no real stem, but 
 a frond like the ferns and palms. These plants differ in 
 several particulars from those which have the true stem 
 or caulis, and are therefore called cauline plants. The 
 seeds of stiped plants never have two cotyledous ; the 
 stalks grow from the centre outwardly, and are therefore 
 called endogenous ,f while the stems of cauline plants 
 grow on the outside, and are called exogenous. 
 
 The fossil animals found in transition rocks are of 
 
 * These falls are on the Mohawk, a little above its mouth. 
 
 f The two words, endogenous and exogenous, are derived from 
 the Greek : the first signifies to grow internally, the other to grow 
 externally. 
 
 20 
 
230 GEOLOGY. 
 
 races now extinct. At this second period of the world, a 
 strange and appalling state of things existed ; lizard- 
 shape animals, extending to monstrous dimensions; the 
 mastodum and megatherium of enormous bulk, and vari- 
 ous other huge and singular animals had possession of 
 the earth, and rolled their vast magnitudes over ferns and 
 palms of a size corresponding to their own. 
 
 In the mean time a new set of rocks were gradually 
 formed from the ruins of both primitive and transition; 
 these were called secondary rocks : other plants and ani- 
 mals were at this period created. 
 
 These rocks are, 
 
 Mill-stone Grit, Calciferous Slate, 
 
 Saliferous Rock, Geodiferous Lime Rock, 
 
 Gray Band, Cornitiferous Lime Rock, and 
 
 Ferriferous Slate, Pyritiferous Rock. 
 Ferriferous Sand Rock, 
 
 Millstone Grit is a coarse, harsh aggregate of sand 
 and pebbles ; the color is gray or reddish. It is used for 
 mill-stones. 
 
 Saliferous Rock constitutes the floor of all the salt 
 springs in the western country. It is used as a building 
 stone. 
 
 Gray Band is a hard fine-grained gray rock, so com- 
 pact that it may be considered homogeneous. 
 
 Ferriferous Slate is a hard silicious rock, lying over 
 iron ore. It often appears in the bed of the Western 
 Canal. 
 
 Calciferous Slate. This rock often contains carbonate 
 of lime; it embraces beds of plaster and shell limestone; 
 it forms, by disintegration, the best of soils. 
 
 Geodiferous Lime Rock. This name is given on ac- 
 count of small cavities which it contains, called gcodes. 
 This rock is found at Lockport and Niagara Falls. 
 
 Cornitiferous Lime Rock is made up of layers of shell- 
 limestone, containing beds of horn-stone: from this cir- 
 cumstance, it receives its name — the Latin word cornus, 
 signifying a horn. This rock is remarkable for its numer- 
 ous caverns. 
 
 Pyritiferous Rock is a calcareous gray rock, abound- 
 ing in iron pyrites. 
 
 At length, the earth being made habitable, man is 
 formed ; after a series of ages, the fountains of the deep 
 
GEOLOGY. 231 
 
 arc broken up ; the monsters which stalked over the 
 earth, or crawled through its fens and marshes, are sud- 
 denly overwhelmed by the deluge which was sent to de- 
 stroy the human monsters who did ' evil in the sight of 
 God.' Antediluvian remains of animals are found in 
 Siberia, India, England, France, and Germany, and in 
 various parts of America. 
 
 In considering the ruins of the deluge, we must not 
 fall into the error which has been too common, of consid- 
 ering all fossil shells, and other organic remains found 
 imbedded in rocks, as marks of that event. It appears 
 probable, from observations made upon the rock strata, 
 that previous to this, the earth had undergone many 
 changes ; — fire and water had been active in decomposing 
 and crystallizing the mineral substances on the globe, 
 and many animals and plants had become petrified and 
 fixed in their rocky beds. 
 
 The process of petrification consists in the gradual de- 
 cay of the original substance of an organized being, while 
 the place of the particles which pass off in a gaseous or 
 other form, is supplied by stony particles, until the whole 
 mass is thus changed. Some waters containing lime, 
 possess the power of petrifaction in a high degree. The 
 lime becoming concreted, takes the place of the original 
 substance. Shells are often found petrified ; they some- 
 times occur in large masses forming rocks, termed shell 
 limestone. 
 
 It is not within the scope of these lectures, to enter 
 deeply into geological investigations. So many impor- 
 tant facts and interesting observations crowd upon us, 
 when glancing at this subject, that the longer we dwell 
 upon it, the more it seems necessary to say. I must, 
 however interesting the theme, hasten to bring to a close 
 our remarks on Geology, and with this, our observations 
 upon Natural Science in general. 
 
 We have spoken of primitive, transition, and secondary 
 rocks ; of the great primitive ocean which, as is supposed, 
 once covered the face of the whole earth while it was yet 
 1 without form and void.' — We have remarked upon the 
 prevalent opinion of the gradual formation of the different 
 classes of rocks, the changes which the earth must have 
 undergone, previous to the existence of animals or vege- 
 
232 GEOLOGY. 
 
 tables; and that great and sudden catastrophe which, 
 with the exception of Noah and those who were with him, 
 buried in one vast, watery grave, the whole race of or- 
 ganized beings, including man, and beast, and the vege- 
 table tribes. 
 
 Everywhere upon and beneath the surface of the earth, 
 are to be found traces of the deluge. — Masses of clay, sand 
 and shells, mingled with bones and skeletons of huge ani- 
 mals as well as those of a less size, can be accounted for on 
 no other supposition, than that they were thus indiscrimi- 
 nately thrown together by the rushing of mighty waters. 
 Caverns are discovered whose floors are covered with the 
 bones of hyenas, wolves, bears, and other beasts of prey, 
 who seem to have rushed together into these retreats, to 
 avoid the impending destruction. From the appearances 
 of the gnawed fragments of bones, it would seem that 
 they fell upon, and devoured each other. These remains 
 are covered by a light mud, evidently washed over them, 
 as the waters of the flood were subsiding. 
 
 The period before the flood is termed antediluvial 
 (from ante before, diluvium flood) : thus, those animals 
 whose remains are found only in the oldest rooks, are 
 called antediluvian relics. The ruins of the flood, the 
 land which was then formed, and all appearances which 
 seem the result of that event, are called diluvial. The 
 various geological changes upon and beneath the sur- 
 face of the earth which have taken place since the 
 flood, are called post-diluvial. The deposites of soil 
 or other changes effected by water, are called by the 
 more general term alluvial. 
 
 Besides the three regular classes of rocks, and the va- 
 rious kinds of alluvions, there is another formation con- 
 sisting of what are called Basaltic or Superincumbent 
 rocks. These lie over the other rocks in strata not con- 
 formable to them. They are supposed by most geologists 
 to be of volcanic origin: they are Amygdaloid, which is 
 an aggregate of hornblende particles of a dark gray or 
 brown color, and Greenstone trap, which is an aggregate 
 of hornblende and felspar. The Giant's Causeway and 
 Fingal's Cave in Ireland, and the Palisadoes on the 
 Hudson river are composed of Basaltic or trap rocks. 
 There are also other remains of Volcanoes, as lava of 
 
GEOLOGY. 233 
 
 various kinds, either dark colored and almost homogene- 
 ous, or of cemented grains, or whitish lava, consisting 
 chiefly of melted felspar, and called Trachyte. 
 
 The various layers of clay, sand, and marl, which are 
 supposed to have been formed before the deluge, have re- 
 ceived the name of the Tertiary formation. The word 
 Tertiary, signifying three, is given in consequence of this 
 lying over the secondary formation. . 
 
 This formation which is very extensive in France and 
 England, has, in those countries, received much attention. 
 ' The most remarkable discovery,' says Bakewell, ' that 
 has been made respecting the tertiary deposites, is, that 
 many of them contain the remains of mammiferous* 
 quadrupeds, as perfect in their organization as any of the 
 existing species of land quadrupeds, but most of them 
 belonging to genera or species that are extinct. The 
 tertiary strata are further remarkable for presenting the 
 frequent alternation of beds containing the remains of 
 marine animals, with other beds that contain the bones 
 of land animals or fresh water shells. It appears that 
 tertiary strata were chiefly formed in detached inland 
 seas, or lakes.' 
 
 When commencing the science of geology, a pupil 
 may very naturally imagine that to be but a trifling 
 study, which directs the attention to a mere stone, such 
 as may at any time be seen in the street ; he may be ready 
 to say, ' It seems a very little thing, to know that this, a 
 piece of rock, is granite, and that granite is composed of 
 mica, quartz, and felspar.' If any of you have been led 
 to entertain thoughts of a similar kind, I trust you are 
 now convinced that it is well to suspend opinions, till 
 you have advanced beyond the mere elements of a study. 
 You find that geology presents a noble field for research ; 
 that it carries the mind from the consideration of rocks 
 and mountains, to the period of their creation, and to 
 Him who created them : you perceive them to be silent 
 and venerable historians, which, in a language that ad- 
 mits of no dispute, indicate changes that the globe has 
 undergone, many of which, but for these witnesses and 
 
 * Such four-footed animals as nourish their young with milk. 
 20* 
 
234 GEOLOGY. 
 
 partakers, the inhabitants of the earth would have been 
 forever ignorant. 
 
 According to the discoveries of geologists, it appears — 
 first j that the whole surface of the earth was once 
 covered by a void and formless deep. Chemistry proves 
 that darkness and light, gasses, liquids, and solids, min- 
 gled in one universal chaos, might, according to the 
 laws of nature, have disengaged themselves, and formed 
 a new arrangement. 
 
 Second, it appears from geology, that the waters were 
 gathered into their respective places, and that solids 
 were separated from liquids; and gasses released from 
 their unnatural union, rose by their specific levity, into 
 higher regions. 
 
 Third, we learn from geology, that after the earth 
 had become fitted for the support of vegetation, plants 
 were created, their remains being found in older rocks 
 than those of animals. 
 
 Fourthly, we learn from geology, that after plants were 
 created, the ' waters brought forth abundantly, ' the re- 
 mains of marine and fresh water animals being found in 
 older rocks than those of land animals. 
 
 Fifthly, we find by geology, that at this period land 
 animals were created, and that they ' multiplied greatly 
 upon the earth.' 
 
 Sixthly, we learn from geology, that after a long period 
 of time had elapsed from the creation of plants and ani- 
 mals, the whole earth was again covered with water, 
 which swallowed up vast multitudes of animals and vege- 
 tables, whose remains are daily becoming more and more 
 revealed to human observation. We know too that many 
 species and even genera of animals which existed pre- 
 vious to that catastrophe, are now extinct. We learn by 
 geology, from the fact of beds of shells being found upon 
 the highest ground at great distances from the sea, that 
 the ' waters covered the tops of the highest mountains ;' 
 and, from various other circumstances, it appears that they 
 gradually subsided. Now, compare these facts as revealed 
 by geology, with the events recorded in scripture, between 
 the 1st and 10th chapters of Genesis, and you will find 
 an entire corroboration of what is there recorded. 
 
GEOLOGY. 235 
 
 Among all the diluvial and antediluvial relics, no hu- 
 man bones have yet been discovered. This, however, is 
 a fact which ought not to excite surprise, when wc con- 
 sider how little is known of the fossil and other ancient 
 remains of Asia, which was the birth-place of the human 
 race. At the period of the deluge, mankind had not 
 probably extended far over the earth : at the approach of 
 this event, they would naturally collect in groups for mu- 
 tual assistance and protection, and in this condition prob- 
 ably met their fate. Seas may now cover their remains, 
 or it may rest for future geologists to discover and bring 
 forth the bones of those wretched and miserable beings 
 who signally met with retribution, even in this life. 
 
 From what has been observed, you will readily see 
 the vast importance of the discoveries of geologists and 
 anatomists respecting organic remains; especially when 
 taken in connexion with established facts relative to the 
 comparative ages of the different strata or layers of rocks. 
 If a certain tribe of plants or animals are found imbedded 
 in a certain rock formation, while the rocks of more re- 
 cent origin are never found to contain such remains, we 
 must believe they were of more ancient date than the 
 species found in newer rocks. 
 
 ' If it had been predicted a century ago, that a volume 
 would be discovered, containing the natural history of 
 the earliest inhabitants of the globe, which flourished 
 and perished before the creation of man, with the dis- 
 tinct impressions of the forms of animals no longer exist- 
 ing on earth, — what curiosity would have been excited 
 to see this wonderful volume ; how anxiously would Phi- 
 losophers have waited for the discovery ! But this volume 
 is now discovered ; it is the volume of nature, rich with 
 the spoils of primeval ages, unfolded to the view of the 
 attentive observer in the strata that compose the crust of 
 the globe.' * 
 
 This interesting branch of Natural History has hither- 
 to been little introduced into female seminaries ; the rea- 
 son of this is, undoubtedly, the want of popular, elemen- 
 tary treatises on the subject; as this want shall be sup- 
 plied, it is to be hoped that a study which so powerfully 
 
 * Bake well. 
 
236 
 
 MATHEMATICS. 
 
 confirms the truth of revelation, and which so evidently 
 tends to elevate and enlarge the mind, will no longer be 
 considered unnecessary, or unimportant.* All who study 
 nature, must, with the poet Montgomery, feel that 
 
 ' There is a voiceless eloquence on earth 
 Telling of Him who gave her wonders birth ; ' — 
 
 And all such will be ready to exclaim with him, — 
 
 ' And long may I remain the adoring child 
 
 Of Nature's majesty, sublime or wild ; 
 
 Hill, flood and forest, mountain, rock and sea, 
 
 All take these terrors and their charms from Thee. 
 
 From Thee, whose hidden but supreme control, 
 
 Moves through the world, a Universal Soul.' 
 
 LECTURE XIX. 
 
 Mathematics — Arithmetic — Algebra — Geometry. 
 
 In commencing my remarks on the study of Mathe- 
 matics as a branch of female education, I shall intro- 
 duce a passage from Hannah More's Strictures, which 
 will show you the state of our sex as to intellectual 
 improvement at the beginning of the present century, 
 with the opinions of one deserving of deference and 
 respect, as to the proper means by which the existing 
 evils might be remedied. ' Women,' says Mrs. More, 
 ' are little accustomed to close reasoning on any subject * 
 still less do they inure their minds to consider par- 
 ticular parts of a subject : they are not habituated 
 to turn a truth round, and view it in all its varied 
 aspects and positions : and this is one cause of the too 
 great confidence they are disposed to place in their own 
 
 * Since this lecture was delivered, the author has been engaged 
 in making some additions to a small work written by the author of 
 the Child's Botany, and entitled the Child's Geology. This will 
 soon be given to the public. Should the author of these lec- 
 tures be enabled to fulfil her present intentions, a work on Geolo- 
 gy, adapted to female seminaries, for which she has six years been 
 collecting materials, will be soon prepared for publication. 
 
MATHEMATICS. 237 
 
 opinions. Though their imagination is already too live- 
 ly, and their judgment naturally incorrect; in educating 
 them, we go on to stimulate the imagination, while we 
 neglect the regulation of the judgment. They already 
 want ballast, and we make their education consist in 
 continually crowding more sail than they can carry. 
 Their intellectual powers being so little strengthened by 
 exercise, makes every little business appear a hardship 
 to them: whereas serious study would be useful, were it 
 only that it leads the mind to the habit of conquering 
 difficulties.' 
 
 In another part of her work, Mrs. More says, ' The 
 chief end to be proposed in cultivating the understand- 
 ing of women is to qualify them for the practical pur- 
 poses of life. The great use of study with them is to 
 regulate their minds and render them capable of fulfil- 
 ling the duties of life. To woman therefore I would recom- 
 mend a predominance of sober studies, those which will 
 teach her to elicit truth ; will give precision to her ideas ; 
 will make an exact mind, which instead of stimulating 
 her sensibility, will chasten it; which will give her 
 definite notions; will bring her imagination under 
 dominion ; will lead her to think, to compare, to metho- 
 dize. Economy is the exercise of a sound judgment, 
 exerted in the comprehensive outline of order and 
 arrangement. She who has the best regulated mind 
 will, all other things being equal, have the hest regulat* 
 ed family.' 
 
 It had not probably entered into the mind of the excel- 
 lent woman whose judicious observations have just been 
 quoted, that her sex, in thirty years from the time 
 in which she advanced these ideas, would be admitted 
 by general consent to share in those pursuits, which 
 have the most undoubted tendency to produce the effects 
 which she desired — a tendency to sober the imagination, 
 develope the reasoning powers, and strengthen the under- 
 standing, so apt in the female character to be biassed by 
 prejudice or borne on the gossamer wing of a lively fan- 
 cy into the regions of error and folly. Mrs. More recom- 
 mended the reading of Watts on the Mind, Butler's 
 Analogy, and other writings of a grave and metaphysical 
 
238 MATHEMATICS. 
 
 character ; but she did not, (if indeed she was aware of 
 their superior importance as aids to mental discipline) 
 dare to speak of the higher branches of mathematics. 
 
 Watts observes that ' Mathematics have a strange influ- 
 ence toward fixing the attention of the mind, and giving a 
 steadiness to a wandering disposition, because they deal 
 much in lines, figures and numbers, which affect and 
 please the sense and imagination.' The same writer, in 
 speaking of the tendency of the mind to ' narrow and low 
 conceptions,' remarks that ' this defect may be remedied 
 by beginning with the first principles in geometry, and 
 proceeding to the doctrine of quantities, which are 
 infinite and innumerable. A little acquaintance with 
 true philosophy and mathematical learning, would soon 
 teach the mind that there are no limits either to the ex- 
 tension of space, or the division of body, and would lead 
 it to believe that there are bodies amazingly great or 
 small beyond their present imagination.' The same 
 writer further observes, ' It is owing to the narrowness of 
 our minds, that we are exposed to the same peril in the 
 matters of human prudence and duty. In many things 
 which we do, we ought not only to consider the mere 
 naked action itself, but the persons who act, the persons 
 towards whom, the time when, the place where, the 
 manner how, the end to which the action is done, 
 together with the effects that must, or that may follow, 
 and all other surrounding circumstances; these things 
 must necessarily be taken into view, in order to deter- 
 mine whether the action, which is indifferent in itself, 
 be either lawful or unlawful, good or evil, wise or foolish, 
 decent or indecent, proper or improper. 5 
 
 Females have been said, and not without reason, to 
 be fluctuating in purpose, desultory in action, and un- 
 settled in principle. Possessing vast power over the 
 destinies of the world, by their influence as wives and 
 mothers, they have often been the cause of contention 
 and misery among nations, and of agitation and disquiet 
 in the more limited domestic sphere. Of how much 
 importance to the well-being of mankind is it, that 
 this fickle, restless, yet powerful being should become 
 consistent and reflecting, and learn to exercise her 
 
MATHEMATICS. 239 
 
 influence for the good of society. And how shall this 
 be done? The question is answered by Watts, Locke, 
 Stewart, and all other judicious writers on the power of 
 education upon human character ; for all have united in 
 giving their testimony to mathematical studies, as one 
 of the most important aids to mental discipline. 
 
