Class Book_!W: f ^■. ..^-. ELEMENTS GENERAL HISTORY, ANCIENT AND MODERN. BY ALEXATsTDER FRASER TYTLER, F. R. S. E. Proressorof Hisory jo the University of Edinburgh. WITH A CONTINUATION, TERMINATING AT THE DEMISE OF KING GEORGE III., 1820. BY REV. EDWARD iNARJiS, D. D. Frodasor a! Modern Ilislory ia tb< Uoiversily of Oxford. TO WHICH AIIK ADDEI)^ A SUCCINCT HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES WITH ADDITIONS AND ALTERATIONS. BY AN AMERICAN GENTLEM.\N. 8CPPLT1NG IMPORTANT OMISSIONS, BRINGING DOWN THE NARRATION OF EVENTS TO THE BEGINNING Of THE PRESENT VEAR, AND CORRECTING MANY PASSAGES RELATIMO TO THE HISTORY OF THIS COUNTRY. WITH AN IMPHOVED TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY; A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY; AND QUESTIONS ON EACH SECTION. 4DArTED rOR THE TrsE OF SCHOOLS AND ACADEMICSt BY AN EXPERIENCED TEACHEH. Seventy-Sixth Edition. CONCORD, N. H. PUBLISHED BY JOHN F. BROWN, Ca: ROBINSON. FRANKLIN & CO ; ROBlNjON, PRATT k CO.; D.APPLETON, i OA PHILADELPHIA — WM. MARSHALL, & CO : GRrGG k ELLIOTT,; THOIuAi COWPERTHWAIT, & CO.; KAY ft BROTHER, HOGAN «t THOMP- SON, AND URIAH HUNT. FORTLAND-WM. HYDE. 1840 WS5" DlPTUiC'J" OF M:\V-ll.\IVir.SinRE, /owii: Distiict CItrk' office. BE IT REMEJIBEIIED, iliai on llie sixtii day of November, A. D. 1,824, and in tlio furly-niiitii yo.ir of tlio Ir.dopeiidciice of the United States of America, ISAAC HILL, of the said Distiict, has deposited in tliiii ofKco Ihe title of a book, tlie rigiit whereof lie claims as propiietor, in the words fol- lowing, to wit : — " Elunicnts of General History, ancient and modern. By Alexander Era- ser Tytler, F. R S. E. Professor ,.f History in the University of Edlnhnruh. With a contiiMjation, terminnfinjr at the demise of Kinj^ George III., 1,820. By Rev. Edward Nares, D. D. Professor of Modern History in the Univer- sity of O.vford. To which are added, a succinct History of the United States; with additions and alterations, by an American iijentleman. Supply- ing important omissions, briniring down the narration of events to the begin- ning of the present year, and correcting many passages relating to the history of this country. With an improved Table of Chronology ; a comparative view of Ancient and Modern Geograpiiy ; and Questions on each section. Adapted for the use of Schools and Academies, by an experienced Teacher." In coiifonnity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of siicJi copies, during the times therein mentioned ;" and also an act, entitled, " An act supplementa- ry to an act, antitled an act for thfi encouragement of learning, by securing the copiei4 of maps, charts, andbook.'*, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during tlie times therein mentioned, and extending the benefits there- of to the arts of designing, engraving, and etcliii;g historical ai;d other prints.' WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Clerk of the District of J^ew-Hamf shire. A true copy of Record. Attest WILLIAM CLAGGETT, Clerk. ADVERTISEMENT. In preparing this edition, the original text of Tytler and Nares has been carefully revised and corrected. Part IV., which contains the History of South America, New Spain, and the West Indies, has been added. These countries are scarcely noticed in former editions; but they have acquired a rank and importance which make their history equally important to the plan of this work, and equally interesting, with that of most countries in Europe. Additions have also been made to many chapters in Part III., by which the history is continued to the commencement of 1,824. The Questions for Examination in the edition of 1,823, have been corrected, and new Questions are added, adapted to the additions made to the text. The publisher has been at considerable exjyense in obtaining those improvements, but he trusts that they make this edition decidedly superior to any that has been hitherto publislied. PREFACE. THE following work contains the Outlines ol a Course of Lect«h,e8 on General History, delivered for icany years in the University of Edin- burgh, and received with a portion of the public approbation amply sufficient to compensate the labours of the author. He began to compose these Elements principally with the view of furnishing an aid to students .attending his Lectures ; but soon conceived, that, by giving a little more amplitude? to their composition, he might render the work of more general Utility. As now given to the public, he would willingly flatter himself that it may be not only serviceable to youth, in furnishing a regular plan for tne prosecution of this important study, but useful even to those who have acquired a competent knowledge of general liistory from the peru-, sal of the works of detached historians, and who wish to methodize that knowledge, or even to refresh their memory on material facts and the order of events. In the composition of these Elements the autho.' has endeavoured to unite with the detail of facts, so much of reflection as to aid the mind in the formation of rational views ol' the causes and consequences of events, as well as of the policy of the actors ; but he has anxiously guarded against that speculative refinement which has sometimes entered mto works of this nature. Such works profess to exhibit the philosophy or the spirit of history, but are more adapted to display the Writer's ingenuity as a theorist, or talents as a rhetorician, than to instruct the reader in the more useful knowledge of historical facts. As the progress of the human mind forms a capital object in the'study of history, the state of the arts and sciences, the religion, laws, govern- ment, and manners of nations, are material parts, even in an elementary work of this nature. The history of literature is a most important arti- cle in this study. The author has therefore endeavoured to give to each of these topics its due share of attention ; an,rew8 - - 245 Sect. 10. Regal Governnient of the Hebrews ... 246 Sect 11. Restoration of the Jews t«i their Liberty nnd C-iuntry - 249 Sect. 12. The State of Learning and Coimnerce'among ihe Iowa 2'>2 Condaaion - . 333 PART THIRD. MODERN HISTORY 8€iet 1. France, from the d«ath of Lewis XJV., 1,715, to the Peace af Vienna, 1,73d 2S9 CONTENtS. '9 Page. Sect. 2. England, from the Accession of the House cf Hanover, 1,714, to the end of the Reign of George the First, 1,727 262 Sect. 3. Austria, (and Germany,) from the I^feace of Rastadt, 1,714, to the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1,748 - - - 268 Sect 4. England, from the Accession of George II. to the Throne, 1,7-27, toJris death, 1,760 . . ;. . - - 273 Sect. 5. State of Europe at the Conclusion of the Peace of Aix-Ia- Chapellc, 1,748 278 $t>ct. 6. Of tiie Seven Years' War, 1,755— 1,762 - - .,- 281 Sect. 7. From the Accession of George III., 1,760, to the Cominence- ment of the Disputes rvith America, 1,764 ... 288 Sect 8. Disputes between Great Britain and her American Colonies, 1,764—1,73:? 291 Sect. 9. France, from the Peace of Paris, 1,763, to the Opening of the Assembly of the States General, 1,789 - - ^ 297 Sect. 10. Austria, from the conclusion of the Seven Years' War, to the death of Maria Theresa, 1,763— 1,780 - - ,- 307 Sect. '11. Reigns of Joseph II., Leopold II., &c., from 1,765 to 1,800 '309 Sect. 12. France, from the Opening of the Assembly of the States General, 1,789, to the deaths of the King and Queen, 1,793 316 Sect. 13. Great" Britain, from the conclusion of the American War, 1,783, to the Peace of Amiens, 1,802 - - - - 322 Sect. 14. France, from the death of the King and Queen, and Over- tiirow of the Girondist or Brissotine Party, 1,793, to the Establishment of the Directory, 1,795 - - - 333 Sect. 15. France, from tlie Establishment of the Directory, 1,795, to tbo Peace of Amiens 337 Sect. 16. France, from the Peace of Amiens to the Treaty of Tilsit, 1,807 - - 347 Sect. 17. Spam and Portugal, from 1,788 to 1,814 - - - 353 Sect. 18. France, from the Peace of Tilsit, to the Abdication of Na- poleon, 1,814 339 Sect. 19. Poland, from the Commencement of the Eighteenth Century, to tin; Treaty of Vienna, 1,815 .... 363 Sect. 20. Great Britain, from the Peace of Amiens, 1,802, to the death of (Jeorge III., 1,820 369 Sect. 21. France, from the Entrance of the Allies into Paris, March, 1,814, to the final Evacuation of it by the Foreign Troops, 1,818 375 Sect. 22. Northern States of Europe, from the Close of the Seven- teenth Dcntury 379 Sect. 23. Soutiicrn States of Europe, from the Close of the Seventeenth Century 387 Sect. 24. Of India,' or Hindoostan 391 State of Arts, Sciences, Religion, Laws, Government, Ac. - - 39S Botany , . . 402 Electricity 405 Mineralogy and Geology 407 Geography - - . 409 Discoveries and Inventions . . . _ ... 4ig Religion 420 History, Polite Literature, Fine Art«| Ac. - - . . - 422 Treaty of Vienna, 1^15 ■ - ... - 423 !» CONTENTS. PART FOURTH. THE UNITED STATES. Pag« Sect. I. DiBCOvery of America 424 Sect 2. IViscoveriesj by the English. Settlement of Virginia. - 427 Sect- 3. Sellleni~nt ofMassaclmsetts, Rijodc-Is!.tnd, Connecticut, New- Hampshire, Maine, Maryhmil, North and Soutli Carolina, New-York, New-Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Georgia - - - 431 Sect. 4. War with France, and Conquest of Canada. Disputes with Great Britain, and War ofliie Revolution ... 433 Sect. 5. Establishment of tiie State and National Governments. Wars with Tripoli and the Indians, »&c. ... - 443 Sect. 6. War with Great Britain, &c. 451 A Table of Chronology 460 Comparative view or Ancieht and Modern GcooiurHf - 499 INTRODUCTION. % 1 1. THE valu^ ol*any science is to be estimated according to its tenden-^ kry to promote improvement, either in private virtue, or in those cjualities whfch render man extensively iiseCul in society. Some objects of pursuit have a sicondary ut^jUty; in furnishing- rational amusement, which, re- lieving- the mind at intervals fiom the tatigue of serious occupation, in- vi.jforates an.l {ifepares it for fresh exertion. It is the perfection of any science, to unit^li^se advantugis, to promote the advancement of public and private virtuLffSud to supply such a degree of amusement, as to super- sede the necessity of recuri^y<| to frivolous pursuits for the sake of relaxa- tion. # Under this, description falls the science of history. 2. History, sj^j-s Dionysius of Halicarnassus, is ^^ philosophy teaching by examplei." 'lilfe superior elficacy of example to jirecept is universally acknowledged All th<; laws of mc-ality and rules of conduct are veri- fied by experience, and are constantly submitted to its test and examina- tion. History, which adds to our own experience an immense treasure of the experience of others, furnishes innumerable proofs, by which we may verify all the precepts of morality and of prudence. 3. History, beside its general advantages, has a distinct species of util- ty to dirterent men, according to their several ranks in society, and occu- pations in life. 4. In this country it is an indispensable duty of every man of liberal birth, to be acquainted, in a certain degree, with the srJcncc; of politics ; 4nd history is the school of politics. It opens to us 'fte springs of humao Aflairs ; the causes of the ris^ grandeur, revoP'^'o'is, and fall of empires ; Jt points out the reciprocal i^luence of go- erament and of national maa- Qtrs ; it dissipates prejudices, nourii^'^s the love of our country, and di- rects to the best means of its imi^'^-'vement ; it illustrates equally the bless- •ngs of political union, an-n empire. — Empire Ol' Germany. — Disputes of supremacy between the popes and the emperorg- PLAN OF THE COURSE. IS The history ol fVrUain still the principal object of attention. — England under the kin^s of the ]No.«,q„ ]ine, and the first princes of the Plantage- net branch. — The conquest of lre\^nd, iimler Henry II., introduces an an- ticipated progressive view of the politiccLi connexion between England and Ireland down to the present time. As we -proceed in the delineation of the British history, we note particularly those clicumstances which mark the growth of the English constitution. At this period all the kingdoms of Europe join in the crusades. — A briel account is given of those enterprises. — Moral and political effects of the crusades on the nations of pAu-ope.— Origin of chivalry, and rise of roman- tic fiction. Short connected sketch of the state of the European nations after the crusades. — Rise of the house of Austria. — Decline of the feudal govern- ment in France. — Establishment of the Swiss republics. — Disorders in the popedom. — Council of Constance. The history of Britain resumed. — England under Henry III. and Ed- ward I. — The conquest of Wales. — The history of Scotland at this period intimately connected with that of England. — View of the Scottish history from Malcolm Canmore to Robert Bruce. — State of both kingdoms during the reigns of Edward II. and III. — The history of France connected with that of Britain. — France itself won by Henry V. The state of the east at this period allurds the most interesting object of attention. — The progress of the Ottoman arms retarded for a while by th* conquests of Tamerlane and of Scanderbeg. — The Turks prosecute the victories under Mahomet the great, to the total extinction of the Constan- tinopolitan empire. — The constitution and policy of the Turkish empire France, in this age, emancipates herself from the feudal servitude ; and Spain, from the union of Arragon and Castile, and the fall of the kingdonr of the Moors, becomes one monarchy under Ferdinand and Isabella. The history of Britain is resumed. — Sketch of the history of England down to the reign of Henry VIII. ; of Scptland, during the reigns of the five Jameses. — Delineation of the ancient constitution of the Scottish gov- ernment. The end of the fifteenth century is a remarkable acre in the history of Europe. Learning and the sciences underwent at that time a very rapid improvement ; and, after ages of darkness, shone out at once with sur- prising lustre. — A connected view is presented of the progress of literature in Europe, from its revival down to this period. — In the same age the ad- vancement of navigation, and the course to India by the Cape of Good Hope, explored by the Portuguese, affect the commerce of all the Europe The age of Charles V. unites in one connected view the affairs of Ger- many, of Spain, of France, of England, and of Italy. The discovery of the new world, the reformation in Germany and England, and tlie splen- dour of the fine arts under the pontificate of Leo X., render this period one of the most interesting in the annals of mankind. The pacification of Europe, by the treaty of Catteau Cambresis, allow* us for a while to turn our attention to the state of Asia. A short sketch is given of the modern history of Persia, and the state of the other kingdoms of Asia, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ; the history of fndia ; the manners, laws, arts, and sciences, and religion of the Hindoos ; the' history of China and Japan ; the antiquity of the Chinese empire, its manners, laws, government, and attainments in the arts and sciences, - Returning to Europe, the attention is directed to the state of the conti- nental kingdoms in the age of Philip II. Spain, the Netherlands, France, *nd England, present a various and animated picture. England under Elizabeth. The progress of the reformation in Scot- land.— The distracted reign of Mary, queen of Scots.— The hbtory ol »6 PLAN OF THE COURSE. Britain pursued without interruption down to the revrJaOon, and here clos- ed liy a sketch of the { rogress of the Enghsh oonsiitution, and an examina- tiot, of its nature at this period, when it Ki;anie fixed and determined. The history of tiie southern ooniinental kingdoms is brought down to the end of the reign of Louis XIV.; of the northern, to the conclusion of the reigns of Charleo XtL of Sweden, and of Peter the great, czar of Mus- covy. We finish this view of universal history, by a survey of the state of the arts and sciences, and of the progress of literature in Europe, during the eixteenlh and seventeenth centuries. The chro?iology observed in this View of Universal History in that of archbishop Usher, which is founded on the Hebrew text of the Sacred Wri- tings. A :'iv7t Table -.J CJ^- ,.^ol -^v i* subjoined to these headt, for tht ease of (r^ student. PART FIRST. ANCIENT HISTORY. SECTION I. EARLIEST AUTHENTIC ACCOUNTS OF THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD. It is a difficult task to delineate the state ol mankind in the ear- liest ages of the world. We want information sufhcient to give us positive ideas on the subject; but as man advances in civilization, and in proportion as history becomes usefui and important, its cer- tainty increa'ies, and its materials are mote abundant. Various notions have been formed with respect to the population of the antediluvian world and its physical appearance ; but as these are rather matters of theory tha-^ »* tact, they scarcely fall with- in the province of history ; and ^liey are of the less consequence, because we are certain thn\tlie state of tho«e antediluvian ages could have had no materin' mtiuence on the tmies which succeeded The books of Mo'"*' '^'^on] the earliest authentic history of the ages immediately -^^liowing the deluge ,,, „, ^ , About 150 v-ars after that event, Nmirod (the Beius of profane histori ins) bwilt Babylon, and Assur built Nineveh, v/hich became the capital of aieAssyrWn empire ^ . . .^ , . Ninus the son c^' Belus, and his queen Semiramis, are said to have raised the emp'-^ of Assyria to a higher degree of splendour. From the «e;ith of -Ninias the son of Ninus, down to the revolt of the Mede-- under Sardanapahis, a period of 800 years, there is a chasm '' ^^"^ history of Assyria and Babylon. This is to be supplied Qi^ly.fom conjecture. 1. he earliest periods of the Egyptian history are equally uncer- tain with those of the Assyrian. Menes is supposed the first king ot Egypt ; probab'y the Misraim of the Holy Scriptures, the grandson of Noah, or, as others conjecture, the Oziris of Egypt, the inventor of arts, and the civilizer of a great part of the eastern world. After Menes or Oziris, Egypt appears to have been divided iiito four dynasties, Thebes, Thin, Memphis, and Tanis ; and the people to have attained a considerable degree of civilization : but a period of barbarism succeeded under the shepherd-kino;s, subsisting for the space of some centuries, doun to the age of Sesostris (1650 A. C). who united the separate principalities into one kingdom, regnlatecl its policy with admirable sldll, and distinguished himself equally by his foreign conquests, and by his domestic administratioo. B2 1« ANCIENT HISTORY. SECTION CONSIDERATIONS ON THE NATURE OF THE FIRST GOVERN- MENTS, AND ON THE LAWS, CUSTOMS, ARTS, AND SCIENCES OF THE EARLY AGES. § 1 The earliest government is the patriarchal, which subsists Id 'Axe rudest periods ofsociety. This has an easy progress to the monarchical. The first monarchies must have been very weak, and their terri- tory extremely limited. The idea of security precedes that ol conquest. In forming our notions of the extent of the firsl monar- chies, we ar«> deceivet' by the word king, which according to modem ideas, is connected with an extent of territory, and a proportional power. 1 he kings jn scripture are no more than the chiefs of tribes. There were five kin-gs in the vale of Sodom. J oshua defeated in his wars thirty-one kings, and Adonizedec threescore an^,ian or Phoenician inva.lers, who, under the name of shepherd-km^^^ conquered Egypt. But kingdoms so founded could have little du-ation Laws and good policy, essential to the stability of kingdoms, a„. the fruit of intellec- tual refinement, and arise only m a state ofsociety coriSiderably ad- vanced in civilization. The progress from barbarism to civilizatior, jg glow, because every step in the progress Is the result of necessity, after the experience of an error, or the strong feeling of a want. § 2. Origin of Lfvws. Certain political writen, have supposed that in the infancy of society penal laws must have o\^n extremely mild. We presume the contrary to have been ralher i^g ^ase as the more barbarous the people, the stronger must be tht l,onds to restrain them : and history confirms the supposition in the cr,(,jpn| laws of the Jews, Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. Among the earliest laws of all states are those regarding marriage ^ for the institution of marriage is coeval with the formation ofsociety^ The first sovereigas of all states are said to have institutetl marriage- and the earliest laws provided encouragements to matrimony. Among the ancient nations the husband purcha>cd his wife by money, or personal services. Among the Assyrians the marriageable women were put up at auction, and the price obtained for the more beautiful was assigned as a dowry to the more homely. The laws of succession are next in ordor to those of marriage The father had the absolute power in the divi:^ion of his estate. But primogeniture was understood to confer certain rights. Laws arise necessarily and imperceptibly from the condition of society ; and each particular law may be traced from the state of manners, or the political emergency" which gave it birth. Hence w» perceive the mtimate connexion between history and jurispru- ANCIENT HISTORY. 19 dence, and the light which they must necessarily throw upon each other. The law<» of a country are best inlerpreied from its history; und its uncertain history is best ehicidated by its ancient laws. § 3. Earliest jMethodx qf autheaticuling Contracts. Belbre the inven- tion of writing, contracts, tesLamenLs, sales, marriages, and the like, were transacted in public. The Jewish and the Grecian histories fur- nish examples. Some barbarous nations authenticate their bargains by exchanging symbols or talhes. — Tiie Peruvians accomplishRd most of the purposes of writing by knotted cords cT various colours, teruKid ' qiiipos. The Mexicans communicated intelligence to a distance by painling. Other nations used an abridged mode ot p:iinting, or hi erogl rphics. Before writing the Egypliaus used liieroglyphics li)i transmitting and recording knowledge : after writing, they employ ed it tor \eiling or couccaimg knowledge from the vulgar. § \. Methods for recording Ilistoriral Fucts^ and pidilishing I^zcs Poetry and song were tlic tirst vehicles of history, and the earliest mode of promulg;>ting laws. The songs of the bards re-cord a great deal of ancient history: and the laws of many of ine ancient nations were composed in verse. Stones, rud" and sculptured, ininnli and mounds of earth, are the monumeiits of history among a barbarous people.; and columns, tri- umphal arches, coins, iuid medals, among a more relined. These likewise illustrate the piogress i.f manners and of the arts. § 5. Religious Institutions. Among tbe earliest instilutirns of
voisnip oi iheir own -ods, Saturn, Jupiter,X>res, &c. Succeeding ages confounded those ^itans themselves with the gods, and henc<» sprung numberless fables. 4. Inachus, the last of tf.e Titans, founded the kingdom of Argos, 1 856 A. C. ; and Egialtes, one of his sons, the kingdom of Sicyon. . 5. In the following century happened the deluge of Ogyges, 1796 A. C. Then followed a perwd of barbarism for above 200 years. 6. Cecrops, the leader of another colony from Egypt, landed in Attica, 1682 A. C; and, connecting himself with the last king, suc- ceeded, on his death, to the sovereignty. He built twelve cities, and was eminent, both as a lawgiver and politician. 7. The Grecian hiatory derives some authenticity at this period from the Chronicle of Pares, preserved among the Arundelian mai^ 1)1ps iit Oxford. The authority of this chronicle has been questioned of late, and many arguments adduced presumptive of its being a' forgery ; but, on a review of thewholeeontrrversy,we judge the tiP- ^-v-^ents for its authenticity to preponderate. It fixes the dates of the. AINCIENT HISTORY. 23 most remarkable events in the history of Greece, from the time of Cecrops down to the age of Alexander the great. 8. Cranaus succeeded Cecrops, in whose time happened two re- markable events recorded in the Chronicle of Paros: the judgment of the areopagus between Mai-s and Neptune, two princes of Thessa- iy ; and the deluge of D<;ucalion. The court of areopagus, at Athens, was instituted by Cecrops. ^ The number of its judges varied at differ- ent periods, from nine to lifty-one. The deluge of Deucalion, magni- fied and disguised by the poets, was probably only a partial inundation, 9. Amphyction, the contemporary of Cranaus, if the foundci' of the amphyctionic council, must have possessed extensive views ot policy. This council, Irom a league of twelve cities, became a representative assembly of the states of Greece, and had the most admirable political effects in uniting the nation, and giving it a com- mon interest. 10. ■Cadmus-, about 1519, A. C, introduced alphabetic writing into Greece, from Phoenicia. The alphabet then haci only sixteen letters ; and ttie mode of writing (termed boustrophedon)^ was alternately from right to left and left to ri;;lit. From this period the Greeks made rapid advances in civilizaiion. SECTION VI. • REFLECTIONS ON THE FIRST AND RUDEST PERIODS OF THE GRECIAN HISTORY. 1. The country of Greece presents a large, irregular peninsula, intersected by vnmy chains of mountains, separating its different districts, and opp-osing; niitnivd iaipi^dii-.iciils (o general intercourse, and therefore to rapid ci\ ilization. 'ihc <_'xhe!ne barbarism of the Pelasgi, who are said to iiave been cannibals, and ignorant of the use of tire, has its parallel in modern barbarous nations. There were many circumstances that retarded the progress of the Greeks to refinement. The introduction of a national religion was best tit- '^d to remove those obstacles, lieceiving this new system of theolo- Sy ''"om strangers, and entertaining at first very contused ideas of it, they v..-,yj^ naturally blend its doctrines and worship with the notions of religio, which they formerly possessed: and hence we observe only partial coincidences of the Grecian with the Egyptian and Phceniciaii myi^^oiogl':^. il l;a-^ b- 11 a vain and woarisome labour of modern mythologi^il writers, to attempt to trace all the fables of anti- quity, and the various systems of pagan theology, un to one commun source. The dilhculty o: 1 his Is best siiown, by'~C(jmparing the differ- ent and most contradictory solutions of the same fable given by difffr- ent mythologists ; as, for exai.>p!e, lord Bacon and the abbe'Banier, Some authors, with much indiscretion, i\ave attem.pted to deduce all the Pagan mythologies from the holy scriptures. Such researches are unprofitable, sometimes niischievo-is. 2. Superstition, in tlie early periods, was a predominant charac- teristic of the Greeks. To this age, and to this character of the people, we refer the origin of the Grecian oracles, and the institu- tion of the public games in honour of the gods. The desire of penetrating into futurity, and the superstition com- mon to rude nations, gave rise to the oracles of Delphi, Dodona, &c. The resort of strangers to these oracles on particular occtisions, led to the celebration of a festival, and to public games. 24 ANCIENT lllbTORY. The four solemn games o!' the Greeks, particularly termed t«;;ot, were the Olympic, the Pythian, the Nemean, and tlie Isthmian. 7 They consisted principally in contests of skill in all the athletic ex ercises, and th.e prizes were chiefly honorary marks of distinction. Archbishop Potter, in his Jlrcluebgia Grceca, fully details their par- ticular nature. These games had excellent political effects, in pro- moting national union, in dilfusing the love of glory, and training the vouth to martial exercises. They cherished at once a heroical and superstitiouK spirit, which led to the formation of extraordinary and hazardous enterprises. SECTION VIl. iCARLY PERIOD OF THE GRECIAN HISTORY. THE ARGO- NAUTIC EXPEDITION. WARS OF THEBES AND OF TROY. 1. The history of Greece, for a period of 300 yeais preceding the Trojan war, is intermiAcd with fables ; but contains, at the same time, many facts entitled to credit, as authentic. Erectheus, or Ericli- thonius, either a Greek who had visited Egypt, or the leader of a new Egyptian colony, cultivated the plains ot Eleusis, and instituted the Eleusinian mysteries, in imitation of the Egyptian games of Isis. These mysteries were of a religious and moral nature, conveying the doctrines of the unity of God, the immortality of the soul, and a future state of reward rird punishment. Cicero speaks of them with high encomium. But the ceremonies connected with them seem to be childish and ridiculous. 2. Theseus laid the foundation of the grandeur of Attica, by unit- ing its twelve cities, and giving them a common constitution, 1267 A. C. 3. The first ereat enterprise of the Gieeks was the Argonautic enpedition, 1263 A. C. (Usher), and 937 A. C. (sir I. I^JewtonY This Is supposed to have been both a military and a mercantile ad- venture, and was singularly bold tor the times in v»hich it was under- taken. The object was, to open the commerce of the Euxine sea and to secure some establishments on its coasts. The a-strono"^*^^ Cldron directed the plan of the voyage, and tormcd, for the ^^^ ^* the marinei-s, a scheme of the constellations, iixing with '»ccuracy the solstitial and equinoctial points. Sir Isaac Kewtor'"'?^ io"l'"^" his emendation of th.e ancient chronology on a ca'^^^l^|^io" oi the regiUiir prcc'essioa of the equinoxes from this pe-'i'0«J to the present, as v/oll as on an estimate of the medium lenA^h ot human genera- 4. The stale of the military art at thi^ Ume m Greece may be estimated from an account ct" the siege* of Thebes and Troy. In these enterprises the arts of attack and defence were very rude / and imperfect. The siege was entirely of the nature of blockade, and dierelbre necessarily o]' long duration. A dispute for the divided sovereignty of Thebes between the brothers Eteccles and Polynices, gave rise to the war, which was terminated by single combat, in which both were killed. 5. Tlie sons of the commandei-s slain in this war renewcil the quarrel of their fathers, an! occasioned the war of the tpigmoi^ subject on which Homer is said to have written a poem, now lost, equal to the Iliad and Odys.sey. AJNCIENT HISTORY. 25 6. The detail of the war of Troy rests chiefly; on the authority of Homer, and ought not, in spite of modem scepticism to be reius- ed, in its principal facts, the credit ot a true history. After a block- ade of ten years Troy was taken, either by storm or surprise, 1184 A. C, and being set on fire in tne night, was burat to the ground ; not a vestige of its ruins existing at the present day. The empire fell from that moment. The Greeks settled a colony near the spot, and the rest of the kingdom was occupied by the Lydians. 7. Military expeditions at this time were carried on only in the spring and summer. In a tedious siege the winter was a season of armistice. The science of military tactics was then utterly unknown, every battle being a multitude of single combats. The soldier had no pay but his share of the booty, divided by the chiefs. The weapons of war were the sword, the bow, the javelin, the club, the hatchet, and the sling. A helmet of brass, an enonnous shield, a cuirass, and buskins, were the weapons of defence. SECTION VIII. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GREEK COLONIES. 1. About eighty years after the taking of Troy, began the war of the Heraclidaj. Hercules, the son ot Amphitryon, sovereign of Mycenffi, v/as banished from his country with all his family, while the crown was possessed by a usurper. His descendants, after the period of a century, returned to reloponnesus, and subduing all their enemies, took possession of the states of Mycenae, Argos, anc" Lacedaemon. 2. A long period of civil war and bloodshed succeeded, and Greece, divided among a number of petty tyrants, suffered equally the vaia- eries of oppression and anarchy. Codrus, king of Athens, showed a singular example of patriotism, in devoting himself to death for his country; yet the Athenians, weary of monarchy, determined to make the experiment of a popu- lar constitution. Medon, the son of Codrus. was elected chief magis- trate, with the title of archon. This is the commencement of the Athenian republic, about 1068 A. C. 3. It was at this time that the Greeks began to colonize, llie oppression which they suffered at home forced many of them to abandon their country, and seek refuge in other lands. A large body of iEolians from Peloponnesus founded twelve cities in the Lesser Asia, of which Smyrna was the most considerable. A troop of onian exiles built Ephesus, Colophon, Clazomene, and other towns; giving to their new settlements the name of their native country^, Ionia. The Dorians sent oft colonies to Italy and Sicily, founding, in the former, Tarentum and Locri, and in the latter, Syracuse and Arigentum. The mother country considered its colonies as eman- cipated children. These speedily attained to eminence and splen- dour, rivalling and surpassing their parent states : and the example of their prosperity, wnich was attributed to the freedom of their governments, incited the states of Greece, oppressed by a number of petty despots, to put an end to the regal government, and try the experiment of a popular constitution. Athens and Thebee gave the first examples, which were soon followed by all the rest 4. Those infant republics demaoded new laws; and it was necei- 26 ANCIENT HISTORY. sary that some ehlighteiied citizen should arise, who had discernment to perceive what system of legislation was most adapted to the char- acter of his native state ; who had abilities to compile such a system, and sufficient authority with his countrymen to recommend and en- force it. Such men were the Spartan Lycurgus and the Athenian Solon. SECTION IX- THE REPUBLIC OF SPARTA. 1. The origin of this political system has given rise to much inge- nious disquisition among the moderns, and aflfords a remarkable in- stance of the passion for systematizing. It is a prevailing propensity with modern philosophers to reduce eveiy thing to general princi- ples. Man, say they, is always the same animal, and, when placed in similar situations, will always exhibit a similar appearance. His manners, his improvements, the government and laws under which he lives, arise necessarily from the situation in which we tind him ; and all is the result of a few general laws of nature, which operate universally on the human species. But in the ardour of this passion for generalizing, these philosophers often forget, that it is the knowl- edge of facts which can alone lead to the discovery of general laws: a knowledge not limitf d to the history of a single age or nation, but extended to that of the whole species in every age and climate. Antecedently to such knowledge, all historical system is mere ro mance. 2. Of this nature is a late theory of the constitution of Sparta, first etarted by Mr. Browne, in his Essay on Civil Liberty; and from him adopted by later writers. It thus accounts for the origin of the Spar- tan constitution.* " The army of the Hcraclida?, when they came to recover the dominion of their ancestors, was composed of Dorians from Thessaly, the most barbarous of all the Greek tribes. The Achasans, the ancient inhabitants of Laconia, were compelled to seek new habitations, while the barbarians of Thessaly took possession of Uieir country. Of all the nations which are the subject of historical record, this people bore the nearest resemblance to the rode Ameri- cans. An Americtm tribe where a chief presides, where the council of the aged deliberate, and tlie assembly of the people gives their voice, is on the eve of such a political establishment as the Spartan constitution." The Dorians or Thessalians settled in Lacedamon, manifested, it is said, the same manners with all other nations in a barbarous state. liycurgus did no more than arrest them in that state, by forming their usages into laws. He checked them at once in the first stage of their improvement. " He put forth a bold hand to that spring which is in society, and stopt its motion.-' 3. This theory, however ingenious, is confuted by facts. All an- cient authors agree, tliut Lycurgus operated a total chtmgc^ en the Spartan manners, and on the constitr.tion of his country ; while the moderns have discovered that he made no change on either. The most striking features of the manners and constitution of Sparta had not the smallest resemblance to those of any rude nations with which we are acquainted. The communion of slaves and of many other species of property, the right of the state in the children of all the * J^gfan's Philosophy of History, &c. ANCIENT HISTORY. 27 citizens, their common education, the public tables, the equal divi- sign of lands, the oath of government between (he kings and people, fi^ave no parallel in the history of any barbarous nation. 4. The real history of Sparta and its constitution is therefore not to be found in modern theory, but in the writings of the Greek his- torians, and these are our sole authorities worthy of credit. After the return of the Heraclida?, Sparta was divided between the two sons of Aristodemus, Eurysthenes, and Procles, who jointly reigned ; and this double monarchy, transmitted to the descendant,? of each, continued in the separate branches for near 900 years. A radjcal principle of disunion, and consequent anarchy, made the want of constitutional laws be severely felt. Lycurgus, brother of Poly- dectes, one of the kings of Sparta, a man distinguished alike by his abilities and virtues, was invested, by the concurring voice of the sovereigns and people, v/ith the important duty of reforming and new- niOflelUng the constitution of his country, 884 A. C. 5. Lyc'irgus instituted a senate, elective, of twenty-eight mem Ders; vvhoul^r part of the constitution of Sparta was the office of the ephori; magistrates elected by the people, whose power, though in some respects subordinate, was in others paramount to that of he kingg and eenate. «8 AJNCIENT HISTORY. SECTION X. THE REPUBLIC OF ATHENS. I Oif the abolition of the regal office at Athens, the change of the constitution was more nominal than real. The archonship was, during three centuries, a perpetual and hereditary magistracy. In 754 A. C. this office became decennial. In 648 the archons were annually elected and were nine in number, with equal authority. Under all these changes the state was convulsed, and the condition of the people miserable. 2. Draco, elevated to the archonship 624 A. C, projected a reform in the constitution of his country, and tnought to repress disorders by the extreme severity of penal laws. But his talents were unequal to the task he had undertaken. 3. Solon, an illustrious Athenian, of the race of Codrus, attained the dignity of archon 594 A. C , and was entrusted with the care of framing for his country a new form of government, and a new sys- tem of laws. He possessed extensive knowledge, but wanted that intrepidity of mind which is necessary to the character of a great statesman. His disposition was mild and temporizing ; and, without attempting to reform the manners of his countrymen, he accommo- dated his system to their prevailing habits and passions. 4. The people claimed the sovereign power, and they received it ; the rich demanded offices and dignities : the system of Solon accommodated them to the utmost of their wishes. He divided the citizens into four classes, according to the measure of tlieir >vt;ultli. To the three first, the richer citizens, belonged all the offices of the commonwealth. The fourth, the poorer class, more numerous than all the other three, had an equal right of suffiage with them in the Sublic assembly, wnere all laws were framed, and measures of state ecreed. Consequently the weight of the hitter decided every ques- tion. 5. To regulate in some degree the proceedings of those assem- blies, and balance the weight of the popular interest, Solon instituted a senate of 400 members (afterwards enlarged to 500 and 600), with whom it was necessary that every measure should originate, before it became the subject of discussion in the assembly of the people. 6. To the court of areopagus he committed the guardianship of the laws, and the power of enforcing them; with the supreme administration of justice. To this tribunal belonged likewise the custody of the treasures of the state, the care of religion, and a tutorial power over aU the youth of the republic. The number of. its judges was various at different periods, and the most immaculate purity of character was essential to that high office. 7. The authority of the senate and areopagus imposed some check on the popular assemblies; but as these possessed the ultimate right of decision, it was always in the power of ambitious demagogues to sway them to the worst of purposes. Continual factions divided the people, and corruption pervaded every department of the state. The public measures, the result of ihc interested schemes of indi- viduals, were often equally absurd as they were proHigate. Athens often saw her best patriots, the ^visest and most vu'tuous of her citi- zens, shamefully sacrificed to the most deprtived and most abando«ed. AI^CIENT HISTORY. 89 8. The particular laws of the Athenian state are more deserving of encomiimi than its form of government. The laws relating to debt- ors were mild and equitable, as were those which regulated the treatment of slaves. But the vassalage of women, or their abso- lute subjection to the control of their nearest reFations, approached too near to a state of servitude. The proposer of a law found on experience impolitic was liable to punishment; an enactment ap- parently rigorous, but probably necessary in a popular government 9. One most iniquitous and absurd peculiarity oi^the Athenian, and some other governments of Greece, was the picactice of the ostra- cism, a ballot of all the citizens, in which each wrote down the name of the person in his opinion most obnoxious to censure; and he who was thus marked out by the greatest number of voices, though un- impeached of any crime, was banished for ten years from his coun- try. This barbarous and disgraceful institution, ever capable of the grossest abuse, and generally^ subservient to the worst of purposes, has stained the character of Athens with many flagrant instances of public ingratitude. 10. The manners of the Athenians formed the most striking con- trast to tho-^e of the Lacedaemonians. At Athens the arts were in the highest esteem. The Lacedsemonians despised the arts, and all who cultivated them. At Athens peace was the natural state of the republic, and the retined enjoyment ot lite the aim of all its subjects, Sparta was entirely a military establishment ; and her subjects, when unengaged in war, were totally unoccupied. Luxury was the char- acter of the Athenian, ;is frugality of the Spartan. They were equally jealous of their liberty, and eqiialiy brave in war. The courage "of the Spartans sprang from constitutional ferocity, that ol the Athenian from the principle of honour. 11. The Spartan government had acquired solidity, while all the rest of Greece was torn by domestic dissensions. Athens, a prey to faction and civil disorder, surrendered her liberties to Pisistratus, 550 A. C. ; who, after various turns of fortune, established himself firm- ly in the sovereignty, exercised a splendid and munificenc dominion, completely gained the afteciions of the people, and transmitted a peaceable crown to his sons Hippias and Hipparchus. 12. Hermodias and Aristogiton undertook to restore the democra- cy ; and succeeded in the attempt. Hipparchus was put to death ; and Hippias, dethroned, solicited a foreign aid to replace him in the sovereignty. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, meditated at this time the conquest of Greece. Hippias took advantage of the views of an enemy against his native country, and Greece "'^s now involved in a war with Persia. SECTION XI. OF THE STATE OF THE PERSIAN EMPIRE, AND ITS HISTORY DOWN TO THE WAR WITH GREECE. 1. The first empire of the Assyrian? ended under Sardanapalus, and tliree monarchies arose upon its ruins, Nineveh, Babylon, and the kingdom of the Medes. 2. The history of Babylon and of Nineveh is very imperfectly known. The Medes, hitherto independent tribes, were united under a monarchy by Dejoces. His son Phraortes conquered Persia, but wa« C 2 90 ANCIENT HISTORY. himself vanquished by Nabuchodonosor 1., king of Assyria, and put to death. Nabuchodonosor II. led the Jews into captivity, took Je- rusalem and Tyro, and subdued Egypt. 3. The history of Cyrus is involved in great uncertainty ; nor is it possible to reconcile or apply to one man the different accounts given of him by Herodotus, Ctesias, and Xenophon. Succeeding his fitther Cambyses in the throne of rersia, and his uncle Cyaxares in the sovereignty of the Medes, he united these empires, vanquish- ed the Babylonians and Lydians, subjected the greatest part of the Lesser Asia, and matie himself master of Syria and Arabia. 4. He was succeeded by his son Cambyses, distinguished only as a tyrant and a madman. 5. After the death of Cambyses, Darius, the son of HystaspeSj »vas elected sovereign of Persia, a prince of great enterprise and ambition. Unfortunate in a rash expedition against the Scythians, he projected and achieved the conquest of India. Inflated with suc- cess, he now meditated an invasion of Greece, and cordially entered into the vieivs of Hippias, who sought by his means to regain the sovereignty of Athens. 6. Gorvemment^ Manners^ Lazvs^ tS'C of the Ancient ■ Pe sians. The government of Persia wasan absolute monarchy ; the will of the sov- ereign being subject to no control, and his person revered as sacred: yet the education bestowed by those monarchs on their children was calculated to inspire every valuable quality of a sovereign. The ancient Persians in general bestou-ed the utmost attention on the education of youth. Children at the age of live were committed ~ to the care of the magi, for the improvement of their mind and morals. They were trained at the same time to every manly exercise. The sacred books of the Zcndavcsta promised to every worthy parent the imputed merit and reward of all the good actions of his chil- dren. 7. Luxurious as they were in after times, the early Persians were distinguished for their temperance, bravery, and virtuous simplicity of manners. They were all trained to tlie u^e of arms, and display- ed great intrepidity in war. The custom of the women following their armies to the held, erroneously attributed to effeminacy, Wiis a remnant of barbarous manners. 8. The kingdom of Persia was divided into several provinces, each iind*»r a governor or satrap, who was accountable to the sovereign for the whole of his conduct. The prince, at stated times, visited his provinces in person, correcting all abuses, easing the burdens of the oppressed, nnd encouraging agriculture and the practice of the useful arts. The Uuvs of Persia were mild and equitable, and the utmost purity was observed in the administration of justice. ^ 9. The religion of the ancient Persians is of great antiquity. It is conjectured that there were two'^Zoroasters ; the first, the founder of this ancient religion, and of whom are recorded miracles and prophecies ; the second, a reformer of that religion, contemporary with Darius the son of Hystaspes. The Zenduvesla^ or sacred book, compiled by the former, was improved and purified by the latter, It has been lately translated into French by M. Anquetil, and appears to contain, amidst a mass of absurdity, some sublime truths, and ex- cellent precepts of morality. The theology of the Zendavesta is founded on the doctrine of two opposite principles, a good and an evil, Ormusd and Ahriman, eternal beings, who divide between them the govemmeut of the universe, and whose warfare must endure till ANCIENT HISTORY. 3i the end of 1 2,000 years, when the good will finally prevail over the evil. A separation will ensue of the votaries of each : the just shall be admitted to Lie immediate enjoyment of Paradise ; the wicked, after a Umited purification by fire, shall ultimately be allowed to par-, take in the blessings of eternity. Ormasd is to be adored through the medium of his greatest works, the sun, moon, and stars. ^iTie fire, the symbol of the sun, the air, the earth, the water, have their subordinate worshijj. The morality ot the Zendavcsta is best known ft-om its abridg- ment, the Sculder. complied about three centuries ago by the modem Guebres. i*c inculcates a ch-.t-itened species of epicurism; allowing a free indulgence of the passions, while consistent with the welfire of society. It prohibits equally intempenmcc and ascetic moj-tirica- tion. It recommends, as precepts of religion, the cultivation of the earth, the planting of fruit-trees, the destruction of noxious animals, the bringing water to a barren land. 10. Such were the ancient Persians. But their character had un- dergone a great change before the period of the war with Greece. At tliis time they were a degenerate and corrupted people. Athens had recently thrown off" the yoke of the Pisistratidae, and highly val- ued her new liberty. Sparta, in the ardour of patriotism, forgot all jealousy of her rival state, and cordially united in the defence of their common country. Tlie Persians, in this contest, had no other advantage than that of numbers, an unequal match for superior hero- ism and military sJcill. SECTION XI 1. THE WAR BETWEEN GREECE AND PERSIA. 1 . The ambition of Darius, the son of Hyslaspes, heightened by the passion of revenge, gave rise to the project ol that monarch for the invasion of Greece. The Athenians nad aided the people of Ionia in an attempt to throw olT the yoke of Persia, and burnt and ravaged Sardis, the capital of Lydia. Darius speedily reduced the lonians to submission, and then turned his arms against the Greeks, their allies ; the exile Hippias eagerly prompting tlie expedition. 2. After an insolent demand of submission, which the Greeks scorn- fully refused, Darius began a hostile attack both by sea and land. The first Persian fleet was wrecked in doubling the promontory of Athos; a second, of 600 sail, ravaged the Grecian islands; while an immense army landing in Euboea, poured down with impetuosity on Attica. The Athenians^ met them on the plain of Marathon, and, headed by Miltiades, defeated them with prodigious slaughter, 490 A. C. The loss of the Persians in this biittle Avas 6,300, and that of the Athenians 190. 3. The merit of Miltiades, signally displayed in this great battle, was repaid by his country with tlie most shocking ingratitude. Ac- cused of treason for an unsuccessful attack on tbe isle of Paros, his sentence of death was commuted into a fine of fifty talents ; which being unable to pay he \vas thrown into prison, and there died of his wounds. 4. The glory of ungrateful Athens wa5 yet nobly sustained in tlie Persian war by The'^istocles and Aristides. Darius dying was suc- eoeded by bis son Xerxes, the heir of his father's ambition, but not of ^2 ANCIENT HISTORY. his abilities. He anned, as is said, five millions of men, for the con- quest of Greece; 1,200 ships of war, and 3,000 ships of burden. Luadbg in Thessaly he proceeded, by rapid marches, to Thermop- ylae, a narrow defile on the Sinus Maliacm. The Athenians and .Spartans, aided only by the Thespian.^, Platasans, and Eginetes, de- termined to nithstand the invader, l.eonidas, king of Sparla, was chosen to defend this important pass with 6,000 men. Xerxes, after a weak attempt to corrupt him, imperionsly summoned him to lay down his ai-m^. Let hvn come^ g|ud Lconidas, and take them. For two days the Fei-sians in vain strove to force their way, and were repeat- edly repulsed with great slaughter. An unguarded track being at length discovered, the defence, of the pass became a fruitless attempt on tfie part of the Greeks. Leonidas, foreseeing certain destruction, commanded all to retire but 300 of his countrymen. His motive was to give the Persians a just idea of the spirit of that foe whom they had to encounter. He, with his briive Sjjartans, were all cut off to a man, 480 A. C. A monument, erected on the spot, bore tliis noble inscription, written by Simonides : O stranger I tell it at Lucedcemon^ that we died here in obedience to ficr lan's. b. The Fei-sians poured down upon Attica. The inhabitants of Athens, after conveying their women and children to the islands for security, betook themselves to their lleet, abandoning the city, which the Persians pillaged and burnt. The fleet of the Greeks, consisting of 380 sail, \\ <5 attacked in the straits of Sal.miis by that of the Per- sians, amounting to 1,200 ships. Xerxes himself beheld from an em- inence on the coast the total discomfiture of his squadron. He then tied with precipiUUion across the Hellespont. A second overthrow awaited his army by land : for Mardonius, at the head of 300,000 Persians, was totally defeated at Plat-j>a by the combined army of the Athenians and Laceda?jnonians, 479 A. C. On the same day the Greeks engaged and destroyed the remains of the Persian fleet at Mycale. I'Vom that day the ambitious schemes of Xerxes were al an end ; and his inglorious life was soon after terminated by assassina ticn. He w as succeeded in the throne of Persia by his son Artaxerxes Eongimanus, 464 A. C. 6. At this lime the national character of the Greeks was at its highest (devation. The common danger had annihilateil all partial jealousies between the states, and given them union as a nation. But with the cessation of danger those jealousie.s recommenced. Sparta meaidy opposed the rebuilding of deserted Athens. Athens, rising again into si)lendour, saw \\'\\h pleasure the depopulation of Sparta by an eartli- quake, ;uid hesitated to give her aid in that juncture of calamity against a rebellion of her slaves. 7. Cimon, the ion of MiUiades. after expelhng the Persians from Thnice, attacked and destroyed tneir deet on the coast of Pamphylia, and, landing his troops, gained a signal victory over their army the same day. Supplanted in the public favour by the arts of his rival Pericles, he suffered a temporary exile, to return only with higher popularity, and to signalize himself still more in the service of his ungrateful country. He attacked and totally destroyed the Persian fleet of 300 sail, and, landing in Cilicia, completed his triumph, by defeating 300,000 Persians under Megabyzes, 460 A. C. Artaxerxes now had the prudence to sue for peace, which was granted by the Greeks, on terms most honourable to the nation. They stipulated for the freedom of all the Grecian cities of Asia, and that the fleets of Persia should not approach their coasts from the Euxine to the ex- ANCIENT HISTORY. S3 boandary of Pamphylia. The last fifty years were the period of the highest glory of tne Greeks ; and they owed their prosperity entirely to their union. The peace with Persia, dissolving that con nexion, brought back the jealousies between the pcedominant states, the intestine disorders of each, and the national weakness. 8. The martial and the patriotic spirit began visibly to decline in Athens. An acquaintance with Asia^ and an importation of her wealth, introduced a relrsh for Asiatic manners and luxuries. With the Athenians, however, this luxurious spii'it was under the guidance of taste and genius. It led to the cultivation of the finer arts ; and the age of Pericles, though the national glory was in its wane, is the aera of the highest internal splendour and magnificence of Greece. SECTION XIII. AGE OF PERICLES. 1. Repubucs, equally with monarchies, are generally regulateJ by a single will : only, in the former there is a more frequent change of masters. Pericles ruled Athens with little less than arbitrai-j sway ; and Athens pretended at this time to the command of Greece She held the allied states in the most absolute sul)jcction, and lavished their subsidies, bestowed for the national defence, in magnificent buildings, games, and festivals, for her own citizens. The tributary states loudly complained, but durst not call this domineering republic to account ; and the war of Peloponnesus, dividing the nation into two great parties, bound the less cities to tho strictent subordination on the predominant powers. 2. TJie state of Corinth had been included in the last treaty be- tween Athens and Sparta. The Corinthians waging war with the people of Corcyra, an ancient colony of their own, both parties so- licited the aid of Athens, which took part with the latter : a measure which the Corinthians complained of, not only as an infraction of the treaty with Sparta, but ; " First unadorned. " And nobly plain, the manly Doric rose ; ♦' The Ionic then, with decent matron grace, " Her airy pillar heaved ; luxuriant last " The rich Corinthian spread her wanton MTeath." Tuomt>son''s Liberty^ Pari 2. 4. The Tuscan and the Composite orders are of Itahan origin. The Etruscan architecture appears to have been nearly allied to the Grecian, but to have possessed an inferior degree of elegance. The Trajan column at Rome is of this order; less remarkble for the beauty of its proportions than for the admirable sculpture which decorates it. The Composite order is what its name implies ; it shows that the Greeks had in the three original orders exhausted all the principles of grandeur and beauty ; and that it was not possible to frame a fourth, except by combining the former. 5. The Gothic architecture oifers no contradiction to these obser- vations. The effect which it produces cannot be altogether account- ed for from the rules of symmetry or harmony in the proportions be- twd^;n the several parts: but depends on a certain iciea of vastness, gloominess, and solemnity, which are powerful ingredients in the sublime. G. Sculpture Avas brought by the Greeks toj'as high perfection as architecture. The remains of Grecian sculptui'e are at this day the most perfect models of the art ; and tlic modern artists have no means of attaining to excellence so certain, as the study of those great mas- ter-pieces. 7. The excellence of the Greeks in sculpture may perhaps be accounted for chiefly from their having the human figure often before Uieir eyes quite naked, and in all its various attitudes, both in the palccstra, and in the public games. The antique statues have there- fore a grandeiu' united with perfect simplicity, because the attitude is ANCIENT HISTOHY. 43 not Ihe result of an artificial disposition of the figure, as in (he mod- em academies, but is nature unconstrained. IChus, in the Dying Gladiator, when we observe the relaxation of the muscles, and the 'visible failure of strength and life, we cannot doubt that nature was the sculptors immediate model of imitation.* 8. And this nature was in reality superior to what we now see in the ordinary race of men. Tlie constant practice of gymnastic ex- ercises gave a tincr contormation of body than what is now to be found in the vitiated pupils of modern efleminacy, the artificial children oi modern fashion. 9. A secondary cause of the eminence of the Greeks in the arts of design, was their theology, which furnished an ample exercise for the genius of the sculptor and painter. 10. We must speak with more diffidence of the ability of the Greeks in painting, than we do of their superiority in sculpture ; be- cause the existing specimens of the former are extremely rare, and the pieces which are preserved are probably not the most excellent. But in the w^ant of actual evidence we have every presumption that the Greeks had attained to equal perfection in the art of painting and in sculpture ; for if we lind the judgment given by ancient writers of their excellence in sculpture confirmed by the universal assent of the best critics among the moderns, we have every reason to presume an equal rectitude in the judgment which the same ancient writers have pronounced upon their paintings. If Pliny is right in his opinion of the merits of those statues which yet remain, the Venus of Praxiteles, and the Laocoon of Agesandci-,Polydorus, and Athenodorus, we have no reason to suppose his taste to be less iust when he celebrates ths merits, and criUcally characterizes the different mnnners of Zeuxis, Apelles, Parrhasius, Protogenes, and Timanthes, whose works have perished. 11. The paintings found :.i Hezculaneum, Pompeii,, the Sepul- chrum Nasonianum at Konie, w^cre probably the work of Greek artists ; for the Romans -^vere never eminent in any of the arts de- pendent en design. These paintings exhibit great knowledge ol proportions, and ofHho chiaro-cscuro ; but betray an ignorance of the rules of perspective. 12. The music of the ancients app.ears to have been very greatly inferior to that of the moderns.' 13. The pecuUar genius of the Greeks in the fine arts extended its effects to the rovolutiorjs of their states, and influenced their fate as a nation. SECTION XXI. OF THE GF.EEK POETS, 1. The Greeks were the first who reduced the athletic exercises to n system, and considered them as an object of general attention and importance. The FanathenKan, and afterwards the Olympic, the Pythian, Nemffian, and Isthmian games, were under the regulation of the laws. They contributed essentially to the improvement of the nation ; and, v/hile they cherished martial ardour, and promoted har- * Cresilas vulntralum dejicicntem ficit^ ex quo possil intelligi quantum 7t*.. The Stoics, proposing to themselves the same end, tranquillity of mind, took a nobler path to arrive at it. They endeavoured to raise themselves above all the passions and feelings of humanity. They believed all nature, and God himself, the soul of the umTei"se, ANCIENT HISTORY. 49 to be regulated by fixed and immutable la^vs. The human soul be- ing a portion of the Divinity, man cannot complain of being actuated by that necessity which actuates the Divinity himself. His pains and his pleasures are determined by the same laws which determme his existence. Virtue consists in accommodating the disposition of the mind to the immutable laws of nature ; vice in opposing those laws : vice therefore is folly, and virtue the only true wisdom. A beautiful picture of the Stoical philosophy is found in the Meditations of M. Aurelius Antoninus. (See Rladan's Translation.) 13. Epicurus taught that man's supremr? happiness consisted in pleasure. He limited the term, so as to make it mean only the prac- tice of virtue. But if pleasure is allowed to be the object, every man will draw it from those sources which he finds can best supply it. It might have been the pleasure of Epicurus to be chaste and temperate. We are told that it was so. But others find their pleas- ure in intemperance and luxury, and such was the taste of his princi- pal followers. Epicurus held that the Deity was indiflerent to all the actions of man. His followers therefore had no other counsellor than their own conscience, and no other guide than the instinctive desire of their own happiness. 14. The Greek philosophy, on the v.'hole, affords little more than a picture of the imbecility and caprice of the human mind. Its teachers, instead of experiment and observation, satisfied themselves ivith constructing theories ; and these wanting fact for their basis, have only served to perplex the understanding, and retard equally the advancement of sound morality and the progress of useful knowl- edge. SECTION XXIV. THE HISTORY OF ROxME. 1. In the delineation of ancient history, Rome, after the conquest of Greece, becomes the leading object of attention. The history of this empire, in its progress to universal dominion, and afterwards in its decline and fall, involves a collateral account of all the other na- tions of antiquity, which in those periods are deserving of our con- sideration. 2. Though we cannot determine the aera when Italy was first pfMj- pled, yet we have every reason to believe that it was inhabited by a refined and cultivated nation, many ages bpfore the Roman name was known. These were the Etruscans, of whom there exist at this day monuments in the fine arts, which prove them to have been a splendid, luxurious, and highly polished people. — Their alphabet, resembling the Phoenician, disposes us to believe them of eastern origin. The Roman historians mention them as a powerful and opu- lent nation long before the origin of Rome ; and Dionysius of Hali- carnassus deduces most of the religious rites of tne Rortians from Etruria. 3. The rest of Italy was divided among a number of independent tribes or nation?, comparatively in a rude and uncultivated state ; Umbrians, Ligurians, Sabines, Veientes, Latins, /Equi, Volsci, &c. Latium, a territory of fifty miles in length and sixteen in breadth, contained forty-seven independent cities or states. 4. The origin of the city and state of Rome is involved in great uncertainty. Dionysius supposes two cities of that name to nave &0 ANCiKNT ai5T()Uy, existed, and to have perished before the foundation of the city built by Romulus. The vulgar account of the latter is, that ft waa founded 752 A. C. by a troop of shepherds or banditti, who peo- pled their new city by carrying off the wives and daughters of tneir neighbours, the Sabines. 5. Tiie great outUnes of the first constitution of the Roman govern- ment, though generally attributed to the political abilities of Romu- lus, seem to have a natural foundation in the usages of barbarous nations. Other institutions bear the traces of pohtical skill and posi- tive enactment. 6. Romulus is said to have divided his people into three tribe?, and each tribe into ten curke. The lands he distributed into three por- tions; one for the support of the government, another for the main- tenance of religion, and the third for the use of the Roman citizens, which he divided into equal portions of two acres to each citizen. He instituted a senate of 100 members (afterv,'an!s increased to 200,) who deliberated on and prepared all public measures for the assembly of the people, in whom was veited the right of determination. The partrician families were the descendants of those centum patres {hun- dred Jathcrs). 7. The king had the nomination of the senators, the privilege of assembling the people, and a right of appeal in all questions of im- portance. He had the command of the army, and the oflice oi pmv- tifex maxhnus {high priest). He had, as a guard, twelve iictors, and a troop of horsemen named celercs, or equitcs^ afterwards the distinct order of Roman knights. These regulations are of positive institu- tion : others arose naturally from the state of society. 8. The putrid potcstas {patcrncd autJwniy) is of the latter nature, be- ing common to all barbarous tribes. The limitation of all arts to the ji-glaves arose from the constant employment of the citizens in warfare '■^ or in agriculture. 9. The connexion of patron and client was an admirable institu' tion, which at once united the citizens, and maintained a useful sub- ordination. 10. The Sabines were the most formidable enemy of the early Komans ; and a wise policy united for a while the two nations into one state. After the death of Romulus, who reigned thirty-seven years, Numa, a Sabine, was elected king. Bis disposition was pious and pacific, and he endeavoured to give his people the same charac- ter. He pretended to divine inspii-ation, to give the greater authori- ty to his laws, which in themselves were excellent. He multiplied the national gods, built temples, and instituted different classes of pi'iests, Jlamines, ••••alii, &c., and a variety of religious ceremonies. The tlamines ofhciated each in the service of a particular deity ; the salii guarded the sacred bucklers ; the vestals cherished the sacred fire; the augurs and aruspices divined future events from the flight of birds, and the entrails of victims. The temple of Janus was open in war, and shut during peace. Numa reformed the calendar, regu- lating the year at twelve lunar months, and 'distinguished the days for civil occupation {fasti) from those dedicated to religious rest (nefasti). Agriculture was la^vful on the latter, as a duty of religion. N uma reigned forty-three years. 11. Tuitus Hostiiius, the third king of Rome, of warlike disposi- Uon, subdued the Albans, Fidcnates, and other neighbouring states. The Sabines, now disunited from the Romans, v/ere among the most povperful of their enemies. TuUus reigned thirty three yea«. ANCIENT HISTOllY. 5] 12. Aiicus Martius, tha grandson of Numa, was elected king on the death ot'TuUus. He inherited the piety and virtues of his grand- father, and joined to these the talents ol" a warrior. Me increased tiie population of Rome, by naturalizing some of the conquered states; enlarged and forliued the city, ^nd built the port of Ostia at tlie mouth of the Tiber. He reigned gloriously twenty-four years. 13. Tarquinius Priscus, a citizen of Corinth, popular trom his wealth and liberality, was elected to the vacant tlirone. He enlarg- ed the senate by 100 new members from the plebeian lamilies, /ja^jx'f minorum gentium [the fathers of the less families). This body consisted now of 30u, at which numoer it remained for some centuries. .Tar- quin was victorious in liis wars, and adornc-d and improved the cily with works of utility and magnificence. Such were the circus or hippodrome, the walls of hewn stone ; the capitol ; the cloacae, those immense common sewers, which lead to the belief that the new Ixome had been built on the ruins of an ancient city of greater mag- nitude. Tarquinius was assassinated in the thirty-eighth year of his reign, 14. Servius Tullius, who had married the daughter of Tarquinius, secured, by his own address and the intrigues of his mother-in-law, his election to the vacant throne. He. courted popularity by acts of munificence ; discharging the debts of the poor, dividing among the citizens his patrimonial lands, improving the city with useful edifices, and extending its boundaries. The new arrangement which he in- troduced in the division of tha Roman citizens is a proof of much po- litical ability, and merits attention, as on it depended many of tlip. revolutions of the republic. 15. From the time' that the Romans had admitted the Albans and Sabines to the rights of citizens, the urban and rustic tribes were composed of those threa nations. Each tribe being divided into ten ciirue, and every curia liaving an equal vote in the comitia., as each individual had in his tribe, all questions were decided by the majority of suffrages. There was no pre-eminence between the curioi^ and the order in Avhich they gave their votes was determined by lot. This was a reasonable constitution, so long as the Ibrtunes of the citizens were nearly on a par ; but, vvhen riches came to be une- qually divided, it was obvious that much inconvenience must have arisen from this equal partition of power, as the rich could easily, by bribery, command the suflrages of the poor. Besides, all the taxes had hitherto been levied by the head, without any regard to the in- equality of fortunes. These obvious defect;^ furnished to Servius a just pretext for an entire change of system. His plan was, to remove the poorer citizens from all share of the government, while the burdens attending its support should fall solely on the rich. 16. All the citizens were required, under a heavy penalty, to de- clare upon oath their names, dwellings, number of their children, and amount of their fortune. After this numeration or census., Ser- vius divided the whole citizens, without distinction, into tour tribes, named, flrom the quarters where they dv/elt, the Palatine., Suburran, Collatine, and Esquilhie. Beside this local division, Servius distribut- fd the whole people into six classes, and each class into several centuries or portions of citizens so called, not as actually consisting of a hundred, but as being obliged to furnish and maintain 100 men in time of war. In the tirst class, which consisted of the richest citi- zens, or those who were worth at least 100 minm (about 300Z. ster- ling), there were no less than ninety-eight centuries. In the seconvJ 55 ANCIENT HISTORY. class (those worth 75 mincK) there were twenty-two centuries. In the third (those worth 50 miniR) were t^venty centuries. In the fourth (those worth 25 mince) twenty-two centuries. In the fifth (those worth 12 niinui) thirty centuries. The sixth, the most nu- merous of the whole, comprehending all the poorer citizens, furnish- ed only one century. Thus the whole Roman people were divided into 193 centuries, or portions of citizens, so called, as furnishing each a hundred soldiers. The sixth class was declared exempt from taxes. The other classes, according to the number of centuries of which they consisted, were rated for the public burdens at so much for each century. 17. The poor had no reason to complain of this arrangement; but something ^vas wanting to compensate the rich for the burdens to which they were subjected. For this purpose Servius enacted, that henceforth the comitia should give their votes by centuries ; the first class, consisting of ninety-eight centuries, always voting first. Thus, though the whole people were called to the comitia^ and all seemed to have an equal suffrage, yet in reality the richer classes determin- ed everj'^ qiiestion, the suflrage of the poor being merely nominal ; for as the %vhole people formed 193centuries, and the first and second classes contained 120 of these, if they were unanimous, which gen- erally happened in questions »f importance, a maiority was secured. Thus, in the cornitin centuriata {assemblies in is:lnc]i the people voted by centuries)^ in which the chief magistrates were elected, peace and war decreed, and all other important business discussed, the richer classes of the citizens had the sole authority, the votes of the poor being of no avail. And such was the ingenuity of this policy, that all were pleased with it : the rich paid their taxes with cheerlulness, as the price of theii^ower; and the poor gladly exchanged authority for immunities. The census, performed every five years, was closed by a liiMriuii^ or expiatory sacrifice ; and hence that period of time was called a lustrum. 18. Servius was assassinated, after a reign of forty-four years, by his infamous daughter Tullia, married to Tarquinius, the grandson of Priscus, who thus paved the way for his own elevation to the throne. The government of Tarquin, surnamed the proud, was sys- tematically tyrannical. He ingratiated himself \vith the lower orders, to abase by their means the power of the higher; but, insolent, ra- pacious, and cruel, he finally disgusted all ranks of his subjects. A rape committed by his son Sextus on Lucretia, the wife of CoUatinus, who, unable to survive her dishonour, stabbed herself in presence of her husband and kindred, roused their vengeance, and procured, by their influence with their countrymen, the expulsion of the tyrant, and the utter abolition of the regal dignity at Rome, 509 A. C. Rejlections on the Government and State of Rome during the period of the kings. 19. The whole structure of the constitution of the Romans under the monarchy has been by most authors erroneously attributed ex- clusively to the abilities of Romulus, a youth of eighteen, the leader of a troop of shepherds or banditti. This chimerical idea we owe to Dionysius of Halicarnassus. The truth is, the Roman government, like almost every other, was the gradual result of circumstances ; the fruit of time, and of political emergency. 20. The constitution of the Roman senate has occasioned consider* ANCIENT HISTORY. 63 abie research, and is not free from obscurity. It is probable that the kings had the sole right of naming the senators, that the consuls suc- ceeded them in this right, and aftenvards, when these magistrates found too much occupation from the frequent wars in which the state was engaged, that privilege devolved on the censors. The senators were at tirst always chosen from the body of the patricians, but after- wards the plebeians acquired an equal title to that dignity. In tlie early periods of the republic the people could not be assembled but by the senate's authority ; nor were the plebiscita {decrees of the peo- ple) of any weight till confirmed by their decree. Hence the early constitution of the republic was rather aristocratical than demccrat- ical. Fiom this extensive power of the senate the first diminution was made by the creation of the tribunes of the people ; and other retrenchments successively took place, till the people acquired at length the predominant power in the state. Yet the senate, even after every usurpation on their authority, continued to have, in many points, a supremacy. They regulated all matters regarding religion; had the custody of the public treasure ; superintended the conduct of all magistrates ; gave audience to ambassadors ; decided on the fate of vanquished nations; disposed of the governments of the provinces; and took cognizance, by appeal, in all crimes against the state. In great emergencies tney appointed a dictator, with absolute au-thority. 21. At the period of'^the abolition of the regal government the ter- ritory of the Romans was extremely limited. The only use which they made of their victories was to naturalize the inhabitants of some of the conquered states, and so increase their population. Thus, their strength being always superior to their enterprise, they laid a solid foundation for the future extension of their empire. 22. In the accounts given by historians of the strength of the ar- mies, both of the Romans in those early times, and of the neighbour- ing states, their enemies, we have every reason to believe uiere is much exaggeration. The territories from which those armies were furnished were incapable of supplying them. 23. In the continual wars in which the republic was engaged the Romans were most commonly the aggressoi-s. The causes of this seem to have been the ambition of tiie consuls to distinguish their short administration by some splendid enterprise, and the wish of the senate to give the people occupation, to prevent intestine disquiets. 24. The regal government subsisted 244 years, and in that time only seven kings reigned, several of whom died a violent death. These circumstances throw doubt on th^ authenticity of this period of the Roman history. It is allowed that there were no historians for the five first centuries after the building of Rome. The first is Fabius Pictor, who lived during the second Punic war. Livy says (hat almost all the ancient records were destroyed when Rome was ttiken by the Gauls. SECTION XXV. ROME UNDER THE CONSULS. 1. The regal government being abolished, it was agreed to commit the supreme authority to two magistrates, who should be annually elected by the people from the patrician order. To these they gave the names of consuks ; " a modest title, (says Vertot), v/hich gave to E2 M ANCIENT HISTORY. understand that they were rather the counsellors of the republic than its sovereigns; and that the only point -which they ought to have in view was its preservation and glory." But, in fact, their authority diifered scarcely in any thing from that of the kings. They had the supreme administration of justice, the disposal of the public money, the power of convoking the senate and assembling the peo- ple, raising armies, naming all the officers, and the right of making peace and v.ar. The only difference %vas, that their autliority was limited to a year. 2. The first consuls -were Brutus and Collatinus (the husband of Lucretia). Tarquin was at this time in Etruria, where he got two of the most powerful cities, Vcii and Tavquinii, to espouse his cause. He had likewise his partisans at Rome, and a plot was formed to open the gates to receive him. It was detected, and Brutus had the mortification to find his two sons in the number of the conspira- tors. He condemned them to be beheaded in his presence. Exuit pairein iit consulein agerct ; orhusquc vivcre^ quam puhlicce. vindicim deesse malidt. Val. Max. Fie ceased t) he a father^ that he migf^t execute the duties erf a consul; and chose to live childless rather than to neglect the public punishment of a crime. 3. The consul V^alerius, successful in an engagement with the ex- iled Tarquin, was the first Roman who enjoyed the splendid reward of a triumph. Arrogant from his recent honoiKS, his popularity be- gan to decline ; and, in a view of recovering it, he proposed the' law, termed from him the V^alerian, which " permitted any citizen w^ho had been condcmi^.ed to death by a magistrate, or even to banish- ment or scourging, to appeal to the people, and required their con- fccnt previously to the execution of the sentence." This law gave the tirst blow to the aristocracy in the constitution of the Roman re- public^ 4. For thirteen years after the expulsion of Tarquin, the Romans were involved in continual wars on his account. Of these the most remarkable was the war with the Etrurians, under Porsena ; a war fertile in exploits of romantic heroism. 5. Soon after this period began those domestic disorders, which continued long to embroil the republic. Great complaints had arisen among the poorer classes of the citizens, both on account of tiie ine- quality of property, from the partial distribution of the conquered lands, which the higher ranks generally contrived to engross to them- selves, and from the harsh policy by which it was in the power of creditors to reduce to a state of slavery their insolvent debtors. As there v*'as no legal restrain^on usury, the poor, when once reduced to the necessity of contracting debts, were left entirely at the mercy of their creditors. These grievances, felt in common by a large pro- portion of the citizens, excited much discontent, which, from com- plaints long disregarded, grew at length JBto a spirit of determined resistance. The wars required new levies, and the plebeians posi- tively refused to enrol their names, unless the senate should put an end to their oppression, by decreeing at once an abolition of all the debts due by tne poor to the rich. The emergency was critical, as the enem.y was at the gates of Rome. The consuls found their au- thority ot no avail ; for the Valerian law had given any citizen con- demned by them a right of appeal to the people. An extraordinaiy measure was necessary, and a dictator was created for the first time ; a magistrate ^vho, for the period of six montlis, was invested with absolute and unlimited authority. Lartius, nominated to this high ANCIENT HISTORY. 65 office, ^rmed tlie twenty-four lictqrs with axe?, summoned the whole people to the comitia, and calling over the names, under the penalty of death to any citizen who should dare to murmur, enrolled all sucn as he judged most fit for the service of their country. This expedi- ent became henceforward a frequent and certain resource in allsea- sons of public danger. 