 But it may be said, that these writers did not intend to 
 apply their remarks to female education ; that it was 1 
 for the other sex for whom they wrote. Strange indeed, 
 if the nearer the mind of man resembles in its organi- 
 zation that of woman, the more he should be required to 
 follow investigations calculated to fix the attention and 
 strengthen reason, while for woman herself, this should 
 be considered unnecessary and improper. 
 
 Women are often reproached for their limited vieivs, 
 their low and narrow conceptions ; true it is, that their 
 sphere of action tends to such results. The minute 
 objects towards which their attention is necessarily 
 directed, the routine of their domestic duties and occu- 
 pations have a tendency to contract their minds. — How 
 shall this be remedied ? Let the direction of Watts on 
 this subject be our answer. Although in his day he 
 could |not have anticipated this application of his re- 
 marks, yet had the appeal even then been made to his 
 judgment in behalf of women, I am persuaded the jus- 
 tice of his character and the benevolence of his heart 
 would have secured a verdict in their favor. 
 
 Again, with respect to 'our conduct in matters of pru- 
 dence and duty,' as Watts expresses it; 'it is owing to 
 the narrowness of our minds, that we are exposed to peril 
 here.' What human being more needs a sure guide in 
 matters of prudence and duty than woman 1 Caressed 
 and flattered, and yet watched with jealousy and suspi- 
 cion — thrown off her guard by the most tender indulgence, 
 while the slightest shadow of imprudence renders her lia- 
 ble to misconstruction and reproach, — does she not need 
 an unerring standard of rectitude in her own bosom, a 
 clear and acute sense of her own actual condition ; pru- 
 dence to direct her in the path of duty, and fortitude to sus- 
 tain her under various trials 1 The mode of discipline by 
 which the human mind maybe brought to a calm, ration- 
 
240 MATHEMATICS. 
 
 al and dignified state, is pointed out in the passage of 
 Watts to which we have referred. An enlarged and ex- 
 tended view of our various duties and relations towards 
 ourselves, our friends, society, and especially towards our 
 Maker, accompanied with virtuous principles and disci- 
 plined minds, cannot fail to secure respectability in this 
 world, and happiness in a future state. 
 
 We are far from considering mathematics as the only 
 instrument of that mental discipline which we feel to be 
 so necessary for our sex ; every branch of education, 
 which has a tendency to fix the attention, to impress 
 truth upon the mind, and to produce the habit cf reasoning 
 closely and consecutively, is of importance in this view. 
 We have already spoken of the studies of grammar, lan- 
 guages, geography and history, as auxiliaries in this 
 great work. The studies of natural science, mental 
 and moral philosophy, are all of great utility in the form- 
 ation of character: but the study of mathematics has, by 
 philosophers, been considered the most direct way of 
 controlling the imagination, perfecting reason and judg- 
 ment, and inducing a habit of method and love of order. 
 
 The term mathematics is derived from the Greek verb 
 maiheo, to learn. This science treats of quantity or 
 whatever can be measured, as in geometry, or numbered, 
 as in arithmetic and algebra. Mathematics is divided 
 into pure and mixed; pure mathematics is the abstract 
 consideration of quantity, without any reference to mat- 
 ter ; mixed mathematics treats of magnitude as subsist- 
 ing in material bodies, which are subject to certain laws, 
 a knowledge of which constitutes natural philosophy. 
 Mathematics here becomes united to natural philosophy, 
 and hence arises the term, mixed mathematics. The 
 reasoning in mathematics is of that kind called demon- 
 strative, or that which admits of positive proof. Thus the 
 truths developed in the reasoning of the first proposition 
 of Euclid admit of no more dispute than the axiom that 
 things equal to the same, are equal to one another ; the 
 latter is self-evident, or apparent without any reasoning; 
 but the truth of the former is not evident without the in- 
 termediate steps used in the reasoning. 
 
 Moral reasoning is of a different kind, and cannot be 
 
MATHEMATICS. 241 
 
 rendered thus positive. Dr. Paley asserts that ' virtue 
 is the doing good, in obedience to the will of God, and 
 for the sake of everlasting happiness.' Now if he could 
 have proved this by a train of reasoning founded upon a 
 self-evident proposition, no one would distrust the as- 
 sertion ; yet many do dispute it, which shows that it is 
 not proved to complete demonstration, for the human 
 mind cannot dispute such evidence. Some moral truths 
 do however seem to admit a proof equal to demon- 
 stration. Thus the existence of God is demonstrated, 
 from the existence of matter, which could not have crea- 
 ted itself. Taking then for an axiom or first truth, what 
 seems self-evident, we would say that matter must have 
 been made — it cannot have made itself, therefore since it 
 does exist, it must have had a maker ; this maker we call 
 God. Yet an atheist might object to what we called a self- 
 evident truth — he might say, we are not certain that mat- 
 ter has not existed from eternity. He may of course object 
 to our reasoning, if he does not consent to our premises 
 or the foundation of our arguments. Yet demonstrative 
 reasoning is not to render us unbelieving on moral sub- 
 jects ; but the rather, tends by accustoming the mind to 
 deliberate investigation and careful comparison of proofs, 
 to detect the true from the false, even in moral reasoning. 
 
 Mathematics is peculiarly a science of comparisons ; 
 these comparisons are always exact and may be made 
 manifest to the senses. When it is said there are fifty 
 yards of ribbon in a piece, there is an exact and sensible 
 comparison between the ribbon in the piece, and the 
 length of the yard measure, fifty times repeated. 
 
 A French writer* says, ' is it not certain that a young 
 person accustomed to the justness and accuracy of math- 
 ematical demonstrations, habituated to exercise his intel- 
 lect in discovering the connexion of ideas in a train of rea- 
 soning in order to prove a truth, is it not certain that such 
 an one will carry into the world a penetrating and observ- 
 ing mind ; that he will pursue other studies with greater 
 facility, when his judgment and all his intellectual facul- 
 
 * Delpierre du Tremblay, author of Lettres sur les Etude, et sur 
 leur Rapport Jlvec L ' Entendement Humain. 
 
 21 
 
242 ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 
 
 ties have been exercised and strengthened by mathematical 
 investigations. Many persons who have not sufficiently 
 reflected upon the manner in which our faculties can be 
 exercised to the greatest advantage, and upon the assist- 
 ance which the sciences mutually render to each other, 
 say that the mind can pursue any science to which it 
 gives attention, that it is but lost time to occupy it with 
 mathematics instead of the profession which is to be the 
 business of life. But has the mind always the capacity 
 for the study of any kind of science ? Is it not necessa- 
 ry to form the judgment by preliminary studies 1 And 
 are not the mathematics the best means of accomplish- 
 ing this, and the method of reasoning and investigation 
 acquired in this science a most important aid in all 
 others ? ' Suppose of two young persons of equal talents, 
 and who have devoted equal time to study, the one is a 
 geometrician, and the other has given her time more to 
 other branches of knowledge — suppose these two com- 
 mencing together some new science, botany, chemistry, or 
 mental philosophy, we shall soon perceive the great 
 advantage which the knowledge and practice of mathe- 
 matical reasoning gives the one, over the other, in the 
 mode of arranging facts, of developing truth, and per- 
 forming such mental analyses as are necessary to disen- 
 tangle, and bring to light the most complicated subjects. 
 For the greatest discoveries, which have enlightened the 
 world we are indebted chiefly to those powerful minds 
 which have first strengthened and invigorated them- 
 selves at the fountains of mathematical knowledge: 
 Descartes, Mallebranche, Gallileo, Kepler, Bacon, Locke, 
 Newton, and Fontenelle. Plato wrote over the entrance 
 into his school, ' He who has not studied the Elements 
 of Geometry cannot enter here.' 
 
 Arithmetic and Algebra. 
 
 Arithmetic is the lowest and most simple branch of 
 mathematics. The word is derived from the Greek 
 arithmos, signifying number. It is the science of num- 
 bers. Arithmetical calculation signifies operations per- 
 formed by various modes of adding, subtracting, multi- 
 
ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 243 
 
 plying or dividing. The word calculation, (in French 
 called calcul,) is derived from a Latin word signifying 
 little stones, because the ancients used such, instead of 
 figures in their arithmetical computations. All our 
 numbers are expressed by different arrangements of the 
 cipher and the nine figures, called digits. These were 
 learned from the Arabians, who are said to have 
 derived their knowledge from countries still farther 
 east. The Greeks and Romans used the letters of their 
 alphabet to express numbers. Thus, instead of the 
 Arabic character for 1 they used the letter I ; for 2 they 
 used II; for 3, III; for 4, IV, &,c. 
 
 Of all the sciences, arithmetic is perhaps the most 
 ancient, it having been taught by the Egyptians 600 
 years before Christ. It is said they attempted to ex- 
 plain everything by numbers, and even thought that an 
 accurate knowledge of these would conduct them to th 
 fountain of divinity, to God himself. 
 
 It is unnecessary to urge the importance of this study 
 as a branch of female education, since this is universally 
 admitted ; but it cannot be unnecessary to recommend 
 a more practical use of it than is generally made. I 
 should blush for any pupil of this institution, who, after 
 having studied arithmetic even but a short time, should 
 be found ignorant of the proper method of keeping an ac- 
 count, or of making out a bill. The practical object of 
 arithmetic is to teach you to do those things. It should 
 also have a moral influence on the conduct by teaching 
 you to regulate your expenses according to your income. 
 Many a man has been ruined because his wife and daugh- 
 ters have not practised arithmetic ; and there are those, who 
 resorting to dishonest methods for procuring wealth, have 
 dragged out in a state's prison a miserable existence, which 
 economy in their family might have rendered virtuous and 
 happy. Suppose that a man in business earns a thousand 
 dollars a year ; which is probably as large an income, as, 
 upon an average, is received by clergymen, lawyers, physi- 
 cians and merchants in this country ; — in many cases, from 
 this income, house-rent is to be paid, fuel and provisions 
 furnished, children to be educated, and a family cloth- 
 ed. What, in such a situation, should be the manage- 
 
244 ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 
 
 ment of a wife and daughters? Perhaps some may 
 reason something in this way, — my husband or father has 
 an income of a thousand dollars ; now, I want this shawl 
 which costs only thirty dollars, or this bonnet which 
 costs only twenty, and this will be but a very little part 
 of the yearly income. — I am sure it can be easily spared. 
 But if the calculation was first made, how much of 
 this sum must be expended in necessaries, it would be 
 at once seen that very little could be afforded for 
 superfluities. 
 
 Arithmetic teaches only the properties of numbers 
 which are known ; its calculations are carried on by the 
 use of figures ; but in Algebra, letters are made to rep- 
 resent quantities that are unknown. It takes for grant- 
 ed the unknown quantity sought, and by means of one 
 or more given quantities, proceeds, until the supposed 
 quantity is discovered by some other known quantity to 
 which it is equal. The first letters of the alphabet, a, 6, 
 c, &c. are commonly employed to stand for known 
 quantities — the last, as x, y, &c. for unknown. By this 
 process, many questions are solved, which could not have 
 been done by simple arithmetic. A knowledge of alge- 
 bra is necessary in geometry, mechanics, astronomy, and 
 all branches of science which depend on mathematical 
 demonstration. To those who desire a thorough educa- 
 tion, a knowledge of algebra must therefore be deemed 
 of importance, since it leads the way to so many other 
 sciences. Not that some knowledge of astronomy, 
 natural philosophy, and geometry may not be ac- 
 quired without the assistance of algebra ; but this know- 
 ledge must necessarily be limited and imperfect. 
 
 Arithmetic may be considered as a germ, which con- 
 tains within it the principles of algebra. The two 
 sciences are intimately connected ; a knowledge of the 
 one throws light upon the other. Arithmetic being the 
 more simple, some knowledge of it should be possessed 
 before commencing algebra. Every step then taken in 
 the latter science, will throw light upon the former, 
 and processes which, performed by arithmetical rules, ap- 
 peared tedious and complicated, may, by algebraic prin- 
 ciples, be rendered clear and simple. Besides the prac- 
 
GEOMETRY. 245 
 
 tical uses of this science, the accurate analysis which it 
 teaches, is an important means of intellectual discipline. 
 Some would refer the origin of algebra to Plato, 
 because he first taught the principles of analysis, which are 
 so necessary to the existence of this science ; but it is 
 generally attributed to the Arabians, from whose lan- 
 guage the word algebra is taken. In its original mean- 
 ing, it signifies a reduction of fractions. The first 
 treatise on algebra is said to have been written by Dio- 
 phantes, a philosopher of Alexandria, who lived in the 
 reign of Antoninus, toward the middle of the second 
 century. In the fifth century, Hypasia, the daughter of 
 Theon, a celebrated geometrician, published a comment 
 on the treatise of Diophantes. This comment a learned 
 French mathematician notices as ' exhibiting a depth of 
 thought, of which few men are capable.' Hypasia may be 
 considered the first, who brought the science of algebra 
 into a regular system. This woman, whom the same 
 writer calls the ' honor of her sex,' was professor in the 
 famous school at Alexandria, and filled with distinguish- 
 ed credit, a place which had been rendered illustrious 
 by many great and learned men. The people, stirred up 
 by some persons, envious of Hypasia's fame, accused her 
 of political intrigues, and cruelly murdered her in the 
 professor's chair. As the acquirements of this woman 
 are recorded in history, as a wonderful phenomenon, we 
 infer the general prevalence of ignorance among the 
 females of that period. 
 
 Geometry. 
 
 Geometry, an important branch of mathematical 
 science, takes its name from two Greek words, ge, land 
 or earth, and metron y measure, signifying to measure land. 
 This science is supposed to have originated in Egypt. 
 According to two very ancient historians, Herodotus and 
 Strabo, the inundations of the Nile carrying away their 
 land-marks, the Egyptians invented the art of measuring 
 and dividing their lands, in order that each "might dis- 
 tinguish his own territory, by its particular figure, 
 and the surface which it was known to contain. 
 21* 
 
246 GEOMETRY. 
 
 Thus imperfect was geometry in its origin, commenc- 
 ing by a series of observations which were confined 
 to actual substances. By degrees mankind began to 
 generalize their observations of particular facts, and 
 geometry became a noble and exact science, constituting 
 a firm basis on which many other sciences are founded. 
 Geometry is the science of extension, and not only 
 signifies the measuring of land, but of the heavens 
 also ; for by its aid, astronomers have been able to ascer- 
 tain the dimensions of the heavenly bodies, the space 
 through which they travel, and their distance from each 
 other. All the truths and reasonings of geometry are 
 founded on a few simple truths which are self-evident to 
 all who possess common understanding. They cannot 
 be explained, since there are no truths of a more sim- 
 ple kind by which they may be illustrated. Any person 
 who does not perceive that a whole is greater than a 
 part, or that two things equal to a third, must be equal 
 to one another, must be considered as wanting in what 
 is expressively termed common sense. Thus it is that 
 in children who prove to be idiots, it is usually first ob- 
 served that they do not understand these simple, or as 
 philosophers call them self-evident truths. If a child 
 old enough to comprehend the term one, does not under- 
 stand that one and one make two, we have reason to 
 fear that it has no understanding, or, in other words, is 
 a fool. Thus the ready comprehension of self-evident 
 mathematical truths, and the power to reason from these 
 to less simple truths, is considered as a test of a clear 
 and sound understanding. 
 
 Our sex have been allowed to possess the faculty of 
 imagination, and the affections of the heart, in a superior 
 degree ; but we have been thought deficient in reasoning 
 powers. Now it is the reasoning faculty which distin- 
 guishes the human species from the brutes: if woman 
 is in reality devoid of this noble faculty, then is she a 
 kind of intermediate link between man and the brute 
 creation — and the Christian religion, like the Mahome- 
 tan, should have provided in a future state some middle 
 region for this being, who is neither to be, like the brutes 
 annihilated, nor like the nobler part of creation, entitled 
 
GEOMETRY. 24* 
 
 to a rank among superior intelligences. But it is unne- 
 cessary to urge anything on this point : women have now 
 little to complain of, with respect to liberality of feeling 
 towards them, on the subject of education. Advantages 
 are now placed before them ; they may prove the strength 
 of their reasoning powers, in the study of mathematics, 
 of logic, and even metaphysics, without fear of reproach 
 for attempting to pass the limits, which nature has 
 assigned for the operations of their minds. It is for you, 
 young ladies, who are here assembled, to prove by your 
 own example, that knowledge is not to be a curse to 
 your sex; that it is to lead them in the path of duty, not 
 out of it ; that it is to make them better daughters, wives, 
 and mothers; better qualified for usefulness in every path 
 within the sphere of female exertions. By being enabled 
 to see more clearly the peculiar obligations which devolve 
 upon you in your various relations, and to discern the 
 boundary between your duties, and those of the other 
 sex, shall it be that you will the more seek to pass that 
 barrier, which the Almighty himself in the peculiarities 
 of physical as well as mental constitution, has estab- 
 lished between the sexes ? You are not called upon to 
 lead armies, to make and execute laws, and to preside 
 over public safety. But you may be called upon to pre- 
 side over the domestic circle, to regulate families by your 
 wisdom, and to guide and enlighten the youthful mind: 
 — -in the proper performance of these duties, will you 
 need all that clearness of reason, and solidity of judg- 
 ment to which a thorough and well-conducted education 
 may conduce. The object in all attempted improvements 
 in female education, should not be to lead woman from 
 her own proper sphere, but to qualify her for the better 
 discharge of those duties which lie within it. It is for you 
 to prove by meek and gentle manners, by your pious walk 
 and conversation, that the daughters of Eve may eat of 
 the tree of knowledge, without danger or sin. No law, 
 divine or human, forbids that the female mind should 
 seek to penetrate the mysteries of science — and may we 
 not hope that the sad consequences of the disobedience 
 of the first woman, will, in some degree, be averted from 
 the earth, by enlightening the minds of her daughters? 
 
248 GEOMETRY. 
 
 But we have wandered from our immediate subject, 
 in following a train of thought which naturally presented 
 itself. We have spoken of the origin and meaning of 
 geometry. It remains briefly to trace its progress. From 
 Egypt, it is said to have been carried to Greece by Thales, 
 who, not satisfied to teach the Greeks what he had learn- 
 ed from the Egyptians, enriched the science with many 
 propositions of his own. Pythagoras afterwards success- 
 fully cultivated geometry, and added to it, among other 
 propositions, that of the square of the hypothenuse. 
 Anaxagoras and Plato studied to explain the quadrature 
 of the circle ; but Euclid, who lived four hundred years 
 before Christ, and fifty after Plato, collecting all the truths 
 that his predecessors had discovered, and adding many of 
 his own propositions, maybe considered as having estab- 
 lished the science on a firm foundation. Of all sciences, 
 none now remains so nearly as it existed in ancient days 
 as that of geometry. The work of Euclid, although many 
 improvements have professedly been made, still remains 
 much as he left it. 
 
 We shall not consider the subject of Mixed Mathemat- 
 ics separately. Those of you who are now studying these 
 subjects, as illustrated in Enfield's Philosophy, are mak- 
 ing a practical application of algebra and geometry. 
 You should as far as possible connect with your investi- 
 gations the idea of actual substances; for the mere 
 theory of mechanics or optics is of little use, without a 
 knowledge of their applications to the common objects 
 around you. I recently heard a young lady, who had 
 studied optics, call that a shadow upon the water, 
 which was a reflection. Females are not, in general, 
 as practical as the other sex ; they are much less abroad, 
 where the operations and phenomena of nature may be 
 observed, and they find it more difficult to transfer their 
 views from their books to nature. Those of you who are 
 studying Enfield, might learn much practical science 
 from an unlettered farmer or mechanic, who, although he 
 could not explain the principles of motion and force by 
 mathematical demonstrations, might yet teach you many 
 useful facts, learned by experience and observation. 
 
 In concluding this lecture, I would remark that it is far 
 
RHETORIC. 249 
 
 from my intention to depreciate those many excellent and 
 elevated women, who have honorably discharged their 
 duties in life, without a knowledge of mathematics, or 
 without those advantages for mental improvement which 
 females at the present day enjoy ; — such cases do not 
 invalidate any of the arguments we have offered on this 
 subject. These are the very women, who, with lofty views 
 of female duty and influence, and a strong sense of the 
 weakness of their sex, would be the first to plead that 
 they might be better fitted to discharge their duties, to 
 exert a beneficial influence, and that their minds might 
 be strengthened and fortified by a judicious and liberal 
 education. 
 
 LECTURE XX. 
 
 Rhetoric, Criticism, Composition. 
 
 The studies of Rhetoric and Criticism, are more es- 
 pecially designed for the cultivation of those faculties of 
 mind, called taste and imagination. Taste has by many 
 writers been termed a simple independent power or sense ; 
 but by Dr. Brown it is considered as a complex state of 
 mind, which may be analyzed into judgment and an emo- 
 tion. The human mind is formed with a susceptibility of 
 certain emotions, as beauty, sublimity and ludicrousness ; 
 these emotions are those on which taste chiefly depends, or 
 which, in conjunction with judgment, constitute taste. 
 Thus a painter, having experienced the emotion of beauty, 
 exercises his judgment in forming such combinations as 
 may produce in others the same emotion. A poet must have 
 experienced emotions, before he can by an effort of art 
 produce them in others; and he exercises his judgment 
 no less in the selection and combination of his images, 
 than the chemist, who puts together substances in order 
 to produce a certain result. That is, both the poet and 
 chemist judge of the fitness of ideas and of objects to pro- 
 duce their determinate effects. 
 
250 RHETORIC. 
 
 For a clear and interesting explanation of the elements 
 of taste, and of its three most essential qualities, refinement, 
 delicacy and correctness, I would refer you to the inter- 
 esting and useful system of Rhetoric, now adopted as a 
 class book in this Institution.* The author of this work 
 has taken up the subject in a philosophical and practical 
 manner. He at once informs the student that the art of 
 writing well, is not to be obtained by a set of rules, but 
 that ' the store-house of the mind must be well filled ; and 
 he must have that command of his treasures which will 
 enable him to bring forward, whenever the occasion may 
 require, what has been accumulated, for future use.' He 
 dwells particularly upon the necessity of mental discipline, 
 especially the previous cultivation of the reasoning pow- 
 ers; and observes that ' the student who, in the course of 
 his education is called to search for truth in the labyrinth 
 of metaphysical and moral reasonings, and to toil in the 
 wearisome study of the long and intricate solutions of 
 mathematical principles, is acquiring that discipline of 
 the mind, which fits him to distinguish himself as an able 
 writer. 
 
 You will perceive that the different branches of know- 
 ledge we have already considered, are all conducive to 
 one great end, that of enabling a person to compose with 
 elegance and facility. And is this an object of little im- 
 portance, even to our sex 1 We are permitted to use the 
 pen as our tastes, genius, or mental acquirements may 
 direct. Even the composition of a simple note of 
 ceremony, attests the fact of mental cultivation, or the 
 want of it; and a letter on the most common subject, 
 plainly indicates the nature of the writer's education. 
 Higher efforts of mind, such as stories for children, re- 
 ligious tracts, and works in the various departments con- 
 nected with education, are all now considered as offering 
 proper employment for the exertion of female talents. 
 But it must be remembered that these talents should be 
 cultivated with the most assiduous care — that the various 
 fields of knowledge should be explored, as far as possible, 
 in order to become a successful candidate for literary 
 distinction. The time has gone by, when a publication 
 
 * Newman's Rhetoric. 
 
RHETORIC. 257 
 
 meets with indulgence, because its author is a woman ; 
 we must now expect to be judged by our real merits, and 
 our titles to approbation. 
 
 Grammar and rhetoric bear to each other an intimate 
 relation ; the former teaches the method of speaking and 
 writing with accuracy, the latter of arranging our thoughts 
 with propriety and elegance. The science of rhetoric is 
 founded upon observations made by philosophers, of the 
 nature and operations of the human mind, and by a criti- 
 cal analysis of the style, and an examination of the meth- 
 ods of arrangement of those authors whose works have 
 been most generally approved. The chapter on Litera- 
 ry Taste in Newman's Rhetoric is well written, and cal- 
 culated to give just ideas of the peculiar merits of dif- 
 ferent authors ; it also happily illustrates the proper use 
 of rhetorical figures. The chapter on style, is an inter- 
 esting exposition of the qualities of a good style, and the 
 modes of writing which characterize different individu- 
 als. This little work leads the pupil to a knowledge 
 of the rules and principles of rhetoric, in an easy and 
 simple manner, and has the merit of more originality than 
 many school books, which profess to be improvements. 
 
 Blair's Lectures on Rhetoric have been deservedly pop- 
 ular : they are writen in a pure and concise style ; but the 
 larger work is too voluminous for beginners, and the 
 abridgement, as is usually the case, is a mere skeleton, 
 without suitable illustrations. 
 
 In pursuing the study of rhetoric, you should make it 
 your constant aim to render your knowledge practical : 
 you should examine authors, with a view of discovering 
 their peculiar beauties or defects, and notice their use of 
 the various figures of speech ; each of which you should 
 accustom yourself to distinguish, wherever you meet them. 
 This might be rendered interesting as an amusement. 
 When several young ladies are passing leisure hours togeth- 
 er, one might ask others to point out, in a certain page or 
 chapter of a book, all the comparisons, metaphors, an- 
 titheses, &c. which could be found. The suggestion and 
 proper uses of figures, must be the result of much prac- 
 tice in composition, as well as the fruit of learning. The 
 study of rhetoric will not at once give you the power of 
 
252 CRITICISM. 
 
 writing with ease and elegance : this requires a know- 
 ledge of nature and of the human heart, a habit of deep 
 and serious reflection, and a taste at once delicate and 
 refined. 
 
 Criticism is ranked in this institution as a higher study 
 than the elementary works on rhetoric ; it is indeed a de- 
 partment of rhetoric, but so extensive, that it has been 
 treated separately by some distinguished writers. The 
 best works on this subject which are now before the pub- 
 lic are those of Kames, Alison, and Campbell. Karnes' 
 Criticism contains much valuable philosophy ; the author 
 appears to have studied the human heart with considera- 
 ble success : his style is agreeable and he carries his read- 
 er along with him in an easy companionship. The stu- 
 dy of this work is an excellent preparation for mental 
 philosophy ; indeed it was, by the author, designed to hold 
 a middle rank between moral speculations and the study 
 of the natural and mathematical sciences. Without at- 
 tempting a theory and classification of the passions, Lord 
 Kames gives a variety of practical illustrations of their 
 operations and moving principles ; and such as are cal- 
 culated to be of great use to a young person on entering 
 into life. The greatest objection to his work on criticism 
 is the occasional obsoleteness of the style, (the third edi- 
 tion was published as far back as 1761) and a want of 
 system in his arrangements. These faults may be rem- 
 edied by the remarks of teachers, and care on their part 
 to make a better arrangement. The practical part of 
 criticism will not probably be acquired in a very great 
 degree by the study of Kames, or any other author ; but 
 a new stock of ideas may be gained, and the power of 
 making for yourselves critical distinctions. 
 
 Alison is a writer of peculiar beauty and sweetness : 
 the fault in his work, as a text-book on criticism, is that 
 he confines himself to the subjects of beauty and sublim- 
 ity, a sphere too circumscribed for so extensive a science. 
 The politeness and respect with which Alison speaks of 
 the ' profound remarks of Lord Kames/ furnish a pleas- 
 ant contrast to the illiberality with which writers often 
 speak of those who have preceded them in any particular 
 department of literature. The whole work of Alison is 
 
CRITICISM. 253 
 
 replete with beautiful passages, calculated to inspire the 
 reader with noble and just sentiments. In his essays up- 
 on the beauty and sublimity of the material world, he 
 leads the mind to the delightful contemplation of nature 
 and the Author of nature. After expatiating on the 
 moral effect of the study of nature upon the mind, he 
 finely and piously observes ' there is yet, however, a 
 greater expression which the appearances of the material 
 world are fitted to convey, and a more important influ- 
 ence which, in the design of nature, they are destined to 
 produce upon us : their influence, I mean, in leading us 
 directly to religious sentiment. Had organic enjoyment 
 been the only object of our formation, it would have been 
 sufficient to establish senses for the reception of these 
 enjoyments. But if the promises of our nature are great- 
 er — if it is destined to a nobler conclusion — if it is ena- 
 bled to look to the Author of Being himself, and to feel 
 its proud relation to Him; then nature, in all its aspects 
 around us, ought only to be felt as signs of his providence, 
 and as conducting us, by the universal language of these 
 signs, to the throne of the Deity.' 
 
 After remarking upon the effect of natural scenery 
 upon elevated minds, he adds: ' Even the thoughtless and 
 the dissipated yield unconsciously to this beneficent in- 
 stinct ; and in the pursuit of pleasure, return, without 
 knowing it, to the first and the noblest sentiments of their 
 nature. They leave the society of cities, and all the ar- 
 tificial pleasures, which they feel to have occupied, with- 
 out satiating their imagination. They hasten into those 
 solitary, and those uncultivated scenes, where they seem 
 to breathe a purer air, and to experience more profound 
 delight. They leave behind them all the arts, and all 
 the labors of man, to meet nature in her primeval mag- 
 nificence and beauty. Amid the slumber of their usual 
 thoughts, they love to feel themselves awakened to those 
 deep and majestic emotions which give a new and a no- 
 bler expansion to their hearts, and amid the tumult and 
 astonishment of their imagination, 
 
 To behold the present God 
 On the rocks by man untrod, 
 
 22 
 
254 COMPOSITION. 
 
 On the hill-tops wild and rude, 
 On the cliff's deep solitude. 
 Where the roaring waters move, 
 In the darkness of the grove.' 
 
 It is particularly on account of its moral effect that it 
 is of so much consequence to encourage their instinctive 
 taste for the beauty and sublimity of nature. While it 
 opens to the mind of childhood, or youth, a source of pure 
 and of permanent enjoyment, it has consequences on the 
 character and happiness of future life, which they are 
 enabled to foresee. It is to provide them, amid all the 
 agitations and trials of society, with one gentle and un- 
 reproaching friend, whose voice is ever in alliance with 
 goodness and virtue, and which, when once understood, 
 is able both to soothe misfortune, and to reclaim from 
 folly. It is to identify them with the happiness of that 
 nature to which they belong ,* to give them an interest in 
 every species of being which surrounds them ; and, amid 
 the hours of curiosity and delight, to awaken those latent 
 feelings of benevolence and of sympathy, from which all 
 the moral or intellectual greatness of man finally arises. 
 It is to lay the foundation of an early and of a manly 
 piety : amid the magnificent system of material signs in 
 which they reside, to give them the mighty key which 
 can interpret them ; and to make them look upon the 
 universe which they inhabit, not as the abode of human 
 cares, or human joys only, but as the temple of the Liv- 
 ing God, in which praise is due, and where service is to 
 be performed. 
 
 Composition. 
 
 The study of Belles Lettres, or of rhetoric and criticism 
 is introduced into education, principally for the purpose 
 of improving the young in the art of composition. It is 
 indeed pleasant to be able to judge of the performances 
 of others, to know the causes of our approbation or dis- 
 approbation of literary works, to enter into the secrets of 
 the mind, and explore its mysterious laws, to compare the 
 productions of genius with those rules which nature sug- 
 gests, and to observe the uniformity of her operations in 
 
COMPOSITION. 255 
 
 all well organized minds : all this is agreeable ; but it is still 
 more desirable, still more delightful to be able of our- 
 selves to execute, to be able to catch the ideal train, as 
 they glide through our minds, and paint them in all their 
 freshness and originality for our own future examination, 
 or for the inspection of others. 
 
 Of all the enjoyments granted to mortals, this is prob- 
 ably the most exquisite and the most elevated ; to behol d 
 before us the image of our own minds, the glowing tran- 
 scripts of our own thoughts, as delineated by ourselves ; it 
 seems to assimilate us in some degree with the great 
 Creator of mind, when we are able to render its opera- 
 tions visible. Many who are conscious of elevated 
 thoughts are destitute of a power of expression suited to 
 these ; many in whom the fire of genius is smothered by ig- 
 norance and prejudice, feeling within themselves the work- 
 ings of a latent intellect, sigh for education as the great- 
 est of human blessings, the means of elevating the mind 
 and rendering its operations sources of the highest enjoy- 
 ment. Under the greatest disadvantages, the light of genius 
 has occasionally burst forth, discovering upon the shoe- 
 maker's bench a tuneful and sentimental Bloomfield, or at 
 the plough a noble and high-souled Burns. But instances 
 are rare in which unaided genius acquires the confidence 
 to come forth, and try her pinions : education is required 
 by most minds in order to give the courage and skill ne- 
 cessary for effort in the regions of composition. And be- 
 sides, we must acknowledge that genius is not a com- 
 mon gift ; I mean that fire which, unless it can have 
 yent, consumes the soul. And in this we see the good- 
 ness of our Creator ; for genius is of too fine, too exqui- 
 site a nature to bear the rude contact of worldly things ; 
 it droops and folds its wings when calamities assail; even 
 the imaginary sufferings of a flower transplanted from its 
 own home, a rose plucked from its parent stem, or the 
 agonies of a poor worm or insect, are sufficient to call forth 
 its tender and plaintive wailings, — how then can it look 
 upon human sufferings, povarty, oppression, injustice, 
 treachery, pain and death 1 Indeed we often see that 
 mind which exhibits unequivocal marks of genius, earlv 
 lading away, as if the atmosphere of the world were too 
 
256 COMPOSITION. 
 
 cold for its sensitive nature ; thus have Henry Kirk White 
 and Lucretia Davidson,* and many others gradually sunk 
 to an untimely grave, apparently through an excess of 
 sensibility. 
 
 But is there no remedy for this 1 Must the fairest and 
 best of human blossoms be given up to be chilled by the 
 frosts, and blighted by the mildews of an ungenial world? 
 Let a suitable and proper direction be given to sensibili- 
 ty, and it may be disciplined and chastened. Let educa- 
 tion be properly conducted, and then will reason and 
 judgment be brought to sustain and guide the trembling, 
 aspiring etherial spirit, which is ever shrinking from 
 real evils and refusing to look with steady eye upon the 
 obstacles in the pathway of life. But, supported by rea- 
 son and judgment, sensibility may learn to encounter 
 evils and to overcome difficulties ; especially does she need 
 the aid of religion to reconcile her to earthly sufferings, 
 in view of a happier future. I have spoken of sensibility, 
 because I believe it always belongs to true genius, and 
 to be the cause of those frequent failures in life which are 
 observable among those who are highly gifted ; but a prop- 
 er mode of education may do much towards chastening, 
 and giving it a right direction. 
 
 Lucretia Davidson, the lovely girl whose precocious 
 powers have been the admiration of many, probably fell a 
 victim to an extreme and morbid sensibility : many of you 
 are aware that several years since, she was a member of 
 this institution ; some of you may remember her personal- 
 ly. She had, in her childhood, been indulged in her fond- 
 ness for seclusion and solitary musings. Her educa- 
 tion, owing to peculiar circumstances, had not been sys- 
 tematically and thoroughly pursued. On her entering 
 the Seminary, she at once surprised us by the brilliancy 
 and pathos of her compositions, — she evinced a most ex- 
 quisite sense of the beautiful in the productions of her 
 pencil; always giving to whatever she attempted to copy, 
 
 * Miss Davidson died at about the age of seventeen ; a volume 
 of her posthumous works, entitled ' Amir Kahn, and other Poems,' 
 has received much praise from critics. The British Reviewers 
 spoke of it as an extraordinary production, comparing her to their 
 favorite and lamented White. 
 
COMPOSITION. 257 
 
 certain peculiar and original touches which marked the 
 liveliness of her conceptions, and the power of her genius 
 to embody those conceptions. But from studies which 
 required calm and steady investigation, efforts of memo- 
 ry, judgment and consecutive thinking, her mind seem- 
 ed to shrink. She had no confidence in herself, and ap- 
 peared to regard with dismay any requisitions of this na- 
 ture. Even in geography, which was one of her studies, 
 she found a difficulty in preparing herself for recitations. 
 At the approach of an examination, she was agonized 
 with the fear of disgracing her class by her appearance ; 
 and in order to calm her apprehensions, I had promised 
 to ask her very few questions. When it came her turn 
 to recite, instead of taking the subject next in order, 
 which would have been an explanation of the ' geological 
 structure of the globe,' and which the poor trembling girl 
 had never felt an interest in knowing, I asked her to 
 give some account of the peculiarities of the torrid zone. 
 Miss Davidson's countenance brightened : she begun with 
 the sweetest tones of voice to describe the vegetable won- 
 ders of those regions, the spreading bananas, the lofty 
 bamboo trees, forests rendered impenetrable by the lux- 
 uriancy of vegetation, and blooming with perennial ver- 
 dure and beauty. She spoke of the mighty elephant, the 
 hippopotamus, rolling his enormous bulk along the rivers 
 of Africa, the fierce lions and tigers, poisonous reptiles 
 and ensnaring crocodiles, the great anaconda, wind- 
 ing his huge coils around his helpless victim ; nor did she 
 fail to describe that dreadful vampyre, which seeks the 
 traveller in his hour of sleep and gluts itself with his 
 blood. She then, with a new and kindling emotion, spoke 
 of the brilliant fire-flies which illuminate those regions 
 in the night as with a mass of liquid light, of the bound- 
 ing antelope, and of the beautiful gazelle, whose brilliant 
 and fascinating eyes are the admiration of the beholder. 
 So vivid in my mind is the recollection of her animated 
 and enthusiastic manner at that time, the bright flashing of 
 her dark eye., and the glow of her brilliant complexion, 
 that the conception appears like reality, and it seems as if 
 she now stood before me, the living image of youthful ge- 
 nius and sensibility. But the grave has for many years 
 22* 
 
258 COMPOSITION. 
 
 shrouded her form, once so interesting. We may not ima- 
 gine the process which is going on in that dreadful labora- 
 tory, where the elements which compose the human body 
 are separated and set free to enter into other combina- 
 tions ; we will rather say with the poet, 
 
 ' Not to the grave my soul, 
 
 Not to the grave descend to contemplate 
 
 The form that once was dear ! ' 
 
 it is better to think of the spirit as disencumbered of its 
 load of clay, and an inhabitant of a purer world. 
 