6. The death of Tarquin removed one check against the tyranny of the higher over the lower orders ; lor the latter had hitherto kept alive a salutary apprehension, that, in case of extreme oppression, they would be under the necessity of calling back their kbg. Wheo this fear was at an end, the domineering spirit of the patricians, ex- ceeduig every bound both of gocxl poficy and humanity, drove tlie people at length to deeds of mutiny and re.be!lion. An alarm fron the enemy gave full weight to their pov/er, and made the chief magia trates of the state solemnly engage their honour to procure a re* dress of their grievtoces, as soon as the public danger was at an end* The promise, either from a failure of will or of power, was not fuU filled, and this violation of faith drove the people at length to ex • tremities. Bound by their military oath not to desert their standards, they carried them along with them ; and the whole army, in military array, withdrew from Rome, and deliberately encamped on theMons Sacer, at three miles distance from the city ; and here they were soon {'oined by the greater part of the people. This resolute procedure lad its desired effect. The senate deputed ten persons, the most re- spectable of their order, with plenary powers ; and these, seeing no medium of- compromise, granted to the people all their demands. The debts were solemnly abolished ; and, for the security of their privileges in future, they were allowed the right of choosing magis- trates of their own order, ivho should have the power of opposing uith eiiiict every mccisure which they should judge pi'ejudicial to their interests. These were the tribunes oi the people, chosen annu- ally ; at first five in number, and afterwards increase^ 'o ten. With- out guards or tribunal, and having no seat in f^c senate-house, they had yet the power, by a single -ueto, to p'-!.3pend or annul the decrees of the senate and the senjences of t-'ie consuls. Their persons were declared sacred, but their authority was confined to the limits of a mile from the city. The tribunes demanded and obtained two magis- trates to assist them, who were termed sediles, from the charge com- mitted to them of the bwiifhngs of the city. 7. From this sera (260 years from the foundation of Rome) we date the commencement of the popular constitution^ of the Roman repub- lic: a change operated by the unwise policy of the patricians them- selves, who, by yielding to just complain te, and humanely redressing flagrant abuses, might have' easily anticipated every ground of dis» satisfaction. The first wish of the people was net power, but relief from tyranny and oppression ; and if this hud been readily granted them by abolishing the debte. or at least by repressing enormoua usury, and putting an end to tne inhuman right of corporal punish- ment and the bondage of debtors, the people would have cheerfully returned to order and submission, and the Roman constitution would have long remained aristocratical, as we have seen it was at the com- mencement of the consular government. But the plebeians having now obtained magistrates of their own order with those high powers, v;ii shall see it become the object of those magistrates to increase their authority by continual demands and bold encroachments. The people, regarding them as the champions of their rights, are delight- 66 ANCIENT HISTORY. ed to find themselves gradually approaching to a level with the higher order; and, no longer bounding their desires to ease and se- curitv, are soon equally influenced by ambition as their superiors. VVhife this people, borne down by injustice, seek no more than the redress of real grievances, we sympathize with their feelings, and applaud their spirited exertions. But when they had at length com- passed the end which they wished, obtained ease and security, nay, power which they had neither sought nor expected ; when we see them, after this, increasing in their demands, assuming that arrogance which they justly blamed in their superiors, goaded on by the am- biteon of their leaders to tyrannize in their turn; we view with proper discrimination the love of liberty and its extreme licentious- ness ; and treat with just detestation the authors of those pemicious measures, which embroiled the state in eniless faction, and paved the way for the total loss of that liberty, of which this deluded people knew nO't the value when they actually possessed it. SECTION XXVI. THE LAW OF VOLERO. 1. Tire disorders of the commonwealth, appeased by the creation of the tribunes, were but for a time suspended. It was necessary that the popular magistrates should make an experiment of their powers. In an assembly of the people one of the consuls, interrupt- ed by a tribune, rashly said, that if the tribunes had called that assem bly,he would not have interrupted them. This was a concession on the part of the consuls, that the tribunes had the pov/er of assem- bling the comitia, which, from tnat moment, they assumed as their acknowledged right. It was a consequence of this right, that the affairs of the coniiA.ehse of that of the highest orhe war, and Carthage at last obtained a peace on the humiliating terms of abandoning to the Romans all her possessions in Sicily, ttie pay- ment of 3,200 talents of silver, the restitution of all prisoners without ranso.n, and a solemn engagement never to make war against Syra- cuse or her allies. The island of Sicily was now declared a Roman province, though Syracuse maintained its independent government, A. U. C, 511,and A. C. 241. 4. The peace between Rome and Carthage was of tvventy-thieo years' duration. The latter power was rfcruiting its strength, and meditated to revenge its losses and disgrace. The second Punic war began on the part of the Carthaginians, who besieged Saguntum, a city of Spain, in alliance with the Romans. The young Hiumiual ANCIEiVr HISTORY. €3 took Sagiintiim after a siege of seven ir.onths ; the desperate inhabi tiintg setting tire to the town, and peri^huig amidst iho iJames. Han- nibal now iormsd the bold design of carrying the war into Italy. He provided against every diHiculty, gained to his interest a part of the Gallic tribes, passed tlio Pyrenees, and tinally the Alps,* in a toil- some march of live months and a half from his leaving Carthagena, and arrived in Italy with 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse. 5. hi the first engagement the Romans were defeated. They also lo&t two oHier important battles at Trebia, and the lake Thr.tsyme- nus. In the latter of these the consul Flaminius was killed, and his army cut to pieces. Hannibal advanced to Cannje in Apulia, where (be Romans opposed him with their whole force. A memorable defeat ensued, in %vhich 40.000 Romans were left dead upon the field, and among these the consul iEniilius, and almost the whole body of the knights. If Hannibal had taken advantage of this great victory, by instantly attacking Rome, the fate of the rep.iblic was inevitable ; but he deliberatetl, and the occasion was lost. The Komans concentrated all their strength. Even the slaves armed in the common cause, and victory once more attended the standards of the republic. Philip, king of Macedon, joined his forces to the Carthag.niiins, but, defeated oy Levinus, speedily withdrew his as- sistance. Hannibal retreated before the brave Marcellus. Syracuse had now taken part with Carthage, and thus paved the wayibr the loss of its own liberty. Marcellus besieged the city, which was long defended by the inventive genius of Archimedes; but was taken ia the third year by es.-alade in the night. This event put an end to the kingdom of Syracuse, which now became a part of the Rom;ai province of Sicily, A. U. C. 512, A. C. 212. C. While the war in Italy was prosperously conducted by the great Fabius, who, by constantly avoiding a general engagement, found the true method of weakening his enemy, the younger Scipio accomplished the entire reduction of Spain. Asdrubal was sent into Italy to the aid of his brother Hannibal, but was defeated by the consal Claudius, and slain in battle. Scipio, triumphant in Spain, passed over into Africa, and carried havoc antl devastation to the gates of Carthai^e. Alarmed for the fate of their empire the Car- thaginians hastily recalled Hannibal from Italy, 'ihe battle of Ze:na decided the fate of the war, by the utter defeat of the Cartha- ginians. They entreated a peace, which the Romans gave on these conditions : that the Cacthagininis should abandon Sp;un, Sicily, an I all tlie islands; surrender all their prisoners, give up the whole cf th^ir tleet except ten gailies, pay 10,000 talents, and, in future, undertake no war without consent of the Romans, A. U. C 552, A. C. 202. 7. Every thing now concurred to swell the pride of the conquer- ors, and to extend their dominion. A war with Philip of Macedon was terminated by Ids dcieat ; and his son Demetrius was sent to Rome as a hostage for the payment of a heavy tribute imposed on the vanquished. A war with Antiochus, king of Syria, ended in hi^ ceding to the Romans the whole of the Lesser Asia. But these spli;ndid conquests, while they enlarged the empire, were fatal to its * The passage of Hannibal over the Alps has been lately illustrated, in a most learned and ingenious essay, by Mr. Whitaker (the celebrated historian of Manchesttr, and vindicator of Queen Mary), who has, with great acuteness, traced every step of the Carthaginian general, from his crossing the Rhone to his final arrival in Italy. 64 ANCIENT HISTORY. virtues, and subversive of the pure and venerable simplicity of ancient times. 8. The third Punic war began A. U. C. 605, A. C. 149, and ende in the ruin of Carthage. An unsuccesslul war with the Numidiang had reduced the Carthaginians to great weakness, and the Romans meanly laid hold of that opportunity to invade At'rica. Conscious ol their utter inability to resist this formidable power, the Carthaginians offered every submission, and consented even to acknowledge them- selves the subjects of Home. The llomans demanded 300 hostages, for the strict performance of every condition that should be enjoined by the senate. The hostages were given, and the condition requir- ed was, that Carthage itself should be razed to its foundation. Des- pair gave courage to this miserable people, and they determined to die in the defence of their native city. But the noble effort was in vain. Carthage was taken by storm, its inhabitants massacred, and the city burnt to the ground, A. U. C. 607, A. C. 146. 9. The same year was signalized by the entire reduction of Greece under the dominion of the Romans. This wa.s the aera of the dawn of luxury and taste at Rome, the natural fruit of foreign wealth, and an acquaintance with foreign manners. In the unequal distribution of this imported wealth, the vices to which it gave rise, the corruption and venality of which it became the instrument, we see the remoter causes of those fatal disorders to which the republic X>wed its dissolution. SECTION XXXIU. THE GRACCHI, AND THE CORRUPTION OF THE COMMON- WEALTH. 1. At this period arose Tiberius and Cains Gracchus, two noble youths, whose zeal to reform the growing corruptions of the state, precipitated them at length into measures destructive of all govern- ment and social order. Tiberius, the elder of the brothers, urged the people to assert by force tho revival of an ancient law, for limit- ing property in land, and thus abridging the overgrown estates of the patricians. A tumult was the consequence, in which Tiberius, with 300 of his friends, were killed in the forum. This fatal example did not deter his brother, Caius Gracchus, from pursuing a similar career of zeal or of ambition. After some successful experiments ot his pow er, while in the office of tribune, he directed his scrutiny into the cor- ruptions of the senate, and prevailed in depriving that body of its con stitutional control over all the inferior magistrates of the state. I-.m- S loving, like his brother, the dangerous engine of tumultuary force, e fell a victim to it himself; with 3,000 of his partisans, who were slaughtered in the streets of Rome. The tumults attending the se- dition of the Gracchi were the prelude to those civil disorders which now followed in quick succession to the end of the commonwealth. 2. The circumstances amending the war with Jugurtha gave deci- sive proof of the corruption of the Roman manners. Jugurtha, grandson of Masinissa, sought to usurp the crown of Numidia by destroying his cousins, Hiempsal and Adherbal, the sons of trie last king. He murdered the elder ot the brothers; and the younger applying for aid to Rome, Jugurtha bribed the senate, who declaped him innocent of all culpable act or design, and decreed to him the ANCIENT HISTORY. 6ft sovereignty of half the kingdom. This operated only as an incentive to his cri-.ninal ambition. He declared open war again.*t his cousin, besieged him m his capital of Cirta, and tinally puc him to death. I'o avert a threatened war Jiigurtha went in perion to Rome, pleaded his own canse in the senate, and once more by bribery secured his acquittal from all charge of criminality. A perseverance, however, in a similar train of conduct tinally drew on him the ven- geance of the Romans ; and being l^trayed into their hands l)y his own father-in-law, he was brought m chains to Rome, to grace the triumph of the consul Marius, contined to a dungeon, and starved to death, A. U. C. 651, A. C. 103. 3. The ambition of the allied states of Italy to attain the rights of citizenship produced the .'=ocial war, which ended in a conces- sion of those rights to such of the confederates as should return peaceably to their allegiance. This war with the allies was a pre- lude to that which followed between Rome and her own citizens. Sylla and Marius, rivals, and thence enemies, were at this time the leaders of the republic. Sylla, commanding in a war against Mithri- dates, was superseded, and recalled from Asia. He refused to obey the mandate, and found his army well disposed to support him. " Let us march to Rome," said they, with one voice; "lead us on to avenge the cause of oppressed liberty." Sylla accordingly led them on, and they entered Rome sword in hand. Marius and his partisans tied with precipitation from the city, and Sylla ruled for a white triumphant. But the taction of his rival soon recovered strength. Marius returning to Italy, and joining his forces to those of Ciana, his zealous p;irtiz:ia, laid sieg:-, to Rome, and,' while Sylla was engaged in the Mithridatic war, compelled the city to absolute submission. After a horrible massacre of all whom they esteemed iheir enemies, Marius and Cinna proclaimed themselves consuls, without the formality of an election ; but Marius died a few days after in a tit of debauch. 4. After a victorious campaign in Asia, Sylla returned to Italy, and, joined by Cethe^us, Verres, and the young Pompey, gave battle to the party of his enemies, and entirely defeated them. His entry into Rome was signalized by a dreadful massacre, and a proscription, which hail tor its object the extermination of every enemy whom he had in Italy. t'Jected dictator for an unlimited period, he was now '.vithout a rival in authority, and absolute m;ister of the government, which, of course, was no longer a republic. In the exercise of his dominion he deserved more praise than in the means of acquiring it. He restored the senate to its judicial authority, regulated t'le election to all the important othces of stite, and enacted n»anv excellent laws against oppression and the abu^e of power. Finally, he gave demonstration, if not of a pure conscience, at least of a magnanimous intrepidity of character, by voluntarily resigning all command, retiring to the condition of a private citizen, and offering publicly to give an account of his con- duct. He died within a short time after his resignation. He was certainly a man of great strength of mind, and had some of the qual- ities of a heroic character; but he lived in evil times, when it wiis impossible at once to be great and to be virtuous. 5. The death of Sylla renewed the civil war. Lepidus, a man of no abilities, aspired to succeed him in power ; and Pompey, with superior talents, cherished the same ambition. While the latter was employed in the reduction of the revolted provinces of Asia, the F3 66 ANCIENT HISTORY. conspiracy of Catiline threatened tlie entire destruction of Rome. It was extinguished by the provident zeal and active patriotism of the consul Cicero. Catiline and his chief accomplices were attacked in the field, and defeated by Antonius. The traitor made a desperate defence, and died a better death than his crimes had merited. 6. Julius Cassar now rose into public notice. Sylla dreaded his abilities and ambition, and had gumbered him among the proscribed. "• There is many a Marias," said he, *•' in the person of that young man." He had learned prudence from the danger of his situation, and tacitly courted popularity, without that show of eaterprise which gives alarm to a rival. While Pompey and Crassus contended for the command of the republic, Caesar, who knew that, by attach- ing himself to either rival, he infallibly made the other his enemy, showed the reach of his talents by" reconciling them, and thus acquiring the friendship of both. From favo ir to their mutual friend they agreed to a partition of power ; and thus was formed the first triumvirate. Caesar was elected consul. He increased his popularity by a division of lands among the poorer citizens, and strengthened his interest with Pompey by giving him his daughter in marriage. He had the command of four legions, and the government of trans- alpine Gaul and Illyria. 7. The military glory of the republic, and the reputation of Caesar, were nobly sustained in Gaul. In the first year of his govern- ment he subdued the Helvetii, who, leaving their own country, had attempted to settle themselves in the bettor regions of the Koman province. He totally defeated the Germans umier Ariovistus, who had attempted a similar invasion. The Belgas, the Nervii, the Celtic Gauls, the Suevi, Menapii, and other warlike nations, were all successively brought under subjection. In the fourth year of his government he transported his army into Britain. Landing at Peal, he was opposed by the natives with equal courage and military skill. He gained, however, several advantages, and, binding the Britons to submission, withdrew into Gaul on the approach of winter. He returned in the following summer with a grea'er force, and, prose- cuting his victories, reduced a considerable portion of the island under the Roman dominion, A. C. 54. But the pressure of affairs in Italy suspended for a tinic the progress of the Koman arms in Britain. 8. C«sar dreaded the abilities of Cicoro, who had opposed him in his views of ambition. By the machinations of his partizans, while he was absent in Gaul, he procured the banishment of Cicero, and the confiscation of his estates, on the pretence of illegal meas- ures pursued in the suppression of the conspiracy of Catiline. During an exile of sixteen months in (jreece, Cicero gave way to a tlespondoncy of mind utterly unworthy of the philosopher. Pom- f>sy bad abandoned him, and this ungrateful desertion bore most leavily upon his mind. In the wane of his reputation Pompey soon became desirous to prop his own sinking fortunes by the abilities of Cicero, and eagerly promoted his recal from exile. The death of Crassus, in an expedition against the Parthians, now dissolved the triumvirate ; and Caesar and Pompey, whose union had no other bond than interest, began each to conceive separately the view of undivid- ed dominion. ANCIENT HISTORY 67 SECTION XXXIV PROGRESS OF THE CIVIL WARS. SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. FALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 1. TiTE ambition of Caesar and of Pompey had now evidently the £ame object ; and it seemed to be the only question, in those degen- erate times, to which of these aspiring leaders the republic should surrender its liberties. The term of CcEsar's government was near expiring. To secure himself against a deprivation of power, he procured a proposal to be made in the senate by one of his partizans, which wore the appearance of great moderation, namely, that Caesar and Pompey should either both continue in their govern- ments, or both be deprived of them, as they were equally capable of endangering the public liberty by an abuse of power. The mo- tion passed, and Caesar immediately offered to resign, on condition that his rival should do so ; but Pompey rejected the accomniodation. The term of his government had yet several years' duration, and he suspected the proposal to be a snare laid for him by Cassar. He resolved to maintain his right by force of arms, and a civil war wa3 the necessary consequence. The consuls and a great part of the senate were the friends of Pompey. Cassar had on his side a victo- rious army, consisting of ten legions, and the body of the Roman cit- izens, whom he had won by his liberality. Mark Antony and Cas- sius, at that time tribunes of the people, left Ro.ne, and repaired to Caesar's camp. 2. The senate, apprehensive of his designs, pronounced a decree, branding with the crime of parricide any commander who should dare to pass the Rubicon (the boundary between Italy and the Gauls) with a single cohort,^ without their pemiission. Caesar infringed the prohibition, and marched straight to Rome. — Pompey, to whom the senate committed the defence of the state, had no army. He quitted Rome, followed by the consuls and a pwrt of the • senate, and endeavoured hastily to levy troops over all Italy and Greece ; while Cassar triumphantly entered the city amidst the acclamations of the people, seized the public trersury, and possessed himself of the supreme authority without opposition. Having se- cured the capital of the empire, he set out to take the field against lier enemies. The lieutebants of Pompey had possession of Spain. Caesar marched thither, and subdued the whole country in the space of forty days. He returned victorious to Rome, where, in his absence, he had been nominated dictator. In the succeeding elec- tion of magistrates he was chosen consul, and xvas thus invested, by a double title, with the right of acting in the name of the republic. Pompey had by this time raised a numerous army, and Cat judfrncnl and knowledge of huri-aii natDre, l,i;t 1 y no means c< iiiniciidalile ior his style and manner ut' i\ 1 i;ing. i le ;;ii<>( i? singnlarily of exprcssioii, an antiquated phr;:seoiogy. and a j c'lilaiit hreviiy and sentcntiouMiLS-;. \v!:ich has nothing of tliO digrJly if il.e historical slyie. 9. Caesar has much more jnirity f f style, and more correctness tnd sinii'licity of expression; l;u; iiis Cuv.mentaries, uanling that amp.iitude oi' diction and tulness of illustration which is essential to history, are rather of the nature of annals. lU. In all the requisites of a histnian, Livv stands unrivalled among the Remans; possessing crnsumnuiie jitlgmotil i:i il.e selec- tion of ficts, perspicuity of arrangement, ^ag;;( i'i;s n Ik'cliii:, » i.nd views of policy, w,th the most coniouB, pane, and eicqii^iit ex; res- sion. It has been objected, that his speeciies derrgate ticm tlie truth of history : but this was a prevalent taste with tlie ancient writers; and as those speeches are always known to be the ccni{ o- sition of the historian, the reader is not misled. As to the siyie of l.ivy, though in general excellent, we scmetimes perceive in it, and most commonly in the speeches, an afiectatien of the pointed sen- tences (the vibrantes .mitaitioki:) and obsciniiy f i" the decliUrners, which evinces the pernicious intiuence acquired by these teachers at Rome sjnce the time oi Cicero and Sallusi. 11. In the decline of Roman literature Tacitus is a historian of po common merit. He succe'sfully cultivated the method pointc' on by Sallust, of applying pliilosophy to history, in this I ' dis plays great knowled[:c"(4' iMinian nature, and penetrates, with lin- gular acuteness, inlo the secret springs of poiicy, and the jnotives of actions. But his fault is, tiiat he is too much of a poiilician, drawhig his character after the model oi" his own n-ind; ever as- signing actions and events to preconceived schem- and design, and allowing too little for the operatiou of accidenta-' causes, which often have the greatest inlluence on human affiii---- U'acitus, in his style, professedly imitated that of Sallust; adfplitig all the ancient ptiia- seology, as well as the new idioms jjitroduced into the Roman lan- guage by that writer. To his bre>ity and abruptness he added n;os« of the fiiults of the declaiming- school. His expression, therefore, though extremely forcible, is oi>en enigmatically obscure; the worst property that style can possess. 12. Among the eminent Roman poets (after the dramatic^ Lucre- tius cleserves first to be noticed. He has great inequality, being at some times verbose, rugged, and pei-ploxed, and at other:? display itig all the elegance as well as the tire of poetj-y. This may be in great part attributed to his subject. Philosophical disquisition is unsuitable to poetry. It demands a dry precision of thouglit and expressjan, rejecting all excursive fancy and ornament of diction. That luxuri- ance of imagery, which is the soul of poetry, is raving and imper- tinence when iipplied to philosophy. 13. Catullus, the contemporary of Lucretius, is the earliest of the Roman lyric poets. His Epigrams are pointed and satirical, but too licentious; his Idylla tender, natural, and picturesque. He llouiished in the age of Julius Caesar. 14. la the succeeding age of Augustus, poetry «\ttained to its Ijjgh- G 1^ 74 ANCIENT FIISTORY. eM elovi.tion among the Romans. Virgil, Horace, Ovid,' and Tibul- liis, \V(M'L' a!i contem.porarie?. Virgil is allowed the saaio rank among tiie lioman poetp, as HomtT among the Greek. !f I Ininer exec! Virj;;ii in the sublinio, the Isitlcr surpasses the ibniier in tke tender and cloijant. The transccnrlent merits of Homer are suilieil !)y oc- casional defects. Virgil is the model of a correct taste. The dif- ference of manner in the Bucolics, the Georgic^, and the .^^neid, shou-s that Virgil was capable of excelling in various departments of poelrv ; and such is the opinion of Martial, who atlirms that IjC could'have surpassed Horace in lyric poetry, and Varins in ti'agodv. 15. Hor.ico excels as a lyric poet, a satirist, and a crilic. In his odes there is more variety than in those of cither Anacrcon or Pinilar. He can :dternately display the sublimity of the latter, and the jocose vein of the former. His Satires have' that chnracterisiic slyness and obliquity of censure, associated with humour and pleas- antry, which strongly distinguish them from the stern and cutting sarcasm of Juvenal. As a critic, his rules are taken cliielly Irom Aristotle ; but they contain the elements of a just taste in ,poetjcal composition, and therefore do not admit of variation.^ The Satires of Juvenal, compared \vith those of Hoi-acc, arc deficient in liire- tiousnessand urbanity ; but they are superior in acuteness of tlicuglit, and in manly vigor of sentiment. 16. in variety of talent, williout supreme excellence, and in ease and elegance ot' numbers, no llonsan poet has exceeded Ovid. In iiis Metamorphoses, particularly, with great fancy, we have speci- mens of the pathetic, the descriptive, the eloquent, and even the sublime. His Elegies h;^vc more of nature and of real passion, thun those of either Tibnllus or Propertius. His amatory verses luwe much tenderness, but are too frequently loose, auil even grossly Hcemious. 17. Thore is nothing more elegant than the compositions of 'I'i- bullus, noth'wg more delicate than the turn of his expression ; ])\:l it is not the language of passion. The sentiments are tender, bi;t their power of attV,ting the heart is weakened by the visible care and solicitude of the poet for rclined phraseology and polished num- bers; nor is there either niuch fancy or variety of thought. A siii* gle elegy exhibits the sentiments of the whole. IS. Martial is the last of tha^ Poman poets ivho can be mentioned with high approbation. His Epigr.\nis, independent of their art •xnd in^fenuity, are valuable, as throwing light upon the Roman manners. He possesses, above every otlier poet, a naivete of expression, which is chiefly observable in his serious epigrams. He is well char- acterized by the younger Pliny. Iiigc.niosus. acti\ ct qui in scriljcndod sa'.is huberct clfcllts, n'ec candoris iiliniis. - Epist. 3. 21. His zvritings are ingenious ond'ucnU ; they possess humnur aiid satire, and an less candain. 'l9. Luxuriance of ornament, and the fondness for jioints, and b'd- liancy of thought and expression, are certain indications of the ce- ciine of good taste. Those characters strongly mark the Laiia poets of the succeeding ages. Lucan iias some scattered examples of genuine poetic imagery, and Pcrsius some happy_ strokes of aiii- nia tod satire ; but they scarcely compensate the affected cbscin-ity of one, and the bombast of the other. The succeeding poets, Statins, Silius Italicus, .and Valerius Fla.ccus, in their attempts at the ninst difficult of all species of poetry the epic, have only more signally displayed the inferiority of thei ' genius, and the manifest decay of the art. ANCIENT HISTORY. 76 SECTION XXXVII. STATE OF PHILOSOPHY AMONG THE ROMANS. 1. TiiK Roman?, in the earlier periods cA' tlie republic, hiul little leisure , to i)e.-tcw on the cukiviition of the sciences, nr.d ii;iil no iiieo oi' |>iiiio*ophicaI specnlalion. ^ It w;',.* not till the end of the sixth century Irom the l>niiding ol' the. city, 'and in the interval between the wuv with I'erseus and the third Punic war, that philosopliy made il-i (ir.-l .ippearance al nmie. A O'w loarnod AchcEans, banished (rnui tiioii- ciiiintry, liar! sr-tdod in various parts of Italy, and apply- nig tiionis,?!v(>s to the ruiiivadcn r!' iitoraiure and the education of yoiil]-!, (iiilii^ed a iaslc lor tliose sludii's hitherto unknown to the Kouiaus. Tiic elder citizens regarded those pursuits with an unfa- voaralde eye. .Jeainns of the introduction of Ibreign manners with foroij^ir sludies, tiie senate banished the Greek philosophers from Komi', iiut an Athenian embassy, arriving soon after, brought t!iithcrCarnL>adesand Crilolaus, who revived the taste for the Greek pnilosoplu - an;l it'ft behind them many able disciples, who publicly iaught their doctrines. 2. It was natural that those systems should be most generally adopted which were must suitable to the national character. While the nuin'^ers of the Romans had a thiclure of ancient severity, the stoical system j)reva!led. Scipio, Laeliiis, and the younger Cato rauk among ils cl;iel' partisan*. :'.. The p!iiioso[)hy of Aristotle was little known in Rome till the age ot Cicero. At that lime Cratippus and Tyrannion taught his system with great reputation. Yet Cicero complains that the peri- ))alelic p>hiioso[)hy was little ruiderstood a.t Rome; and therefore, he sent his sou to study its doctrines in the schools of Athens. 4. Luculhi*, vhose slay in Greece gave him an opportunity ot Iieiug accjuainted \vith ail the dillerent sects, disseminated, on his n-turn to Rome, a very general taste lor philosophy. His patronage of learned men, and his liheraiity in allowing his library to be open for the public use, contributed greatly to the promotion of litera- ture. ."). The Old and New Academy had each its partisans. Of the former, wliich may be termed the Stoico-Platonic, the most illus- trious disciples were Marcus Brutus and Terentius Varro. To the piiilosop.hical talents of Brutus, and the universal erudition of Varro, iiie writings of Cicero bear ample testimonj". Cicero himself must in; deemed the most eminent ot ail the Roman philosophers. He is cla--ed among the principal supporters of the New Academy ; though it seems to have been his purpose to elucidate the Greek j.liilosophy in general, rather than to rank himself among the disci- pk'S oi" any j;articular sect. (5. Thecullivation of physics, or natural philosophy, seeras to have been little attended to either by the Greeks or Romans. Un- . less agriculture should be classed under this description, we know of no Koman authors, except Varro and the elder Pliny, who seem to have bestowed much attention on the operations of nature. The works of Varro h;u c perished, except a few fragments. The Nat- ural flistory of l^hny is a most valuable store-house of the knowl- ftdge of the ancients in physics, economics, and the arts and sciences. 76 ANCIENT HISTORY. It is to be regretted that the style is unsuitable to the matter, bring too I'uMjuentlv Horid, declanialory, and oliscure. 7. 'i'lu- pli'iiosopliy ol" b^ucurus was unknown in the early age* of llu.' lioinan conmionweaitii. It was introduced with luxury, and kept pace in lis advancement with the corruplion ol" manners. Cin- neas havin» discoursed on the tenets of Epicurus at the table oi Pyrrhus, l-abricius exciaimeti, "May the enemies of Rome ever entertain such principles!" Yet these principles were, in a short tiirie trom that period, too current among the ciiizens of Rome. SECTION XXXVIII. OF THE PUBLIC AND TRIVATE MANNERS OF THE ROMANS. 1. The manners of the Romans in the early ages of the republic were so ditlluent iVom those of the latter tmies, that one should be led to suppose some very extraonlinary causes to have co-operated to produce so remarkable a change ; yet the transition is easy to be accounted for. A spirit of temperance, of trugaiity, and prol>ity, is the characteristic of every infant establishment. A virtuous simpli- city of manners, and a rigour of n)iiitary discipline, paved the way for the extension of the Roman arms, and for their prodigious con- quests. These conquest introduced wealth, luxury, and corruption. 2. hi the early times of the rvipublic the patricians, when in the country, iorgot tiie distinction of ranks, and labo'jred in the cultiva- tion of their fields, like the meanest p!ebei;uis. VVe'have the exam- ples of Cincinnatus, Cnrius, the elder Cato, and Scipio Africanus. The town was visited only every ninth tl.iy, which was the market day. hi those times of virtuous simplicity, says Sallust, IJoini mtli- ti'tqiie boni mores colebaiu'ur. Duabns arUhus^ miducia iti bello^ ubi pax eveiierat, a:quUute, scqae rcinque pnbtimtn ciirabayU. Uood inaimem were cuUivatcd both in peace and war. By tii-o incans^ valour tn itar, and equity in peace, they supported themselves and the coinmotiwealth. But when the Romans had extended their domhiion, in consequence of this very discipline and these manners, they imported with the wealth of the conquered nations their tastes, thefr manners, and thci" vices. 3. The Romans hail no natural taste in tiie jhie arts. On the con- quest of Greece an immense tield opened at once to their eyes, -^mi the maslci-pieces ol' art poured in upon them in abundance. But they could not appreciate their excellences. The Roman luxury, as tar 'as the arts were concerned, was in general dis]>!ayed in an awkward, heavy, and tasteless magnilicence. 4. The puMic and private life of the Romans v.-iil be best eluci- Jnted by a short ;iccount of the manner in wbicli the day was pass- ed at Rome, both, by the higher and lovv'er ranks of the {)eople. By a part oi the citi/.ens t!ie morning hours were spent in \i-rdiig liie temples, by otliei's in atlendi.Jg the levees ol" the gieal. The Menlcs (^clients) waited on their patroni (patrons) ; tiie patricians visited ne anotnei', or paid their compiiments to toe leaders of the re]>ub!ic. Wopularity was always the lirst olject ol" ambiti expressly assigns their extensive conquests to that cause alone. il is the discipline of an army that makes a multitude act as one man. li likewise increases the courage of troops; for each individual con- tides in the steady co-operation of Ids fellows. 2.'Frcm the constant practice of athletic exercises,Uhe Romans were inured from inlancy to hardiness and iatigue, and 'bred to that species of lifr, which a soldier leads in the most active campaign in the tielil. 3. The levies were made annually, by ihe tribes called out, and divided into their respective number of centuries; each century pre- peniing by rotr.lion, as many soldiers as there were legions intended to be raised; and the tribunes of the several legions taking their turn G2 78 ANCIENT HISTOIIY. Ify rotation in the selection of" the men presented by the centuries (Sect. XXIV, § 16.) The number of soldiers in the legion was vaii- ous ;it (litYe-retit periods, (rem 3,000 to 10,000 ur.d i 1 ,000. \ '4. Among the ancient nations there were usually two dilT.^roni Bi r.mgemeiits of the troops in order of battle. One the phalanx, or close ai'rangement in a rectangular form, intersected otUj uy great divisions ; a disposition commonly used by the Greeks, and by most of the barbaroiis nations. The other t!ie quincunx or chequer, consisting of small companies or platoons, disposed in thret; straight lines, with alternate spaces between the companies equal U> the space occupied by e;ich company. In the hrst line were t!io luiitati, in the second the jiriricipcs^ and in the llurd the truiru. On tiie tlanks of the lirst line were the cavalry, in dttaohed companies; and in front of the line were the velites, or light-armed troops, who usually began with a skirmishing attack, and tiien were withdrawn, lo make way tor the main body to come i!>lo action. The advantages of this arrangement we-re, that the line of battle could be three times formed with fresh troops, and tiiat it was mors adaptet' than any other for rapid changes of movement. In tiie Roman legion, the arms of the hastalimvA principes were the pilum or heavy jave- lin, and the sword and bnckler; and of tlie ^/■iam, the long' spear, with the sword and buckler. 5. Notwithstanding these advantages the quincunx went into disuse toward the end of the republic, and from that lime various arrange- ments of the legion were used according to circnmstances. The Roman tactics are snpposed to liaye b-^,en at their greatest pitch of excellence duiing the Punic wars. Hannibal was a great master cf the science of tactics ; and the Romans profited by the experience of his ability. The battle of Canna;, as doscrihed by l-'olybius, affords signal evidence of tlie great talents of the Carlhagiui ni gen- eral. The descriptiovi of that battle has been misrepresented by Folard ; but it is accural^ly explained in the JMemoires Mititoircs of M. Guischardt. If the qmacimx disposition had been kept by the Rom ui army in that engagement, the event mizht have been very dilT.M-ent; tor it wovild have disappointed the e tie '^t of an artlid manjeuvre plarmed by llanr.ibal, on observing his enemy's army arranged in the unusual order of the phalanx. G. The art of iatrenchment was carried to perfection by the Ro- mans, particularly by Julias Caesar. With tj0,000 men he defended himself in his intrenchments before Alexia, while the lines of cir cumvallation were attacked by 2 10,000 Gauls, and the lines oi'counter- vallation by 80,000, without elFect. These intrenchinp.nts consi.-.\oJ of a ditch from nine to tifteen^eet in depth and width, fenced on the inside by the mound of excavated earth, and on the outside by btrong stakes with pointed branches. 7. In besieging a town several camps were formed round (he place, joined to one another by lines of circumvallaMOii and coun- tcrvallation. A mound of earth {agger) was rai^etl, beginning by a gentle slope from one of the camps, and gradually rising in elevation as it approached the city. The front, wdiere the workmen were employed, was defended by a curtain of hides tlxed on strong posts. On this mound the engines of attack, catapdue. and balistue^ were advanced, (ill they playea on the very spot which the besiegers wish- ed to assail. The (uiapiiUiM discharged heavy stones, the bulijta arrows. The same machines weve used by the besieged for annoy- ing the enemy. When the engines on the terrace had driven the ANCIENT HISTORY. V bfisjegcil from the walls, the battering-ram {aries) was then brought up uiuier a pent-house {tcstudo) ; and, if it once reached the wall, was generally decisive of the tiitc of the town. 1 he main object ci llie besieged was therefore to prevent its approach by every jc wer of annoyance. Stones, darts, and combustible matters were crntiimally launcfied upon the assailants ; and sometimes a mine was dug lV( m the city to scoop away the terrace and all its engines. Thr^se arts of attack and delVnce of fortitied places were in general use among the nations of antiquity, and continued down to modern times, till the mvention of" gunpowder. 8. The naval military art was utterly unknown among the Ho- mans till the tii-st fvmic war. i A Carthaginian ga.ljy was the lirst model of a vessel of war. In the space of two months they equipped a fleet of 100 galiies of five banks of oars, and 20 of tlirce Latiks. The structure of" those gailies, and the mode of arranging t|^ low- ers, may be learnec! from the ancient scuiptuics and medals. The combatants at sea assailed at a distance with javelins, missile c( m- bustibles, and sometimes with atutpulice and butisHe; l>nt the serious attack was made in boirding, when tlic vessels were grappled L j means of a crane let down from the i>i-ow. 9. In the times of the cni| ire, the Konians mrintained their distanl conquests, not only by tlieir armies, out by their Heets. The; ships wore moored in the large rivers and bays ; and both the legions and the deets generally preserved a fixed station. SECTION XL. REFLECTIONS ARISING FROM A \1EW OF THE ROMAN HIS TORY DURING THE COMMONW EAJ/IH. 1. The history of all naiions evinces, that there is an inseparable connexion between the morals of a people and 'Ik ir political pros- perity. But we have no stronger don;on-tiaiit n of this truth tl.an the annals of the Roman commonwealth. T(» .iniit to rcjMibiics alone the necessity of virtue as a prhiciple, is a chimerical notion, fraught with dangerous consequences, (^uul legrx sine )iiorihi(s zanit' prrjlci- mil ? {laws withmd morals axail notliing) is a sentir.ient < qe.ally a} jili- cable to all gfivernments ; and nc^political system, l.owe\ or excellent its rahiir, can possess any measure of duration, Avill.out th;it i < wer- iul cejnent, virtue, in the'principles and maiy^rs of the people. (Sect. XIX, §4.) ^ 2. The love of our country, and the desire for its rafirnal lilerly, are noble and virtuous feelings; and their pr. x^aciicf is ever a lest of the integrity of the national morals. Eut i;i. U:v\i\ h;,s been um re tMoslittited than the won! liberty. In a corruplod j ooj-ie the cry for ibcjty is heard the loudest among the most proliigate of iho rcnimu- nily. With these its meaning has no relation to latrictism ; it im- ports no more than tho aversion to restraint ; and the jiersourd char- acter of the ttemagogue, and tlie private morals of bis disciples, are alu-ays sultlcient lo uninask the counterfeit. The s| irit o|" patriot- ism and a general con-uption of manners cannot possibiy be coexis- tent in the same age and imiiun. 3. On the other hand, while the morals of a people are pure, no public misfortune is irroiri.jvable, ixor any political siniation so des- perate, that hope may not remain of a liwourable change. In such Mtuations the spirit of patriotism pervading all ranks of the state will GO ANClKNTHiSTOia'. soon rpf'mcr tho national prosperity. The history of the Roman peo pie, a(»:I that of the (irecian slates, in various crises, both of hononr uaii ol disgrace, alTords proofs alike oi'tliis position and of its convers«». 4. The national character of t!ie Ivomans seems to have under- gone its most renru'kablc c!)a.nge lor the worse iVom tiie time cl'liie di'struclion oi' their rival, Carthage*; Salhist asMgns the cause. Jme i\irtIuto-ii}cj)i iL'lclaiii.— — uielns ho-slit'ts in hoiiisariibus chntaUm ritiitebat. Sp.(1 obi illii furmido inc.ntihns decessil, scilicci ca qiue aec-diului res aiiumt, l:t.-ici\ ia a'q-.ie superbiu invaserc. Before ihe, dcslri'clioii qfCnrlhagi\—m — iftej'cur I'f their caciuy kept lite pc.jpls in the practice (f virtue ; but xi-lien liic rejTraiiU 'fj'eur ceased to injiuence their conduct^ t key abandoned thein' selves to pnifiigacif and arrogance^ the nsnui amcoinitants (yf prosperity. b. In the liffet ages ot" the commonwealth, avarice and ainljilion, unrcstiaiiied by moral principle, wero tiie chief motives of the Ko- min con j^jFits. It was suthcient re;iSon for going to war, tliat a r.oun^' offered a tempting object lo the r.ipacity and ambilion of the military leaders. The conquest of Italy paved the way for the reduction of foreign nations. Hence the Romans imported, with their ("wealth, the manners,^ the luxuries, and the vires of the nations which ' they subdued. I The generals returned not as formerly, after a suc- cessful war, t6 the labours of the lield, and to a life of temperance and industry. They were now the governors of kingdoms and prov- inces; and at the period of their command abroad, disdaining the restraints of a sunject, tliey could be satistied with nothing less^ than sovereignty at home. The armies, debauched by the plunder of kingdoms, w"ere completely disposed to support them in all their schemes of ambition; and me populace, v, on by corruption, always took part with tho chief who best couki pay for tiieir lavonr ana support. J'orce or bribery overnded every election ; and the in- habitants of distant states, now holding the right of citizens, were brought to Rome, at the command of the demagogue, to influence any popular contest, and turn tne scale in his favour. In a govern- ment thus irretrievably destroyed by the decay of those springs which supported it, it was of httle consecjuence by what particular tyrant, usurper, or demagogue, iis ruin was iinally accomplished. 6. From ^i consideration of the rise and iidl of the principal states of antiquity, it has been a commonly received opinion, that the con- stitution of empires has, like theiinman body, u period of growth, ' matui-ity, decline, and extinction. But arguments from anahgy are fxtrenii'ly deceitful, and particularly so when the analogy is \vom physical to moral ti utlf^ The hum'm body is, from its fibric, natu- raijy subjoct to decay, and is penietually undei-going a change from tiaii. Its organs, at first weWc, attain gradually tiieir perfect strength, and thenc?, by a similar grada.tion, proceed to decay and dissolution. This is an immutable bnvot its nature. But the springs of the body politic do not necessarily undergo a perpetual change from time. It is not regularly progi-essive from weakness to sliwigth, and (hence to decay and dissolution; nor is it under tlie inlha^ico of any principle of corruption which m ly not be checked, and ewn cradicaled, by wholesome laws. Thus the beginning of the rc.r- ruption of Sparta is attributed to Lysander's breach of the institu- tions of Lycurgus, in introducing gold inK> the treasury o*" the sti.te instead of its iron money. But \vas tJiis a necessary, or an unavoid- able measure ? Perhaps a single vote in the senate decreed its adcp- tion, and therefore anothei- suffrage might have prevented, or long postponed, the downlid oi the commonwealth. The Ronian repub- ANCIENT HISTORY. 81 lie owed its dissolution to the extension of its dominions. If it had been n capita! crime for nny Roman citizen to liave proposed to carry the arms of tiie I'epublic beyond the limits of Italy, its consti- li'tion tnij2;ht have been preserved ("or many ages Ijeyond the period <.)'' its actual duration. "• Accustom your mmd," said Phocion to /'.rislias, "• to discern, iii the tlite of nations, that recompense which the great Author ot' nature has annexed to the practice of virtue. No state ever ceased to be prosperous, but in consequence ot having departed from those institutions to which she owed her prosperity.'^ History indeed has shown that all states and empires have had their f)eriod of duration; but history, instructing us in the canses which lave produced their decline and fall, inculcates alsc^^^^alutary lesson, that nations are in general the masters of thei^^^^^stin^ and that they may, and most certainly ought to, aspire^^B^BtaliJp 7. It was a great dcsidewliun in ancient politics, that a go\^^»tykit shouht possess within itself the power of periodical reforniWTO.; a capacity of checking ^nj overgrowth of^ authority in any of its branches, and of winding up the machine, or bringing back the con- stitution to its tirst principles. To the want of such a power in the states of antiquity (which they inefi'ectually endeavoured to supply by such partial contrivances as the ostracism and petalism) we may certainly ascribe, in no small degree, the decay of those states ; ibr in their governments, when the balance was once destroyed, the evil grew worse from day to day, and admitted no remedy but a revolution, or entire change of the system. The British constitu- tion possesses this inestimable advantage over all the governments both of ancient and modern tinj||, with the shigle exception of the government of the United State^of America. Besides the perpetua. |K>wer of reform vested in parliament, the constitution may be puri- fied of every abuse, and brought back to its tirst principles, at the commencement of every reign. But of this we shall afterwards treat in its proper place. SECTION XLl. ROME UNDER THE EMPERORS. 1. The battle of'Actium ISec^^Kie fatg of the commonwealth, and Octavius, now named Au^Buis, was^master of the Roman empire. He possessed complefi^^he Sii^Rty of discerning what character was best fitted for ga^M*(hj^fl'ections of the people whom he governed, and the versf^J^^W temper and genius to as- sume it. His virtues, though tiie result of policy, not of nature, were '^^rlainly tiivourable to the happiness, and even to the liberties of l.i> su! jects. The fate of Caesar warned him of the insecurity of a UM.rped dominion; and therelbre, while he studiously imitated the on paging manners and clemency of his great predecessor, he affect- "il a much higher degree of moderation, and respect for the rights of '.h ' pfople. ^ t The temple of Janus\was shut, which nad been open for 188 \ p irs, since the beginning of the second Punic w ar ; an event pro- (lii.-,t)ve of univei'sal joy. "The Romans fsays Condillac) now be- lieved themselves a iiee people, since they had no longer to fight for ih 4r liberty." The sovereign kept up this delusion, by maintaining the ancient forms of the republican constitution, in the election ol 11 82 ANCIENT lilSTOllY. magistrates, &c., though they were nothing more than iorms. He even pretenflad to consider his oini function as merely a temporary administration for the public henelit. hivested with the con*ul;tte and ceasor.siiip, he went throu^ii tiic i-e^ular I'orms of periodical eleciion to thosj olHces, and at tha end of the seventh y ;ar oi" hia govanrnont aciu;dly annouiiced (o the senate his resignation of all aulhority". The coiiseqnance was a general supplication of Ihe ^5('n- ate and people, ihat he would not abandon the republic, wliicli lie Lad saved from destruction. '• Since it must be so," said he, " 1 accept the ef-'.p'rp forten >ears, unless the puMic Iranquillily shall, before the expiration ol thai lime, permit me to enjoy retirement, wliirh I p;'.S3ig^dv long for." 11 j repeated the satne mockery five times ill llia|^^H|<)f ids govenim3nt, accepting tha administration sonu- %un^^^PP^ind sometimes only for live years. ^■^^^W^much to the credit of AugusJ.us, that in the government of^l^empire he reposed unlimited conlSJence in MeCcEuas, a most able minisler, w!io hail sincerely at heart^'e interest and happiness of the people. By his excellent counsels ail public iiflfairs were con- ducted, and the most salutary laws enacted for tlie remedy of public - grievances, and even the correction of the morals of the people. 'i'j his, patronage litenilure and the ai'ts owed their encouragement and ailvancement. JJy his inlluence and wise instructions Augustus assumed those virtues to which his iieart was a stranger, iuul which, in their tendency to the happiness of his subjoci;-: were equally elfictual as if they iiad been the genuine fruits of his nature. 4. Un the death of jlarcelius, the nephew and son-in-law of Au- gustus, and a prince of great hopes. 23 A. C, the emperor bestowed Sis ciiief fivpur on Marcus Agrij^v g'^l'^g him his daughter .Julia. the widow of iVIarceilus, in mairiage. Agrippa had considerable military tdents, and AvassuccesstuI in accomplishing the rcdiiclioii of h'p.iin, and subduing the revolted provinces of Asia. Augustus as- eocitited Agrippa with himself in the olfice of censor, and would prob- ably have given him a share of the empire, if his deatn had not occasioned a new arrangement. .1 ulia now took for her third husbaiid Tibenus, who became the son-in-law of the emperor by a double tie, for Augustus had previously married his mother Livii. This artful woma'a, removing allot the impeiinl family v/ho stood betwixt lier and the oijject of her an^^jn, thus made room lor the succes- sion of her son ribeiiuj^ who^^^L p;#'t,bent all his attention to gain Die fivour anti confij^cc of .W^it/is. On the return of Tiberius from a successful cai^^^u a|j^A|*the Germans, the people were mdila to solicit the er^HFoyi^^Wlijr on him the government of the provinces and the cornii^wWpBe armies. Augustus now gniduaily »vilh draw himself from the cares of empire, lie died soon after at t\(i|a. iti Campania, in the (7i3th year of his, age, and the 44lIi of his imperial reigiT, A. U. C. 7137, and A. D. 14. 5. .A considerable part of the lustra thrown on the reign of Augus- lu-i is ouiag to the splendid, colouring besluwed on his chanictc.r by the poets and other authors who adorned his court, and repaiil his ilivours by theiradul.itioa. Other sovereigns of much higher merili liuve been lass fortunate in obtaiiiing the applause of posterity. • — Illacryniabiles Urijueiitiir, iuiiolique, loii^a iSocle, caiLut quia vatc sHcro. HoR. Car. Lib. IV, 9. Unlameaied and luikmnvn they sink iato oblivion, because they have no utiwired bard to celebrate their praise. . ^^ ANCIENT fllSTORY. 83 One great event distiuguished the reign of Augnstus, the birth of Dur Ldi-il anil Savioui- Jksls Chhist, v.iiich, according to liie beni auilio.-ities, happened A. U. C. 734, an;! lour years before tae vulgai :!ate of the chri!-tian aer.i.* . b. Aiigiistus had n;iini(r]'il)crin3/hi^ heir, together with las niolh- c" Livia ; and had substituted to iheni Dn-sus, ihe son oi' Tijcrius. :v^^ Gerinmicus. Tiberius was! vicious, debauclied, and crueij; ve> ih2 ver> dread of his character operated in securing an easy si:c- r.js-ion to the empire. An embassy from the senate entreated l.ini to nccopt th3 governmjn!:, which he modestly allected to decline, but sufi'jred himself to be won by their supplications. Nolwitlisiand- i.i;^ th;s„^ symptom^ of moderation, it soon appeared that the power enjoyed by his precL^cessor was too limited ibr the ambiiion of 'L"i- bei'ias. It was not enough that the substance of the republic was gone; the very appearance of it was now to be demolished. TiiP people were. n"o longer assembled, and the magistrates of the stiUe were supplied by the imperial will. G. Germ micus, the nephew of Tiberius, became the oljjcct of iiis jealousy, from the glory which he had acqifn-ed by his mj.itary ex- ploits in Germany, and "l!)e high favour in u hich he stood with the Ko-nan people, fie was recalled in the midst of his successes, ancl despatched to the oriental provinces, where he soon after died; and it - was generally believed that he \vas poisoned by the emperor's com- mand. 7. ^lius Sejanus, prsefect of the pnEforian guards, the favourite counsellor of Tiberius, and the obsequious minister of his tyranny and c. lines, conceived the daring project of a revolution, \vl:ich should place himself on the tiirone, by the extermination ol" the whole imperial f imiiy. Drusus, the son of the emperor, was destroyed by poison. Agrippina, the widow of Gcrmanicus, with her elder son, was banished; and the younger son was coniined in prison. Tibe- rius \vas persuaded by Sejanus, under the pretence of the discovery oi" plots for his assiissination, to retire from Home to the Isle of Caprea;, and devolve, the government upon his fiithiul ir.inister. But while Sejanus, thus fir successful, meditated the last step to the accomplishment of his wishes, by the murder of bis sovereign, his treason was detected; and the emperor despatched his mandate to the senate, which was followed by his immediate sentence and execution. The public indignation was notsatistied with his death, the populace tore his body to pixes, and thing it into the Tiber. 8. Tiheiius now became ulteriy negligent of the cares of govern- ment, an I tiie imperial power was displayed only in public execu- tions, couiiscations, and scenes of^ cruelty and rapine. At leiifflh the tyrant tailing sickfwas strangled m his bed by Macro, the pranect cf the praitorian guards, in tlie 78th year of his age, and the 23d of lu3 reign. 9. In the 18th year of Tiberius, our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, \he divine author of our religion, suflered death upon the cr£>ss, a sacri.ice and propitiation tor tlie sins of mankind, A. D. 'So. 10. Tiberius had nomiaated for las heir,!' Caligula the son of Ger- manicrs, hi^ grandson by adoption; and had joined uith him I'iiie* lin- tlie son ofDrusus, hi^ grandson by blood. 'J'ne foi-mer enjoyed, on liii faiiier'a account, tiie favour of the people ; and the seniile, to ■"'' See Dr. Play fair's Systeai of Clirouology, p. 49, 50, a work of great «s€arch aud acc:iracy, and by fnr tl-^ best on that subject. 84 ANCIKINT HISTOKY. f;ra(ify them, set nside the rigjlit of his colleague, and conferred on lim llie empire undivided. 'Viie commencement of his reign was signali/ed by a few ;>cts of clemency, and even good policy. He restored the'privileges of the comitia, and abolished arbitraiy prose- cutions for crimes of 8tate. But,' tyrannical and cruel by nature, he substituted military exccntien for legal punishment. The provinces were loaded with the most oi)pressive taxes, and daily confiscations filled the imj.ei'ial cotiers. '1 he follies and absurdities of Caligula were equal to his viceSj and it is hard to say whether he was most the object of hatred or ot contempt to Ins subjects. He perished by assassination ;in the fourth year of his reign, the twenty-ninth of his age. A. U. C. 794, A. J). 42. 11. Claudius, the uncle of Caligula, was saluted emperor by the praetorian guards, who had been the murderers of his nephew. He was the son of Octavia, the sister of Augustus; a man of weak in- tellects, and of no education. His short reign Avas marked by an enieri>rise of importance. He undertook the reduction of Britain, and after visiting the island in person, left his generals, Piautius and V^espasian, to prosecute a war which was carried on forseveial years with various success. The Silures or inhabitants of South VVaies, under their king Caractacus (Caradoc), made a brave resistance, but were finally defeated; and Caractacus was led captive to Kcme, where the magnanimity of his demeanour procured him respect and admiration. 12. The ci\il administration of Claudius was weak and contempt- ible. He was the slave even of his domestics, and the dupe of hi« in- famous wives Messalina and Agrippina. The ibrmei, abandc^ed to the most shameful profligacy, was at length but to death on suspi- cion of treasonable designs. The lather, who was the daughter oi Germanicus, bent her utmost endeavours to secure the succession (o the empire to her son Domitius Oenobardus, and employed every engine of vice and inhumanity to remove the obstacles to the accom- plishment of her wishes. Having at length prevailed on Claudius to adopt her son, and confer on him the title of Ca?sar, to the exclusion of bis own son Britannicus, she now made room for the immediate elevation of Domitius, by poisoning her husband. Claudius wiiP put to death in the 15th year of his reign, and the God of his age. SECTION XLII. 1. The son of Agrippina assumed the title of Nero Claudius. He had enjoyed the beneht of a good education under the philosopher Seneca, but reaped IVom his instructions no other fruit than a pedan- tic affectation of taste and learning, with no real pretension to either. While controled by his tutor Seneca, and by Burrhus, captain of lUe praetorian guards, a man of worth and ability, Nero maintained for a short time a decency of public conduct; but the restraint was iniolerable, and nature soon broke out. His real character was a comjjound of every thing that is base and inhuman. In the murder of his mother Agrippina he revenged the crime wiiich she had committed in raising him t(, the throne ; he rewarded the fidelity oi Burrhu?, by poisoning him : and as a last kindness to his tutor Seneca, he alhwed him to choose the mode of his death.? It was his darling amusement to exhibit on the stage and amphitheatre as an ANCIENT mSTOK'/. td artor, musician, or gladiatoi. At length, become the object of universal hatred and contempt, a rebellion of 1m^; siibjev-.t?!, herlded by Vindex, an illustrious Gaul, hurled this monster from the throne, tie had not courage to attempt resistance; and a slave, at his vo^a request, despatched him with a dagger. Nero perished in the 30th jear of his age, after a reign of fourteen years, A. I). 69. 2.[Galba,'the successor of Nero, was of an ancient and illustrious fumily. He was in the 73d year of his age when the senate, ratify- ing the choice of the praetorian bands, proclaimed him empeioi. But an impolitic rigour of discipline soon disgusted the anny ; the avarice of his disposition, grudging the populace their favourite games and spectacles, deprived him of their affections; and some iiiiciuitous prosecutions and confiscations excited general discontent and mutiny. Galba, adopted and designed for his successor the able and virtuous Piso; a measure which excited the jealousy of Otho, his former favourite, and led him to form the daring plan of raising [limself to the throne by the destruction of both. He found the praatorians apt to his purpose. They proclaimed him emperor, and presented him, as a grateful ofteriug, the lioads of Galba and riso. who were slain in quelling the insurrection. Galba had reigned seven months. Major privato visus^luin privatusfuit-^ ct omnium co'iv- seiisu cupax imperii, nisi imperasset. Tacitus. lie appeared to he greater ilian a private man, while he -was ia a privaic station, ; a»^ by the consent of all was capable of governing, if he had not governed- 3. pthoihad a formidable rii'al m Viteliius, n'ho ha J been pro- claimed eniiperor by his army in Germany. It is hard to say which of the competitors was, in point of abilities, tiie more despicable, or in character the more infamous. A decisive battle was fought at Bedriacum, near Mantua, where Otb^ was defeated, and in a fit of di'spair ended his life by his own hand after a reign of three months, A. D. 70. , - ^ 4. The reign of (Viteliius 'was of eight months' duration. Fie is said to have proposed Nero i'or his model, and it ^vas just that he should resemble him in his Me. Vespasian had obtained from Nero the charge of the war r>gainst the Jews, vrliich he had conducted with ability and success, and was proclaimed emperor by his troops iu the east. A great part of Italy submitted to ^/esiDo^ian's generals; and Viteliius nieanly capiailatcd to save his life, by a resignation of the empire. The peopie, indignant at his dastardly ^^pirit, compelled him to an effort of resistance ; but the attempt was fruitless. Priscu*. one of the gener-ils of ^''espasiaa, took possession of Rome ; and Viteliius was massacred, and his body flung into the Tiber. 5. \ espasi-iu, though of mean descent, was worthy of the tmpire, and reigneJ with high popularlly for ten year;. Ho po-sossed groat clemency of disposition. His manners were affable and engaging, and bjs mode of life was characterized by .simplicity and frugality. lie respected the ancient forms of the constiiulicn, restored the sen- ate to its deliberative rights, and acted by its authority in the admin- istration of all public anaire. The only blemish in his character was a tincture of avarice, and even that is greatly extenuated by the laudable and patriotic use which he made of his revenues. Under his reign, and by the arms of his son Titus, was terminated the war against the Jews. They had been brought under the yoke of Rome by Pompey, who took Jerusalem. They were governed for some lime by Herod, as viceroy under Augustus. The tyranny of his son Archelaus was the cause of liis banishment, and ot the reduction of $6 ANCIENT HISTORY. Jw'aea into the ordinary condition of a Roman province. The Jews rel elled on every shght occasion, and Nero had sent Vespasian to re(mce them to order. He had just prepared for ^he siege of Jeru- ■ sal dm, when he was called to Rome to assume the government of the enpire. Titus wished to spare the city, and tried every means to jprevail on the Jews to surrender ; hut in vain. Their ruin was decreed hy Heaven. After an ohstinate hlockade of six months Jerusalem was taken by storm, the temple burnt to ashes, and the city buried in rums. The Roman empire was now in profound pf;ace. Vespasian associated Titus in the imperial dignity, and soon after died, universally lamented, at the age of sixty-nine, A. D. 79. 6. The character of Titus was humane, munificent, dignified, and splendid. N His, short reigri was a period of great happiness and prosperity to the empire, and his government a constant example of virtue, justice, and beneficence. In his time happened that dreadful eruption of Vesuvius, which overwhelmed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The public losses from these calamities he rejiaired by the sacrifice of his fortune and revenues. He died in the third year of his reign, and fortieth of his age ; ever to be remembered by that most exalted epithet, deucvje. hiiinani generis {the delight of mankind). 7. Domitian,lhe brother of Titun, was suspected of murdering him by poison, and succeeded to the empire, A. D. 81. He was a vicious and inhuman tyrant. A rebellion in Germany gave him occasion to signalize the barbarity of his disposition ; and its consequences were long felt in the sanguinary puRisiiments inflicted under the preteiTce of justice. The prodigal and voluptuous spirit of this reign was a lingular contrast to its tyranny and inhumanity. The people were loaded with insupportable taxes to furnisk spectacles and games for their amusement. The successes of Agricola in Britain (iirew a lustre on the Roman ;u'ms,no part of which reflected on the emperor, for he treated this eminent commaRder with the l;:fest ingratitude. After fifteen tedious years this monster lell at last the victim of assas- sination, the empress herself- conducting the plot for his murder, A D. 96. 8. Cocceiusf]Nerva,f a Cretan by birth, Avas chosen emperor by the senate, from respect ' to the probity and virtues nf his character. He was too old for the burden of government, and of a temper too placid for the restraint of rooted corruptions wid enormities. His reign was weak, inefficient, and contemptible. Kis only"" act of real merit as a sovereign, was the adoption of the virtuov.'? Trajan as lus successor. Nerva died after a reign of sixteen monthb,A. D. 90. gXuipius Trajanus^ possessed every talent arid every virtue that can adorn a sovereign. Of great military abilities, and tin indefatiga- ble spirit of enterprise, he raised the Roman arms to their accicnt splendour, and greatly enlarged the boundaries of the empire, l^o subdued the Dacians, conquered the Parthians, and brought vuk]' r subjection Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia Felix. Nor was liO i. -^ eminent in promoting the happiness of his subjects, and the iiiten:;ii prosperity of the empire. His largesses were humane and munia- cent. He was the friend and support of the virtuous indigent, ar,(! the liberal patron of every useful art and talent. His bounties were supplied by well judged economy in his private fortune, and a Vii^j administration of the public finances. In his own life he v. as a man ef simple manners, modest, affable, fond of the familiar iulcrcoui^^e AN UiLI\ T i li'o'lO iv Y . 87 of his friends, and sensible to ail the social and benevolent affecfeons. He merited the surname universally bestowed on him, Trajanm Optimus. He died at the xge of sixty-three, after a glorious reign of nineteen years, A. JD. 118. lO.L^lius Adrianus.'.nephew of Trajan, and worthy to hll his place, was chosen emperor by tlie army in the east, and his title -was acknowledged by all orders of the state. He adopted a policy ditTer- ent from that of his predecessor. Judging the limits ot the empire too extensive, he abandoned all the conquests of Trajan bounding the eastern provinces by the Euphrates. He visited in person all the provinces of the empire, reforming in his progress all abusesi, telieA^- ing his subjects of every oppressive burden., rebuilding the ruined cities, and establish '.ng every where a regular and mild administra- tion, under magistrates of approved probity and humanity. He gave a discharge to the indigent debtors of the state, and appointed liberal institutions tor the eduqation of the children of the poor. To the talents of an able politician he joined an excellent taste in th^ liberal arts. His reign, which was of twenty-two years' duration, was an sera both of public happiness and splendour. In the last year of his life he bequeathed to the empire a double legacy, in adopting for his immediate successor Titus Aurelius Antoninus, '^d been remarkable Tor equity and benignity. From this unf'^^'^^'^^ble chgnge of character he lost the aflections of his subier'^ 5 ^'^'^'' ^^"^ '^ feeling probably of reciprocal disgust, he remo''-^ the scat of the lioman empire to Byzantium, now termed (;...stantinople. The court foliowed the sovereign; the opulent proprietors were attended by tlieir slaves and retainers. Rome was in a tew years greatly depopulated, and the new capital swelled at once to enormous magnitude. It was characterized by eastern splendour, luxury, and voluptuotisness ; and the cities of Greece were despoiled for its embellishments. Of the internal pohcy of the empire we shall treat in the next section. In an expedition against the Persians. Constantine died at Nicomedia, m the 30th year of his reign, and 63d of his age, A. D. 337. In the time of Constantine the Goths had made several irruptions on the empire, and, though repulsed and beaten, began gradually to encroach on the provinces. H2 12 m ANCIENT HISTORY. SECTION XLIV. STATE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT THE TIME OF CON- STANTINE. HIS SUCCESSORS. 1. In lieu of the ancient republican distinctions, which were founded chiefly on personal merit, a rigid subordination of rank and office now went through all the orders of the state. The magis- trates were divided into three classes, distinguished by the ur.mean-^ ing titles of, l.the illustiious; 2, the respectable; 3, the clurissimi. Ihe epithet of illustrious was bestowed on, 1. the consuls and patri- cians; 2, the praetorian pra;fecls of Rome and Constantinople ; 3, the aiasters-general of the cavalry and infantry ; 4, the seven ministers of the palace. The consuls were created by the sole authority of the emperor : their dignity was inefficient ; th'ey had no appropriate lunction in the state, and their names served only to give the legal date to tlie year. The dignity of patrician was not, as in ancient times, a hereditary distinction, but was bestowed, as a title of honour, »y the emperor on his flivourites. From the time of the abolition of me praetorian bands by Constantino, the dignity of pratorian praa- l^o ^'^-5^"%,^'^^ ^" ^^ ^i^'i'' governors of the four departments ot ^LtT 1 ;. ^^^'^ ^^'«^^' ^^^- East, Illvria, Italy, a.ncl the Gauls. tt™wl. ^f .t3^'?**^ administration of juslice and of the linances, andean ?p„4S''in?- 3,*.^ '^^ 'f^^^^' lixgistracies-in their district ,r tkJi-. ?,IVk • ^'"^^'ction from all its tribunals. Independent il4 whow.^.t7^'' ^.T^^''--F^'^^^'^-'^"tinople had each its own pra> tect, who was the chiet ma.<def, 'i!,i'^f„g^f,''/^'^^J^!^;j- Ihe'rllutr "' '''" ^''"'"'^"' '"'"""'^^^'^ -Ihe^^Jf^ctnid 2. The intercourse between the court and provinceb ,^.,-, ,„„:-, tained by the construction of roads, and the institution ot .." 'v"' posts or couriers ; under which denomination were ranked the Celtic nations, but by exterminating the di'uids. 7. Whatever diiference of manners there may have been amonj: the' various nations or tribes of Gothic origin, the great features t-i their chai-acter appear to have been the same. Nature, education, and prevailing habits, all concurred to form them for an intrepid and conquering people. Their bodily frame was invigorated by the climate which they inhabited ; they wei'e inured to danger and fatigue ; war was their habitual occupation ; they believed in an un- alterable destiny, and ^vere taught by their religion that a heroic sacrifice of life gave certain assurance of eternal happiness. How could a race of mec "^o characterized fail to be the conquerors of the world? SECTION XLVlll. OF THE MANNERS, LAWS, AND GOVERNMENT OF THE GOTHIC NATIONS, AFTER THEIR ESTABLISHMENT IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 1. It has been erroneously supposed that the same ferocity of manners, which distinguished the Goths in their original seats, at- tended their successors in their new establishments in the provinces of the Roman empire. Modern authors have, given a currencv to this false supposition. V^oltaire, in describing the middle ages, paints the Goths in all the characters of horror ; as " a troop of hungry wolves, foxes, and tigers, driving belbre them the scattered timid herds, and involving all in ruin and desolation." The accounts of historians most worthy of credit will dissipate this injurious preju- dice, and show those northern nations in a more favourable point of view, as not unworthy to be the successors of the Romans. 2. Before their settlement in the southern provinces of Europe, the Goths were no longer idolaters, but christians; and their mo rality was suitable to the religion which they professed. Salvianus, Dishop of Marseilles, in the fifth century, draws a parallel between the manners of the Gotlis and of the Romans, highly to the credit ol the former. Grotius, in his publication of Frocopius and Jornandes. remarks, as a strong testimony to their honourable character as a nation, that no province once subdued by the Goths ever voluntarily withdrew itself from their government. 3. It is not possible to produce a moie beautiful picture of an excellent administration than that of the Gothic monarchy in Italy under Theodoric the great. Though master of the country by 100 ANCIENT iilSTOKY. conquest, yet he was regarded by his subjects with the affection of a native sovereign. He retained the lioman laws, and, as nearly as possible, the ancient political regulations. In supplying all civil offices of state he preferred the native Romans. It was his care to preserve every monument of the ancient grandeur of the empire, and to embellish the cities by new v/orks of beauty and utility. In the imposition and levying of taxes he showed the most humane in- dulgence on every occasion of scarcity or calamity. His laws were dictated by the most enlightened prudence and" benevolence, ^and framed on th.it principle wnich he nobly inculcated in his instructions to the Roman senate, " Benigni principis est, non tarn delicta velle pu- nire, quam tol 'ere.'''' It is the duty of' a benign pnnce to be disposed to prevent rather than to punisli offences. The historians of the times delight in rectunting the examples of his munificence and humanity. Partial as he .vas to the Arian heresy, many even of the catholic fathers have d^tne the most ample justice to his merits, acknowledging that, under hij reign, the church enjoyed a high measure of pros- perity. Such was Theodoric the great, who is justly termed by Si- donius ApoUinaris, Romanoi decus columenquc gentis {the glory and the support of the Roman natioti). 4. But a single example could not warrant a general inference with regard to the merits of a whole people. The example of Theodoric is not single. If it does not find a complete parallel, it is at least nearly approached to in the. similar characters of Alaric, Amalasonte, and Totila. Alaric, compelled by his enemy's breach of faith to revenge himself by the sack of Rome, showed even in that revenge a noble example of humanity. Wo blood was shed without necessity ; the churclies were inviolable asylums ; the hou our of the women was preserved ; the treasures of the city were saved from plunder. Amalasonte, the daughter of Theodoric, repaired to her subjects the loss of her flxther, by the equity and wisdom of her administration. She trained her son to the stuoy of hterature and of every polite accomplishment, as the best means of reforming and enlightening his people. Totila, twice master of Rome, which he won by his arms after an obstinate resistance, imi- tated the example of Alaric in his clemency to the vanquished, and in his care to preserve every remnant of ancient magnificence Jrom destruction. He restored the senate to its authority, adorned Rome with useful edifices, regulated its internal policy, and took a noble pride in reviving the splendour and dignity of the empire. Habitavit ''•Aim Romanis., says a contemporary author, ianquam pater cum Jiliis. He lived with the Roinons as a father with his children. 5. The stem of the Gothic nation divided itself into two great Dranches, the Ostrogoths, who remained in Pannonia, and the \Vest- rogotbs or Visigoths, so termed from their migrating thence to the west of Europe. Italy was posses.?ed by the latter under Alaric, and ny the former under Theodoric. The Visigoths, after the death of Alaric, wiilidrew into Gaul, and obtained from Honorius the province of Aquitaine, of which Thoulouse was the capital. When expelled from that province by the Franks, they crossed the Pyrenees, and, settling in Spain, made Toledo the capital of their kingdom. Tlie race of the Visigoth princes was termed the Bnlti., that of the O.strogoths the Amali. The Ostrogoths enforced in their dominions the oi)servance of the Roman laws ; the Visigoths adhered to a code compiled by their own sovereigns, and founded on the ancient man- ners and usages of their nations. From this code, therefore, we may AiNClENT HISTORY. 101 derive mach information relative to the genius and character of this ancient people. 6. It is enacted by the laws of the VisigotJu that no judge shall becide in any lawsuit, unless he tind in that book a law applicable to the case. All causes that fall not under this description are reserved for the decision of the sovereign. The penal laws are severe, but tempered with great equity. No punishment can affUct the heirs of the criminal : Omnia crimina siios scquantur auctores, — et ille solus, judi- cetur culpubilis qui culpanda commiserit, et crimen cum illo quifeceril moriaiur. All crimes shall attach to their authors^ — and he aloe shall bt iudged adpable, who hath committed offences^ and the crime slu/U die u-ith aim who hath conunittcd it. Death was the punishment of ti^e murdei of a freeman, and perpetual infamy of the murder of a sjive. Pe- cuniary fines were enacted for various subordinate olfencfs, accord- ing to their measure of criminality. An adulterer was delivered in bondage to the injured husband ; and the free woman who liad com- mitted adultery with a married man, became the slave of his wife. No physician was allowed to visit a female patient, except in the presence of her nearest kindred. The lex talionis {the la:w of retalia- tion^ was in great observance for such injuries as admitted it. It was even carried so tar, that the incendiary of a hoiise was burnt alive. The trials by judicial combat, by ordeal, and by the judgment ol God, which were in frequent use among the Franks and Normans, had no place among the Visigoths. Montesquieu has erroneously asserted, that in all tlie Gothic nations it was usual to judge the litigants by the law of their own country ; the Roman by the Roman law, the Frank by the law of the Franks, the Aleman by the law ol the Alemaas. On the contrary, the Visigoth code prohibits the laws of all other nations within their territories. Columns sive Ro- manis legibus^ sive alien is institutiombus., amplius convexari. We will not be controlled by the Konuin laws, nor by foreign institutions. I'he laws of the Franks and Lombards are remarkable for their wisdom and judicious policy. 1. The government of the Goths, after their settlement in the Roman provinces, was monarchical. It was at first elective, and afterwards became hereditary. The sovereign on his death-bed appointed his successor, with the advice or consent of his grandees. Illegitimacy did not disqualify from succession or nomination to the throne. 8. The dukes and counts were the chief officers under the Gothic government. The duke {dux exercitus) was the commander m chiel of the troops of the province ; the count {comes) was the highest civil magistrate. But these offices frequently intermixed their func- tions, the count being empowered, on sudden emergencies, to assume a military command, and the duke, on some occasions, Avarranted to exercise judicial authority. In general, howevei', their departments were distinct. Of comiics there were various orders, with distinct ofh- cial powers; as, comes., cubiculi, chamberlain, comes stabuli, constable, &c. These various officers were the proceres or grandees of the kingdom, by whose advice the sovereign conducted himself in important mat- ters of government, or in the nomination of his successor; but we do not find that they had a voice in the framing of laws, or in the im- position of taxes ; and the prince himself had the sole nomiuation to all offices of government, magistracies, and dignities. 12 iOi ANCIENT iilSTORY. SECTION XLIX. METHOD OF STUDYING ANCIENT HISTORY. 1. A GENERAL and concise vieAV of ancient history may be acquired l»y the perusal of a very i'ew books ; as that part of the CourscP Elude of the Abbe Condillac which regards the history of the nations of antiquity ; the Elements of General History by the Abbe Millot, part 1st; the Epitome of Turselline, with the notes of L'Agueau, part 1st; or the excellent Compendium Histories Universalis^ hj \n-ofessoT Ofierhaus of Groningen. The two tirst of these works have tlie merit of uniting a spirit of retlection with a judicious selection of events. The notes cf L'Agncau to the Epitome of Turselline con- tain a great store of geographical and biographical information. The work of Offerhaus is peculiarly valuable^ as uniting sacred with profane history, and containing most ample references to the ancient authors. The Discours siir PHisioire Univcrselle^ by the bishop of Meaux, is a work of higb merit, but is not adapted to convey in- formation to the uninstructed. It is more useful to those who have already studied history in detail, ibr uniting in the mind the great current of events, and recalling to the memory their order and con- nexion. But the student who \vishes to derive the most complete advan- tage from history, must not confine himself to such general or com- pendious views ; he must resort to the original historians of ancieq* times, and to the modern writers who have treated with amplitude 01 particular periods. It may be useful to such students to point out the order in which those historians may be most profitably perused. ' y. 2. Next to the historical books of the; Qld Testament, the m.ost ancient history worthy of perusal is that r/" Herodotus^ which com prebends tlie annals of Lydia, Ionia, Lycia, Egypt, Persia, Greece, and Macedonia, during above 230 years preceding 479 A. C. Book 1. History of Lydia from Gyges to Cra3sus. Ancient Ionia. Manners of the Persians, Babylonians, &,c. History of Cyrus the Ekler. B. 2. History of Egypt, and Manners of the Egyptians. E. 3. History of Cambyses. Persian lUonarchy under Darius Hystaspes. B. 4. History of Scythia. B. 5. Persian Embassy to Macedon. Athens, Lacedaemon, Corinth, at the same period. B. 6. Kings of Lacedapmon. War of Persia against Greece, to the battle of Marathon. B. 7. The same War, to the battle of Thermopylae. B. 8. The Naval Battle of Siilamis. B, 9. The Defeat and Expulsion of the Persians from Greece. (The merits of Herodotus are sliortly characterized in Sect. xiii,§i.) 3. A more particular account of the periods treated by Herodotus may be Found in Justin, lib. 1, 2, 3, and 7 : in the Cyropedia ol'Xeno- phon ,\ in the Lives of Aristides, Themistocles, Cinion, Miltiades, and rausanias, written by Plutarch and Cornehus Nepos; and in the lives of Anaximander. Zeno, Empedocles, Heraclitus, and Democri- t«s, by Diogenes Laertius. ANCIENT HISTOia'. 503 4. The Grecian history is taken up by Thucydides from the period where Herodotus ends, and is continued for seventy years, to the twenty-iirst of the Pelopoanesian war. (This work characterized. Sect. XXII, § 2.) Tliis period is more amply illustrated by perusing the 11th ancl 12th books of Diodorus Siculus; the Lives of Alcibia- des, Chabrias, Thrasybnlus, and Lysias, by Plutarch andNepos; the 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th books of Justin; and the 14th and 15th chapters of the 1st book of Orosius. 