 I have introduced the character of this young lady to 
 show you the great importance of early mental discipline ; 
 for, lovely as genius and sensibility may be, in order to be 
 useful, in order to be fitted for life, they must be sustained 
 by the other mental powers. We see the evils of suffering 
 any one department of mind to usurp unlimited power over 
 the other. If one could not be a fine writer, without be- 
 coming unfit for the duties of life ; if talents were necessari- 
 ly connected with eccentricities, I would at once warn all 
 my sex from attempting to acquire these dangerous gifts; 
 but I trust it is unnecessary for me to point out the ma- 
 ny ladies who at this time hold an important standing in 
 the literary world, and are yet among the most active 
 supporters of social and religious institutions, who are 
 equally distinguished for domestic virtues as for high 
 mental endowments. 
 
 But we are yet to go back to the first attempts of the 
 pupil in the art of composition ; this it. is necessary to 
 do for the benefit of the younger members of the institu- 
 tion, and of some others to whom the idea of writing 
 compositions is new and appalling. 
 
 Those who are studying languages, will derive great 
 assistance in composition from the habit of translating. 
 It appears to me that this advantage has not been suf- 
 ficiently estimated ' were it indeed the only one, I should 
 think it a sufficient compensation for the labor which is 
 necessary in acquiring a language. If you take a fine 
 passage of a Latin or French author, and attempt to trans- 
 late it, the mind, gradually seizing upon the ideas, seems 
 to adopt them as its own ; and feeling itself elevated by 
 this new acquisition, becomes capable of greater efforts. 
 
COMPOSITION. 259 
 
 In translating, particular attention should be paid to 
 the exact import of words; thus, the word sentiment which 
 in English is applied to opinions, is in French restricted 
 to the feelings of the heart, it being derived from the verb 
 sentir, to feel. The French would not then speak of 'po- 
 litical sentiments , but political opinions; they would speak 
 of a sentiment of gratitude or love : when you reflect on 
 the origin of the word sentiment, you will perceive that 
 there is a propriety in making this distinction between 
 this word and opinion, which is derived from a Latin verb 
 signifying to believe. To those of you whose under- 
 standing and observation have not furnished you with a 
 stock of ideas for composition, translation may be recom- 
 mended as a substitute, until you shall have acquired the 
 confidence aud ability to compose. 
 
 I am aware that of all your exercises, many of you find 
 original composition the most difficult; indeed it is not 
 strange you do so : when you write, you can only express 
 by written characters the thoughts which you have gain- 
 ed by reflection and observation. If you have reflected 
 or observed but little, your stock of intellectual wealth 
 must be small ; and who can impart to others that which 
 they do not possess 1 It may be said, then, why should 
 we be required to write compositions before we are capa- 
 ble of writing well ? I answer, that if you have but a 
 small capital to begin with, your stores will increase by 
 use ; but permit me to caution you as to a choice of sub- 
 jects ; for beginners in composition, often choose such as 
 would require a philosopher to investigate. 
 
 For example, let us suppose a young Miss, unaccus- 
 tomed to confine her thoughts, for any length of time, 
 to any given subject, writing a composition on Grat- 
 itude. She has a vague idea that gratitude id some- 
 thing praise-worthy, and begins by saying, 'that it is a 
 virtue that all should possess.' When she has proceeded 
 so far, she does not well know what more to say ; but 
 the composition must be written ; and so she proceeds 
 to say that 'every one ought to be grateful, and 
 when they .see people in distress, they ought to relieve 
 their wants: — thus she goes from gratitude to benevo* 
 
260 COMPOSITION. 
 
 lence, and, confounding the two virtues, destroys all dis- 
 tinctions of terms and ideas. 
 
 It is very important that in your attempts at writing 
 you confine yourselves to subjects with which you are in 
 some degree familiar. No matter how common, or tri- 
 vial may be the theme ; the object is to acquire a habit 
 of expressing your ideas in writing, with clearness and 
 simplicity. For example, give a description of your own 
 dwelling house, state its length, width, and mode of con- 
 struction, the materials of which it is composed ; and 
 a little reflection, with some previous learning, would 
 suggest to you the improvements which have been made 
 in the building of houses and other kinds of architecture. 
 You might describe your own room, with its furniture, 
 &/C. ; or, looking out upon the prospect before you, deline- 
 ate in words the various objects before you. Any pro- 
 duction of nature or art, might furnish you with ideas. 
 For instance, suppose you should write about an apple 
 — you may think this a very insignificant subject — but 
 nothing that God has made is insignificant ; nor is the 
 power of describing the most common object to be des- 
 pised. Well, now begin to think what you could find to 
 say about an apple : you all know to which of the king- 
 doms of nature it belongs ; you know that it is a fruit, 
 originating from a flower of a certain kind — the kind of 
 flower might be described, the usual height of the tree 
 on which it grows, the climate most favorable to the 
 growth of this tree, the various culinary uses of the apple, 
 the evil purposes to which the ingenuity of man has per- 
 verted it, &c. I have yet touched upon few of the sub- 
 jects which your theme might suggest, and yet much 
 might be said upon each one of the abovementioned 
 heads. A fly, a bee, or a butterfly, might afford subjects 
 for your pen. I do not mean that you are in your de- 
 scriptions of an apple or an insect, to write as a botanist 
 or geologist would do, but that you express in simple 
 language your own observations upon these, or any other 
 objects. I have said your own observations ; you will 
 please to notice this, for without observation you cannot 
 write on any subject, except it be merely to repeat like 
 the parrot, what you hear from others, But by attempt- 
 
COMPOSITION. 261 
 
 ing to describe common objects you will see the need of 
 observation and attention with respect to common things, 
 and that learning is not confined to the knowledge which 
 is contained in books. 
 
 By using your knowledge, however small the slock at 
 first may be, you will continue to add to your intellectu- 
 al stores; the idea of wanting to know something that 
 you may communicate in your composition, will induce 
 you to pay attention to objects around you, to hear the 
 remarks of wiser people, and to recollect what you read 
 in books. But do not allow yourselves to borrow from 
 others. On reading a very spirited or profound compo- 
 sition from a young lady of limited talents and opportu- 
 nities, a teacher immediately believes that it is borrowed, 
 even should it chance that she has not before seen the 
 same thing. This is not only stealing, but defrauding 
 yourselves. If you begin with compositions, above your 
 own capacities, you must continue them, or the deception 
 will at once appear to your companions, as well as teach- 
 ers. But I should very unwillingly believe that any pu- 
 pil can be so lost to honorable sentiments as to wish to 
 gain reputation for talents she does not possess, or so 
 unjust to herself as to prevent her own improvement in 
 the attempt to seem to be, what she is not. 
 
 You have heard some things that may be said upon 
 an apple. Look around you, and you see innumerable 
 objects in the productions of nature and art; all of these 
 have peculiarities of their own, which may be describ- 
 ed even with no other knowledge of them, than you may 
 gain by your sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell, — in- 
 numerable comparisons between these objects will also 
 naturally suggest themselves to your minds ; as you ac- 
 quire more knowledge, you will think of many relations 
 existing between them which you now do not observe. 
 The subject of geology, on which you all have the advan- 
 tage of hearing lectures, will serve to lead even the 
 youngest of you to reflect on the many things which may 
 be said even of stones. You have perhaps thought that 
 all were alike, but you now find that there is diversity 
 of character among rocks, as well as people. The rocks 
 are not morally or intellectually different from each oth- 
 
262 COMPOSITION. 
 
 er, since they are destitute of intelligence, and even of 
 life, which plants possess — but rocks and stones are phy- 
 sically different, that is, their external appearance is va- 
 rious, and their chemical composition different. 
 
 When you walk or ride out, you can always meet with 
 something animate or inanimate that may serve for the 
 subject of a composition. When you see a person in af- 
 fliction, or behold some one debased by intoxication, or ta- 
 king the name of God in vain, emotions of various kinds 
 will be awakened, and under the influence of these you 
 might be led to write with facility. When you see a good 
 person relieving distress, you will sympathize with the feel- 
 ings of those who receive this kindness, and thus you may, 
 from your own observation and reflection, comprehend 
 the nature and obligations of gratitude. Yet still you 
 may not be able to investigate this emotion ; for in order 
 to do this, you would need to be acquainted with the 
 operations of the mind, and to explore the recesses of the 
 human heart, and the relations of cause and effect. 
 
 Although in some of the foregoing remarks I have 
 more particularly addressed myself to the younger pupils, 
 and those to whom the exercise of writing composition is 
 new, I would say to all, be careful of going out of your own 
 depth ; study to understand the nature of your own minds, 
 and occupy yourselves with subjects which you most rea- 
 dily and fully comprehend — write as if you had something 
 to say, not as if you attempted to say something because 
 you must write. If your minds are properly disciplined to 
 habits of reflection, you must, with all that you are now 
 studying, hearing and seeing, have something to say re- 
 specting your own observations, reflections, sentiments 
 and opinions. It is well for advanced pupils, to write 
 frequently on the subjects which they are engaged in 
 studying. 
 
 A pupil in astronomy having beheld the heavens, 
 traced the path of the constellations, contemplated the 
 planets and the fixed stars, as they are arranged in their 
 beautiful order, may surely find enough to say of such 
 observations — she might, as genius or inclination prompt- 
 ed, state in precise and scientific language the various 
 celestial phenomena, or with an imagination kindling at 
 
COMPOSITION. 263 
 
 such scenes rise to a style of sublimity. Or if a Christian, 
 and impressed with the thoughts of the Divine Power 
 which created and upholds this wonderful universe, she 
 would naturally be led to pour forth the devout expressions 
 of a pious heart. Mechanical philosophy, optics, botany, 
 chemistry, and all physical subjects, should lead the 
 mind of the student to the observation of nature, and 
 such observations will furnish matter for composition. 
 
 History and geography are fruitful in subjects for the 
 exercise of the pen. Rhetoric and criticism are intend- 
 ed chiefly to teach you to arrange your thoughts with 
 clearness and elegance, and to avoid errors which might 
 offend the ear of taste, and rules of composition. Moral 
 philosophy, leading the mind to reflect upon the recipro- 
 cal duties of mankind, and their common obligations 
 to their Maker, cannot fail to suggest new trains of 
 thought. 
 
 And when the empire of the human mind is first un- 
 folded, as it were, upon a map before you, and the many 
 devious windings of thought traced to their mysterious 
 sources ; when you are first led to perceive that the mind 
 possesses the power of looking inwardly upon its own ope- 
 rations, how many new and interesting ideas spring into 
 existence ! Copy these in their own native freshness 
 and vividness of coloring, and the transcript cannot fail 
 of being delightful to others. 
 
 The first impressions which the various branches of 
 literature and science make upon the mind, have a char- 
 acter of originality and enthusiasm, which cannot after- 
 wards be caught — these evanescent emotions should 
 then be secured by copies made when they are fresh 
 and new. 
 
 I have not recommended the attempt to write stories 
 from the imagination ; this may be well occasionally, but 
 it has the bad effect of bringing the mind too much un- 
 der the dominion of fancy. It is better for young ladies 
 to occupy themselves with realities, than to stray too 
 much into the dangerous regions of imagination.. Besides, 
 the practice of writing tales has a tendency to form a 
 tinselled kind of style, not to be compared in dignity or 
 propriety with a simple and plain manner of telling truth. 
 
264 logic. 
 
 Indeed it is to be hoped that as the various departments 
 of human knowledge become more filled with facts, and 
 these facts are arranged according to the rules of science, 
 ample scope will be found for the exercise of the human 
 faculties ; — and although we desire not to see the province 
 of fiction deserted, yet we would see a higher rank 
 awarded to those who search for and discover truth, who 
 assist and perfect nature, than to the fabricators of those 
 gossamer tales which receive all their coloring from the 
 varying and illusive hue of fancy, and which have 
 no higher aim than the amusement of hours, which are 
 already too short and too few for the great objects of hu- 
 man existence. 
 
 Poetry is a species of composition which none should 
 attempt except those who are strongly prompted by genius. 
 True poetical talent is rare, and can never be forced in- 
 to existence : when it is possessed, it should be regarded 
 as a precious gift from the Creator of mind, and en- 
 listed in the service of virtue and piety. 
 
 LECTURE XXI. 
 
 Logic. — Moral Philosophy. — Intellectual Philosophy, 
 
 The study of Logic should precede that of Intellectual 
 Philosophy. As it is now taught, this science diners 
 much from the logic of Aristotle and the ancient schools ; 
 with them it was a tissue of subtleties and absurdities ; it 
 taught to support both truth and error, furnishing arms 
 alike to both. Amid the multiplicity of rules for the 
 guidance of reason, reason herself seemed wholly to be 
 lost sight of. It was like loading a warrior with armor, 
 until crushed and buried beneath its weight. The ancient 
 prejudices with respect to modes of reasoning, for a long 
 time kept every science in a state of obscurity ; for on 
 the free exercise of the reasoning power in man, depends 
 every degree of improvement in scientific research ; in- 
 
logic. 2G5 
 
 deed there can be no research when reason is fettered. 
 Thus in attempting to foster and improve reason, she be- 
 came bewildered and exhausted. As an illustration of 
 the absurdities of the mode of reasoning encouraged by the 
 logic of the schools, the following story has been related. 
 ' The son of an unlettered farmer, who had been sent to 
 college for his education, returned to his father's house, 
 puffed up with pride and expecting to astonish and em- 
 barrass every one with the wonderful extent of his knowl- 
 edge, and the sophistry which he had learned. Sitting 
 one day at the breakfast table with his honest parents, 
 the young pedant observing that there were but two 
 eggs. " I can prove to you," says he, " that here are 
 three eggs ; — here are owe, two ; now, father, will you not 
 allow that one and two make three ? " The father could 
 not refute the argument, although it contradicted the evi- 
 dence of his senses ; but, taking one of the eggs himself, 
 and giving the other to his wife, said, " As for you, my son, 
 you may take the third, as a reward for your learning." ' 
 The proper object of logic is to teach the operations 
 of our minds, the method of reasoning and arrange- 
 ment which is conformable to those laws, and to dis- 
 tinguish truth from error. So far then from being an 
 artificial science, logic ought to be a deduction from ob- 
 servations made upon the nature and operations of the 
 mind. It has been remarked that God did not make 
 man, and leave Aristotle to complete this work, by giving 
 him, as the ancients seemed to believe, the power of rea- 
 soning. So blindly was the system of Aristotle followed, 
 that, during the dark ages, in some parts of Europe, it 
 was made a crime punishable with death, for a person to 
 advance any opinion contrary to the doctrines of that 
 philosopher. The art of reasoning, or the true logic, must 
 have been coeval with the dawning of the human under- 
 standing. When Adam gave names to the beasts of the 
 field, the fowls of the air, and the fish of the sea, he ex- 
 ercised the power of reasoning with as much propriety as 
 any follower of Aristotle could have done, and probably 
 with far less embarrassment. The latter would, in the 
 first place, have needed to establish syllogistically the 
 fact, that a beast was not a fowl, and that a fowl was not 
 23 
 
%$6 LOGIC. 
 
 a fish. He would have thought it necessary to decide 
 whether there was, in reality, any such thing as classes of 
 beings, such as we now call dogs, cats, horses, &c ; or 
 whether putting certain beings in a class together, and 
 giving them one common name, such as dog, &c. does 
 not give them that relation to each other, which the mind 
 considers as belonging to individuals of the same class. 
 
 The ancient Realist would have gravely decided that 
 we must, look into our minds for an image which should 
 be the representative of any one genus, and must com- 
 pare the real animal with the idea; thus the idea or image 
 of a doer in our minds should be the standard to which all 
 real animals which were to be included under the genus 
 dog, must be found conformable. Plato and Aristotle 
 were Realists. The Nominalist would have said that it 
 was of no consequence what animals were called dogs, 
 what were called cats, &c. — for by giving to any particu- 
 lar number the same general name, we should learn to 
 associate them in our own minds ; thus, when the word 
 dog was called, we should think of other beings of the 
 same name, although this resemblance in name was in 
 fact the only relationship which the mind acknowledged 
 between them. 
 
 It does not appear that Adam was troubled with any 
 of these logical subtleties, with respect to naming the an- 
 imals. Endowed by his Creator with the power of per- 
 ceiving resemblances, and probably having received also 
 a knowledge of language, he had only to examine the dif- 
 ferent created beings, in order to perceive at once cer- 
 tain distinctive characters between the different families, 
 and to give a general name to each family or genus. 
 Whether the names which he gave were entirely arbitra- 
 ty, or founded on some peculiarity of the animal, we do 
 not know, though the latter appears a probable supposi- 
 tion. For notwithstanding the many transformations 
 which language has undergone we still perceive in many 
 cases a resemblance in the sound of a word, and the an- 
 imal which it denotes ; — thus snake, with the hissing 
 sound of its consonants, and its drawling termination 
 seems in some degree to suggest the being to which it is 
 applied ; — the name bird seems indicative of a quick, 
 
logic. 267 
 
 rushing through the air ; tiger seems to speak of ferocity, 
 and lion of courage. How far our associated ideas may 
 influence us to imagine these resemblances, we cannot 
 well say ; though this circumstance should be taken into 
 consideration. You may be ready to ask, of what use can 
 it be to study logic, if it serves only to perplex and cloud 
 the mind 1 We have already informed you that the true 
 purpose of logic is to assist in the development of the 
 reasoning powers, by rules drawn from observation and 
 experience of the nature and operations of those powers. 
 Logic is not to teach you to reason, for nature does this ; 
 but it may assist you by pointing out those methods of 
 study and investigation which people of reflection and 
 observation have found to be most useful to themselves 
 and others. Those who have studied any of the branches 
 of natural science, particularly botany, have already been 
 initiated into the principles of logical division and meth- 
 od. Mathematical demonstration is but the constant 
 practice of true logic, and the latter science will be to 
 those of you who are familiar with such demonstrations, 
 but a review of familiar principles and facts. 
 
 Hedge's Logic has been selected as our text book in 
 this study ; it contains the most useful principles of the 
 science, and is little encumbered with the useless rubbish 
 with which antiquity had loaded it. In recitations in this 
 study, it is very difficult to change the language of your 
 author in any great degree ; the precise word used in defi- 
 nitions is here generally the very one which is needed, 
 and the idea might be changed or obscured by attempt- 
 ing to alter the mode of expression. While it shows a 
 dull and mechanical mind for a pupil to be always confin- 
 ed to the mere words of a text book, it is, on the other 
 hand, a foolish affectation and pedantry to avoid with 
 scrupulous care using any of an author's expressions, 
 however fine or forcible they may be. You never need 
 fear being suspected of learning by rote, when this is not 
 the case. There is as much difference in the manner of 
 recitation between one who understands what she says, 
 and one who repeats words from memory merely, as be- 
 tween the chattering of a parrot and the conversation of 
 an intelligent person. The kindling of mind, the beam- 
 
268 logic. 
 
 ing forth of intellect is never to be confounded with me- 
 chanical effort. Before closing my observations upon the 
 study of logic, I will read you a translation of some re- 
 marks from a French work, entitled, ' Conseils D' un Pere 
 Sur U Education Des Filles. * ' Teach your daughters 
 to search for principles founded in truth and wisdom ; — 
 teach them to contract the habit of ascertaining as far as 
 possible, whether what they wish to do is conformable to 
 both these ; — teach them to doubt upon all subjects that 
 are not evident, but that when they have well examined 
 the foundation, and are certain of the correctness of the 
 reasoning founded upon a sure basis, they should then 
 know how to stop. Teach them not to wander from this 
 focus of light, but, keeping their eye fixed upon this point, 
 render it a means of discovering any fluctuation in their 
 future opinions or conduct. Correct principles are a port 
 in the tempest ; they are an asylum against the attacks of 
 error ; an inexhaustible fountain from whence the streams 
 which flow are always pure; an unerring compass to 
 whose guidance we can yield ourselves without fear. We 
 are strong when our conduct has been regulated by the 
 rules of truth and honesty. You are not called upon to 
 prepare yourselves for the pulpit or the bar, though it is 
 well for you to be capable of judging of the merits of 
 those who do appear there ; and although you may not be 
 called to proclaim your own opinions, you may have the 
 satisfaction of enjoying in secret the pleasure of being 
 able to judge and to appreciate the efforts of great minds. 
 The logic which we wish you to possess, is not that which 
 leads to argument, but to the regulation of thought ; that 
 which shall enable you to establish rules for your own 
 conduct. We would wish rather to perfect you in the art 
 of thinking and judging, than in that of speaking ; or, in 
 other words, we would have your knowledge made sub- 
 servient to useful purposes, not to vanity or pedantry.' 
 
 The same writer, remarking on the necessity of order 
 in the train of thought, says, ' I had scribbled long, before 
 I knew how to write : I had a tumultuous abundance of 
 ideas ; they flowed from my pen with great facility : let- 
 
 * Counsels of a Father upon the Education of Daughters. 
 
MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 269 
 
 ters cost me no effort ; but when I came to treat upon se- 
 rious and complicated subjects, I was confused, I felt that 
 my reasoning had not that tout ensemble, that connexion 
 which characterizes energy and clearness. My discours- 
 es were but a collection of incoherent observations, of 
 isolated reflections, of which I could never endure the 
 second reading. Ah, how many manuscripts have I not 
 destroyed in impatience and discouragement ! At length 
 a ray of light dawned upon my mind — before beginning 
 to develope a subject, I traced my plan ; T did as the arch- 
 itect who determines the proportions of a building before 
 laying a single stone, and from thence, all difficulties in 
 composition disappeared ! 
 
 " From this sincere acknowledgement,' continues the 
 same author ' you may form an idea of the importance 
 of method in the art of reasoning. Principles are the 
 base and the fulcrum of every work, method is the lever, 
 and analysis the proof. "* Is not then a rational and just 
 logic a treasure? Is it not as valuable for woman as for 
 man, since the government of her thoughts, and the reg- 
 ulation of her conduct is of equal importance? 
 
 Moral Philosophy. 
 
 Moral Philosophy is addressed both to the heart and un- 
 derstanding. It should commence in the earliest years 
 of childhood, as soon as the little being destined to immor- 
 tality begins to entertain ideas of right and wrong. 
 There is a period preceding this, when the child is to be 
 governed wholly by a feeling of instinctive obedience. It 
 sees itself in the hands of its parents, knows that they 
 have power over it, and learns to submit its will to theirs. 
 But as soon as the child begins to exercise its reason, as 
 soon as the moral feeling begins to unfold, (we are here 
 assuming the existence of a principle which some moral- 
 ists or rather immoralists deny) then should its moral 
 education commence. It should be taught that the pa- 
 rent does not exact obedience because he has power to 
 do it, but because it is right, because the parent has ex- 
 perience and knows what is best. If one child take from 
 
 23* 
 
270 MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 another its toys, because it has greater physical strength, 
 it should be taught that 'power does not make right, and 
 that it is wrong in any case to take what belongs to 
 another, without the owner's consent. 
 
 Thus should children, from the dawning of reason, be 
 accustomed to reflect upon the moral relations of actions. 
 The science of Moral Philosophy, as laid down in books 
 is but a collection of those rules and principles which are 
 considered as the proper guides of moral conduct, and 
 which in their simple forms should be thus taught to 
 children. The work of Dr. Paley, although liable to some 
 objections, yet retains its place in most public institu- 
 tions. It possesses merits of a kind very important in a 
 school book ; the style is clear and simple, the method 
 of arrangement calculated to aid the memory, and the 
 reasoning is generally precise and logical. The chap- 
 ter on the moral sense does not appear to me to state the 
 subject fairly, or to give to the argument that bearing 
 which religion, morality and experience point out. 
 
 Consider man as destitute of an original moral feeling 
 (the term sense is perhaps an objectionable one) and how 
 can he be considered an accountable being ? Is it not 
 this very feeling, implanted by God in the human heart, 
 which renders man a moral agent? Is not this moral 
 feeling the foundation of all our ideas of right and 
 wrong? If right depend on custom, law, the will of a 
 sovereign, or of a majority, where is our standard? Dr. 
 Paley would say, the revealed will of God. But if we have 
 no natural feeling of rectitude, why should we think it right 
 to render obedience to our Creator ? This question is thus 
 answered by Paley : c We believe that God can reward or 
 punish us, that he will do this in proportion to our obe- 
 dience or disobedience, therefore we will comply with 
 his will for the sake of the reward.' 
 
 But how is it with the Creator himself? Are his 
 acts good, because he is powerful ; or rather, is there not 
 such a thing as a principle of goodness, of which God is 
 the fountain, and which, when he created man in his 
 own image, was imparted as the vital principle of the 
 human soul ? This soul, although corrupted by the fall, 
 still retains a portion of its divine principle, which, even 
 
INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 271 
 
 in the most debased condition of mortals, discovers it- 
 self by the remorse and shame which follow vice. With 
 the exception of what I consider Dr. Paley's erroneous 
 ideas lespecting the want of an original moral princi- 
 ple, and the necessary consequences from this which 
 appear in his definition of ' virtue, right and wrong/ 
 &c, I regard his Moral Philosophy as a work of great 
 merit and utility. His views of the sabbath are how- 
 ever far from being admitted by all Christians ; most of 
 whom believe that the Christian sabbath is a continua- 
 tion of, and substitution for the Jewish sabbath, and that 
 we are under the same obligation to regard the fourth 
 commandment as the other nine. Dr. Paley considers 
 it expedient and proper to observe the sabbath by attend- 
 ing public worship on that day, and devoting as much time 
 as possible to spiritual exercises ; but he does not regard 
 the hallowing of the Lord's day as enforced by a com- 
 mand. 
 
 Parkhurst's Moral Philosophy is designed to correct 
 some of the supposed errors of Paley. This is a work of 
 much merit, and may be read with advantage by pupils 
 in this study. In our moral department we shall con- 
 sider the importance of developing and fortifying the 
 moral emotion, and also its connexion with our duties 
 towards our Maker. 
 
 Intellectual Philosophy . 
 
 With some remarks on the Philosophy of mind, I shall 
 close my lectures on Intellectual Improvement. This 
 science, although itself the main spring in education, is 
 very properly, as a department of study, the crowning of 
 the whole. It commences with some knowledge of the 
 operations of the mind, and is acquired in the first years of 
 life. The child learns to know the opinions and emotions 
 of those around him, by means of external signs; and 
 he must have reasoned upon associated feelings be- 
 fore he can have known how to move compassion by his 
 cries, or excite laughter by his playful gambols. Every 
 year of life increases his knowledge of mind ; he feels 
 himself urged by motives, he perceives a controlling 
 
272 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 power in himself, when he chooses to exert it to stop 
 the headlong current of the passions, or to direct them 
 into new and better channels. All observations upon our 
 own characters or those of others belong to mental phi- 
 losophy ; this is the most valuable, or the practical part. 
 
 When therefore you commence this study in books, 
 you continually meet with your own familiar thoughts. 
 You had often observed in yourself the power of re- 
 calling one thing by the help of others. For instance, 
 when you had entered an apartment for the purpose 
 of finding some article, you perhaps found that you had 
 forgotten what you went for ; you were unable by any 
 effort of memory to recal the lost idea, but by return- 
 ing to the place from whence you set out, were remind- 
 ed of it by its connexion with other objects. You may 
 not have formed any theory of the principle of association, 
 and are therefore prepared to listen with attention to any 
 explanation of phenomena which are a part of the histo- 
 ry of your own thoughts. 
 
 Mankind, who are ever prone to excesses, have, from a 
 period in which the study of the human mind was deem- 
 ed above the comprehension of females, and unsuitable 
 to their condition and character, gone to another ex- 
 treme in which the science of metaphysics is considered 
 little more than a plaything for children ; and young misses 
 who have neither yet learned to think methodically or 
 reason accurately, are heard to talk learnedly of the opin- 
 ions of Locke, Stewart and Brown. 
 
 Some of the elementary principles in the science of 
 mind, as the distinct nature and different destinations of 
 the soul and body, the superior importance of the spirit- 
 ual part, and the child's obligations to improve his men- 
 tal faculties, ought early to be pointed out. Such works 
 as the Child's Book on the Soul,* which, in language 
 adapted to the capacities of children, leads them to re- 
 flect on the nature and operations of the mind, cannot 
 be too highly valued by parents and instructers. These 
 truths form the foundation of all religious knowledge 
 
 * B\ Mr. Gallaudet. This little book ought to be found in all 
 Sunday school libraries. 
 
INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 273 
 
 and belief; a belief in them is anterior even to the idea 
 of a Creator. When the child in answer to the question, 
 * Who made you?' replies 'God,' he must comprehend 
 the truth, that there is a being whom he calls himself, 
 that this being is a something, unlike a stone or a plant, 
 neither of which, he knows, could understand or answer 
 a question. 
 
 Although some of the leading distinctions between 
 matter and mind should be taught even to children, I 
 cannot agree with those who recommend the study of 
 metaphysics as a preliminary step in education, on the 
 ground that pupils must be made to understand the na- 
 ture of the mind; because that in education, this is both 
 the instrument with which the operation is carried on, 
 and the object which is operated upon. 
 
 We might as well insist that a boy was not qualified to 
 be put an apprentice to a carpenter, without a knowledge 
 of the principles on which the lever and other mechani- 
 cal powers operate ; in short, without understanding the 
 theory of mechanics. If a child could not compare, rea- 
 son or remember until he first understood the powers of 
 his own mind, and the abstract nature of comparison, rea- 
 soning, &c, these operations could never be performed ; 
 for the very study of them requires their constant exer- 
 cise, and an exercise rendered skilful by long practice. 
 If the writings of Stewart or Brown are put into the hands 
 of pupils whose minds are not ripe for such investigations, 
 the truths and reasonings cannot be comprehended, and 
 a rooted dislike will, probably, be acquired for the 
 study of mental philosophy. But if the mind has been 
 previously prepared by suitable discipline, enriched by a 
 knowledge of language, of history, and of natural science, 
 so that illustrations drawn from these various sources, may 
 be comprehended and enjoyed, then will the science of 
 mind be drank in with a new and enthusiastic delight. Of- 
 ten have I* with sympathising enjoyment watched the kin- 
 
 * The author, during several years, had charge of the depart- 
 ment of intellectual philosophy in the Troy Female Seminary, 
 during which time she had the happiness of instructing many 
 young ladies of distinguished talents and virtues, who now hold 
 a high rank in society, and honorably sustain the various rela- 
 
274 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 dling glow lighting up the countenance of such a pupil, on 
 hearing for the first time an explanation of some familiar 
 operation of her own mind, or when tracing the map of 
 the human intellect, she beheld the innumerable little 
 rills which flow into the great ocean of thought, and traced 
 them to their mysterious fountain, mind. The sub- 
 lime truths of the science enter the soul in all their 
 freshness and beauty ; and this era in the history of her 
 own mind is ever remembered with deep and peculiar 
 interest. 
 
 I would not be understood as asserting that in the 
 study of mental philosophy, the way is invariably strewed 
 with flowers; or that the pupil is always rewarded by 
 the pleasure of eliciting truth. In no other science is 
 there such a tendency in authors to wander into the 
 mazy regions of hypothesis — fancying that a new ray of 
 light has fallen upon their path, they often begin to see 
 things in a different aspect from their predecessors ; and 
 although this new light may be but the coruscation of a 
 brilliant fancy, the hues which it imparts are looked up* 
 on as so many revelations made by the torch of reason. 
 Thus have metaphysicians been liable to be misled by 
 false lights, ever since the days of Aristotle, who asserted 
 that the mind resided in the brain, which was a dark cave 
 filled with miniature images, called thoughts, that came 
 forward for the inspection of consciousness, as they were 
 called up by memory, and retreated as they were dis- 
 missed by abstraction. 
 
 Since the time of Locke, metaphysical writers, follow- 
 ing his example, have made the operations of the mind 
 or its faculties, and not its nature or essence, the object 
 of their investigations. These operations are known to 
 us but in two ways, experience and observation, every- 
 
 tions of life. Not a few are among 1 that class, who are fulfilling 
 one of the noblest and most important offices of life, that of teach- 
 ing the young; while others are exemplifying in the domestic cir- 
 cle the beneficial influence of educated women upon human virtue 
 and happiness. When these pages shall meet the affectionate 
 glance of some of those whose memory is thus dearly cherished, 
 the eye will glisten and the cheek glow at the recollection of 
 former school-day scenes, of companions once beloved, and, it may 
 be, of her who watched over their intellectual progress, with ma- 
 ternal pride and anxiety. 
 
INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOFHY. 275 
 
 thing gained by these sources is an addition to the stock 
 of human knowledge ; the great point is to know how 
 to seize upon facts, and embody them in a manner to be 
 intelligible to ourselves and others. Facts, in order to 
 be useful in science, must also be properly arranged ; and 
 the difficulty with most minds, is the want of a suitable 
 mode of arrangement. 
 
 Logic and criticism are instruments which teach the 
 arts of thinking and of arranging thoughts : metaphysics 
 is the science of principles, it instructs man in the na- 
 ture and use of his faculties ; it discovers to him his weak- 
 ness, but at the same time shows him his strength ; it ac- 
 quaints him with the extent of his reasoning powers, and 
 that although by these he may know many things, there 
 is a barrier beyond which he cannot pass. In this sci- 
 ence we learn to set bounds to the influence of human 
 authority upon the mind, and that no truths, however 
 strongly urged, should be received, but such as have a 
 claim to our belief, founded upon reason. The reason of 
 each individual, must be his own guide ; and it therefore 
 becomes a matter of great importance that reason shall, 
 as far as possible be divested of prejudice, and assisted 
 with fixed and unerring principles. 
 
 In speaking of the influence of reason in matters of 
 belief, I would here observe, with respect to Divine 
 revelation, that after we have, by weighing its evidences, 
 become convinced that it is in fact what it professes to be, 
 the word of God, that it is impossible to resist the unit- 
 ed testimony of collateral history, prophecy, the evidence 
 of a multitude of competent witnesses, and the evidence 
 of effects now before our eyes, viz. thousands of worship- 
 ping assemblies calling on Jesus of Nazareth, and break- 
 ing bread in commemoration of his sufferings — after we 
 have become convinced that any one of these evidences 
 would be sufficient to establish their authenticity, and 
 that this concurring testimony furnishes a mass of evi- 
 dence which it is impossible for reason to resist or deny, 
 we must then fully and unreservedly receive the Scrip- 
 tures as the word of God. Are these writings sometimes 
 mysterious and unintelligible to us ? So is the moral 
 government of God, so are the dispensations of his provi- 
 
276 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 dence ; — are the truths revealed Of a nature which human 
 reason cannot fathom ? So are many of the facts in the 
 natural world, — but do we deny the influence of that vital 
 principle which is the spring and source of organic life, 
 because it is invisible to us? We see its effects and 
 therefore believe in the cause. Shall we deny the opera- 
 tion of the Holy Spirit upon the human heart, because 
 ' it is a still, small voice, and we cannot tell whence it 
 cometh, or whither it goeth 1 ' We see the wicked man 
 turning from his evil ways, the proud becoming meek ; the 
 drunkard, temperate, the churl, liberal, he who once scoff- 
 ed at religion sitting at Jesus' feet — and shall we deny that 
 these effects are uncaused, because we cannot explain 
 them by deductions from humnn reason 1 Let us exalt 
 human reason to its proper rank, let us walk by its light 
 when we have none clearer ; but let us remember too that 
 He who gave man reason, and who ' seeth not as man 
 sees,' is to be believed and obeyed without question as to 
 the propriety or expediency of his commands. 
 
 In all matters of human knowledge and belief, reason 
 must be our guide : when we find a subject to be beyond 
 our capacity we should cease to investigate. Plutarch ob- 
 served that as geographers, when they have laid down up- 
 on their map those countries which are known, place be- 
 yond these their terra incognita or unknown lands and 
 seas, so historians should use the same distinction with 
 respect to the fabulous and uncertain ages of the world. 
 Thus should we in all our researches endeavor to distin- 
 guish the boundary which divides the legitimate subjects 
 of human inquiry, from what is beyond the knowledge 
 of man. 
 
 No farther than perception will carry us, can we go in 
 any human science ; as discoveries are made, perception 
 is aided and rendered more acute ; thus the telescope 
 has brought the planetary worlds nearer to us and re- 
 vealed new facts with respect to them, which are added 
 to the science of astronomy ; — the microscope has acquaint- 
 ed man with new wonders in the kingdoms of nature, 
 shewing him, where vision had not before discovered 
 life, that millions of living things exist, which we inhale 
 with the atmosphere, and drink in the purest water ; that 
 
INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 277 
 
 these animalculae inhabit every leaf, fruit and flower; and 
 some late discoveries would almost prove, that our own 
 material frame is but a mass of living atoms. Wherever 
 observations can be made, is a field for human inquiry. 
 But all questions are profitless, which relate 10 infinitude, 
 as infinite space and eternity ; to the connexion between 
 matter and mind, and to their essence; the inhabitants of 
 other worlds, and everything connected with a future 
 state, except as revealed in the word of God. All sub- 
 jects of this nature, should be considered by metaphysi- 
 cians as ' unknown lands and unapproachable seas. 
 