5. Next to Thucydides the student ought to peruse the 1st and 2d books of Xeaophon''s History of Greece, which comprehends the iiarrative of the Peloponnesian war, with the contemporary history of tlie Medes and Persians ; tlien the expedition of Cyrus {Jnabasis), and the continuation of the history to its conclusion with the ba*tle of Mantinea. (Xenophon characterized, Sect. XXII, ^ 3.) For illustrat- i'lg this period we have the Lives of Lysander, Agesilaus, Artaserxes, t'onon, and Datames, by Plutarch and Nepos; the 4th, 5th, and 6th books of Justin ; and the 13th and 16th books of Diodorus Siculus. 6. After Xenophon let the student read the 15th and 16th books of Diodorus, which contain the history of Greece and Persia, from the battle of Mantinea to the reign of Alexander the great. (Diodorus characterized. Sect. XXII, § 5.) To complete this period let him read the Lives of Dion, Iphicrates, Timotheus, Phocion, and Timo- leon, by Nepos. 7. For the history of Alexander the great we have the admirable works of Arrian and Quintus Curtius. (Arrian characterized, Sect XXII, § 8.) Curtius possesses great judgmient in the selection ol facts, with much elegance and perspicuity of diction. He is a good moralist and a good patriot; but his passion for embellishment derogates from the purity of history, and i-enders his authority sus- picious. 8. For the continuation of the history of Greece from the death ot" Alexander, we have the 18th, 19th, and 20th books of Diodorus; the history of Justin from the 13th book to the end ; and the Lives of the principal personages written by Plutarch. The history of Justin is a jiulicious abridgment of a much larger VvOrK by Trogus Pompeius, which is lost.- Justin excels in the delineation of charac- ters, and in purity of style. 9. I have mentioned'the Lives of Plutarch and Cornelius P7ejK)S as the best supplement to the account of particular periods of ancien) history. It is the highest praise of Plutarch that his writiHgs are admirable for their morality, and furnish instructive lessons of active virtue. He makes us familiarly acquainted with the g^^eat men of antiquity, and chiefly deliglUs in painling their private character and manners. The short Lives written by Nepos shov.' great judgment, and a happy selection of such facts as display tlie genius and charac ter of his heroes'. Tiiey are written with purfty and elegance. U^. l^^'or the Roman history in its early jperiods vve have the An tiquities of Dionysius of Halicarnr.ssus, ^Vhich bring down the his tory of Rome to 412 A. U. C. They are chiefly valuable, as illus trating the manners and customs, the rites civil and religious, and the laws of the Roman state. But the writer is too apt to frame hypoth- eses, and to give views instead of narratives. We expect these in the modern writers who treat of ancient times, but cannot tolerate them in the sources of history. 11. The work of Livy is tar more valuable than that of Dio- ■ysius. It is a perfect model of history, both as to matter and compo- liH ANCIENT HISTORY sition. (Characterized, Sect. XXXVI, § 10.) Of 132 books only 36 remain, and those are interrupted by a considerable chasm. The first decade (or ten books') treats of a period of 460 years ; the sec- ond decade, containing sevenlj'-live years, is lost; the third coniains the second Punic war, including eighteen years; the fourth contains the war against Philip of Macedon, and the Asiatic war against Anti- ochus, a space of twenty-three years. Of the fifth decade there are only five books ; and the remainder, which reaches to the death of Drusus, 746. A. U. C. together with tlie second decade, have been supplied by !Freinshemius. To supply the chasm of the second de- cade the situdent ought to read, together with the epitome of those lost books, the first and second books of Polybius ; the 17th, ]8lh, 22d, and 23d books of Justin ; the lives of JMarcellus and Fabius Maximus by Plutarch ; and the Punic and lUyrian wars by Appian. 12. The histoi-y of Polybius demands a separate and attentive perusal, as an admirable compendium of political and military in- struction. Of forty books of general history we have only five en- lire, and excerpts of the following twelve. Polybius treats of the history of the Romans, and of the nations with whom they were at war, from the beginning of the second Punic war to the beginning of the war with Macedonia, comprising in all a period of about hity years. Of the high estimation in which Polybius was held by the authors of antiquity we have sufficient proof in the encomiums he- stowed on him by Cicero, Strabo, Josephus, and Plutarch ; and in the use which Livy has made of his history, in adopting his narratives by a translation nearly literal. 13. The work of Appian, whic;h originally consisted of twenty books, from the earliest period of the Roman history down to the age of Adrian, is greatly mutilated; and there remains only his account of the Syrian, Parthian, Mithridatic, Spanish, Punic, and Illyrian wars. His narrative of each of these vvars is remarkably distinct and judicious; and his composition, on the whole, is chaste and perspicuous. After the history of Appian the student should re- sume Livy, from the beginning of the third decade, or 21st book, to the end. Then he may peruse with advantage the Lives of Hanni- bal, Scipio Africanus, Flaminius, Paulus /Emilius, the elder Cato, the Gracchi, Marius, Sylla, the younger Cato, Sertorius, Lurullus, Julius Caesar, Cicero, Pomjiey, anci Brutus, by Plutarch. H. Sallust's histories of (he Jugurthine war and of the conspiracy of CafJine come next in order. (SaliusL chax-acterized,Sect. XXXVi, ^ 8.) Then follow the Commentaries of Caesai', remarkable for perspicuity of narration, and a happy union of brevity with elegant simplicity of siyle. (Sect. XXXIV, ^9.) The epitomes of Florus and of Veleius Paterculus may be perused with advantage at this period of the course. The latter is a model for abridgn)ent of history, in hhe opinion of the president Henault. 15. For the history of Rome under the first emperors we have Suetonius and Tacitus; and for the subsequent reigns, the series of flie minor historians, termed Historic Augusta Scripiores {writers of august history)^ and the Byzantine writers. Suetonius gives us a ^series of detached characters, illustrated by an artful selection of facts and anecdotes, rather than a regular history. His work is chiefly valuable as descriptive of Roman manners. His genius has too much of the caustic humour of a satirist. Tacitus, with greater powers and deeper penetration, has drawn a picture of the times in stem and gloomy colours. (Sect. XXXVl. ^11.) From neither of these his- ANCIENT iilSTORY. 105 toiiang -will the ingenuous mind of youth receive moral improvement or pleasing and benevolent inripressions ; yet we cannot deny tlieir higri utility to the student of politics. 16. If we except Herodian, who wrote with taste and judgment, it is doubtful whether any of the subsequent writers of the Roman history deserve a minute perusal. It is therefore advisable for the student to derive his knowledge of the history of the decline and fall of the Roman empire from modern authors, resorting to tlie original writers only for occasional information on detached points of importance. For this purpose, the General History by Dr. Howel is a work of great utility, being written entirely on the basis of the original historians, whose narrative he generally translates, referring constantly to his authorities in the margin. In this work the student will tind a valuable mass of historical intbrmation. 17. The reader having thus founded his knowledge of general his- tory on the original writers, will now peruse with great advantage the modern histories of ancient Greece and Rome by Mitford, Gillies, Gast, HOoke, Gibbon, and Furgusson; and will find himself quahtied to form a just estimate of their merits, on which it is presumptuoqs to decide without such preparatory k-nowledge. 18.~The greatest magazine of historical information, which has ever been collected into one body,,'i3 the English Universal History;' a most useful work, from^ the amplitude of its matter, its general accuracy, and constant reference to the original authors. We may occasionally consult it with great advantage on points where deep research is necessary ; but we cannot read it with pleasure as a con- tinued work, from its tedious details and harshness of style, its, abrupt transitions, and the injudicious ixrrangement of many oi its parts._ 19., 'Geography and chronology have been justly termed the liglds of history. VVe cannot peruse with advantage the historical annals ol any country without a competent knowledge of its geographical situation, and even of its particular topography. In reatling the de scription of any event the mind necessarily forms a picture of the scene of action ; and it is sui'ely better to draw the picture with truth from nature and reality, than falsely from imagination. Many actions and events are likewise intimately connected with the geography and local circumstances of a country, and are unintelligible without a knowledge of them. 20. The use of chronological tables is very great, both for the purpose of uniting in one view the contemporary events in different nations, which often have an inliuenoe on one another, and for re- calling to the memory the order and sci'ies of events, and renewing the impressions of the objects of former study. It is extremely use- ful, after perusing the history of a nation in detail or that of a certain a^e or period, to run over briefiy the principal occurrences in a table ot chronology. The most perfect works of this kind are the chro- nological tables of Dr. Piayfair, vvhich unite history and biography; the tables of Dr. Blair; or the older tables by Tallent* END OF PART FIRST. ♦ A list of the best translations of the principal books above meationedi Herodotus, translated by Beloe, 4 vols. 8vo. Xenophon's Cycropedia by Cooper, 8vo. Xenophon's Anabasis, by Spelinau, 2 vols. Svo. Xenophon's History of Greece, by Smith, 4to, 14 PART SECOND. MODERN HISTORY. SECTION I. OF ARABIA, AND THE EMPIRE OF THE SARACENS. 1. The fall of the western empire of the Romans, and thetinal sub- jugation of Italj by the Lombards, is tlie sera from which we date the commencement of Modern History. The eastern empire of the Romans continued to exist for many ages after this period, still magnificent, though in a state of compar- ative weakness aiul degeneracy. Towards the end of the sixth cen- tury a new dominion arose in the east, which was destined to produce a wonderful change nn a great portion of the globe. The Arabians, at this time a rude nation, living chiefly in indepen- dent tribes, who traced their descent from the patriarch Abraham, professed a mixed religion, compounded of Judaism and idolatry. Mecca, their holy city, rose to eminence from the donations of pil- • grims to its temple, in which Avas deposited a black stone, an object of high veneration. Mahomet was born at Mecca, A. D. 571. Of mean descent, and no education, b\it of great natural talents, he sought to raise himself to celebrity, bv feigning a divine mission to propagate a new religion for tlie salvation oF mankind. He retired to the des- ert, and pretended to hold conferences with the angel Gabriel, who delivered to him, from time to time, portions of a sacred book or Co- ran, containing revelations of the will of the Supreme Being, and of the doctrines which he required his prophet to communicate to the world. 2. This religion, while it adopted in part the morality of Christian- ity, retained many of the rites of Judaism, and some of the Arabian superstitions, hs the pilgrimage to Mecca ; but owed to a certain spirit riutarch, by Langhorne, 6 vols. 8vo., or 6 vols. 12mo. Wrangham's edition. Thucydides, by Smith, 2 vols. 8vo. Diony^ins Halicarnassus, by Spelman, 4 vols. 4lo, Polybius, by Hampton, 4 vols. tJvo. Livy, by 2aker, 6 vols. 8vo. Sallust, by Murphy, ijvo. ; by Stuart, 2 vols. 4to. ; by Rose, fivo. Tacitus, by Murphy, 8 vols. 8vo. ; Irisli edition, 4 vols. 8vo. SuetoiiJus, by Thompson, 8vo. l-)iodorus Siculus, by Booth, iblio. Arrian, by Rook, 2 vols. 8vo. Q. Curtius, by Digby, 2 vols. 12mo. ., Justin, by Tumbull, 12mo. MODERN HISTORY. I07 of Asiatic voluptuousness its cliief recommendation to its votaries. Tlie Coran taught the belief of one God, whose will and power were constantly exerted towards the happiness of his creatures ; that the duty of man was to love iiis neighbours, assist the poor, protect the injured, to be humane to inferior animals, and to pray seven times a day. The pious mussulman was allowed to have four wives, and as many concubines as he chose ; and the pleasures' of love were prom- ised as the supreme joys of paradise. To revive the impression of these laws, ivhich God had engraven originally in the hearts of men, he had sent t. ^m time to time his prophets upon earth, Abraham, Moses, Jesus X-zhrist, and Mahomet ; the last the greatest, to whom all the world should owe its conversion to the true religion. By producing the Coran in detached parcels, Mahomet had it in his pow- er to solve all objections by new revelations. 3. Dissensions and popular tumults between the believers and infi- dels caused the banishment of Mahomet from Mecca. His flight, called the hegym, A. D. 622, is the aera of his glory. He retired to Medina, and was joined by the brave Omar. He propagated his doc- trines with great success, and marched with his followers in arms, and took the city of Mecca. In a few years he subdued all Arabia; and then attacking Syria, took several of the Roman cities. In the midst of his victories he died at the age of sixty-one, A. D. 632. He had nominated Ali, his son-in-law, his successor ; but Abubeker, his tather- in-law, secured the succession by gaining the army to his interest. 4. Abubeker united and pulilished the books of the Coran, and prosecuted the conquests of Mahomet. He defeated tiie army of He- radius, took Jerusalem, and subjected all the country between Mount Libanus and the Mediterranean. On his death Omar was elected to the caliphate, and in one campaign deprived the Greek empire of Syria, rhoenicia, Mesopotamia, and Chaldaja. In the next campaign he subdued to the mussulman dominion and religion, the whole em- £ire of Persia. His generals at the same time conquered Egypt, ibya, and Numidia. 5. Otnian, the successor of Omar, added to the dominion of the caliphs Bactriana. and part of Tartary, and ravaged Rhodes and the Greek islands. His successor \vas Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, a name to this day revered by the Mahometans. He transferred tne seat of the caliphate from Mecca to Couffa, ^vhence it was afterwards removed to Bagdat. His reign was glorious, but only of five years' duration. In the space of half a century from the beginning of the conquests of Mahomet, the Saracens raised an empire more extensive than what reniained of the Roman. Nineteen caliphs of the race of Omar {Ommiades) reigned m succession, after which began the dy- nasty of the Abassidie, descenaeu by the male line i'rom Mahomet. Almanzor, second caliph of this race, removed the scat of empire to Bagdat, and introduced learning and the culture of the sciences, which his successor continued to promote with equal zeal and liber- ality. Haroun Alraschid, who flourished in the beginning of the ninth century, is celebrated as a second Augustus. The sciences chiefly cultivated by the Arabians were, medicine, geometry, and astronomy, Thev improved the oriental poetry, by adding regularity to its fancy and fuxuriancy of imagery. t08 MODERN HISTORY. SECTIOjNT II. MONARCHY OF THP] FRANKS. 1. The Franks were originally those tribes of Germans who inhab- ited the districts lying on tiie Lower Rhine and Weser, and who, in the time of Tacitus, passed under tlie names of Chauci, Cherusci, Catti, Sicambri, &,c. They assumed or received the appellation ot Franks^ or free-men, from their temporary imioa to resist "the domin- ion of the Romans. Legendary chronicles record a Pharamond and a Meroveus ; the latter the liead of the first race of the kings of France, termed the Merovingian ; but the authentic history of the Franks commences only with his grandson Clovis, who began his reign in the year 481. in the twentieth year of his age Clovis achieved the conquest of Gaul, by the defeat of Syagrius ihe Roman governor; and marrying Clotilda, daughter of Chilperic king of Burgundy, soon added that province to his dominions, by dethroning his father-in-law. He was converted by Clotilda ; and the Franks, till then idolaters, be- came christians,, after their sovereign's example. The Visigoths, professing Arianism, were masters at this time of Aquitaine, the coun- try between the Rhone and Loire. The intemperate zeal of Clovis prompted the extirpation of those heretics, Avho retreated across the Pyrenees into Spain; and thQ^jDrovincesof Aquitaine became part of the kingdom of the Franks. They did not long retain it, for The- odoric ther' great defeated Clovis in the battle of Aries, and addef l^'i^xnce^ as an un- disputed inheritance, to his two sons, Pepin ie brefand Carloman, who governed, under the same title of mayor, oae Austrasia, and the other Neustria and Burgundy. On the resignation of Carloman, Pepin succeeded to the sole administration. Ambitious of adding the title of king to the power ivhich he already enjoyed, he proposed tlie question to pope Zachary, whether he or his sovereign Childeric was most worthy of the throne ? Zachary, who had his interest in view, decided that Pepin had a i"ight to add the title of king to the office ; and Childeric was confined to a monastery for life. With MODERN HISTORY. , I09 hira ended the first or Merovingian r;!rtics, came at length to be regarded as founded on str'.ct right, flence arose a perpetual contest of jurisdic- tion between the greater bar )ns in their own territories aiid the es- tablished judicatories; a natural cause of that extreme anarchy and disorder \vhich prevailed in France during the greater part of the Mei'ovingian period, and sunk ihc regal authority to the lowest pitch of abasement. In a government cf which every part was at variance with the rest, it was not surprising that a new power should arise, which, in able hands, should be capable of bringing the whole under subjection. 10. The mayor of the palace, or first officer of the honisehold, gradually usurped, under a scries of weak princes, fhe whole powers of the sovereign. This oilicc, from a personal dignity, be- came hereditary in tlie family of Pepin Heristel. His grandson, Pepin le bref, removed from the throne those phantoms of the Me- rovingian race, assumed the title of king, by the authority of a pa- fial decree, and reigned for seventeen years with dij^nity and success, le was the foundcj- of the second race of the French monarchs known by the name of the Carlovingian. See Kelt's Elements of General Knowledge, vol. L ilg • MODERN HISTORY. SECTION IV. CHARLEMAGNE. THE NEW EMPIRE OF THE WEST. 1. PF.viy le bref^ with the consent of his nobles, divided, on his «kath-betl, the kingdom of France between his sons, Charles and Cariornan, A. D. 7G8. The latter died a tew years after his father, and Charles succeeded to the undivided sovereignty. In the couise of a reign ot" forty-tive ytai-s Charlamigne (foi so he was de- servedly styled) extended the limits of his empire beyond the Dan- ube ; subdued Dacia, Dalmatia, and Istria ; conquered and subjected all th» barbarous tribes to the banks of the Vistula ; made himself mas- ter of a great portion of Italy ; and successfully encountered the arms of the b';iracens, the Huns, the Bulgarians, and the Saxons. His war with the Saxons was of thirty years' duration, and their final conquest was not achieved without an inhuman waste of blood. At the request of the pope, and to discharge the obU^afionof his father l\;pin to the holy see, Charlemagne dispossessed Desiderius king of the Lombards ot all his dominions, though allied to him by marriage ; and put a final period to the Lombard dominion in Italy, A. D. "774. 2. He made his entry into Rome at the festival of Easter, wa? there crowned king of France and of the Lomltards, and was, by pope Adrian I, invested with the right of ralilying the election ol the popes. Irene, empress of the east, sought to ally herself with Cliarlemagne, by the marriage of her sen Constantine to his daugh- ter; but her subsequent inhuman conduct, in putting Constantine to death, gave ground to suspect th.e sincerity of her desire for that alliance. 6. In the last visit of Charlemagne to Italy he was consecrated pmperor of the west by the hands of pope ILJeo III. It is probable that if he had chosen Rome for his residence and seat of government, and at his ileath had transmitted to his successor an undivided domin- ion, 'the great but fallen empire of the west might have once more been restored to lustre and respect. But Charlemagne had no fixed capital, and divided, even in his lifetime, his dominions among his children, A. D. 8U6. 4. The economy of government and the domestic administration of Charlemagne merit attention. Pepin le href had introduced the system of annual assemblies or parliaments, held at tirst in March, and afterwards in May, where the chief estates of clergy and nobles were called to deliberate on the public affairs and the wants of the people. Charlemagne apointed these assemblies to be held twice in tlie year, in spring and in autumn. In the latter assembly all atVairs »vere prepared and digested ; in the former was transacted the busi- ness ot legislation; and of this assembly he m;ule the people a party, by admitting from each province or district twelve deputies or rep- resentatives. The assembly now consisted of three estates, each of which Ibrmed a separate chamber, and discussed apart the concerns of its own order. They afterwards united to communicate their resolutions, or to deliberate on their common interests. The so\-e- reign was never present, unless when called to ra.tify the decrees ol the" assembly. 5. Charlemagne divided the empire into provinces, and the prov- hices into distiicts, each comprehending a certain number of coun- MODERJ>i HiaTORY. 118 ties. The districts were governed by royal envoys, chosen from the clergy and nobles, and bound to an exact visitation of their territories every three months. These envoys held annual conventions, at which '.vere present the higher clergy and barons, to discuss the affairs of the district, examine the conduct of its magistrates, and redress the grievances of individuals. At the general assembly, or cliatnp de Mai, the royal envoys made their report to the sovei-eign and statf's; and thus the public attention was constantly directed to all the •:oncerns of the empire. 6. The private character of Charlemagne was most amiable and despcctable. His secretary, Eginhart, has painted his domestic life iti beautiful and simple colours. The economy of his family is char- acteristic of an age of great simplicity ; for his daughters were as- siduously employed rn spinning and housewifery, and the sons were trained by their fathei' in the practice of all manly exercises. This illustrious man died A. ]>. 814, in the seventy-second year of his age. Contemporary with him was Haroun Alraschid, caliph of the Sara- cens, equally celebrated for his conquests, excellent policy, and the wisdom rod humanily of his government. 7. Of all the lawful sons of Charlemagne, Lewis the debonnaire was the only one who survived him, and who therefore succeeded wii.hout dispute to all the imperial dominions, except Italy, which the emperor had settled on Bernard, his grandson by Pepin, his second son. SECTION V. MANNERS, GOVERNMENT, AND CUSTOMS OF THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 1. In establishing the provincial conventions under the royal envoys, Charlemagne did not entirely abclish the authority of 'the ancient chief magistrates, the dukes and counts. They continued to command the troops of the provihce, and (o make the levies in etated numbers from each district. Cavalry were not numerous m the imperial armies, twelve farms being taxed to furnish only one horseman ^vith his armour and accoiitrements. The province sup- plied six months'' provisions to'its complement of Jiien, and the king maintained them during the rest of the campaign. 2. The engines for the attack and deli^nce of towns were, as in former times, the ram, the balista, cat^'pulta, testudo, &c. Charle- magne had his ships of war stationovf in the mouths of all the larger rivers. {He bestowed great attention on commerce* The merchants of Italy and the soutli of France trr.ded to the Levant, and exchanged the commodities of Europe and Asia. Venice and Genoa were rising into cemmerrial opulence; and the manufactures of wool, glass, and iron, were successfully cultivated in many of the principal towns in the south of Europe 3. The value of money was nearly the same as in the Roman empire in the age of Constantino the great. The numerary Uvre, in the age of Charlemagne, was supposed to he a pound of silver, in value about 31. sterling of English money. At present the livre is worth K) l-2d. English. Hence we ought to be cautious in forming our estimate of ancient money from its name. From the want of 6 Ii4 MODERN HISTORY. Jhis caution have arisen the most erroneous ideas of the commerce, riches, and strength of the ancient kingdoms. 4. I'he capitnlana {stdt alt-books) of Charlemagne, compiled into a body A. 1). ii27, were recovered from oblivion in 1531 and 1515 Tlicy present ma-iy circumstances illust.-ative of the manners of the times. Unless in great cities there were no inns : tlie laws obliged every man to give accommodation to travellers. The chief towns were huilt of wood. The state of tiie mechanic arts was veiy low in Europe. The Saracens had made more progress in them. Paint- ing and sculpture were only preserved irom absolute extinction by the existing remains of ancient art. Charlcmngne appears to have been anxious for the improvement of music; and the Italians are said to have instructed his Irench performers in the art of playing on the organ. Architecture was studied and successfully cuitivatetl in that style termed (the Gothic,\ which admits of great beauty, elegance, anil magniiicehr.e. The composition ot Mosaic appears to have been an invention of those ages. 3. Tne knowledge of letters Wfis extremely low, and confined to a few of the ecclesiastice. Charlemagne gave the( utmost ei.courage- ment to literature and the sciences,s inviting info his dominions of France, men eminent in those departments Irom Italy, and from the Britannic isles, which, in those dark ages, preserved more of the light of learning than any of the western kingdoms. " jVeqiie eiiiin adenda bus Britaimiie^ Scotix^ ct liiljernw^ qiue studio liberaliuin artium CO tempore aniecellehaiit reUquis occidenhilib ,s regiiis ; d cum pnesertini moiuickorum^ qai literaruiii gloriam, alibi aul kmguentein aid depressain^ in lis regionibus iinpigre smcitabant atque imbantur.''' Murat. Antiq. Ital. Diss. 43. "• I mast not omit the praise due to EiiglcDuL Scotkmd, and Ireland, which at that time excelled the other western kingdoms in the study of' the liberal arts ; and especially to the monks, by whose care and diligence the honour of literature, wliich in other countries was either languishing or depressed, was revived and protected in these."' The sca'-city ol' books in those times, and the nature of their subjects, as legends, lives of the saints, iic, evince tlie narrow diffusion of literature. G. The pecuniary fines for homicide, the ordeal or judgment of Ciod, and judicial combat, were striking peculiarities in tie laws and manner: of the northern nations, and particularly of the Franks. By- this warlike, barbarous people, revenge was esteemed honouralde and meritorious. TUe high-spirited Avarrior chastised or vindicated with his own hand the injuries which he had received or indicted. Tlie magistrate interfered, not to punish, but to reconcile, and was satisfied if he could persuade the aga^ressor to pay, and tlie injured party to :iccept, the moderate fine whicK was imposed as the price ol' Idooil, and of which the measure was estimated according to the rank, the sex. and the country of the person slain. But increasing civi.ization abolished those barbarous distinctions. We have remarked the equal severity of the laws ol' the Visigoths, in the crime*- of murder and robbery; and even amoiig the I'ranks, in the age of Charlemagne, deliberate murder was punished with death. 7. By their ancient laws, a parly accused of any crime was al- lowed to produce compurgators, or a certain numbei of witnesses, according to the measure of the off^•lce ; and if these declared upon oath their belief of his innocence^ it was held a sufiicient excnr- pution. Seventy-two compurgators were required to acquit a mur- ^prer or an incendiary. The flagrant peijuries occasioned by tills MODEKiN HISTORY. 115 absurd practice probably gave rise loi the trial bj' ordeal.Whicli was termed, as it was believed to be, the j\Klgnier.t of' God. The crimi- nal wa'i ordered, at the option ot" the judge, to prove his innocence or guilt, bv the ordeal ot' cold water, oC boiling water, or red hot iron, lie was tied hand and foot, and thrown into a pool, (o sink or sv.-im; he was made to fetch a ring Irom I'he bottom of a vessel ot boiling water, or to walk barefooted everburning ploughshares. His- tory records examples of those wonderful experiments having been ma'de without injury or pain. 8. Another peculiarity of the laws and manners of the northern nations was judicial con^.bat. Both in civil suits and in the trial of crimes, the party destitute of legal proois might challenge his antag- onist to mortal combat, and rest the cause upon its issue. I'his san- guinary and most iniquitous custom, which may be traced to this day in the practice of duelling, had the authority of law in the court oi the constable and marshal, even in the last century, in France and England. SECTION VI. RKTROSPECTIVE VIEW OF THE AFFAIRS OF THE CHURCH BEFORE THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 1. fiHE Arian and Pelagian heresiesulivided the christian church for many ages. In the fourih century, Arius, a pre-sbyier of Alexan- dria, maintained the separate and inierior nature of the second per- son of the trinity, regardins; Christ as the noblest of created beiiigs, through whose agency the Creator had foimed the universe. H.s doctrine was condemned\in tlie council of Nice, held by Coiistantine A. D. 325, who afterwards became a convert to it. For many cen- turies u had an extensive intluence, and produced tlio sects of liie Eunomians, Semi-Arians, Fusebians, &,c. 2. In the beginning oi the fifth century Pelagius and Ca;lestius, the former a native of Britain, the latter of Ireland, denied the d< c- triue of original sin, and the necessity of divine grace to enlighten the understanding, and purify the heart ; and maintained the sufli- ciency of m;m's natural powers for the attainment of the highest degrees of piety and virtue. These tenets were ably combated by St. Augustine, am' condemned by an ecclesiastical council, but have ever continued to find many supporters. ^ 3. Th'> most obstinate source of controversy in those ages^vas the worship of images! a practice which was at tii-st oi)posed by the clergy, hut was afiervvards, from i?iierested motives, countenanced anil » iiiiiicated by them. It was, however, long asuhj.'ct ot division in the church. The emperor Leo the Isamian, A. J). 727, atteinpleil to suppress this itlolatry. by the deslrurtidn ci every Ptat.ite and ijio • ture found in the churches, and by punishment of their vvorsuippers: but this intemperate zeal rather increased than repressed the super- stition, i^is son Const;intine Copronyraus, with wiser policy, pro- cured its condemnation hy the church. 4. From the doctrines of the Platonic and Stoic philosojihy, whi^ii recommended the pnrihcation of the soul, by redeeming it from its subjection to the sensesj arose the system ol' penances, mor- titication, religious sequestration; and monachism. Alter Constantine bad put an end to the persecution of the christians, many conceived 116 MUJJJ^iiiN HibTOKY. it a duty to procure for themselves voluntary grievances and suller- ijigs. They retired into caves and hermitages,, and there practised the most rigorous mortitications of the tlesn. by tasting, scourging, vigils, &c. This plirensy tirst snowed itself in Egypt in the fourth century, whence it spread over all the east, a great part of Africa, a!ul within the limits of the bisliopric of Rome, in the time of Tl.e- odosius these devotees b3gan to form communities or cmiobia, each associate bimling himself l»y oath to observe the rules of his order. yt. B^netlict introduced monacbism into Italy, under the reign of Totila ; and his order, the Benedictine, soon became extremely nu- nieious and opulent. Many I'ich donations were made by the devout and cliaritable, who believed tliaL they profited by the prayers of the monks. Benedict sent colonies hito bicily and France, whence they soon spread over all Europe. 5. hi the east, the ///o/fac/ii»'oH/«rH(solitary monks) were tirst incor- porated into cteiiobia by St. Basil, bishop of Ccssarc^i, in the middle of the fourth century; and some time before that period the lirst monas- teries for women were founiied in Egypt by the sister of St. Pacouio. From these, in the foUo^ving age, s])rung a varietj' of orders, under dilferent rules. The rule of the canons regular was framed after the model of the apostolic life. To chastity, obedience, and poverty, the mendicants added the obligation of begging alms. The military reli- gious onlers were unknown till the age of the holy wars. (Sect. XVII, ^ 3.) The monastic fraternities owed their reputation chiefly to the little literary knowledge which, in those ages of ignorance, they ex- clusively possessed, (i'or the origin of monachism, see Varieties of Lilerat-.re.) 6. In the hfth century arose a set of fanatics termed siylitcs, or pil- tar-saints, who passed their lives on the lops of pillars of various height. Simeon of Syria lived thirty-seven years, and died on a pillar sixty feet high. This phrensy prevailed in the east for many centuries. (For a curious account of the fanaticism of the Hindoos, see Tennaut's Indian Recreations.) 7./Auricuiar confession^ which had beer, abrlished in the east in the 'fourth century, began to be in use in the west in the age of Char- lemagne, and has ever since prevailed in the Romish church. The canonization of saints was, for near twelve centuries, practised by ev- ei'y bishop. Pope Alexander III, one of the most vicious of men, first claimed and assumed this right, as the exclusive privilege of the successor of St. Feter.^ 8. The conquests of Charlemagne jspread Christianity in the north of Europe; but all beyond the limits'^of bis conquests was i.:lolatrous. Britain and Ireland had received the light of Christianity at an earlier ])eriod ; but it was at'terwards extinguished, and again revucd under the Saxon heptarchy. SECTION VII. EMPIRE OF THE WEST UNDER THE SUCCESSORS OF CHAR- LEMAGNE. 1. Thil empire of Charlemagne, raised and supported solely by his .ribilities, fell to pieces under his weak postei'ity. ■Le^vis {te ileboiuwire)^ the only survivor of his lawful sons, was consecrated emperor and king of the Franks at Aix la Chapelle, A. D. 816. Among the first MODERN HISTORY. m acta of his reign was the partition of his dominions among his children. To Pepin, hi.-s second son, he gave Aquitaine,a third part of the south o{ France ; to Lewis, the youngest, Ravaria ; and he associated hia eldest son Lotharins with himseh'in tlie government of the rest. The three princes quarrelled amon;^ themselves, agreeing in nothing hut m hostility, against their father. They made open war against him, supported hy j.ope Gregory IV. Thepretcnce was, that the emper- or having a younger son, Charles, born after this partition of his states, wanted to give him likewise a shax'e, which could not be done but at the expense of his eldor brothers. Lewis was compelled to surrender himself a prisoner to his rebellious sons. They contined him tor a year to a monastery, till, on a new quarrel between Lewis the younger and Pepin, Lotliarius once more restored his father to the throne: but his spirits were broken, his health decayed, and he finished, soon after, an inglorious and turbulent reign, A. D. 840. 2. The dissensions of the brothers still continued. Lotharius, now I emperor, and Pepin his brother's son, having taken up arms against I the two other sons of Lewis Ic debonnaire^ Lewis of Bavaria and I Charles the bald, were defeated by them in the battle of Fontenai, I where lOU.OUU are said to have fallen in the field. The church in ' those times was a prime organ of the civil policy. A council of bish- 1 ops immediately assembled, and solemnly deposed Lotharius. At the same time they assumed an equal authority over his conquerors, j whom they permitted to reign, on the express condition of submissive |. obedience to the supreme spiritual authority. Yet Lotharius, though i excommunicated and deposed, found means to accommodate matters with his brothers, who agreed to a new partition of the empire. By the treaty of Verdun, A. D. 843, the western part of France, termed j Neustria .ind Aquitaine, was assigned to Charles the bald ; Lotharins, 1 with the title of emperor, had the nominal sovereignty of Italy, and 1 the real territory ot Lorraine, Franche Compte, Provence, and the I Lyonnois; the share of Lewis was the kingdom of Germany. I • 3. Thus was Germany finally separated from the empire of the i Franks. On the death of LiOtharius, Charles the bald assumed the empire, or, as is said, purchased it from pope John Vill, on the con- I dilion ot' holding it as a vassal to the holy see. This prince, after a weak ami inglorious reign, died by poison, A. D. 877. He was the tii'st of the French monarchs who made dignities and titles hereditary. Under the distracted reigns of the Carlovingian kings, the nobles at- tained great power, and commanded a formidable vassalage. They strengthened themselves in their castles and fortresses, and bid deh- ance to the arm of government, while the country was ravaged and desolated by their feuds. 4. In the reign of Charles the bald, France was plundered by the Normans, a new race of Goths from Scandinavia, who had begun their depredations even in the time of Charlemagne, and were only checked in their progress by the terror of his arms. A. D. 843 they s:iiled up the Seine, and plundered Rouen ; while another tleet enter- ed the Loire, and laid waste the country and its vicinity, carrying, toj4 'thsr with its spoils, men, women, and children, into captivity, hi liie follouing year they attacked the coasts of England, France and Spain, but were repelled Irom the last by the good conduct anc! courage of its Mahometan rulei's. in 845 they entered the Elbe, plundered Hamburgh, and penetrated far into Germany. Eric, king of Denmark, who commanded these Normans, sent once more a tieet into the Seine, which advanced to Paris. Its inhabitants fled, and the 118 MODERN HISTORY. city wa« burnt. Another fleet, v/ith little resistance, pilhgerl Bour- fleaux. To avert the arnn.s of these ravjigers, Charles the bald hiib^d them with money, and his successor, Charles the gross, yielded them a part of his Flemish dominions. These were only incentives to fresh depredation. Paris was attacked a second time, but gallantly de'ended by count Odo or Eudes, and the venerable bishop Goslin. A truce'was a second time concluded ; but the barbarians only chang- ed the scene of their attack : they besieged Sens, and plundered Burgundy. An assembly of the slates held at Mentz deprsed the unworthy Charles, and conferred the crown on tije more deserving ! Ji.ies : who, during a reign often years, bravely withstood the Nor- mans. A great part of the states of France, however, refused his title to the crown, and gave their allegiance to Charles surnamed the simple. 5. Hollo, the Norman, in 912, compelled the king of France to yield him a large portion of the territory of Neustria, and to give him his daughter in marriage. The new kingdom was now called Normandy, of which Rouen was the capital. SECTION VIII. CMPIRE OF THE EAST DURING 'illE EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTURIES. 1. Whilk the new empire of the west was thus rapidly tending to dissolution, the empire of Constantinople still retained a vcst'ge ;>i its ancient grandeur. It had lost its African and Syrian dependencies, an! was plnnilered by the Saracens on the eastern tron^ier, and rav- aged on the north and west ny the Aban and Bulgariansi The capi- tal, though splendid and refined, Vv'as a constant scene of rebellions •iud conspiracies ; and the imperial family itself exhibited a series of the most horrid crimes and atrocities. One emperor was put to death in revenge of murder and incest; i.nother was poisoned by his queen; a third was assassinated in the lath by his own domestics; ^a: fourth tore out the eyes of his brot.hcr ;.the empress Irene, respeclaf' ble for her talents, waSj infamouslfor the murder of her only son.i Of such complexion vvas'that seriee of princes who swayed the scep- tre of the east nearly 200 yeare. 2. In the latter part of this period a most violent controversy v.;).s maintained respecting. the worship of images, which were alternately destroyed and replaced according to ♦he humour of llie sovcreii'.n. The fen;ale sex was their most zealous snp})orter. This was not thei| oidy subject of division in the christian church ; the doctrines of Man-ij iciies were then extremely prevalent, and the sword was frequent-i ]y employed to support and propagate their tenets. 3. The misfortunes of the empire were increased by an invasion of the Russians from the Pahis Mosotis and Euxine. In the reign of Leo. named the philosopher, the Turks, a new race of barbarians, of Scythifin or Tartaiian breed, began to make eflectual inroads on ib territories. About the same time its domestic calamities were aggra-i| vated by the separation of the Greek from the Latin cliurch, ofil which we shall treat under the following section. MODEK^ HISTORY. 11» SPXTION IX. STATE OF THE CHURCH IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTURIES. 1. Thk popes had begun to acquire a temporal authority under Pepin le bref and Charlemagne, IVom the donations of territory made by those princes, and they wire no-.v ^M-adn.ally extending a spridtual jurisdiction over all the clii-i^tiaii i/aiiidonis. JXicliolas 1. proclaimed' to tlie whole world his paraniouut judgment in appeal fiom the sentences of all spiritual judicatories; \m powei of as- sembling councils of the church, and of reguluLing il by the canons of those councils; the right of exci-cising his aulliorily by legates in all the kingdoms of Europe, and the control of the pope over all princes and governors. Liierary imposture gave its support to these pretences. Certam spurious epistles were written in the name of Isidorus, with the design oi' proving the justice of the chums ol' the pope, and the tbrgcry of iliose epi.-lles was not completely exix::^cd ''i:i '!ie sixteenth century. Among the prerogatives of itic jiopt's was I 1 legulation of the marriages of all the crowned heads, by the- eAiierne extension of the nroiubilions of the cauoi. law, wiih winch they alone had the power of dispensing. 2. One extraordinary even-t (if true) afforded,' in the ninth cen- tury, a ludicrous interruption to tiie ' * >' ■ cession of regular bishops from the days of JSt. Peter, i ol' a female pope, who is said to have ably governed i; Ir three years, tilJ detected by the birth of a, child. ': imation by L.uthet this event was not roj^arJ-'d bv th'' iiaci'edible, nor dib- graceful to the churcii: since ihai: ::; ^.■.\\ or fdsehcod has been the subject of keen cona-o\-ei-sy ueuvi-j'.i u.e ;;reiesianH a: d eaihohcs; and the cvitlcnco tor its fdsohood seems io [.rei.Dudi'iaU'. 3. The church was thus gradua.ily exteiuiiii^- its inljuence. and its head arrogating (he control ever sovereign prie.eey, who, by a singular interchange of character, sr'f-in, in tUuse a,<^es, lo ha\e iixed their chief attention on spirit',;,.; . Kini,s, dukes, and counts, neglecting their temporal di; iiiselvc s up in clois- ters, and spent their lives in pray^i nee-. F.cclesiasiics were employed in all the departmer.ts ei' sceufir government; and they alone conducted all public measures aaid stale negotiations, wdiich of course they directed to the great objects of advancing the interests of the church, and establishing the paramount authority of the holy see. 4. At this period, however, when the popedom seemed to have attained its highest ascendancy, it snft'ered a severe wound in that remarkable schism winch ■separated the patriarchates of Ixome and Constantinople, or the Greek and Latin cbtnT.hcs./ The Roman pon- tiff had hitherto claimed the right of nominating the patriarch of Constantinople. The emperor IMichae! 111. denied this right, and de- • poking the pope's patriarch, Ignatius, a.ppointcd the celebrated Photius in his stead. Pope JNicholas 1. resented this affront with a high spirit, anil deposed and excommunicated f-'hotius, A. I). 8G3, who, in his turn, pronounced a similar sentence against the pope. The church was divided, each patriarch being supported by many bishops and ♦heir dependent clergy. The Greek and Latin bishops had long 130 MODEK.N illSTOKV. differed in many points of practice and discipline, as tlie celibacy of the clergy, tlie shaving of ineir beards, &c. ; but in reality the prime source of division was the ambition of the rival pontitfs, and the jeal- ousy of the Greek emperors, xunvilling to admit tlie control of Rome, and obstinately asserting e\'ery prerogative which they con- ceived to be annexed to the capital of the Roman empire. As nei- ther party would yield in its pretensions, the division ol the Greek and Latin churches became from this time permanent. 5. Amid those ambitious contests for ecclesiastical power and pre- eminence, the christian religion itself was disgraced, both by the practice and by the principles of its teachers. Worldly ambition, gross voluptuousness, and grosser ignorance, characterized all ranks of the clergy ; and the open sale of benetices placed them ot\en in the hands ot'the basest and most protligate of men. Yet the charac- ter of Photius forms an illustrious exception. Though bred a states- man and a soldier, and in both these respects of grea< reputation, he atkiined, by his singular abilities, learning, and worth, the highest dignity of the church. His Bibliotheca is a monument of the most various knowledge, erudition, and critical judgment. SECTION X. OF THE SARACENS IN THE EIGHTH AND NINTH CENTURIES. 1. In the beginning of the eighth century the Saracens subverted (he monarchy of the Visigoths in Spain, and easily overran tlie coun- try. They had lately iounded in Africa the empire of Morocco,, which wasgoverned by Muza, viceroy of the caliph Valid Almanzor, Muza sent his general Tariph into Spain, who, in one memorable b:Utle, fought A. I). 713, stripped the Gothic king Rodrigo of his ciown and life. The conquerors, satisfied with the sovereignty of the country, let't the vanquished Goths in possession of their proper- ly, laws, and religion. Abdallah the Moor married the widow of llodrigo, and the two nations formed a perfect union. One small part of the rocky country of Asturia alone adhered to its christian prince, Pelagius, who maintained his little sovereignty, and transmit- ted it inviolate to his successors. 2. The Moors pushed their conquests beyond the Pyrenees ; but division arising among their emirs, and civil wars ensuing, Lewis le -debonnaire took advantage of the turbulent state of the country, and invaded and seized Barcelona. The Moorish sovereignty in the north of Spain was weakened by throwing off its dependence on the caliphs ; and in this juncture the christian sovereignty of the Asturias, under Alphonso the chaste, began to make vigorous en- croachments on the territory of the Moors. Navarre and Arragon, roused by this example, chose each a christian king, and boldly as- serted their liberty and independence. 3. While the Moors of Spain were thus losing ground in the north, ihey were highly flourishing in the southern parts of the kingdom. Abiialrahman, the last heir of the family of the Ommiades (the Acassidae now enjoying the caliphate), was recognized as the true representative of the ancient line by the southern Moors. He fixed the seat of his government at Cordova, which, for two centuries from that time, was the capital of a splendid monarchy. This period, from the middle of the eighth to the middle of the tenth century, MODERN HISTORY. 121 is the most brilliant sera of Arabian magniticence. Whilst Haroun Almschid made Bagdat illustrious by the splendour of the arts and Rciences. the Mooi-s of Cordova vied with their brethern of Asia in the same lionourable pursuits, and were undoubtedly at this period the most enlightened of the states of Europe. Under a series of able princes they gained the highest reputation, both in arts and arms, of all the nations of the west. 4. The Saracens were at this time extending their conquests in almost every quarter of the world. The Mahcmet^m religion was professed over a great part of India, and all along the eastern and Mediterranean coast of Africa. The African Saracei.s invaded Sicily., and projected the conquest of Italy. They actually laid siege to Rome, which was nobly defended by pope Leo IV. They u'eie repulsed, th'^ir ships were dispersed by a storm, and their army was cut to pieces, A. D. 848. 6. The Saracens might have raised an immense empiie, if they hafi acknowledged only one head ; but their states were always dis- united. Egypt, Morocco, Spain, and India, had all their separate sovereigns, 'w]\o continued to respeci. the caliph of Bagdat as the surcessor of the prophet, but acknowledged no temporal subjection to his government. SECTION XI. EMPIRE OF THE WEST AND ITALY IN THE TENTH AND ELEVENTH CENTURIES. 1. Thk empire founded by Charlemagne now subsisted only in name. Arnold, a bastard son of Carloman, possessed Germany. Italy was divided between Guy duke of Spoletto and Berengarius duke of Fiiidi, who had received these duchies fi-om Charles the bald. France, though claimed by Arnold, was governed by Eudes 'J'hus the empire in reality consisted only of a part of Germany, while France, Spain, Italy, Burgundy, and tlie countries between the Maes and Rhine, were all subject to diilercnt powers. The emper- ors were at this time elected by llie bishops and grandees, all ol whom claimed a voice. In this manner Lewis the son of Arnold, the last cf the blood of Charlemagne, was chosen emperor after the death of his father. On his demise Otho duke of Saxony, by his credit with his brother grandees, conferred the empire on Conrad duke of Franconia, at whose death Henry surnamed the fowler, son of the same duke Otho, was elected emperoi", A. D. 918. 2. Henry I. (the Ibwler), a prince of great abilities, introduced order and good government into the empire. He united the gran- dees, and curbed their usurpations; built, embellished, and fortihed the ciiies; and enforced with great rigour the execution of the laws in the lepression of all enormiiies. He had been consecrated hj his o\vn bishops, and maintained no correspondence w ith the see o* Rome. 3. His son Otho (the great), A. D. 938, again united Italy to the empire, and kept the popedom in complete subjection. He made Denmark tributary to the imperial crown, annexed the crown ot Bo- hemia to his own dominions, and seemed to aim at a pauunouut autl:iority over ail the sovereigns of Europe. 122 IMODERN HISTORY. 4. Olho owed his ascendancy in Italy to the disorders of the p.i- pary. Formosiis. nvice excninmunicaten l»y pope .John Nil!., iinf uirived at the triple crown. Oil [lU dealn iii-s rival, pope Stpplintj VII., caused his body lo lie dug out oi the gr.ne, and, al'ier tri d tor his crimes, condemned it to t)e dung into the 'l'i!)er. The iVi-'uis of Formo.sus had interest to procure the deposiiion of Stephen, who was strangled in prison. They sought and ii)!ind ids body, and buried it. A succeeding pope, Sergius ill., agaiti dug up thi-; id-filed carcase, and threw it into the Tiber. Two int'imous wont^n, Aiacoy.ia and 'I'heodora, managed for many years the j)opedom, #id ilifd v.u^ diairof St. Peter with their own gallants, or their ifitiiiteroiis ( M- spring. Such was the state of the holy see, wdien JjeiStMigai-iiis duki' of Friuli disputed the sovereignty of Italy wi;h liugh of .\r,(s. The Italian slates and pope .John XII., who took } art against iiercn- garius, invited Olho to compose the disorders of the country, lie entered it;dy, deleated Berengarius, and was consecrated emju're! by the pope, with the titles of Cfesar and Augustus; in retiu'n tut which honours he contlrmed the donaiions made to the holy see by Ids predecessors, Pepin, Chailemagne, and Lewis the debonnaire, A. 1). d62. 5. But John XII. was fdse to his new ally. Ho made his peace with Berengariu>^, and both turned their arms against die emperor. Otlio liew back to .Home, and revenged himsell' by the trial and deposition of the pope ; but he had scarcely lelt the cily, wUv.i) Jonn, by the aid of his party, displaced his rival Leo Vlfl. Otho once more returned, and took exemplary vengeance on his enemies, by hanging one half cf the senate. Calling together the lateran council, he crerded a new jiope, and obtained from the assembUMJ bi*hops a solemn acknowledgment of the absolute right of the em- i)eror to elect to the papacy, to give the investiture of the crown n{ taiy, and to nominate to all vacant bishoprics ; concessions observed no longer than while the emperor was present to enforce them, G. Such was the state of Home and Italy umler Otiso tlie great; and it continued to be much the same under his successors tor a cen- tury. The emperors asserted their sovereignty over Italy and the popedom, though with a constant resistance on the pait of the komans, and a general repugnance of the pope, when oncj establish- ed. In those ages of ecclesiastical protiiga'^y it was not unusual tj P'lt up the popedom to sale. Benedict VIll. and .John XIX., Iwo brothers, pubhcly bojght the chair of St. Peter, one alter the other; and, to keep it in their fimily, it :vas purchased ai'tsrwards by their friends tor Benedict IX., a child of twelve years of ag»'. 'I'hree popes, each preteniling regular election and equal right, agreed fust to divide the revenues between them, and afterwards sold all theii sha.'-es to a fourth. 7. The emperor Henry III., a prince of groat ability, strcnuonpiy vindicated his light to supply the ponti.icul chair, and created three successive popes without opposition. MODERN HISTORY. 123 SECTION XII. HIHTOlli OP bRITAI.V FROM ITS EARLlEaT PUUOD DOWN TO THE iNOllMAN CONQUEST. 1. 'I'liK history of ]}rit;iin h;is (teen postponed to lliis time, that il mnv Ix; coiisidci'cd in rnc connprterl view Irom its e.'irliest period to llie end ol' liie Anglo-S;ixoii government. We s(ri\-e not to pierce throujsjh tlv.it mist of ohscuriiy whirli veils the criginiu |)opiil;Uion of the British isles: remarking onlj,asa mat- ter of iiigh probability, that they derived tlieir first inhabitant- fn in tlie Cellar of Gaul. Their autheniic history commences with the lirst Roman invasion,- and we learn Irom Ca'sar and Tacitus, tiiat (he country was at that period in a stale very remote from barbarism. It was divided into a number of small independent sovereignties, each prince having a regular army and a lixed revenue. The manners, iangua.u;o, and leligion of the people, were the rame as those of the Ganic Ccltie. Tiie religion was the _d'-uidical system, whose in- iluence pervaded every department of the governtrietit, and, by fl.s nower over the mii.ds of tlie people, supplied the imperleclion of laws. 2. Julius Caesar, after the Cf>nquest of Gaul, turned his eyes towards Britain. He landed on the southern coast ot the island, bb A. C. ; and meeting with most obstinate resistance, though on the whole gaining some advantage, he found himself obliged, after a siiort c-impaign, to withdraw tor the winter into Gaul. He returned in the loilowing summer with a great increase of force, an army o! 2U,0U0 foot, a competent body ofliorse, and a tleet ol"8UU sail, 'i'he independent chiefs of the Britons united their forces under Ca-ssibe- fanus king of the Trinobanles, and encountering the legions with great resolution, displayod all ihe ability of practised warriors, liut the coniest was vain. Caesar advanced into the country, burn: Veru- lamium, the capital of Cassibelanus, and, after ibrcing the Britons into articles of submission, retuined to Gaul. 3. The domestic disorders of Italy gave tranquillity to the Britons for near a century ; but, in the reign of Claudius, the conquest of the island was determined. The emperor lande^' in Britain and com- pelled the submission of the south-eastern provinces. Ostorius Scapula defeated Caractacus, ^vho was sent prisoner to Rome. Suetonius Paulinus, the general of Nero, destroyed Wona (Anglesey, or as others think, [ilan), the centre of the druidical superstition. The Iceni (inhabitants of Norfolk and Sufiolk), under their queen Boadicea, attacked several of the Roman settlements. London, with its Roman gariison, was burnt to ashes. But a decisive battle ensued, in which 80,UUU of the Britons fell in the held, A. D. 61. Thirty years afier hi the reign of Titus, the reduction of the island was completed by tiie Uomaii general, Julius Agricola. He secured the Roman prov ince against hivasjon irom the Caledonijiiis, by walls and garrisons; and reconciled the southern inhabitants to the government of their conquerors, by the introduction of Roman arts and improvements. Uiider Sevcrus the Ronrin province was extended far into the north of Scotland. 4. With the decline of the Roman power in the west, the southern Britons recovered their liberty, but it was only to become 124 MODERN HISTORY. the object of incessant predatory invasion from their brethren of the north. The Romans, after rebuilding tlie wn!l of Severiis, finally hid adieu to Britain, A. D. 448. The Ticts and Ca!edoni:ins now broke down upon the south, ravaging and desolating the country, without a purpose of conquest, and merely, as it appears, for the supply of their temporary wants. After repeated application for aid from Rome without success, the Britons meanly solicited the Saxons tor succour and protection. 5. The Saxons received the embassy with great satisfaction. Brit- ain hail been long known to them m their piratical voyages to its coasts. They landed to the amount of 1,600, under the command of Hcngist and Horsa, A. D. 460 ; and joining the South Britons, soon compelled the Scots to retire to their mountains. They next turned their thoughts to the entire reduction of the Britons, and received large reinforcements of their countrymen. After an obstinate contest i)f near 150 years, they reduced the whole of England under the Sax- on government. Seven distinct provinces became as many indepen- dent kingdoms. 6. The history of the Saxon heptarchy is uninteresting, tVom its obscurity and confusion. It is sutficient to mark the duration of the several kingdoms, till their union under Egbert. Kent began in 455, and lasted, under seventeen princes, till 827, when it was subdued by the West Saxons. Under Ethelbert, one of its kings, the Saxons ■were converted to Christianity by the monk Augustine. Northumber- land began in 597, and lasted, under twenty-three kings, till 792. East Anglia began in 575, and ended in 793. Mercia subsistetl trom 582 to 827. Essex had tourteen princes, from 527 to 747. Sussex had tive kings before its reduction under the dominion of the West Saxons, about 600. Wessex (the country of the West Saxons) began in 519, and had not subsistea above eighty years, when Cadwalla, king of Wessex, conquered Sussex, and annexed it to his dominions. As there was no fixed rule of succession, itw'as the policy of the Sax- on princes to put to death all the rivals of iheir intended successor. From this cause, and from the passion tor celibacy, the royal families rtere nearly extinguished in the kingdoms of the heptarchy; and Eg- bert, prince of theWest Saxons,remainedthe sole surviving descemlaut of the Saxon conquerors of Britain. This circumstance, so favourable to his ambition, prompted him to attempt the conquest of the heptar- chy; and he succeeded in the enterprise. By his victorious arms and judicious policy all the separate states were united into one great kingdom, A. D. 827, near 400 years after the tirst arrival of the Sax- ons in Britain. 7. England, thus united, was far from enjoying tranquillity. The piratical Normans or Danes had for fifty years desolated her coasts, and continued, for some centuries after this period, to be a perpetual scourge to the country. Under Alfred (the great), grandson of Eg- bert, the kingdom was from this cause reduced to extreme wretched- 11 ess. The heroic Alfred in one year defeated the Danes in eight bat- tles; but a new irruption of their countrymen forced him to solicit a peace, which these pirates constantly interrupted by new hostilities, A Ifred was compelled to seek his safety tor many months in an obscure quarter of (he country, till the disorders of the Danish army ofTereJ a fair opportunity of attacking them, which he improved to the entire defeat of'his enemies. He might have destroyed them all, but chose rather to spare and to incorporate them with his English subjects. This clemency did not restrain their countrymen from attempting a MODERN HISTOKY. 125 new invasion. Thev were again defeated with immense loss, and the extreme severity which it was necessary to exercise against the vanquish(;d, had the effect ofsuspcnding the Danish depredations lor several wars. a. Ali'red. whether considered in liis public or prnate character, dci" the Frviiich nobler, vvas elected sovereign by the voice of his hrolhei peers, A. D. 987. The kingdom, torn by parties, suiTL-reii much domestif^ misery tmder the reign of Mugh, and that of his siirccssoi liobert, the violim of papal tyranny, for d.uing tu marry a distai:* cousi:! without liio dispensation of the church. 2. 'i\-.e prev; iliiig passion of the times was pilgrimage and rhiv. ah-ous enterprise, "in this catver of adventure ttie Normans uiosl remarkably di.lingiiished themselves. ' in 983 they relieved the prince of 'Salerno, by expelling the Sar.icens from his teniioiy. They did a shnilir service to !:<>pe Benedict Vlll., aiid the duke <>f (ilapua; while auol'ier Irand of their countrymen tought tirst again.sl the'ireeks, and iVAerwanls against the popes, always selling tncir ser- vices to those who best rewarded them. William' Fierabras, and hi8 : toothers, Humphrey, Robert, and Richard, kept the pope a prisoner ; RiODETlN fliSTORY. 129 for a year at Benevento, and forced the coirt of Rome to yield Caplia to l{ii:liiird, and Apulia aixl Calabria to Kobeit, with the investiture of Sicily, if lie should gain the country from thi6 holiness by a large cession of territory. Pope Celestinus kicked 17 130 MODERN HISTORY. off the imperial ciown of Henry VL, while doing hom.ige on his knees, hut iniide amends tor this insolence by tlie gift of JNinplos ;iim' Sicily, from which Henry had expelled the I'^Ionnans. These u^ri- tories now became an appaniige of the emj.n^'e, 1,194. The smc- ceeding popes rose on the pretensions of tlieir predecessors, till at length Innocent 111., in the beginning; of the thirteenlh century, estah Lshed the power of the popedom on a settled itasjs, and olitaint-.i ;> positive acknowledgment of the papal supremacy, or the riiiil ))riti- cipaliler ct Jinalitcr {principally andJinaUy) to confer the imptMial crown. It was the same pope Innocent whom we shall prefenily see the disposer of the crown of England iu the reign \)i the tyrant John. SECTION XV HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE ELEVENTH, TWELFTH, AND PART OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURIES. 1. The consequence of the battle of Hastings was the submission of all England to VViiiiam the conqueror. The character of this prince was spirited, haughty, and tyrannical, yet not without a por- tioa of the generous affections. He disgusted his English sul)jtc(s by the strong partiality which he showed to his Norman tbilowers, preferring them to all olhces of trust and dignity. A conspiracy anvse from these discontents, whicii William dotoated, and avetij^ed with signal rigour and cruelty. He determined hencefoiward to treat the English as a conquered people, a policy that i'.ivolved his reign in perpetual commotions, which, wiule they robbed him oi' all peace ot mind, aggravated the t}'ranny of his (hsposition. To his own, children he owed the severest of his troubles. His (ddest son Robert rose io rebellion, to wi;3st from him tlie sovereignty oi Maine; and his foreign subjects took part with the rebel. William led against them an army of the English, and was on the point of perishing in fight by his son's hand. Philip I. of France had aided this rebellion, which was avenged by VViiiiam, who carried havoc and devastation into the heart of his kingdom, but was killed in the en- terprise by a lall from his horse, I,U8'. He Lr^queathed England to William his second son ; to Robert he left Normanuy ; and to Henry, his youngest son, the properly of his mother Matilda. 2. VViiiiam the conqueror introduced into England the feudal law, dividing the whole kingdom, except the royal demesnes, into baron- ies, and bestowing the most of these, under the teiuiie of military service, on his Norman followers. By tlie forest laws he reserved to himself the exclusive privilege of killing game over all the kingdomj a restriction resented by his suljects above every other mark of servitude, i'leparatory to the introduction of the feudal tenures, he planned and accomplished a gener.-d survey of all the lands in the kingdom, with a distinct specitication of their extetit, na ture, vahie, names of their proprietors, and an euumeration of every chtss of inhabitants who lived on them. 1'his most valuable record, culled Doniim lay-book^ is preserved in the English exchequer, and is now printed. 3. William II. (Rufus) inherited the vices, without any ol llie vir MODERN HISTORY. 131 sents nothing but a dnl! career of unresisted despotism. After a reign of thirteen years he was ljn his return, was defeated in battle, and detained for life a prisoner in England. The crimes of Henry were expiates! iiy his misibrtunes. His only sea wns drowned in bis passage from Normandy. His daughter Matilda, married first to the emperor Hen- ry v., and afterwardTs to GeoOVey Flantagenet of Anjou, \vas destined to he bis successor ; but the popularity of big nephew Stephen, son of the count of Blois, defeated these intentions. Henry I. died in Nor- mandy, afier a reign of thirty-live years, A. D. l,13f); and, in spite of liis destination to Matilda, Stephen seized the vacant throne. The party of ftlatilda, headed by her natural brother, the earl of Glouces- ter, engaged, defeated, and made Stephen pi isoner. Matilda in her lin-n mounted the throne; but, unpopular from the tyranny of her disposition, she was solemnly deposed by the prevailing party cf her rival ; and Stephen was once more restored. He found, however, in Henry Plaiilagenet, the son of Matilda, a more formidable competitor. Of a noble and intrepid sjiirit, ho resolved, while yet a boy, to reclaim his hereditary crown ; and, landkig in England, won bv bis prowess, and the favour of a just cause, a great part of the kin|flom to bis iii- tere'it. Bv treat}* with Stephen, who was allowed to reign for life he secured the succession at his dealli, u'hich soon after ensued, Mel. !. Henry II., a prince in every sense desecjing of the throne, began his reign with the reformation of all the abi»s of the government of his predecessors; revoking all impolitic gj^ts, abolishing partial ini- muniiiL>s, regulating the ad^ninislrj.tion fJpKice, and establishing the frefcd(MTi of th£ to\vns by cliarters, whiclrare at this day the basis of theliationai liberty. Happy in the ali'ections of bis people, and pow- :'ful in the vast extent of additional territory which be enjoyed on 'he conliaent in right of his father and of his wife, the heiress of a great portion of Erance, his reign had every promise of prosperity md happiness; but from one fatal source these pleasing prospects were all destroyed. Thomas Becket was raised by Henry from ob- scurity to tb.e othce of chancellor of England. On the vacancy of the see oi Canterbury the king, desirous of his aid in the correction, of ?cclesi:istical abuses, conferred the primacy on his favourite ; and the aiTogjnt Becket availed himself of that authority to abase the prerog- ative of his sovereign^ and exalt the spiritual power above the crouii. It was dispiited, whether a priest could be tried for a murder, and pun- IsIkmI by the civil court. It was determined in the atlirmative by the ^jk council of Clarendon, against the opinion of Becket. Pope Alexander wB^ 111. annulled tlv3 decree of the council; and Becket, who took pai-^^ with the pope, was deprived by Henry of all his dignities and estates. He avenged huMself by the excommunication of the king's ministers: and Henry, ii> | jpurn. prohibited all intercourse with the see of Home. At length botnparties found it iheir interest to come to a good under- standing. Becket was restored to favour, and reinstated in his primacy, ■when the increasmg insolence of his demeanour drew from the king some hasty expressions of indignation, which his servants interpretei 132 MODERN HiSlORY. into a sentence of proscription, and, trusting that (he deed would be gratafiil to their master, murdered the prelate vviiile in the act of celebrating vespers at the altar. For this shocking action llonry expressed the regret which he sincerely felt, and the pope indulgent- ly granted his pardon, on tlie assurance of his dutiiul obedience to the holy church. 5. Ihe most important event of the reign of Henry II. was the conquest of Ireland. The Irish, an early civilized people, and among the tirst ef the nations of the west whoembraced the christian reli- gion, nere, by fiecjuent invasions of the J)anes, and their own domes- tic commotions, replunged inlo barbarism tor many ages. In the tweillh century the kingdom consisted of five separate sovereignties. Ulster,' Leinster, Mmiater, IVIeath, and Connaught; but these were subdivided among an inlinite number of petty chiefs, owing a very weak allegiance to their respective sovereigns. Dermot Macmoi-- rogh, expelled trom his kingdom of Leinster for a rape on the daugh- tei' of the king of Meatli, sought protection from Menry,nnd engaged to become his feudatory, if he should recover his kingdom byihe aid of the English. Henry empowered his subjects to iuvade Ireland, and, while Strongbow earl of Pembroke ami Ins followers were lay- ing waste the country, landed in the island inj,172, and received ihe submission of nuny of the independent chiei's. Roderick O'Connor, prince of Connaught, whom the Irish elected nominal sovereign of ail the provinces, resisted ibr three years the arms of Henry, hut finally acknowledged his dominion by a solemn embass-y to the king at Win.lsor. 'f^\e. terms of the submission were, an annual tribute of fvery te!i*^hhida of land, to b(j applied Ibrthe support of government, i.iKi a.n obliiratio; of allegiance to the crown of Engiand ; on which conditions the Irish should retain their possessions, and Roderick his kingdom: except the t(^-itory of the I'ale, or that part which the Enj;!i-h baroas bad sui)c!Wxl b(;tbre the arrival of Henry, 6. Henry divided Irelam-into counties, appoir-ted sheritTs in each and introduced the laws oMCngland intc the territory ol" tiie Pale The rest of the kingdom wa^egulated by their ancient laws, till the pigii of Edward 1., when, at the request of the naticn, the English laws were extended to the whole kingdom. In the tirst Iris'n parlia- ment, which was held in the same reign, sir John Wogan presided as deputy of the sovereign. From that time there was little intercoui^se between the two kingdoms lor some centuries; nor was the island considered as fully subdued till the reign of Elizabeth and of her sue cessor .1 ames i. 7. The hitier part of the reign of Henry II. was clouded by domes- tic misfortunes. 'His children, Henry, Richard, GeotTrey, and John, instigated by their unnatural mother, rose in iei«;llion, and, v. i.h the aid of Louis Vli., king o.f France, piepared to dethrone t'heir father. While opposing them with spirit on the continent, his kingdom was Jt-vaded by the Scots under William (the lion). He hastened back to ^^ngland. defeated the Scots, and made their king his prisoner. Two of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, expiated their offences l»y an o^.arly death ; but Richard, once reconciled, was again seduced from his al- legiance, and, in league with the king of France, pliMdered his (a- tber''s continental dominions. The spirit of Henry wi^^kequal to his domestic misfortunes, and he died o"a broken heart irWTo 58th ye.ir oi'hisage, 1,189, an ornament to the English throne, and a prince., sur- passing all hlscxintemporaries in the valuable qualities of a sovereign MODERN HISTORV ISS- To him England owed her first permanent improvement in art*, In ki^v?, in government, and in civil liberty. 8. Richard I. (coeiir de lion) immediately on his accession embark- ed for the Holy Land, on a crusade against the infidels, after plunder- ing his subjects of an immense sum of money to defray the charges of the enterprise. Forming a league with Philip Augustus of France, L'he two monarchs joined their forces, and acting for some time in concert, were successful in the taking of Acra or Ptolemais ; but Phil- ip, jealous of his rivars glory, soon leturned to France, while Richard had the honour of defeating the hei^oic Saladin in the battle of Asca- lon, with prodigious slaughter of his enemies. He prepared now foi the siege of .lerusalem; but, tinding his army wasted with famine and flitiguG. he was compelled to end the war by a truce with Saladin, in which he obtained a free passage to the Holy Land for every chris- tian pilgrim. Wrecked in his voyage homeward, and travelling in disguise through Germany, Richard was seized, and detained in pris- on, by command of tlie emperor Henry VI. Tiio king of France un- generously opposed his release, as did his unnatural brother John, from seKish ambition ; but he was at tenjjj^Cimsomed by his subjects for the sum of 150,000 merks', and, aftei-ar^ibsence of nine years, re- turned to his dominions. His traitorous brother was pardoned after some submission ; and Richard employed the short residue of his reign in a spirited revenge against his rival Philip. A truce, howev- er, was concluded bv the mediation of Rome ; and Richard was soon , after killed, while storming the castle of one cf his rebellious vassals in the Limosin. He died in the tenth year of his 'reign, and forty second of his age, 1,199. 9. John (lack-lari(l) succoodcd to the throne on the death of Ids brother, but found a competitor in his nephew Arthur, the son ot Geoffrey, supported by Philip of France. War was of course renew- ed with that country. Arthur, \vith fatal confidence, throwing him- self into the hands of his uncle, was removed by poison or the sword : a deed which, joined to the known tyramff of his character, rendered John the detestation of his subjects. He was stripped by Philip of his continental dominions, and he made the pope his enemy by an ava- ricious attack on the treasures of the church. After an ineffectual menace of vengeance, Innocent IlL pronounced a sentence of interdict against the kingdom, which pr.t a stop to all the ordinances of religion, to baptism, and the burial of the dead. He next excommunicated Jolin. and absolved his subjects from their allegiance; and he finally deposed him, and made a gift of the kingdom to Philip. John, intimi- dated into submission, declared himself the pope^s vassal, swore alle- iance on his knees to the papal lerate, and agreed to hold his king dom tributary to the holy see. On these conditions, which ensured :lie universal hatred and contempt of his people, he made his peace x'idi the church. It was natural that his su.bjects, thus trampled upon ind sold, should vindicate their rights. The barons of the king- dom assembled, and, binding themselves by oath to a union of meas- ures, resolutely demanded from the king a ratification of a charter of privileges granted by Henry I. John appealed to the pope, who, in Isupport of his vassal, prohibited the confederacy of" the barons as re- jbelli4udgment of his peers and the law ot the huid. 1 1. John granted at the same time the Charta de Foresta {the cluir- ter concerning forests), which abolished the royal privilege of killing game over all the kingdom, and restored to the lawful propvieloi-s their woods and forests, which they were now allowed to enclose cind use at their pleasure. As compulsion alone had extorted these concessions, John was determined to disregard them, and a foreign Ibrce was brought into the- kingdom to i^educe the barons to submis- Mon. The barons applied for aid to France, and Philip sent his 50n f-icwis to England with an army ; and such vvas the people's hatred of their sovereign, that they swore allegiance to this foreigner. At this critical period John died at Newark, in 1,216, and an instant change ensued. His son Hgiiry 111., a boy of nine years of age, was crowned at Bristol; and his uncle, the earl of Pembroke, was appoint- ed protector of the realm. The disaffected barons returned to their allegiance; the people hailed their sovereign; and Lewis with his army, after an ineffectual struggle, made peace with the protector, and evacuated the kingdom. SECTION XVI. ] STATE or GERMANY AND ITALY IN THE THlRTEEiNTH CENTURY. 1 EaEDKitiCK II., son of Henry VI., was elected emperor on the resignation of Otho IV., in 1,212. At this period Naples, Sicily, and Lombardy, were all appanages of the empire; and the conteutio-is between the imperial and papal powers divided the states ot i!.:'!y into tactions, known by the name of Guclphs and Ghibeliinc-, tlij former mainlairjng the supremacy of the pope, the latter that of t!ie emperor. The opposition of Frederick to four successive popes vvas avenged by excommunication and deposition ; yet he kept posses- sion of his throne, and vindicated his authority with great spirir. Frequent attempts were made against his lite, by assassination and poison, which he openly attributed to papal resentment. On iii.i iigiith, in 1,250, the splendour of the empire was for many years ob- MODERN HISTORY. l?,ft sciired. It was a prey to incessant factions and civil war, the fruit ot contested claims of sovereignty. Yet the popes gained nothing by its disorders, for the trouble's of Italy were equally hostile to their ambition. We have seen the turbulent state of England. France vva> equally weak and anarchical ; and Spain was ravaged by the contests o-f the floors and christians. Yet, distracted as^ appears the situation of Europe, one great project gave a species of union to this discordant mass, of which we now proceed to give an account. SECTION XVII. THE CRUSADES, OR HOLY WARS. 1. The Turks or Turcomans, a race of Tartars from the regions of Mount Taurus and Imaus, invaded the dominions of Moscovy in the eleventh century, and came down upo^ the hanks of the Caspian. The caliphs employed Turkish mercenaries, and they acquired the reputation of able soldiers in the wars that took place on occasion of the contested caliphate. The caliphs of Bagdat^ the Abassidae, were deprived of Syria, Egypt, and Africa, by their rival caliphs of the race of Omar; and the Turks stripped of their do- minions both the Abassidaj and Onuniades. Bagdat was taken hy the Tures, and the empire of the cahpns overthrown in 1,055 ; and these princes, trom temporal monarchs, became no\v the supreme pontifl's of the Mahometan faith,est. 3. The spiritual business of the council of Constance was no less important than its temporal. John Huss, a disciple of Wickliff, was tried for heresy, in denying the hierarchy, and satirizing the im- moralities of the popes and bishops He did not deny the charge, and, refusing to confess his errors, was burnt alive. A simila;- fate was the po»'tion of his friend and disciple, Jeron> of Prague, who MODERN HISTORY. 143 display ed at his execution the eloquence of an apostle, and the con- stancy of a martyr, 1,416. Sigi-smund felt the consequence of these horrible proceedings ; for the Bohemians opposed his succession to their vacant crown, and it cost him a war of sixteen ycart- to attain it. 4. Whatever ^vas the imperial power at this time, it derived but Sinall consequence from its actual revenues. The wealth of the (jeriaianic states was exclusively possessed by iheir separate sove- reigns, and the empercr had little more than what he drew from Bohemia and Hungary. The sovereignty of Italy was an empty title. The interest of the emperor in that country furnished onl^ a source of faction to its princes, ami embroiled the states in perpetual quarrels. A series of conspiracies and civil tiunuits form the annals of the principal cities for above 200 years. Naples and Sicily were ruiricd by the weak and disorderly government of the two Joannas. A passion which the younger of these conceived for a soldier of the name of Sforza raised him to the sovereignty of Milan ; and her adoption, first of Aiphonzo of Arragon, and aiterwards of Lewis ot Anjou, laid the foundation of those contests between Spain and France for the sovereignty of the two Sicilies, which afterwards agitated all Europe. SECTION XXII. HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. L On the death of John, his son Henry III. succeeded tp the crown ot England at nine years of age. He was a prince of ami able dispositions, but of weak underslandaig. His_ preference of tbreign favourites disgusled his nobles ; and the want of economy in iHi' government, and oppressive enactions, deprived him of the affection of his people. Montfort earl of Leicester, son of the leader of the crusade against ihe Albigenses, and brother-in-law of the king, con- ceived a plan I'oi usurping tlie government. He formed a league with the barons, on the pretext oi" reibrming abuses, and compelled Henry to delegate all the regal ])0wer into the hands of twenty-foiu* of their number. These divided among themselves the offices ot government, and nesv-modeiied the parliament, by summoning a cer- tain number of knights chosen from each county. This measure v/as fatal (o their ov.n poMver; for these knights or representatives of the people, -indignant at Leicester's usurpatie?), determined to restore the royal authority ; and called on prince Edward, a youth of intrepid spirit, to avenge his fathers wrongs anplies, and compelled him to an jnqualitied submission. The terms demanded were, the surrender of a part of the country, a large sum of money, and an obligation of perpetual fea-lty to the crown of England. The Welsh infringed this treaty, and Edward marched his army into the heart of the country, wh.ere the troops of Lewellyn made a most desperate but in- effectual resistance. In a decisive engagement, in 1,283, the prince was slain. His brother David, betrayed into the hands of the con- queror, was iniiumanly executed on a gibbet ; and Wales, complete- ly subdued, was annexed to the crown of England. With a policy equa-Uy absurd and cruel, Edward ordered the Welsh bards to be put to death v.dierever found; thei'eby ensuring the perpeiuation of their heroic songs, and increasing the abhorrence of the vanquished people for their barbarous conqueror. 