 It is important that you should all understand definite- 
 ly, the end and aim of the studies you pursue. Mental 
 philosophy would be of little use, had it not its practical 
 applications. The members of this class profess to study 
 the human mind ; suppose hereafter, any one of you 
 in promiscuous society should unseasonably introduce 
 your knowledge, talk fluently of the opinions of Brown 
 and Stewart, or even give the result of your own profound 
 reflections, would this show that you practically under- 
 stood the human mind, or, as it is more commonly ex- 
 pressed, human nature ? It is to be presumed you would 
 all wish to please, when this can be done without any 
 sacrifice of principle; that you would not willingly dis- 
 gust others, or acquire the reputation of being pedan- 
 tic. A knowledge of the operations of the mind, 
 should lead you to consider what kind of manners 
 will produce the effect you desire, should teach that 
 vanity, by leading you to make a foolish display of learn- 
 ing, would defeat its own end, so that instead of adrni- 
 ration, you would excite disgust. Perhaps this cau- 
 tion is unnecessary, as there are now so many educated 
 females, that there is little temptation for any one to be 
 vain of her learning; the effect which Hannah More an- 
 ticipated as the result of more enlarged systems of edu- 
 cation is now realized. A female possessing a cultivated 
 mind, is no longer regarded as a prodigy, and we have 
 far less of les bas bleus than formerly. Slip-shod feet, 
 dirty caps and gowns, have ceased to be regarded as the 
 characteristics of a literary woman ; who is now allow- 
 ed to dress herself neatly, after the fashion of the day, 
 24 
 
278 INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 and to enjoy the social pleasures of life like others of her 
 species. Indeed, so far is literature, at the present time, 
 from being a reproach to a lady, so far from lowering her 
 in the estimation of others, that when displayed at proper 
 times, and in a proper manner, it. adds greatly to her in- 
 fluence and respectability in society. 
 
 But there is always a degree of delicacy expected from 
 it lady in the use of her acquirements, which should be 
 understood and regarded. The effect of these acquire- 
 ments, as I have often remarked, should be exhibited in 
 the general character and depoitment, the methodical ar- 
 rangement of time, richness, ease, and variety of conver- 
 sation, and in short the power of adapting one's self to the 
 changing circumstances of life, and of fulfilling its many 
 and varied duties. A practical knowledge of the human 
 mind is peculiarly important to our sex ; it is a knowledge 
 which they have ever been quick to seize ; the great vol- 
 ume of life, woman reads with facility ; — mingling in socie- 
 ty she soon learns the art of pleasing, adapts herself to its 
 prevailing taste and manners, or rather learns to lead its 
 taste and influence its manners. The French women have, 
 at different times, exercised great power over the minds 
 of kings and statesmen; they have often, though behind 
 the scenes, been the real actors in the drama of life, 
 while those who fancied themselves the actors were in 
 fact but automatons, moving in a prescribed circle, and 
 accomplishing the designs of those who led them. But 
 how, in many instances, was this influence acquired, and 
 how was it exerted 1 — Who aie among the celebrated wo- 
 men, from Aspasia of Athens, to Madam Pompadour, of 
 France, that have been distinguished for their power over 
 the other sex? My pupils, they were those who sacrifice 
 ed virtue and self respect ; and who sought, in the tri* 
 umphs which announced their own degradation, to stifle 
 its remembrance. 
 
 But these wanderers from the path of true dignity and 
 of virtue, had not the advantages of a consistent and 
 moral education. Aspasia, it is true, lived in the age of 
 Athenian glory, and was deeply imbued with Grecian 
 learning, but she had not the pure light of the gospel ; 
 
INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 279 
 
 and the high rank which she held among the Greek phi- 
 losophers, notwithstanding the licentiousness of her con- 
 duct, show us the actual value of heathen morality. 
 
 I remarked that women are quick to learn the opera- 
 tions of the human mind, by observations on society: but 
 this does not preclude the utility of well-chosen books, 
 and of systematic instruction ; on the contrary, it ren- 
 ders them more important, by giving their knowledge 
 and tact a right direction. Without such aids, females 
 are too apt to exercise their ingenuity in petty attempts 
 to extend their empire over others, from the mere influ- 
 ence of external charms or fascinating manners ; with 
 more elevated views, they learn to value only the influ- 
 ence which is gained by the charms of intellect and the 
 dignity of virtue. 
 
 A just and practical knowledge of the human mind is 
 highly important to woman in the several relations of life, 
 domestic and social ; more especially docs the mother and 
 the instructor of youth, need to understand the avenues 
 and secret windings of the human heart, to be able to 
 read the thoughts, and to direct them into their proper 
 channel. Mr. Stewart remarks, ' the object of education 
 should be, first, to cultivate the various faculties of our 
 nature ; second, to watch over early impressions and asso- 
 ciations, to secure the mind against the influence of 
 error, and to lead its prepossessions on the side of truth.' 
 This science also may have a very important influence, 
 upon our own moral and mental improvement ; or, accord- 
 ing to Stewart, every person on arriving to years of re- 
 flection, perceives in himself defects owing to some mis- 
 management in education, and knowing the laws of his 
 own mind, he feels the necessity of beginning a course 
 for himself 
 
 This self-education is, after all, the great business of 
 life ; it is in order to enable the young to discipline their 
 own minds, to detect the errors in their own conduct, 
 and the latent evils in their own hearts, that for so 
 many years they are disciplined and taught by others. 
 The sooner this lesson of self-education is learned, the 
 sooner do the young assume the dignity of rational 
 beings, and become fitted to be their own guardians. In 
 
280 ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 
 
 reading the biography of eminent persons, we find that 
 they were always strict in their self-requisitions and 
 self-government. They observed themselves closely, 
 and when they found a bias towards any particular fault 
 or weakness, they directed their efforts towards correct- 
 ins the one, and strengthening the other. 
 
 I would again urge the importance of keeping a diary, 
 in which the moral tenor of your actions and the bent of 
 your minds should be scrupulously noted. This journal 
 should be for your own inspection only ; for such is the 
 deceitfulness of the human heart, that it is very apt to 
 suggest a too flattering picture of itself, where it is 
 made with the design of being seen by any but the 
 original. 
 
 ' Man, know thyself,' is a precept as important as it is 
 difficult in practice. To assist us in this duty, no science 
 is more highly beneficial than that which has the human 
 mind for its object, and yet unless we add to our philoso- 
 phy the wisdom of true piety, we shall never fully 
 comprehend the extent of human depravity, the true 
 mode of purifying the heart, and rendering it meet for 
 an offering to its Creator. 
 
 LECTURE XXII. 
 
 Accomplishments. — Music — Dancing — Drawing. 
 
 We have now completed our view of the various 
 branches of literary and scientific education, which con- 
 stitute a course of instruction in the institution of which 
 you are members. We have considered them all under the 
 general head of Intellectual Improvement. 
 
 It has been my wish to give sketches of these subjects, 
 which, though neither perfect in outline, or minute in 
 particulars, might, as graphic delineations, serve to fix 
 their leading features upon the tablets of the mind. 
 
ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 281 
 
 The chief object in the attainment of what are called 
 accomplishments , ought to be to soften and refine the 
 manners, and add to the innocent and elegant enjoy- 
 ments of human life. I shall not at present dwell upon 
 the subject of female manners and deportment, except as 
 this may be connected with that of accomplishments. 
 
 In some of these, as music and drawing, the physical 
 and intellectual powers, and the emotions are all exercis- 
 ed. Dancing is to be considered chiefly in reference to 
 its effects on the motions and carriage of the body, 
 although as a pleasant and exhilerating exercise, it 
 may be made conducive to the promotion of cheerfulness 
 and good humor. 
 
 Female manners cannot be taught with didactic pre- 
 cision, under any given number of rules. There is 
 a certain nameless grace in fine manners, which it is 
 impossible to describe, and which cannot be traced to 
 any one source. They are the result of education, in- 
 tercourse with refined society, and that general benevo- 
 lence which wishes to please, not from the impulse of 
 vanity, but because it finds its own happiness in mak- 
 ing that of others. The manners acquired at board- 
 ing schools are often, and not without reason, made the 
 subject of severe remark. One writer says, ' Boarding 
 schools give us artificial creatures, made up of artificial 
 looks and smiles ; their airs, gestures and articulation 
 are all a compound of affectation. Such schools give 
 forwardness to fruits, but deprive them of their natural 
 healthiness and flavor, and the fine ladies they send into 
 the world feel themselves ridiculously exalted above 
 all sensible conversation, or all attempts to be useful.' 
 
 Although the author just quoted appears to have 
 indulged in too indiscriminate a condemnation of all 
 boarding schools, we cannot but admit that he has 
 drawn a correct likeness of many of the finished young 
 ladies of the present day. To a sensible and elevated 
 mind, nothing can appear more ridiculous and con- 
 temptible than the airs which are sometimes assum- 
 ed by young ladies on leaving school, and making their 
 entree, into the world of fashion. The cause of this 
 exhibition of folly and affectation may often be traced 
 24* 
 
282 ACCOMPLISHMENTS. 
 
 to early associations, acquired under the paternal roof, 
 and confirmed by a defective mode of education. 
 
 The inlluence of maternal character is strikingly 
 manifested in the associations of the child. A young 
 girl who observes that show and fashion are the chief 
 concern of her mother's life, very naturally acquires 
 the habit of regarding these things as of the highest 
 importance. She leains that to play and sing well, to 
 possess a fashionable air and manner are to be her pass- 
 ports into the world of fashion, which she believes is the 
 true paradise of life. Her young bosom heaves with 
 tumultuous agitation at the thought of that period when 
 she shall be brought out or become a young lady, be 
 entitled to coquette, to prattle nonsense, and play off the 
 airs which she has learned to consider the test of an 
 elite of fashion ; — with such prepossessions she is sent 
 abroad to a boarding school, and with the avowed object, 
 on the part of the parents, that she may become finished, 
 or may, in a degree, perfect herself, in certain elegant 
 accomplishments. The inquiry on the part of such 
 parents with respect to the character of a school, is not, 
 what course of mental discipline is there pursued, 
 what is the tone of moral instruction, or the standard of 
 intellectual attainments ; but what attention is paid to 
 accomplishments, and what are the advantages for learn- 
 ing music, dancing, &,c. 
 
 What must be expected from the daughters of such 
 parents, after the completion of an education in a school 
 conformable to their own false ideas of merit ? If young 
 ladies enter life fitted only for its gay scenes, what is 
 to be their future destiny, even in this world 1 So far 
 are festive scenes from making up the whole of life, that 
 even in the most prosperous condition of human exist- 
 ence, there is more of sorrow than joy, more of mourn- 
 ing than mirth. It has been observed by the good 
 Hannah More, that from the course pursued by many 
 with respect to the education of their daughters, one 
 might, reasoning a priori, be led to infer that the life of 
 women consisted of one universal holiday, and that the 
 only contest was, who should be best enabled to excel 
 in the sports and games that were to be celebrated in it. 
 
music. 283 
 
 Now it is this very idea of the great importance of ac- 
 complishments which causes so much vanity and affecta- 
 tion among females. Did they, for instance, regard 
 music merely as an agreeable and refined amusement, 
 which would enable them to add something to the enjoy- 
 ments of their friends, as well as afford pleasure to 
 themselves, we should not see so much parade and flut- 
 tering when a young lady is requested to sing or play 
 in company. The very idea that her performance is a 
 matter of great moment, the expectation of the admira- 
 tion she shall receive, or the fear of mortification, all 
 serve to render her manner constrained and unnatural ; 
 add to this, a habit of affectation already acquired, and 
 we have the picture of many a young lady exhibiting her- 
 self to the pain and mortification of all sensible and truly 
 elevated people. 
 
 Let music, and other elegant accomplishments, take 
 their proper rank ; they are pleasant, as interludes ^in 
 the great drama of life's duties. If an actor in an 
 inferior part should fancy himself the hero, and snuff 
 the candles or perform any other trifling service as 
 though it were an affair of the first importance, the be- 
 holders would consider it ludicrous; so to a reflecting 
 mind appears the manner of those who seem to think 
 the singing of a song, or playing an air on the harp or 
 piano an occasion of the deepest interest. A long pre- 
 lude of hesitation, apologies and denials, must prepare 
 the minds of the company for the great event ; and in 
 many cases the result of this preparation, is the inter- 
 ruption of all sensible conversation for a very indifferent 
 or affected performance. 
 
 A young lady's appearance in conversation, is far 
 more important, as developing her intellectual attain- 
 ments, than any musical performance can be, and yet 
 few would refuse to enter into conversation, through 
 consternation at the idea that they might not be admired 
 if they did speak. We do not expect the dumb to speak, 
 neither can a lady ignorant of music perform for the 
 gratification of her friends ; but one who possesses this 
 accomplishment, should no more refuse to exercise it at 
 proper times, than another who can speak should refuse to 
 
284 music. 
 
 enter into conversation. The great point is to have just 
 and enlarged ideas of the real importance of actions and 
 things, that we may not attach undue importance to tri- 
 fles. If a young lady who is known to have some skill 
 in music, after modestly stating her own deiiciences, 
 performs but indifferently, she has at least shown an 
 amiable, obliging disposition in complying with the 
 wishes of others, and in many cases such instances have 
 made lasting impressions favorable to the character of a 
 person. If another young lady shows herself off with an 
 air of vanity and self-satisfaction, however fine or scien- 
 tific her performance, she has left no pleasant remem- 
 brances of herself in the minds of the beholders. And 
 even without any disqualifying circumstances, of what 
 use. are the first musical talents as respects the great bu- 
 siness of life, or as the foundation of a character ? The 
 stage probably affords finer specimens of musical talent 
 than any private circles, and yet how wretched and de- 
 praved have been some of the most distinguished of its 
 votaries ! at the best, how low is their station in society, 
 and how little do they contribute to the real well-be- 
 ing of mankind ! 
 
 A French lady of distinguished talents, elegant man- 
 ners, and the instructer of queens and princesses,* in 
 remarking upon female character and the influence of 
 mothers upon the associated feelings and the principles 
 of their daughters, says, ' Honored be the mother, who, 
 in bringing up her daughter, is not actuated by the sole 
 desire of rendering her fascinating ; who secures to her a 
 durable good in the cultivation of her judgment, and in 
 the enlightening of her mind; who accustoms her to pi e- 
 fer duty to pleasure, knowledge to amusement; who 
 teaches her to be learned without pedantry, and graceful 
 without affectation. Then will this daughter be wise 
 without vanity, happy without witnesses, and contented 
 without admirers.' 
 
 As an elegant accomplishment, and a resource against 
 adversity, music may well be considered a desirable 
 branch of education, if circumstances permit its attain- 
 
 * Madame Campan. 
 
music. *285 
 
 ment. This science may also be cultivated without any 
 detriment to mental improvement, since, during the time 
 devoted to it, the mind is agreeably relaxed, and the 
 physical powers are called into action. One or two 
 hours each day, devoted to practice on any instrument 
 of music, besides the usual time spent in receiving les- 
 sons, will, if faithfully improved, soon produce a manifest 
 improvement ; if this course is pursued with persevering 
 industry, for some length of time, a young lady may per- 
 form upon the piano or harp with skill and execution. 
 
 But I cannot avoid considering that parent or instruct- 
 er as deeply guilty, who urges a child to spend the greater 
 part of a day in thrumming upon an instrument, leaving 
 the mind to grow rank with the weeds which will spring 
 up where the intellectual powers are not cultivated, and 
 suffering an immortal being to grow up to maturity with- 
 out that mental and moral culture, which are so impor- 
 tant both for this world and for eternity. What can we 
 think of that father, who compelled a daughter for seve- 
 ral years to practise twelve hours a day upon the piano, 
 and occasionally stood over her with a whip, to urge her 
 efforts. The young lady indeed became a great proficient 
 in music ; she appeared with eclat at public places, and 
 was the seven days wonder of the fashionable world. 
 But she failed to make that splendid connexion in life 
 for which it was supposed the father designed for her ; 
 for, though flattered and caressed by many, it did not ap- 
 pear that any gentleman of fortune thought that the 
 highest perfection in music, was sufficient in a wife to 
 atone for the want of more common though more neces- 
 sary qualifications.* 
 
 You will not understand me as depreciating music, or 
 encouraging its neglect. Those who possess a native 
 talent for this delightful art, and whose circumstances 
 render its cultivation proper, should, as I before remark- 
 ed, improve the opportunity of acquiring it. When com- 
 menced, music should be assiduously pursued ; it requires 
 much patience and practice, to become even a* tolerable 
 
 * The case here mentioned is one of real life, and which oc- 
 curred in our own country. 
 
286 music. 
 
 proficient. A pupil should not only endeavor to acquire 
 skill and taste in execution, but to understand the science 
 and to comprehend the principles on which it is founded. 
 It is important that those who are to learn music should 
 commence the study while young ; at this time the fingers 
 are pliant, and can easily accommodate themselves to ex- 
 ercises which are found very difficult by older persons. At 
 a period, too, when the faculties of the understanding 
 are but partially developed, there is not that necessity for 
 the full appropriation of time in study, which is after- 
 wards required in the pursuit of the different branches of 
 education. 
 
 Madame Campan well remarks, that ' the many hours 
 which a young girl devotes to the instrument would be 
 much regretted, if they did not procure her a genuine 
 talent for life. We hear it often remarked, that a young 
 person as soon as she is married, shuts her piano, which 
 becomes merely a useless piece of furniture : this is true, 
 when it recals only the melancholy recollection of a cul- 
 ture without fruit. If by means of repeated lessons, 
 chidings and tears, she is able to play some sonatas 
 which have never contributed to her pleasure, nor that 
 of others, is it not very natural that she should free her- 
 self from this restraint, as soon as she can follow her own 
 inclination V But if a lady can read music, and has en- 
 tered with any degree of enthusiasm into the delights 
 which it affords, she will never be likely wholly to aban- 
 don an exercise in which all the emotions find an answer- 
 ing expression. 
 
 In joy and sorrow, hope and despondency, the swell- 
 ing heart may find vent in sprightly or melancholy 
 strains of music. I recollect an elderly and very amia- 
 ble foreigner, whose cara sposa was not of the sweet- 
 est temper imaginable, who always resorted to the pia- 
 no, after a storm of female vengeance had burst upon 
 his head. This instrument seemed as a faithful friend 
 which gave out no other tones but such as were re- 
 spondent to his own feelings. And since females, though 
 sometimes the aggressors, are more frequently the 
 aggrieved party in domestic discords, music might be 
 improved by them to a similar purpose. Indeed, music 
 
music. 287 
 
 if cultivated and practised by a married lady with the 
 view to her amusement and improvement, must have a 
 tendency, not only to console her in trouble, but to soften 
 and elevate the tone of her mind, and to smooth the as- 
 perities of her own temper. 
 