4. The conquest of Wales inflamed the ambition of Edward, and inspired him ^vilh the design of extending his dominion to the ex Iremity of the island. The designs of this enterprising monarch on the kingdom of Scotland invite our attention to that quarter. SECTION XXllI. III&TORY OF SCOTLAND FROM THE ELEVENTH TO THK FOURTEENTH CENTURY. 1. The history of Scotland before the reign of Malcolm III., sur- named Canmore", is obscure and fabulous. This prince succeeded to the tlwone in 1,057 by the defeat of Blacbeth, the murderer of his father Duncan. Espousing the cause of Edgar AtheUng, heir of the Saxon kin^^s of England, whose sister he married, he thus provoked a v/ar >\ilh Willir.m the conqueror, which was equally prejudicial to both kingdoms. In an expedition of Malcolm into Englaisd it is alleged, that, after concluding a truce, he was compelled by William to do homage tor his kingdom. The truth is, that this homage was done for the territories in Cumberland and Northumberland woo Isy the Scots, and held in vassalage of the English cro^vn ; though this homage was afterwards absurdly made the pretext of a claim of feudal sovereignty over all Scotland. In a reign of tAvenly-seven years Malcolm supported a spirited contest with England, both under William I. and his son Rufus ; and to the virtues of his queen Mai'- garet, his kingdom, in its domestic policy, owed a degree of civilisa- tion remarkable in those ages of barbarism. MODERN HISTORY. M5 2. Alexander I., his son and successor, defended, with equal spirit and good policy, the indt-peadence ot h\< kingioiri, and hi- son D.ivid I., celehiMted oven by t!ie democratic i^.iicii.uiau a^ an honour to nis connti'V and lo ni(/narchy. won tVom rilepiien, and annexed to Ids crown, the wliole earldom ot" Morlhiimherhmd. In those rei^n* we hear of no claim of tlie feudal snlijection of Scotland U> the crown of England; thon^h the accidental fortune of war al'unwards (hniished a ground for it. William i., (the hon), taken i)risoner at Ainwicli liy ilem-y 11., was compelled, as the pricp of his release, to do homage for his wliole kingdom; an ohiigation which his succes- sor Richard voluntarily discharged, deeming it to have been unjustly extorted. :>. On the death of Alexander 111. without male issue, in 1,285, fh'uce and Raliol, descendants of JJ-uid 1. by the female line, were competitors lor the crown, and the pretensions of each were support- ed by a formidable party in the kingdom. Edward 1. of England, diosen umpire of the contest, arrogated to himself, in that character, the feudal sovereignty of the kingdom, compelling all the b.irons lo swear allegiance to him, and taking actual possession of the country by his troops. He then adjudged the crown to Raliol, on the expres:- condition of his swearing fealty to him as lord paramount. Baliol, however, soon after renouncing his allegiance, the indignant Edwari' invaded Scotland with an immense force, and compelled the vveaj< prince to abdicate the throne, and resign the kingdom into his hands 4. William Wallace, one of the greatest heroes whom history \q cords, restored the tallen honours of his country. Joined by a feu patriots, his hrst successes in attacking the English giirrisons broughl numbers to his patriotic standard, 'iheir successes were signal and co:ispicuous. Victory followed upon victory. While Edward was engaged on the continent, his troops were utterly defeated in a des- fierate engagement at Stirling, and forced to evacuate the kingdom. Valliice, the deii\'e."er of his country, now assumed the title ot" gov- ernor of Scotland under Baliol, who was Edward's prisoner; a dis- ■ tinction which was foilowed by the envy and disallection of many ni the nobles, and the consequent diminution of his army. The .Scots were defeated a'. Falkii'k. Edward returned with a vast accession <>l force. After a fruitless resistance the Scottish barons tiortfiyoblain'-d peace by a ciipitulalion, from which the brave Wal-'^ice was exceph'd by name. A fugitive for some tin)e, he was belrayed into the hand- of Edward, who put him to , ]y.>i>6. Jphn king of i'rance was led if triumph to London, the feilou'-prisoner of David king of Scotland. But England derived from tliose victories nothing but honour. The French continued the war with great vigour durinsj the captivity of their sovereign, who died in London in l,oo4. They obtainei! a peace by the cession to the Englisii of Poitou, St. Onge, Ferigord and other provinces; and Ed- ward consented to renounce his claim to the crown of France. The death of the black prince, a most heroic and virtuous miui, plunged t^ nation in grief, and broke the spirits of his father, who did not long survive iiini. ♦• * -• ••" ^7. Uichard IL siicceeded his grandfather, in 1,377, at the age ol eleven. Uiiaries Vi. soon after becajrie king of France at tlv; age of twelve. Loth kingdoms suffered from the distractions attending a regal minority. In England the contests lor power between the king's uncles, Lancaster, York, and Gloucester, embroiled all public measures; arai the consequent disorders required a stronger hand to compose them than that of the weak and facile Richard. Taking advantage of the king's absence, then engaged in quelling an insur- rection m Ireland, Plenry of Lancaster rose in open rebellion, and compelleil Richard, at his return, to resign the crown. The parlia- ment coniirmed his deposition, and he was soon after privately* assas- sinated. Thus began the contentions between the houses of York and Lancaster. SECTION XXV. ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. STATE OF M.\NNERS; 1. IIknky IV. ascended the throne on the deposition of Richard II., |,3;''9; and had Immediately to combat a rebellion raisefl by the earl of Norlhumberland, for placing iMortirner, the heir of the house ol York, on the tlu-one. The Scots and Welsh took part with tlie rebels, but their united forces were defeated at Shrewsbury, and their lead er, youiig Percy (Hotspur), killed on the tieid. A'second rebellion 148 MODERN HIS'l\)lii:. headed by the archbishop of York, was qyelled by the capital punish, ment o{ its author. The secular arm was rigorously extended ;i^;iiti<( the foUovvors of Wirklin, :in(i tl.i.s reign saw the rirst detestable oxiiiopit'S ol' iViii;Jous per^^ucution. Tiie lii'e ot'lienry was imbitler- ed Ity t!ie youlhful di^i.-rders of his son the prince of Wales, who alkruards nobly redeemed his cliaracter. I4enry iV. died in 1,413, at the age of forty-six. 2 IJenry V. took advantage of the disorders of France, from the temporary" insjinity of its sovereign Charles VI., and the factious strugjjics for power between the dukes of Burgundy and Orleans;, lo invade the kinjulom with a large army,/ which a contagious dis- temper wastcMi down lo a llilh of its numbel^s : jet with this handiul of resolute and hardy troops, he tlefeatod the Fi-ench army of60.U(J0, under tlie constable D'Alberl, in the lamous battle of Agincourt, in whicli 10,OUU of the enemy were sUiin, ;aid 14,U(J0 made prisoners, October 24, 1.415. Returning to Kngland to recruit his Ibrces, he landed again with an army of 25,000, and I'onght his way to Faris. The insan.^ monarch, with his court, tied lo Troye, and fienry pur- suing, terminated tlie war by a treaty with t'»e (jueen-mother of the diike rf IJurgundy, by which it was agreed that he should many (tie daughter of Charles VI., and receive the kings \.'Il. recovered France by slow degrees. With the aid of a yuung female enth\isiast, ihe maid of Orle;in>, wliom the credu- lity of the ago supposed to be inspired by Heav<-n, he gained several inipoitanl advantages over the English, which the latter iuluimaidy revenged, by burning this heroine as a sorceress. Her death was of equal advantage lo the Frer.ch as her life had been. The goveiii- ment of the English was universally detested. After a struggle of many yeai-s, they were at length, in 1,450, deprived of all that they had ever possessed in France, except Calais and Cuignes. Charles, when he had restored his kingdom to peace, governed it with auini- rabie wisd(»ni and mo;ress of luxury had excited a se- rious alarm, ti)r.the parliament under Edward Hi. found it necessary to prohibit the use of gold and siber in apparel to all who bad no! WOJUEKIM HISTORV. 149 a hundred pounds a year; and Charles VI. of France ordained, that none shuuld presume to entertain witli more than two dishes and a me>is vt soup. HeCore the reign of Edward I. the whole country of England was plundered by robbers in great bands, who laid waste entire villages; and some o(" the hoasehold ofhcers of Henry III. excused themselves for roi)bing on the highway, because the king allov\ ed thein no wages. In l,o03 the abbot and monks of Westmin- ster were indicted for robbin- the ■king''s exchequer, but acquitted. Tiie admirable laws of Edward 1., which acquired him the title of tlie English Justinian, give strong testimony of the miserable policy and barbarism of the preceding times SECTION XXVI. DECLINE AND I'ALL OF THE GREEK EMPIRE. 1. In the fourteenth century the Turks were proceeding by de- grees to encroach on the tronliers of the Greek empire. The sul- tan Ottoman had fixed the seat of his government at Byrsa in Hi Ihynia; and his son Orcan extended his sovereignty to the PropontiiS, Hud obtamed in marriage the daughter of the emperor John Canta- cuzenos. About the middle of the century the Turks crossed over mto Europe, and took Adrianof)le. The emperor John Palaiologus, after meanly soliciting aid from the pope, concluded a humiliating treaty with sultan Amurat, and gave his son as a hostage to serve in the Turkish army. . 2. Bajazet, the successor of Amurat, compelled the emperor to destroy his fort of Galata, and to admit a Turkish judge into the city. He propr.refl now to besiege Constantinople in tbrm, when he was forced to change his purpose, and defend himself against the victorious Tamerlane. ,3. Timur-bek or Tamerlane, a prince of the Usbek Tartars, and descended from Gengiskan, after the conquest of Persia, a great part of India and Syria, was invited by the Asiatic princes, enemies ol Bajazet, to protect them against the Ottoman power, which threaten- cdto overwhelm them. Tamerlane, flattered by this request, im- periously summoned the Turk to renounce his conquests ; but the message was answered with a proud defiance. The armies met near Angoria (Ancyra) m Phrygia, and Bajazet was totally defeated and made prisoner by Tamerlane, 1,402. The conqueror made Samar cand the capital of his empire, and there received the homage of all the princes ol" the east. Tamerlane was illiterate, but yet was solici- lit)us for the cultivation of literature and science in his dominions. Samarcand became ibr a while the seat of learning, politeness, and the arts; but was destined to relapse, after a short period, into its ancient barbarism. 4. I'he Turks, after the death of Tamerlane, resumed their pur- pose of destroying the empire of the east. Amurat II., a prince of singular character, had, on the futh of a solemn treaty with the king of Poland, devoted his days to retirement and study. A viola- tion of the treaty, by an attack from the Poles on his dominions, made him quit his solitude. He engaged and destroyed the Polish army, with their perlidious sovereign, and then calmly returned to his re- treat, till a similar crisis of public expediency once more brought him into active life. He left his dominions to his son Mahomat It N2 160 MODERN HISTORY. sumamcd the great, who resumed the project for fhe destruction of Constantinople ; but its ihll wiis a second time retarded by the neces- sity in which the Tuiks were unexpectedly placed, of del'ending tlieir own dominions against a powerful iiivader. 5. Scanderheg (John Castrioi) prince of Alnania, wJicse terriloriej! had been seized liy Annirat 11., was educated l»y Iht sullan as his own chiil\iil he mainlaincd his independent sovereignty against the whole Force oi' the I'urki-li empire. G. ;i\hihomet II., son of the philosophic Atnurat, a youth of t'.ven- ty-one years of age, resumed the plan of extinguishing the empire of the Greeks, and making Constantinople the cap'tal of the Otto- man power. Its indolent inhalilants made hut a leehle preparation lijr defence, and the powers of Europe louked on with supine indit- ference. The Turks assailed the city hcth by land and sea ; and, battering down its walls with their cannrn, entered sword in hand, and massacred ail who opposed them. The emperor Constant ine was slain; the city snrrende^rod ; and thus was finally extinguished the eastern empire of the ivomans, A. D. 1,453, which, trom the building of its cajjital by Constantino tne great, had subsisted 1,123 years. The imperial edifices were preserved from destruction. The churches were converted info mosques; but the exercise of their religion was allowed to all the cluistiaijs. I'rom that time the Greek christians have regularly chosen their own patriarch, w horn the sultan instals; though his authority continues to be disputed by the Latin patriarch, who is chosen by the pope. Mali jniet the great hber.dly patronized the arts and sciences; and, to compensate for the migration of those learned Greeks, who, on the i'all of the empire, spread themselves over the countries of Europe, invited both artists and men of letters lo liis capital from other kingdoms. 7. The taking of Constantinople was ibllowcd by the conc|uest of Gpeece and Epirus. Italy might probably have met a similar tate, but by means of their ileet the Venetians opposed the arms of Mahomet with considerable success, and even attacked him in Greece. The contending powers soon aiter put an end to hostilities by a treaty. Mahomet the great died at the age of fifty-one, 1,481. SECTION XXVll. GOVERNMENT AND POLICY OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE. 1 The government of Turkey is an al solute monarchy, tlie whole legislative and executive authority of the state centering in the sultan, whose power is subject to no constitutional control. Jt is, however, limited in some degree by religious opinion; the precepts of the Coran inculcating certain duties on the sovereign, which it would be held an impiety to transgrjss. It is yet more strongly limit- ed by the fear of deposition and assassination. Under these restraints the prince can se'ldom venture on an extreme abuse of power. 2. The spirit of the people is fitted for a subjection bordering on slavery. Concubinage being agreeable to the law of Mahomet, the -grand seignior, the viziers, are born of female slaves : and there is •iKarcely a subject of the empire of inges-uous bloxl by both iiarents. MODEKIS HISTOKY. 151 It is a fundamental maxim of the Turkish policy, that all the otficers of stnte should be such as the sultan can entirely command, and at any time destroy, witiiout danger to himself. 3. The grand vizier is usually entrusted with the whole functions of goveriunent, and of coui>e subjected to the sole responsil.iiity for all public measures. Subordinate to him are six vi/.iers of lli« bench, who are Ids counsel and assessors in cases of ia.v, of wliich he is supreme judge. The power of the grand vizier is abM)lutH over all the subj.'cLs of the empire ; but he cannot put to de;itli a begler- beg or a basiiaw without the imperial signature ; nor puiish a jani- zary, uidess through t!je medium of his military commaiidec. '1 ne beglerbegs are the governor^ of several provinces, the l)ashaw> of a single province. All dignities in the Tuliish empire are personal, and dependent on the sovereign's pleasure. 4. The revenues of the grand seignior arise from taxe? and cus- toms hiid on the subject, annual tributes paiil by the Tartars^ iitated gills from the governors of the provinces, and, aI)ove all, thR roofifi. cations of estates, from the viziers and bashaws downwards 'n the lowest subjects of the empire. Tiie certain and fixed revenu'^s ol the sovereign are small in comparison of those which are arbiirary. His absolute power enables him to execute great projects at a iuiull expense. SECTION XXVIII. FRANCE AND ITALY IN THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. 1. Scarcely any vestige of the ancient feudal government now remained in France. The only subsisting tiefs were Burgundy and Brittany. Charles the bold, duke of Burgundy, who sought to in- crease his territories by the conquest of iLwitzerhmd and Lorraine, was defeated by the Swiss, and killed in battle. He left no so;), and Lewis XI. of France took possession of Burgundy as a male lief, 1,417. The duke's daughter married Maxiniiiian, son of the empe- ror Frederick III , who, by this marriage, acquired the sovereignty of the Netherlands. 2. The acquisition of Burgundy and of Provence, which was be queathed to France by the count de la Marciie, increased very great- ly the power of the crown. Lewis XI., an odious compound of vice, cruelty, and superstition, and a tyrant to his people, was the author of many vvise and excellent regulations of public policy- The Itai- barity of the public executirns in his reign is beyond all belief; yet the wisdom of his laws, the encouragement which he gave to com- merce, the restraints which he im-posed on the oppressions of the nobility, and the attention which he liestowed in regulating ihtj courts ol justice, must ever be mentioned to his honour. 3. The coimt de la Marche, beside the beq:iest of Provence to Lewis XI., left him his empty title of sovereign of the Two Sicilies. Lewis was satisfied with the substantial gift; but his son Charles Vlll. was dazzled with the shadow. In the beginning of his reign he projected the cov.quest of Naples, and embarked in the enterprise with the most improvident precipitancy. ., 4. The dismembered state of Italy was favourable to his views 152 MOBEiix^ HiSTURY. The popedom, during the transference of Us seat to Avigron, had lost many of its territories. !\Iantna, Modena, and Ferra'-a, had t'.ieir independent sovereigns. Piedmont belonged to the duke of Savoy; Genoa and Milan to the tlimily of Sforza. Florence, under the Medi- ci, had attained a very high pitch of spiendonr. Cosmo, the iounder ot'that tamily, erai)loyed a vasf fortune, acquired by commerce, in the improvement of his country, in acts of public muniticence, and in the cultivation of the sciences and elegant arts. His high reputation «)btained for himself and his posterity the chief authority in his native state. Peter da Medici, his great grandson, ruled in Florence at the period of the expedition of Charles VIU. into Italy. 5. The papacy was enjoyetl at this time by Alexander VI., a mon sterof wirkednes*. The pope and the duke of Milan, who had invited Charles to this enterprise, immediately betrayed him, and joined the interest of the king of Naples. Charles, after besieging the pope in llo.ne, and forcing him to submission, devoutly kissed his teet. lie now marciied against Naples, while its timid prince Alphonso lied to Sicily, and his son to the isle of Iscnia, afler absolving his sul.jecta from their allegiance. Charles entered Naples in triumph, and was liailed emperor and Augustus: but ha lost his new kingdom in almost as short a time as he liad gained it. A league was Ibrmed against France betsveiu the pope, the emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Ar- ragon, Isabella of Castile, and the Venetians; and on the return of Charles to France, the troops which he had left to guard his conquest weie entirely driven out of itai}.^ 6. it has been remarked that, from the decisive effect of t Ids con federacy against Charles VIU. , the sovereigns of Europe derived a •jseiul lesson of policy, and iirst adopted the idea of preserving a bal- ance of power, by that tacit league which is understood to be always subsisting, for the prevention of the inordinate aggrandizement of any particular state. 7. Charles VIU. died at the age of twenty-eight, 1,498; and, leav- ing no children, the duke of (Orleans succeeded to the thronb oi France by the tiile of Lewis XII SECTION XXIX. HISTORY OF SPAIN IN THE FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH. CENTURIES. 1. Wk go back a little to the midtlle of the fourteenth century, to trace the history of Spain. Peter of Caslile, surnamed the cruel, for no other reason but that he employed severe means to support his just rights, had to contend against a bast;!rd brother, Henry ol Trans- tamarre, who, with the aid of a French handilti, called Maiandrius, led by Bertrand du Cnesclin, strove to di^pohsess him of his kingdom. Peter was aided by Edward the black prince, then sovereign of Uui- enne, wno djleated Transtamarre, and look Bertrand prisoner; but, on the return of Ihj prince to England, Peter was attacked by his former enemies, and entirely defeated. Unable to restrain hi«' rage m the tirst view with Transtamarre, the latter put him to death with his own hand, 1,363 ; and thus this usurper secured ibi himself and hid posterity the throne of Caslile. 2. The weakness and debauchery of one of his descendants, Hen- ry IV. ol' Castile, occasioned a revolution in the kingdom. The ma' MOJ)EKiN HISTORY. Ib'J jority of the nation rose in rebellion; the assembly of the nobles sol- emnly deposed their king, and, on the alleged ground of his daughter lo;iiin;i being a baslanl, compelled him to settle the crown on iiis sis- ter Isabella. They next brought about a marriage between Isabella and Kerdinand of Arragon, which united (lie monarchies of Arragon and Caslile'. After a ruinous civil war the revolution was at length cou)plel('d tjy the death of the deposed sovereign, 1,474, and the re- (irement of iiis daughter Joanna to a monastery, 1,479. A. At the accession of Ferdinand and Isabella (o the thron<;s of Ar- ragon and Castile, Spain \Yas in a state of great disorder, from the lawless depredations of the nobles and their vassals. It was the first object of the tievv sovereigns to repress these enormities, by subject- ing the offenders to the utmost rigour of law, enforced by the sword. The holy brUherhood was instituted for the discovery and punishment of crimes; and the inquisition (Sect. XIX, & 3), under the pretext ot extirpating heresy and impiety, afforded the most detestable exam- ples of sanguinary })ersecution. 4. The Sloorish kingdom of Granada, a most splendid monarchy, but at that time weakened by faction, and a prey to civil war, oflerea a tempting object to the ambition of Ferdinand and Isabella. Alboa- cen was at war with his nepLevv' Aboabdeli, who wanted to dethrone him; and Ferdinand aided Aboabdeli, in the view of ruining both; for no sooner was the latter in possession of tl>e crown by the death of Alboaccn, than Ferdinand invaded his ally with the whole force of Arragon and Castile. Granada was besieged in 1,491, and, al'ler a blor.kade of eight months, surrendered to the victor. Aboabdeli, by a mean capitulation, saved his life, and purchased a retreat for hi3 countrymen to a mountainous part of the kingdom, where they were sufllbred to enjoy unmohsted their laws and their religion. Thus ended the dominion of the Moore in Spain, which had subsisted for 8t)U years. 5. Ferdinand, from that period, took the title of king of Spain. In 1,492 he expelled all the Jews from his domhiions, on the absurd ground, that they kept in their hands the commerce of the kingdom and Spain thus lost above loU.UUO of the most industrious of her in- habitants. The exiles spread themselves over the other kingdoms oi Ftirope, and were often the victims of a persecution equally inhuman. It would appear that Spain has felt, even to the present limes, the ef- fects of this folly, in the slow progress of the arts, and that deplora- ble inactivity which is the characteristic of her people. Even the discovery of the new world, which happened at this very period, and which stimulated the spirit of enterprise and industry in all the neigh- bouring kingdoms, produced but a feeble impression on that nation, which might in a great degree have monopolized its benefits. Of that great discovery we shall afterwards treat in a separate section SECTION XXX. FRA>X'E, SPAIN, AND ITALY, IN THE END .OF THE FIF- TEENTH AND BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. 1. Lewls XII., eagerly bent on \indicaung his right to Naples, :oiirled the interest ol" pope Alexander VI., who promised his aid on :ondition that his natural son, Caesar Borgia, sliould receive from 'utwis the duchy of Valentinois, with the king of Navarre's sistei' in 20 Ib4 BlODEKiN' HiSTOllY. marriage. Lewis crossed the Alps, and in tlie space of a kw days wa« master of Milan ami Genoa. Slbr/.a (hike ol' Milan became his prisoner lor iiJe. Ai'raid ol'llie power oi' I'erdinand ol' Spain, 'L.euis joined with liim in the conquest ol' Naphs, and agreed to (li\ide with him liie conqnered dominions, the pope making no scrui)le to sau;lion tiie partition. But the compromise was of no duration; for Alexander VJ., and Ferdinand, Jiulging it a l)elter policy to share Italy between themselves, uniled their interest to depiive Lev\is of his new territories. The Spaniards, under Gonsalvo tie Cordova, deiealed the French, under the duke de iNemours and the cheva.ier J>ajard ; anil Lewis irrecoverably lost iiis share of the kingdom ol Najiles. 2. History relates wilh horror the crimes of pope Alexander V'., and his son CaRsar Borgia; their murders^ robberies, prolimatious, iiicests. I'hey compassed their ends in atta.ining evei'y oiject cl' tiieir ambition, but with the universal abhorrence of mankind, and linally met with an ample retribution for (heir crimes. The pope died by poison, prepared, as was alleged, by himself lor an enemy ; and Borgia, stripped of all iiis possessions by pope Julius 11., and sent liijsoncr to Spain by Gonsaivo de Cordova, perished in miserable obscurity. 3. .Jiniiis 11., die successor of Alexander, projected the formidable league of Caml.'ray, 1,5U8, wilh the emp<'ror, the kings of 1 ranee . and Spain, the duke of Savoy, and king of HungaVy, for the destruc- tion of Venice, and the division of her territories among the coiift d- erates. Tiiey accomplished in part their design, and Venice was on tiie vergj of annihilation, when the pope changed his politics. Having made the French subservient to Ids views of plundering the \ enelians, he now formed a new league v.iih the Venetians, (ser- mans, and Spaniards, to expel the French from Italy, and appropriate ail their conquests. The Swiss and the f^nglish c-o-operated in ibis design. The French made a brave resistance under their generals Bayard and Gaston de Foix, but were linally. overpowered. Lewis was compelled to evacuate Italy; i-'erdinand, with tl:e aid of Heiu-y Vlll. of EnglanJ, stripped him of Na\arre, and forced him to pur- chase a peace. He died in 1,515. Though unfortunate in his nniita- ry enterprises, from tlie superior abilities of his rivals pope .'ulius Hcd Ferdinand, yet he was justly esteemed by his subjects foi the >\isdom and equity of his government. SECTION XXXI. HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM THE MIDDLE OF "WE FIFTEENTH TO THE BEGINNING OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. CIVIL WARS OF YORK AND LANCASTER. L We have seen France recovered from the English in the early- part of the reign of Henry VI., by the talents and prowe.ss of Charles VJll. During tiie minority of Henry, who was a prince of no capa- city, England was embroiled by tlie factious contention for power between^his uncles, the duke of Gloucester and the cardinal of Uin- chester. The latter, to promote his own views of ambition, married . Henry to Margaret of Anjou, daughter of liegner the titular king ol Naples, a woman of great mental endowments and singular heroism MODERN HISTORY. !55 of chanicter, but whose severity in the persecution of her (!ncmics alieniitcd a great pail of tlic nolilos iVom their allegiance, and in- creased the partisans of a lival claimant of" the crown. 2. This was iiichard duke of York, doeccnded by hi~ mother from I jonel, -econd sonof Echvard 111., and elder bro'her to John of Gaunt, the progenitor of Henry Vi. 'I'he white rose disllnguislied the tiic- tion of Vork, and the red rose lliai of Lancaster. The party ot York {gained mtich strength from the incapacity of Henry, wiiowas .=;uiiject to periodical madness; and Itichard was appointed iieuleuant and protector of the kingdom. The authority of Henry was now anniiiilatcd; but Alargaret roused her husband, in an interval ol sanity, to assert his right; and the nation was divided in arms be- tween the rival parties. In the battle of St. Albans 5,U0t) of the Lancastrians wei'C slain, and the king was taken jirisoner by the duke o{ York, on the 22d day of May, 1,455. Yet the parliament, ^v!lile It confirmed the authority of the protector, maintained its allegiance to the king. 3. The spirit of the queen reanimated tlie royal parly ; antl the Lancr.strians gained such advantage, that the duke of York tied to Ireland, while his causo was secretly maintained in England by Guv earl of Warwick, in the hattle of Nortlia.mpton the party of \ ork again prevailed, and Henry once more w;is in-onght pristiuer to Lon- don; while ids dauntless queen siiil !v;!)iy exerted herself to retrieve ids Ibrtunes. York now c!;'.i;ti ! ' - • v lown in open parliament, but prevailed only to have his ri_^'.i' .4.1;-,. ~^ion ascertained ou Hcnry'g death, to the "exclusion of the luy.ii i^-ue. 4. In the next battle the dul^o of York was slain, and his party de- lated • but his successor Edward, supj;orted by Warwick, avenged this disaster by_ a signal victory near Tout/n, in Yorkshire, in which 40,01)0 of tiiC Lanc;istrians wero shiin. York wiis proclaimed king by the title of Edw..:'d l\'., while riiai'gr.rci, wi.li her tlethroned husoand and inlant son, lied into i-'landers. 5. Edwai^d, who owed his crown to. Warwick, was ungrateful to his benelactor; raid the imprudence and i-.^iustice of his conduct forced tfrat nobleman at length to take p;irt witu J:,-^ faction of I..an- caster. The consequence was, that, after S(.ine •^Irng^iC?, Ed»vard xvas deposed, and iienry \'l. once more restored to the throne by the hands of Warwick, now known by the epithet of the king-maker. lint this change was of no duration. The party of York ultimately prevailed. The Lancastrians were defeated in'the battle of Barnet, and the brave Warwick v, as slain in the engagement. 1,472, C. The intrepid jMargaret, whose spirit was superior to every change of fortune, prepared to strike a last blow for the crown of England in the battle of Tewksl)ury. The event was fatal to her hopes: victory dcc'ared fur Edwani. Margaret was sent prisoner to the lower of London; and liie prir.oe her son, a youth of high spirit, when brought into the presence of his conqueror, having nobly dared to justify his enterprise to the face of his rival, was barbarously mur- dered by the dukes of Gloucester and Clarence. Henry V4. was soon after privately put to death in the Tower. The heroic Margart tj ransomed by Lewis XI., died in Fiance, 1,482. 7. Edward IV., thus secured on the throne by the death ol' all his competitors, abandoned himself without reserve to the indulgence of a vicious and tyrannical nature lie put to death, on the most iVivo- lous pretence, his brother Clarence. Preparing togratily his subjects by a war with France, he died suddenly in the forty-second vear of J56 MODEliN HISTOliY. his age. poisoned, as «as suspected, by his brother Richard duke of (jl')U'-ester, 1,183. 8. Edward led two sons, the elder, Edward V., a boy of thirterti years of age. Kichard duke of Gloucester, iianied protector in the minority of his nephew, hired, by means of Buckingham, a m-ob el the dregs of the populace to declare their wish lor his assumption of the crown. He yiekled, with afrecto.(l reluctance, to this voice of the nation, and was proclaimetl king by the tide ol" Kichard 111., l,ir!3. Edward \ ., after a reign of two monlhs, with his brother the duke of \ ork, were, by command of the usurper, smothered w hile asleep, ftnd privately t^iried in the 'i'ower. 9. These atrocious crinics found an avenger in Henry earl of Richmond, tht^ suryivifig heir of the house of Lancaster, who, aided by Charles V'lU. of Erance, landed in England, and revived the spirits of a pjirty almost extinguvhed in the kingdom. He gave battle to Kichard in the field of E/Oswurth. and entirely defe;>t.ed the army of the usurper, who was slain while fighting with the most desperate rourage, August 22, 1,485. The crown which he wore hi the encrage- ment was immediately placed on the head of the conqueror. This ausj icious day put an end to the civil wars of York and Lancaster. Henry \ 11. united tlie rights of both families by his marriage with Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. 10. The reigii of Henry \ II. was of twenty-four years' duration; and under his wise and })oliiic government the kingdom recovered all the woun(!s which it had sustained in those unhappy contests, industry, good order, and perfect subordination, were the fruit of the ex-ellent laws passed in this reign ; though tlie temper of (he si ve re.'gn was despotic, and his avarice, in the latter part of his rcign, prompted to the most oppressive exactions. 1 1. The government of Henry was disturbed by two very singular enterprises; Ihc attempt of Lambert .Simnel, the son of a baker, to counterfeit the person of the earl of Warwick, son of the duke ol Clarence; and the similar attempt of Ferkin \VarL>eck, son of a Flemish .lew, to counterfeit the duke ot Ycik, who had been smother- ed in the Tower by Kichard 111. Both impostors found considerable support, but were liiudly deleated. Simnel, after beinq crowned king of England and Ireland at Dublin, ended his days in a menial olhce of Henry's household. Perkiu supported his cause by iVrce of arms for five years, and was aided l)y a great proportion of the English nobility. "Overpowered at length he surrendered to Henry, who co.idemned him to perpetual imprisonment; but his ambition; spirit meditated a new insurrection, and he was put to death as a traitor. Henry VII. died in 1.509, in the tifty-ihird year of his age, and the twenty-fourth of his reign. SECTION XXXIL HISTORY OF SCOTLAND FROM THE MIDDLE OF THE FOURTEEJNTH CENTURY TO THE END OF THE REIGN OF JAMES V L In no country of Europe had the feudal aristocracy attained to a greater height than ~Tn Scotland. The power of the greater bitrons, while it rendered them independent, and often the rivals MODERN iUSTOKY, of tbeir soveneign, was a perpetual source of turbulence and di? order in the kingdom. It was therefore a constant policy of thie Scottish kings to Tiumbie the nobles, and breiik their factious com- binations. Robert I. attempted to retrench the vast terriloiial pos- sessions of his barons, by requiring every landholder to produce the titles of his esiate; but was resolutely answered, thyft the sword was their charter of possession. "2.. On the death of Robert in 1,329, and daring the minority ol \\\i son David, Edward Baliol, the son of John formerly king o) Scotland, with the aid of Edward 111. of England, and of many of I'le factious barons, invaded the kingdom, and was crowned at Scout, while the young David was conveyed tor security to France. The m.^m dependence of Baliol on the English monarch deprived him of the affections of the people. Robert, the steward of Scotland, R;ui- (iolph, and Douglas, supported the Brucian interest, and, assisted by tSieFrencli, restored David to his throne. This prince was dosliued , to sustain many reverses of fortune ; for, in a subsequent invasion ol the English territory by the Scots, he was taken prisoner in the bat- tle of Durham, and conveyed to London. He remained eleven years in captivity, and witnessed a similar fate of a brother monarch, .lohn king of France, taken prisoner by the black prince in the battle of Poictiers. David vvas ransomed by his subjects, and restored to his kingdom in 1,357 ; and ended a turbulent reign in 1,370-1. Tise crown passed at his demise to his nephew Robert, the high steward of Scotland, in virtue of a destination made by Robert I. 3. The reign of Robert IL, which was of twenty yeais' duration, was spent in a series of hostilities between the !5coLs and EnglisiV, productive of no material consequence to either kingdom. The weak and indolent disposition of his successor Robert III., who found himself unequal to the contest with iiis factious nobles, prompted him to resign the government to his brother, the duke of Albany. This ambitious man formed the design of usurping the throne by tile murder of his nephews, the sons of Kobert. The elder, Rothsay, a prince of high spirit, was imprisoned on pretence of treasonable de- signs, and starved to death. The younger, James, escaped a similar fate which was intended for him; but on his passage to France, whither he was sent for salety by his father, he vvas taken by an Eng- lish ship of war, and brought prisoner to London. The wealc Robert sunk under these inisfortun,\'^, and died, 1,1U5, after a reign of iifteen veal's. 4. James 1., a prince of great natural endowmentSj profited by a captivity of eighteen years at the court of England, in adorning' his mind with every valuable accompUshment. At his return to his kingdom, which in his absence had been weakly governed by the regent Albany, and suffered under all the disorders ol' anarchy, he bent his whole attention to the improvement and civilization of his people, by the enactment of many excellent laws, enforced witli a resolute authority. The tactions of the nobles, their dangerous com- binations, and their domineering tyranny over their depi'ndents, the great sources of the people's miseries, were firmly restrained, and most severely punished. But these wholesome innovations, while they procured to James tha affections of the nation at large, excited the odium of the nobility, and gave birth to a con-spiracy, headed by the earl of Athole, the king s uncle, which terminated in the murder of this excellent prince, in the 4 Ith year of his age, A. D. 1,437. () 158 MODEHiN HISTORY. 5. His son James II. inherited a considenible poition o( the talents of his fatiicr; and, in. the like purpose ot^ restraining the inordinate poiverofiiis nobles, pursued the same maxims of government, which an impetuous temper prompted him, in son^e instances, lo carry to tiac most blameable excess. The earl of Douglas, trusting to a pow- erful vassalage, had assumed an authority above the laws, and a state and splendour rival to those of his sovereign. He was seized, and beheatJed without accusation or trial. His successor imprudently running tlie same career, and boldly justifying, in a conferences^ his rebellious practices, was put to death by the king's own hand. Thus were the factions of the nobles quelled by a barbarous rigour of authority. To his people James was beneficent and humane, and Ids laws contributed materially to their civilization and prosperity. He was killed, in the 30th yeai of his age, by the bursting of a can- non, in besieging the castle of Roxburgh, A. D. 1,460. 6. His son James 111., without the talents of his predecessors, aflected to tread in the same steps. To humble his nobles he be- stowed his confidence on mean favourites, an insult which the for- mer avenged by rebellion. His brothers Albany and Mar, aided l)y Edward IV. of England, attempted a revolution in the kingdom, vviiich was frustrated only by the death of Edward. In a second re- bellion the confederate nobles ibrced the prince of Rothsay, ekkst son of James, to appear in arms against iiis father. In an engagen.ent near Bannockburn the rebels were successful, and the king was tlain in the 35th near of his age, 1,488. 7. James IV., a great and most accomplished prince, whose talents were equalled by his virtues, while his measures of government were dictated by a true spirit of patriotism, won by a well-placed conli- dence the affections of his nobility. In his marriage with Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII. of England, both sovereigns wisely sought a bond of amity between the kingdoms; but this purpose was frustrated in the succeeding reign of lIcMuy VIll. The high spirit of the rival monarchs was easily inllamed by trilling causes ot" otfence; and France, then at war with England, courted the aid of her an- cient ally. James invaded England with a powerful army, which he wished lo lead to immediate action; but the prudent delays of Surrey, I he English general, wasted and weakened his force. In the fatal battle ot" Elodden the Sv'Ots were defeated with prodigious slaughter. Tiie gallant James perished in the tight, and with him almost the whole of the Scotlisli nobles, A. D. 1,513. 8. Under the long minority of his son James V., an infant at the time of his father's death, the kingdom was feebly ruled by his uncle Albany. The aristocracy began to resume its ancient spirit ot inde- pendence, Avhich was ill-brooked by a i)rince of a proud and un- controlat)le mind, who felt the keenest jealousj' of a high preroga- tive. With a systematic policy he employed the church to abtise the nobility, contcrring all the olHces of state on able ecclesiastics. The canlinal Beaton co-operated with great zeal in the designs of his master, and under him ruled the kingdom. 9. Henry Mil., embroiled with the papacy, sought an alliance with the king of .Scots; but the ecclesiastical counselloi-s of the lat- ter defeated this benelicial purpose. A war was thus provoked, and James was reluctantly compelled to couit those nobles whom it had hitherto been his darling object to humiliate. They now determined on a disgraceful revenge. In an attack on the Scottish border the Kngliijh were repelled, and an opportunity offered to the Scots of MODEliN lllSTORV. 169 cutting off their retreat. The king gave his orders to that end, but Ins barons obstinately refused to advance beyond the frontier. One measure more was wanting to drive tlieir sovereign to despair. In a subsequent engagement with the English 10,000 of the Sects deliber- ately surrendered themselves prisoners to 500 of the enemy. The high spirit of James sunk under his contending passions, and he died oj a broken heart in the 33d year of his age, A. P. 1,542, a few days alter the birth of a daughter, yet more unfortun.ite than her father, Jlary queen of Scots. SECTION XXXIII. OF THE ANCIENT CONSTITUTION OF THE SCOTTISH GOVERN- MENT. 1. We have seen that it was a constant policy of the Scottish kings to abase the power of their nobles ; and that the struggle tor power was the source of nr.uch misery and bloodshed. But this policy w;is necessary, from the dangerous ambition and lav/less tyranny of those nobles, who frequently aimed at overturning the throne, and exercis- etminster, oi Walsingham, Everard, Duysburg, and liie Cfironicles of Froissart and ]\Ionstrelet. Philip de Commines buppily describes the reigns of Lewis XI. and Charles V'lU. of I' lance. Villani and Platina are v iluable recorders of the aflairs of Italy. 1 2. A taste for classical learning in the fifteenth century led to the discovery of many of the ancient authors. I'oggio discovered the xvritings of Quintilian and several of the compositions of Cicero, which stimulated to tarther research, and to the recovery of many valuable remains of Greek and Roman literature. But this taste was r.ot generally difiused. France and England were extremely barba- t\)us. The "library at Oxford contained only 600 volumes, and there \vere but four classics in the royal library at Paris. But a brighter period was approaching. On the fall of the eastern empire, in the end of the fifteenth century, the dispersion of the Greeks diffused a taste for polite literature over all the "west of Europe. A succession of popes, endowed with a hberal and enlightened spirit, gave every eaicouragement to learning and the sciences; and, above all, the ooble discovery of the art of p netting contiibuted to their rapid ad- Taiicement and dissemination, and gave a certain assurance of the perpetuation of every valuable art, and the progressive improvement of human knowledge. 13. The rise of dramatic composition among the moderns is to be traced to the absurd and ludicrous representation, in the churches, of the scripture histories, called in England mysteries, miracles, and moralities. These were first exhibited in the twelfth century, and continued to the sixteenth, when they were prohibited by law in England. Of these we have amusing specimens in Warton's His- tory of English Poetry. Profane dramas were substituted in their place ; and a mixture of the sacred and profane appears to have been known in France as early as 1,300. hi Spain the farcical mys- teiies keep their ground to the present day, and no regular compo- sition for the stage was known till the end of the sixteenth century. The Italians are allowed by their^ own writers to have borrowed iheir theatre from the French and English. See Kelt's Elements of General Knowledge, vol. I. MODERN HkSTOKY. |6» SECTION XXXV. VIEW OF THE PR0GRP:SS OF COMMERCE IN EUROPE BEFOAfi THE PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES. 1 . Before we give an account of the discoveries of the Portu- guese in the fifteenth century, in exploring a new route to India, we sliali present a siiort view of the progress of commerce in Europe down to tiiat period. The boldest naval enterprise of the ancients was the Periplus ot Hanno, who sailed from Carthage to the coast of Guinea, within four or five degrees of'the equator, A. C. 570. The ancients did not know that AtVica was almost circumnavigable. They had a very limited knowledge of the habitable earth. They believed that both the torrid and frigid zones were uninhabitable ;^ and they were very imperfectly acquamted with a great part of Europe, Asia, and Af- rica. Denmark, Sweden, Prussia, Poland, and the greater part ol Russia, were unlvuown to ihem. In Ptolemy's description of the globe, the 63d degree of latitude is the limit of the earth to the north, and the equator to the south. 2. Britain was circumnavigated in the time of Domitian. The Romans frequented it lor the purposes of commerce ; and Tacitus mentions London as a celebrated resort of merchants. The com- merce of the ancients weis, however, chielly confined to the Mediter» ranean. In the nourishing periods of the eastern empire the mer- chandise of India was imported from Alexandria ; but, after the con- quest of Egypt by the Arabians, it was carried up the Indus, and thence by land to the Oxus. which then ran directly into the Caspian sea; tnence it was brought up the Wolga, and again carried overland to the Don, whence it descended into the Euxine. 3. After the fall of the western empire commerce was long at a stand ill Europe. When Attila was ravaging Italy the Veneti took refuge in the small islands at the northern extremity of the Adriatic, and there founded Venice. A. D. 452, which began very early to equip small fleets, and trade to the coasts of Egypt and the Levant, for spices ;ind other merchandise of Arabia and India. Genoa, Flor- ence, and Pisa, imitated this example, and began to acquire consider- able wealth ; but Venice retained her superiority over these riva states, and gained considerable territory on the opposite coast of Illy r- icum and Dalmalia. 4. The maritime cities of Italy profited by the crusades, in furnish- ing the armies with suppUes, and bringing home the produce of the east. The Italian merchants established manufactures similar to those of Constantinople. Rogero king of Sicily brought artisans from Athens, and established a siUc manufacture at Palermo in 1,130. The sugar cane was planted in Sicily in the twelfth century, and thence carried to Madeira, and finally made its way to the West Indies. 5. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Italians were the only commercial people of Europe. Venice set the first example of a national bank in 1,157, which has maintained its credit to the present times. The only trade of France, Spain, and Germany, at this time, was carried on at stated fairs and markets, to which traders resorted from all quarters, paying a tax to the sovereigns or the iordi IM MODERN HISTORY. of the territory. The more enterprising bought a privilege ot ex- emption, by paying at once a large sum, and were thence called fret troAers. 6. in the middle ages the Italian merchants, usually called Lom- bards, were the tactors of all the European nations, and were en- ticed, by privileges granted by the sovereigns, to settle in France, Spain, (xermany, and England. They were not only traders in com modities, but bankers, or money dealei-s. In this last business they found a severe restraint irom the canon law prohibiting the taking of int-erest; and hence, from the necessaiy privacy of their bargains, there were no bounds to exorbitant usury. The Jews, too, who were the chief dealers in money, brought disrepute on the Inidp of banking, and frequently sulfered, on that account, the most intoler- able persecution and confiscation of their fortunes. To guard agauist these injuries they invented bills of exchange. 7. The Lombard merchants excited a spirit of commerce, and gave birth to manufactures, which were generally encouraged by tlie sovereigns in the different kingdoms of Europe. Among the chief encouragements was the institution of corporations or monop- olies, the earliest of which are traced up to the eleventh century ; a policy beneficial, and perhaps necessary, where the spirit ol" indus- try is low, and manufactures are in their infancy ; but of hurtful con- sequence where trade and manufactures are flourishing. 8. Commerce began to spread toward the north of Europe about tlie end of the twehth century. The sea-ports on the Baltic traded with France and Britain, and with the IMediterrancan by the sUtple of the isle of Oleron, near the mouth of the Garonne, then possessed by the English. The commercial laws of Oleron and Wisbuy (on the Baltic) regulated for many ages the tracy, Lubec, Hamburgh, and most of the north- ern sea-ports, joined in a confederacy, under certain general legula- tions, termed the league of the hanse-toii:ns ; a union so beneficial in its nature, and so formidable in point of strength, that its alliance was courted by the predominant powers of Europe. 9. For the trade of the hanse-towns with the southern kingdoms, Bruges, on the coast of Flanders, was found a convenient enuepot, and thither the Mediterranean merchants brouglit the commodilies of India and the Levant to exchange with the produce ar.J manufac- tures of the north. The Flemings now l)egan to encourage trade and manufactures, which thence spread to the Brabanters : but theii growth being checked by the impolitic sovereigns of those prov- inces, they found a more favourable field in England, which was des- tined to derive frem tlicm the great source of its national opulence. 10. The Britons had very early seen the importance of commerce. Bede relates that London was frequented by foreigners for the pur- pose of trade in 614; and William of Malmesbury speaks of it, ia 1,041, iis a most populous and wealthy city. The cinque ports. Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich, obtained in that age their privileges and immunities, on condition of I'urnishing each five ships of war. These ports are now eight in number, and send their members to parliament. 11. The woollen manufacture of England was considerable in the twelfth century. Henry II. incorporated the weavers of London, and gave them various privileges. By a law passed in his reign, all cloth made of foreign wool was condemned to be burnt. Scotland at this time seems to have possessed a considerable source of wealth. MOUERN HIS'i^OKY. ,65 as is evident Jrom the payment of the ransom of William the Hon, which was 10,000 merks, equal to 100,0001. sterling of present money. The English found it difficult to raise double that sum for the ransom of Richard I., and the Scots contributed a proportion of it. The English sovereigns at first drew a considerable revenue from the custom on wool exported to be manufactured abroad; but becom- ing soon sensible of the benefit of encouraging its home manutacture^ they invited, for that purpose, the foreign artisans and merchants to reside in England, and gave them valuable immunities. Edward III. was peculiarly attentive to trade and manufactures, as appears by the laws passed iti his reign ; and lie was bountiful in the encouragement of foreign artisans. The succeeding reigns were not so favourable. During the civil whts of York and Lancaster the spirit of trade and manufactures greatly declined ; nor did Ihey begin to revive and flourish till the accession of Henry VII. In that interval of their de- cay in England commerce and the arts were encouraged in Scotland by James 1. and his successors, as much as the comparatively rude and turbulent state of the kingdom would permit. The herring fish- ery then began to be vigorously promoted; and the duties laid on (he exportation of woollen cloth show that this manufacture was then considerable among the Scots. Glasgow began to acquire wealth by the fisheries in 1,120, but had little or no Ibreign trade till aftfir the discovery of America and the vVcst Indies. 12. Henry VII. gave the most liijeral encouragement to trade and manufactures, particularly the woollen, by inviting foreign artisans, and establishing them at Leeds, Wakefield, Halifax, and other places. The navigation acts were passed in his reign, and commercial treaties fonned with the continental kingdoms lor the protection of the merchant-shipping. Such was the state of commerce at the time when the Portuguese made those great discoveries which open- ed a new route to India^ and gave a circulation to their wealth over mqst of the nations of Europe. SECTION XXXVl. DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE COMMERCE OF EUROPE. 1. The pplarity of the magnet had been known in Europe aa early as the thirteenth century ;' but the compass was not used in sailing till the middle of the fourteenth; and another century Iwd eLipsed from that period, while yet the European mariners scarcely ventured out of the sight of their coasts. The eastern ocean was little known ; and the Atlantic w;is supposed to be a boundless ex- panse of sea, extending probably to the eastern shores of Asia. In the belief that the torrid zone was uninhabitable, a promontory on the African coast, in the 29th degree of north latitude, was termed Cape Non, as forming an impassable limit. 2. In the beginning of the rifleenth century John king of PoF' tugal sent a tew vessels to explore the African coast; and these doubling Cape Non proceeded to Cape Boyador, within two de- grees of the nortliern tropic. Prince Henry, the son of John, equip- ped a single ship, which, being driven out to sea, landed on the maud MODERN HISTORY. of Porto Santo. This involuntary experiment emboldened the mariners to abandon their timid mode of coasting, and launch into the open sea. In 1,420 the Portuguese tliscovered Aladeira, where they established a colony, and planted the Cyprus vine, and the sugar cane. 3. The spirit of enterpiise being thus awakened, prince Henry obtained from liugene IV. a bull granting to the Portuguese the property of all the countries which they might discover between Cape JNon and India. Under John II. oi' Portugal the Cape Verd islands were discovered and colonized: and the lieets, advancing to the coast of Guinea, brought home gold dust, gums, and ivory. Hav- ing passed the equator, the Portuguese entered a new hemisphere, and boldly proceeded to the extremity of the continent. In 1,479 a fleet under Vasco de Gama doubled the Cajie of Good', Hope, and, sailing onwai'ds beyond the mouths otthe Arabian and Pei-sian gulfs, arrivetf at Calicut, on the Malabar coast, after a voyage of 1,500 leagues, pertbrmed in thirteen months. 4. De Gama entered hito an alliance with the rajah of Calicut, a tributary of the Mogul empire, and retunied to Lisbon with speci- mens of the wealth and produce of the country^ A succeeding licet formed settlements, and, vanquishing the opposition of the native ?rinces, soon achieved the conquest of all the coast of Malabar. "■he city of Goa, taken by storm, becavne the residence of a Portu- guese viceroy and the capital of their Indian settlements. 5. The Venetians, who had hitherto c'ngrossed the Indian trade by Alexandria, now lost it for ever. After an iuc'lfectual project of cutting through the isthmus of Suez, they attempted to intercept the Portuguese by their fleets stationed at the mouth of the Red sea and Persian gult, but were every where encountered by a superior force. The Portuguese maJe selilenients in both the gulfs, ano vig jrously prosecuted their conquest-; on the Indian coast and sea. The rich island of Ceylon, the kingdoms of Pegu, Siam^ and Malac- ca, were speedily subdued, and a settlement establisheu in Jjcngal. They proceeded onward to China, hitherto scarcely known to the Eu- ropeans but by the account of a single Venetian traveller, Marco Paolo, in the thirteenth century ; and they obtained the emperor's permis sion to form a settlement at Macao, thus opening a commerce w ith that immense empire, and the neighbouring islands of Japan. In the si>ace of fit'ty yeai's Mie Portuguese were masters of the whole trade of the Indian " ocean, and sovereigns of a large extent of Asiatic territory. G. These discoveries produced ;i wonderful effect on the com- merce of Europe. The produce of the spice islands was computed to be worth annually 200,000 ducats to Lisbon, The Venetians, after «;very effort to destroy the trade of the Portuguese, offered to become sole purchasers of all the spice brought to Lurope, but were refused. Conmiercial industry was roused in every quarter, and manufactures made a rapid progress. Lyons, Tours, Abbeville, Mar- seilles, Bordeaux, acquired immense wealth. Antwerp and Amster- dam became the great marts of the north. The former owed its splendoui- to the decline of Bruges, which was ruined by civil com- motions; and the Portuguese made Antwerp their entrepot for the 8ui>ply of the I'.orthern kingdoms. It continued highly flourishing till the revolt ol the Netherlands, in the end of the sixteenth century, when it was taken by the Spaniards, and its port destroyed by block- ing up the Scheld. 7. The trade of Holland rose on the fall of Antwerp. Amsterdam MODERN HISTORY. 167 became considerable after the decline of the hanseatic confederacy in 1,428, but rose into splendour and high commorchil opulence from the destruction of Antwerp. The United Provinces, dependent on industry alone for their support, became a model of commercial ac- tivity to all nations. 8. Britain felt the effect of that general stimulus which the Por- tuguese discoveries gave to the trade of Europe ; but other causes had a more sensible operation to that end in England. The refbrmii- tion. by suppressing the convents, and restoring many thousands tc society, ami the cutting off the papal exactions, which drained the kingdom of its wealth, the politic laws passed in the reign of Henry VllL, and the active patriotism of Elizabeth, were vigorous incentives to national industry. 9. From the time of Henry Vlll. to the present, the commerce and manufactures of England have been uniformly progressive. The rental of England in lands and houses did not then exceed five millions per annum ; it is now above eighteen millions. The unman- ufactured wool of one year's growth is supposed to be worth two millions; when manufactured, as it now is, by British hands, it is worth eight millions. Above a million and a half of hands are em- ployed in that manuf;>cture alone ; half a million are employed in the manufactures of iron, steel, copper, brass, lead ; the linen man- ufactures of England, Scotland, and Ireland, occupy nearly a n)illion; and a number not much inferior is employed in the fisheries. It is presumable, on the whole, that nearly a fourth of the population oi the united kingdoms is actually employed in commerce and manufactures. 10. The vast increase of the national wealth of Britain appears chietly, 1, from tiie increase of population, which is supposed io be nearly five to one (at least in the large cities) since the reign of Elizabeth ; 2, from the great addition made to the cultivated lands of the kingdom, and the high improvement of agriculture since that period, whence more than quiuiiuple the quantity of food is produced ; 3, from the increase of the commercial shipping, at least sixfold within the same time ; 4, from the comparative low rate of interest, which is demonstrative of the increase of wealth. The consequences of the diffusion of the connnercial spirit are most im- portant to the national well'are. From general industry arises afflu- ence, joined to a spirit of independence ; and on this spirit rests the lr»iedom of the British constitution, and all the blessings which are enjoyed under its protection. SECTION XXXVII. GERMANY AND FRANCE IN THE REIGNS OF CHARLES V. AND FRANCIS I. 1. Wk resume the detail of the history of Europe at the beginning of the sixteenth century, previously remarking, that the Germanic empire continued for above tiftv years in a stale of languid tranquilli- ty, from the time of Albert II., the successor of Sigismund, during the long reign of Frederick III., whose son Maximilian acqnired, by hia marriage with Mary, duchess of Burgundy, the sovereignty of the Netherlands. Maximilian was elected Emperor in 1,493; and, by establishing a perpetual peace between the separate Germanic stateSi laid the foundation of the subsequent grandeur of the empire. 168 MODERN HISTORY. 2. Philip archduke of Austria, son of Maximilian, man ied Jane, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella ; and of that marriage the eldest son was Charles V., who succeeded to tlie throne of Spain in 1,516, and, on the death of his grandfather Maximilian, preferred his claim to the vacant imperial throne. He had for his competitor Francis I. of France, who had distinguished himself by the conquest of the Mil- anese» and the adjustment of the conteniiing interests of the Italian states. The German electors, afraid of the exorbitant power both oi Charles and of Francis, would have rejected both, and conferred the imperial crown on Frederick duke of Saxony ; but this extraordinary man declined the proffered dignity, and his council determined the election in favour of Charles ofAustria, 1,519. 3. Charles V^. and Francis I. were now declared enemies, and their mutual claims on each other's dominions were the subject of perpet- ual hostility. The emperor claimed Artois as part of the Nether- lands. Francis prepared to make good his right to the Two Sicilies. Charles had to defend Milan, and to support his title to Navarre, which had beon wrested from France by his grandfather Fenlinand. Henry VIII. of England was courted by the rival monarchs, as the weight of England was sufficient to turn the scale, where the power of each was nearly balanced. 4. The tirst hostile attack was made by Francis on the kingdom of Navarre, which he won and lost in the course of a few months. The emperor attacked Picardy, and his troops at the same time drove tlie French out of the Milanese. On the death of Leo X., Charles placed cardinal Adrian on the papal throne, 1,521 ; and l)y the promise of elevating Wolsey, the minister of Henry Vlll., to that dignity, on the death of Adrian, gained the alliance of the English monarch in his war against France. 5. At this critical time Francis imprudently quarrelled with Ihs best general, the constable of Bourbon, who, in revenge, deserted the emperor, and was by him invested with the chief command of his armies. The imperial generals were far superior inabilities to their opponents. The French were defeated at Biagrassa, and Charles was carrying every thing before him in Italy, when Francis entered the Milanese, and retook the capital ; but, in the subsequent battle of Pavia, his troops were entirely defeated, and the French monarch became the constable of Bourbon's prisoner, 1,525. 6. Tb? emperor made no ad'vantage of. his good fortune. By the treaty of Madrid, Francis regained his liberty, on yielding to Charles the duchy of Burgundy, and the superiority of Flanders and Artois. He gave his two sons as hostages for the fidhlment of these conditions; but the stales refused to ratify them, and the tailure was compromised for a sum of money. 7. On the renewal of the war, Henry N HI- took part with France, and Charles lost an opportunity of obtaining the sovereignty of Italy. The papal army in the French interest was defeated by the consta- ble of Bourbon, and the pope himself made prisoner; but Bourbon was killed in the siege of Rome, and Charles allowed the pope to purchase his release. 8. After the conclusion of the peace of Cambray, 1,529, Charles visited Italy, and received the imperial diadem from pope Clement VII. The Turks having invaded Hungary, the emperor maiched against them in person, and compelled the sultan Solyman, with an army of 300,000 men, to evacuate the country. He soon alter em- barked for Africa, to replace the dethroned Muley Hassan in the ' MODERJN HlS'l'ORY. im Wvcreignty of Tunis and Algiers, which had been usurped by Hay- radin Barbarossa ; and he achieved the enterprise with honour. His reputation at this period exceeded that of all the sovereigns of Eu- rope, for political ability, real power, and the extent and opulence of his dominions. 9. Francis was glad to ally himself even with the Turks to cop* with the imperialists, and Barbarossa invaded Italy; but the troops of Charles prevented the co-operation of the French^ and separately defeated and dispersed the allied powers, while anotner army of tho imperialists ravaged Champagne and Picardy. 10. In the interval of a truce, which was concluded at Nice, for ten yeai-s between the rival monarchs, Charles passed through France to the Netherlands, and was entertained by Francis with the most magnificent hospitality. He had promised to grant to the French king his favourite desire, tlie investiture of Milan ; but failing to keep his word, the war was renewed with double animosity. The French and Turkish fleet's attacked Nice, but were dispersed by the Ge- noese admiral, Andrea Doria. In Italy the French were victori- ous in the battle of Cerizoles, but drew no benefit from this partial advantage. The imperialists, on the whole, had a decided superior- ity, and France must have been undone, if the disorders of Germany, from the contending hiterests of the catholics and protestants, had not forced the emperor to conclude the treaty of Crepi with Francis, lj544. At the same time Francis purchased a peace with Henry VIll., who had again taken part with his rival. Francis died soon after, in 1,547 ; a prince of great spirit and abilities, and of a gener- ous and noble mind, unfortunate only from the necessity of strug- gling against a power which overmatched him both in policy aM iii resources. 1 1. A short time before this period, was founded the order of the Jesuits by Ignatius Loyola, 1,535. The principle of the order was implicit obedience and submission to the pope. The brethren were not confined to their cloisters, hut allowed to mix with the world ; and thus, by gaining the confidence of princes and statesmen, they were enabled to direct the policy of nations to the great end of estab- lishing the supreme authority of the holy see. The wealth which they accumulated, the extent of their power, and the supposed con- sequences of their intrigues to the peace of nations, excited at length a general hostility to their order ; and the institution has recently been abolished in all the kingdoms of Europe. 12. If Charles V. aimed at universal empire, he was ever at a dis- tance from the object of his wishes. The formidable confederacy of the protestants to preserve their liberties and their religion, gave him perpetual disquiet in Germany. He never could form his do- minions into a well connected hotly, from the separate national inter- ests of the Spaniards, Flemish, and Germans; and even the imperial slates were divided by their jealousies, political and religious. The hostiliiies of foreign powers gave him continual annoyance. He found in Henry II., the successor of Francis, an antagonist as formidable as his fither. His cares and difliculties increased as he advanced in life, and at length entirely broke the vigour of his mind. In a state of melancholy despondency he retired from the world at the age of tifty- six, resigning first the kingdom of Spain to his son Philip II., 1,536, and afterwards the imperial crown in favour of his brother Ferilkiaud, who was elected emperor on the 24th day of February, 1,558. 170 MODEllN HISTORY. SECTION XXXVIII. OBSERVATIONS ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. i. PiiEvioisi.Y to the reign of i\I:iximilian I., tlie Germarwc empire \va* suhjecl to all the di-^orders of the feudal governments. The general diets of the state were tumultuous and indecisive, and their cou>>tant wai-s with one another kept the whole in anarchy and bar- b.u'ism. VVenceslaus, in 1,383, endeavoured to renieiiy those eyils by the enactment of a general peace ; hut no effectual measures were taken for securing it. Albert II. aUemptcd to accomplish the same end, and had some success. He divided Germany into six circles, each regulated by its own diet; but the jealousies of the states prompted tiieni constantly to hostilities, which there was no superior power suthcient to restrain. 2. At length Maximilian I. procured, in 1,500, that solemn enact- ment which established a perpetual peace among the Germanic states, under the cogent penalty of the aggressor being treated as a common enemy. He established the imperial chamber lor the settle- ment of all differences. 1'he empire was divided anew into ten cir- cles, each circle sending its representatives to the imperial chamber, anil bound to enforce the public laws through its own territory. A regency was appointed to subsist in the intervals of the diet, composed of twenty me;;^bers, over whom the emperor presided, 3 These regulations, however wise, would probably have failed 4>i tVieir end, if the inlluence of the house ol' Austria, which has for three centuries continued to occupy the imperial throne, had not entorced obedience to them. The ambition and policy of Charles V. would have bo^n dangerous to the freedom ol' the German prin- f-es, if the new system of preserving a bahmce of power in Europe had not made iriese princes find allies and protectors suflicient to travei'se the empeiors schemes of absolute dominion. He attained, however, an authority far beyond that of any of his pi'edecessors. The succeeding emperors imitated his policy ; but, as they did not possess equal talents, they found yet stronger obstacles to their en- croachments on t'lie freedom of the slates. 4. The Germanic hberties were settled for the last time by the treaty of Westphalia, in 1,G48, which fixed the emperor's preroga- uvesj and the privileges of the states. The constitution of the em- ]>ire ii not framed lor the ordin;u-y ends of government, the prosper- ity and happiness of the people. It regards not the rights of the subjects, hut only the independence of the several princes; audits sole object is to maintain each in the enjoyment of his sovereignty, and pi event usurpations and encroachments on one another's terri- tories. It has no relation to ths particular government of the states, each of which has its own laws and constitution, some more free, and others more despotic. 5. The general diet has the power of enacting the public laws of the empire. It consists of three colleges, the electors, the princes, and the free cities. All such public laws, and all general measures, are the subject of the separate deliberation of the electoral college Olid that of the princes. When jointly approved by them, the resoKj- MODERN HISTORY. Ill tion is camassed by the college of the free cities, and, if agreed to, becomes a plficifmn of the empire. Ifappioved finally by thfe em- peror, it is a cnnclusiun, or general law. If disapproved, Ihe re!>olu- tion is of no eflect. iMoreover, the emperor must be the proposer of all general laws. Still farther, no complaint or request can be made by any of the princes to the diet ^vithout the approbation of the elector archbishop of Mentz, who may refuse it at his pleasure. These <;onstitutional detects are the more hurtful in their conse- quences, from the separate and often contending interests of the prin- ces, who have all the rights of sovereignty, the power of contracting ibreign alliances, and are frequently possessed of foreign dominions of far greater value than their imperial territories. 6. The Germanic constitution has, however, in some respects, its advantages. The particular diets of each circle tend to unite those princes in all matters of national concern, whatever may be the dis- cordance of their individual interests. The regulations made in those diets compensate the want of a general legislative power. Be- side the circular diets, the electors, the princes, the free cities, the catholics, and the protestants, hold their particular diets, when theii common interests require it; and these powers balance one another. Considered, therefore, solely in the light of a league of several inde- S2ndent princes and states, associating for their common benefit, the ermanic constitution has many advantages; in promoting general harmony, securing the rights of its members, and preventing the weak from being oppressed by the strong. SPXTION XXXIX. OF THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND, AND THE REVOLUTION IN DENMARK AND SWEDEN. 1. The age of Charles V. is the era of the reformation of reli- gion, of the discovery of the new world, and of the highest splen- dour of the fine arts in Italy and the south of Europe, We shall treat in order of each of these great objects ; and, first/of the refor- mation. The voluptuous taste and the splendid projects of pope Leo X. demanding large supplies of money, ho instituted through ;dl fhe christian kingdoms a sale of indulgences, or remittances from the pains of purgatory. This tralfic being abused to the most shocking purposes, Martin Luther, an Augustine friar, V^entured to preach against it, and to inveigh with acrimony against the pouer which authorized it. He Ibund many willing hearers, particularly in the electorate of Saxony, of which the prince Frederick was his friend and protector. Leo X.i condemned his tenets by a papal bull, which only increased the zeal and indignation of the preacher. In a book which he pul)lished, entitled the Babylonish Captivity^ he applied all the scriptural attributes of the whore of Habylon to the papal hierarchy, and attacked with equal force and virulencq the doctrines of transubstantiation, purijatory, the celi'bacy of the priests, and the refusal of wine to the people in the communion. The book being condemned to the flames, Luther burned the pope's bull and the decretals at Wittemberg, 1,520. 2. One of the first cliampions, who took up the pen against L«- I7S MODERN HISTORY. ther, was Henry VIII. of England ; whose book, presented to pope Leo, procured him the title now annexed to his crown, of defender of the faith. The rest of Europe seemed to pay httle attention to these rising controversies. Charles V., studious of the friendship oi the pope, took part against Luther, and symmoned him to answer for his doctrines in the diet of Worms. The refornrver detended himself with great spiiit, and, aided by his friend the elector, made u safe escape into Saxony, where the mass was now universally aoolished, the images destroyed, and the convents shut up. The friars and nuns returned to the world, and Luther took a nun tor his wife. Nor did these secularized priests abuse their new freedom, for their manners were decent, and their life exemplary. 3. Erasmus has justly censured the impolicy of the catholic clergy in their modes of resisting and suppressing the new doctrines. They allowed them to be discussed in sermons before the people, and em- ployed for that purpose furious and bigoted declaimers, who only increased and widened differences. They would not yield in the most insigniticant trilie, nor acknowledge a single fault ; and they persecuted with the utmost cruelty all whose opinions were not agreeable to their own standard of faith. How wise is the counsel o lord Bacon ! " There is no better way to stop the rise of new sectb and schisms, than to reform abuses, compound the lesser differences, proceed mildly from the lirst, refrain from sanguinary persecutions, and rather to soften and win the prrncipal leaders, by gracing and advancing them, than to enrage them by violeiKe and bitterness." Bac. Mor. Ess. Sect. I. Ess. 12. 4. Switzerland Ibllovved in the path of reformation. ' Zuinglius of Zurich preached the new tenets with such zeal and effect, that the whole canton was converted, and the senate piiblicly abolished the mass, and puritied the churches. Berne took the same measure? with greater solemnity, after a discussion in the senate which lasL-ed two months. Basle imitated the same example. Other cantons armed in defence of their faith; and in a desperate engagemert, ia which the protestants were defeated, Zuinglius was slain, 1,53L 5. Lutheranism was now making its progress towards the north of Europe. Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, were atthis time gov- erned by Christiern 11., the Nero of the north. The Swedes, re- luctantly submitting to the yoke, were kept in awe by Troll, arch- bishop of Upsal, a laithfiil minister of the tyrant in all his schemes of oppression and cruelty. On intelligence of a revolt, the king and his primate, armed with a bull trom pope Leo X., massacred the whole body of the nobles and senators, amidst the festivity of a Danquet. Gustavus Vasa, grand wephew of Charles Canutson- formerly king of Sweden, escaped from this carnage, and concealed himself in the mines of Dalecarha. By degrees assembling a small army, he defeated the generals of Christiecn, whose cruelties at length determined the united nations to vindicate their rights, by a solemn sentence of deposition. The tyrant fled to Flanders, and Frederick duke of Holstein was elected sovereign of the three kingdoms ; but Sweden, adhering to her heroic deliverer, and the heir of her ancient kings, acknowledged alone the sovereignty of Gustavus Vasa, 1,521. The bull of Leo X., and its bloody conse- quences^ were suflicient to convert Sweden and Denmark to the tenets ot the reformed religion. Gustavus enjoyed his sceptre many years in peace, and contributed greatly to the happiness and proi- l>erity of his kingdom. MODEiixN lil6TOi;i. ' 173 6. As eurlj as 1,525^ Ihe states of Saxony, Brunswick, Hease Cas- s(il, and the cities ot btrasburgli and Frankfort, liad embraced the doctrines of the reformation. Luther had now a species of spiritual control, which he exercised by means of a synod of six reformers. His successful example gave rise to reformers of different kinds, whose doctrines vv^ere less consonant to reason or good policy. Two fanatics of Saxony, Storck and Muncer, condemned infant baptism, and therefore were termed anabaptists. They preached universal equality and iVeeJom of religious opinion, but, with singular inconsis- tency, attempted to propagate their Joctrines by the sword. They were defeated at Mulhausen, and Muncer died on a scaffold ; but the party seemed to acquire new courage. They surprised iMunster, expelled the bishop, and anointed lor their king a tailor named Jack of Leyden, who defended the city with the most desperate courage, but fell at length, nith his party under the superior force of regular troops. The anabaptists, thus sanguinary in their original tenets and practices, have long ago become peaceable and harmless sub- jects. 7. The united power of the pope and emperor found it impossi- ble to check the progress of the reformation. The diet of Spires proposed articles of accommodation between the Lutherans and catholics. Fourteen cities of Germany, and several of the electors, protested formally against those articles;, and hence the Lutheraa party acquired the name of proicsianls. They presented to the assembly at Augsburg a confession of their faith, which is the stand- ard of the protestant doctrines. 8. The virtuous lives and conduct of the pi-otestant leaders, com- pared with those of the higher clergy among the catholics, fonued a contrast very favourable to the progi'css of the reformation. The solemn manner in which Uie states of S^vitze^land, and particularly Gen.ova, had proceeded, in calmly discussing every point of contro- versy, a:ecimens of his works in Britain than of any oiIkm- foreign painler. Holland had likewise its painters, uhose chief merit was tin- fiiithlhl n'presentation of vulgar nature, and perliect kuoxvledge of the mechaiusm of the art, the power of colours, and the effect of light and shade. 11. With the art of painting, sculpture and architecture were like Q 188 MODERN HISTOIIY. wiao revived in tne some age, and brought almost to perferlion. 'V\w. un)vers;il genius oi" Micliael Arigtlo sliono equally cotisi-icuoi'.s ill all (he three denai-tnicnts. ]li!? slalue of Bacchus \va> iucij^ctl I y l{;ij)liael to 1)0 the work of piiidias oi l'raxitol"s. The (Jivci.in ai"- rliiieciutv was liisl revived hy the Florentines in ilie foiirtef'r.lh cen- tury; ancl the cath(!ws of the nnoient Hhoili-.m? were aiiopted by the Komiins, and at tliis dny are f!i^ i(!ii!i:i iiio!! of thy m.u-itiine iuri-spnuionce ol" all the nations of ivjiv,;,,,. .3. .-iolyiniii ftiib;Iiir!(! tlio gr^ntrr part of Hongp.ry, i^bildaAia, nn'l W.ii.ic.iii.i; ail i took fro.n tha Poistans (ieorgia and Ba^idaj. [lis- so'i Soii u II. took Cypnis Iroin the Venstiaiis \n J.oTl. I'iioy ap- piie I loitie pope lor aid, who, toi»ctlier with Fhiiip 11. o!' Spain. ciiliM"- el i.ito a triple alliance ag linst-the Ottoman power. An arnianient <>l iio.) .ship-! ot WW, comm iiukvd i)y Philip's natural brotlior, J)on Jf.tui oi' AiisLri iJ w.is oppo-iod to 2a.> Tui-kijih galiies in thn gulf of l,e- |)afUi), near Corintii; and the Turks were deieated, with liie los> vi i.')J snips and lo.UOJ men, 1,j71. Tiiis groat victory was soon alter tolio.vr^d by tlie taking of Tunis by the same commander. 4. B It tiiesa successes were of little consequence. The Otto- in 111 povv'LM- continued extremely formidable. Under Amurat'i 11. (he 'I'urks mi l;j eiicro ichments on Hungary, and subdued a part of Pei- si.i. iM.iiioin.H 111., thougii a barbarian in his private character, sup- ported the dignity of the empire, and extended its dominions. The Ditoinin po.ver declined from his time, and yielded tr> that of the Pfi-sia IS under Schah-Abbas the great, who wrested from the 'lurks u i.trge part of th:.;ir late-acquired dominioa?. SECTION XLV. STATK OE PKRSIA AND OTHER ASIATIC KIN'JDOMS IN THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES. 1. Thk great empire of Persia, in the end of the fifteenth century, on lerwent a revolution on account of religion. Hayda." or Sophi, ;; religious entini-'i ist, estabiislie 1 a new sect of 3Iahometans, which liLM 1 Mi to be the successor of Mahomet instead of Omar, and abol- i-Iied the pilgrimnges to Mecca. The Persians eagerly embraced a doctrine which ilislia^^uished tiiem from their enemies the Turks; an I Urn lel, the sou of Sophi, following the example of Mahomet, entbrced his opinions by t!»e sword, lie sulxlued all Persia and Ar- meni.i, and left this vast empire to his descendants. 2. Schah-Abbas, surnam^d the great, was the grcat-rrandson of Ismiel Sophi. He ruled his empire with despotic sway, but with most able policy. He regained the provinces which had been taken by the Turks, and drove the Portuguese from their settlement of Or.nu/.. He rebuilt the fallen cities of Persia, and. contributed greatly to the introductiop. of arts and civilization. His son Schali- Sesi reiJiiied we.ikly and unfortunitety. In his time Schah-Gean, the great Mogul, deprived Persia ofCandahai ; and tbe Turks look l>ag- dil in l,().-;8. From that period the Persian monarchy gnidualiy (>e- clined. Its sovereigns became the most (Ivspicable slaves to their own ministers; an I a revolution in the beginning of the eighteenth century put an end to tlie dynasty of the Sophis, and gave the ihroue to tiie AigUin princes, ;i r.ice of 'Eartars. :\ TIm gov.M-nni.