 Vocal music is far from being the artificial thing which 
 amateurs of the present day would represent it. The 
 birds have no Italian masters, and yet even the tnJls ol the 
 most scientific performers are far inferior to some of theirs. 
 It has been proposed to introduce vocal music into common 
 schools, as one of the ordinary exercises. A gentleman 
 who has travelled much in Europe,* states that in Germa- 
 ny and Switzerland, music both in theory and practice is 
 regularly taught as an important branch in the national 
 system of education. He says that a distinguished pro- 
 fessor of the island of Sicily on hearing of the unhappy 
 influence of study upon the health of our literary men, 
 asked, ' What are the amusements of your literary men?' 
 When answered none, — the professor said ' No wonder 
 they are sick, and die of study,' — observing that he spent 
 a stated portion of the day in recreations, of which in- 
 strumental and vocal music were an essential part, and 
 that he thought he could not live without the relief which 
 they gave his mind. 
 
 While speaking on the subject of vocal music, I can- 
 not but deprecate the improper character of most of 
 the popular songs of the day. Young ladies are oft- 
 en heard to express in singing, sentiments that they 
 would blush to utter in conversation ; or, if there is 
 nothing absolutely wrong in the thought, the words 
 set to fashionable music are usually without sentiment or 
 moral. The beautiful and chaste songs of Mrs. Hemans 
 are a noble exception ; everything that comes from her 
 pen is pure, and bears the image and superscription of 
 an elevated and chastened mind. The plaintive and 
 thrilling air of her ' Bring Flowers,' the spirit stirring 
 ' Pilgrim Fathers,' and the wail of the ' Captive 
 Knight,' are only equalled by some of the noble efforts 
 of Heber. 
 
 * Rev. W. C. Woodbridge. 
 
288 music. 
 
 Has America no Hemans, who will awaken a sleeping 
 lyre in behalf of her young sisters, to give them songs, 
 which, ins.ead of soiling the purity of their yet unpollu- 
 ted hearts, may enlist their associations and affections 
 in the cause of virtue? Have we no Heber, whose 
 lips, touched with hallowed fire, may warble forth 
 strains which shall waft the spirit above the mist and 
 darkness of earth-born passions, and teach it to soar in 
 the regions of a pure love and holy devotion 1 Alas, 
 fashion's seal must first be set upon the noblest and 
 purest efforts of human genius, before it can gain access 
 to the temples where she is worshipped ; — and we are led 
 to wonder that she has even deigned to accept offerings 
 as pure and holy as those which have emanated from the 
 spirits of Mrs. Hemans and Bishop Heber. 
 
 To her whose heart beats high with the hope of admi- 
 ration in the circles of fashion, and who has no object 
 beyond that of receiving this admit ation, to the gay and 
 thoughtless girl who counts each day a weariness till she 
 shall be released from intellectual labor, from regularity 
 in dutv and in conduct, who feels that she is about to 
 realize in coming scenes of amusement, those visions 
 of earthly bliss which had been impressed upon her 
 almost infant mind, — to such an one it would be use- 
 less to say, Let not fashion, let not the popular taste se- 
 duce you from the straight and narrow path of female del- 
 icacy and prosperity. Alas ! such warnings are vain, 
 such admonitions are powerless, where the heart's af- 
 fections are already, in imagination, poured out at the 
 shrine of fashion, that destroyer of woman's purity of 
 heart, and simplicity of taste and of character. 
 
 But, suffer me to hope, that few of you will thus leave 
 these retreats, where female virtues have been assiduous- 
 ly cultivated, where female influence has been so often ex- 
 plained, where female duties have been enforced, and the 
 female mind has risen to n<;w light and life ! — Suffer me 
 to hope, that not one of you after all this, will leave this 
 sanctuary to go forth into the world, thoughtless as the 
 giddy insect, which rushes into the consuming flame. It 
 is your duty and your right, to take upon the stage of 
 life a standing, dignified as your rank, fortune, talents 
 
music. 289 
 
 and accomplishments, entitle you to, but forbear to lend 
 your countenance to folly or vice, however elegant or 
 fascinating they may appear. 
 
 My remarks on the study of music have been some- 
 what desultory ; and suggestions connected with the 
 subject have drawn me aside from some remarks which 
 I would make before leaving this topic. 
 
 Be lore commencing this branch of education, re- 
 flect whether you have a natural taste for it, and 
 whether this accomplishment is correspondent to your 
 means and condition. If in your own judgment ar\d 
 that of your friends all these things are considered favor- 
 ble, commence music with the resolution of becoming 
 a proficient in it. Consider it as a means of improving 
 your taste, and giving refinement and delicacy to your 
 emotions. As a science it has its intellectual depart- 
 ment ; it assists in the perfection of the physical organs, 
 particularly in educating the car to a nice discrimination 
 of sounds, and may do much towards forming a correct 
 habit of reading. 
 
 It will be a resource in adversity, will enable you to 
 enliven domestic scenes; and should you be mothers, it 
 will render you capable of instructing your children, or 
 at least of knowing when they are well instructed. 
 The highest and noblest object of music is to employ it 
 in the service and to the praise of our Maker. The 
 blessed in heaven are represented as singing to golden 
 harps the glories of redeeming love. It is melancholy 
 to behold a person highly gifted with musical talents, 
 who has never learned to employ them in praise to Him 
 from whom man receives all his faculties. 
 
 I am sensible that as yet I have scarcely touched upon 
 the main spring, which, among many, causes a devoted 
 attention to music; I allude to the anticipated power of 
 dazzling by the display of an elegant accomplishment, 
 the hope of being the centre of a fashionable circle ; — 
 but on this point I shall not now dwell. It is too pain- 
 ful to anticipate the evils which result from these hopes 
 and expectations, so often the ruin of females, or of all 
 that is truly estimable in the female character. 
 25 
 
290 DANCING. 
 
 Permit me to hope that those of you whose intellectual 
 powers are strengthened by discipline, whose minds are 
 stored with a rich variety of knowledge and whose 
 morals are elevated by reflection and study, and espe- 
 cially those who are influenced by religious considera- 
 tion, may be able to repress an inordinate love of admi- 
 ration, and to enjoy the possession of elegant accom- 
 plishments, unaccompanied by that restless vanity which 
 finds happiness only in display. 
 
 Dancing. 
 
 Madame Campan, whose judicious opinions I have 
 pleasure in repeating, observes : ' Accomplishments 
 should not form the basis of the education of girls, but 
 the first lessons in dancing and the piano should he 
 given at about the age of seven years. Youthful limbs 
 can place themselves more easily according to rules, 
 which add to the graceful embellishments, and render 
 them so natural that the fruit of lessons can be no 
 longer distinguished ; it is also very certain that the 
 physical developement and health of children gain 
 much, where they contract in good time the habit of 
 holding themselves up, and walking gracefully.' I am 
 aware that dancing in many cases receives too great a 
 share of attention, and what is still worse that it some- 
 times creates and fosters vanity and a love of admiration 
 in the youthful heart ; but this is not the only thing 
 innocent in itself, which may be abused and perverted. 
 Language is often made an instrument of evil : religion 
 itself may be used as a cloak for hypocrisy, but we would 
 not that either language or religion should be condemn- 
 ed because they may be thus perverted. 
 
 As a healthful exercise, dancing is recommended by 
 most physicians. Dr. Warren, in his lecture delivered at 
 Boston, in 1830, before the American Institute of Instruc- 
 tion, remarks that 'next to walking in the open air, the 
 best exercise for a young female is dancing. This 
 brings into action a large part of the muscles of the 
 body and lower limbs, and gives them grace and power.' 
 
DANCING. 291 
 
 To those who are engaged in study during a large part 
 of the day, some exercise of this nature seems absolutely 
 necessary, especially in winter, when the weather con- 
 fines females within doors. 
 
 It is for this reason, as well as for the sake of improv- 
 ing the external deportment and carriage of our pupils, 
 that dancing is here taught and practised. But you are 
 well aware that there is a great difference between young 
 ladies receiving lessons at the seminary and practising 
 wholly by themselves, or going to a public hall where 
 young persons of both sexes mingle promiscuously, and 
 attending at publics, or quarterly exhibitions. There are 
 certainly evils attendant on such a course, which more 
 than balance all the advantages to be derived from 
 learning to dance — girls and boys associating before they 
 consider themselves as ladies and gentlemen, either 
 acquire a familiarity of address which in after life will 
 be improper and disgusting, or begin to practise the arts 
 of coquetry, which, ridiculous as they are at any period, 
 appear still more so where we look for the honest sim- 
 plicity of childhood. 
 
 It is this improper manner of practising dancing, and 
 the subsequent dissipation of after years, which has pre- 
 judiced so many good people against an exercise which 
 nature prompts, and which the Author of nature has 
 never prohibited. Even the battle-horse is moved by the 
 sound of martial music, and treads proudly to its mea- 
 sures. And who that sees a child, or a young female 
 moving in harmony with sprightly music, can look 
 moodily upon the sight as though it were a sin against 
 Him who adapts the ear to the nice perception of sound, 
 makes the heart to answer in correspondent emotions, 
 and gives to the muscular frame the power to express by 
 motion, the character of these sounds? That in itself 
 dancing is not offensive in the sight of Heaven, we may 
 gather from the tenor of the scriptures. Among the 
 pious of old we read of dancing as an expression of 
 cheerfulness. David, in the overflowing joy of his heart, 
 danced before the ark of God. Jeptha's daughter, a 
 maiden of purity and innocence, went out with music 
 and dancing to meet her father returning from battle. 
 
292 DANCING. 
 
 Our Saviour himself in the parable of the prodigal son, 
 in which the father is considered an allegorical repre- 
 sentative of Him to whom we have every day need to 
 say, ' Father I have sinned against thee' — our Saviour 
 represents this father as having in his house music and 
 dancing on the occasion of the penitent's return. 
 
 While I would rescue this exercise from the reproach 
 which I think has been improperly attached to it, I 
 would condemn in the most decided manner those 
 evils which have been suffered to connect themselves 
 with it. Some of them I have already mentioned in re- 
 marking upon promiscuous dancing-schools and public 
 balls. I would observe that another evil connected with 
 these, is the fondness for dress and display which they 
 usually produce. Mothers, when their little darlings 
 are old enough to go to a dancing school, are too apt to 
 think they must appear very fine; their own boxes of 
 jewelry are searched for ornaments, their watches di- 
 vested of chains for the pretty necks of these miniature 
 belles ; or, if circumstances permit, new ornaments are 
 purchased; dresses are made which vie with the gossa- 
 mer in lightness of texture, and this mimic representa- 
 tion of a French doll is sent forth thus bedizened to at- 
 tract the envy of her companions, and to imbibe the 
 moral poison which will hereafter appear in her devotion 
 to dress and her thirst for admiration. I could point 
 out instances of females, whom nature has highly favored 
 with beauty of person, talents, and most amiable dispo- 
 sitions ; but yet the whole beautiful fabric has been de- 
 formed by this one taint, which, taking deep hold in 
 childhood, no after exertions could remove ; — like the 
 blood of the murdered which superstition believes 
 leaves an indelible mark on the murderer's hand, vanity, 
 when it has once deeply stained a female bosom, can 
 never be washed away. But I am wrong — there is a 
 fount in which sins may be cleansed, and there are 
 teome penitent Marys who, 
 
 ' O'er the faults of former years 
 Have wept, and are forgiven.' 
 
DRAWING. 293 
 
 Drawing. 
 
 Drawing is the art of representing by means of lines 
 upon y. fiat surface, the forms of objects and their relative 
 situation. This accomplishment, so conducive to refine- 
 ment of mind, is at once useful and ornamental. Every 
 gradation in the art is pleasing, from the sketch of a sim- 
 ple flower to the grandest historical design. 
 
 All the arts which tend to the embellishment or com- 
 fort of civilized life depend essentially on drawing. 
 
 Painting has for its basis the art of drawing ; how much 
 then do they err who attempt to teach it to those who 
 have not attended to the principles on which drawing 
 depends. A few years since, it was not uncommon for 
 pupils in female academies and boarding schools to use 
 colors as soon as they began to draw ; or at the most a 
 few sketches of flowers or landscapes, made without rules 
 or principles were required. 
 
 In no art or science perhaps is genius more necessary 
 than in drawing. But genius to be successful must be 
 assisted by rules of art, and especially by a close observa- 
 tion of nature, a resemblance to which is the foundation 
 of all our admiration for the fine arts. 
 
 Some knowledge of the principles of Geometry is very 
 important for the pupil in drawing. The custom of draw- 
 ing geometrical figures, and maps in the geography and 
 history classes, besides its importance in these studies, is 
 a useful exercise in drawing, as much as if this were the 
 ultimate object in view. 
 
 Drawing is an art in the attainment of which great in- 
 dustry and perseverance are necessary. The pupil 
 should commence with perpendicular and horizontal lines 
 (which are by no means as easily made as some may im- 
 agine) and proceed to curves, circles, ovals, cones, cylin- 
 ders and squares. 
 
 Afrer practising until these various figures may be easi- 
 ly made ; parts of buildings, as arches, columns, doors 
 and windows may be next attempted. Flowers aud fruit 
 are drawn much more easily than figures which require 
 accuracy in horizontal and perpendicular lines. Trees 
 25* 
 
294 DRAWING. 
 
 require much study; the various forms of foliage, the di- 
 rection of the branches as pendant, erect or horizontal, 
 the nature of the bark and the characters of the trunk, 
 should all be studied from nature. Good copies are of 
 great use, but every pupil of taste and genius will be led 
 to the observation of natural objects. 
 
 It is indeed one of the great recommendations of the 
 study of drawing that it gives a new interest to the visible 
 creation, and awakens in the mind new sources of enjoy- 
 ment. The simple wild flower, the decayed tree, the ruin- 
 ed building and the wild cascade, all present to the artist 
 objects which please in contemplation, and which he de- 
 lights to copy. The various forms and tints which are 
 reflected to the eye from clouds, from the sky at sun-rise, 
 or the pensive evening twilight, all are poetry and beau- 
 ty to the soul of the painter. He regards with attention 
 and admiration the pure blue sky of the zenith, as it con- 
 trasts with the darker hue of the hoizon, variously affect- 
 ed by the situation of the sun and the reflection of its 
 rays upon the vapors which float near the surface of the 
 earth, appearing red, violet or rose colored. 
 
 The imitator of nature beholding the distant moun- 
 tains in their faint, blue outlines, might in the words of a 
 kindred spirit, exclaim, 
 
 ' Why do those cliffs of shadowy tint appear 
 More sweet than all the. landscape smiling near ? 
 'Tis distance lends enchantment to the view, 
 And robes the mountain in its azure hue.' 
 
 And, if a moralist, he might add, 
 
 ' Thus with delight we linger to survey 
 The promis'd joys of life's unmeasured way ; 
 Thus from afar, each dim discovered scene 
 More pleasing seems than all the past hath been.' 
 
 Objects which to others may be disagreeable, give rise 
 to the finest productions of the artist. Wherever the 
 marks of time appear, he seems delighted to seize upon 
 and immortalize the ruins ; — the decayed cottage with its 
 sides and roof covered with moss, the dilapidated church, 
 or castle, afford more picturesque objects for the pen- 
 cil than the neat farm house, or the modern edifice. 
 
DRAWING. 295 
 
 Thus a rustic in ragged garments, mounted upon an old 
 and lean horse, is more picturesque and affords opportuni- 
 ty for a more graphic delineation, than a well-dressed man 
 upon a sleek looking poney. 
 
 In drawing from copies, a rule and compass should not 
 be used, except in measuring buildings. 
 
 To the beginner it is useful to draw lines across the 
 copy and the paper on which the delineation is to be made, 
 marking them both into an equal number of squares ; thus 
 the objects in the squares on the copy may be easily and 
 correctly transferrer!. Threads, instead of lines, stretched 
 across are equally useful to the learner and less injurious 
 to the pictures. 
 
 In drawing a landscape from nature it is well to select 
 a gentle elevation with a large circumference of horizon. 
 The scene to be copied may then, in imagination, be di- 
 vided by certain perpendicular lines, these by being 
 marked on the paper and intersected by what is termed 
 the horizontal line, have the same effect in measuring 
 distances as the squares in the method just described. 
 
 There can be but one point of sight in drawing a land- 
 scape, or but one spot at which the eye of the spectator 
 is supposed to be fixed, from which, as from a point, all 
 the objects must be comprehended. 
 
 Sixty degrees of the horizon is considered as being the 
 angle of vision ; that is, considering the eye as the centre 
 of a circle and the horizon its circumference. Now you 
 will perceive that the objects nearest the eye or on the 
 foreground of the picture must occupy much greater 
 space upon the picture than distant objects ; of course, 
 we can represent a much greater number of objects in 
 the distance. 
 
 In copying a flower from nature, it is proper to begin 
 with the centre and proceed outwardly with the leaves, 
 placing them one above another in a manner correspond- 
 ing to their natural arrangement. 
 
 The drawing of the human figure is the most difficult 
 as well as the highest department of the art. -It consti- 
 tutes, indeed, a distinct branch, and it is absurd for one 
 who has painted a few landscapes or flowers to suppose 
 herself capable of execution in this with accuracy. 
 
296 DRAWING, 
 
 Few young ladies attend to drawing sufficiently to be- 
 come proficients in the delineation of the human figure. 
 When many years of undivided and close attention are 
 required to from a tolerable artist, neither school girls or 
 their teachers should be censured, if, after a few months 
 practice, the former cannot rival Raphael or West. 
 
 A knowledge of Geology is of use to the landscape 
 painter, as it teaches the distinctive characters of rocks, 
 and their modes of stratification, the characters of moun- 
 tains, and of the different formations of the earth. 
 
 An acquaintance with Botany is also useful in flower- 
 painting ; without this the pink might be represented 
 with six stamens, and the lily with ten. A knowledge of 
 flower painting is also very important to botanists, by en- 
 abling; them to make sketches of the various vegetable 
 productions. 
 
 Among the different modes of painting is Oil painting ^ 
 the colors of which are the most durable, and in which 
 the shades may be made to blend in the most perfect 
 manner. 
 
 Mosaic painting Consists of an imitation of objects by 
 means of a union of very small pieces of marble of vari- 
 ous colors fixed in stucco, or mortar. If this is well exe- 
 cuted, it will remain to remote ages without decay. Fine 
 specimens of these composed of copies of the great Ital- 
 ian masters, are to be seen in St. Peter's Church at Rome. 
 
 Fresco painting is performed with colors diluted in 
 water, and laid on a wall newly plastered, with which 
 they incorporate ; they are almost as durable as the 
 mortar itself. 
 
 Painting in water colors is often called limning ; it 
 is performed with colors mixed with water. This is the 
 kind of painting most convenient for ladies ; it can be 
 performed with neatness and without the disagreeable 
 smell which attends on oil painting ; the latter however 
 possesses many advantages over the former, and should be 
 studied by all who aspire after great eminence in the art. 
 
 Pencil and India ink shading appear neat and taste- 
 ful, and considerable perfection may be attained in them 
 with comparatively little study. 
 