^nt of PcM'si.i is almost as despotic as that of Tur- key. Th^ sovereign dr.iws a small yearly tax from every subject, and receives likevyise stated gifts on particular occasions. The crown is 'hereditary,! with the exclusion of females; but the sons of 184 MODERN 11 IbTOKY. a daughter succeed in their course. There is no other rank sia than that annexed to oflice, which is held during the mor.a gleasure. The national reUgion is ll>e j"\hihoinetan, as relortncd ophi. The sect of the Guebres preserve the rtlij^ion of Zoinastcr, as containeti in tlie Zendavesta and Sadder, and li.eep alive tlie sacred lire. (Part I., Sect. XI.) 4. Ihe poetry of the Persians disphiys great fancy and luxuriance of imagery. The epic poet Firdovisi is said to rival the varitms merits ol' Homer and Ariosto; and tiie writings of Sadi and Halez, both in prose and poetry, are admired by all who are conversant in oriental literature. 5. Tartary. From this vast tract of coontry sprang those con- queroi-s who produced all the great revolutions in Asia. Tartary is no more than a vast desert, inlialiiled by wandering tribes, who Ibllow the life of the ancient Scytidans. The Turks, a race of Tarlai-a overwhelmed the empire of the caliphs, ftlahnioud, a I'artar, ccn- (luered Pei^ia and great part of India in the tenth century. The Tartar Gengiscan subdued India, China, Persia, and Asiatic Russia, in Kie beginning of the thirteenth century. Baloucan, one of his .sons, ravaged to the frontiers of GeiTnany. Tamerlane, the scourge of the Turks, and the conqueror of a great part of Asia, was of the race of Gengisca.i. Bubar, great-grandson of Tanitrlane, subdued all the country between Samarcand and Agra in the empire tf the ISIogul. The descendants of those conqueroi j reign in India, Persia, and China. G. Tkibet. The southern part of Tartary, called Thibet, exhibits the phenomenon of a kingdom governed by a human being called the l)alai Lama, or Great Lama, whose divinity is acknowledged not only by his own subjects, but over China and a part of India. This supposed god is a young man, whom the priests educate and train to his function, and in whose name they in reality govern the kingdom. SECTION XLVI. HISTORY OF INDIA. 1. The earliest accounts of this great tract of civilized country are those of Herodotus, who lived about a century belore Alexander the great; and it is remarkable that the character given of the people by that early writer, corresponds perfectly with that of tke modern Hindoos. He had probably taken his accounts from Scylax of Cari- andria, whom Darius Hystaspes had sent to ex})lore the counlr}\ But till the age of Alexander, the Greeks had no particular knowl- edge of that extraordinary people. Alexandei penetrated into the Panyab, where his troops refusing to proceed, he embarked on the Hyclaspas, which runs into the Indus, and thence pursued his coui-se lor above 1,000 miles to the ocean. The narrative given by Arrian of this expedition was taken from the verbal accounts of Alexander's officers ; and its parliculai-s agree yet more remarkably thati those ol Hero'totus with the modern manners of the Hindoos. 2. India was visited by Seleucus, to whose skare it fell in the par- tition of Alexander's empire; and Antiochus tJie great, 20C jeart MODERN HISTORY. 185 aftenvard, made a short expedUion thither. It is probable too timt somti sniiU intercourse subsisted between tiie Greek empire of Ijac- triana ami in;!iii ; but, till the iifteenth century, no European power thought of tbraiing ;my estiibli^hment in that country. From the age ol AL'xaniler down to'tlio period of the Portuguese dl-scoveries there had coastautly beea s-ome comm:^rcial intercourse between Europe and ln.!i;i, bulb [)V sea and across the desert. J. 'I'no Maliom^^tan^, as early as A. D. 1,000, had begun to estab- lisU ;m empire in India. Mahmoud, a Tartar, conquered a great part of tlip country, and estaliiished his capital at Ghazna, near the sources ot the Indus, extirpating, wherever he came, the Hindoo religion, ar.d cslablisiiing the Mahometan in its stead. Mohammed Gon, in 1,194, penetrated to Benares; and one of his successoi-s fixed the seat of his empire at Delhy, which has continued to be the capital of the Mogul princes. The sovereignty founded by IMah- moul was overwhelmed in 1,222 by Gengiscaii, as was his empire in thj tollowing century by Tamerlane, whose posterity arc at this day on li>e tliroH'- of the .Mogul empire. 4. Tne :\h^gul empii-e w;is, even in the beginning of the IHtli cen- tury, the most powerful and Uouri-hing of all the Asiatic monarchies. \ 'I'ua emperor Aurjngi.v.'be, the son of Schah-Gean though a mon- ' sin- of cru.diy, and a most despotic tyrant, et.joyed a life prolonged to a hundred years, crowned with uninterrupted prosperity and suc- cosi. He extended his empire over the Avhole peninsula cf Irdia witiiia the G aiges. 5. Tne dominion of the Mogul is not ahsolute over all the coun- tries whic'n compose his empire. Tamerlane a-llowed the petty princes, rajdis or n;d:)oLs, to relun their territories, of which theii desce. idaals are at this day in posses^^ion. Tiiey pay a ti'ibute to the great Mogul, as an acknowledgment of his sovereignty, and ob- 1 s.^rve the treaties agreed to by their ancestors; but they are in otiier respecis i-vlependent princes. G. Reng il became a part of the MoguFs empire by conquest in the end of the sixteenth contur}-, and xvas commonly governed by a son ol' the great Mogul, who had under hiui several inferior nabobs, the former princes of the coimtry. Such was its con;Iition when the British East India company i between 1,751 and 1,76U, conquered and obtii'.ied possession of thrd kingdom, together with Bahar anJ part of (Jrissa, a large, populous, and most tiourishing country, coti' taiaing above ten millions of inhahilants, and producing an immense revenue; and I'.iese territories have since that period received a con- si br tide ad.liiion. The East India company Iris the beneht of tiie wiioie co;amerce of the Mogul empire, with Arabia, I'ersiii, and Tnibet, as well as with the kingdoms of A/.-mi, Aracan, Begu, Siam, M.dacci, China, and many of the oriental islaiuls. Tne fixed estabiishm nits of the British in the country of Indostan have ail'urded opportunity of obtaining much instructive knowicilge relative to tlu- ancient state of that country, of which we shall give d short sk'jtch in the loilowhig .section. q2 24 188 MODERN HSITORY. SECTION XLVIl ANCIENT STATE OF INDIA. MANNERS, LAWS, ARTS, SCIENCES, AND RELIGION OF THE HINDOOS. 1. TnK rernnins of the ancient knowledge of the Hindoos have I>cen prescM-ved by a hereditary priesthood,^ in the Sanscrit language^ long since extinct, and only known to a lew of the Brati "is. llie zeal of some learned Europeans has lately opened that sonrce of in- forniaiion, whence we derive the most int'er.»iting parliculai-s ol this extraordinary people, pei'haps the first cultivators of tlie scicnc* =, and the iiistriicters of all the nations of atiliquily. We shall hrieHy nt)iicc their .lingular division into casts, their civil policy, laws, prog- ress ill the arts and sciences, and rehgion. 2. The whole body of tlie people was divided into four orders, or cnsts. The highest cast, that of the Bramins, was devoted to religion and the cultivation of the sciences ; to the second belonged the pres- erviitioa of the state ; they were its sovereigns and its magistrates in peace, and its soldiers in war; the third were the husbandmen and 'ni-rchanls; and tiie fourth the artisans, labourers, and servants. These are inseparable distinctions, and descend from generation to generation. Moreover, the individuals of each class follow invariably the prot'o<«ioi'« of their forefathers. Every man, trom his birth, knous the funci.on allotted to l.im, and fuUils with ease and salisfac- ti)n the duty which he cannot nvoid. Hence arises that per.nanence of maimeis and institutions which so singularly characterizes this •ancient nation. 3. This ctassilicalion is an artiticial arrangement, which could have originated only from the mind of a legislator among a polished peo- ple, completely obedient to government. It is therefore a proof of the highly civilized state of the Hindoo nation in the most remote pei-iods ol antlqajty. 4. Tiie civil policy of the Hindoos is another proof of their ancient civilization. .\t the lime of Alexander the great, India wi-s divided into large and powerful kingdoms, governed by sovereigns whose do- minion was not absolute, but controlled by the superior authority of the Ih-amins. A system of feudalism has ever prevailed in India. The rights to lanil How trom the sovereign, to w hom a certain duty IS payable by the class of tlie husbandmen, who transndt their posses- sions to their children under the same tenure. Strabo and Diodorus remarked three classes of officers among tiie Indians: one class whose department was the regulation of agiiculture, tanks, highways; unolher wliicli superintended the police of the cities; a third which rogidated the mi.itary department. The same policy prevails at this day under the Hindoo princes. b. The jurisprudence of llindostan is an additional proof of great antiquity and ci\ iiization. The Ayen-Akbery. and still more the compilation of Hindoo laws from the ancient .Sanscrit records, made by ordei <>f Mr. Hastings, contain the jurisprudence of a reliiied and t^'ininercud people, among whom law had been a study and proteS' siai:. (i. Many monuments exist in India of the advanced state of the use- ful and elegant arts m the remotest periods of antiquity. The an- 'jieni pagodas, ot vast extent and magnificence, whether cut io th« MODERN HISTORY. 18T solid rock, as in Elephanta and Salsette, or in tlie open air, as al Cliilambruin and Seringham; the sumptuous residences of tlie Bra- mius ; and the ancient hill fortresses, constructed with prodigious streugtli and solidity, evince a great advancement in the arts. The resort ot' the most polished nations of antiquity to India for cotton clotiis, Ijiij linen, and works in metal and ivory, proves these mauu iactures to have been superior to all known at tiiattime in Europe. 7. Tae late translations from tlie Sanscrit of several ioijenious eo:nposiiions of hi^h antiquity, as the dramatic piece Sacontaiu, the Hitopadcsa^ a series \ji moral apologues and liibles, the MuhabanU, jin epic poem, composed above 2,0U0 years before the Christian era, nil concur in proot' of a si.nilar advancement in literature. We have reason to believe from such works as are of a philosophical nature, that tli-jro is scarcely a tenet cf the Greek philosophy which Iv.is not been antecedently the subject of discussion among the Bramins of India. S. The numeral ciphers first introduced into Europe by the Ara- bians were, as those authors coiife*;, borrowed from the IndivUis. Above a century ago, the French mathematicians evinced, by the evidence of a Siamese manuscript, containing tables for calculating the placps of t!ie lieaveniy bodies, the astonishing advancement made by this ancient people in the science of astronomy. A set of astronomical tables oi)tained lately from the Bramins by M. Geitil goes back to an era termed Calyouglmm^ commencing 3,1U2 years before the birth of Christ. These tables are used by the modern Bramins, who are quile ignorant of the principles on which they have been constructed. M. Bailly has proved that they are the Biiine as those employed by the moderns, with which the Greeks and Clialdeans were utterly unacquainted. 9. Lastly, from the religious opinions and worship of the Hindoos we must dr.iw the same, conclusion as from all the preceding facts. One uniform system of superstition pervades every religion of India, which is supported by the most sagacious policy, and by every thing that can exciie the veneration of its votaries. The Bramins, elevat- ed above every class of nien, and exclusively acquainted with the mysteries of tb.it religion, which it is held impious for any other class CO attempt to penetrate ; the implicit reliance on the authority of these Br.unins; the ceremonies of their worship, adapted to im- l)ress the imagination and to all'ect the passions; all concurretl to forti- ly this potenj superstition, and to give its priests a supreme ascen- dancy over the minds of the people. But those priests, enlightei.ed as they were, rejected chat lalse theology. Their writings demon- strate that they entertained rational and elevated conceptions with ivgard to the Supreme Being, and the support of the universe. 10. On the whole, there is a high probability that India was the grx;al school trom whioh the most early polished nations of Europe derived their knowledge of arts, sciences, and hterature. I'ersons who want more particular information respecting India are reterred to iAlaurice's Indian Antiquities, and Tennant's Indian Ker,r<-ati(ui.s. 188 MODEKJN HISTORY. SECTION XL VIII. OF CHINA AND JAPAN, 1. As we proceed eastward in the survey of the Asiatic r* Mincnt, Ihe great empire ot" China next solicits our attention. In the jnd of Ihe lentil century, Ciiina, Persia, ard the greater part of li 'a were ruled by tlie I'artar desicendant^of Gen};iscan. The Tartout the n.iddle ot" the sixteenth century. The open and unsuspicious character of this industrious and pblistied people led them to en- courage the resort of foreigners to tlieir ports; and the Spaniards, al'ier they had obtained the soveicignty of Portugal, carried on a most benelici il trade to tne coasts ot Japan. The emperor zeal- ously promoted this intercourse, till tiie insatiable ambition of the Spaniards gave him alarming conviction of its danger. Under the pretence of converting the Japanese froai idolatry, a vast number of priests was sent into the courtry ; and one half of the people were speedily set at mortal variance with the other. It now be- came necessary to prohibit this work of conversion by an imperial edict. However a free trade was allowed till 1,057, when a con- spiracy of the Spaniaids for dethroning the emperor and seizing tl.e gcvernuient was tliscovcrcd. An edict was issued for the exbui^icn ol' all the Spaniards and Portuguese, who resisted till they were overpowered l)y ibrce of arms. Since that period al! the European nations have been excluded from the ports of Japan. The Dutch only, who' had been tiie discovei-ers of tlie conspiracy of the Span- iards, ar-e allowed the privilege of landing on taio of the small islaiids, for the purpose.- ol' traik, after making oath that tliey are not of the Portuguese religion. MODERN HISTORY. 189 SECTION XLIX. Oh' THR ANTIQUITY OF THE EMPIRE OF CHINA. STATE OF HUE ARTS AN1> SCIENCES, ^MANNERS, GOVERNMExNT LAWS. 1. TiiK rtntiqiilty of this vast empire, and the state of its govem- nioiil, laws, nuiniiurs, junl altaiMments in the arts and sciences, have fdnii-ilied an am[)ie lield ol'controversy. Voltaire, Ivaynal, and oilier writers have };;iven to tlie Chinese enipire an immense antiquity, and a character of sucii high civilization and knowledge of the sciences and arts at a vei'y remote period, as to be utterly irreconcilable to the state and progress of man as described in the books of Moses. On the. other hand, it is piobabie that the desire of invalidating those opinions has induced other writers of ability to go to an opposite ex- treme; to undervalue this singiUnr people, and to give too little weight to any accounts which we have received either of the dur.'i- tiou of t!»eir empire, of the economy of tlndr government and police, or of their attainments in the arts and sciences. Amidst this contra- riety of sentiments we shall endeavour to form such opinion as ap- pears most consonant to the truth. 2. The panegyrists of the Chinese assert that their empire has subsisted above 4,000 years, without any material alteration in its laws, uKinners, language, or even fashion of dress; in evidence of ivhich tht-y appeal 1) a series of eclipses, marking contemporary events, all .iccurately calculated, for 2,155 years before the birth ot Chiist. .As il is easy to calculate eclipses backwards from the pres- ent diy to any given period of time, it is thus possible to give 'o a hisltiry, ticlilious from beginning to end, its chronology of real eclipses. This pr>of therefore amounts to nothitig, unless it were likewise proved that all those eclipses were actually recorded at the lime wlien they happened; hut this neither has been nor can be subject of the empire. To reconcile the people to tins despotic authority, the sovereign alone is entitled to relieve the wants ot the poor, and to compensate public calamities, as well as the niisibrtiines of individuals. He is therelbre regarded as the father of his people, and even adored as a benevolent divinity. 5. Another circumstance which conciaates the people to their government is, that all honours in China are conferred accord-ng lo merit, and that chieHy hterary. The civil m iniiarini. who are the magistrates and judges, are appointed to oflice according to their measure of knowledge and mL'utal endowment?. No olhce or rank is hereditary, but may be aspired to by the meanest of tlie people. The penal laws of China are remarkably severe; but their execu- tion may be remitted by the emperor. 'The judicial tribunals are reguiate'd by a body of written laws of great antiquity, and Ibunded on the basis of universal justice and equity. The emperor's opinion rarely differs from the sentences of those courts. One tribuuMl judges of the qualitications of the mandarins; another regulates the morals of the people, and the national manners; a third is the tiibu- iial of censors, which levieivs the laws, the conduct of the magi^- tr.ites and judges, and even that of the emperor iiims?lf These tri bunals are tilled by an equal number of Chinese and iV.ruu-s. 6. it has been observed that the sciences have been stati'^nary in this empire for many ages. They are at this day extremely iow, though far beyond the attainments of a barbarous people. The language of China seems to oppose the prosecution ol' sperula'ive researches. It has no regular inflections, and can with di'hc dly express abstract ideas. We have renrarked the ignorance of the Chinese in mathematics and astronomy. Of physics they have no acquaintance beyond the knowledge of apparent tacts. Tliey nevej ascend to principles, nor form theories. 'I'bcir knowledge of n^edi- cine is extremely limited, and is blended with the most contoniptilde superstition. Of anatomy they know next to nothing; an*! in s ir- gery they have never ventured to amputate a limb, nor to reduce a fracture. 7. The state of the useful and elegant arts has been equally sbv- tionary as that of the sciences. Many ages ago they had attained' a certiun point of advancement, which they have never exceeded. The Chinese are said lo have manuliiclured glass ibr 2,UUU years ; yet at tbis day i( is inferior in transparency In the Fanopean. and is not used in their windows. They are reported to have kno\\n gun- powder tVom time immemorial; but they never employed it in arlil lery or tire-arms till they wore taught by the Europeans. They are said to have invented printing in the age of Julius Caesar, yet ihey know not the use of moveable types, and print from blocks of wond. When lirst shown -,;d l)eautv. 8. ill some o'f the arts the Chinese have attained great excellence. In China agriculture is carried to'the highest pitch of improvement, 'i'iiere is not a spot of waste land in tbe whole empire, nor any land which is not highly cnltivaled. The empeior himself is the chief of the Inishandmeii, and antmaliy holds the plough wilb his own hands. Fi'oni the high stale ot agriculture, and the modes of ecoiiomi/ing food, is suppoited the astonishing population of ;533 niiiiions, or 2liO inhabitants to every square mile of the empire. 'I'iic gardening of tlie Chinese, and their admirable embelli'lraine(fonly by tlie fear ot" pur.ishment. 10. The religion of' the Chinese is diilei'ent in t!ie different ranks of society. There is no religion of the state. The emperor and the higher miuidarins proi'ess the belief of one bui)reme Being, C/tflMfi-/:, whom they wershiiJ by prayer and thanksgiving, without any niixture of idolatrous practices. They respect the lama of Tliiliet ;is the higli-piiest or prophet of this religion. A prevalent - 'ci i-! that oCIao-sse, who believe in the power of nv.igic, the agency^ cf' sjiiiit*, and Uie dixinalion of I'uture events. A tldrd is the sect of /•'y, d. 'lived from India, whose [)i'iests are tlio Bonzes, and whose fund, unental doctrine is, tlnit all things rose out ol' notliing, and nmst li r.uly r..'lni-ii to nothing; that nil anitu;iis are lirst to undergo a series of liMn-nii:;rali'.>ns ; and that as man's chief ha|)iiiness is to approach as iiiNir as [,Mi>»il)le to a stale of anniliilaiion in this liie, absolute idle- n(>ss )•- more lau(!al;le tiian occunation of any kind. A variety of hi.leoiis iJols i- \vois;,ippe(l by this sect. 11. Tiie Ciiiist; have their sacred hooks entitled A7n^5 ; as the Yking. Choiikiiig, &c. ; which, among some good moral precepts, con- tain iMiicn ni\-ii'i-y, childish superstition, and absurdity. These are cl'i -ily resorted to lor the dnining of future events, which seems the ulliituttuin ol' research among the Cbinese philosophers The ohser vaiion of the licavenly bodies is made for that purpose alone. The changes of weathoi', the perform;. ace or omission of ceiMain cere- monies, the occurrence of certain events in particular limes and places, are all believed to have their intluence on luiunty, and are 192 MODERN HISTORY. (herefore carefully observed and' recorded. The rnles by which those omens are iritprj)reted are *ai(l to l)ave been |irescril;< d liy the great Conl'iicins, the lather ol" the Chinese pliilusojihy, y()u years be- Ibre the christian era. 12. We conclude, on the whole, that the Chinese are a very re- markahle people; that their govetnmenf, laws, policy, and kn()v\ 1- edge of the arts and sciences, exhil.it taujiicslioiialile prools el" ^w/.A antiquity and early civilization; that the exlraordi.iary measure of duration assigned to their empire hy some modern writejs resis on no solid prools ; that their government, laws, manners, arts, and scientitic attainments, are not deserxing ol" tliat superlative pnnse wliich has been bestowed on them. SECTION L. M. DAILLY^S THEORY OF THE ORIGI.X OF THE SCIE.N'CF.S AMONG THE NATIONS OF INDIA. 1. TnK striking rescml)lance in many points of character between the Chinese and the ancient I'gyptians, has led to, the conjerlurc, either that they were originally the same people, one i)eiiig a col- ony of the other, or have had, at srme remote period, such inter- course, eilher by conquest or by "omnicrce, as to occasion a recipro- cal communication of manners and the knowledge ofarts and sciences. i\T. de Mairan has ren^arked the folloiviug points of similarity. 'J'he Egyp.tians and the Cbines(> had tiie sam(; permanence ol" mannei-s, and abhorrence of iniiovalions ; they were alike remarkat)lt: iiu- ihe respect entertained by children to their parents ; they were equally averse to war; they bad the siuiie general superticial knowledge o't' fne arts and sciences, wilbout the aliiily lo make great attainments; they both, in the most ancient times, used biereglyphics ; the Egyp- tians had a si^l-mn lestival, called l\\v fiaf--. of the iisli's ; the Chinese have thej^«5/ (if lite lanieras; the leatures ofihe Chinese are said to resemble the ancient Egyptian statues ; certain characters engraven on an Egyptian bust of l=is were found to belong to the Chinese lan- guage. 2. M. Railly has taken a wider range of observation, and from n review c-^ the manners, customs, op-ini'->ns, and attainments of llie Indians, Persians, Chinese, Chaldeans, and Egy})tians, has discovered many circumstances of similarity l:etv\een all ihose nations, equally remarkable as the foregoing. He has thence formed the singular hypothesis, that the knowledge conmion to all those nations has been derived from the same original source, a most ancient and highly Cultivated people of Asia, of which every trace is now extinct. If we find, says he, in the scattered huts of peasants, fragments interspersed of sculptured columns, we conclude for certain that they are tiot the work of the rude peasants who reared those huts, l)ut that they an? the remains of a magnilicent building, the work of able architectf , timugh we discover no other traces of the existence of that building, and caimot ascertain its precise situation. ?>. The sciences and arts of the Chinese have been stationiry lor 2,0eir brethren in his own kingdom. 198 MODERN HISTORY. 2. On the death of Henry II. the conspiracy of Atnbolse was plan ned by the prince of Conde, for the destruction of the duke of Guise, who ruled the Jtingdom under Francis II., and to whose intolerance and cruelty the protestants attributed all their calamities. Guise owed his ascendancy chiefly to the marriage of his niece, Mary queen of Scots with the young monarch ; and the detection of this conspiracy, the massacre of its principal leaders, and the barbarous punishment ol'all who partook in it, while they confirmed his power, served only to increase the rancour of the contending parties. 3. Francis II. died after a reign of one year, 1,560, and was suc- ceeded by his brother Charles IX., a boy of ten years of age. The queen-mother, Catharine de Medicis, who had no other principle but the love of power, was equally jealous of the influence of the Condes and the Guises. An ecclesiastical assembly, held by her de sire at Foissy, gave toleration to the protestants to exercise their worship through all France, without the walls of the towns. The zeal or the imprudence of the duke of Guise infringed this ordinance, and both parties flew to arms. The admiral Coligni commanded the troops of the protestant«, who were aided by 10,000 Germans from the Palatinate. Philip of Spain, to increase the disorders, sent an army, to the aid of the catholics. 4. The horrors of civil war were aggravated by murders and assassinations. The duke of Guise was the victim of the Irantic zeal of an enthusiast. After many desperate engagements, with various success, a treacherous peace was agreed to by the catholics; and Coligni, with the chiefs of the prolestant party, were invited to court, and received by the queen-mother and her son with the most extraordinary marks of favour: among the rest Henry of Navarre, to whom the' young nrionarch had given his sister in marriage. Such w?re the preparatives to the infernal massacre of St. Bartholomew. On the night of the 23d of August, 1,572, at the ringing of the matin bell, the catholics made a general massacre of all the protestants throughout the kingdom of France. Charles IX., a monster of cruelty assisted in the murder of his own subjects. 5. Amid those horrors Henry duke of Anjou, brother of Charles IX., was elected king of Poland ; but had scarcely taken possession of his throne, when he was called to that of France by the death of its execrable sovereign, 1,57 I. The weakness of the new mon arch, Henrv HI., was untit to compose the disordei-s of the kingdom. Equally bigoted and profligate, he became the scorn of his subjects, and the dupe of the contending factions. 6. The protestant party was now supported by the prince of Conde and young Henry of Navarre, descended from Robert of Bourbon, a younger son of Lewis IX. The duke of Alencon, the king's brother, had likewise joined their party. The catholics, to accumulate their strength, formed a bond of union, termed the lea^uc^ nominally for delence of the state and its religion, but in reality for usurping all the powers of government, and suppressing the protes- tant faith. Of this dangerous association Henry 111., with the weakest policy, declared himself the head, and thus the avowed enemy of one half of his subjects. He saw his error when too late, and. ■dreading the designs of the duke of Guise, and his brother the cardinal of Lorraine, whose authority had superseded his own, he basely rid himself of his fears by procuring their assassination. This vicious Md contemptible tyrant, after a reign of fifteen years, was assassinate * MODERPi H1S1X)RY. 19 by J aqnes Clement, a jacobin monk, from the frenzy of fanaticism, 1,5S9. 7. The next heir of the crown was Henry of Navarre, who had been educated a protestant by bis mother, the daughter of Henry d'Albert iiingof JNavarre. At the age of sixteen he had beendechired head of tlie party of the Huguenots ; his uncle the prince of Conde and the admiral Coiigni acting as bis HeutenanLs. His tirst miUtary enterprises were unsuccessful. Invited to Paris, at tlie peace ol 1,572, to marry the sister of Charles IX., he narrowly escaped from the massacre of St. Bartholomew, but remained three years a prison- er. On the death of Charles he again took the field against the army of the league, which he defeated in the battle or Coutras, 1,.587, and still more signally in that of Arques, 1,589. After the death of Henry III., he won the celebrated battle of Ivry ; and, being acknowledged sovereign of France by all but the party of the league, then in possession of Paris, he laid siege to the city, which must have capitulated if Philip II. had not sent succours. Religion was the sole cause of the disunion of France, and the only obstacle to the acknowledgment of Henry's title by, the greater part of his sub- jects. By the earnest persuasion of Kosni (duke of Sully), a protes- tant, Henry was prevailed on to declare himself a catliolic. He ab- jured at St. Denis, and was crowned king at Chartres, 1,594. He soon after tooK possession of Paris ; but it took him several years, both of war and negotiation, before he gained the whole of his king- dom, exhausted as it was, and ruined by civil discord. 8. The subsequent life of this excellent prince was devoted to the reparation of those misfortunes. After forcing Philip 11. to conclude the advantageous peace of Vervins, 1,598, his whole attention wag bestowed on the improvement of his kingdom, by reforming its laws, regulating its finances, encouraging agriculture and manufactures, enlarging and embellishing the cities, and finally by successfully reconciling tne partisans of the contending religions. In all his bene- ficial schemes, he found an able assistant in his minister the duke of Sully, who has beautifully depicted the life and character of his mas- ter. In his memoirs we see not only the great designs, but the pri- vate virtues, the engaging and amiable manners of this illustrious man, who while he was the arbiter of the contending powers ol Kurope, was the indulgent father of a happy people. 9. The period of the splendour and happiness of France was ol short duration. Henry IV., worthy to be immortal, was assassinated at the age of fifty-seven. May 4, 1,610, by Ravaillac, an insane fanat- ic. At the time of his death, he meditated the great project of a perpetual peace between the states of Europe, a design higbly char- acteristic of the benevolent mind of its author. But the weaknesses ol mankind, and the impossibility of reasoning with nations as with wise individuals, must certainly have rendered this design impracticable at that period. SECTION LV. HISTORY OF ENGLAND AND OF SCOTLAND IN THE REIGNS OF ELIZABETH AND MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS. 1. EuzABETH, daughter of Henry VIII., by Anna Bullen, succeeded to the throne on the death of her sister Mary, 1,558; and England 2U0 MODERN HISTORY. attained a high degree of splendour, under the rule of this great an^ politic princess, whose talents enabled her to pursue the true interests ol her people, while her vigorous and intrepid mind led her to take an impoitant part in maintaining the balance of power in Europe. While she encouraged at home every useful art and manufacture, she colonized a great part of North America, supported the infant republic of Holland against its tyrannical enemy, humbled the pride of Spain in the defeat of its invincible arnvada, and assisted Henry IV. in the recovery of his kuigdom. It was her fortune to have the aid of most able ministers, and her merit to place her confidence in their counsels. 2. If Elizabeth had been equally endowed with the virtues of the heart as with the powers of the mind, she would have shone the most illustrious character in the annals of modem Europe. Her conduct to her cousin Mary queen of Scots has fixed an indelible stain on her character. Mary, the daughter of James V., and great grand-daughter of Heury VII., educated in France, and married, when very young, to the dauphin, afterwards Francis II., had im- prudently assumed the arms and title of queen of England, by the persuasion of her maternal uncles the Guises. The pretence was the illegitimacy of Elizabeth, declared by Henry VIII., on his divorce from Anna Bullen. This false step laid the foundation of all the miseries of the queen of Scots. 3. The reformation was at this time going forward in Scotland with the most ardent zeal. The car.a of Argyle, Morton, Glencairn, and others, its chief promoters, had, by their own authority, suppress- ed the worship of the mass over a great pa-rt of th'e kingdomu The catholic bishops, by an ill-judged persecution of the reformers, greatly increased the number of tlieir proselytes. They began to muster their strength, and, headed i)y .John Knox, a disciple oT Cal- vin, a virtuous man, but of" the most furious and intemperate zeal, threw down the altars and images, expelled the priests, and demol- ished the churches and monasteries. The protestants were now acting in arms, and in open defiance of government ; and the queen mother, Mary of Guise, atteinpfed, by the aid of French troops, to reduce her subjects to submission. They applied for aid to Elizabeth the protestant queen of England, who sent an arm\' and a fleet to their assij^tiuice. The death of the queen-mother was followed by a capU- ulalion, by which it was agreed that the French should evacuate Scotland, and that Mary should renounce all pretension to the crown of England. The protestant religion, under presbyterian forms, was now established in the room of the catholic. 5. In this situation of Scotland, Mary, at the age of eighteen, on the death of her mother, and of her husband Francis II., returned to her hereditary kingdom; having fortunately escaped an English fleet, which Elizabeth had despatched to take her prisoner on her p.issage. Her misfortunes began from that hour. Her protestant subjects regarded their catholic queen with abhorrence, and looked up to her enemy Elizabeth as their support and defender. Tlmt artful princess had secured to her interest the very men on whom the unsuspecting Mary placed her utmost confidence, her bastard brother the earl of Murray, the earl of Morton, and secretary Leth ington. The views of Murray aimed at nothing less than his sister's crown, and the obstacles which opposed his criminal ambition served ...only to render his attempts more daring and flagitious. 5. The Diarriage of iVlary with her cousin lora Darnley, son of th» MODERN HISTORY. 201 earl of Lennox, who stood in the same relation to Elizabeth, was not agreeable to that princess. Encouraged by Elizabeth's ministers, Randolph and Cecil, Murray formed a conspiracy to seize and impris- on Mary, to put to death her husband, and usurp the government; and on Ihe detection of his designs, attempted to support Ihem by open rebtllion. Defeated, exiled, pardoned, and loaded with benefits by his injured sovereign, he persevered in the same atrocious pur- poses, till he at length accomplished them. 6. The spouse ot Mary had incurred her resentment by his vices and follies. Taking advantage of the weakness of his mind, Mur- ray, Morton, and Lethington, had rendered him jealous of the par- tiality of Mary for her foreign secretary, the aged Rizzio, and en- gaged him in the borbarous act of murdering this ill-fated wretch at the feet of the queen, to whose garments he clung fox protection^ The purpose of this shocking outrage was to procure the abortion of Mary, then big with child, and possibly her death ; or, if shfe fhould survive, to alienate completely her affections from her hus- band, and thus to render her suspected of the design which they had projected of cutting him off by assassination. In the latter pur- pose they succeeded. The house which Darnley inhabited was blown up by gunpowder: his body was found strangled near the place, and a report immediately prevailed, that Mary had been accessory to his min-der. 7. A most imprudent step, to which she was conducted by the same bantl of traitors, gave countenance to this suspicion. At the earnest recommendation of Morton and some of her chief nobility^ she married the earl of Bothwell, a man openly stigmatized as one of the murderers of her husband. He had, it is true, been absolved ^n trial for that crime, and had by force made himself master of her person. The plans of Murray and his associates, successful to the utmost of their wishes, were now ripe tor consummation. On the f)retext of the queen's guilt of murder and adultery, she was confined >y Murray in the castle of Lochleven, and there compelled to resigrt her crown into the handsof herun ratural brother, who was to govers the kingdom as regent during the minority of her infant son, now E reclaimed king by the title of James VI., 1,567. Bothwell escaped eyond sea, and died in Denmark. 3. A great part of the nation reprobated those infamous proceed- ings. Mary escaped from her confinement, and at the head of an army gave battle to the rebels at Langside ; Init, being defeated, she fled for shelter to the north of England. Elizabeth, who had secretly encouraged all the machinations of her enemies, had now gained a great object of her ambition ; she had in her hands a hated rival, and, by her support of Murray and his party, the absolute command of the kingdom of Scotland. Yet policy required sonfe show of friendship and humanity to the queen of Scots, who claimed, as a suppliant, her protection and aid. She professed her desire to do her justice, but first required that she should clear herself of the crimes alleged agaiixst her. To this Mary agreed, with the intrepid- ity of conscious innocence. In a conference held for that purpose, Murray openly stood forth as the accuser of his sister and queen^ appealing to certain letters said to have been written by her to Both* well, plainly intimating her guilt. Copies of these letters were pro» duced. Mary demanded the originals, boldly declaring them to be the forgeries of her enemies ; but they were never produced. She i^ptorted on Murray and Morton the charge of Darnley's murder. «02 MODERN HISTORY. and the conference was broken off at the command oi the queen ject, annulled all taxes imposed without the consent of j)arliament, and abolished the exercise of the martial law ; and Charles was obliged, with much reluctance, to give his assent to this great retrenchment of prerogatives, sanctioned by the usage of the most popular of his predecessors. 9. The taxes of tonnage and poundage had usually been contin- ued from one reign to another. On this ground the king conceived that he was warranted to levy them without a new grant; and a member of the house of commons was imprisoned on refusal to pay them. This arbitrary measure excited an outrageous ferment in that assembly, and the consequence was a new dissolution of tlie parliament, 1,629. 10. It was now a measure of necessity to make peace with Franca and Spain. The king persevered in levying the tonnage, poundage, and ship-money; and high fines were imposed for various ofFencey, without trial, by authority of the star-chamber. The legality of the tax of ship-money was disputed by John Hampden, who was condemned by the court of exchequer, contrary, as was generally thought, to justice and the laws of the realm. 11. Those discontents were increased by religious enthusiasm- Charles, by theadviceof Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, had relax ed the penalties against catholics, and countenanced some innova- tions in the ceremonials of church worship, preludes, as they were termed, to the popish idolatries. He had likewise imprudently at- MODEKN Hi;STORY. 206 loinpteci to introduce the liturgy oi the chn.rch of England among the Scots. These measures excited in Scotland very general discontent, and produced the most violent commotion. A hond, termed the JYa- tional Covenant, containing an oalh ofi-esiL-tance to ail religious inno- vations, was subscribed in Scotland by all ranks and conditions ; and in a general assembly at Glasgow the cpiscop-al hierarchy was sol- emnly abolished, 1,638. To maintain tills violent procedure the Scots reformers took up^ arms, and, alter seizing and fortifying the most important places of strength in the kingdom, boldly marched into the heart of England. 12. It was now absolutely necessary to assemble a parliament, and the king at length saw that the torrent was irresistible, and resolved, though too late, to yield to it. A bill ^passed for -bolishing the ton- nage and poundage without consent of parliament, and received the royal assent. Monopolies of every kind were ab : ■. liort!, whose trial by his peers would have terminated in i- :,'■;■ ui;il, u' as secured l>y a bill of attainder, to which the king Vva.;, wilii the greatest reluctance, ibrced to give his assent. The commons seized that moment of anguisli to ob- tain his consent to a decisive measure, a l:"i'l which rendered the parliament perpetuid by (ieclaring that it ehouid vxA be dissolved nor adjourned except by its own decree, 1,641. Strafford and Laud were both belieaded. 13. This last mep.sure of the comn-:cns ' " ;• i inincd pur- pose to overturn the consiitulion. Thei;- ;. ' ,-i ' r'.o had the show of justice, and most of tiiem migiit ■ ■ . .' on the principles of true pairiotism. But from this ; : * uuduct was treason to their couiitrv and ii;- ;:cvor;i!uc; :. -i lid de- i^troyed the equal ■ mI, and every subseauent measi;. 14. The Iris!) i.,...:,.r. -uvi, with the purpos;' :ii, and shaking off ii io massacre all the [ . rebellion Gharies = which they inter i i\ , . , i ; . - itary powers of the crown. ! levied, and supplied vvith arm- , 15. The. bishops having conji Ml from the populace, and having prolesLed against the proceedings of the lords in their absence, were impeached of treason by the com- mons, and committed to the Tower. The patience of Charles was exhausted. He caused five of the commons to be impeached, and went in person to the house to seize them; a breach of the privilege of parliament, for which he found it necessary to atone by a humili- ating message. 16. A new bill of the commons, naming the commanders of all -the fortified places, who should be responsible to parliament alone, was understood to be a declaration of war. The next step was to assume the whole legislative power, by declaring it a breach of privilege to dispute the law of the land promulged by the lonls and commoris. S ...i.iule le uar. lie nui- :'!!!( ni[ } ■ ;! [i^v--;\{ loi •ce was val m; ig; izincs. .I'thi ?ir lives were in danger «06 MODl^lC. lilorORY. But the iorJ-j were merely ;i !iamo, being entirely uiHier the coutrol of the commons. 17. The sword was now to decide the contest. The royal cause was supported by a gre^t proportion ot' the landed interest, all the friends ot" the established church, and all the Ciitholics in the king- dom. On the side of the parliament were the city of London and most of the greater towns, with all the dissentei?! and sectaries. The fir^t campaign was favourable to the royalists, ^vho defeated the par- iiamentaiy forces at Worcester and Edgehill, but lost the battle of Newbury. 18. The parliam-ent now entered into a rtrict confederacy with the Scots, both in the articles of politics and rel'gion; and the Solemn League mid Covenant^ a new bond more specilic in its objects than thoTormer, and more treasonable in its purpose, was framed atEdin- i'.urgh, for the purification of both churches, the reformation of both kingdoms, the m.iintenunce of the privileges of king and parlia- ment, and bringing tojusice all malignants. In consequence of this confederacy, 20,000 Scots took the field toco-operate with the forces of the parliament. 19. At this time Oliver Cromwell commanded a regiment of horse under Fairliix, general of the parliament ; but in reality direct- ed all the measures of the army. In Scotland the royal cause was gallantly sustained by the marquis of Pdontrose; Jjut all was lost in fcjigland by the defcnt at Naseby, in 1,645. The troops of the roy- alists being entirely dispersed, the king threw himself into the hands of the Scots, who basely delivered him up to the commissioners of parliament, froip whom he was taken by Cromweirs orders, and con- ducted to the arm}', which was now master of the kingdom. Croiii well entering London a^^sumed an absolute control over the parlia- ment, and iuiprisono;d all who disputed his authority. Charles, escai>- ')ng from his confinement, tied to the isle of Wight ; but was there de- tained a prisoner in Cari?brook castle. 20. The parliament, sud'ering under this military usurpation, were no.v sincerely desirous of terminating a miserable anarchy by a treaty with tlio king, and, after a long negotiation, all terms were finally adjusted. Charles agreed to resign lo parliament the military power, the disposal of all the olticcs of state, and the right of creat- ing peers without the consent of parliament: he agreed to abolish the episcopal hierarchy, and to establish the presbyterian di-cipline. Tli.ese concessions tlie parliament accepted by a majority of surtVa 2es, and declared them lo be a sullicicnt basis lor the settlement of the kingdom. Cromwell instantly surrounded the house of commons, and, excluding all but his own partisans (about sixty in number), a second vote was passed, rescinding tlie formei, and declaring it treason in a king to levy war against his parliament. A court of ias-tice was then appointed to try the king for this act cf treason. The house of lords, having unanimously rejected this decree, were immediately voted, by this junto of independents, to be a useless branch of the constitution. 21. Charles was brought to trial, and, refuiing to acknowledge the authority of his judges, v/as condemned to suffer death. He was beheaded on the oOlh of January, 1,649. The arbitrary proceedings o! this monarch in the beginning of his reign were certainly sulii- cient to justily that resistance on the part of the people vvhiqh at length p'rodaccd its effect, in confining the regal authority within its just bounds, and securing the rational liberties of the subject. But I\IOi;r:K>J HiSTOKY. 207 from the period \\ h&n (his end was attained, resistance ceased to be lawful. Its further operations were criminal in the extreme. The subsequent usurpations of the commons can no more he justijfied on any constitutional priixiple, than the murder of the king can be de- I'ended uu the score of legality, justice, of humanity. SECTION LVII. THE COMMON\VEALTH OF ENGLAND. 1. The parliament of Scotland had taken no part in these lattei scenes, and had formally protested against the trial of the king. On his death they proclaime-i Charles II. their sovereign, but on the ex- press condition of his signing the covenant, and ratifying their con- iession of faith. Ireland recognised him without any conditions. 'I'he heroic marquis of Montrose landed in the north of Scotland with a lew foreign troops, and attempted to reduce the party of the cove- nanters, and to establish the legal authority of the king, independent ol" the servile restrictions with which they had fettered it. Being attacked by a much superior force, he was deflated, and betrayed into the power of liis enemies, who put him to death by the hands of the executioner, 1,G50; displaying in the circumstances of his punishment all the insolence of cruelty which distinguishes revenge w tlie meanest of souls. Charles retired to Scotland, and n as obliged, however reluctantly, to acquiesce in all the terms that were imposed on liim. 2. Cromwell, with 1G,()00 men, marched into Scotland against the royalist covenanters, whom he deleated in the Lattle of J)unhar. lie ttien followed the royal army, which retreated into England, and destroyed it in the decii:^ivc haltle of Worcester, September 3, 1,651. Charles lied in disguise thrcagj;) the western and soutliern counties, till he iound an opportunity of escaping to France ; and Cromwell returned in triumph to London. 3. The republican [jurliament formed and executed great designs. A war with Holland was most ably maintained on both sides by three groat naval commanders, Biake, the British admiral, and Van Tromp and de Uuytor, the Dutch admirals; but the advantage was greatly in fliv'.ur of the English, who took above 1,600 Dutch ships. The parliament, claled by tliose successes, justly conceived that, while the nation was thus powcriul at sea, the army was an unnecessary bur- den, and determined to reduce it. To prevent this measure, Crom- weii framed a remoustnuice of the army, demanding the election of a new parliament. Tl.is remonstrance being disregarded, he entered the house of commons, which he l.ad surrounded Avith his troops, and declaring the parliarjient dissolved by his authority, forcibly turned the members out of doors. The republic of England, which had subsisted f )ur years and three months, was thus annihilated in one moment, AprifSO, 1,653. 4. It was neccssai-y, however, that there should be (he appearance of yi parliament. A few mean persons, of fanatical character, were cJiosen by Ci-oinweirs partisans, from the dilferent counties of Eng- land, \\il:i live from Scotland, and six from Ireland, to hold their fun.> tion for tifteeen months. This assembly, termed Burcbone's parLia- ment^ from its leading member, a leather-seller, became the scorn of the public, and was dissolved, by its own vote, after five months. 20U MODEIiN HISTORY. 5. The government was now vested in the council of officers, »vho nominated Oliver Cromwel! lord protector of the three king- doms, invested him with the power of making peace, war, and alli- ance, and authorized a standing army of 30,000 men to be kept up for the support of governm-ent. His administration was despolic, vigorous, and spirited. He maintained the honour of the nation in tlie war with the Dutch, compelling them to yield the honour of the Hag, and to compensate to the India company all its losses. He Avas successful likewise in his negotiations with France and Spain. But in his domestic government he was traversed by his parliaments, whom it cost him a continual struggle, and even violence, to keep in order. One parliament, properly prepared, voted him the regal title, which, by the council of his best friends, he was forced, most unwillingly, to refuse, hi recompense of this self-denial, the parlia m?nt confirmed iiis title of protector, with a lixed revenue, and de- creed his right of appointing a successor. He was king in all luit the name. 6. By consent of parliament Cromwell appointed a house oflortis; but all the ancient peers declined the protiorod honour. He was forced to choose peers from the commons ; and thus he lost tiie ma- jority in the lower house. His temper soured with disappointment, a prey to chagrin, and in continual fear of assassination, he fell at length into a mortal disease, and died in the fifty-ninth year of his age. September 2, 1.G58. ' 7. Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded to the protectorate by his father's appointment. Ho was a man of weak understanding and fticilo temper, utterly unfit for his hazardous situation, which accordingly he maintained only for a few months, resigning his otlice on the ^id of April, 1,659. His brother Henry, viceroy of Ireland, immediately followed his example. The family of the Cromwelis,^ which the talents of one man had eleA^ated above the sovereigns of their country, returned to its original obscurity. 8. The remains of that nominal parliament which had put the king to death, termed, in derision, the ruinp^ was now dissolved by the council of oihcers. Of these every aspiring individual had his own separate views of ambition. IntrigTie, cabal, and anarchy, were univer- sal; and the nation, looking forward with horror to a series of calam- ities, began earnestly to dosii'e the restitution of its ancient govern- ment. George Monk, comma.ndcr of the army in Scotland, judged tho^e symptoms favourable lor restoring tlic exiled monarch to the tlirone of Ids ancestors. Marching his arm.y into England, he declar- ed his resolution to bring about the election of a free parliament, which all men knev/ to be synonymous with the restoration of the king. It was of course violently opposed by the republican party, who even attempted to excite a'new civil war; but they were forced at length to acquiesce in the measure. A free parliament was assem- bled, and a message was presented from Charles, offering a full in- demnity, complete liberty of conscience, and payment of all arrears to the army. The message was received with transports of joy, and Charles 11. was proclaimed king on the 29th day of May, 1,660. MODERN HISTORY. 2TO SECTION LVIll. • •IHE REIGiNS OF CHARLES II. AND JAMES II. % 1. The nation, without imposing any terms on their new sovc- ^, reign, trusted implicitly to his good dispositions. Charles in'as humane/ fc and complacent, but indolent, luxurious, and prodigal ; and therefore" ^ was neither able to support the national honour abroad, nor to rotn- , mancl obedience and respect to his domestic government. TJie sale V^ of Dunkirk was a measure offensive to the pride of" the iiauon. A y war with. Holland, supported at a vast expense, and irainiamed in jd many desperate but indecisive engagements, was attended hnaily 7 uithno material benefit. By the treaty ofBieda, concluded in l,oG7i New York was .-ecured to the English, the isle of" Polerone to the Dutch, ;ind Acadia in North America to the French. 2. 'Ihe sale of Dunkirk, and the unsuccessful issue of the war, attributed to the counsel of the earl of Clarendon, procured the di.'- graco and banishment of that illustrious man, 1,667. The peace was scarcely concluded with Holland, when England joined with her an 1 S\veden in a triple alliance, to oppose the progress of the arms cl Leu'is XIV. in the Low Countries; and that object being attained by liie treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,603, the French monarch gained the English over to his interest in a new war against the Dutcli, which brought their republic to the brink of destruction. 3. The domestic administration of Charles was embroiled from various carises, originating in the personal character and dispcYiiioi;:i of tiie sovereign. He trusted to profligate and worthless counsellors. His arbitrary notions of government, and the partiality which ho siiowed to the catholics, gave perpetual alarm and uneasiness to a great proportion of his subjects. Complaints resounded from ever) quarter; and the parliament required a test-oath, abjuring popery, from all persons in public employment. On refusal to take this oath, the king's brother, James duke of York. \vas deprived ot' his oliice of high admiral. 4. Titus Oates, a worthless mipostor, pi-elended to have di=^cc->- cred a plot of the catholics for assassinating the king, burning Lon- don, massacring the protestants, ;md placing the duke of York on the throne. Another villain, named Bedioe, joined his evidence to that of Oates; and on their perjured testimony, al'lervvard I'idiy exposed, a \'e\\ miserable priests suffered death. A new test w;.'s imposed, which excluded all papists fi'om both houses oi pariiament The treasurer Danby was impeached for advising the hist peace wiui France, though it was proved that he had acted by his sovereign's orders; and a hill passed the iiouse of commons, excluding the dnke of York trom the succession to the crown. A more important^ bill for the general liberty, the act of Jiubcas corpus was the work of the same session of parliament. (Sect. LIX., § 14.) 5. I'he distinguisiiiiig epithets of whig and tory Avere now li'r;-t known; the former, the opposers of the crown, against the latter, iis pailJsans; and each party, as in all factions, carried its principles to an extreme. The whig^, predominant in the next parliament, raged with t'ury against the calhohcs, and insisted on the king's assent to the bill lor the exclusion of his brother. His only expedient was to dissolve the parliament, but he found their successors equaJly vic- S? 27 i 210 aiODKKN HISTORY. lent. After various fruitless attempts to conciliate their favour to hlg measures, a dissolution of this parliament ensued, the last which Charles assembled. 6. But the great cause of dissatisn-.ction remained. The duke of York was at the bottom of all the measures of government. A con- spiracy was formed by Shaftesbury, Ilussel, Sydney, and the duke of Monmouth, natural son of the kingl on the pretence of vindicating the natiorr.d liljerlies. It was discovered by one of the associates, and Russel and Sydney suftered capital punishment. Tiio detection of this conspiracy strengthened the authority of the sovereign. I'he thike of York was restoi'ed to his oflicG of high admiral, and tacitly acknowledged as the successor to the crown. Charles 11. died on the 6th'of jb'ebraary, 1,685, in the 55th year of his age, and tb.c 25th of his reign. 7. The duke of York succeeded to the throne by the title ot James II. His reign was short and inglorious. He was the instru ment of his own misfortunes, and ran headlong to destruction. The catholics at this time were not the hundrec'th par.t of the nation, yet James was weak enough to m^ke the desperate attempt of sub stituting the popish faith in room of the protestant. Discarding the nobility from his councilsi lie was directed solely by Romish priests. In the very outset of hi^ reign he expressed his contempt ol' the au- thority of parliament, and a iirni purpose to exercise an unlimited despotism. 8. The duke of Monmouth, having excited a new rebellion, uas defeated, made prisoner, and beheaded ; and the most inhuman rigour was exercised in the punishment of all his partisans, l-iie parliament was in general submissive to the king's will, which foi' a while met with no opposition nor control. A declaration was pub lished, estabiisiung full liberty of conscience in matters of religion ; and several biushops, who refused to publish it in their diocesses, were committed to prison. A catholic president was appointed to one of the colleges at Oxford. An ambassador was sent to the pope, and a papal nuncio received in London. The catholics openly boast- ed that^heirs would scon be the religion of the state. 6. James had three children; Mary, the wife of the stadtholder William prince of Orange ; Anne, married to prince George of Den mark; and James, an infant. The stadtholder had considered his right to the crown ot" England as certain before the birth of this iaViiat, and, after that event, projected still to gain it by arms or in- trigue ; the infatuation of the king and the general discontent of the people giving him the most dattering invitation, James was intbrm- r.d of those views of his son-in-law, but would give them no credit, till actually apprized of his landing with an army, November 15th 1,G8-B. ' 10. The pi-incipal nobility and officers immediately joined the standard of the prince of Oriuige; and James was at once abandoned by his people, ministers, favourites, and his own children. Leaving London in disguise, he was discovered and biought back by the pop- ulace , but the prince of Orange wisely favoured his escape, and he found means a few days after, to convey himself to France. 11. The throne being declarcil vacant, it \vas proposed in a con- vention-parliament, that the crown should be settled on the princess Mary and her issue, her husbaiul governing as regent, whom failing, on the jjrincess Anne. The stadtholder declining the office of regent, it wa5 (inally resolved to confer the crown on the prince and prin- MODKKN MKTOlir. 21 j ce.s3 of Orange, the former to ^iiive the sole administration of the government. 12. To this settlement was added a declaration fixing the rights of tlie subject and the royal prerogative. Of this the most important articles are the ibllowing. The king cannot suspend the laws, nor their execution ; he cannot levy money without consent of parlia- ment; the subjects have right to petition the crown; a standing army cannot be kept up in time of peace but by conseiit of parlia- ment ; elections and parliamentary debate must be free, and parlia- ments niiist be frequently assembled, &c. Such was the final settle- ment of the British government at the great era of the revolution. At this period, when the constitution became fixed and determhied, we finish the sketch of the history of our own country. SECTION LIX. ON THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION. 1. The rudiments of t'.-e constitution of England mav be traced as far back as the JN'orman conquest. William distributed a great pro- portion ot the lands among his Norman followers, subjecting these, as well as tho Anglo-Saxons who retained their property to the feu- dal tenures, and tiuis extin£;uishing at once the ancient liberties of the people. England was divided into 60,215 military fiefs, all held of the crown, under tiie obligation of the vassaPs taking arms for his sovereign whenever required. In the continental kingdoms of Europe, as in France, the feudal system arose by slow degrees, nor U'lis there of consequence the same union of the fabric as in England. The feudal lords were independent of one another, ever at variance from their mutual pretensions, and often owning but a very slender allegiance to the crown. Their vassals suffered from oppression, and often struggled for their freedom ; but those efforts being partial produced no consequence favourable to the liberty of the nation. In England all vvere oppressed by tlie enormous weight of the crown ; it was a common grievance, and produced at times a violent effort for the general liberties of the people. 2. The forest-laws nnposed by the conqueror (Sect. XV., § 2, 11.) were a grievance felt by the whole nation, as rendering every man's property precarious, and subject to the arbitrary encroachments of the crown. It was no wonder that (he barons and their vassals should cordially unite to rid themselves of so intolerable a hardship. Henry I. found it necessary to conciliate his subjects, by mitigating the most rigoi'ous of the feudal laws. A greater advance was made under Jlenry II., by the institution of the trial by jury. But John impru- dently resisting this natm'al progress toward a rational freedom, was soon compelled into thos? important concessions, the Charta de Foresta and Mitgna Charta. From that time the constitution of England was that of a limited monarchy, v.hatever we may judge of the actual government, which was often most arbitrary and despolical. '^. The next memorable era in the progress of the English consti- tution was the reign of that weak prince J-Ienry III., when the par- liament received a new form, bv the admission of the representatives of the people, the deputies of the counties and boroughs. (Sect, XXII., § 2.) His successor Edward I. acknowledged their authority in obtiiining ail his subsidies, and ratified a new law which declareil, 212 MODERN HISTOIIY. thai no tax should be levied without the consent of lords and com- mons. The Magna Charta was confirmed no less than eleven times in the course oflhis reign. 4. Thu'S the constitution continued advancing (ill its progress was suspended by the civil wars of York and Lancaster. The rights of both prince and people seemed then io be entirely forgotten; and the race of Tudor found no resistance from parliament to theii- vigor- ous and despotic sway. The talents of Eliz.-.beth, and tiie high character which her government sustained with foreign powers, ex- tinguished all domestic disquiets, while the predominant feeling was the mj'dntenance of the power and dignity of the crown. 5. But under the succeeding prince, when his power and dignity were abased by his own weakness, the nation began to awake tVom its lethargy ; and that spirit of opposition, which in this reign con- fuied itself to complaints, in the next broke forth with alarming vio- lence. Charles I., endowed with superior energy of character, acted, as he conceived, on a principle of duty, which obliged him to main- tain the prerogative of his predecessors, and to transmit it unimpaired to his posterity ; but he was imprudent in exerting with rigour an authority which he wanted ultimate resources to support. He was compelled to sign the Petition of' Riglrts^ n grant more i'avourable to liberty than Alajna Charta. The "true patriots were satistied with this concession, which conferred the most ample constitutional Iree- dom. But the popular leaders made patriotism the cloak of ins.itia- ble ambition; and advanced in their demands with every new com- plianca. The last appeal was made to the sword, and the contest ended in the destruction of the constitution. 6. The despotism which succeeded, and the fluctuation of power from the long parliament to the protector, and finally to the leudera of a standing army, afforded demonstrative evidence how vain was the project of a republic, under which the demagogues had masked their^ designs. Weary of anarchy, the nation returned with high satisfaction to its former constitution, a limited monarchy. 7. New encroachments under Charles II. produced new limita- tions; and the actot Habeas Corpus gave the utmost possible securit}' to jj^ersonal Uberty. The violent and frantic invasion of the consti- tution by James II., banished himself and his posterity from tlse throne, and produced a new and solemn contract between the king and the people. Regarding, therefore, the revolution as the final settlement of the English constitution, we shall endeavour brieiiy to dehneate the chief features of that great political structure. 8. The constitution of Great Britain may be viewed under two distinct heads, the legislative power, and the executive power ; tiie hist comprehending the prerogative of the crown. The power of legislation belongs to parliament, whose constituent parts are, the king, lords, and common?. The house of lords con- sists ol the temporal peers of England, and of the spiritual, or the two archbishops and twenty-tour bishops. To these, since the unions with Scotland and Ireland, are added sixteen delegates from the peerage of the former kingdom, and thirty-two from' the latter. The house of commons consists of the deputies or representatives of the counties and principal towns and boroughs of England, and the two universities, amounting in all to 51.3 members; io whom, since the unions, are added 45 from Scotland and 100 from Ireland. These deputies are chosen by the freeholders who possess a prop- erty yielding a certain yearly rent. The chancellor generally pre- MOL'ERiN illSTORY. 513 sides in the liouse of lords; the speaker is president in the house of commons. 9. The king is the most essential conrponent part of parliament, because l:..e aione has the power to convoke, prorogue, and dissolve it. He Inis likewise a negative on all its acts, which are invalid without his approbation ; and each house has a negative on the do^ croos of the other. It is likewise competent to the king to propose any measure to be laid before the parliament. 10. All questions regarding p-ublic atfairs and national measures may originate in either house of parliament, except grants of money, ivhich must always take their rise in the house of commons, and cannot be altered, though they may be rejected, by the lords. Any matter must be primarily discussed in that house in which it origi- nates, and, until it is there decided, cannot be received by the other house, unless a conierence should be demanded. A bill refused by cither house is ut'erly void; and a bill passed by both houses is void, if refused by the king 11. The executive power of government is vested in the king. (1.) The tirst branch of his oiRce is the administration of justice. The judges of all courts of judicature are the king's substitutes. He is the prosecutor of ail crimes, and has the power of pardoning and suspending the execution of all sentences. (2.) He is the foun- tain of all honour, the giver of all titles and dignities, and the dis- poser of all the offices of state. (3.) He is the superintendant of commerce, and has the power of regulating weights and measures, and of coining m.oney. (4.) He is the head of the church, and names the 'archbishops and bishops. (5.) He is commander in chief of all the sea and land forces, and can alone equip fleets, levy armies, and appoint all their officers. (6.) He has the power of mak- ing war, peace, and alliance, and of sending and receiving ambassa- dors. (7.) He is aljove the reach of all courts of justice, and is not responsible to any judicature for his conduct in the administration ol government. 12. These high powers of the sovereign, which, at first sight, would seem to render him an absolute m.onarch, are thus admirably controlled. The king is dependent on parliament for all subsidies, without which he can neither maintain his fleets and armies, nor pay the salaries of officers. The parliament indeed settles a revenue on the king for life, but this is merely sufficient for the maintenance oi his household, and for supporting a proper dignity of establishment As the_ king's revenue must be renewed by parliament at the begin- ning of every reign, it is in their power to withhold it till all abuses sliall be remedied. At those periods therefore the constitution may be brought back to its first principles, and all encroachments '' the prerogative may be restrained. 13. The king can never reign without a parliament. It must by law be assembled once in three years, on a notice of forty days before its meeting. Though the king is the head of the church, yet he cannot alter the established religion, nor frame ecclesiastical regulations. These must be made by the assembly of the clergy. The king cannot interfere in the ordinary administration of justice, nor refuse h.is consent to the prosecution of crimes. He may pardon offences, but cannot exempt the offender from pecuniary compensa- tion to the party injured, irle cannot alter the standard of money, either in weight or alloy. He cannot raise art army without the con- tent of parliament ; and though a moderate standing force is kept up gl4 MODERN HISTOllY. • ' with their consent, yet the funds lor its payment require an annual reneual by parliament. Tjiough the sovereign is not amenable to any j!](licalure, yet his ministers are responsible tor all the measures oi"'gov>niment, and are impeachable by the commons at the bar oi the house of lords, for every species of misronducl or misdemeanour. ■I'he freedom of parliamentary discussion is secured, because no member can be questioned for any opinions or words, except in that liouse of |)arliameat in which they were uttered. It. The personal security and the rights of the subject are fur- ther guarded by these three peculiarities of the British constitution, tlie habeas corpus^ trial by juries, and the liberty of the press^ By (he act of habtjis corpus, every prisoner must be brought beibre a judge, the cause of his detainer certilied, and the judge is authorized ancfbound to discharge him, if the cause of his imprisonment be in- snilicient or illegal. The violation of this statute is punishaL'le hy the highest pf nalties. The luibcas corpus m;!y bo suspended in times of danger to (he state, as during the existence of a conspiracy or rebel- lion?" Though this act does not extend to Scotland, yet tlie subjects ol that part of the united kingdoms are equally secured by their own laws. (Statute 1,701, c. 6.) 15. Ail crunos must be tried by a jury of twelve men in England and Ireland, and fifteen in Scotland. The prisoner h;;s a riglit ol challenging or objecting to the jurors ; and (except in Scotland), with- out showing any cause, he mi'.y challenge twenty successively in or- dinary cases, and thirly-livc in cases of treason. The jmy are judges Iiotli of the hw and the fict; nor has the opinion of the court any weight in their decision, but such as they ciiooso to give it. IG. The liberty of the press is a guardian of the constitution, be- cause it is competent for any individual to convey to the public his ojiinion of the whole conduct of government, and the merits of its con- diictors; lo canvass every counsel of state, ;md to examine every pub- lic tneasru'e ; tlius forcibly restraining all ministers and magistrates vvitliin the limiLs of th^nr .a- tional prospe-'rty, or the reverse, plenty or scai-city of money, quan- tity of p«i")lic debt. On this variation is founded the practice ol stock->3iJbing, that is, either buying and selling actual property in the piiU'fc funds, which is a lawful speculation, or gaming and wagering on the price of stock, which is an illicit but common practice. The practice of stock-jobbing, even by the transference of actual proj}er- ty, and far more by gaming on that which is fictitious, is prejudicial to commerce and manufactures, by engrossing a great part of the national wealth, repressing industry, encouraging fraud, and often tempting to the most treacherous and dangerous devices for raising ttiid sinking the fun«is. il& MODERN HISTORY ■■'■' SECTION LXI. HISTORY OF FRANCE UxVDER LEWIS XIII. 1. France, which under Henry IV. had risen from a state of miser- gblc anarchy to high prosperity and splendour, sunk, upon his death, into wealiness, faction, and disorder. Mary oi" Medici, regent in the minority of her son Lewis Xlil., a weak woman, and of restless an»- bition, disgusted the nobiUty by her partiality for her Italian courtiers Concini, her first minister, created marshal d'Ancre, became so uni versaliy odious, that he was openly murdered in the Louvre, and his body torn to pieces. The yueen was removed from Paris, and kept for two years a prisoner at Blois^ till relieved by the duke d'Epernon, to serve his own purposes of ambition. The queen's party was at war with that of her son, and the whole kingdom in a state cf anarchy. 2. The genius of cai-dinai Ilichelieu, v/ho was nou' brought into power by Mary of Medici, soon ellected a wonderful change. He reconciled the mother and her son, soothed the contending iactions. and, on the king's assuming the government, directed every public measure to the complete re-establisiiment of the power and dignity of the monarchy. The paity of the Caivinists, alienated by perse- cution, attempted to throw off their allegiance, and to establish an in- dependent state, of which Rochelle was to be the capital. Richelieu bargained with the Dutch to furnish a fleet tor subduing their prot- estant Irethren, and tlie Dutch now fought as keenly for the catho- lic religion as they had lately fought for the protestant. The Eng- lish sent a lleet to the aid of the people of Ilochcile, Vv'ho for a year maintained a most obstinate siege against the French troops, co;;.- manded by ihe cardinal in person. They were at length forced to surrender. Rothelle and all the other protestant^ cities of France %vere stri}5ped ot *.heir privileges, and their foriifications were de- stroyed. Thus CalviiAsni was for ever crushed in France. 3. Lewis XIII., though ^ weak prince, saw liis advantage in en- tering into all the great derJcrns of his minister. Richelieu inilu enced the politics of all Europ igour from the interven- tion of Gustavus Adolphus king of Sweden. Tins great prince de- feated the imperial generals, and carried the protestant banners ti'ium- phantly through Germany. The emperor was conipletely humbled, anil the elector Palatine was on the eve of restoration to his domhi ions, when the heroic Gustavus was slain in the battle of Lut/.en, 1,G.'^2. The war was successfidly prosecuted by the Swedisli goner als, while cardinal Richelieu harassed the house of Austria both in Germany and Spain. 3. In the succeeding reign of Ferdinand HI., the protestants of MODEIIN HISl'ORV. 219 Germany found the most active support both from the Swedes and the French. The emperor was ibrced to conclude the pe^ice of We^^tphalia in 1,648 ; and these powers dictated the terms. By this celelwatcd treaty all disputes were settled between the contending princes of the empire, and also between the contending religions ; the Swedes were indemnified for the charges of the war, and ac- «jijired Pomerania. Stettin, Wismar, and other provinces, and their sovereign the dignity of prince of the empire ; its chief posses- sions were restored to the Falatine family ; the king of France was made landgrave of Alsace ; and an equal establishment of the three religions was decreed. This salutary peace laid the I'oundation of the future greatness and prosperity of the German empire. SECTION LXIV. FRANCE UNDER LEWIS XIV. 1. On the death of Lewis XIII. in 1,633, his son Lewis XIV. suc- ceeiled to the throne in the fifth year of his age. Europe, as we have seen, was in a most turbulent suite ; and France, under the ad- ministration of Richelieu, acted a conspicuous part in exciting those general commotions. The queen mother Anne of Austria, appointed regent by the states, chose for her minister the cardinal Mazarin, an Italian, and from that circumstance odious to the people. The S])aii- iards, taking advantage of the king's minority and the popular dis- ct-nlents, mule an attack on Champagne; but v.ere deiealed in a series of engagements by the great Conde. The marshal de Tu- renne shared with him llie palm of glory. The peace of Westpha- lia composed those ditlcrcnces. 2. At this very time the commotions of the Frondt broke out in Paris. The jealousy of IMazurin's power, felt by tiie nobility, the unpopularity of his measures, the disorder of the hnancc-s, and the o-ppression of new taxes, intiamed the nation; and the intrigues of the coadjutor, afterwards cardinal de Ketz, blew the llame isito a civil war. 'Ihe parliament of Paris took p;;rt with the rebels, who were headed by the piince of Conti, the dukes of Longueville and Bouillon, and the chief nobility. Tiie queen and the Royal linnily removed to St. Germaiifs, and the ministerial party besieged Paris. Turenne, who at first supported them, was gained over by the rebels. The women, who are always concerned in the disturbances of France, acted a conspicuous part in tb.ose of the Fronde. A short l)aci!ication ensued ; but the imprudent vioicnce of Mazarin soon re- newed the disorders. At Unigth the parliament of Paris assumed the right of banishing this unpopular minister, who letired to the imperial dominions ; but his influence continued to regulate Uie measures of state. 3. A change ensued on the king's coming of asje, 1,652. De Retz and Orleans, the chief promoters of the rebellion, were ban- ished, and IMazarin resumed his station as minister. Conde had j(^ined the Si)aniar(!s in an attack on the French IVelherlands, but was overmatched by Turetinc, who revenged this insult by the taking of Dunkirk and several Ibrtilied towns under the Spanish govern- ment. By convention wilh Cromwell, Dunkirk had been ceded lo the English, nnd afterwards sold lo France by Charles II., as has been related. 220 MODERN HISTORY. 4. The war with Spain ended in 1 ,659, by the peace of the Py ronees. Many cessions were made on both sides, but France kept Roussillon and part of Artois. It was stipr.lated that Lewis XIV. sliould marry the int'anta, daughter of" Fhillp IV., but should renounce all right wiiich might thence open to the crown of Spain. 5. The treaty ol'the Pyrenees gave peacfe to the south of Europe. The wars in the north between Sweden, Poland, and Denmark, which arose after the abtlication of Christina of Sweden, were termi- nated in the year following by the treaty of Oliva. Christina, a sin gular, but not a great woman, held the sceptre of Sweden ior tuen- ty-lwo years after the death of her lather, Gustavus Adolphus. At length, tired of the cares of government, and affecting a passion for literature and philosophj, she resigned the crown to her cousin, Charles X., in Ifibl. Soon after this event Casinier king of Poland was induced by age and sickness to abdicate the throne, alter an hon- ourable reign. 6. Mazarin died in 1,601, and Lewis XIV. entered on a vigorous and splendid career. The finances, w.'iich from the time of flein y [V. had been in extreme disorder, were admirably regulated by Colbert; and the commerce and miin'ifaclures of the kingdom, wisely en- couraged by government, were soon in the most tlourisiiing situation. The canal" of Lauguedoc joined the b.iy of Biscay and the Med- iterranean; the princi|)al sea-porU were enlarged and fortified; and the internal police of the kingdom was regulaily and strictly enforc- ed. At the same time the arms of France aided Enghuid against the Dutch. Geianany against the Turks, and Portugal against Spain. 7. On the death of Phiiip l\ ., Levvis, pretending that Spain had failed in payment of tiie dowry of his queen^ besieged and took Lisle, with several other fortified towns of I'landers; and in the next cam- f>aign made himself master of Franche-Comte. Lewis marched with lis armies, but the glory of these conquests was owing to Turenne and Vauban. The triple alliance formed by England, Holland, and Sweden, checked this career, and brought about the treaty of Aix- la-Chapelle, 1,068, by which Lewis, though he retained i'landcrs, restored Franche-Comte, and contirmeil the peace of the Pyrenees. 8. The strength and prospefity of the kingdom continued to increase under the able administration of Colbert and Louvois. The civil factions of Jiolland between the stadtholder and the party of the De Wits, templed Lewis to undertake the conquest of tliat coun- try. England, Germany, and Sweden, favoured his views. He o\erran the provinces of Utrecht, Overyssel, and Guelderlnn.1, and advanced almost to the gates of Amsterdam, when the Dutch inun dated the country by letting in the sea, and the French were forced to retreat. 9. The confederate powers now became jealous of the ascendan- cy of Fiance; and the prince of Orange had sufficient influence with England, and both l)ranches of the house of Austria, to obtain their alliance in aid of the republic. The arms of Lewis, however, contir.ued to be successful, and the peace concluded at Nimeguen, in 1,078, was much to the honour of France. Franche-Comte was assured as a part of her dominions, and Spain allowed her right by conquest to a great proportion of the Netherlands. 10. Notwithstanding the peace, Lewis, with the most culpable insincerity, seizetl Strasburg, and secretly assisted the Hui.garians and Turks in their attack on the imperial dominions. Vienna must have fallen into the hands of the Turks, if it had not been seasonably MODERN HISTORY. 221 relieved hy the victorious arms of John Sobieski king of Poland, in 1,683. 11. One of the weakest and most impolitic measures of Lewis XIV., was the revocation ot" tlie edict of Isantes, granted by Henry IV. for the toleration of the protestmUs. Wkile tlieir woi-ship was suppressed, their churches demolished, and their ministers banished, the protestant laity were forbidden, under the most rigorous penal- ties, to quit the kingdom, 1,685. France, however, by this measure, lost above 5U(),UUU of her most industrious and useful subjects ; and the name of Lewis XIV. was execrated over a great part of Europe. Not long after this time a similar excess of intolerant bigotry pre- cipitated James U. from the throne of Britain, and forced him to seek an asylum from the monarch ot' France. 12. William prince of Orange, the inveterate enemy of Lewis, brought about the lengue of Augsburg, 1,686; and the war was renewed with France by Germany, Spain, England, and Holland. The French ; rms were still successful. Luxemburg deCtJiued William in the battles of Steenkirk and Nerwindeii; Noailles was victorious in Spain; and an army of 100,UU(^ French ravagcil the Palatinate, and took many of the most important towns on the Rhine. This was the crises of tli'e glory of Lewis, whose forlunes were to sustain the most mortifying reverse. 13. Those various and most extensive military enterprises, how- ever flattering to the pride of the monarch, had been attended with enormous expense, and no solid advantage to the nution. The finances had tallen into disorder alter the death of Colbert, and a peace was absolutely necessary. I3y tiie treaty of Ryswick, concluded in 1,697, Lewis restored to Spaiu'all the con(piesls nr.ule in the two h'st wars, several towns to the emperor, the duchy of Lorraine to its duke, and acknowledged the right of William to the crown of Eng- land. 14. The succession of the kingdom of Spain, on the expected death of Charles 11., wiliiout issue, was now the object of political intrigue. The emperor and the king of France had the only natural right of succession ; but William 111., of Engl;md, from llie dreiid of such an increase of power to either, proposed a treaty of partition -of the Spanish dom.iiiions, at home and abroad, between the elector of Bavaria, the daui)hin, and the emperor's second sen. Chiirles 11. chose rather to make his own destination, and appointed by will thai the duke of Anjou, second son of the dauphin, shoultl inherit Spiun ; on whose death without issue, it should devolve on the archduke Charles, youngest son of the emperor. 15. On the deatli of Charles the duke of Anjou succeeded to the throne ot' Spain, in virtue of this settlemetit. '^J'he emj)* ror, tii.^ king of England, and the Dutch, proposed to se})arate from bi.~) crown the Sj^anish dominions in Italy. In this enterprise j)rince Eugene, son of the ccvuit de Soissons, commanded the imperial troops, an illusiilous renegade from France, of great prowess and mililnry skill. 16. James II. of England died in 1,701 at St. Germain's, and Lewis gave mortal oti'ence to the government of that country liV acknowl- edging the title of his son. On the death of king \\ ii.Lim in the year lollowHig war was declared by England, lloiiand, and the em- pire, against France and Spain. Lewis XIV. was now in Ibe deciinc of lite. He had lost the ablest of his ministers and his greatest gen- erals. The finances of the kingdom were exhausted. The armies T2 222 xV.ODEKN HISTORV. of his enemies were commanded by Engene and the duke of Marl borough, the ablest generals of" the age, and supported by the treas- ures of the united powers. Savoy and Portugal joined this formidable confederacy, to overwhelm both brandies of the house of Bourbon and place the emperors son on the throne of Spain. 17. Marlborough took V'enio, Roremonde, and Liege. Eugene arid Marlborough defeated Tailard ana Marsin, with the elector of Bavaria, in the signal battle of Blenheim, l,7Ui. England and Ho'- land attacked Spain by sea and land. Catalonia, and Valencia were subdued in six weeks. Gibralter was taken by the English, ani has ever since remained in their possession, in the biAtle of Kami- lies, Marlborough defeated Villin-oy, and left20,U00 dead on the lieid. '1 he contest, at first doubtlui in Italy, ended alike disastrously for the house of Bourbon. The archduke Charles was in the mean tim ? proclaimed king at Madrid ; and Philip V. had serious IhougKts of abandoning Spain, and establishing his dominion in America. Bui the successes of the duke of Berwick, natural son of James 11., recov- vjred tor a while his desponding spirit, and even prompted bis grand- father Lewis to avenge himself on England, by aiding the bold but desperate enterprise of establishing tne pretended Jan.es on the throne of Britain. 1 8. But France and Spain were daily losing ground. The pope had acknowledged the title of the archduke Charles; the English seized the Mediterranean islands ; and Lewis, fallen from all his proud pretensions, humbly entreated a peace, which was refused, unlcs- on the condition of dethroning his grandson with his own arms. He maintained for a while this unequal contest, and was at lengtli forced to propose terms equally humiliating ; the cession of all his con quests in the Netherlands and on the Rhine ; the acknowledgment of the archduke's title to the crown of Spain; and a promise to give no aid to his gramlson. But these terms were refused, and the inhuman condition still insisted on, that he should assist in dethroning his grandson. A last exertioii was made in Spain under the duke of Vendome, at the head of a prodigious army; and the victory ob- tained by the French at Villa-vitiosa restored Philip V. to the throne of Spain. His competitor, the archduke, soon after became em- peror, on the death of his elder brother. 19. The intrigues of the cabinet of queen Anne, and the coming in of a tory ministry, changed the politics of Europe. It was re- solved to make peace with France and Spain, and the treaty was concluded at Utrecht in 1,713. It was stipulated that Philip king of Spain should renounce all eventual right to the ciown of France, anil Ills brother to the crown of Spain. The Dutch obtained an ex- tension of frontier, and the emperor a great part of Spanish Flr.nders. The English gained from Spain, Gibraltar anri Minorca, and from France, Acadia, Newfoundland, and Hudson's Bay, with the demolition af the harbor of Dunkirk. In the foUov.ing year, a peace was con- cluded at Rastadt between France and the empire. 20. The conclusion of this peace after an honourable war, was the most memorable event in the reign of queen Anne, if we except the union of the two kingdoms of England and Scotland, in 1 ,706, which was brought about by the negotiation of commissioners mutually chosen, to secure the rights of each kingdom in the best manner for their mutual benefit. It was stipidated that both should be represent- ed by one parliament (Sect. LIX., § 8), that they should have the same privileges with respect to commerce, and that each kingdom f.]ODEKN HISTORY. 223 should retain its own inu's and established religion. The succession to the crown was limited to the house of Hanover. Queen Anne, died on the 30th of July, 1,714. Lewis XiV. died on the 1st of September, 1,715, in the '78th year of his age. He was a prince of great vigour of mind, of good talents, though unimpi^oved ])y educa- tion, of (iignilied yet amiable manners. His greatest fault was inor- dinate ambition, to which he sacrificed the real interests of his people. It was his highest honour, that he discerned and recompensed every spftcies of merit. France was in his time equally iilustrioiis by the great military talents of her generals, and by the splendour of liter- ature and of the arts and sciences. SECTION LXV. OF THE CONSTITUTION OF FRANCE UNDER THE MONAR- CHY. 1. It is necessary for understanding the history of France, that we should have some acquaintance with its former monarchical con- . slitution : we shall thereibre briefly trace the progress of the gov- ernment under the different races of its sovereigns. The regal pre- rogative was extremely limited under the Merovingian princes. (Sect. II., III.) The genera! assembly of the nation had the right of electing the sovereign, and the power of legislation. Under the Carlovingian race the authority acquired by Pepin and Charlemagne sunk to nothing in the hands of their weak posterity ; and though the crown had ceased to be elective, the regal dignity was a mere shadow. The power of the state had passed into the hands of a turbulent aristocracy, ever at variance among themselves, and uniting only to abase the crown and to oppress the people. 2. Under the third or Capetian race the crown acquired more weight, and many of the sovereigns exerted a proper spirit in re- straining the power of the nobles, and in punishing their lawless outrages. To balance the weight of the aristocracy PhiUp the fair introduced the third estate to the national assemblies, which for above four centuries had consisted only of the nobles and clergy. The chief power of the state began now to shift to the scale of the monarch. The national assembly interfered rather (o ratify than to decree ; and in the fifteenth century the right of legislation was under- stood to reside wholly in the crown. The right of taxation seemed to follow of course. The assemblies or states-genei-al were now rarelv convened, and from the reign of Lewis XIII. were discontinuevas the first who pubhshed a code of laws, .-^t the end of the sixteenth century Siberia was added to the empire, which till that time had been bounded by the limits of Europe. 2. I'eter, the youngest son of the emperor Alexis, became mas- ter of the empire in 1,689, by setting aside a weak elder brother, and banishing a factious sister who had seized the government. He was uneducated, and his youth had been spent in debauchery ; but his new situation immediately displayed his talents, and gave birlh to the wisest plans lor the imnrove^ment of a barbarous people. The army and navy demanded his first attention. He began by breaking the turbulent militia of the Strelitzes, and by degrees formed a regu- lar army of 12,000 men on the strictest model of discipline. He em- ployed some Dutchmen to build a small fleet, and made the first ex- periment of his arms in taking Azof from the Turks in 1,696. 3. Having gained tiie little instruction which he possessed from foreigners, Peter resolved to travel in search of knowledge. Ap- pointing Le Fort, an able Genevese, his ambassador, he tiavelled as a private pei-son in his suite through Germany to Holland, and studied the art of ship-building, by working in the docks with his own tiands. Thence he passed to England, and in a similar manner acquired the knowledge of every art fitted for the improvement of his kingdom. The relative sciences were cultivated with tlfe same ardour and success ; and in sixteen months he returned to Moscow to reduce those important acquirements into practice. 4. Regiments >vere raised and trained to exercise on the German model ; the finances arranged and systematized ; the church re- formed by new canons and regulations; the partriarchate abolish- ed ; and a much abused civil and criminal jurisdiction taken from the clergy. It was necessary to carry this reform even to the abo- lition of the national dress, and the suppression of ancient usages and habits of Ufe, innovations reluctantly submitted to, but enforced by absolute power. 5. ^Vl^ile this greai genius was thus employed in new-modelling and polishing a barbarous empire, a competitor arose to dispute with him the sovereignty of the north, and to divide the admiration of Europe. Charles XII. succeeded to the throne of Sweden in 1,695, at fifteen years of age ; a prince whose singular heroism of character and extraordinary achievements have ranked him with the greatest conquerors of antiquity. The situation of his kingdom speedily brought his genius into display. Russia, Poland, and Denmark, joined in a league to seize and divide his dominions. The attack was begun by the Danes on Holstein, while the king of Poland invaded Livonia, and the czar, Ingria. Charles immediately landed an army on Zealand, at the gales of Co{>enhagen, and in six weeks forced the king to purchase the safety of his capital and kingdom, by laying down his arms, and making full indcuffiity to the duke of Holstein. He now hastened into Ingria, and at the battle of Narva defeated r.0,000 of the Russians, and took 30,000 prisoners. Such was the first campaign of Charles XIL, then a boy of seventeen. 6. Poland was destined to receive a more humiliating chastise- ment Charles reducedCourland and Lithuania, penetrated bto the «26 MODERN HlSTOfiY. heart of the kingdom, and subdued (he capitals of Warsaw and Cra- cou'. lie then assembled the states, dec'aned king Augustiw de- posed, and signified bis pleasure that Staiiishuis, his own depenilant, should be elected sove-n'igii of Poland. The tactions ol' tiie king dom aided this revolution, and the nill ot' Charles was complied with. The deposed king retired to his electoral dominions of" Saxony. 7. A ncgotmlion begun with tlie czar was abruptly terminated by Charles, who doclareil that he would negotiate only at INioscow. Entering the Russian dominions with 45,000 men, he was in the uay of' executing his threat, when he was induced, by a treacherous ptomise ot aid iVom the Coss;icks, to march through the Ukriine in the depth of winter. His army was wasted by fatigue and fnmine, when he was encountered by tlie czar at Pullowa; and the fate of Russia, Sweden, and Poland, hung upon that battle. Charles was entirely defeated: 9.000 Swedes tell in the field, and 14.000 were t;ikcn prisoners, 1,709. Augustus was restored to the throne ot i'ol and, and the czar took possession of Finland and Livonia. 8. With the wreck of his army, reduced to 1,800 men, Charles retreated into the Turkish dominions, and formed a c;imp neiir Ben- dor. He endeavoured to prevail upou the grand seignior to arm against the czar, and succeeded alter a long negoliatiou. Two hun- dred thousand Turks took the field, and the czar's army, liir inferior in number, was surrounded, and, after ineni'ctual resistance, forced to capitulate to the grand vizier. The news of this capitulaticn de- stroyed all the hopes ot" Charles ; and his subsequent conduct seems the result of frenzy. The grand seignior having intimated his de- sire that the Swedes should quit bis terrilories, Charles fortified bis cjmip, and declared that be would defend it to the last extremity. After every means inefTectually tried to make him alter this resolu- tion, he was attacked by the 'Purkish arn)y, and taken fighting sword in fiand amidst a m.i^sacre of bis trn<^pg. 9. In the mean time the czar and the king of Denmark were rav aging Swe, prime minister of Pliilip V. The czar joinei i, in the \ievv of obtaining the command and rorufjierce of the Caspian. Tbi, ol y-ci l.o accoinpli-bed, and gained, by cession from the sopl.i, lluve pru\iiices of ih-. t\ r.-i;m t,nipiiv. Peter the great died January 2i^ 1,726, and was succeeded tiy the czarina Catheriiie, formely a Livonian captive, who possessed merit equal to her elevated station. His only son, Alexis Fetrovvitz, had been condemned to lose his life for treason, and the mode of hia MODEliN JIISTORY, 227 death, which immediately followed his condemnation, is unknown* Russia owes to Peter the great all those beneficial improvements vvhirii JKive raised her, within the period of a century, from barlju- ri^ni j'.iid obscurity, to the highest rank, among the powers of EuiopCj SECTION LXVII. A VIEW OF THE PROGRESS OF SCIENXE AND LITERATLRE [N EUROPE, FROM THE END OF THE FIFTEENTH TO If IE END OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1. We have seen how much literature and the sciences were in- debted to the art of printinij for their a«ivancement and disseminjilion toward the end of the lil'teenth century. (Sect. XXXiV., ^ ]2.) From tliat period cl;i?sical learning, criticism, poetry, and liislorv, made a rapid progress in most of the kingdoms of Europe. Pldlcs' ophy did not keep pace with literature. The dogmas of Aristotle had kept possessioti of the schools till the seventeenth century, and liad engrafted themselves even on the doctrines ol" theology, ll required a superior genius to dissipate the mist of error, and to break the fetters on all advancement in useful science. Such was the great Bacon lord V'erulam, the most prolbund philosopher, and perhaps the most universal genius, that any age has produced. We tind in his works an estimate of the actual attainments in all the scienccSj a catalogue of the desiderata in each department, and a detail of the methods best suited to prosecute improvement and new discoveries. In fine, we owe to Bacon the sure method of advanc- ing in knowledge by experiment and the observation of nature, instead of system and conjecture. 2. The pfiilosophy of Bacon produced its effect only by slow de- grees. Gassendi, though he exposed the doctrines of Aristotle, was still a theorist, and attempted to revive the atomic system of 1- 1 icu- rus. Des Cartes followed in the same track, and reared a wbtmsical theory of the universe, prcduced, as he supposed, by the forli ilf ua combination of atoms, moving in vortices tlinugh the inmcnj^iiy of space; a theory reconmiended by the ingenuity with whitli it was supported, and its apparently solving many of the pbeinn cna ol nature. A century before Copernicus had published bis s\ stem ct the planets, which, though condemned by the church, was received by Des Cartes and the best philosophers. 3. Galileo, in 1,609, constructed telescopes (Sect. XXXIV., § 5), and discovered the satellites of the larger planets, .Ju| iter and Saturn, ,nul their motions, for which he was rewarded by imprisonment, as a supporter of the Copeinican heresy. Kepler investigated the laws which regulated the motions of the planets, and the analogy letween their distances from the sun anil periodical revolutions. 'J'be discov- eries in astronomy led to improvements in r.'avtgation, and a gieat ad- vancement of geometry in all its branches. Isapier, in 1,614, ;d;ridg- ed calculation by the invention of logarithms. The Toricellian ex- periments determined the weight of the atmosphere. In 1,610 Harvey discovered the circulation of the blood. 4. The Royal Society, which originated from j)rivate meetings of tlie English philosophers, was incorporated by Charles II., in 1,662» and has greatly contributed to the advancem.ent of the sciences imJ 228 MODERN HISTORY. useful arts. The Royal Academy of Sciences was instituted in 1,666 by Lewis XIV. Similar institutions were founded in most of the coun- tries of Europe ; among which there is a commuuication of scuence, and a laudable emulation excited by the publicaiioa of theii transac- tions. f). In the end of the seventeenth century arose the immortal Newton, who, by exhausting the most important discoveries of the laws of na ' ture, has rendered it impossible tor posterity to ecHpse his fame. He had discovered, before the age of tvveaty-Tour, the theory of universal gravitation, a principle which solves the chief phenomena of nature, and connects and regulates the whole machine of the universe. His theory of light and colours is the tbundation of the whole science of optics, and his Principui the basis and elements of all philosophy. 6. Locke, tlie contemporary of Newton, successfully apphed lord Bacon's mode of investigation to the study of the human mind ; and, utterly rejecting the systems of the old philosopliers, examined the soul by attending to its operatioos. From the simple tact that all- knowledge is progressive, and that an iniant gains its ideas gradually through the medium of its senses, he drew the general conclusion, that tiiere are no innate ideas in tlie mind, but that all are either im- mediate perceptions conveyed by the senses, or acts of the mind re- rtecting on those perceptions ; a conclusion ^vhich has been obstinate- ly coutroveried, chietly by dravving li'om it false consequences, but which has never yet been shaken. 7. The^progress of literature in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries Hvas equally remarkable with that of science and philoso- pliy. Trissino was the first of the moderns who composed an epic poem in the language of his country, L'ludia liberata da Goti^ ami the lirst Italian who wrote a' regular tragedy, Sopkonisba. Of merit much superior to the epic poem of UVissino is the Lusiad of tiie Portuguese Camoens, a work abounding with passages of high poetic beauty, and displaying a subhme imagination. In the end of the six- teenth century Spain produced the Araucana of Ercilla, an epic poem of great inequality of merit, but frequently exhibiting novelty of figures and bold conceptions. The subject is a revolt of tiic Tcru- vians against the Spaniards. 8. But the principal epic poems of this age are the Orlando Fa- 1-ioso of Arioslo, and the Gicrusulemiae Liberata of Tasso: the former 11 work most irregular ia its plan, most unconnected and desultory in its conduct, most extravagant and absurd in tbe ciiaracters of its per- sons, but displaying alternately every excellence of poetry in the various departments ot" the descriptive, comic, satiric, moral, and sublime. The Gierusahmme of Tasso, cf a regular plan and perlect polish in its structure, has been frequently brought in comparison with the equally highly finished poem of the JLneid; nor does tne Itauan suffer much in the comparison. There is a z-omantic charm both in the incidents and characters of his poem, which must ever ren- der it a favourite with all readers of genuine taste. 9. From the time of Tasso the genius of epic poetry lay dormant for a century, till the days of Milton; ibr the Fairy Queen of Spenser is rather a romantic allegory than an epic poem. The Faradiie Lost. compared with the great poems of auticpiity, is more irregular and less perfect as a whole th;m the Ihad, JKiieid, and Odi;ssey ; but ex- hibits, in detached parts, more of the sublime and beautiful than any of them. It hcis been well remarked, that the inequality of this poem arises in a great measure from the nature of the subject of which moj.»er:n history. 229 Some parts are the most lofty which can enter into the human mind, and others could only have been supported U- n laborious elegance and polish, which the authors genius could not stoop to bestow. 10. Lyric poetry was cultivated in the sixteenth century, in Italy, France, and li^ngland, but with no great success. The less" poems of Ariosto and Tasso have no tincture of the genius displayed in their greater works. Chiabrera is perhaps the only lyric poet of this period that merits distinction. In France, Ronsard and Bellay imi- lated Petrarch with all his false wit, but without his passion. IVIarot, nowever, in the naivete and easy vein of his liumour, is justly ac- counted tlie master of La 'Fontaine. In the beginning of the seven- teenth century French versilication received a considerable polish from the compositions of Racan, and yet more from those of iVlal- bcrbe ; and toward the end of that century lyric poetry was cidtivat- ed with high success by LaFarre, Chapelle, and Bachaumont, Chaur lieu and Gresset. 11. The English lyric poetry of the sixteenth century, of Spenser, Surrey, Harrington, Sydney, and even Shakespeare, is harsh and uniiarmonious; nor is much improvement discernible till the time of Cowley and Waller. The merit of Cowley as a lyric poet was too highly prized in his own age, and is underrated in ours. With all his lalse \vit, pedantry, and obscurity, he is often both sublime and pathetic in no moderate degi-ee. The lyi'ic ode in the third book of the Davideis has few parallels in the English language. As a prose writer, Cowley shines in that c;ge \vith superior excellence. Waller is more polished and harmonious than any of the preceding or con- temporary poets, but his wit is quaint, and his elevation too irequent- ly bombast. 12. Dry den, in tlie end of the seventeenth century, carried lyric poetry to'perfection. His Ode on St Cecilia's day surpasses all the lyric compositions both ef ancient and modern times. He shines conspicuously as a satirist, possessing the keen and caustic wit, with- out the indelicacy, of Juvenal or Horace. His versions from Chau- cer and Boccacio are easy and spirited, and display a happy talent for poetical narrative. His numerous dramatic pieces, though exhib- iting botii invention and poetic beauty, are deficient in true passion, and in the just delineation of character. 13. At the end of the sixteenth centurj- the drama in Em-ope be- gan to furnish a rational entertainment. At that period. Lope de Vega and Calderonain Spain, and Shakespeare in England, produced lliose pieces, Avhich* though irregular and stained with blemishes, are at this day the admiration of their countrymen. The Spanish plays of that age have been a rich mine for succeeding dramatists, botti among the French, Italians, and English. The merits of Shakes- peare are liimiliar to every person of taste. Ignorant of the rules of his art, he is the pure child of nature, ;,nd thus exhibits often her caprices and absurdities; but these are redeemed by the most trans- cendent beauties. The old English dram.a is, with all its irregular- ities, incomparably superior to tlie modern, both in touching the pas- sions and in displaying just views of human character. The persons are more discriminated by various and appropriate features, and the nicer siiadcs of nearly resembling characters are thus more distinctly marked. Tlie mixture of the comic and tragic in the same plot, th->ugh condemned by modern practice, is a great source of pleasuie in the pieces of Shakespeare and his contemporaries; nor is there any thing in such a mixture but what is consonant to nature. To a per- 230 MODKllN jMSIORY. son of true taste it will be found often to heighteri, by conlrasi, the capital emotion to be excited. 14. The compositions for the French stage, in the end of the seventeenth century, are strictly conformable to dramatic rules; and many of those pieces are models of a correct ann polished ta-sle. Tlie moraUty of the French drama of tiiat age and llie next is in gen- eral purei than ours; but their pieces are deficient in the nice delin- eation of character, and in the power of exciting the passions, (^rneille and Racine brought the French tragedy to its highest ele- vation ; as Moliere the comedy. Corneille has more grandeur and rublimity than his rival, who excels him in the tender and patlielic, Tlie comedies of Moliere, highly amusing in the present time, were more particularly valuable in the age when they were wrillen, and had a sensible efiect in correcting its prevailing lollies; the pedantry of the ladies, the ignorance and quackery of the physicians, and tiie pride and arrogance of the French noblesse. The last of the en.i- nent dramatists who adorned France in the seventeenlii century Avas the elder Crebillon, who drew many sublime and impassioned scenes from the source of terror ; and who, in all his works, was as emi- nently the friend of virtue as liis worthless son has been the pander of vice. 15. The most eminent historians of the sixteenth century are, Dc Thou, Daviia, and Machiavel. De Thou has written the annaU of his own time, from 1,545 to 1,G07, with great judgment, arid in most elegant Latin composition. The history of J3avila, the annals of the civil wars of France in the time of the league, though the work of a partisan, fe composed with no common degree of candour and impartiality. In the beginning of the sixteenth century r»lachia- vel wrote his History of Florence, of which the style is classical and tlie matter well arranged, but too much interrupted by rellections and pohlical discussions. In the seventeenth century Bentivoglio com- posed his History of the Civil Wars of Flanders, with the most ac- curate knowledge of his subject, perspicuity of narrative, and ele- gance of style. Among the English historians in the beginning of tlvat period Raleigh is the most distingrdshed ; though his History of the World is, in point of style, inferior to the jiuignicnt shown in (he arrangement of the matter. In the latter part of the seventeenth century, Clarendon"'s History of the Rebellion is a work oi' the high- est moVit, whether we consider the authenticity of the facts, the deep knowledge of human nature displayed in the delineation of Uic characters, or the grave and manly eloquence of the style, It, in the opposition of political opinions," he has been deemed too partial in d'^i'enr.e of his sovereign, even his adversaries have admitteil liis perfect integrity, and entire conviction of the rectitude of the cause which he supports. HISTORY OF THE JEWS. SECTION I. A GENERAL VIEW OF THE HISTORY OF MANKIND IN THE PRIMEVAL AGES. i. Iv contemplating those great outlines of history, the memorable an.i important events which have_ determined the condition of man- kind, and rendered the aspect of the moral and intoliectnal work] such as we now view it, we shall find abundant subjects for observa- tion and reliection. In many cases we shall be obliged to have re- course to conjecture, founded on different degrees of probability ; and some of thosa probabilities may be so corroborated by general existing circumstances as to amount almost to certainty. 2. Of the primeval state of mankind we know little "from historical information, and can Ibrm an opinion of it only from conjecture founded on the nature of things. From the extremely slow progress ol civilization it is reasonable to suppose that men must have existed a long time before they began to write the history of such transactions and events as they deemed most important. All their care and atten- tion would at first be employed in providing the means of supplying? their physical wants, and of rendering their existence tolerable. In that state of simple nature they would not think of transmitting an ac- count of their actions to posterity, and could hardly have any oc- currences worth recording. Here our knowledge of human nature and of human wants will supply the deficiency of history. From the experience of our own wants, and of the means of supplying them, we may infer almost with certainty, that habitations would be built as a shelter from the inclemency of the weather: and in fact we find this to be the case in all those countries which are at present occupied by savages. In process of time some attention would be given to the cultivation of the soil, to make the earth produce such vegetables as were fit tor the food of man. The arts most essential to the com- fortable existence of the human species would be invented before the use of letters. o. From all these circumstances we may reasonably suppose that the first rude sketch of history would be the traditionary tales de- livered from father to son through successive generations ; and these in reality constitute the basis of the first historical records. Such are the fabulous relations of the first historians among the Greeks. It appears that the Greeks had adopted the. historical legends of the Egyptian priests, who were accustomed to cover their religion and learning with the mystical veil of allegory ; and thut in many cases they mistook the Egyptian mode of allegorizing the early periods of history, and have presented to posterity an absurd and monstrous tissue of tabulous narrative of kings who never reigned, and of heroes of celestial descent «32 MODERN HISTORY. 4. Supei-stition being natural to man before the mind is enlightened by philosophy, it is no wonder that the writings of the first historians contain many relations of the communication of gods and demi-gods. with mankind, and of the frequent interference of supernatui'al agents in human affairs. The vivid imaginations of the early Greek authors, heated Avith superstition, and unrestrained by philosophy, expanded into wild exuberance, and fabricated- the most absurd and ridiculous tales. Hence the period of time which elapsed between the establishment of political and civil society in Greece, and the Trojan war may be justly denominated the fabulous age ; and indeed most part of what is related concerning that war, has evident marks of fiction stamped upon it ; for all the historical accounts of it are originally founded on the poems of Homer. No writings can claim the title of an authentic history of Grecian affairs before the Per- sian wars. The histories of all other heathen nations were not less Jabulous and absurd than those of the Greeks ; and indeed all that we know concerning them has been transmitted to us through the . medium of Greek writers. 5. When we consider the general state of the world in the early ages, with respect to political, commercial, and literary communica- tion, however we may amuse ourselves with perusing the accounts transmitted to us of the transactions of remote antiquity, reason tells us that they are nothing but fiction or historical romance. Until the Greeks (who were the inventors, or at least the improvers of arts and sciences) had attained a considerable degree of civilization and opulence, and had begun to cultivate the arts of conveniency, luxury, and elegance, little credit is due to profane history. This period cannot be fixed long before the first Persian war, which hap- pened about 503 years belore the birth of Christ. For inlbrmation relative to the state of mankind, and the events which occurred before that period, we must have recourse to the writings of the Jews. 6. This consideration naturally leads us to turn our attention to those ancient records of the Jews, which have always been deemed sacred by them, and of wliich the authenticity has been acknowl- edged by the generality of mankind, who have perused them with due attention. The Jewish annals are tiie most ancient of all that have been transmitted to us, and the mcst intrinsically rational and probable. They likewise contain a series of transactions and events equally curious and interesting, hi tliem we find the only rational account of the creation of the world, and the beginning of things; of the dispersion of mankind, and the origin of ancient nations. SECTION II. SUMMARY VIEW OF JP:WISH HISTORY. 1. The Israelites, or ancient Jews, were those distinguished peo- ple, who were favoured by the immediate care of the Alm.ignty, and conducted by his especial guidance to Judea, a place of resi- dence promised to their remote ancestoi-s. in consequence of their obstinacy, idolatry, and wickedness, and more particularly lor the rejection of their Messiah, they vvere subdued by the Romans, after sustaining a siege in their metropolis, Jerusalem, unparalleled in the MC'DERN HiSTOllY. 2'3i nnnal? of history for its distresses, calamities, and slaughter. Jerusa- lem was reduced to ruins, the Jewish government was totally sub- verted, and the surviving people were dispersed over most parts ot the world. Their descendants still remain unmixed with the rest of mankind, and are marked hy their original featui'es of national peculiarity : they adhere with the most zealous attachment to the religion of their forefathei-s, and cherish the hopes of restoration to tiioir former prosperity and countiy by means of a glorious and tri- umphant Deliverer. 2. They preserve," with the most watchful care, the sacred books of their ancient writers. And astonishing, va-y astonishing it is to observe, that in the prophetical j^arts jf these sacred hooks are contained all tlic events before nier.tionecl cf their extraordinary history. Their p-ar*icular condvict, and the vicissitudes of their national aliairs, were predicted by their prophets, and more especially by Moses, their great law-giver, in the infancy of the world, at the vast distance cf thirty-three centuries from the present times. The accomplishment of tliese predictions bears the tallest and most striking evidence to the truth and inspiration of their prophets, and illustrates the dis- pensations of Providence to his chosen people. :i. These sacred books contain likewise predictions the most exact of the character, oflice, and actions of the Messiah of the Jews, the great Law-giver o*'the christians, the appointed Saviour of the world. 4. Such interesting circumstances as these, in addition to the pfv cnliar nature of the Jewish polity, considered as a divine institution, the curious manners and customs, and tlie memorable actions of the descendants of Abraham, the most ancient people of whom we have any authentic accounts, combine to place these books iirst in order of'importance, as in order of time. If we consider the great antiqui- ty, the subjects, and the characters of the writers, of these boolcs, and the place which they occupy in the order of general history, partirular- iy as they stand connected with The christian revelation,' they will be found to deserve our very earnest attention. SECTION III. THE ANTIQUITY OF THE SCRIPTURES. 1. No writings of any other nation can be brought into competi- tioi:, in respect of antiquity, with those of the Jews. In proof of this assertion it may be remarked, that Moses liA'cd more than a thousand years betore the age of Herodotus, who is reputed the father o." Grecian history. As another proof of the priority of the Jews to the Greeks, it appears by the confession of the Greek wri- ters, that they received the letters of their alphabet from the Phoe- nicians : and there are very sut^tic'snt grounds for believing that Ine Phoenicians derived the art of writing from the Jews. The learned and acute Porphyry, who was an equal enemy both to Jews, ynd christians, and much attached to the learning of Greece, candidly acknowledged that Moses, and the prophets who' immediately suc- ceeded him, flourished nearly a thousand years betore any of the Greek philosophers. 2. The books which compose the canon of the Jewish scriptnreg have the concurrence of all antiquity in favour of their originality. They were delivered to the llebre\vs in their own language, with U2 ''dS S34 MODEllN HiSTOlli'. every mark of genuineness, by the pei"sons whose names iliey bear' and those persons, by recording contemporary events, constantly appealed to well known proofs of their regard to truth. The pro- plietical books in particular contain the evidences of their inspira- tion, as well as of the integrity and pieiy of their authors. The ex- ternal proofs are clear and strong, as well as the internal ; in conse- quence of which all these books have always been pi'eserved with the greatest care, and have been held in the highest veneration. 3. It is no less curious than inipoitant to remark the traditions preserved in the pagan world, v/hich confirm the truth of the Pen- tateuch, or the five books written by Moses. The Chaldeans pre- served the history of their Xisurus, ^vho was the iNToah of Moses. The Egyptians asserted that Mercury had engraved his doctrine upon columns, which had resisted the violence of a deluge. The , Cninese historians record that Peyrun, a mortal beloved and protect- ed by the gods, saved himself in a vessel from the general inundation .; The Hindoos say that the waters of the ocean spread over the surface of the earth, except one mountain to the north; that one woman and seven men saved themselves on this mountain, with certain plants and animals. They add, in speaking of their god Vishnou, that at the deluge he transformed himself into a fish, and conducted the vessel which preserved the relics of the human race. 1'his vessel is likewise a subject of tradition in the northern parts of the world. Sulivan's V^iew of Nature, Letter G7. 4. That the sacritice of animals was necessary to appease the oflended gods, was a religious tenet very general and veiy ancient. The account of the long lives of the patriarchs is contirmed by wri ters of various countries. Their primitive manners, and their mode of performing sacrifices, and ofleriiig prayers to the great Au thor of nature on the summits of mountains, and in the retirements of groves, agree with the descriptions of Homer, and many other early writers. Zoroaster, the great teacher of the ancient Persians, derived from the books of Moses the first principles of his religion, his ceremonial laws, liis account of the creation, of the first parents of mankind, of the i)alriarchs, and particularly of Abraham, whose pure religion he professed to restore. 5. In the attributes and characters of the heathen gods may be found allusions to the ancient expressions of the Hebrew scriptures. In the customs, laws, and ceremonies of many other nations may be - traced a resemblance to the Mosaical institutions, hi the accounts of th,;- deities of the Pagans, and the early heroes and benefactors of mankind, particularly in those which adorn the pages of Grecian history, are represented many of the patriarchs and illustrious per- sons of scripture. Many principles of the most eminent philoso- phers, many fictions of the most celebrated poets, both of Greece and Rome, and many institutions of the most renowned heathen law- givers, cannot fail, by tlieir circumstances of resemblance, to direct our attention to the great legislator of the Jews. The most venera- ble anvl ancient traditions of the workl seem to contain the parts of one original and uniform system, which was broken by the disper- sion of the primeval families after the deluge, and corrupted by ihe revolution of ages. They were the streams Avbich fiovved through the various countries of tiie earth, from the great source of Mosa- ical history.* * See Stiliingfleet, b. iii, r, 5 ; Bryraifs Mythology ; Maurice's Indian Antiquities •, Raleigli's Histoiy of tha World, p. 71. MODERN HISTORY. 2y& 6. Josephus, the Jewish historian, flourished in the reign of the .emperor Vespasian. He was a person of great learning and emi- nence, and conducted his inquiries with singular diligence, industry, and care. He corroborates the testimony of the sacred writers, and illustrates their truth ; as he not only gives a regular detail of the most icmai'lwihle transactions of the Jews, but introduces considerable notices of all those people, witii whom they formed alliances, or car- ried on wars, in his treatise against Apion he exposes the contra- dictions which occurred in the Egyptian, Chaldean, and Phoenician records; vindicates the authority of the Jewish scriptures; describes the rare which was taken in their preservation ; and states their .superior pretensions, more particularly in point of antiquity, to the respect and reverence of mankind.* SECTION IV. THE SUBJECTS OF THE BOOKS, AND CHARACTERS OF THE WRITERS. 1. The subjects of the books of the Old Testament are truly vonderful and' striking, and of such a nature as to surpass all monu- ments of profane lean.ing, equally in importance as in antiquity. Of all parts which compose the sacred canon, none are more curioua than Gc?jcs!>, the llrst book written by Moses ; because it contains a sketch of the earliest history of mavikind. There stand recorded the creation -of the workl and its hihabitants, the fall of our tirst pa- rents from their state of innocence and happin-ess, and their banish- ment from the garden of Eden ; the repeated and signal promises of a future restorer of the lost blessings of mankind; the history of the pa(riarcl;s, iionoured by the revelations of Jehovah ; the description of ihe general deluge ; the dispersion of the progenitors of the hu- man race over all the earth ; the adoption of a particular family to perpetuate the remembrance, arid establish the worship of the true Got!, and their prosperous settlement in Egypt. Instances indeed are mentioned of early depravity, and of the violence of the passions, attended with suitable punishments; yet society appears under its simplest form in point of manners, and we discern no traces of the luxury and talse refinement of subsequent times. 2. In the books of the Jev»s is recorded an account of the descen- dants of Israel ; a race ol'men selected from ail others, and favoured with successive revelations of the divine will. Here are shown the instances of their fidelity, per\ erseness, and disobedience : their glory and triumphs ; their disgraces, and their subjection to foreign powers. Here is seen the superintendance of a divine and especial Providence watching over innocence, suspending wrath, and taking the most signal vengeance upon unrepented oS'er.ces. Here are developed the failings of the most virtuous persons, and the obdurate wickedness of confirmed sinners. Here are displayed the mixed chai-acters even of the most excellent men, the eminent examples oi faUh and piety, of courage and patience, in the conduct of Abraham, Lot, Job, Joseph, Moses, David, Hezekiah, Josiah, and Demiel. * Ketfs Interpreter of Prophecy, vol. i, p. £00. Larduer, vol. vii, p. 30, '259, Sic. 236 MODERN HlSa^OKY. And most interesting is it to observe, that the knowledge of the OIK! inie God was comrnvnicated to this people, and preserved by them alone ; that they had_ the most sublime ideas of his nature and attributes; that a magnificent temple was erected to his honour; a res^niar service was instituted ; holy ceremonies were performed; an order of priests of one particular family was consecrated ; a pure worship was established by his express command, ana regulated by his particular laws. Thus were the Jews enlightened by a knowl- edge of the true object of divine worship; and thus were the purity and holiness of their religious ordinances conducted, at a time when all other nations presented a wide scene of gross superstition and mental darkness ; when the rest of the human race, and even the most intelligent and polished nations of Kgypt and Greece, showed the most abject degradation of their nature, by prostrating them- selves before idols of their own workmanship ; and abused the evi- dence of sense, and the iaculty of reason, by imputing to wood and stone the attributes of divine power. 3. We see likewise a succession of prophets raised up among the Jews, to communicate the divine will, to warn them of evils, and to announce to them blessings to come. These holy men, ever obedi- ent to the call of Heaven, rose superior to all worldly considerations; and v.'ith a spirit of intrepidity and independence, which clearly showed that Heaven was the source of their reliance, they executed their sacred commissions, unawed by the threats of kings, or the resentment of the people. They foi'etold remote events in times when they appeared moi^l im.probable ever to take place, and when no human foresight, and no calculation of chances, could guide them to the disco^^v'ery of the particular affairs, which fulfilled their pre- dictions. Moses, in a long and most interesting detail of threats and promises, foretold the exact manner in which his people were ordain- ed to be happy or jr.iserable, according as they followed or disobeyed the divine laws. At a subsequent period, when Jerusalem was laid in ruins, and the Jews were groaning under the sorrows of the Baby- lonish captivity, Isaiah solemnly addresicd Cyrus by his name, more than a hundred years before his birth, as the deliverer of Israel, and • the new founder of the Holy City.* When Babylon was shining in tb.e meridian of its glory, and its monarchs ruled over all the nations of the east ^vith tlie most despotic sway, the same prophet predicted the total subversion of their empiio, and the complete desolation of their vast metropolis. That all these and numerous other predictions \v.!re exactly verified by the events, arc truths confirmed by the evi- dence of profane as weil as sacred history. 4. The same inspired prophets had a much more grand and im- portant object in view, than to de:!are the future dispensations of Providence to one nation in particular; for they announced, in terms at first dark and mysterious, but progressively more clear and cir- cumstantial, the future birth of a Mos?iah, a glorious king, a divine legislator, who was to abolish the sacrifices and religious institutions of the Jews, and to proclaim and es'.ablish a general law for the observance and happiness of all matdiind. Here the evangelists ccn. tribute their aid to illustrate the declarations of the prophets, and unite the history of the Old with that of the New Testament, ia tlie most close and indissoluble bonds of union. * Isaiah, B. C. 757. Cyrus, B. C. 5G9. Kelt's Interpreter of Prophecy, vol. j. p. 130. MODERN HISTORY. 231 5. The historical books of scripture, considered from the time of the giving of the'law to Moses to the reformation in the worship and government by Nehoiniah, after the Babylonish captivity, contain a summary account of tlie Jewish affairs for a period of eleven centu- ries.* They were evidently not intended to give a complete detail of national transactions, as their vvriters had a more sublime and im- portant end in view. To illustrate the prophecies, by relating cir- cumstances which existed at the time when they were uttered, and to show their accomplishment ; to record various revelations of the divine will, and to describe the state of religion among the llebi'evvs, and the v:irious dispensations of Providence, in pMblic as well as ia private occurrences, seem to have been their chief olijects. Hence it is that the chain of history is sometimes broken into detached parts, and its detail is mterrupted by a recital of private thmsactions. The books of scripture occasionally assume the form, and comprise the beniplished in the year 4,004 A. C. Adam r.nd Eve soon transgressed the commands of God, and were therefore expelled trom their delightful abode. 2. Adam and Eve had two son«, whose names were Cain and Abel. Cain, the elder, was a husbandman, and Abel was a shepherd. Cain was of a vicious, Abel of a virtuous disposition. H-ince the worship of Abel was more acceptable to the Loi-d than that of Cain. Insti- gated by envy and malice, Cain killed his brother when they were tuxgother in the tield. For this atrocious crime he was severely pun- ished by the Lord, and became " a fugitive and a vagabond upon the earth." ' 3. After the murder of Abel, another son, named Seth, was born to Adam. From this time the descendants of Adam multiplied rapid- ly, and at lengtli spreail over the face of the earth. 4. One of ttie most remarkable circumsfances of the former world is the longevity of the people. Adam lived 'Jr30 years, Seth 912 years, Jared 9u2 years, Methuselah 969 years, Noah 9bO years. 5. In process of time mankind became so wicked that the Lord was resolved to destroy them by a deluge. Amid the general cor- ruption and depravity of the human race one virtuous man was found Noali, the son of Lamech, zealous for the reformation of men, be- came a preacher of righteousness to the ilegenerate and viciou* people among whom he lived, and employed both his council and au- thority to reclaim them ; but in vain. And God commanded Noah to build a great ship, called an ark^ and to put in it his wi!e, his three sons antl their wives, and also a faw males and iemales of every spe- cies of living things, that they might be saved Irom the general del- uge which wordd shortly overwhelm the whole earth, and extirpate ail creatures. The tiood continued 150 days, and then gradually sub- sided. Noah and his family, and all the anifuals. went out of the ark (2,343 A. C.) ; and in process of time they multiplied and spread over the surface of the earth, as we now see them. , 6. Of the literary and scientific attainments of the antediluvians we know very little. From the Mosaic account they do not appear to have been great. Moses has brielly informed us what was the oiigin of various customs and arts, and has recorded the names of their inventors. Lamech the son of Cain gave the tirst example of polygamy. Cain built the first city, and introduced the use of weights and measures. One of Cain's grandsons " was the father of such as dwell in tents, and of such as have cattle." Jubal invented music ; Tubal Cain the arts of forging iron, and of casting brass ; and a woman called Naamah the arts of spinning and weaving, JEWISH HISTORY. 241 Their religious rites were few and simple. They worshipped God by prayer, and sacrifices of certain animals. SECTION VI. FIRST AGES AFTER THE DELUGE, 1. 'J'he remembranc^of the three sons of Noah, the first foun« ders of the nations of the earth after the deluge, has been preserved among the several nalionLS descended irom them. Japhet peopled the greater part of the west, and continued long famous under the name of Japetus. Ham was reverenced as a deity by the Egyptians, under the title of Jupiter Hammon. The memory of Shem hiis always been venerated by his descendants, the Hebrews, who de- rived their name from his son Heber. 2. Except the building of the tower of Babel no event of impor- tance occurs in the hi~!ory cf ]\Ioyes during the space of nearly 1,10U years from tlie deluge to the call of Abraham. About 100 years after the deluge the descendants of Noah were become nu- merous at the foot of Mount Ararat, and in the plain of Shinaar, ex- tending along the banks of ti)e Euphrates and the Tigris. They found that the country was not extensive enough to contain them much longer, and therefore that they must separate. They agreed to build a very high to\ver, whicii might be a signni of union, if they should ever desire to return to their native country. When (hey had raised the tower to a certain height, the workmen suddenly perceiv ed that they did not understand the words of one another, and thai fd! spoke diiTerent languages. Consequently it was impossible to continue the work, and the people dispersed in different directions. Hence the origin of difierent languages, and the- dispersion of the human race over the habitable globe. 3. Soon after this memorable event, Nimrod, a violent and impe- rious man, built the city of Babel, or Babylon, and laid the founda tion of the first great em})ire, called the Babylonian, which waa altervvards so famous in the history of the Jews. SECTION VII. OF THE JEWS. 1. The Jews derived their origin from Abraham, the son of Terah, the tenth in lineal descent from Shem the son of Noah. The de- scen(laiils of Shem spread from Armeni;i, \yhere the ark is supposed to have rested after the deluge, to Mesopotamia, and thence into Chalilea, where Abraham was born. As Abraham was appointed to be the progenitor of a great and distinguished nation, God separated him from the other descendants of Shem, by causing Terah to re- move from Clialdea into the country of liaram, near the borders of INlesopotamia, wlipre he died. Abraham intended to settle in Haram, but in obedience to the will of Gvd^ he removed into the land cf Canaan, which was appointed to be the inheritance ol' his posterity. From this period commences a long series of events, which are re- corded in the book of Genesis, and are represented as immediately directed by the Lord. 2. After Abraham arrived in Canaan, his brst care was to erect an X 81 242 JEWISH HISIXJRV. alt'rti for the worship of God, who appeared to him, and confirmed the promise which he had belbre made to iiim, to give the country to his children. When he had hved some time in Canaan, a lam- ine compelled liini to remove liis lamiiy into Egypt, (l,9)tj A. C), where lie resided till the famine CL'ased, and then returned. Hi* wife Sarah, when ?lie was advanced in years, hrought iiim a sen., who was called Isaac. When Isaac grew to man'si estate he marrie J !\checca, who wits afterward the mOiiier of .facoli. in process of time Jacob had ten sons, u'!)0 were the fithot'sof leu frilies. Ijy (he command of the Lord, Jacob took the name of Israel, and hence hi? ]>osterily were called Israelites, or the children of Israel. 3. JosL'ph, the ninth son, was the fa\ ourile of his father, which excited the jaalousy and hatred of liis elder brothers, who sold hiiTi to some merchants, and told Jacob that lie had been devoured hy wild beasts. Tlie merchants carried their slave into Egypt, uritl sold him to Potiphar, an ollicer of king Phanioli's guard, l,7'24 A. C. Josepli served I'otiphar with sucii diligeixe and iidelily, tliat he soon committed to liim the care oi' his domestic affairs. The \vi!'e of Potiplrar repeatedly attempted to seduce Joseph into the gratification of lier amorous propensities ; l)ut her immodest ad vances being rejected with disdain, she was incensed, and malicious- ly accuseretore wisely separated the sacenlotal jurisdiction from the civil. Tbe miiti*lers of religion were not allowed to interfere in scculai a(T;iirs. TMieir duties were confined to the worship of God ; and their civil authority extended no farther than to take cognizance o^ such offt'oces or trespasses as were immediately connected with re- ligious worship. The care and direction of all secular concerns were committed to the elders of the people, who administered justice un- der the control of a supreme magistrate, emphatically styled a judge. In the judge was vested all power civil and military. It ap- 244 JEWISH iilSTOIlY. pears however that the high priest at length invaded the military prerogative ot' the judge. 11. Sensible of the ignorance and perverseness of the people under his care, Moses omitted no precepts nor instriiclions which he thought might tend to inform their minds, to reguiate theii- con- duct, to correct their vicious propensities, and to promote their \vel- liire and security. He prescrilied rules for their diet, for 'he presei- vation of their health, and for the treatment and cure of tliost diseases to which they were most liable. Having conducted tlie Israelites through many dangers and didiculties williin siglil of the promised land, and appointed Joshua his successor, Moses died in 1.447 A. C. SECTION VIII. THE HISTORY OF THE HEBREWS DURING THE GOVERNMENT OF THE JUDGES. 1. This period is extremely turbulent and sanguinary; a period ol barbarism, ignorance, and anarchy. We know not certainly how the judges, were chosen, nor what was the extent of their power They appear to have been military chiefs, for they commanded armies, and some of them acquired fame by successful expeditions against the enemies of their country. 2 The chiefs or rulers of the Syrian kingdoms, principalities, or townships, had chosen no common leader, or generalissimo, noi digested any regular plan of defence against the Hebrews, who had been long hovering on the frontiers of Syria, and betrayed hostile mtentions ; consequently many of these petty states on both sides of the river Jordan were subdued, and the inhabitants massacred, before any league was formed for their mutual defence. At le gth they became apprehensive of utter destruction from their tierce and cruel invaders, and a general alliance was concei'ted among tlie remaitung kings and chiefs of the country between the Jordan and the Mediterranean sea. Joshua twice attacked the combined army unexpectedly, and defeated it with great slaughter. Most of the in- habitants, except those who resided m impregn;d)le cities on the sea coast, were put to the sword, or compelled to tiee from the ven- geance of their enemy. Tlieir possessions were divided among the tribes of Israel ; and thus the victorious Hebrews conquered and occupied the southern parts of Syria, called J udea or Canaan, and still known by the name of Palestine. Joshua having on many occasions received miraculous assistance in the perilous conquest ol^ Canaan, and in the execution ot the arduous and important Oiiices ot a government of incessant activity and energy, died in 1,439 A. ('. leaving the Israehtes in the quiet enjoyment of the country which the Lord had formerly promised to Abraham and his posterity. 3. After the conquest of Canaan the Hebrews did not continue long to observe and obey the institutions of Moses. They fell into apostacy and confusion. They were alternately harassed by intestine commotions, and reduced to temporary bondage by the nutions which they iiad before conquered. When relieved from the miseries ot a foreign yoke, they commonly became subject to the more grievous opi»ressions of domestic tyranny. But in the various ciianges of their JEWISH HISTORY. 24b manners and fortunes, it is remarkable that some of their gross- est idolatries, and severest alliicUons, liappened when the civii powei and the auihoiity ol" tlie piiesthood were exercised by tlie same pei-son. 4. After the death of Joshua the Israelites were governed by elders about 2'j years. Then Ibilowed an anarchy ol" about^ i 8 years, during uhich tliey were engaged in many successful and unsuccessful wars, and were oUen rtduced to servitude. Afier the government of the Hebrews had continued with little interrupiiim, about ^95 years, under twelve successive judges, in the ibrm prescribed by Moses, Eli, the high-priest united in bis person those powers and functions which, before ids accession to the supreme magistracy, had been kept distinct. Eli appears to have been equally incapable of discharging the civil, the military, and tiie rei'gious duties of his high offices. The people fell into idolatry, and were subjugated by an ancient nation called the Philistines. In a great battle with the Fiiiiistines the army of the Hebrews was routed with dreadful slaughter, and the two proHigate sons of Eli were killed. The news of this disaster put an end to the lite of Eli, after he hal governed the Israelites Ibrty years. 5. The next and last judgoof the Hebrews was Samuel the pro[)het, 1, 11 2 A. C. He brought bi'xk the people to a sense of then duty, and soon restored the departed glory of Israel by a great vic- tory over the FtHUstincs. They now recovered their liberty, and the cities which had been takeii from them in former wars, bamuel was inJetiiligable in the. administration of justice. When age had rendered him incapable of executing his laborious duties, he unite J his two sons with him in the administration of the government. I^ut their evil conduct offended the people, who complained to Sam- uel that his sons were nut worthy to succeed him as judges. I'hey demanded a king to govern them. Samuel therefore assembled the people, and explained to them the cxtrcn/e danger of changi.ig their ancient form of government to that of a monarchy ; but in vain. Ttiey persisted in their resolution, and a rrian named Saul was ap- pointed the lirst king of the Hebrews, after the government by judges had subsisted, with some intermission, about ^66 yeare, from Joshua to Saul. SECTION IX. RETROSPECT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THE HEBREWS- 1. The advancement of Saul to the regal dignity was the second change made in the constitution given by Moses. The common- vvealth was originally a tkcocrucy ; and the people acknowledged IjO other king but God. They pi.id respect to tlie priests, as the superintendents of his worship ; and th;y obeyed the judges, as the interpreters of his laws, and the delegates of his power. The succession to the priesthood was fixed, being made hereditary in the family of Aaron. The ofhce of ruler, or judge, being apparent- ly left to the appointment of God, and determinable neither by the choice of the people, nor by lineal descent, gave access to disturbances violence, and intrigue. Moses prevented any public commotion by naming and consecrating a successor to himself. X2 ?46 JEWISH HISTORY. 2. After the death o/ Joshua intestine divisions, or rather a spirit of licentiousness and rapine, threw the nation into i state of anarchy and confusion. As this disunion and civil disorder exposed them to the invasions of the a(l_yicont states, military talents and success were regarded as infallible proofs of divine favour, and conferred upon any person so di'^liijguished, the title and authority of judge. Gideon obtained many signal victories over the Philistines, the inveterate enemitis of the Hebrews, and enriched his soldiers with plunder. Out of gratitude for his services, the people offered to make him and his posterity their rulers. Though he declined iho name of judge, yet he retained the power, and appropriated to himself the most valuable part of the spoils of his enemies. His natural son Abimelech succeeded to the othce of judge by force and violence. Sacred history does not inform us how the next two judges obtained their dignity. Alter them the supreme power was committed to o'le of Gilead's illegitimate issue, on account of his valour and military talents. Thus the othce of judge continued to Ihictuate till it was annexed to the high priesthood in the person of Eli, as has t)een re- lated. The death of his two vicious sons interrupted the succession in his line. The othce was lastly conferred on Samuel, whose un- just and rapacious sons were thought unworthy to succeed him. The people having received no permanent benefits from the administra- tion either of judges or of priests, resolved to appoint a king to govern them. This political innovation was the result of levity and impa tience rather than of mature deliberation. It neither gave stability to the new government nor prevented the evils of the old. SECTION X. REGAL GOVERNMENT OF THE HEBREWS. 1. The reign of Saul began about 1,091 A. C. He was a shep- herd of lofiy stature. The bcg-nning of his reign was auspicious, and distinguished by a complete victory gained over the Ammonites, which made him popular among his subjects. But he incurred the displeasure of Samuel, the prophet, and his whole reign of 40 years, was a continued scene of foreign or domestic troubles. Being de- feated in a battle with the Philistines in 1,051 A. C, he killed him- self. 2. Two candidates preferred their claim to the vacant throne, Ish-boshetb, Sard's son, founded his ])retensions on the right of im- mediate descent, and was supported by many of the tribes. David, a young shepherd, was famous for killing, with astone thrown from a sling, a Philistine named Goliath, a man of gigantic size and strength. He had likewise br'en privately anointed by Samuel before the death of Saul: and his title, as of divine api)ointment, was therefore acknowledged by the powerful tribe of Judah. A civil war ensued, which la.>^ted ahove seven years, and was terminat- ed by the assassination of Ish-bosheth. All the tribes now submit- ted to David, and the kingdom became hereditary in his fandly, though the right of succession >vas still unsettled, and was tran?fer able Irom one branc'i to another at the will of the reigning sever eign. This appears from Solomon's succession to the throne in preterence to his elder brother. 3. The reign of David is illustrious and interesting. He enlarged JEWISH ULS'i'ORV. i-ll the boumls of Palest ne by conquest, took Jerusalem, which he made the capiuil of hisclorninions, and enriched iiimseil' and his subjects willi the spoils oi' liis enemies. He revived among the people an attachment to religion l>y the institution ot" solemn ceremonies : and he introduced a taste ibr the arts, by inviting into the country able mexhanics and artists for the completion ol" the grand edifices which he erected. 4. The latter part of David's reign was unfortunate. The king- dom was ravaged by pestilence, ianiine, and disastrous wars. His mmii was harassed by domestic mislbrtunes. Some of his sons weie disobedient and wicked. His favourite son Absalom raised a rebel- lion with a design to dethrone his lather; but was defeated and slain David caused his son Solomon to be crowned in 1,011 A. C, and died in 1,010 A. C, having reigned seven years and a half over Judali, and 3? years over all Israel. 5. The reign of Solomon presents a splendid view of the kingdom of Israel in the height of its prosperity, felicity, and glory, enjoying all the blessings of tranquillity in such a manner, and for such a length of time, as it never experienced in any former or subsequent period. It directed the councils of all the petty states between the Euphrates and the I\Iediterranean; and held the balance of power between the two great monarchies of Egypt and Assyria. Com- merce flourished in a degree which, at that early period of the world, must appear extraordinary. The fleets of Israel, under the direc- tion of Tyrian mariners, traded to the land of Ophir, which some suppose to be a distiict in Ethiopia, on the eastern coast of Atrica. To this country they probably went by the Red Sea. By their lu- crative voyages they augmented the wealth of th-j nation, which David had already enriched by the spoils of war. But this agreea- ble and prosperous condition did not continue lon^. Solomon, elated b}" unifoi'm prosperity, set no bounds to his magnificence and luxury; and laid heavy taxes on the people to enable him to support nis pro- fuse expenditure. These burdensome imposts created disalTeclion in the minds of his subjects, and toward the end of his reign gave rise to a powerful liiction, at the he.id of which was a hauglity and mipetuous young man called Jeroboam. G. The most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon is the biiilding of a magniticent temple at Jerusalem, which was completed (n about seven years. The plan had been formed by David, and materials, workmen, and money, provided for its execution. This was probably the most superb and costly fabric that has been erected in ancient times. Tiie wisdom of Solomon is proverbial. The books of Proverbs and Ecclosiastes are ascribed to him, either as ihe author or col- lector ; and abound \vith precepts and maxims that are applicable to every condiiion of lite. But notuilhslanding the superior knowl- edge tor which Solomon was so justly celebrated, he appears to have been immersed in sensual pleasures. He had 700 wives of dillerent countries and religions, beside 300 concubines ! The allurements of those voluptuous women led him Into efl'eminacy, and the excess- ive indulgence of the animal passions, and into'lbe negloct of his important duties to God and his people ; and their influence and su- perstitions at length drew him into idolatry. This illuslrious and renowned monarch reigned 40 years, and died in 971 A. C, without leaving any memorial of his power. 7. With Solomon expired the gramleur and the tranquillity of the 248 JEWISH HISTORY. Hi'lirews. Upon the accession of his son Rehohoam to the throne llie faction of Jeroboam broke out iato open rebellion, and tck-minat- ed ill th ' revolt of the ten tribes iroin their allegiance to the house of Davi.l. The tribes ofJiidah and Benjamin continued loyal to their lawftd sovereign. The revolted tribes elected Jeroboam for their king, ani the monarchy was split into the two separate king- doms of Israel and Judah, 97! A. C. 8. The policy of Jeroboam produced a religions as well as a po litical separation. While the kings of Judah held th<^. temple where the sacritices were offered, and whither all the people were obliged to resort at stated times, they would always have an ascendancy over the kiflgdom of Israel. Jeroboam therefore thought it neces- sary to adopt some measures to prevent the frequent visits of his subjects to Jerusalem, the metropolis of the kingdom of Judah. Th^' priests, the Levites, and all who were concerned in the ministry of religion, were tirndy attached to the house of David; and Jero- boam supposed that they would naturally exert the inlluence which religion gave them over the minds of the people, to alienate their affection from bis governments and to bring them back to their alle- giance to their lawful sovereij;!!. To prevent the obvious conse- quences of the continuance of bis subjects in religious communion witii the house of David and kingdom of Judah, Jeroboam sacrificed the interest of religion to his political motives. He built a new temple, and instittited a new priesthood ; and thus produced a new schism among the toliowers of the Mosaical laws, w hich Avas never extinguished. Soon after this separation, the religion of the ten tribes under Jeroboam, deviating more and more from the original institutions of Moses, became a mixture of Judaism and Pagan idol- atry. 9. After this memorable epoch in the history of the Israelites we find little more in their annals than such transactions and events as constitute the ordinary subjects of political records. The king-dom of Judah adhered with inllexible attachment to princes of the house of David ; but usurpations in the kingdom of Israel were common. The history of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah during a period of almost lOU years, till the burning of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnez- zar, may, with the exception of a few intervals, be called the an- nals of disunion, vice, wars, massacres, servitude, famine, and pesti- lence. In this long period of general wickedness anijam the successor of Rehohoam. The army ol" the former consisted of eight hundred thousand men, that of the latter of four hundred thousand. Jeroboam was defeated, and live liundrcd thousand of his men were killed in the battle.* U). At last the kingdom of the ten tribes was extinguished. The people \vere transported into Assyria, and dispersad into different parts of the country, whence they never returned. The common people who were 1ei\ in Canaan were intermixed with strangers; and from that mixture of different nations sprun.-r the motley race, which were al'terward known by the name of Samaritans. The sad catastroplie of the kingdom o'f Israel is desci-ibed bv the proph- ets in very pathetic terms. The infants and pregnant women were murderevl" with horrid barbarity. The men, who had not been slain in battle, nor had not escaped by llight, were dragged into bondage, * Tlie limits of this work do not admit a particular histoiy of the gene- rally uninteresting reigns from this period to the Babylonish captivity. JEWISH HISTORY. 249 nn the royal family, so strange and unexpected, as to afford grc'^tl for suspicion, greatly to the prejudice of the duke of Orl'^'»ns? nephew of Lewis Xlv. Three heirs to the crown, the D-^^phiHi his son the duke of Bur- gundy, and his gnindson the d'^^e of Bretagne, had all died within the short space of eleven P«onths, during the years 1,711, 1,712, leaving, to intercept tlie <=iaims and pretensions of the duke of Or- leans, only the duke o-^ Berry and one infant, apparently of a feeble and delicate constj^-Jtion, nnd whose own life had also been in dan. ger. The kin^ ^^ Spain had been previously compelled, according to the spirit ^' the celebrated treaty of the Pyrenees, formally to renounce "is claims fo the succession, notwithstanding his near rela- tionsl-'^p to the crown of France. Lastly, the duke of Berry died, i\l;^y 1,7 1 4, at the early age of 18. 3. Fortunately for the reputation of the duke of Orleans, (who, though of loose morals, seems to have possessed too generous a heart for such base deeds), the infant dauphin not only lived to be come king, but to survive the duke himself, many years. NorweWf the suspicions which had been raised by the sudden deaths of so many heirs to the crown, strong enough to prevent the nation repos- ing the highest confidence in the duke, by suffering the kingly power to pass into his hands, as sole regent, during the minority ; tnough contrary to the express appointment of the late king, who is said to have wisely observed, when for form's sake he executed his will that it would have but little weight with the people, or the parlia metkt, as soon as his eyes were closed. The nation willing^ accedea I« S3 238 MODERN HISTORY. to the disposition of tht parliament, in setting aside the claims of the illegitimate princes, when. «he will of Lewis XIV. favoured ; and the duke of Orleans was careivi to fix tli-at body in his interest, by promising to restore to it its lull pi^^er of remonstrance, which had been greatly restrained during the prec^f]j,ig reign. 4. Lewis XIV. had left his kingdom so lu^.j^bered with debt, and BO surrounded by mortified, jealous, and ex.«Qf, rated neighbours, eager to recover what had been taken from them during the trium- phant wars of that monarch, that it became an objecioi the highest importance to the regent, for the nation's sake, as well a^i^jg otvn, to maintain peace as iar as he could with Ibreign states. To 'J.js end, liiough contrary to any former course of things, be prudently t-^dea- voured to form alliances with the courts of St. James's and Vien,.r, In the former case the advantages were similar and mutual. By the treaty of Utrecht, England stood engaged to secure the Fretich crown to the regent, in case Lewis XV. should die without iss-je ; and to keep her steady to this engagement, it was easy ibr the duke lo comply with the wishes of the whig government of England, in withholding all encouragement from the pretender. 5. However pacific the views of the regent might be, Spain seemed to present an obstacle to the repose and tranquillity of Eu- rope. I'here a minister of a very different disposition had obtained Ihv chief management of affairs, who appeared bent upon disturbing both the French and English governments, in order to recover what had been taken from Spain by the treaty of Utrecht, especially in Italy ; to deprive the duke of Orleans of the regency, in favour of the king hw master, and to seat the pretender on the throne ot Great Britain, with \he aid of Russia and Sweden. Such were the plans of the celebrated JilUroni ; originally the son of a gardener; afterwik-ds ill the lowest stations ;,i the church of Placentia, but wno had raised himself, by an extraordi.ory display of genius and talent, to the high- est degree ot credit and inh.pnce at the court of Philip V., with the exalted rank ot cardinal. 6. These movements indeed o.. the part of Spain, were not in themselves altogether uniavourable l-, the views of the regent ; in better securing lo him the good will of £.»aland and Austria, always prepared to be jealous of too close an intim.^y between the courts of Paris and Madrid. Some historians have e.on gone so Iar as to suppose it to have been a settled contriva.ice to iinpt^e on the former two courts, but certainly without suthcient grounds. 7. It seems to have been a great ovei'sight in the negutjations at Utrecht, not to have endeavoured more effectually to reconcUe the courts of Austria and Spain. The Ibrmer, after the treaty, rema'i-aed jealous of the occupation of the Spanish throne by PJiitip; while the latter could not fail to be aggrieved and offended at being made to contribute t / the indemnification of Cliarles VI., by a very consid- erable dismemberment of its domuiions, without any suitable or adequate remuneration. 8. To counte"act the projects of Alberoni, the regent entered into an alliance with England and the United States ; entirely sacrificing totlie former the interests of the pretender, who was to be sent out of France. But the Spanish minister was not to be deterred by this triple alliance and confederacy against him. Having watched Ids op- Eorliinity of a war between the emperor of Germany and the Porte, e suddenly commenced hostilities ; and, a\ ith no small degree of treachery, in the course of the years 1,717 and 1,710, succeeded in MODERN HISTORY. 259 wresting from Austria the island of Sardinia, and from the duke of Savoy that of Sicily, thus violating, in the most direct and glaring manner, the solemn treaty of Rastadt, so lately concluded. In con- sequence of these proceedings, and in order to remedy, as it would seem, the defects and omissions of the original convention, Austria was admitted a party to the alliance between France, England, and Holland, with a view ttt bring about a reconciliation between the emperor and Spain, upon the basis of the following arrangement : that the former should renounce all claims to the Spanish throne in favour of Philip, while the latter should surrender to the emperor the Netherlands, the duchv of Milan, and the kingdom of Naples, as- signed to him by the treaty of Utrecht and the quadruple alliance. That the duke of Savoy should yield Sicily to Austria, receiving in exchange the island of Sardinia Irom Spain ; and tt.it the eldest son of Philip by his second marriage, don Carlos, should be secured in the reversion of the duchies ot Parma and Placentia, and the grand duchy of Florence, to be holden as male tiefs under the emperor, and on no occasion whatever to be united to the crown of Spain. 9. There never was a period perhaps in which it would have been more difficult to unravel the policy of these several courts. It "•vas certainly a strange thing for the emperor to agree, in any man- ner,to admit the Spaniards into Italy, of which he had so much reason to be ontrustful ; much more to assist in doing so. While those verv terms, wuv^h were undoubtedly introduced to gratify the Spanish minister, in uj,, particular respect, so far from securing the ready consent of the Cirt of Madrid, only induced it to make fresh etfoMs. 1 he predommance -^f France and J^igland, however, soon became so conspicuous, as to c^^pel Philip to subscribe to the articles of the alliance, and even to disn..;g iijg fovourite minister, the cause of all the grievances of which tu. allied powers had to complain, hi 1,720 Austria took possession o; Sicily, and Victor Amadeus 11. trans- ierred the seat of his governmeniv, the island of Sardinia. 10. In the month of December, 1,-23, in the 60th vear of hisage, the regent duke of Orleans died very uuidenly in a ("it of apoplexy. He was a prince of shining talents, and ol ^reat taste and spirit: but dissolute in his habits ot lite to a most disgr.oefiil pitch of extrava- gance. He did not indeed suffer his pleasures i^nd licentious connex- ions to interfere greatly with the discharge of his public duties, but they tarnished his liime. and in all likelihood sliorterjed his life. 1 le hiid the misfortune in hi-s youth to be put into the havids of a most unprincipled tutor, the Abbe Dubois, who continued vj'vever, msisted on the accession of all the contracting jiowers, te I'^e P'"i'g- mafic Sanction, which was to secure to his heirs gen^'"'' ^''e undi- vided succession to all his territories and dominionft^'h^ other courts withdrew; and in November, 1,720, conclude('''t Seville in Spain a separate treaty, in which it was agreed, bef-een France, England, and Spain, to support the pretensions of <-'*e Iniant to the duch.es of Parma, i'lacentia, and Tuscany. To ent by the ministry, for limiting the number of the peers, it MODERN HISTORY. 267 originated with Lord Sunderland, who is said to have had in view to restrain the power of the prince ol Wales, whom he had offended, when he should succeed to the throne. After much debate, and it i3 supposed almost entirely through the influence of Sir Robert VVal- pole, it was rejected by a large nia'j'^rity, '269 to 177. 13. In 1,720 the king was much occupied in affording protection and support to the protestant interests abroad, and in endeavouring to restore peace and tranquillity amongst the northern states. Swe- den, Denmark, Prussia, and Poland, reaped the fruits of his media- tion ; but the czar resisted his proposals, and, for some time, contin- ued t^ act against Sweden, in cfefiance of the combined operations ot that country and England. He at last, however,' consented to accept the mediation of France, and peace was established between Russia and Sweden, by the treaty of Nystadt, 1,721. 1 4. Nothing occurred in this reign more disastrous in its conse- quences, or more strange and extravagant in its origin and progress, than the celebrated South Sea scheme, whereby, though immense for- tunes were rapidly made by some, many individuals were ruined, and public credit alarmingly shaken. The details of this curious speculation and bubble (as it has been but too justly denominated.) it would be exceedingly uninteresting to enter into, in a work like the present, and they are easily to be found elsewhere ; but such an instance of public infatuation, illusion, and credulity, was only to be matched by the Mississippi scheme, projected by Law, during the regency in Prance, which had a similar effect, and which was most probably the model from which Sir John Blunt, the projector of the South Sea scheme, took the hint. The French system has been sup- posed to have had something more substantial in it, with respect to the exclusive trade to Louisiana. But the South Sea scheme had certainly commercial advantages attached to it. The two schemes, it must be admitted, supply the most useful lesson to all wise states, not to tamper with the public credit, or countenance such suspicious projects ; for though both these adventures set out with very plau- sible pretences of public benefit, and a certainty of relieving, rather than distressing, the credit of the nation, their course and progress soon became such as to exute the most lively apprehensions in alJ considerate minds, of the consequences which actually ensued ; es- peciaUy in England. 