 Velvet, Chinese painting, &c. are methods by which 
 
DRAWING. 297 
 
 handsome pictures are made, but they are almost wholly 
 mechanical operations, and neither afford evidence of 
 genius, or have a tendency to cultivate the mental facul- 
 ties. .': : .s.J 
 
 Drawing is considered the elder sister of painting, as 
 it is the younger of geometry. The attempt to imitate 
 by lines upon a flat surface the forms which we see 
 in nature, is the commencement of the art of drawing. 
 
 The Greeks had a tradition that drawing and sculp- 
 ture took their rise by means of a young girl's drawing 
 a shadow of her lover upon the wall, which her father 
 cut out and modeled in clay. In the early attempts at 
 drawing, there may be distinguished several periods ; 
 1. Objects were delineated by rude shapeless lines ; 
 for instance, an oval represented a head ; 2. These 
 drawings were colored over with black, or some other 
 color, and the eyes, eyebrows, nose, mouth, and hair, 
 were marked with white upon the dark surface; 3. 
 An attempt was made to givetanimation to pictures by 
 representing the different color of the drapery. It was in 
 this way, according to Homer, that Helen and An- 
 dromache embroidered tapestry ; 4. Prominence and 
 relief to objects was commenced by drawing lines in 
 the back ground. These attempts soon showed what 
 the power of the art might accomplish, and we find the 
 Greeks, in the days of their glory, pre-eminent for their 
 perfection in drawing and sculpture. The teacher of 
 the great Apelles required his pupils to remain with 
 him ten years. 
 
 The Egyptians, as appears by the figures represented 
 on walls of ancient temples and catacombs, appear to 
 have made some progress in the art of drawing. These 
 pictures are supposed to be hierographical representa- 
 tions of historical events, or mythological fictions. 
 
 The first of the Greeks wlu contended for the prize 
 of painting at the public games at Corinth and Delphi, 
 was Pensenus, the cousin and pupil of Phidias, a celebrat- 
 ed artist. 
 
 Zeuxis, and his rival Parrhasius, about 3^8 years 
 before Christ, carried the art to great perfection. The 
 latter is said to have excelled in throwing into his 
 
298 DRAWING. 
 
 paintings a striking expression of grace and dignity 
 He became so arrogant on account of his successes that 
 he clothed himself in purple, wore a gold crown upon 
 his head, and pretended to be a descendant of Apollo. 
 
 Apelles connected with a correct delineation of na- 
 ture, a highly finished and flattering coloring, and was 
 considered as a master of portrait painting. But the 
 fine arts, poetry and eloquence, sunk with the liberty of 
 Greece. 
 
 The Romans long remained indifferent to the art of 
 design, and in the height of their glory never attained to 
 Grecian perfection in any of the fine arts. After the 
 introduction of Christianity the art of painting seemed to 
 revive, and most of its finest productions for ages were 
 connected with the Christian faith. In the fourth centu- 
 ry the custom of placing the pictures of saints in church- 
 es extensively prevailed both in the Eastern and West- 
 ern Empires. Artists, stimulated both by genius and 
 religious zeal, strove to excel each other in the execution 
 of their works. 
 
 In the 13th century, the art received in Italy a new 
 impulse from the labors of Michael Angelo, Corregio, 
 Raphael, Titian, Leonardi de Vinci, and several others 
 almost equally distinguished. 
 
 The various artists of Europe are considered as con- 
 stituting schools, each of which has its peculiar manner 
 or style of painting. 
 
 The Florence School is distinguished for greatness, 
 severity and majesty ; at the head of this was Michael 
 Angelo, who delighted in being great and terrible, but 
 sought little aid from grace or beauty. 
 
 His knowledge of anatomy gave him great power in 
 representations of the joints and muscles ; for which rea- 
 son he often made choice of emaciated figures, the monk 
 or hermit, attenuated with the severity of his vigils and 
 abstinence, but with a countenance beaming high and 
 sublime thoughts, were fit subjects for his pencil. 
 
 The Roman School had at its head, Raphael Sanzio — 
 he was distinguished for his accuracy in copying nature, 
 rather than brilliancy of imagination. It was observed 
 by a German artist, that ' if the Greeks sailed with maj- 
 
DRAWING. 299 
 
 esty between heaven and earth, Raphael walked with 
 propriety on the earth.' 
 
 In the Venetian School, Titian (whose real name was 
 Taziano Vecelli) was conspicuous. This school was 
 distinguished for skill in the use of colors, for powerful 
 effects, by contrasts of lights and shades. It was confined 
 principally to oil paintings, while the Florence and Roman 
 schools painted in water colors, or fresco. 
 
 The Lombard School was distinguished for grace and 
 softness ; Antonio AUegri, usually called Corregio, was 
 the founder and chief of this school. 
 
 The second Lombard School was distinguished for the 
 brothers called the Caracci, each of whom excelled in 
 particular departments of the art. 
 
 The French School presents so many varieties of man- 
 ner, that it is difficult to ascribe to it any prevailing char- 
 acteristic. Poussin, who is called the Raphael of France, 
 had no pupils, and formed no school. His works are 
 distinguished by an antique appearance. Le Brun was 
 a painter of invention and great power of execution. He 
 studied the expression of the passions, and acquired much 
 skill in their delineation. 
 
 The German School, like the French, consisted rather 
 of isolated individual artists, than an assemblage whose 
 works were characterized by uniformity of manner. Al- 
 bert Durer was an engraver and painter. His works, 
 though numerous, were correct and finished, but not re* 
 markable for taste, beauty, or sublimity. Holbein excelled 
 in historical and portrait painting. One of his pictures, 
 the ' Dance of Death,' is remarkable for a mixture of 
 the grotesque and horrible. 
 
 The Flemish School is said to have discovered, or, at 
 least, first extensively practised oil painting. Peter Paul 
 Rubens was at the head of this school. He excelled equal- 
 ly in fruits and flowers, historical, portrait, and landscape 
 painting. He seemed to possess the power of embodying, 
 with perfect ease, the sprightly and beautiful conceptions 
 of a mind rich in fancy and glowing with the inspiration 
 of genius. 
 
 The Dutch School is peculiar for the subjects which 
 occupied the attention of its artists. The ale-house, the 
 
300 DRAWING. 
 
 tavern, the mechanic's shop, seemed to afford the scenes 
 which most delighted them, and called forth the efforts 
 of their genius. This school is distinguished for correct- 
 ness of perspective, fine representations of clouds, sea 
 scenes, animals, fruits, flowers and insects, and excel- 
 lence in everything which requires faithful imitation, or 
 brilliant colorincr and niceness of execution. 
 
 Rembrant Vanryn, the son of a miller of Leyden, is 
 celebrated for his grotesque figures and low scenes, upon 
 which he devoted much study and talents, perhaps equal 
 to any of the masters of antiquity. 
 
 The English School numbers many respectable artists, 
 among whom are Vandyke, a pupil of Rubens. Lily, a 
 portrait painter, is chiefly celebrated for his pictures of 
 females. 
 
 It has been objected to him, that his faces had 
 too much sameness of expression, a certain languishing 
 air and softness, and sweetness, the partly closed eye, 
 which seemed to reveal tenderness and sensibility. But 
 this might have been more the fault of the females, 
 than of the painter, who probably wished to please his 
 employers. 
 
 Hogarth, the son-in-law of a painter, is exceeded by no 
 artist, in works of humor. 
 
 Sir Joshua Reynolds, is considered the founder of the 
 English School of painting ; he united science to art, 
 and did much towards reducing to system, scattered facts 
 and principles. 
 
 No artist in this school is more celebrated than our 
 own countryman, Benjamin West, who was, for many 
 years previous to his recent death, President of the Roy- 
 al Academy of Design in London, and acknowledged as 
 the first painter of his age. 
 
 American artists have in general found in their own 
 country less encouragement than abroad ; for this reason, 
 and for the purpose of studying the ancient works of art 
 with which Europe is enriched, many spend their days 
 abroad, and add that lustre to the arts in foreign coun- 
 tries which is vainly regretted in their own. 
 
 The names of Trumbull, Inman, and many others 
 stand high in the list of American painters. 
 
DRAWING. 301 
 
 There are three distinct provinces in painting, such as 
 have for their subjects man, the lower animals, and inan- 
 imate nature. The first is termed historical painting, 
 and includes not only subjects taken from history, but al- 
 legorical representations and scenes from real life. This 
 is the highest department of the art, requiring in the art- 
 ist a lively conception of human passions and their vari- 
 ous external appearances, a knowledge of anatomy, com- 
 prehending not only the joints but the muscles of the bo- 
 dy, and the almost infinite variety of expression which 
 may be produced by their changes. Thus by the con- 
 traction of two small muscles in the upper lip arises a 
 look of contempt, while nearer the cheeks the expan- 
 sion of two other small muscles and the contraction of the 
 corresponding ones gives an expression of complacency 
 and condescension. The historical painter must not on- 
 ly understand and be able to express the most minute 
 circumstances relative to the effect of the different pas- 
 sions upon the countenance, but is required to delineate 
 with accuracy the most insignificant member of the bo- 
 dy. A bad hand or a disproportioned finger is sufficient 
 to mar the beauty of the finest picture. Especially must 
 the painter be able to group his figures in a picturesque 
 manner, so that the tout ensemble shall make a striking 
 and agreeable impression. In order to produce this ef- 
 fect, he must first have the conception in his own mind. 
 Chateaubriand says, ' the universe is the imagination of 
 God rendered sensible.' The painter, though not pos- 
 sessing power to bring into real existence the images in 
 his mind, by means of the canvass can transfer them to 
 the minds of others. Hogarth was peculiar for the pow- 
 er of retaining in his mind's eye the various living scenes 
 which passed before him, preferring to copy from these 
 pictures, and taxing his memory with retaining them, 
 rather than the dry rules of his art. 
 
 The paintmg of animals, although considered distinct 
 from landscape 'painting , is yet intimately connected with 
 it, as landscapes are. in general, rendered more interest- 
 ing by the introduction of living beings, as cattle graz- 
 ing, or flocks reposing. Landscape painting admits of 
 human figures, as seen at a distance ; but the character 
 26 
 
302 DRAWING. 
 
 of such paintings is lost by giving to figures too impor- 
 tant a place. Rocks, ground, foliage, buildings, sky, 
 and water allow to the landscape painter a wide scope in 
 coloring. Every true painter will possess his own style 
 of coloring, as much as every author of genius his own 
 style of writing ; and it is as impossible for such a paint- 
 er to convey his art to another, as for the writer to trans- 
 fer his own power of expression. 
 
 Genius has never failed to command respect, even 
 among the rudest people and the most uncultivated state 
 of society. Henry VIII. of England, a vain and licen- 
 tious king, was proud of patronizing Hans Holbein, a 
 distinguished painter of the German school. The artist 
 was one day deeply engaged in finishing a work for the 
 king, and being interrupted by the entrance of a great 
 lord of the court, very unceremoniously turned him out 
 of his room. The courtier, on making complaint to his 
 majesty of the impudence of the painter, received the 
 following answer : ' Of seven peasants I can make as 
 many lords, but God only can make a Hans Holbein.' 
 
 We have already remarked that females do not often 
 pay sufficient attention to the art to excel in historical 
 painting. There are some ladies in our country, who, by 
 their copies of eminent paintings, have discovered a high 
 degree of talent ; and could they have the opportunity of 
 travelling for improvement, of devoting years to the study 
 of the first works, and in the society of distinguished art- 
 ists, their names might hereafter be enrolled among 
 those who have gained, by the productions of the pencil, 
 a name for future ages. But there are many causes to 
 prevent females from aspiring to eminence in the fine 
 arts, among which may be mentioned their physical con- 
 stitutions. Few possess the firmness of health to endure 
 years of such unremitting labor as are requisite to form 
 the artist. Angelica Kauffmann became celebrated for 
 her admirable productions, even in Italy, the land of 
 painters. On going to England she received the most 
 flattering attentions, was invited to paint the whole royal 
 family, and made a member of the Royal Academy of 
 the Fine Arts. It was here also that she became the 
 victim of a most cruel revenge. An English artist hav- 
 
DRAWING. 303 
 
 ing been rejected by Mademoiselle Kauffman, selected a 
 dissolute footman, of a handsome person and insinuating 
 address, whom he very richly dressed, and caused to be 
 introduced to her as Count Horn, a nobleman of distinc- 
 tion. A foreigner, and imperfectly understanding the 
 language and manners of the country, she became the 
 dupe of this artifice, which was triumphantly disclosed 
 after she had become the wife of the pretended Count. 
 She easily obtained a divorce, but allowed an annuity to 
 the wretch who had lent himself to so base a plot. She 
 died in Rome in 1807, leaving a large fortune to chari- 
 table institutions. Angelica Kauffman was highly es- 
 teemed by Dr. Johnson and other distinguished literary 
 men, as well as the first artists of the day, and formed 
 one of the most brilliant ornaments of a coterie of ladies, 
 with whom such men were proud to associate. Among 
 these ladies was a Miss Moser, distinguished for the 
 beauty and delicacy of her flower-painting, and who was 
 also a member of the Royal Academy. These are al- 
 most solitary instances of females being publicly recog- 
 nized as artists. 
 
 Mrs. Damer, an English lady of high descent, of dis- 
 tinguished beauty and grace, with a mind deeply and 
 richly imbued with classic literature, and the star of the 
 fashionable world, became suddenly the votary of the 
 fine arts, especially sculpture. The following is the ac- 
 count given of the trifling circumstance which first caus- 
 ed her devotion to this art. When not over twenty years 
 old, as she was walking with the historian, David Hume, 
 a little Italian desired them to look at some plaster fig- 
 ures. Mr. Hume good-naturedly examined and praised 
 them, giving the boy a trifle for his encouragement. His 
 fair companion afterwards satirically related this in com- 
 pany, with an intimation that a grave philosopher might 
 better occupy his time than in attention to paltry plaster 
 images. Hume gravely replied, 'those images, young 
 lady, were not made without the aid of both science and 
 genius — -with all your attainments, you cannot produce 
 such works.' Thus challenged, she privately procured 
 modelling tools, and in a few days presented to her mon- 
 itor a head moulded in wax. ' This, 5 said he, ' is clev- 
 
304 DRAWING. 
 
 er. You have found it no easy task ; but it is much ea- 
 sier to model in wax than carve in marble.' With a re- 
 solution which always attends those who make great at- 
 tainments, she procured marble and proper tools, and 
 with great ingenuity copied the bust which she had made 
 in wax. Soon after this, the public learned with aston- 
 ishment that the only and beautiful daughter of Marshal 
 Conway had forsaken the circles of fashion, banished 
 from her mind all pretensions on the score of high birth, 
 and was resolutely seeking to distinguish herself by what 
 she felt to be the only true nobility, works of genius. 
 She was now to be seen in a close cap, to keep the dust 
 from her hair, and a long apron to preserve her damask 
 gown and satin slippers, working in wet clay, or with an 
 iron hammer in one hand and a steel chisel in the other, 
 cunningly carving heads in marble. Although we can- 
 not but admire the energy and enthusiasm of this un- 
 common female, we still feel that she had stepped out of 
 the legitimate province of woman ; and that it was so, 
 appears from the fact, that with all her efforts and perse- 
 verance, she did not attain the rank even of a second-rate 
 artist. Had the same talents and industry been employ- 
 ed in some manner more suitable to the delicacy of her 
 frame, and the duties of her station, how much might 
 she have benefited and improved the world. 
 
 We have now, my dear pupils, considered the various 
 branches included in a liberal course of female educa- 
 tion. We have seen that the great object in view is not 
 to form beings to dazzle the world with a glittering and 
 transient splendor, but to give to society women with 
 minds strengthened and prepared for the various duties 
 of life, and capable of appreciating and rightly directing 
 their influence. Of these various duties and this influ- 
 ence we shall hereafter treat. 
 
 The sphere of woman's duty is to be looked for in pri- 
 vate and domestic life ; and although she may and ought 
 to do all in her power to elevate, refine, and -embellish 
 all that comes within her own circle, she should be cau- 
 tious of suffering her desires to extend beyond it. If ge- 
 nius, circumstance of fortune, or I might better say the 
 providence of God, assign to her a more public and con- 
 
DRAWING. 305 
 
 spicuous station, she ought cheerfully to do all that her 
 own powers, aided by the blessing of God, can achieve ; 
 and as far as human feelings will allow, act fearlessly 
 of human censure, looking to a higher tribunal for the 
 reward of her labors. 
 
SOT 
 
 PARTING HYM N, 
 
 SUNG BY THE PUPILS OF TROY FEMALE SEMINARY, AT THE 
 CLOSE OF EXAMINATION, FEB. 16, 1831. 
 
 Sisters ! We are now to part ; 
 Long we've travell'd hand in hand : 
 Affections, twin'd around the heart, 
 Have gather'd close our happy hand. 
 Love has smoothed the rough ascent 
 Of learning's steep and arduous way, 
 Giving us as on we went, 
 A peaceful and unclouded day. 
 Chorus. 
 
 Partings shall cease, 
 
 In the land of the blest ; 
 
 There may we meet, 
 
 Forever to rest. 
 
 Sisters ! Momentshasten on ; 
 
 And, yet, our toil 's not wholly done ; 
 
 Thanks we owe to many here, 
 
 For a patient, list'ning ear. 
 
 But chief, to those, our grateful praise, 
 
 In music's swelling notes we'll raise, 
 
 Whose watchful and untiring care, 
 
 Has help'd to form us what we are. 
 
 Chorus. Partings shall cease, &c. 
 
 Sisters ! We see a broken band ! 
 For she* is in a foreign land, 
 Who first, our grateful love might claim, 
 Oh, lov'd and honor'd be her name. 
 And one,\ the gentle and the good ! 
 We see her not, where late she stood ; 
 Her faithful labors, all, are done, 
 Heav'n has taken back its own. 
 
 Chorus. Partings shall cease, &c. 
 
 * Mrs. Willard the principal, was then in France. 
 
 t Mary Lydia Treat, a niece of the author, and the adopted 
 child of Mrs. Willard. After pursuing a thorough and exten- 
 sive course of education, she became a teacher in the insti- 
 tution, in which capacity she exhibited a rare combination of 
 meekness with decision, a dove-like softness with the most rigid 
 faithfulness in the discharge of duty, a childish playfulness and 
 gayety, with deep and fervent piety.— The examination room was 
 at this time hung with black, the teachers dressed in mourning, 
 and the pupils in half mourning for the recent death of one, whom 
 all lamented as the " Gentle and the Good." 
 
308 PARTING HYMN. 
 
 Sisters! Let our thoughts arise, 
 Upwards to Him who rules the skies ! 
 To Him, our blessings, all, we owe, 
 To Him, should our affections flow; 
 Tlien will he guide our wand'ring way, 
 To regions of eternal day. 
 Father in Heaven we bow to thee ! 
 Oh, may our praise accepted be. 
 
 Chorus. Partings shall cease, &c. 
 
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