15. The politics of Europe were in a very perplexed state, to- wards the close of the reign of George L, owing to two treaties, of which some account has been given in another place, but which were very important to the English nation. These were the trea- ties of Vienna and Hanover, the former of which took place in April, and the latter in September, 1,725. By the former, the em- peror and Spain were supposed secretly to have bound themselves to procure the restitution of Gibraltar and Port Mahon, to the latlei power; to aid the pretender, and to further the interests of the Os- tend East India Company, ^vhich had given umbrage to England, Holland, and France. By the latter treaty, England was able to secure on her side, against the projects of Austria and Spain, the kings of Prussia and Sweden, and the states of Holland ; but as this aid vvas very slowly and reluctantly promised, and, in one instance, soon abandoned, the state of affairs would have been very alarming, but for the encouragement given by parliament, which was so effec- tual, that though considerable preparations for war took place on the pari of almost all the nations concerned, articles of peace, through 268 MODERN HISTORY. the mediation of France, were agreed upon in Mnj, 1,727, and ac> ceptcd by the imperial court and Spain ; by these the cliarter of t!)P Ostend company was suspended ibr a certain period, and tne siege of Gibraltar, which had actually commenced, and been carried on for four months, raised and abandoned. IG. George 1. died at Osnaburgh, on his way to his electoral do minions, June 11, 1,727, with the reputation of an honest and geneious prince. He was brave in the field, and wise jn council ; having had many arduous^ negotiations on his hands, which he commonly con- ducted to a favourable issue ; not often, however, without large sub- sidies. His own measures were generally defensive and preventa- tive. He was fortunate in the state of things, at the period of Queen Anne's death, and in the removal of Lewis XIV., and Charles Xll. of Sweden, both of whom were personally unfriendly to him, and cer- tainly had projects on foot for the restoration of the Stuart fimily. King George constantly manifested a disposition to govern according to the laws and constitution of the kingdom. And it has been observ- ed to his credit, that the nation not only improved in wealth and credit during his reign, but enjoyed a greater degree of tranquillity at home, and a longer duration of peace abroad, than during any Eeriod since the time of Queen Elizabeth. At the time of his death e was in the sixty-eighth year of his age. SECTION III. AUSTRIA (AND GERMANY) FROM THE PEACE OF RASTADT 1,714, TO THE PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 1,748. 1. The affairs of Austria, as incidentally connected with those of France, Spain, England, Italy, and Prussia, from the year 1,713 to 1,738, have been already treated of in the preceding sections. It may be necessary, however, to take a brief view of matters, fi-om the commencement of the reign of Charles VI., to the dealh of that mon- arch; which event, as we shall have to «how, greatly disturbed the whole of Europe, and occasioned the war which was terminated by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,748. 2. Charles VI., who had borne a conspicuous part in the succession war, as a competitor for the Spanish throne, (Part II. Sect. LXIV.) became emperor in the year 1,711, on the demise of his eldei brotlier, Joseph I. Though he had declined becoming a party to the treaty of Utrecht, m 1,713, it was not long before he perceived his error, being left alone to support an expensive war. In the fol- lowing year, therefore, he received the proposals made to him by the court of Versailles, consented to the opening of conferences, in the month of November, 1,713, and, in the March following, 1,714, signed the treaty of Rastadt, by which he obtained possession of the Spanish Netherlands, (except the barrier towns ceded to Holland,; Naples, Sardinia, Milan, Frieburg, and Kehl. 3. But he was' very soon disturbed in a part of these acquisitions, by the restlessness and jealousy of Spain, already noticed. Great de- signs were formed against his Italian territories ; Sardinia actually taken from him, in 1,717 ; Sicily, in 1,718, and further encroachments projected, but for the timely interposition of the English, under admiral Byng, in the Mediterranean, (Sect. II. ^ 9, 11.) who 9t»on MODERN HISTORY. 26!» lioughl matters to a favourable issue for Austria, with infinite credit lu hitr.solf, bolh as an officer and a negotiator. ■i. .-ipaiii had eagerly caught at the opportunity which presented itself of making tiiese attacks upon Austria, while the latter power was engaged in war with Turkey, in aid of the Venetians. The Turlcs, (instigated, it has been said, by the Spanish minister, to engage the attention of Austria,) in violation of the treaty of Car- iowilz, had taken the Morea from the Venetians, before Austria carae to their aid, in the year 1,716; nor, though from that lime so powerfully assisted, were they able to recover that peninsula. Ciiarles VI., however, was not long at variance with the Porte upon this occasion. As early as the year 1,718, through the extraordinary skill and valour of prince Eugene, the Austrian commander, things were brought to an issue, and a peace concluded, through the me- diaiion of England and Holland, at Passarowitz, by which the Turks were allowed to retain the Morea, en ceding to the Venetians some iiontier towns in Albania and Dalmatia, while Austria obtained Bel- grade, the Bannat of Temeswar ana Wallachia, as tar as the Aluta; she was also able to establish a free commerce in all the harbours of the Black Sea, and of the Danube, as well as with the Persians. The early termination of this war, together with the successes of the i'.ngiish on the shores of Sicily, checked the operations of the Span- iarils, and disposed them to agree to the terms of the quadruple al- liiuice. Spain and Austria, however, were not effectually reconciled till the year 1,725, at which period the emperor was induced to re- nounce his pretensions upon Spain and the Indies. 5. Charles VI. was for a long time deeply occupied in endeavour- ing to preserve his own dominions from such difliculties as Spain had been involved in, at the beginning of this century, owing to the dis- puted succession to the Spanish throne, on the demise of Charles II., and ill vvhich he had himself been so greatly concerned. He propos- ed, for tjjis end, by a " Pragmatic Sanction," to make it a law, that if he should, at the lime of his death, have either sons or daugh- ters, the hereditary dominions and crowns belonging to the house, of Austria, should remain united. . In failure of such issue, male or fe- male, the daughters of his deceased brother, Joseph, were to succeed ; and it' lliey died without heirs, the inheritance was to pass to his sis- ters, and their descendants. When this act was proposed, at the diet of Kutisbon, it was violently resisted by the electors of Saxony and Bavaria, as well as the elector Palatine, but by the treaty of \'ien- na, 1,731, as well as by previous negotiations at the different courts ol Eiirope, almost every power, except France, was brought to consent to the proposed regulations -, England and Holland, in particular, having been gained over by the emperor's agreement to suppress the ew East India Company vvhich he had endeavoured to establish at Ostend. The guarantee of France was not obtained tid six year? alter, in recompense of the transfer of the duchies of Eoriaine and Bar to the latter power, on the demise of Stanislaus, king of Poland, who obtained the government of those countries bv the treaty oi 1.738. 6. (Jharles VI. had scarcely succeeded in his great object of the prag, Sialic sanction, before he was engaged in a fresh war with the Turks, in virtue of a treaty concluded with Russia, who had com- menced hostilities against the Porte, in 1,736. The war on the part of Austria, however, was of very short duration. She had tost the support of her famous general, prince Eugene ; and hei 270 MODERN HISTORT. armies, on the present occasion, appear to have been ill conducted. Jealousies and disagreements amongst the superior officers, and a great want of resources, baffled all their operations. In 1,739, the emperor was compelled to submit to the terms of the treaty of Belgrade, which was highly advantageous to Turkey. Austria surrenilered Servia, with the fortresses of Belgrade and Szabatch ; and Austrian Wallachia, \vith the fortress of Orsova. By the treaty of Belgrade, the Porte also obtained advantages over Russia; but it is now known, that this convention was very artfully conducted by an ngfnt of (he French court, who was instructed not only to prevent tlie dismemberment of Turkey, by the combined forces of Austria ,iiul Russia, but to resist the aggrandizement of the former, and separate her, if possible, from her northern ally. 7. Ill the year immediately tbiiowing that in which the treaty of Belgrade had restopr>d harmony between the two courts of Vienna and Constantinople, so much to the advantage of the latter, Charles \ 1. died, the last heir-male of the Austrian line of princes. Notwith- standing all the care he had taken to secure to his daughter the entire hereditary dominions of hi^ family ; and though almost the whole of Europe had guaranteed the indivisibility of his dominions, according to his wishes, he was no sooner dead than numerous claims were set up, and a war kindled, which may be said to have, in it« progress, involved every European state. The archduchess, Mr.ria Theresa, consort of Francis, duke of Tuscany, according to tlie terms of the Pragmatic Sanction, (wliich, however, had been ill drawn up,) succeeded, on the death of her father, to the following kingdoms, states, and territories: Hungary and Bohemia, Silesia ■nul Austrian Suabia, Upper and Lower Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Cainiola, Burgau, Brisgau, the Low-Countries, Friuli, Tyrol, the iUantiian, and the Duchies of Milan, Parma, and Placentia. 8. I. niortunately for the archduchess, Charles VI. hud left his army in a bad condition, his linanccs embarrassed, ai.d, at the time of bis death, a scarcity almost approaching to taniine, prevailed in •nany parts of bis dominions. All these circiimstances combined, were calculated to rais'^, up compolitors for different portions of his estates. Nor were they at all tardy in advancing their claims. The elector of Bavaria pretended to be the proper heir to the kingdom of Bohemia. Augustus II., elector of Saxony and king of Poland^ having married the eldest daughter of Joseph 1., elder brother ot Charles VI., claimed the whole Austrian succession. The king of Spain did the same, though upon a more remote title, and entirely through females. The king of Sardinia made pretensions to the duchy of Milan, and Frederic II., of Prussia, to the province of Sile- sia. 9. Many of these several claimants had formally agreed to the terms of the pragmatic sanction, and even at first professed the most favourable dispositions towards the archduchess, who had taken quiet possession of all that had descended to her ; but the times, and the peculiar circumstances of the empire, encouraged them to break through their engagements; not, however, altogether without sonie pretence of honour and justice ; as was the case with France. The king of France had, as well as the kings of Poland and Spain, pre- tended to have derived a right from two princesses, married to Lew IS XUl. and XIV., to the whole succession ; but choosing, rather than to depend upon these titles, to take the part of the elector of Bava- ria, he insisted that, in his guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, by thf MODERN HISTORY. 271 ciaiise " sine prcejudicio feriii,'''' he was fairly left at liberty to e.«pouse any claims (hat should appear to him more just than those of the arcli(Uichcss, queen of liuugary. This clause had, indeed, been in- troduced into some of the acts of guarantee, though not into all. 10. The most forward find active of the queen's opponents was a prince little known till then, Frederic king of Prussia, at that time ubout twenty-eight years of age. He had succeeded, through the prudence ot his father, to an army and a treasury of no inconsider- able importance ; both of which he had himself also found time to Improve. His movements were sudden, and quite unexpected by the court of Vienna ; and he soon made known what his deman(H were, proposing that if they should be granted, he would support Austria against other enemies, and assist the queen in placing her hiisljand on the imperial throne. He pretended, indeed, at tirst, to be only desirous of occupying Silesia, as a friend to the queen ; but tbe mask was soon laid aside, and his fixed determination to become master of Lower Silesia rendered visible to all the world. 11. The queen would consent to the surrender of no part of her inheritance, though possibly her refusal in this instance, occasioned the alliance soon afterwards formed between the court of V'ersailleg and Frederic, from which she suffered so much. England, it is said, counselled submission in the point of Silesia, foreseeing the conse- quences ; but worse consequences, perhaps, were to be apprehend- ed, had she complied. It would, in all likelihood, have disposed others to urge their claims with greater importunity. l^J. Aitled by France and Saxony, the elector of IJavaria, towards the middle of the year 1,741, acquired possession of the kingdrm of Bohemia, and was proclaimed king, and inaugurated with great solemnity; and, on the I'ith of February, 1,742, he had the imperial dignity conferred on him by the diet of Frankfort, under tb.e title of Charles Vll., having been chosen, however, when some of the elec- tors were disqualified from voting. 13. Never was there a greater prospect of a total dismembermenf ol the Austrian dominions than at this time. Different parts were regularly assignetl to the several claimants, and nothing left lor the daughter of Charles VI. but the kingdom of Hungary, the province of Lower Austria, the Belgian states, and the duchies of Carinthia. Styria, and Carniola. Precautions had even been taken to prevent her deriving any aid from Russia, by exciting Sweden to declare was against the latter power. But the spirit of this surprising woman was nut to be bioken by the powerful combination against her. She had, at the very commencement of her reign, in a singular and ex- traordinary manner, and with consummate wisdom, particularly by faking the ancient oath of king Andrew 11., attached to her interests the brave Hungarians. Repairing to them with her infimt son, she threw herself entirc-ly upon their protection, and, in the most pui>lic nr.uiner. addressing them in the Latin language, at a special assembiy of the states, presented her child to them in terms the most pathetic. Supported by their valour, and with the help of English and Dutch money, she baliied all her enemies, and finally dissipated the sloriK lh;it so rudely threatened her. It was not, indeed, until Walpole was, removed from the English ministry that the queen received any ac- tive assistance from the king of England ; but afterwards, Oolh in Flanders and Italy, he was a powerful ally. She also derived some succours from the king of Sardinia, not, liowever, very creditably purchased with regard to G«noH. iiV2 MODERN HiSTORY. 1 4. H;k1 the numerous powers first armed against Maria TheresJl, or iutimidated into a state of neutrality, agreed amongst themselves, it would have been impossible for the queen to have withstood their attacks ; but, fortunately for her, many stood so directly in a state of livalship towards eacli other, and France was such an object of sus- 2)icion and alarm to almost all the other confederates, that their very iirst movements produced jealousies and divisions amongst them ; and, what is very remarkable, the earliest who showed a disposition to treat with the queen was the king of Prussia, in consequence of (he successes of tlie elector of Bavaria in Bohemia. 15. I'he interference of England, in behalf of the queen, did at iirst, indeed, only exasperate I ranee, and the other allies of Charles V'll., and excite them to a more vigorous opposition. But the death of the emperor, in the year 1,745, who had derived no happiness, but, indeed, a great deal of misery, i'rom his short exaltation, and his son's pruilent and wise abandonment of such high dignities, in order to secure his quiet possession of his paternal dominions, left the queen at lib'~:rty to procure for her husband, Francis, grana duke of 'Fuscany, the imperial crown ; his election to which took place in the month of September of the same year; the queen agreeing to admit the young elector of Bavaria to the full possession of his he- reditary dominions, and to acknowledge his father, Charles \ 11., to have been duly invested with tl.e imperial dignity. After some signal successes, the queen's great adversary, the king of Prussia, also came into her terms, having agreed, in a treaty concluded at Dresden, to acknowledge the validity of Francis's election, on being put in possession of Silesia and the county of Glatz, the chief objects tor wliich he had been contending. The elector Palatine was like- wise included in this treaty. lo. The French continued the war in the Netherlands, as well . as in Italy, and with considerable success ; but the queen being a good deal disembarrassed by the peace she had been able to con- clutle with Prussia, had it soon in her power to recover all that the French and Spaniards had acquired in Italy, while the French coi^quests in Flanders and HollanLJ led lo the re-establishment of tlie studtholdei'ship, and thereby baiiled all their hopes of future advantages in those parts. The interlerence of the empress of Russia, subsidized by England, and, above all, the pecuUar situation (f the king of France, whose lincuices were almost exhausted, and wlio had suffered severe losses by sea, tended to bring matters to an issue. A congress was opened at Aix-ia-Chapelle, which, though ritiier slow in its operations, at last terminated in a peace, concluded October 7, 1,748, exactly a hundred years after the lamous treaty of Westphalia, which served for a basis of the negotiations entered into upon this occasion. By this convention, as in most other instances of the same nature, there was so general a restitution of conquests, as plainly to mark the folly and injustice of having continued the war so long. During tliis contest, in the year 1,743, died the cardinal de Fleury, tirst minister of France, at the very advanced age oi ninety. He did not assume the reins of government till he was seventy- three. He had many virtues, but was much more admired by his countrymen for his integrity and disinterestedness, than lor energy of chaiacter, or public spirit. 17. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle bringing us, as nearly as can be, to the middle ot the eighteenth century, it may be well to take a MODERN HISTORY. 273 view of Europe at this particular period, and as connected with tliis celebrated treaty ; but this must be reserved for a future section. SECTION IV. ENGLAND FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE II. TO THE. THRONE, 1 ,727, TO HIS DEATH, 1,760- 1. The accession of George II., who came to the throne 1,727, in the 44th year of his age,-and in a time of profound peace, was not at- tended with such changes as many iiad expected. Even the minis- ter himseh', sir Robert Walpole, is said to have been surprised at the reception he met wi^h from ids majesty, on the demise of the hilo king, and at the continuance of the power in his hands. But llus is now known to haye been owing to the wise and prudent care ot queen Caroline,' who, at this moment, was lound to possess an influ- ience over her royal consort, which had been by many little suspect- ed, but which her extreme good sense, and discreet conduct, seemed fully to justily. The whigs might justly be considered as the truest friends of the house of Hanover and the protestant church ; and their continuance in power at the commencement of a new reign, though very graiing to the adverse party, seemed to be extremely favourable to the quiet of the nation. 2. The good-will which had sprung up, and been encouraged dur- ing the regency, between the rival courts of Versailles and London, was not materially disturbed during the whole administration of Walpole, and his pacilic contemporary, cardinal Fleury ; the queen being also friendly to peace. But as it is not easy tor any peaceable government long to escape the encroachments ot other states, Spain, apparently presuming on the forbearance or apathy of the British ministry, committed great depredations, for a series of years, upon the trade of England with America and the West-Indies, committing many acts of most atrocious cruelty, in addition to their other deeds of insult and plunder. Some steps were at length taken to remedy these evils, but the conduct of Spain was so generally resented by the nation, as to render even the convention, by which the disputes were referred to arbitration, extremely unpopular. It being thought, by many of all descriptions, not only that the grievances complained of had been too long submitted to and endured, and the measuicw hitherto taken to redress them been too tame and submissive, but that nothing less than a war could restore the lost consequence of the state, or bring such otfenders to reason. 3. The Spaniards, indeed, had detended their conduct in many memorials, pretending that the English were the aggressori, in car- rying on a contraband and unlawtul trade with their colonies ; but had this been capable of proof to the extent the Spaninrds pretend- ed, wlwch was certainly not the case, there is no doubt but that they sutfereJ themselves to be hurried into most unjustitiable excesses in their measures of reprisal, and exceedingly ill-treated both the mer- chants anrl sailors of^ England. They insisted upon a general right of search, on the open seas, and condemned the ships and cargoes, upon such frivolous pretences as could not fail to be extremely in- jurious and oppressive, and quite contrary to existing treaties. In one instance, a whole lleet of English merchant-ships, at the island of &74 MODERN HISTORY. Tortugas, was attacked by Spaniards, as it the two nations had been at open war 4. It vTould be scarcely possible, perhaps, to justify entirely the extraordinary forbearance of the British government, lor nearly twenty years, during which not only these indignities had been con tinually repeated, but express engagements, and promises to redress and abstain from such aggressions in future, notoriously violated. This had been remarkably the case with respect (o the stipulations of the treaty of Seville, concluded in the year 1,729. There were very warm debates in parliament on the subject, and the ministry weie hard pressed to defend themselves from the charge of supine- ness, gross indifference to the sufferings of the merchants, and the honour of the crown, and, in some instances, even of criminal conniv- ance. And, indeed, their opponents obtained, at length, this triumph over them, that tbe very convention which was to be the prelimina- ry ,of a perfect adjustment of differences, and a surety for the indem- nification of the merchants for all their losses, was, like every pre- ceding treaty and compact, disregarded by Spain, and war obliged to be declared before the year was out, to compel her to more just and equitable measures. The war, however, was not so success- ful as to render it clear tliat the pacific and wary proceedings of the British minister were otherwise than most prudent and wise, consid- ering the general circumstances of Europe. " Omnia prius expe- riri verbis quam armis sapientem decet," is a maxim which has been applied to the conduct of sir Robert Walpole, by an author, not backward to admit that, on some points, in regard to continental politics, the pacific system was carried too far. The period during which it prevailed will, certainly, lor ever be a remarkable era in English history, especially as the reigning sovereign was notor'ous ly a soldier, and by no means pei-sonally disposed to adopt so inactive a line of conduct. 5. Though the people had been clamorous for the war with Spain, they were soon dissatisfied with the conduct of it, and that to so great a degree, as to compel the minister, sir Robert Walpole, though with considerable reluctance, to resign his appointments ; which took place in February, 1,742; the approbation of his sove- reign being manifested in his elevation to the peerage, by the title of earl of Oxford, lie was succeeded by lord Carteret. Sir Robert Walpole had been an able, intelligent, and prudent minister; a con- stant lover of peace, in the .way of defence and prevention; and upon this he prided himself: he was of the whig party, which ex- posed him much to the rancour, not only of those whose political opinions were different, but of many disappointed persons who thought with him. By these he was stigmatized as having reduced corruption to a system ; but by others, this charge was as confidently repelled ; nor would it be difficult to prove that, though he often spoke a? if he knew every man's price, he governed, not by corruption, l>ut by party attachments, as his friends and admirers have alleged. TJpDu two great occasions his plans were thwarted by some who ' ved to see and correct their errors, as was the case, particularly, virith Mr. Pitt, in regard to the excise bill, first proposed to the house of commons in the year 1,732. There was never, perhaps, a case K which party, faction, and ignorance prevailed more over truth, and justice, and prudence. The bill was calculated to check and control the most gross and pernicious frauds upon the revenues ; to favour and encourage, in every possible manner, the fair dealer^ MODERN HISTORY. 275 (and thlough him the public in general,) and by the savings pro- duced in the treasury, materially to lighten the public burthens: yet such a clamour was raised against the measure, from its first sugges- tion, as to oblige the minister to abandon it. C. The other measure, which brought great odium on this able minister of finance, was his trespass on the sinking fund, first estab- lished in 1,727, and which he made no scruple to alienate for public purposes, as occasion seemed to require. The very name of this* lund is not equally applicable to all times. At first it arose entirely from savings, and its perpetual or uninterrupted operation under such circumstances, woulcl appear to have been an indispensable part of its character.' It had been calculated as proceeding upon the basis of compound interest; while new loans and debts, contracted for pressing emergencies, were held to burthen the public in the way of simple interest only. But in these days, the whole state of the question is changed. The modern sinking fund is not a sinking fund of surpluses or savings, but in itself a borrowed fund; of great power and great utility, occasionally, but plainly at the command of the public, whenever the current expenses cannot be provided for at a less cost ; attd, indeed, often beneficially to be applied to such pur- poses, in greater or less proportions, to the avoidance of many heavy charges of management, high premiums, and new taxes. The aUenation of the original sinking lund, by sir Robert Walpole, how ever, has been very ably defended since, though opposed and resist- ed, at the time, with a virulence and animosity exceedingly distress- ing to that minister. 7. The new administration, which came into power on the resig nation of Walpole, so littic answered the expectations of their friends, deviated so soon from the principles they had avowed, while in opposition, and seemed so much more disposed to espouse the cause of Hanover, at the expense, and to the loss, of England, in useless subsidies and foreign wars, than to attend lo the domestic diiHculties under which she was supposed to be labouring, that they became, in a very short time, quite as unpopular as their predeces- sors, and in 1,745, the very year in which Walpole died, the rebel- liouibroke out in Scotland. 8; This(iittempt against ^the house of Hanover, undertaken by the heir of the Stuart iamily^ in person, was, undoubtedly, an ill-con- ducted, as it was ultimately an unsuccessful, enterprise ; though to call it altogether a weak one, would be contrary to historical truth. Its commencement, indeed, had all the appearance of the most ro- mantic infatuation, but in its progress it became so formidable, as even to threaten the capital of England, and the protestant sucres- tion ; nor was it subdued without great eflbrts and exertions on Uie part of the king^s forces, so unavailing and disheartening at firet, ;i3 to render the issue of the contest extremely problematic^al. It Was, in fact, at the beginning, despised and neglected, by the lords of the regency, in the absence of the king, who was then at Hanover, ."^o that time was given for such an accession of friends and adherents to (he cause of the pretender, while the English army was left without any adequate reinlbrcements, that the rebels not only got possession of Edinburgh, after a very severe bv,"; most successful action with the English, at Preston Pans, but were able to march, unmolested, (iir int) England, and even to retreat, •!?. the face of a powerful army, under circumstances peculiarly creditable to the prowess, humanity, «T»d military skill of the Scottish commander. 276 MODERN IliSTORY. 9. Had the young prince met with the encotiragemeht he expecf> ed on his march to the south, lie might have possessed himself of the Enghrih, as he had done of the Scotch, capital ; but his hopes of aid were, considering all tilings, strangely an.d cruelly disappointed. Not a soul joined him, of any importance, though he had advanced nearly to the very centre of the kingdom; while the French failed to lidtil tlieir engagem.ent of invading the southern parts of f|;e inland, in order to divide and occupy the English army, so that his retreat becam.e a point of prudence perfectly inevitable, howevei Jiorlifying and grating to the gallant spirit of Charles, who un- t-'oubtodly manifested a strong disposition to proceed against all obsta- cles. 10. The conrKct between the two nations, on this occasion, was greatly afFecled by the religious tenets and principles of the oppos- ing parties. Had Scotland been entirely catholic, the hopes of the Stuart family would have been extremely reasonable ; but it was. at this period, divided between the presbyterians and the catholics; tlio Lowhmders being of the former sect, and the liigbianders, gen- erally speaking, of the laUer. The presbyterian?, who had gained great advantages, in the way of toleration, by the revolution, having become whigs in principle, naturally adhered to the house of Han- over, vvl)i!e the catholic Highlanders were quite as fully and as nat- uially inclined to support their native prince. Nothing could be wistr, perhaps, under these circumstances, than the sending a prince L.f the blood to command the British forces, and, as it happened, no t.iiieer cf the British army could be more popular than the dukeef i'ufnberinnd, at this very period. His royal highness joined the '.my ;it Edinburgh, not long after the battle of Falkirk, in which 'i:e English, under general Hawley, had recently sustained a check Tiie duke, indeed, had been expressly recalled Irom Flanders, to suppress tlie rebellion, which was, in no small degree, detrimental and injurious to the cause of the allies. !!• The conduct of the son of the pretender was certainly that of a brave but inconsiderate young man. Sanguine in his expecta- tions beyond what any circumstances of the case would completely i latif}, he, in more instances than one, committed himself too far, an'd at tbe very last exposed himself to a defeat, which might, at least, have been' suspended or mitigated, if not totally avoided. lie made •i stand against the king's ibrces at CuUoden, while his troops were in ;; bad condition for tighting, and v,hen it woukl oljviously have been better policy to have acted on the defensive ; to liave retired before Ids adversary, till he had led him into the more iinpractica- ble parts of the highiand.s, where all his military means would have" been crippled, and a retreat, perhaps, at least, have been re)i;lered indispensably necessary; but by risking the battle of CuUo- den, (April 16, 1,746') he lost every thing. The duke of Cumber- land gained a must decisive victory ; and so completely subdued the hopes and spirits of his young opponent, that he never afterwards joined his frie-uls, though solicited, and indeed engaged, so to do ; but wandering about the country for a considerable time, with a price of ^:30,U00 set on his head, after enduring incredible hardships and di/Ticulties, embarked for France ; and tlius terminated for ever the elrnggles of that exiled and deposed family to recover its ancient dominions. The very remarkable instances of attachment, fidelity, and pure hospitality,* by which, after the battle of Culloden, the unfortiuiate fugitive was preserved from the hands of his pursuers, MODERN HISTORY. 2T7 surpass any thing of the; Idnd recorded in history, and reflect indelihle :;re(lit on the high and disinterested feelings and principles of those wlio assisted him in his escape. 12. The most melancholy circumstance attending this rash nn- derlaking, was the necessity that arose for making examples of those who had abetted it, in order more securely to tix on the throne oi «ireat Britain the reigning lamily; who, having acquired that right in the most constitutional manner, could not be dispossessed of it, but bv an unpardonable violation of the law. Of the excesses committed by the English troops after the battle of Culloden, it is to be hoped, as indeed it has been asserted, that the accounts are exaggerated: but in the common course of justice, many persons, and soine of the highest rank, underwent the sentence of death for high treason, whose crime, through a melancholy infatuation, must in their own eyes have e.ppeared the very reverse, and whose loyalty and ;iliach- ment, under different circumstances, and with the law and constitution on their side, would have deserved the highest praise. Though many of the adherents of the pretender suffered, many of them made their escape beyond sea, and arrived safely at the diflerenl ports of the continent. No attempts have since been made by any ol the catholic descendants of the royal family of Great Britain to dis- turb the protestant succession in the house of Brunswick. 13. This illustrious house sustained a very unexpected and nie'- ancholy loss^ in the year 1,750, by the death of his royal highness the prince ot Wales, father of his late majesty ; who, in consequence of a colli caught in his gardens at Kew, died of a pleuritic disorder, ou the twentieth day of March, in the forty-fifth year of his age. He H'as a prince endowed vvilh many amiable qualities ; a munilicent patron of the arts,, a friend to merit, and sincerely attached to the in- terests of Great Britain. 14. In the course of the year 1,751,1a remarkable act \vas passed in parliament, for correcting the culerTdar, according to the Gregori- an computation. It was enacted, that the new year should begin on tlie tirst of January, and that eleven days between the second and fourteenth days of September, 1,752, should for that time be omitted, so that the day succeeding the second, should be called the fourteenth of that month. This change was on many accounts exceedingly im- portant, but to persons wholly unacqu;unled with astronomy, it ap- peared a strangely arbitrary interterence with tlie currency aiid set- tled distinctions of time. 15. Though the treaty of Aix-!a-Chapelle, in 1,748, may ])e said to have restored peace to Europe, the English and French came to no good understanding with regard to their remote settlements. The war in those parts involved the interests of the natives or set- tlers, as well as of the two courts, and scarcely seems to have fallen under the consideration of the negotiating ministers, hi the east and in the west many disputes and jealousies were raised, which though relerred to special commissioners to adjust, in no long course of time involved both countries in a fresh war, the particulars of v.hich will be found elsewhere : a war which extended to all parts of the globe, and continued beyond the reign of George H., who died sudrlenly at Kensington, in 1,760, in the 77th year of his age, and 34th of his reign. iLi. Georgell. was a prince of high integrity, honour, and vera- city, but of a warm and irritable temper, oC a wariiko disposition, and though for a long time restrained by his pacific minister, sir £76 MODEKiN iilsTOKV. Robert Walpole, iVom (akinjj any active part in the disputes of the continent, yet constantly inclined to do so, from an attachment, very natural, though unpopular amongst his British subjects, to his Ger- man dominions, tie was greatly under the intluence of his queen, while she lived, "whose mild, prudent, and conriliatins; manners," to use the words of a very impartial and judicious biographer, '• were more congenial to the character of the English nation." Queen Caroline had indeed many great and splendid virtues ; though ol most amiable and domestic habits, she was well versed in the politics of Europe, and had considerable literary attainments, which disposed her to be a friend to learned persons, particularly to many members of the church, ot which several striking and remarkable instances have been recorded, it is sutficient to mention the names of Herring, Clarke, Hoadley, Butler fSherlock, Hare, Seeker, and Pearce. She was the daughter of John Erederick, margrave of Biandenburgh Anspach, and was born in tlie year 1,683. She was married to his majesty in 1,705, and had issue two sons and five daughters. Her death, w hich cccassioned great grief to her royal consort and family, took place on the 2Uth of I\ovember, 1,733, when she was in the oolh year of her age. SECTION V. STATE OF EUROPE AT THE CONCLUSlOiN OF THE PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE, 1,748. 1. By the treaty of Aix-la-ChapcUo the house of Hanover wa3 frflectually established on the throne of Great Britain, to the entire exclusion of the Stuart family. Though the peace was not popular in Englanil, and she was supposed by many to have made too great, and in sorne instances ignominious concessions, yet it was certainly fortunate for her that the continental powers confined their views to a l>alance which did not extend to the sea ; and thereby left in her hands a force, beyond calculation superior to that of the other countries of Europe, and amounting almost to a monopoly of com- merce, credit, and wealth, so as to render her, as it were, the chief agent or principal, in all political movements, for the time to come. Her prosperity, indeed, had been on the increase, in no common de gree, from the accession ol' the Brunswick lamily. 2. Austria lost, by the treaty of 1,748, Silesia and Glatz, the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastaila, and some places in the Milanese : but she succeeded, and chielly at the expense of her allies, in the article of the succession. All Ibrmer treaties were formally recognised, which involved indeed other losses to the em- pire, if compared with the time of tfharles \ ; but the dominions of the latter were certainly too extensive, and too detached, to form a great and stable empire. Thi^^, indeed, may be said to have been the case with regard even to the reduced domains of Charles VI.; Liut his high-spirited daughter, Maria Theresa, was to the last indig- nant at the losses she had sustained. She corrected the error into which she had fallen with regard to Genoa, aixl which occasioned great commotions there, by consenting to let ih^; marquisale of Final revert to that republic, wLich had been very arbitrarily given, in the course of the war, .15 a bribe to the king of Sardinia, and made a free port, to the evident disadvantage of the Genoese, who had MODEHN HISTORY. 279 originally purchased it for a valuable consideration, under the guar- antee of Great Britain. o. Prussia gained, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, Silesia, and the county of Giatz, which were guaranteed to her by all the con- tracting powers; and by this accession of territory she was raised into the condition of a power capable of entering into the field ol action, as a rival of Austria ; which might have been foseseen, when Leopold erected it into a kingdom, for the express purpose of coun- terbalancing the power of France. As it was, the unity of the em- pire seemed to be dissolved, and a door set open to future revolutions m the Germanic body. The character and subsequent achievements of Frederick II. contributed greatly to the aggrandizement of his do- minions. He was active, bold, fond of glory, and indefatigable. He was brave in the field, and wise in the cabinet. Desirous of shininp' in all that he undertook, he was indeflitigable in keeping his army constantly ready for all emergencies, and in repairing the damages to which his dominions had been subjected by his ambition. He drew to him many eminent persons of all countries, of whose society he pretended to be ibnd ; but he oftentimes showed himself to be a most merciless tyrant, a blunderer in political economy, aid, if not quite an atheist, very lax in his principles of religion. 4. Holland lost much by the peace, and gained nothing. Some, iinieed, doubted whether she did not greatly endanger her indepen- dence^ by consenting to make the stadtholdership hereditary in the house ol Orange, and that in favour of the female as well as male heii-s of the family : but others conceived that this approach to me- narchical government greatly strengthened the republic ; and it would indeed seem that it had declined much in power and consequence, from the very period when that office was abolished, in the preced- ing century. One precaution was adopted with regard to the female heirs to the Stadtholdership : they were precluded from marrying any king, or elector of the empire ; a precaution which there were, in the history of Europe, sufficient reasons to justify. 5. Simin obtained, for two branches of her royal family, the king- dom of Naples, and the duchies of Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla: the latter to revert to Austria, that is, Parma and Guastalla, and Pla- centia to vSardinia, should the new duke, don Phifip, die without issue, or succeed to either of' the kingdoms of Spain or Naples. But the power of Spain was not much increased, either by land or sea. On the latter, indeed, the English had an overwhelming superiority; and, on land, though her armies were brave, they were generally ill conducted, and her government too bad to render her respectable in the eyes of Europe. Ferdinand VI., indeed, tlie successor of PhiUp, who came to the throne just before the conclusion of the treaty, applied himself, with no small degree of credit, to retrieve the character of the nation. 6. Austria, by seeking an alliance with Russia^ had introduced the latter power into the southern states of Europe, and given her consid- erable weight and consequence, as a counterbalance to her great rival, France. Scarcely known at the commencement of the century, the movement impressed unon this mighty empire by the extraor- dinary genius and vigour of Peter the first, had carried her forward, with a rapid progression; so that, by the middle of the century, she might justly be regarded as amongst the most considerable powers of Europe. Her armies were, perhaps, more than semi-barbarous; bul they were brave, indefatigable, hardy, ano supported by the reli- 2ai) MOJJERxX HISTORY. eious principle of prerlestination ; tlie foundation of a desperate kind or liardihood, seldom to be resisted. Her Internal resource' were not ;u all considerable, bnt they were daily iin[)rovii)^. \\ Inn Peter the lirst came to the crown, her revenues amounted lo «ix millions ofrou[)les; in 1,748 they were nearly qnadriipled. 'I'lins rapidly advancing, with one arm reaching lo the Baltic, iaid the other to the Black sea, it was very obvious to discern that when, l)y good management, her gigantic body should be. duly invigorated, she had every chance of becoming a most formidable power. Already had she shown herself such, to a great degree, in the intlu- cnce she had acquired in Sweden, Dennijuk, and Poland ; in her commercial treaties with England, her alliance with Austria, and her wars with the Turks. Her resources and means of improvement were great ; rivers not only navigable during the summer, but (hning the winter also, affording, by meflns oi' sledges, every opportunity of a quick and easy transport of all sorts ot commercial goods ; the greater part of her southern provinces fertile, and requiring little culture ; mines of gold, iron, and copper: great quantities ol"timl)er, pitch, tar, and hemp. She had not yet learned to manufacture her owi^, productions, or Jo export them in her own ships, and ccr.sc- quently to make the most of them: but she was in tne way to learn such arts, and when once attained, she had the fairest prospects of acquiring a decided superiority, not only in the Baltic, and White sea, l)ut on the Black sea and Caspian. 7. Turkey, at the middle of the eighteenth century, was compar- atively a gainer by the wars in which she had been engaged. She had taken the Morca from .the Venetians, recovered from Austria Belgrade, Servia, and some provinces of Transylvania and VVallachia, and had hitherto baffled the attempts of Russia, to get absolute pos- session of the Crimea, and of the mouths of the Danube. S. France obtained little in point of extent by the treaty of Aix- la-Chapelle, but tliat little was of extreme importance. The posses- sion of Lorraine, in addition to Alsace, and several strong forts on the Rhine, slrenglbened and completed, in the most perfect manner, her eastern frontier, and placed her in a most conunanding attitude w ith regard to the German states. During the administration ol cardinal Fleury, which lasted till the year 1,743, her marine had been de- plorably neglected, while the English had been able to enrich them- sel\ es at the expense of the French, particularly by intercepting many valuable convoys, and capturing many ships of her reduced navy. 9.' An author of reputation has proposed to throw the different European states, at the conclusion of the peace of 1,748, into the four tol lowing classes : — 1. Those that having armies, fleets, money, and territorial resour se!--, could make war without foreign alliances. Such were England and France. 2. Those that with considerable and poAverful armies, were de- pendent on foreign resources. Austria, Prussia, and Russia. 3. Those that could not engage in war, but in league with other states, subsidized by tliem, and always regarded in the liglit of sec- ondary powers by the large ones. Portugal, Sardinia, Svveden, Denmark. 4. Such as were intcre>ted in maintaining themselves in the same Qontlition, and free from the encroachment of others. Switzerland, Genoa, Venice, and the German slates. Holland, Spain, and Naples, being omitted in the above account, MODERN HISTORY. 231 might reasonably be thrown into a fifth class, as countries generally so connected with England, France, and Austria, as to be constantly involved in every war aiTecting either of those countries. SECTION VI. OF THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR, 1,775—1,762. 1. TiiouuH for some short time after the conclusion of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1,748, England and France seemed to enjoy, in no common degree, the blessings of peace, and to be upon a foot- ing of perfect amity with each other, yet it would appear thnt the seeds of a future vvar were sown in the very circumstances of that convention. England was left in possession ol such a preponderating force at sea, while the French marine, through the parsimony or in- attention of cardinal Fleury, had fallen into so low a state of depres- sion, that it is not to be wondered that all who were interested about the latter, should have their minds tilled with jealousy and resentment. This was soon manifested, not only b}" the vigorous attempts made at this time to restore the marine of France, but in the projects formed for dispossessing the English of their principal settlements in the East Indies and America ; a blow which might have been far more fatal to the English nation, than any leagues or confederacies in favour of the pretender. To secure the co-operation and support of Spain iu these designs, France had endeavoured, in the year 1,753, to draw the lat- ter into a family compact, which, though afterwards brought about, was at this time succes=:fully frustrated, by the extraordinary care and vigilance of the British minister at Madrid. 2. The peace established in Europe in 1,748, can scarcely be said to have ever been eifectually extended to Asia and America. The conquests on each side indeed had been relinquished and surrendered by that treaty, but in a most negligent manner with respt'ct to limits and boundaries ; and in each of those distant settlements, France at that time happened to have able and enterprising servants, who thought they saw, in their respective governments, such menus of aggrandizing themselves and their country, and of thwarting the British interest, as wer« not to be overlooked or neglected. In the East Indies very extraordinary attempts were made to reduce flit whole peninsula of India Proper, in short, the whole Mogul empire, under the dominion of France, by an artlul interlei-ence iu the a}> pointment of the governors of kingdoms and provinces, the Souhak- dars^jYabubs, and Rujalis. The pukver of the mogul had been irrevoca- bly shaken by ICouli-lvhan, in 1,738, from which time the viceroys and other suijordinate governors had slighted his authority, and, in a greater or less degree, become independent. The interference of the French was calculated to throw things into confusion, by dispos- sessing those who were adverse to them of their governments and territories, and thus compelling them. ;is it were, to seek succour Irom the English ; which uitim itely brought the tvvo rival nations of Eu- rope into a state of hostility, not as avowed principals, but as the auxiliaries of the different native princes or nabobs. In no long course of time, things took a turn entirely in iavour of the English and their allies; the French \yere baffled in all their projects, every place they possessed taken I'rom them, a suspension of arms agreed upon, in 1,754. and t.he French governor, Dupleix, the ambitious and A a 2 :»6 £82 MODERN HISTORY. en(erprii«ing author and fomenter of nil tho troubles, but who had Wen ill-supported by his government al home, recalled from India. 3. It \vas at this period that the celebrated Mr. Clive, a'tervni-rls lord Clive, lirst dislingiiished himseiti who iiad not only di-f^-nmi^ ' enough to see through and detect all the arlilices an«l de:*ignsof Dupleix, but, though not brought up to the military proli-f-!-i(in,?o<>u displayed such skill and courage in conducting the operations oi lue army, as speedily established his lame, and laid the loundation tor his I'utuie elevaliouand glory. 4. hi America, the boundaries of the ceded provinces not having Iteen justly delined in the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, the French hud formed a design of connecting, l)y a chain of Ibits, their two distant colonies of Canada and Louisiana, and to confine the Englisli entirely within that tract of country which lies between the Alleghany and .\palachian mountains and the sea. No part of this design could be Carried on without manifest encroachment on territories previously, either by agreement, settlement, or implication, appropriated to others! Where the boundaries were not precisely delined, all that was not English or French, belonged to the native tribes, and the only policy that the European colonists had to observe, was to conciliate the friendship, or resist the attacks of these I'crocious neighbo'urs. But the scheme the French liad in agitation threatened to be extremely injurious to Mie English colonists ; givhig them, in case of war, a fron- tier of fifteen hundred miles to defend, not merely against a nice of savages, as heretolbre, but against savages supported t)y disci[)lined troops, and c'^nductcd Ijy French othcers. 5. it was not pos-ible tor J'".ngland long to contemplate these ag- gressions and projects without interfering ; but her means of resisting them xvere nr t equal to those by w liich the French were enableil to carry them i"to execution. The English colonies were notoriously divided by distinct views and interests ; had many disagreements and dilVereuces among themselves, which seemed, (or some time at least totally to prevent their acting in concert, however necessary to their best interests. The French depended on no such precarious sujjport, but were united both in their objfct and openitions. Hos- tilities, howeier, did not actually commence till the year 1,755, from which period the contest in North America was carried on with various suc'ess, between the French and English, severally assisted By dilierent tril^es df Indians ; in the comse of which, it is niore thtin probable, that sad acts of cruelty may have been perpetrated, and ()oth Jiations have been to blame in some particulars; but it is cer- tainly remarkable, that each party stands charged exclusively with such atrocities by the historians of die adverse side ; and wliili'. the English writers attribute the whole war to the intrigues and en- croachments of the French, the latter as confidently ascriiie it to the cupidity and aggressions of the English. It is very certahi, however, that, before the war actually commenced, the French court mide such strong but insinceie professions of amity, and a desire nf peace, as to deceive its own minister at the court of St. Jami-s's, .M. de Mirepoix, who Jelt himself so ill-treated in iieing made the tnol of 3Jcli duplicity and dissimulation, as to cause hini to re,j;ur to l*aris, to re.ronslrate with the adhiinislration who had so cajoled him. It IS ner.f>*,sHry to mention these things, where historicu> truth is the great ob)ect in view. b. At ihe commencement of this contest between France and England, the former seoms to have been most succesrful on land : MODERN HISTORY. 28y but the latter, and to a much greater degree, at sea. Before the end of the first year of the war, no less than three hundred French merchant vessels, some of them extremely rich, with eight thousand sailors, being brought into the English ports; and while the rate of insurance in the latter country continued as usual, in France it quickly rose to 30 per cent., a pretty strong indication of the com- paralive irileriority of the latter, as far as regarded her marine, and the safely of her navigation. 7. But it was soon found expedient by one, if not by both parties, to divert the attention from colonial to continental objects ; a meas- ure which, as in a fo'mer i. /stance, the French writers ascribe entirely to England, and the English writers as conlidently to France ; but it "is sutficienlly clear that the latter first entertained views upon the electonite of Hanover, which gave that turn to the war in gen- eral. Considering what had passed in the preceding struggle upon the continent, nothing could be more strange than the conduct of the different states of Europe on this particular occasion. Instead of rect;iving assistance from the empress queen, whose cause England had so long and so magnanimously supported, and who was bound by treaty to contribute her aid in case of attack, Maria Theresa evaded the applications made to her by the court of St. James's, (perhaps in rather too high and peremptory a tone,) on the pretence tbat the war between France and England had begun in America; and she applieo nerself with peculiar assiduity to recover, through tlie aid of Russia, the provinces of Silesia and Glatz, which had been ceded to the Prussian monarch. 8. It has been conjectured that her imperial majesty had been greatly offended at the preliminaries of peace, in 1,748, having been signetl by England without her approbation, a:«l that she was cipahle of carrying her resentmcnt'so far as voluntas Hy to throw hirself into the arms of France, without further con; "deration ,» while the French king, whose strange coui-so of life had been too openly ridiculed by the king of Pruesia, foolishly suifered himself to be cajoled into an alliance vvith Austria, after three hundred years v ♦" warliire. against i»is tormer ac'ive and powerful ally ; thereby break* ing through the wise system of Richelieu, and helping to raise the very power, of whose greatness France had the most reason to be jealous; but Maria Theresa, and her minister, prince Kaunitz, to pi'oduce this great change in the policy of France, had stooped to ll itter and conciliate the king's mistress, the marchioness ot Pom- pjidour. y. Fortunately for England, however, the conduct of these two courts quickly determined the king of Prn-sia to tbrm an alliance witii the elector of Hanover; to stifle and forget all former differ- ences and animosities, and peremptorily to resist the entrance of for- eign troops into Germany; a measure which, though first directed against Russia, subsidized by England, equally applied to France. \n alliance between the kings of Great Britain and Prussia had long been contemplated by some of the ablest statesmen of the former couf try, as the most natural and wisest connexion that could be ibrmed to cotmteract the projects and power of Fnince. Hitherto strong personal jealousies ajid ill-will on the part of the two sove- reigns had prevented any such union, and now it was brought about by accident; much more, however, to the advantage of Prussia than of Great Britain. It had been proposed in England, to subsidize Rusua, but the negotiations of the former with the king of Pruswa, 2tf4 MODERN HISTORY. kvhom the czarina personally disliked, produced a close but unex- pected union of Russia, Austria, and France ; not so much against England, perhaps, as against Prussia, nor yet so much against the kingdom of Prussia as against the king himself. 10. Such was the commencement of whit has been termed the 'seven years' war. It seemed soon to bo forgotten that it was origin- ally a maritime or colonial war. The whole vengeance of France and Austria, in 1,757, was directed against the king of Prussia, and electorate of Hanover. The Prussian monarch, relying on his well- organized army and abundant treasury, despised the powerful com- bination against him, and commenced the war in a most imposing, though precipitate manner, by dispossessing, at the very outset, tlifc king of Poland, elector of Saxony, in alliance with Austria, of hi» capital, of his whole army, and of his electoral dominions, in a way little creditable to his character, notwithstanding the strong political motives alleged in his subsequent manifestoes. The situation ol France, by this sudden manoeuvre, was certainly rendered most ex- traordinary. At the commencement of the former war, she had done her utmost to dethrone Augustus, king of Poland, in favourof Stanislaus, whose daughter had married the French king ; and she had now just as strong and urgent a reason to assist in restoring Au- gustus to his hereditary dominions, the daughter of the latter being married to the dauphin, and the life of the dauphiness having been endangered by the intelligence received of the rigorous treatment of her royal parents. 1 1 . It was during the seven years' war, that Frederic of Prussia acquired that glory in the field which has rendered his reign so conspicuous and remarkable. The intended victim, as he had great reason to suppose, of an overwhelming confederacy of crowned heads, he lost no time in delending himself against their attacks, by occupying the territories of those who threatened him, so suddenly and arbitrarily indeed, with regard to Saxony, as to give otiience to the greater pant of Europe; but generally contending with surprising success against superior armies, though incessiuiHy summoned from one field of battle to another, by the numerous and divided attacks of his opponents : nor was there one of all the powers that menaced bin., whom he did not tind means to humble, and in some instances punish most severely, at first, with an impetuosity bordering upon rashness; afterwards, by more wary and circumspect proceedings. In Silesia, Saxony, Brandenbourg, Hanover, and Wcstplialia, he had to contend with the armies of the empire, Austria, Russia, Sweden, France, and Saxony : 2tX),(X)0 men are supposed to have fallen annually in these campaigns. Though often worsted, (as must be the case, where no consideration of superior numbers is allowed to operate as a check,) his great genius was never more manifested, than in the quick reparation of sucn reverses. Often did his situation appear perfectly desperate, both to friends and enemies, yet as often did he suddenly succeed in some new efl'ort, and in extricating himself from disasters which threatened entirely to overwhelm him; being all the while under the ban of the empire, in virtue of a decree of the aulic council, which bound every German circle, in obedience to the imperial orders, to assist in depriving him of his possessions, dignities, and prerogatives. The rapidity of his motions was beyond all example ; neither danger nor misfortune could dishearten him ; and had his moderation been but equal to his courage, had he, in all cases, been m humaDe as he was brave, his military character wouki have MODERN HISTORY. 286 stood higher, perhaps, than that of any other commander, ancient or mofiern. 12. The army, it must be acknowledged, for some time afforded but iittis a!itrary a desijjii as was ever entertained against an independent or neutral potentate, and tliut on tiie sole ground of his connexion with Eng- land at the moment; to whose resentment he would of course have been exposed, hail he tamely submitted to the tyrannical demands of Fr.mce and Spain. In either case, he seemed to be threatened with ruin and destruction, had things taken a diflerent turn, from what actually came to pass. li). The hostilities into winch Great Britain was driven by this unprovoked attack upon Portugal, as well as by the threatening aspect and spirit of ibe famiiy coinpacU v/hich seemed to undo all that had been accomplished by the succession war, were in every instance crowned with success ; so that in both hemispheres, her arms may be said to have been victorious, and her triumph complete ; and Spain had great cause to rue her short concern in the war, into which she had been cajoled by France, and which operated as fully to the disappointment of the latter power, hi the mean while, the king of Prussia, who had been brought to the very verge of ruin, according to his own statement and confession, was most unexpect- edly relieved by surprising changes in the Russian councils, through the demise of Elizalieth, and accession of Peter III., whose reign in- deed was too short to enable him to render any real assistance to the king of Prussia, in the tieid, which might have been expected from the enthusiastic admiration with which his actions were beheld by the Russian monarch. But this weak, though benign prince, in consequence of his too extensive plans of reform, and a difference with his empress, was soon removed ; and though his successor and consort, Catherine the second, did not by any means pay the same court to Frederic, yet her opposition to him was very slight, and soon terminated by a treaty of peace, in which she was followed by Sweden. 20. All these thing.? evidently tended towards a general peace, if England, who had certainly been the most successful of all the pow- ers concerned, could be brought to consent to be stopped in her career of victory and triumph. A change of ministry had, however, laid the foundation for such measures. Mr. Pitt, who was for the continuance of the war, on some private information, as it has been tiiought, of the progress and terms of the family compact, had re- signed soon after the demise of the king, George II. ; and lord Bute, who owed his place and power as minister, much more to the per- sonal good-will and attachment of the new king, than to the voice and favour of the people, tbreseeing that it might be diflicult for him to raise either money or men for the prosecution of the war, (bounties for recruits, in particular, having risen to an unexampled height,) and having against him many important individuals of both parties, entered freely into negotiations with France, which were brought to an issue by the peace of Paris, (or Fontainebleau,) 1,763. 21. This treaty vvas not popular in England, though, undoubtedly, she reaped the benefit of many remarkable concessions, particularly m America, where she acquired, not only the whole province of Canada, but part of Louisiana ; the junction of which two distant French settlements, to the embarrassment, and possibly, total subjec- tion of the English colonies, had been the express occasion of tha war; but by many persons it was thought, and perhaps with great reason, that England had surrendered too much, considering the high situatioti in which she stood, and the advantages that micht 588 MODERN HISTORY. have been reaped by a little longer continuance of the war; an^l in what she both surrendered and retained, an ill and impolitic seltc- tion, it was alleged, had been made of posts and settlements. The treaty of Hubertsburg, by which the war was terminated between Austria and Prussia in the same year, 1,763, restored matters, in re- gard to those two powers, exactly to their former state, after seven most destructive and expensive campaigns ! Nothing of territory y\-as lost and nothing gained by either party. England, undoubtedly, »vas left in the highest state of prosperity at the conclusion of these two treaties. Her navy unimparcd, or liither augmented at the ex- pense of the navy of France ; her commerce extending from one extremity of the globe to the other, with an accession of important settlements ceded to her by France in Asia, Africa, and America. SECTION VII. FROM THE ACCESSION OF GEORGE III. ^,'160, TO THE COM MENCEMENT OF THE DISPUTES WITH AMERICA, 1,764. 1. Though a new enemy, for a very short lime, was added to th« list of those who were contending with England and her allies when George the second died, liy the accessi-^n of Spain to ths Jfliinily compact^ and continental confederacy, in 1,761, yet the sevei. years'' war, through the exhauslion of the allies of Ausli'ia, pr.r ticularly the Saxons, Poles, and French, may be said to have beer, drawing to a conclusion, when George 111. ascendoil the throne oi Great Britain, on the demise of his grandfather, October 25, 1,760. For the termination of that war, see Sect. V}. 2. Much notice was taken of a passage in the king's (irst speech tn his parliament, in which he expressed the glory he felt in havi'ig been born and educated in Britain ; and though sc'me have pretended to see in it, a retlection on his royal predecessors, yet it was surely wise in the lirst sovereign of the house of Hanover, who stood clear of foreitjn manners, and foreign partialities, so to bespeak the love and attachment of bis subjects. It is true, indeed, that England had prospered in no common degree from the first accession of that illustrious family, but it cannot be denied, that a distaste of foreigu manners, as well as a jealousy of foreign partialities, had occasionally interrupted the proceedings of government, and were at all events calculated to keep up, in the minds of the disaflected, a remembrance of the breach that had been made in the succession to the throne. Fourteen years having passed since any attempt had been made to restore the Stuart family, and the conditi that the sovereign should be a native of the land he ruled. 3. In addition to this tie upon his subjects, every thing seemed to conspire, as lar as regarded the character, manners, and disposition of the young king, to secure to him the attachment of his people , and to give hopes of a quiet and tranquil reign. One of the very firet acts of which war, calculated to impress the idea of his being a true friend t9 the liberty of the subject, by rendering the judges independent of the crown. His majesty was married, soon after his accession, to the princess Charlotte oF Mecklenburgh Strelitz, with iMODERN HISTORY. 28& whom he was crowned at Westminster, on the 22d day of Septem- her, 1,7G1. 4. liouever promi>!ing the appearances holh of external and in- tci'ii.il tranqiiilhly niiglit he, at the commencement of the new rc'ign, it was not long hcfore the nation hecame agitated hy party disputes and diflerences, of no small importance. In 1,762, a ques- ti. u arose, which tliongh it led to very distressing tumults, teiminat- ed in the relief of the subject from an arbitrary process, exceedingly rc'iiugnant to the spirit of the constitution, and the great charter of /Mitish liberty. General warrants, and the seizure of private papers wiihont suliicient necessity, the legality of which had been disputed, in the case of Mr. Wilkes," member I'ur Aiiesbury, during which that gentlemen displayed considerable ibrtitnde, though certainly with great f.dUire of respect towards the crown, were declared" to be illegal by a solemn decree of parlianient, 1,765, nor has any attempt hecti since made to reinvest tlie government with so dangerous and formidable u power. The question of general warrants, however, v"as not the only osie in v. hich Mr. WiHies appeared ;iS the champion ol' the'peopie'shberties. Being elected for Middlesex, after havii'g been expelled the house, lie claimed his seat, in defiance of the res- ohitjoiis of parliament, but was not allowed to sit. Five years after wi.nls, ho was permitted again to enter the house of commons ; but in ibis instance the parliament mahitained its power of declaring a Pisiicular individual disqualitied, against the decision of a majority of electors : a curious point as anecling the constitution, and the ei'xsive franchise. 5. Though the courts of Vienna, France, and Prussia, had cause to be, lired oj" the wr.r. in wJiicJi they had hcvM engaged since the year \{ln'>. it i^ cei-Uii;) ilipt iM!:;:;ii!(l w.i- in :i s: i =• to Luniiiu;.' it, espcclal- i_v I'i s/a, when the treaty el' i'lu'js, tir i'otiliuiiflileai;. uas (■eiiciuded, ill 1,76;5. .As long ;is Mr." Put cnjiiiinird a tiK'nihor ot'adininislration, tiie uai- hail been carried on \ i.mu i-i!-,;, , ;;nd liad l;cc(!mc exceeding- ly ['('Pillar, iy,n:iliei: '•! ;':,,i great niiirisk:r. in 1,761, and tlie ai^i- iiilirnMU ft' lord bnte, wiifsc distrust of his own abilities to ci niir.i:,' j,. di-; : - vd hini to listen to tlic; ovci'iurL-s ej' I' ranee, >;rcat (ii-ii,r.i;u';i.^ ;.ii ,-■. 'I'he minister was suspected of harbouring in his breast me mu-t despotic piinciples, and of having inculcated the same into the mind of his sovereign, while yet a youth. He was ■■supposed to possess too exclusive an inlluence in that quarter; and though, in private life, a most respectable nobleman, of great worth and probity, learning, and talents, his public measures were the contitii'.al ilienie of obloquy and abuse. ii;ui Mr. Pitt continued ni oilice. it is nioro tiian probanie tiiat the allies nugiit have gained giL'aier advaiitageM wu the conluient, Jiiui tlic Sr.aniard.s been more SViMVlv pnnislifd for tlieir ii'iri-l'r'r^ in'o : s() il.at tiie })afilic moas- Ui-.-s of Ibo new iTiiiii-<,er, :!;■.■,■. e, en !.''u ii-' (ii>|>leasu'-e, if not t!ie (onlompt, a< \^eil ef iii^ invcigiied greiUiv against the prevail- ing irdhjence of the noble earl at this period, in the cabinet andcoun- ■:iis ijl Great Britain. 6. The riots and tumults excited by t'le proceedings against Mr. Uiila;s, and the extro!n3 ui.i'.oiJJilid'ily ol" lord i^ute, contributed to ■rvii-Uii the lirst years of the reign of (Jtorge HI. exceetlingly nuqui- ■i, and to involve ids m -.jest y in many unjdeasant dillicniiies, Irorn flu; addresses, petitions, ami I'cmonstrances, winch iiowed in upon liim, often couched in such language as it was impossible not to re- D b 37 290 MODERN HISTOllY, sent, and as often insinuating what, perhaps, was not founded on truth: for it Las M<-ver yet Iteen clearly ascii'liiiiud \V,;\\ the puhiic actually .surtl.'re(l from any improper secret iutlueuce, or ihal llie measures of lord Bute, with regard to the peace of Pari-, all tliiui/i? considered, were iinpolilic or unwise. 'J'he woist feature in liii:? peace, wit!) regard to t^ugland, seems to have been, ih^' I'.ulure to guard against tlie etfects, in future, of [\ni Jaiuily cninj act. width was left in lull force. Mr. I'ilt had his eye ooustanliy upon tiiis and, had tie continued in power, woidd, no douht, have ronlinued ibe war with si)jrit anfl perseverance : this great niliiisler had retiifd undi^grace(l: he received a pension indeed lor himself, and a )jeer- aj;e for his lady. His politics, to the day of his death, continued widely dhferent from those of lord Bute, and were constanllv more populir: hut the great lindt of the latter seems to have be«'n, that he engageil in public business, contrary to the bent of his own dispo- sition, and was too SiMi-^ible of his uni)opnlarity, lo unib'rlalve any nuva.-^nre thai required much public support. Ail he di 1, iber.'fore, i-ecmcd to be managed in the "way of private iniluence, cal)al, and inl'igtie. 7. In addition to the addresses and remonstrances alluded to in t!ie foregoing section, the popular fervour and agitalion received cousid- p,rable encouragement from the letters of an anonymous writer, never yet discovered, — a writer who displayed such an extraoi\!i- nary knowledge of the proceedings of the court and cabinet, and had tiie power of expressing himself in a style so vigorous, striking, an 1 keenly satirical, as lo demand the attention of all paribus, ami confound the majority ol those whom he peisonaily attacked. Hut Uie extreme severity of a conceal(!d and unknown accuser, and the gross personalities in which he often indulged, not sparing m.ijesty itsdl". threw a cloiid over his writings, which can never be done away, lo the satisfaction of any candid or liberal nund. Though the moiilion of these celebrated letters is rather anticipated in this ()lace, as they dM not publicly appear till the year l,7i)U, yet, as they |)ar- ticularly relate to the foregoing tmnsaclions, and state of ali'drs in the early years of ihe reign of George 111., and long preceded the actual cotrimencement of the war with America, ihe tii'st authors of which he seemed disposed to screen, a better opportmuty of intrt> ducing the subject might scarcely be iound. The many fruitless, but very curious attempts that have been made, at vaiious times, to dis- cover the real author, have contributed, in addition to the extr.iordi- nary character of the work itself, and llie political questions di-cuss- ed in it, to prevent its ever sinking into oblivion. The letters ot Junitis, wnU all their blemishes, will probably nev(U' fail to find a pbice in the libraries of the British scholar, and British statesman. B. in the prosecution of this work, it should also be noticed, that a great constitv;*ional point came under discussion, namely, whether, in cases of libel, the jury were judges of the luzc, as weil as of the fad. In most other cases, no such dilHcnlly seemed lo occur. In cases ot" murder, not only the act of killing, but the murderous iti- teiit, was submitted to the decision of the jiiry ; and in trials lor felony of every description, the course was the same. Lord Manslidd. in this case,* insisted that the jury had only to decide on the fact of f)ublication, and that the court was to deterndne upon IIil- law of ibel. This has generally been disputed by juries; and they h.ive ibund ways of evading the diilicnily, by either themselves releiring the law to the jinlge, by a special verdict, or by pronouncing a gen- MODEJiN HISTORY. 291 eral ncqnittnl. Unfnrtunntoly, lilicis are of (hat description as con !:t;(iilly to exrito llm^c j(>;ilousics and suspicions, tVi)m Nviiicli ovory com i. o|" jiisiice should he lice. '1 iiey all'ect, also, Uvo ol' (lie higli- r^l privih^ges dC Ln^ilishnien, — ti e riglit oi" private jiidgrnctit, and Ihc lilii'ity of the press. In tlie rase ot" Junius, the point in dispute \\as liy no means so sellled as to < h^ iatc tulure dilferences. 9. 'Fhe year 1,76 lis memor;il ie ior the conimencernent of tlie dispute iset'ween Great Jhilain aid her American colonies; litil as ilic hi. The situation of America rendered these questions the more important ami alarming to the mother countiy, in case of opposition, ,is liaviiig been originally peopled I'rom Europe, in a great measure, by refugees, exiles, and persons adverse to the governments, which they had left, both in church and state, and well inclined, probably, to 392 MODERN iiiSTORV. assort a republican independence. Their legislative assemblies were already of the jiopnlar cast, and their iefliiii^s ;ind spirits nccon': ' ) It must also be admitted, (hat upon (he vei) ground ol i;(xi;i:i.;i"5 > , other aids, they had much to ailcj^e in rcsj eel el' their l;ti;.,(!'. i;;i returns to England, in taking her manui'ar.iuies, and having a.•;M^u•^! her in the conquest of Canada. Riost unrortunalely, the \eiy gr;.r,is uhich had been made by their assemblies, in aid oi" i.ngland. during the last war, were alleged as an argument (a nicst irrilaiing ( m-, uiT- doubtedly,) of their ability to pay any imposts the parliament u.ij^l.l choose to lay upon them. 4. As the rainistry had decided hastily upon the general questid-, they set^m also to have suffiired themselves to he piecij italed inui some of the worst measures they could have adopted to re ncier iluir novel demands palatable. Their very first tax, imposed I y ti;til,le, as to include some of the first persons of the iralion, foth in raidv ancl importance. The debates in both houses ^vere violent, Lut the topics discussed, in every point of view, interesting. The frieniis ot the Americans, if it may be proper now to cailthem so, libtained ;^ swayed, for a very short period, the helm of governnient. in June, 1,765, the Grenville administration was dismissed, and a new one, at the head of which was placed the marcpiis of Rockingham, came into power, through the mediation of the duke of C'umhenand. They continued in otfice, however, for little more than one y»'ar; but in that short space of time, the stami>act, which had been ; o ill received in America, was tbrmally repealed. 6. But the grand question relatnig to the right of taxation wa? by no means determined by this nieasure : a declaratory act was particularly passed at the same time, for maintaining the crnstiiu- tionai authority" of Great Britian, in "all cases \vhatsoever;''' and though there was certainly no design, in those who j^nnioted the repeal, to act upon this authority, by estahlishing any other tax of a similar kind, yet the colonists were prepared, as niuchase\er, to dispute the principle, as far as it regarded taxation ; and their courage and confidence at this time stood high, in consequence oi the importance which had been given to them in the last uar, and their emancipation from all dread of the French and Sj.aniards, I y the cession of Canada and the Floridas. In the colony ol' \ irginia the right of taxation was voted to jest entirely in the king, or his representative, and the general assembly of the colony. '1 his was, undoubtedly, the usual course of tilings; and in this way sul.sidie.*; to a considerable amount had been granted to the crown. This prece- dent was soon followed by others of the legislative bodies, uud adopted in the general congress of JSew York, 1,765. 7. It was not pretended that the Americans paid «o taxes; but a distinction was now set up, which there had heen no occasion to iiisiBt upon before. To external taxation, through the op< vation of MODEUN HISTORY. -i ;.'; r,iw>i t.i ti:i'!e i'n(\ nnvifjalion, (Miarlod hi liie molhfr country, they Wcf- vviilin;^ lo vi»-l(l sulirni-i^iod ; tlioy li:iniio, or sM[)|)orliiig osiitl»ii>hnu'nls, \\ci-e. i -i I lo bt> very (iiir.MTiitly ciivumshiiuvN!. T;ixes oT liiN nature ■V 'V" cou-ilcu'.-ii as hoiu;^, in iho ve'ry ian:^ua'ge of parliiuiiciit il-tlil jj'vv, MX'] £^raiiti. iSone. thereiorp, it was urged, could give (he 'i.),i-y ol" America Imt tiu^ people of America thcinsi'ives. ii" lliey (• lo-^c to make «ucii grant?, tliey mighl receive a legislative sitnction. a» ii iMig;.!i)d; hu! iegisliition and taxation were distinct tilings. Tax:- a.i'jn, ac^'.opJi'ig to the spii'il ot" the English consiilution, implving consent:.' direct or by repr<'senfalioii. cfnid net nfi""- ■-■ i-' ■-.■..'-.■.id eiilif.i" legal or jist. Local ci; -m,:. i ; u: \.i" Tf^nration of America, in ti'.,- llriii-Mi j.irii-i! ; an:! a s'i|)t)OS.Ml vii'lu'il r.^^ji^os^'nialio;! vv.is m ,, - .., ■ ^i. . .v. The reprr'sci.iati\-i-d of L'::!";!:'!!.!, in ta\in : ..i ;,■,-. i;; v ■,; :; :; -,^;.s also; btit tiiiv conld nnt !,<■ liie c;i>e in rf^:ir,l i- ;;,: ■;:. ,.ii m,;, -,-,. H. .Such Nveie s.nnf ol' the strongest r; ■ ; ■ > ■;! against tlie measure in general : !>'i!. ;.- ihe right ol !;• . ':■.• .! not been ex- pressly given up by u'ly I'^t ;;■, !'ngi;irul,but r:! : •; -;-!;■('. upon in the declar itory act, no conci'ssion short of this seeaied .ikeiy to do good, 'i'he stamp-act hail causHJ aa irritation, which no qual'Jied n-peal could alia\ -. i e,;M'n 1 I xaiion was notonly resisted as an encroachment on e.siat)lisl. .. i.;',:.: ;ii.d usage.*, but, in resentment o!" such wrongs, attempts sv ;. i:. ,]■,.. hinder the further operation even of exter- nal layaiion. Aon-imijortalion, i\nd non-consumption agreement' V:->re soon entered iiito, and a.s^ociations ibrmed to methodise and l^so'i-l.ite the oppn-itinn to 'nnemmciit. \ resolution had been passed \vhien loi' 1 - lug to desist i'rom all tax-ation, except ;r any one ot' the colonial assembii; ■ . ; ; , as ;> revenue, lo be appropriated i)y paruaiucnt; but this ha-ii-;'..;| \vli<--l !;:.;• in !;.),,;:: i.';!'' ■ >\asn0i in the vie\v (fi' i;i ',.•.,; :i; ; -;,;,, i' the question, or even p ■ - :M ,!- ;., ,, ;■:■ r.,.-. i., y would have tieen more : ; i^iresses to ilie king and piirliariient, on Viirious oc'- .'inmencement of the dispute, must have been I'ailac; -, pitch of dissimulation, if they ha-d do- termined ;i;;,ii;.-t ail i. (wnprofuise I'roni the very beginning; but, in- deed, the remonstrances and complaints of General Washington, on tlie ill state of his army, and total want of many essential i^equisites, ;;f coercion was r. - . illegal :.i ilorv proposiljnn r,., . . a prool il us a pledge of victory ai ul success to ill- 294 MODERN HISTORY. on first taking the cnmman(!, seom clearly to prove thnt they were driven to assoj't their indejienilence by the conrse oftnings; a larg« portion of their feliow-sii'iitcts and countrymen on both sides oi* the Atlaniif, jndjjcd them to be oppressed, and thus gave a character to liicir opposition u hich could not very creditably be tbrreited. Upon tiie whole it may be considered probable that some of the most prominent and active leados of the revolution had very early con- reived tb.e design of establishing the independence of their country ; but that the mass of tlie people in the colonies, h-ad no such inten- tion until alter their lirst successes. 11. I iosiililies did not actually commence till the year 1,775, ten years tivnn the lirst passing of the stamp-act. In a short time alter ihe pa>sing of that act, it was repealed, as has been stated ; but in 1.7tJ7 the prt'JM't of taxing America was revived by Mr. Charles rownshetid, and from that period to the commencement of the wi.r, l)olh countries were in a state of the greatest agitation. Debates ran high at liome. and in America their gravest proceedings were ac- companied with such threats oi" detiance, and sucli indignant lesert- mentofall innovations, as almost necessarily to bring them under the strong hand of power. Ihit government underrated their means of resistance; when brought into a state of union, by the congres.s, their I'orce was no longer to be despised ; all leini ori/.ing expedients were at an end, a circumstance ill understood by the ministry at iiome, who lost much time in endeavouring to retrieve matters, by fruilb^ss attenn)ts, sometimes in the way of conciliation, aiul at others ef i.ieliicient resistance. Thus, when in 1,77U many cem- merciai duties were taken off, which the mother country Had an un- doubted right -to impose, the concession was ill received, in co»- quence of the single exception of lea., which was continued in order- to assert the rights and sujircmacy of Great Britain; but this was done in a manner too imperious, and without sufficient force to subdue . .the resentment it was calcidated to excite, at such a moment. At the very lireaking out of the war, ministers appear to have been by far too confident of speedily suppressing so formidable an insurrec- tion ; an insurrection ^vllich bad had Time allowctl_ i* to organi/e itself, and which liad drawn upon it the attention of the whole civ- i.i/,cther it were owing to the low opinion entertained by the government at home, ol' the resistance likely to be offered by the .\ in.; lie- in.-, or to a disiikt- of the cause in which they were engaged o;i tli3 part of the Briti-li commanders, it is exceedingly certain, that the biii^ifs.i army (Ud not obtain the advantages it was supposed it mi;^'it hi.iv'C done, or jjroceed as if it were able speedily to cnisii the rj!>^llJoii th it had been raised. The American troops were every d.iy improving, and every day deriving encouragement, eilher from u.i.ixpected successes, or the inactivity of the armies opposed to l!ijm. On the other hand, the English were either indulging in pleasure, whan they should have been in action, or disheartened by su ivien .surpi-ises or repulses, whlcli redounded greatly to the credit of their less disciplined, and less organized opponents. In a short ti ne, however, the war became more complicated, and opened a scMie, wiiich not only involved the continent of Europe in the con- llict of the day, but probably led to changes and convulsions, as ex- traordinary and as extensive as ever the world experienced. K'). In the month of November, l,77G, the celebrated Dr. Franklin and Sii.is Deane had been despatched by congres.s, to solicit, at the court of Vers lilies, the aid and assistance of Hench troops. Accoivl- i 1^ to (he former course of things, nothing could be more .strange til Ml «i!ch an application, at such a court ; an application from rebel- lious subjf^ct.-;, t'lom the assertors of republican independence, to a co.irt celebrated tor the most retined despotism, and ruling a people, heretoibre the grossest admirers and llatterers of regal power, an :.((),). ication from persons of the simplest habits; frugal, terii})eiate, in liistrious, and little advanced in civilization, to a court immersed m pleasure, gay, aii.l dissipated, protligale and corrupt, civilized to the bi^he't pitch of courtly retinemerit, of polishecf manners, and of spl.Mi.lid luxury: lastly, an application from a people who had car ri»;d their dissent from the church of Rome farther than any protes- ti'uts iii Europe, to a court still subject to the papal see, a cherished br.mcii ol" tlie catholic church. l.j. Extraordinary, however, in all respects, as this American mis- sion ssems to have been, it met with a cordial and favourable recep- tion. Even the queen of France was iound to espouse the cause of the revolted sul.^iects of Great Britain, little foreseeing the handle she WIS giving to many keen observers of her own courtly cxtrava- g nice and thoughtless dissipation. Tlie die was soon cast'; a lijrnial treaty was entered into, acknowledging the independency of Amer- ic l; succour and support to a large extent promised, and oliicers :«p- pointeil to contluct the French forces, likely, it would seem, above ail others, to imbibe the spirit of freedom, which animated llie Americans, and to espouse their cause upon princij)!e. They \vere ail noi)!e, indeed ; but in America they were sure to be taught how vain were such di-S. lu Whatever loss of fame, reputation, and territory Great Britain iiicurrod in America, her arms never shone with greater histre tiian ■!i soiue occasions in which she was engaged during this \v\ v. wi.h iih^ coiile'der.ite powers of Europe ; in Asia particularly, ne wai iiqui.iiig an empii'e ten times greater in wealth and populatr n, lh;ai ill she had to lose in the west: hut of all her achievements at this period, none, perhaps, was so conspicuous, none so glorious, as liio iefence of Gibraltar under General Eiliot, afterwards lord llealii- field, against the .'.omhined i()rces of vSpain and France. The prepa i.ilioiis made to recover that important lortress for Spain, exceeded I'very thing before known. The ultimate success of the attempt n':!s calculated upon as so certain, that some of the French | rinces ot tiie blood, repaired to the Spanish, camp merely to witness its sur reiK.'jr. But the heroism of the troops in garrison hafiied all their dt'sigi.s, and the timely arrival of the British fleet completed the Iri iinpii, in October, 1,782. The siege (^ begun in 1,779) was entire- ly aLandoned, with the loss of all the Spani^i* lloating batteries, and the defeat oj'the combined fleets ofl'rar.ce and Spain^, by lord i iinve. This action took place on the 20th of October; in the t()llovvhig niouih provisional articles of peace were signed at Faris, by Jiriiish ind Amei-ican commissioners, and early in the ensuing year a treaty conciudod at V^ersaiiles, l>etwGen Great Britain, France, and Spain, (o which, in February,' Holland also acceded. 19. Towards the close of the war, many important discussions in p;iriiam"nt took place on the American afiairs, in which it was ibnnd, that those who had most espoused her canse, on tlie tniestiou of inteinal taxation, and most oh\iocted tc tiie measures of adminislra- lion in the conduct of the war, diiiered, at the last, irom each other, on llie question of American independence; a difference renden-d ]KCuiiariy memorable, as being tu«! subject of tiie last speech aiul anpear^uice in pariiimient ol" lliat illustrious statesman, the e;iil i 1^ CViatiiain. On Ap"il 7, 1,773, though labouring jinder a sever*; tii of iiine.ss, he appeared in his place, in the tiouse of lords, and de.i\cr,(i a mo-t animated and energelic speech, in which he sironi'ly proli-*- cd against the surrendei' of tiie sovereignly of Great laii;;in <.\er h.'r cuionies; soon alter, rising to reply to t!ie Duke of l-'iciiiuond, iK! iiill i)ack on the seat in a fainting til, and in a tew davs exj^ired, .il i-is seat in Kent, hi four years froni liiit- event. Great Briiaiji was I'oniijeiied. to yield upon this great [wint, and, by the peace ol Vt'r- -lilies, raiiVi<'d'and concluded Se})tember .j."l,7no, the ihiriccit Vmirjl Ciiloaus ;jf Atneiicct zz'sre mi-iilttd to be '•' F'xc. .SV-rp/vji^-.i, an:l iwUjiOi- km Slitie.*."" MODKRxN HlSTOi-iy. sJCT SIX nON IX. rp.oM TiJi-: rr.ACE of taris, 1,703, to tiik ,G OF Tin; ASSF.MBLY OF THE STATES GENEKAE, 1. l'ii!i (lie jifTairs of Franco, from tlie death of Lcwi^ XIV'.. lo tie pjici^ of \ i.Miiia, 1,7.18, (sae Sccl. I.) In tlie y ear of 1,710, t) \i 1^ to l!ie death of Uie eriiperor, Charles V'l., Eiiro(ie was a^ain aj,i;;il>'.!, an I Krr.p.C"-, in csjXHising the cau-^e ol the elocloi- of Hava- rfi. a ' linsl liie liou-i of Aiisuia, liccanrj iavolved in '.!ie war, wliich wi.- UMMiiaaled hy iho poaon of Aix-la-Chapoho, 1,7 U!, (see Sect. I!!.) From tiiL' coaclu'ion of the above treaty, to tiie eonirnence- iii i.at oflhe seven waivs" war. she enjoyed a slate of external peace an i iiMnc^iiiiliiy. Jint Ihough thi< shorliuterval of repose from war, i\ai apji.ieJ to die iinproveinenl of the khigdoiri, in no common do- gi'ee, l)i)t;i in the ea| ilal and provinces, by the establishment ot se.ioois ail 1 liospuaU, tlie eicclion of ptibiic edifices, tlie laiilding bt b/id^e-, dii^i I:; cnia.s. an I repairing roads; in the ciiitivaliun and iai/i'ov 'm ■ il (.!me it of m innficunes; otsilk.of porcelain, and tapestry, iri par- lie liifi-; V t aaiidsl. all tiie^e improvements she eiijoyei; little of inter- nal iranq.iiiiiiy. ilcli^iou-^ di-petes gre;itly occiin'ience the veil that shrouded their deceptions was by any accident I'emoved. They slofxl ready to avail taeniselves of any circumstances that might tend to render manifest the pride and obstinacy, hypocrisy and deceit, of an overbearing sect, who by tiieir inlluence with the king, might^at any time tnimijie upon the libei-lies of the people. !j. These philosopbeis, (for so they have been with too little dis- criiuiiialion called,) thus raised in the estimation of an oppressed p nple into the rank of champions of public freedom, ^vere unfortu- II ,!.• y, InU pi'(.)h;iliiy through the artful designs of their instructers, \[[{:r aeqiiaiuied \viih the true principles of religion, however fa- inii II- liiey might be with its abuses. In directing their attacks, therefore, aga.inst the Jesuits, they were rather anxious that theii shatis shoukl reach all the regular clergy, or monastic orders in general; nor were they at all careful how much religion itself might sulier in the overttirow of its ministers. The enemies of the .iesuits in China, Portugal, Spain, and America, had been the • Dominicans and Cordeliers. It was the aim of the philosophers, in crusiiing the Jesuits, to crush their rivals also; they were there- iore as severe against the Dominicans as against the Jesuits: the SCO MODERN HISTORY. •larlinmont only attacked the latter. Hovvevcn- atji'.chod Lewis XV. inii^l'.t be to flie Jes^iiit?, as the detcndets ot" the call.dlii: l^'ii^i(^ll. ■liid Iviiij^ly aiitluirily, lie appears to liave enterli.ined a j. ai^.l,^y 1)1' them, as ceiisor.s ol i'is iiiiniorai coiiv^o ol' iiil'. ami as ii.( n- ul tai:hcd to his son the (lan|ihiM tiiaii lo hiiii^ell". lie liieri'li'Sf i.i'- ranip. iiKhlTereiit to ihc attacks making upc-n thorn; \vt;i,e I. is mi?- ti'css, the Kiarchiouoss ol" Puinpaihuir, and hi- niiiiislcr. ihe di.lvc (!i' C"lioi-;;'ui, in order to keep the king wholly in thtdi-uvvn i.t)v>ei, \'. * r*; ri;ady to lake [tart against tlie danphin, the qneen. the ro\ai iami.y, and tlie Jesuits Iheinselvts, of whom they were, tor the reasm^s aliove stated, jnstly suspicions. The duke de Choiseid himstii. in- deed, is said to iiave given the I'ollo'.ving account of Ids eiaiuly to u.c ordei'; that heing on an endiassy at Home, the general ol ti.e (,rder tVankly told him, that he knew, heibre he came, every thing that he had said about t!ie society at Paris, and so convinced him that what he said was true, that he could not iloidjt but that, tiucujili some means or other, they were able to learn all that pa.-sed, not only in tlie cabinets oi" pi'inces, but the interior ot' j;rivate liuuscs, an.: ili;it so dangerous a society ought not to subsist. It is projicr to slate this, in order to exonerate the dvdce from any suspicion vi' having sa.critied them to the philosophers, whose irrdigiuus princi- ples he is known latterly not to have approvetl. i). In tlia year 1,76;) the Jesuits had t»et.. expelled from Porlngai, on a charge'of oountena.ncing an attack on tlie king's iile. Lmier thesu circumstances, it is not surprising thai the eiiemiesof tlie order at Paris sliould attejnpt to tix on them the charge of the late attack on L'.iwis XV., and to attribute to them regicide princip'cs. Diiunais. biinseil' seemed to have taken pains to leave the mailer in exlrcine (hubi. They already were sutliciently branded in the eyes ol' ibc pu!)iic, as the friends and assertors of arbitrary power, and (Mien:iv.s to liberty. 'J'o relieve the sovereigns of Europe from the ibi'.odi ii> of a sect so };owerful, so artful and dangerous, became a principle id action, ^vhichthe public \vere well enough disposed to countenance, and an opportunity only was wanting to accomplish their ml:!. U). This opportunity the Jesuits themsedves provided ior their cnciidcs. Having endeavoured to escape from a demand made on th-m in consequence of some mercantile proceedings, in wjiicdi one of their society vvas deeply involved, the trii'iinais to which the case was referred, having a handle given them by ttie pleading;? of the Jesuits, very properly required to see tlie ai'dcles oi their iu?l!l,i.;lioH, hitherto, that is, for more than tvvo c«'iUiiiies, kcj 1 .-.■::- cret iVoni ail the world. The tim;'S were well Iduvl lur si.cli ;» di>covponenl ; in this, perhaps, she showed some sense, though it has been doubted whether she did not too much control the ardent spirit of her son. The empress queen dying in 310 MODERN HISTORY. the year 1,780, Joseph was left to the pursuit of his own whims and projects, in many instances most extravagant, in almost all oppressive. For though there was an appearance of Uberality, and much show of good, he evidently seemed to consult nothing but his own arbitrary will. 2. Had his education been such as to enable him to form a risjht judgment of things, had not his genius been cramped, and nis rea- son perverted, by a choice of tutors and preceptors peculiarly ill qualified to fit him for the arduous and conspicuous station to which he had been elevated by the circumstances of his birth and con- nexions, he might certainly have done great good, and actually ameliorated the condition of a large and most interesting portion of the human race, for his manners were such as to have led him to a just knowledge of their wants, and a proper sense of their claims upon society. He travelled through Europe, as if he were bent on seeing the real condition of his iellow-creatures, in all ranks and situations of lite ; discarding all pom.p and parade, he sought the society and conversation of persons far below him, and encouraged every one to give him information upon subjects most nearly touch- ing their interests. Since Peter I. cf Russia, no monarch had taken such pains to procure information, and survey every thing with his own eyes. 3. The whole extent of his dominions was supposed to contain a population of 24,000,000, distinguished however by a great va- riety of laws, customs, religious opinions, and language ; the lower orders subject to many restrictions, attaching to the state of vas- salage in which they were still held by their feudal lord and su- periors. The Roman catholic religion chiefly prevailed ; the cler- gy were wealthy, and possessed great influence. Maria Theresa ha J perceived what was wrong, and had shown an excellent dis- position to amend matters, but had partly been compelled by cir- cumstances, and swayed by prudence, to proceed moderately and gradually. Joseph was more impetuous ; he was so eager to break down all distinctions, that, among other regulations, he insisted on having but one language for the whole empire, though no less than ten principal languages were spoken at that time, and in common use. Within the confines of his dominions, all his other projects were of the same description, whether good or bad, ex- ceedingly too hasty ; he broke up old systems before he was well prepared to establish new ones, and in the interval, necessarily ■occasioned such confusion, disgust, and trouble, as to hinder every good effect, and thwart his own purposes ; in all his regulations he seemed bent upon upholding his own imperial power, not only by omitting to introduce any new checks upon it, but even abolishing old ones ; he particularly displeased his Hungarian subjects, those faithful adherents of his mother, by interfering with their laws and customs, and ofiiending some of their fondest prejudices. 4. Though attached to the Roman catholic religion, he showed great disregard of the papal authority, by subjecting the monas- teries to episcopal jurisdiction, suppressing many, and reducing the numbers, both of monks ^nd nuns, in all that were permitted to continue, with great wan< of feeUng ; he omitted to make any pro- vision for those who were discharged ; he broke through many su- perstitions, not rightly judging how deeply they were interwoven with the religious feelings of the people, and how much the lattet therefore v/ere likely to he affected by such violence and haste i MODERN HISTORY. Sli he abolished the privileges of primogeniture, declared marriage (heretofore regarded as a sacrament) (o be only a civil contract, and rendered bastards capable of inheriting. The wisest and most truly liberal of all iiis innovations was tliat which, by a public edict, diited Octolier 31, 1,781, established a general toleration tor all the ^ AtaUwlici,''' or dissenters from the Romish religion. This and other measures of interference with ecclesiastical matters so disturbed and filarnied pope Pius VI., as to induce him to take a journey to Vienna- personalfy to ie:r!onstrate with the emperor. His plan was opposed at Rome, and entirely discouraged by the Austrian ministry ; but his holiness persisted, and, after a visit oi much form and ceremony, re- turned in about a month, without effecting any change m the senti- ments or proceedings of Joseph. 5. In the same precipitate manner, as in other instances, he sud- denly abolished feudal vassalage, without any suitable arrangements for the relief of those who must evidently suffer by such an impor- tant change of tenure ; and \vhile he prided himself upon putting an end to slavery, he subjected the emancipated to such arbitrary im- posts of his own invc-ntion, as plainly to convince them that they had not in reahty recovered their freedom. To countervail these errors in legislation and government, he certainly showed great merit in the encouragement he gave to ai'ts, letters, trade, and manufactures; in founding numerous schools and universities, public Ubraries, labor- atories and observatories • in improving the public roads, making canals, and establishing free ports, In 1,784, he obtained permission from the Porte to navigate the Turkish seas, which seemed to aflbrd excellent means to his Hungarian subjects, who were otherwise ill situated ibr trade, to carry on an extensive commerce by way of the Danube ; war, however, soon interrupted this accommodation ; in 1 ,787 it came to an end. 6. In 1,781, Joseph, havmg concerted his plans with France, who had altered hei measures towards him, probably for the very pur- pose, determined to. break through the barrier treaty* imposed upon Austria n'hen the Netherlands were transierred to Charles VI., and which, though undoubtedly aifoi'ding security to Austria itself against the French, must be allowed to have constantly carried in it something galling to the feelings of the imperial court, as entirely dictated by the maritime powers. The fortitications of the barrier towns had now fallen into decay, and the connexion which had for some time subsisted between the courts of Versailles and Vien- na, seemed to aiibrd the emperor plausible grounds for declining to pay for the military protection of a frontier no longer likely to be disturbed. He therefore directed all the fovtihcations in the Nether- lands to be done away, except those of Laxemburgh^ Ostend^ Munur, and Antwerp ; while the Dutch, who had been desired to withdraw their garrisons, as no longer necessary, or entitled to pay, judged it wise to comply. 7. This violation of the banier treaty, complied with in the last instance so easily by the united provinces, was quickly^ followed by fresh demands on the latter power, under pretence of more ac- curately adjusting the boundaries of the DutcU and Austrian Neth- erlands. 'Phe^ cession of the city of Maestricht and the contigu- ous district of Outer Meuse being among other things insisted upon. At length, however, and about the year 1,784, these claims *• See Coxe It. 152, 153, &c. 318 MODERN HISTORY. all seemed to merge in one sweeping demand, to have the lull and free navigation of the river Schekl, lor the purposes of establishing, in favour of his Flemish subjects, a direct trade with the Eas^t h> dies, and of restoring the city of Antwerp, once the emporium ol Europe, to its proper degree of splendour and importance , a proj- ect, which, if it could have been accomphshed without interlering with so many foreign interests, and the manifest violation of suo- sisting treaties, may be said to have rellected no disgrace on the policy, wisdom, or paternal care of tiie emperor; but it was impos' sible to expect that such changes should be allowed to proceed wilhout great opposition. It was soon discovered that both France and Frussia were prepared to support the Dutch against him, and though the empress of Russia had endeavoured to (leter (he latter from aiding the Hollanders, the project was laid aside, and .fosepli, instead of his views on the Scheld, resumed some of his former de- mands. In the end, however, ev^ry thing was compromised by money, through the mediation of the French king, or rather in con- formity to the dictates of the French minister. 8. Another object which the eniperoi' attempted almost at the same time, hut equally without eilecl, was the exchange of the Netherlands for Bavaria. He had taugiil his mother to covet the latter country, and its acquisition would undoubtedly have render- ed his dominions more compact, and given him a continued line ol territory, from the I'rontier of Turkey to tlio Mediterranean sea, while it might have relieved him from the charge of a more distant portion of liis dominions, held by a very uncertain and troublesome t' uure-. Joseph had calculated upon overcoming all the difhcul- ties that might arise from foreign powers; had secured the consent ot Russia, and even negotiated the proposed exchange with tlie elector of Bavaria, f who, if it took place, was to be made king of Auslrasia or Burguntly.) But P'rederic 11., at the age of seveniy- fbiu', again interposed : and, by forming with the several princes and slates of the empire what was called the Gcmianic union, for main- taining the integrity and indivisibility of the Germ_anic body in gen- eral, cflectually prevented the exchange so much desired. The principal parties to the union, which was settled and confirmed, July 1,785, were, besides the king of Prussia, the electors of Hanoveij Saxony, and Menlz, the margrave of Anspuch, and the duke ot Deux Fonts. The whole scheme, indeed, was found to be so im- practicable, that the emperor and elector judged it prudent to deny that any convention to that effect had taken place between them. 9. In 1,788, Joseph incurred considerable disgrace, by his attacks ripon Turkey. He had projected, in conjunction with the empress of Russia, whom he had flattered by a visit to the Crimea, the total dismemberment of that empire ; but blunder upon blunder defeated his purposes, and he retired from the contest blamed by all parties in 1,789, however, hostilities were renewed, and in the battle of ilimnik, which took place in the month of September, the combined forces of Russia and Austria gained an important victory over the Turks, under the command of the grand .vizier. The capture of Belgrade soon after, by the army of Loudon, completed their triumphs ; but their success occasioned jealousies, which eifectually irterrupted the career of victory. England, Holland, and Prussia, began to be alarmed at the increasing power of Russia and Austria; and. by fomenting the troubles in the Netherlands, drew the atten- tion of Joseph from his intended encroachments on Turkey. MODERN HISTORY. 313 10. In no part of his dominions were his attempts at reformation worse receiv^ed, or worse m-innEjed, than in the No.thej'lands. Di- vided into many ])rovinccs, and eacii province governed by distinct htws, customs, and regulations; some secured l)y charter, in the enjoyment of important privileges and immunities, notliing could possibly have been thought of more vexatious than that of redu- cing them all under one system of administration, commencing with the sudden and violent abolilion of many convents, and tlie sujv pression of many institutions, forms, and ceremonies, by long usage become little less than sacred in the eyes of the people. The courts of law, the universities and schools, were subjected to sin>- ilar changes, nor did the imperial decrees spare any order of men^ or any public establishment, however respectable in other respects, from undergoing this severe ordeal, and revolutionary process. Nothing could exceed the consternation and disgust with which these new regulations were received by all ranks of persons, from the lowest to the highest-; for even the governors-general sided with the refractory party, and were averse from carrying into execution a system so exceedingly repugnant to the teelings of the people in general, but especially of the principal persons amongst the cler- gy, laity, and magistrates. Riots and disturbances took place, af might have been expected, in many parts, and France was appi-'ed to tor assistance, as guarantee of their liberties. The whole au- thority of government seemed to be vested in the minister pieni):'«> tentiary of the emperor, count Belgioso, who had to contend yAnie against the formidable opposition that had sprung up ; ibr not only the governors-general, as has been before intimated, wen? on the side of the people, but even the imperial minister, prince Kaunitz, who greatlj disapproved the violent proceedings of his mastor. 11. Joseph at iirst assumed an appearance of rigour and inllexibili- ty, in the pursuit of his new measures, little suitable to the actual situation of alfairs. He had not foreseen so formidable a resistance, and when it occurred, he depended too much on his means tor sup- pressing it ; embarrassed as he was at the time by the war Av-th Turkey. After much threatening, therefore, and slrong mark^ ot displeasure against the Belgic states, ho found it advisable (o com promise matters, ibr a time at least : or rather to offer to relinqu"" all the objectionable parts" of his new system ; to re-establish iii« ancient constitution, contirm the celebrated charter, called ^"''J"K' euse Entree^und submit to have the case referred i" delegate^ on Ijotli sides. In this, however, he was not sincere, ^nd his dui^'icity ami arbitrary disposition becoming everv day more man^est, it was impossible to prevent things comiog'to cxtremitf. ihe example of France was contagious ; the whole popub^ion became (iiviueu into two. parties of patriots and .xjyalists, ''ud the /«'"''^f'. "7/ soon found to be the strongest. I<» Noven^^er, t,/89, tbe suues de- clared their independence, i-i conseq./ence of a meetmg icKl at (ihent ; the soldiery began to take part with the people. On the 26th of December, the t^atcs of Brabant assumed the sovereign pow- er, in which they «ere soon followed by the states o* the other provinces: a fedwal union was formed, under the title of the bmted Belgic States, -ind a congress of deputies to administer the new gov- ernment, appointed to assemble on the 11th of January, K790. 12. Thus w^ere the low countries sacrificed to the injudicious and hasty ine;isures of the emperor, who was too late rendered sensible of his errofs, when he found them perfectly irreparable, either lo 'Dd '10 314 MODERN HlSTOilY. , . ^ the way of conciliation or force. He lived to see his offers of jjeace and reconciUation rejected with scorn and contempt, while he totally failed in his endeavours to procure the aid of foreign states t^ reduce his revolted subjects to obedience. In other parts of his dominions, particularly in Hungary, the same spirit of opposition to his plans had been excited, and kept up by similar measures of irritation and defiance, till the time of his decease drew near. He would then willingly have retraced his steps, and did, indeed, take some meas- ures to conciliate the offended Hungarians; but the termination of his life was fast approaching, hastened no doubt by the opposition and ill fortune which had attended almost the whole of his political career. He had weakened his constitution in all probability by the restless life he had led, and the hardships and fatigues to which he had ex- posed himself in the field ; but he suffered severely in his mind from the course things had taken in the Netherlands, and though he exhib- ■'ted in his last moments the fortitude, resignation, and" composure of a true christian, yet it is truly melancholy to think that his whole reign was passed in rendering himself and others wretched. He ^xpired on the 20th of February, 1,790, in the forty-ninth year of hi; age; and leaving no issue, was succeeded in his^ hereditary do- minions by his brother Leopold, who was also chosen emperor before t^e end of the year in which his brother died. 13. The reign of the emperor Leopold H. was very short, and tar from a happy one. His brother had left his dominions in a wretched state of discontent and confusion ; diminished, in some most important instances, and pretty generally exposed to the attacks of formidable and designing enemies. Leopold had been able to do some good amongst his Tuscan subjects before he ascended the royal and imperial thrones, but his genius and talents were judged be unequal to the government of a mighty empire. He soon pve satisfaction however, to the aching minds of his new subjects, by restoring to many their ancient privileges, and revoking the in- judicious and irritating innovations of his deceased brother. Nor did j»e manage his foreign negotiations ill, which, had they failed, might ji^ye mvolved him in inextricable dhhculties. By flattering tjie Eng- "-'^1 and appearing to enter into their views in regard to Turkey anu u^ Netherlands, he deterred the king of Prussia from prosecut- ng Ills designs cpon Gallicia, which he wished to procure for Fo- idnti, m exchange to- Dantzic and Thorn. Afterwards, by fomenting mai monarUi s reseniment against England, who appeared to have ai>an of his reign had manifested the great- est symptoms of rivaVy and ^oposition. This accommodation with the kmg oi Frussia greaUy facii>ated his accession to the imperial crom;.- whicn was contcrrt^l upon i.;^, Octobei 9, 1,790. 14. by very hrm, but cor^/diatory behaviour towards the Hun- garians, wiio setm to have imbibed at ttiU time many of the demo- cratic pnncip.es of the French, ho not only eflectually ingratiated himselt With tho leading persons of the kiiigdctn, but regained the aftections of the people at large, which had beU sadly alienated through his brother's unwise interference with their most favourite customs and established rights. 15. Leopold did not so easily settle his disputes with the Netber- iands. The mediation of England, Holland, and Prussia, had been offered, but he rather inclined to relv on his own strength, and hi3 connexions with France, which were every hour becoming more MODERN HISTORY. Si 5 unf ertain and precarious. He had recourse therefore to force, and succeeded^indeed in re-establishing the imperial authority, but total- ly detached from any cordial returns of loyally on the part of the Belgians, which became but too apparent, when his subsequent dis- putes with the revolutionary government of France exposed those parts of the Austrian dominions to fresh troubles and disturbances. 16. The situation of the emperor Leopold, it must be granted, was very embarrassing in the tirst years of the French revolution. The constraint put upon the royal family of France, to which he stood so nearly allied, and the threats denounced so openly agains the queen his sister, in particular, must have greatly affected his •private feelings, while many of the German states, whose rights, e"clesiastical and territorial, guarantied by the peace of West- phalia, had been invaded in Alsace, Franche Compte, and Lorraine by the decree of the national assembly, for abolishing the feudal privileges, publicly called upon him to interpose in their behalf, as head ot the empire ; as he stood bound to do indeed by his capitula- tion with the diet, on receiving the impei'ial crown. In regard to the royal family of France, liis first plans, in conjunction with the king of Prussia, were clearly injudicious, and injurious to the cause lie took in hand. T'le French revolutionists were not in a state to be intimidated by angry manifestoes or threats of foreign interfe rence. The emperor himself, indeed, did often appear cautious of embroiling his country in a war with France, but was at length prob ably pi'ovokcd into it, by the violence of the Jacobinical faction al Paris, ratncr than persuaded by the representations of the emigrant princes, or royal family at Paris, as was so strongly alleged. Beyond the alliance with Prussia, however, concluded on the 19th of Febru- ary, 1,792, the emperor Leopold can scarcely be said to have had any share in the war with France ; for, on the 27th of that very month, he was seized with an illness, which in three days terminated his life, at the early age of forty-four, leaving his dominions in a state of more serious danger than when he began his reign. 17. The emperor Leopold was succeeded in his hereditary states by his eldest son Francis, born in 1,768, who became emperor in th6 July following his lather's death, and still reigns. This mon- arch had to begin those hostilities with France which his predeces- sor seems to have contemplated with considerable distrust, and he became a party to the too hasty proceedings of his Prussian ally and the duke of ISrunswick, who increased the irritation and pro- voked the resistance of the French, by menaces extremely impo- litic, considering the actual state of things. They endeavoured, in- deed, to throw the blame on the emigrant princes, who, it was alleged, had misled them by false representations of the good dispo- sition of the people in the interior of France. They expected to find a large majority ready to co-operate with them in the overthrow of the ruling taction 18. The emperor soon found himself in a very awkward situa- tion. Instead of invading Frar.ce with any effect, he had the mor- tification to see his jwn dominions invaded by the French, under a general (Dnmourier), who had boasted that he would subdue the Austrian Netherlands before the end of the year ; an engage- ment which he in a great measure fulfilled, through the disaflectioa of the Belgians, who were ready enough to thro^v otf the Austrian yoke, heedless (;;a( Ihoy were in the way of having another imme- diately imposed upr^i-. them still more galling and vexatious. In the 5i6 !\iODL:i-:-. .:to . month of November, 1,792, all sultjeciinn to the imperial authority w;is openly renounced in the very capiSai oi' tiie iNetiierlands, iind the Krencii allowed to enter the city in triumph. While these things were go'uit^ on in Flander?, Germany itself was invaded by the French general, Custine, Mentz taken, and heavy contributions levied in the towns of Worms and Frankfort. 19. Early in the year 1,793, the Austrians under general Clair- iiiit and the prince of Saxe Coburg, obtained advantages over the French, at Aix-la-Chapelle, which were followed by the capttue ol" the towns of Valenciennes and Conde, in conjunction with the IJiiti.^b army under the commaml of the duke of York. A separa- ion of the two armies atterwards took place, which was attended vvilii unpleasant circumstances, and seems to have happened very :ontrary to the de^-ire and wishes of the Austrian commanders. The troops under the duke laid siege to Dunkirk, but were unsuc- cessful in their attempts against the place, being obliged to abandon *he undertaking with the loss of the greatest part of their artillery uid stores. L'O. In the year 1,794, the allied armies again acted in conjunction -ainsl the French under general Pichegru, the emperor him>elt 1,', iug joined the camp, but the overwhelming power of the French ■■ ilied all their attempts to defend the JN'elherlands, which feii en- ;!(iy into the hands of the enemy. M. The share which the emperor Francis II. had in the final .-inemberment of Poland, 1,795, will be shewn in the history of iiat unhappy country. The king of Prussia having gained great ..Ivanlages by this transaction, dechned any long-:;r assisting the allies .gainst France, and in open violation of his engagements with Eng- land, made a peace with the French government,. April 5, 1,795, to the great disgust of the confederates. i"2. The contests bettveen the armies of Germany and France, II tlie years l,79t), 1,797, were carried on with the greatest vigour, ^iii, and bravery, on the Pvhine, in Suabia, in the Tyrol, and in aiy. In 1,796, the archduke Charles, brother of the emperor, o'lired great glory by checking the progress of the two celebrat- I'lench generals, Jourdan and Moreau : and, though compelled ■lire belbre Buonaparte, in 1,797, and to subscribe to the peace '. ainpo-Formio, as will be related elsewhere, his credit with the ;, remained undiminished, and his reputation as a general unim- I!. i. Un the renewal of the war in 1,799, at the instigation of - .Wapohtan court, the Austrians were assisted by the Kussiaiis. ■1 al the close of the eighteenth century, the tide of aHiiirs seemed ' l)e tui ah)g greatly against the French, when a new revolution in i'H Huctuating government of that disturbed people, suddenly cbaiii^- »d- the lace of things, as will be shewn in our continuation ol tlie hi' tory o( France. SECTION XII. FRANCE, FROM THE OPENING OF THE ASSEMBLY OF THE STATES-GENERAL, 1,789, TO THE DEATHS OF THE KING \N1) QUEKX, 1,793. I. The states-general met, May 5, 1,789. The king's speech has been much admired, as the address of an upright, humane, and MODERN iiiSTORi. 317 patriotic prince, to a respectable assemblage of his subjects, by whose political and legislative exertions he hoped to improve the state of the nation. The nobles and clergy had expressed a willing- ness to forego their pecuniary privileges, but there were other grounds upon which they seemed likely to be at variance with the third estate. The latter were for obliterating all traces of distinc- tion in their legislative capacity; while the former were so impm dent as to take some steps, not only indicative of an invincible attach- ment to s,uch distinctions, but bearing an air of arrogance and defi- ance in them, ill suited to the times. The very costume adopted on the occasion was calculated to render the representatives of the commonalty almost ridiculous in the eyes of their countrymen. The nobles and clergy were distinguished by robes peculiarly rich and brilliant ; but the whole of the third estate ^vere directed to appear in the common and antiquated black dress of the members of the law, though of various callings and professions. As soon, how- ever, as the commons had verified their poweis and were prepared to act, without waiting for the concurrence of the other two orders, it was proposed by a M. Le Grand, and seconded by the Abbe Sieyes, to call their meeting the '• J\'aiio)ial Assembly^'' as forming a national representation one and indivisible. This was eagerly adopted by a majority of the members, but objected to by the king ; at length, however, some of the clergy and nobles having joined the third estate, the king himself condescended to approve and sanction the union, a matter of great triumph to the popular party, and which, in fact, made them the arbiters of the destiny of France. 2. On the lltliof July, 1,789, the king thought it necessary to dismiss M. Necker ; many tumults and insurrections were the con- sequence of this unpopular proceeding; the Bastile state prison, once crowded with the victims of arbitrary power, but at this mo- ment, and under the mild reign of Lewis XV I., almost empty, was besieged by the mob, taken, and razed to the ground. After many tumults of this kimi, the king judged it expedient to comply with the wishes of his people, and to recall the discarded minister; he was also induced by circumstances, to yield to another demand of more importance, namely, the dismissal of all his troops from the environs of Paris and V'ei-sailles. In the meanwhile, the marquis de la Fayette, who liad been engaged in America, and there imbibed a spirit of liberty, was lixed upon to take the command of the now militia or city guard. Alarmed at the appearance of things at this period, many nobles, and even one of the king's brothers, left the kingdom. This liad undoubtedly a bad eifect ; it not only left the king more exposed to the violence of faction, but seemed to betoken a disregard of the liberties of their country, and a settled purpose of invoking foreign aid. 3. The national assembly soon divided itself into two parties ; the aristocrats, or such as not only favoured royalty, but to a cer- tain extent, the privileged orders, nobles, and clergy; and the democrats, or advocates of freedom ; the swon enemies of all op- pressive and distinct privileges ; they were also distinguished into royalists and patnots. Among the former ^ve may reckon the modr crates, whose speeches in the assembly are justly to be admired, for their extreme good sense and rational politics. Of the nobles, it should be observed, that the most obnoxious were those who had purchased their nobihty, amounting to many thousands. Of the ancient, and hereditary nobility there were, it was comput- Dd2 SIS MODERN HISTORY. ed, not more than two hundred families in the whole kingdom when the revolution began, nor were their pnvik-ges and exemp- tions by any means so great as was pretended. It was soon seen which party was the most powerful; on the 4(h of August, 1,789 decrees were passed, as if with the full consent of the whole as- sembly, for the abolition of the privileges of the nobles and clergy, provinces and towns ; while persons of evei-y rank and description were pronounced to be eligible to all civil, miUlary, and ecclesi- astical appointments. The royal family were exposed to horrible insults and indignities at Versailles, and at length almost forcibly conveyed to Paris ; in consequence of which removal, the assem- bly also adjourned its sittings to the capital, a fatal step to take, as it could not but expose them to the tyranny of a faction, ami the fury of the Parisian mob. Among the measures aclopttnl at this period, the most important were those which placed all church property at the disposal of the nation, dissolved all monas tic establishments, feudal privileges and rights, and suppressed the provincial parliaments and assemblies, by artfully dividing the king- dom into 83 departments, the work of the Abbe Sieyes; by this act the very name of province was obliterated from the French vocabu- lary, and with it all pecular rights, laws, and jurisdictions; all pro vincial governors, commandants, sub-delegates, presidents, and tri- bunals of election ; n)ayors, echevms, jurats, courts of aid, chambei-s of accounts, &;c. Every thing was at this time transacted in the way of violence and destruction ; every law voted by acclamation, wif.) little patience and less judgment ; thus, when it was proposed lO abolish all titles and hereditary distinctions, armorial bearings, live- ries, &,c. the democrats would scarcely suffer the question to be de- bated, and it was carried by a large majority, though so many mt-tn- bers of the assembly must have been deeply affected by it. 4. The national assembly was slow in preparing a constitutional code, particularly in deciding upon the three following questions. Whethi^r such assemblies should be pormanent or {-eriodical ? com- posed of one or two chambers ? and whether the king's veto shuidd be absolute or suspensive ? ^Vhile these things were in agitation, the king had attempted to rescue himself iVom tne trammels imposed upon him, by a timely escape from Paris ; but he was stopped on his journey, and compelled to return. At length the assembly terminat- ed its labours ; a constitutional act was prepared and presented to the king, of which, after an interval of ten days, he tieclared his ac- ceptance. Had he been free, it is impossible that he could have given his sanction to a measure which subjected the monarch to the will of a domineering assembly, and was ill-calculated to repress tiie efforts and designs of a licentious and restless faction. The assembly, however, having thus completed its task, was dissolved by the king on the 30th day of September, 1,791, being succeeded by another convention, denomintited "the legislative assembly," whose delibera- tions were contincd to the space only of one year ; none of the members of the former assembly being eligible to the latter. 5. In the year 1,792, Austria and Prussia, in consequence of a declaration and agreement (according to all accounts imjjrudent) determined upon at Pilnitz, in the preceding year, began to inter- fere in behalf of the king and royai lli-mily, but so i^r from alarm- ing the revolutionary purty in France, their interposition seemed only to have the effect of instigating it to. acts of greater violence and more determined courage. War was without scruple declared I\iOi)l-:KJN HISTORY. ai9 againsl the king of Hungary and Bohemia, in the montti of April, and every preparation made to resist all counter revolutionary projects. Sweden and Russia had shewn a strong disposition aiso to interfere; but the assassination of the Swedish monarch, Gustavu^ HI., in 1,792, and the distance of Russia from France, prevented both those countries engaging in actual hostilities, hi the mean time, Paris became a scene of dreadful confusion : every day some new faction seemed to arise to batBe the attempts of those who had yet wisdom or temperance enough to prevent things coming to an extremity. The legislature was at the mercy of the Parisian clubs and of the mobs, too freely admitted into the galleries of the assem biy. The king was insulted in the grossest manner for having ven- tured to interpose his suspensive negative to the passing of two severe decrees; one against those who had emigrated, and the other against the clergy who declined taking the civic oath. IM. la Fayette, who had been appointed to take the command of the army, -wrote from his camp to admonish the national representatives to res- cue the country and the king from the tactions designs of the enrag- ed jacobins; but in vain; it served only to exasperate still more tiu anti-royalists, and to bring fresh troubles on the royal family. The design of the factiovis seems to have been, either to intimidate the king to a degree of abject submission, or to provoke him to act against the constitution in a manner that might render him liable to tlie ven- geance of the people. The march of the Prussian aimy, and a threatening manifesto issued by its commander, the duke ol" Kruns- wick, irritated the violent party into a frantic determination to abolish royalty. The king wtts supposed, or represented, to be contederatc with the enemy, and deeply engaged in a plot with his emigranl brothers and relatives, to counteract the revolution. 6. A dreadful attack \vas made on the palace in the month of August, the particulars of which are too disgusting to dwell upon; but it completed the triumph of the demagogues ; tor in compellin-) the king's guards to act on their defiance, they had it in their pow*;! to charge the king himself with having made war upon his people. Nothing was now heard but the cry oP' liberty and equality." 'I'he " chief of the executive power," as they chose to denominate his maj- esty, was Ibrmally suspended irom his functions, and, under the .pre- tence of gitardianship, committed with his tjueen and family to the temple. 7. The assembly appeared from this moment to be as much in the power of the taction as the king. The period has been too justly distinguished by the appropriate title of " the reign of terror." The execrable Robespierre was in reality at the head of affairs, and itvvould be impossible adequately to describe the. atrocities of lii- merciless career. It would exceed the limits of Ibis woi'k to en-.-! far into particulai details. La Fayette abandoned the army, it- unwilling to serve under such masters; his conduct has been ..r- raigned, as reflecting at once upon his loyalty, his patriotism, and his courage ; it was thought that with the army so much at hi> disposal as it seemed to be, had his principles been such as he pre- tended, he would have marched back to Paris, and saved his coun try and his king from the ruiii with which they were threatened- In the meanwhile the combined troops of Austria and Prussia wore approaching the frontiers; diiferences sljbsisted in the army ; nor was general Dumourier, who had succeeded to the command on the retirement of La Fayette, generally confided in, either by tlie 320 MODEIirv iilSTORY. army or the faction. To lessen the numbei' of aristocrats, nriuny suspected of belonging to that pr.rty were hurried to prison, where, without scruple, and with such barbarity as is not to be paralleled in the records of history, they A\'crG almost all assassinated, to the amount, as it has been estimated, of not less than five thousand. This happening on the second of September, all ivho were con- cerned in it, as principals or abettors, were denominated Septem- b)-izers. 8. These were but preludes to a catastrophe, if possible, still more shocking; a murder perpetrated with a studied deliberation, and with all the mockery of Ieg;d forms and ceremonies. However hastened by the hostile approach of the confederate powers, and the injudicious threats they threw out in case any -violence shoul(l be offered to the king's person, nothing could possibly excuse the perversion of justice, and gross inhumanity ^vhlch marked the trials of the king and qucea; nothing exceed the melancholy circumstan- ces of their imprisonment and execution! On the 11th of Decern her, 1,792, the king appeared before the convention, to hear the charges preferred against him. " You are accused," said the president, " by the French nation, of having committed a multitude of crimes, ibr the purpose of re-establiiiuug your tyranny by the destruction of liberty." He then entered into a few particulars. The king, with great dignity, replied, "No existing laws prohibit- f>d me fro-ii doing as I did ; Thad no wish to injure my subjects, no intention of shedding their blood." Further accusations were pressed upon him, from which he defended himself with the samo tirmness and simplicity of language, the same coolness and intre- pidity of mind. He declared boldly, that his conscience ful.y ac- quitted him of the things laid to his ciiarge, and appealed to the whole course of his boliaviour and carriage towards them as king, to exonerate himself from the horrid imputatioi^ of having been eager and ready to shed the blood of his people. This charge, 4n- deed, rested solely on the events of the 10th of August, when the rabble broke into the palace of the Tuilleries, and not only men- aced the lives of the king and his family, but are allo^^ed to have begun the sanguinary part of the conflict, by the murder of live of his Siviss guards. It was not till after this event that the rest of these failhful adherents tired upon the aggressors, and drew upon themselves the vengeance that terminated so fatally, for they were all destroyed. 9. It having been resolved that the judgment and decision of the case should i-est with the national representatives, the convention met on the 15th of January, 1,793, to discuss the question of the king's guilt, upon the charges so loosely and so maliciously brought against him, when it appeared that only thirty-seven were disposed to think favoui'ably of his conduct. Six hundred and eighty-three members, with little or no hesitation, some, indeed, with the most cruel eagerness and exultation, pronounced him guilty. An attempt was made to procure a reference of this matter to the people ; but it was over-ruled by a majority of one hundred and thirty-nine. 10. Having determined the question of his guilt, that of his pun- ishment became the next subject of discussion. It was proposed to decide between detention, banishment, and death. After a de- bate, in which the amiable monarch seemed to be regarded by many as despotism personitied, no less than three hundred and sixty-one, c«-) according to some accounts, three hundred and sixty -six members*, MODERN 1 lis TORY. 321 voted peremptorily for death ; and on a further question, whether the execution of the sentence should be suspended or take place immediately, the votes for the latter amounted to three hundred and eighty against three hundred and ten. The king was to be informed of the result of their proceedings, and to suffer death in twenty -four hours afterwards. The advocates for the king were allowed to address the assembly, and to move an appeal to the people, but with- out effect. On the motion of Robespierre, the decree was pro- nounced irrevocable, and the king's defenders debarred from any further hearing. 11. On the 21st of January his majesty, having previously taken leave of his family, and performed the services o'" devotion, \v;vs conveyed to tlie place of execution ; nothing couKi exceed the pious resignation with which he submitted to the cruel and unjust sentence which doomed him to death, and during his passage to the square of the revolution, where the guillotine was erected, he be- trayed no symptoms of tear or anger. On the scaffold, he manifest- ed a strong desire to address the crowd ; but the drums were made to sound louder, and he was rudely bidden to be silent ; in a moment after, his head was severed from his body, and shewn to the people as the head of a tyrant and a traitor! 12. History, both public and private, has borne ample testimony to the falsehood of the charges brought against him ; every nation ii» Europe concurred in condemning the conduct of the French regi- cides ; and though, in exciting the resentment of fresh enemies, England and Spain particularly, it threatened the ruin of the new republic ; it appeared by no means to have satisfied the blood-thirsty vengeance of the rulins^ faction. The democratic, or republican party, had long been split into two divisions, and their opposition to each other seemed at this time to be at the height. Brissot, who headed the Girondists, (so called from the department of Gironde, which some of that side represented,) was still aUve ; Robespierre, Danton, and Marat, directed the movements of the opposite faction ; tor some time previously called the Mouihtain, from the elevated seats they occupied in the hali of the convention. 13. It seemed now to be a question which of these turbulent par- ties should obtain the uHcendancy ; and a contest of this nature was not likely to be decided without a much larger effusion of blood, " The reign of terror"" still continued, and many more victims were preparing for the stroke of that fatal instrume'nt, which seemed to have been timely invented for the quick and incessant course of decapitation and destruction now adopted. Had any thing been capa- ble of producing domestic union, it might have been expected, from the formidable conteder;icy of foreign powers, armed against the na- tion ; for, in addition to Austria and Prussia, England, Spain, and Portugal, were at open war with France ; while a royalist party had arisen within its own conlines, of rather a formidable d'escription, considering the strength of the enemies without, and the distracted state of the government. II. Though such was the situation of the country, with regard to foreign powers, and royalists at home, the struggle between the Girondists and Robespierrean faction was carried on at Paris with the utmost violence and precipitation ; but the Mountain prevailed. Tiie leaders of the Brissotines were arrested and confined in the month of May. and on the 31st of October following, all executed- Brissot himselt' saw sixteen of his party guillotined before it came to 41 322 !\50DKR?N iiiSTOilY. his turn, and four were boheaded afrerward's Many of them were persons of considerable talents, and not destitute of private virtues, had they lived in less turbulent and trying times. 15. Horrible as this execution must have been, one still more appalling had engaged the attention of the people, on the same spot, only tifteen days beibre. Loaded with insults, and deprived of every possible comtbrt or consolation, '• the widow of Lewis- Capet," as they chose to call their queen, (a princess of Austria, and daughter of the high-minded IMaria Theresa,) had not been suffered to enjoy one moment of repose from the day of the king's execution ; prep- arations were soon after made for her own trial, which, if possible, was conducted in a manner still more revolting to every feeling mind, than that which had been adopted in the case of her unhappy consort. Her guilt and her punishment were as soon decided upon; but even after this sad act of vengeance and injustice, shocking circum- stances of ignominy, degradation, and persecution took place, scarce- ly to be credited as the acts of any portion of a people at all advanced in civilization ; she was cast into a dungeon, and delivered into the custody of a gaoler seemingly selected on purpose to insult over her misfortunes, and aggravate her sufierings. On the dreadful day of her execution, she was conveyed to the scatibld in a common cart, with her hands tied behind her, amid the brutal shouts of an infuriat- ed populace. Thus died, in the 38th year of her age, the queen of one of the greatest kingdoms of tlie earth ; a princess, who, though not entirely free from, laults, had, till this fatal revolution, lived in all the splendour and luxury of a court, the marked object, not only of admiration and aduUttion, but of homage so profound, and, in some instances so servile and ensnaring^ as to palliate and account for all the errors of her short, but eventlul life. SECTION XIU. GREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE CONCLUSIOiS OF THE AMERI- CAN WAR, 1,783, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS, 1,802. 1. From the peace of Versailles, in 1,783, to the commencement of the year 1,793, Great Britain kept free from war, though not without some d'sputes with ibreign powers, and occasional calls upon her to interpose, as an ally or mediatrix, in the affairs of other states, Holland particularly. Soon after the termination of the American war, extraordinary changes in the administration took place. The ministry that negotiated the peace, at the head of which was the earl of Shelburne, was displaced, and succeeded by, what was called the coalition ministry, from the ^extraordinary cir- cumstance of Mr. Fox and lord North becoming joint secretaries of state, after an opposition peculiarly animated, and a positive declara- tion on the part of the former, that they differed so in principle as to render such an union for ever impracticable. 2. The unpopularity of such an apparent dereliction of principle, as might reasonably be expected, rendered their continuance in power extremely precarious, and it was not long before their re- moval was effected, in consequence of a bill brought into parlia- ment by Mr. Fox. to regulate the affairs of India. The measure was judged to be fraught with danger to the constitution, by throw- ing too much power into the hands of a board of commissioners, to MOJ)EKiN HlS'l'ORY. 323 he chosen by parliament, and though it passed the conimons, it was thrown out by the lords, and the ministry dismissed. 3. Mr. Pitt, a younger son of the great lord Chatham, now came hito power, not in any subordinate >^itua(ion, but as premier, though at the early iige of twenty-four, and under circumstances peculiarly embarrassing, for he had long to contend against a majoi'ity of the house of commons, who threatened to stop the supplies, and effect his removal, as not enjoying the confidence of the people. This Ijeing judged too great an interference wilii the prerogative, and nany addresses being presented to the king to retain him in his service, the parliament was at length dissolved, and the issue turned Jut to be extremely lavourable to the choice of his majesty. 4. The affairs of India manifestly requiring the interposition of government, Mr. Pitt, as soon as possible, procured a bill to that effect to be passed, according to which a board of control was to be appointed, not by pariiament, but by the crown. Though this in- creased in some degree the influence of the latter, it was judged to be far less hazardous than the proposal of Mr. Fox, which threatened to throw such a power into the hands of the minister and his friends, as might enable them to overawe the sovereign,* and render their removal almost impracticable. Mr. Pitt's bill, also, was found to in- terfere far less with the chartered rights of the company. It passed the lords, August 9, 1,784. 5. Anoiher measure of considerable importance occupied the at- tention of the minister, during the year 1,786, which was expected to contribute greatly to the support of public credit. This was the establishment of a new sinking fund, by appropriating the annual sum of one million, to be invariably applied to the liquidation of the public debt. At a subsequent period, a sinking fund of still greater importance was established, by which every future loan was to carry with it its own sinking fund. This was proposed to the house in 1792, and readily adopted; it consisted in raising one per cent., besides the dividends upon every new stock created, to be applied by the commissioners for the reduction of the national debt, in the same manner, and under the same regulations as the original mil- lion.* 6. From the commencement of the year 1,7B6, to the year 1,795, the attention of the British parliament was in a very extraordinary manner occupied with the charges brought against Mr. Hastings, governor-general of Bengal, in February, 1,786. Mr. Burke, whose mind had been long affected by the abuses practised in India, by the servants of the company, had appeared for some time to have fixed his eye upon Mr. Hastings, as a fit object of prosecution ; and he now moved for papers to substantiate the charges upon which 'ne meant to impeach him. These charges being discussed in par- liament, during the session of 1,787, ancl referred to a committee, were confirmed by the house of commons, on the 9th of May, and the articles of impeachment exhibited to the house of lords, on the 14th ; in consequence of n'hich Mr. Hastings was taken into cus- tody, but, on the motion of the lord chancellor, admitted to bail. The trial did not commence till February 15, 1,788, was continued not only through the whole of that parliament, though very sl/jwiy, but after much debate, determined to be pending on the commence^ * By this provision every loan would have its own fund, which woul(i operate at compound interest, and discharge the debt hi forty sevvri yean at the longest, from the time it was first incurred. 3il4 MODEllN HISTORY. ment of the new parliament, 1,7G0, and not brought to a conchisioo till the month oi" April, 1,793. 7. The question whether the impeachment abated on the dis- solution of parliament, appearing to involve a constitutional point of the highest importance, was discussed with singular attention, and a large display of legal and parliamentary knowledge. The l;iw members of both houses were never perhaps so divided in theii opinions; but the numerous precedents cited by Mr. Pitt seemed dearly to decide the question as follows : that though legislative processes are abated by prorogation or dissolution, it is not so with regard to judicial procl hi ;;;■ I nmnngsl us. and that (he lirst arm stretcheil ;,ut t'i''savo ;',;id in i -i ' (■ a large pnjportion of our lellow-crea'iures fidin tlio most alijecl >lavery and cruel tor tures that ever weic inilioioJ, ^\ as the arm of a Bi'ium 11. The parliament 1»: ing prorogu^-d on the 1 1th of July, 1,7J8, to the 2Ulh of JNovenil:"!-, was compeUed to meet on the day ap- pointed, by circumstanc s nf a nii;st disirossing kind. His majesty, probably through e\( ess ol' iiu^iiiess, (o which he was known to devote more time an 1 labour tiian could well be consistent with his health, was seized with an illness which totally incapacitated him from discliarging the functioni^ of bis high and exalted sialion. It must appear strange, that by the br.vs and constitution of the realm, so little provision had been made lor a catastrophe by .no meaiis out of U.ie line of probability, that it liocam.' a question' into what hands the suspended executive had de\o;ved, and this ltd, as might be expected, to very uann and unporlant i!e!);ttes ia parlia- ment. Tiiough the pnnce of Wales, being of i'nil age, did not person- ally claim the regency as matter of right, his party did. The min- ister, Mr. Pitt, contended that it belonged to parliament to supply die deliciency ; and tliis question being stated, it was judged expe dient to debate it, ;i;..l - liL' it by votci The decnion upon this occasion was entirely in lavour of the power of paiiiament to appoint the regent, none t'uuibting, however, that the heir apparent was the tit object of such appointment. Other questions were agitated at the same time, oi equal importance ; particuhu'ly liovv far restrictions could be insposed by parliament, in regard to the ex- ercise of preiogatives, tlse u/'io/e of which were reasonably enough supposed to be esscntld .to the government cf the country. This question also u-as deciiled in fuour of the rninistf^r, wlio had proposed restiictions, wi'Ji an uncicrsi:uulJag, ho',ve\er, tliat tluy could only ap})ly to a lempo<-ary suspen,sion of t!ie kingly power. In this case also, the care of tli;; kingV; person was assigned not to ihe regent, but to the queen. One threat difiicultv remained after all the discussions upon the regency, h v^as doiruted how t!;e lord chancellor could be empowered to put t'i\e great seal to a commission for opening the sessions of parliament, s(,_as to restore " the ellicacy of legislation:" it was decided that he mi§,bt be directed to do it in the name of the king, by authority ol^ the two houses. 12. Fortunately for the p-ib-'c, this tirst illness cf his niajesty was of so short duration, as to render unnecessary all the changes that had been contemplated. Early in the year l,7o9, tlie lord chancellor v/as able to announce to the houses of p.u'iiauent, the perfect recovery of the king. Nothing could exceed the transports oijoy with vviiich this intelligence was received througiiout the whole kingdom. A national thanksgiving was appointed, a.nd his majesty went himself in great state tf> &c. Paufs, to otu r up his grateful devotions on the event. The illuminations on the occasion v/ere so general, that it is probable, trom the accoimts given of Ee S26 MODERxN HiSTOilY. them, that sciucely a coti;!ge in the most remote pfirisi of the \s\.:n(] \v;t3 witijoui Jls show n) loyalty iind aiiecuuu. The app('aranr;e of lIic inelropoh?, in paitici)l;ir, was most extraordinary, and notwith- standing the immense concourse ot" people that continued almost the whole night in the street.'?, and the crowded throng of carriages and horsi^s, so strong a disposition was shown by nil ranks and desoi'iption.s of persons to conduct things peaceably, that fewer accidents occurred than wer« ever known beibre in similar cases. 13. ll should be noted, as a matter of general history, that had not his !n:nesty recovered so opportunely, dillicuities of an extraor- dinary nature might have ensued, from the dilVcrent proceedings of the two legislatures of Great Bi-itain and Ireland. While in the ibrmer it was decided that the prince could not assume the regency, as matter of right, and that the parliament bad a power to impose restriclions, in Ireland, his right appeared to be acknowledged by the two houses agreeing to address him, to take upon him immediately tha government of that kingdom, during the king's incapacity, and with the usual powers of royalty. 14. In the year 1,789, the proceedings in France began to occup- the attention of Europe, and of England in particular. A struggle lor freedom seemevl to be so congenial to the spirit of the people oi' liie latter country, that it is not to be wondered that the commencement of so extraortlinary a revolition should excite the strongest sensa- tions. Unfortiniately the abuses in the French government wore so m:iny, and some of them so entirely contrary to every principle of reason and equity, that it soon became apparent that nothing less than a railical change, and revolution of every existing institution and establishment, would satisfy the disturbed minds of that volatile people ; minds unhappily prepared not mt.'rely to resist oppression, but to throw off every restraint of religion and moraiity. Su':h an exnmple, theretbre, required to be^vatched and guarded against, in a country whose Cree constitution supplied its own means of refer m.ition in every case of necessity, and where tumultuary proceedings cojid only lead to ends the most fatal and deplorable. Mr. i'il« seemed aware of this, and though his measures of precaution weie supposed occasionally to press too hardly on the libertj of the sub- V:'ct, it must bo admitted that a very improper intercourse was at times carried on between the several popular associa'ions in Eng'aml and lr(d;nid, and the national assembly of" France. The objecf of the bitter, in its replies to the addresses presented 'o it, being, accord- ing to all reasonable interpretation of the terms used, to invite and encourage the discontented of all countries to 'iillow their example, nhich was every day becoming more 'Violent and anarcbic;:!, liiis was not all; emi.ssaries were employed to propagate theii pr;ncif)les in other countries, many of whom came to England, and m.'t with an encouragement not to be overlooked by a government pi'operly sensible ot tiie dangers to be incurred by any adoption of sich senlimcnts raid principles, in a country so very difierenlly silu- aled from that of France, iilngland had long ago done for herself what France was now attempting: and though no such clianges and re\o!utions can be expected to lizke place without some violence, yet England had passed through this ordeal, and accomplished her point a whole century before France began to assert her liberties. It was iittle less than an insu'l to every true Englishman, therefore, to aV.empt to sUr h-im > ■) to such violent proceedings as had ah'eady bean x-":Hitie,- j.^--, • ' ' • Kinclioned by the French revolutionists; but MODFJIN niSTOKY. (hat «iich attempts wpre making, cr>n\(] not but be too obvlouo. Oh the Unh of Noveiul>tir, 1,792, the nation;il assembly pa^setl a decree, thai tney \voulil grant fraternity and assistance to all who might wish to recover their liberty. This was two months after they liacl pro- claimed the eternal aboliiion of royalty, and imprisoned the king: after they had declared hereditary nohiiity to be incompatible wiin a bee state ; and thns, by implication, declared that Englan.i and mo^t jf the other states of Europe were not free. It wasal'lerwards proved» by their own acknowledgment, that before any declaration of Avar, more tlian a million sterling had been sent to England from the national treasnry of France, for purposes strictly revolutionary, No country was free from these political . A iresh revolution in the government of France, about this time, having thrown the executive power, in a great measure, hito tlie hands of a supreme magistrate, the tirst consul, and over- tures ior peace Having been n::n\e by Buonaparte in that capacity, much liiscussion upon the sulject took place between the ministers of the two countries, but without elltct. The Austrians having sustained a defeat in Italy, had solicited and obtained a suspension of hostilities, and entered upon some negotiations for peace, to v\hich England was invited to become a party, upon consenting to a naval i^'-misticp, but her maritime power stood so high, that wiiile Malta coi.*jnued subject to France, and the French army unsubdued in t'gyP'^r she could not reasonably be expected to forego such advan- tages, ancto place lierself upon a footing with her continental ally, whose situar.",n was so ditferent. Her determination to continue the war, was soon Allowed by the surrender of Malta, on the 5th of Sep- tember, 1,800, an neu- trals, seemed to have been acknowledged ior many centuries, .-^ a principle of maritime law; upon the system of the armed neutralil>,, it was contended that ships under convoy shonlii pass free, the liag of the neutral power being snfhcient pledge and security that the cargoes were not contraband of wj-.r. The claim in this case being eviilently directed against England, then, and at all times mistress of the sea, rendered it a point of extreme importance; one which she could not surrender without a contest, or armed negotiation ; otherwise, and if it had not been decidedly in favour of her opi^o- nents, the connttHiance given *o the new system by so many states of Europe, Russia, Denmark, Sweuen, Prussia, Naples, France, Spain, Holland, Austria, Portugal, Venice, and Tuscany, (for by some steps or other they all seemed disposed to adopt the si^iit of it,) might have been expected to amount to a formal recognition of its principle, as a proper law of oatious j the dispute, however, upon this occasion^ MODERN HISTORY. 333. was settled at Petersburg, by negotiation, after the accession of the emperor Alexander, and attended with concessions on the part of the Baltic pouers, of singular iinportanco, thougli less comp'ele than thej' might have been, owing to the counter cor.cessions of Britain. Thus, though it was decided that enemy's pro})erty embarked on boiird neutral slups, should be liable to conliscation, and that the right of searching merchant ships, even under convoy of a ship of war, should be recognized, yet, it was at the same time determined that arms and ammunition only should be considered as contraband, and that the right of searching merchant ships under convoy shouhl appertain exclusively to vessels belonging to the royal navy. If not entirely decisive, however, the stipulations of this celebrated con-, vention highly deserve to be looked up to as a proper standard of. the rights of neutrahty. 31. During the contest that arose with England, out of this con- federacy of the nothern powers, tne king of Frusshi, one of the con-' tr;icting parties, saw tit to take possession of the king of Great Brit- ain's electoral states of Hanover, but on the change of afl'airs in Russia, was speedily induced to resLore them. 32. By the treaty of peace concluded at Luneville, between the emperor of Germany and France, February 9, 1801, Enerlaod was left without an ally, and a change oi' ministry having taken place about the same thne, may be said to havo haa the tbundation for more serious negotiations tor pp:>cc, on the part of England and France, than had liitli^iiio taken place since the commencement of the revolution. Nothing, however, seemed to hasten it so mujh as the defeat of the French army in Egypt, and the settlement of the differences between England and the Baltic powers, which enabled her to negotiate with more advantage, and greatly lower- ed the spirit of the i^'rench government. Preliminaries were signed on the tiist of October, l,tJUl, and a detinilive treaty concluded at Amiens, between Great Britain and the French republic, Spain and Holh'rtdi on the 25th of March, 1,302. By this treaty, England pfiiained Ceylon from the Dutch, and Trinidad from tne Spaniards, relinquishing all her other conquests ; Malta being given back to the knighls of St. John of Jerusalem, under the guarantee of the principal powers of Europe. SECTION XIV. FRANCE, FROM THE DEATH OF THE KING AND QUEEN, AND OVERTHROW OF THE GIRONDIST OR BRISSOTINE PARTY, 1,'J93, TO THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DIREC- TORY, 1,795. I. Thk situation of France, towards the close of the year 1,793, was deplorable in the extreme. It lay at the mercy of a fjictiori not merely blood-thirsty, but which nothing but blooil would satis- fy. The jacobins, or Robespierrean party, determined to root out every li.ing that could, by the remotest implication, be denounced as adverse to their plans, procured a decree to be passed, exceed- ing every thing that can be conceived in atrocity. Such was the oi sur les suspects.^'' passed in September, by which their agents ing 334 MODERN IIISTOKY. in all parts of the ronntry were empowered to arrest, imprison, anfl thereljy doom to destruction, wfioinsoever •.?uspici(m in iinx manner attached to. not merely as principals, but as connected witti principals, however unavoiJably, naturally, or accidentally. One article alone will explain the rest The tbllowing are the persons dnnoanced in the 5th : — All of the ancient class of" nobihly ; all hus- bands, wiyes, fathers, mothers, sons, or daughters, brothers, sisters, or agents of emigrants, who shall not have constantly manit'ested an aitachinent \.o Xhi^ rrcobdion. The queen, the twtnty-two victims cf the Girondist parly, and general Custnie, may be considered as among the earliest and most distinguished i)ersniis that tell under the i>ower of this horrible faction. The due d'Oi leans, though not belonging to the (lirondist party, was denounced by Robespierre himself, as connected with thtm, and publicly executed on the 6th of November; but his life and conduct, both public and private, had been such, that he fell totally ui. regretted. It would be vain to attempt to relate the many dreadful events which marked this bloody period, it is to be hoped history will never again have to record sue!) complicated cruelties and r.iiseries, such premeditated murdere, surb sitndied torments, mental and b^jdily. 2. Or. liw 17th of Noveniber, of this memorable yeai, the cath- olic religion, ^ai th,> instance of an orclibislioji of Fans^ Go!)et !) was pubficiy al>inred l>y il.o convention, and decrees p:..-t, amidst the most tumultuous acclamations, for . ..( -jtiinting a religion of reason in its room. The chin-ciies were quickly despoiled of tl^oir nrnaments, the altars destroyed, civic feasts instituted instead of religious le.-ls- vais, and Liberty^ Kqmilily. &,c. consecrated as objects ol worship. Tl-.ese revolutionary and anti-catboiic decrees 'were moreover ordored to be translated into Italian^ on purpose that they might be transmitted in that most inlelligibie, and iherelore most otlensive shfipe, to the pojie. The calendar imderwent also a correction. A nev»' republican ii)rm and era being adoptrd and establisheil, to com- mence from the '■2'id ol September, XJ^id'-Z^ the day on uhieh tin- na- tional convention began its sittings, and royally \vas aboii>!ied. 'i'lit year was di\ided into t.velve parts, of thirty days eacli, v!i>iiuguished acfordiug to llie prevalent .seasons, Vtndcnmirc^ Septemb.^r and Oc- tober ; /im//«/i>e, October and November : Frimaire^ Nuvemiier and nece.nber; jV'reose, December and January; Fliiviosp, .lanuary and i''elii'uarv ; l^enlose^ l''ebru;'ry and March ; Gcnninal^ iMarcli and ."kpril ; Florr(n\ April and Mav ; Frairial., May and .lune; Alcssulor. June and July; Thcniiidor, July and August; Fructulor, August and September. The S.ibbath was ai)olislied, and live complinientary days adiled, all commemorative of the involution. ICach month was divided into three decades, and a respite Irom labour allowed on every tenth day. :l'lt was not pas'^ible to suppose that those who ruled during thi-; dark '"'' reign ■>/ terror^'' could long be suffered to retain their power and station in the republic. I'oriunntely for the good ol human society, their very ciimes I'endered them jealous and sus- picions of eacii other, so thai bel'ore many months had passed, ilier ttie execulion of the queen ansolines, the earlh was fill of such monslers, jiroscribed and driven to the scalloi.i liy their own frieihb and associates in wickedues.-j; l(nl)es!.ierre, trem'wiion* tile fiction chieliy took its denomination, being'at length accused, condemned, and execited, ia the course of a tew hours in the month of July, 1,794, to the satisfaction of the whole civilized world- Be- MODERN lllSTOKY. 335 fore this gront day ot retribution, however, one moie victim of roy- ally \V!S brought to the sciiflolil, wiiose sole (jiTcnce must Iv.ivo been the heroic Jisj)iiiy slie ii;i(i miide, in Ik-i' ooiislaut aitendiuice upon Ihi; kiii.J, her brollier, aiul iii- mo-l unhappy laiiiiiy, ol' every anha- hle virtue that could adorn a woman. Tho princess Elizabetii, who liad couliuued in tiie temple, \-. ill: llio two ciiildrer oi" liie uuhappy Le»vis XV'l., from the period oi" his e\'ecutioii, was brougiit l)e(i.i'e tlje revolutionary tribunal, accused of '•• accompanying tlie late Idnt; A'hen he attempted liis e>cap;: ;"" ot' having " isltendcd npon and :vA- iiiiaislered heip to tlie ^vollnded in the conliict vvitii the guards;"" and of '"'iiaving encouraged her ini'anl nepiiew, l,eius \Vi!., in en- tertain hopes ot' ascending the tiirswu' oi" liis fatiier;" and upon Uae charges sentenced to die, Maj lU, 1,7U1, and executed without pity or remorse. 'I. It vv;i«i Jurmg the year 1,793, tliat Napoleon Buonaparte, a na tive of Corsica, had hrst an oppori unity of ilistinguisliing himself in tl»e French army, being empioyod in the direction of the arlillei-v a1 tlie siege of Toulon, wliich had I'alli'n for a sliort time into the liatuis of (lie h^nglish. Hith'-'rto the war against tho powers in opposition to !•' ranee, had been carried on in a most d.^'sullory and extraordinary manner, with more success certainly on tlie part ul' the Frencn than could have been expected, fnjm tlie uxlraurdinary condilion and cii- cumslances of their arniii's, and the slrangi' slate ot' respon.^itiiiilv in whicii tlieir commanders were placed hy their ruiei's at lionie. •Some of their generals were compelled to desert, many were pro scribed, and m.uiy, al'ier displaying the utmost \ aiour in tlie lielu, were actually brought to the scalfoid. Neverthele'^-, the ir~p-iise given to the revolutionary army, by tlie circuni^laiices of lir.dr cari of their opponents, tnabled it to combat eftl'clually against much better organized troops, and to resi>t the attacks that were made upon it in ail quar- ters; tor in addition to tlie Austriin-J and rrn-sians, Sardinian-, r^ig- lish and Spanish, in La \ eiidee a.ad other dei)annunils, a cull war prevailed, where many ads oi" iieni-ni, indeotl, were displayed by a brave, but unsuccessful band of royalists, who \iliimaieiy paid dear for their revolt, by the most horrid and disgraceful punish- ments. b. The French revolution had now attained that pitch of extrav- agance and disorder, whicii kft no liopus of any lieck oi termi- nation, but that which actuiJ'V ensued, nameiv. a nulitary despo. tism. According to tl'.e jvmarksof one of the able-t members of tiie hi-st national assemJ'fy, one who was siicriliced at the period we have been treating of, in a way the most treacherous and iVMjllinir to every I'ueling min.l, the French rcvoiulion biing nnderiaken not for the sake of men, hut for the sake of opinioii, had no dislinct leader, no Cromwell or Fairfix. All were leaders, all instilutors, all equally interested in the course of alliiirs. Such a revoiuticn, he observes, must be commenced by ail, but he was sagacious enougli to foresee that it would probably be terminated by oue. All, iiowever, for a cert dn tim;', bei.ig fsidors and insliiutcrs, nothing could ensue from su:h a siaU,' of tilings, hul continual struggles to be uppermost; continual denuncialious and proscrii)tiou- of rival jiarlies; and a strange succe-;sion of new ccnstiliiiious, and v.ew forms of gov- ernment, as any opening seemed to occur for bringing things to a gettlement. ti. The death of Robespierre, and of many of his accompUces, 33G MODERN illSTOKY. clearly afforded siich an opening, if not for settling, '{{{' feast lot ameliorating things ; but for some time the con\ enlion 'ind the na- tion seemed to he in too great a surprise and consternulioii to jn'O- ceed with any method lo so desirable an end. The fuimer iiaving had its origin in the days of anarchy and confusion, seemed littie prepared lo defend or support its own dignity, but the cry of hti- manity began again to be raised, and to be lieard, and in no long course of time after tlie defeat of llobespierre, the jacobin club, | ,Votn which had emanated all the previous acts and decrees, so disgraceful to France, was abolished and dissolved, by a decree of the coinention. The reformation of the laws and government gave greater trouble. The pain of death had been decreed against any who should propose to set aside the ronstiluiion of 1,793, and with this sentence hanging over Ihem, all the people had sworn to uphold and maintain it. Tired, however, of the absolute nnd un- controllable power they had exercised, many members, even of the convention, sincerelj' wished for more limited authority. A com- mittee was appointed to prepare a new code of laws, and, in the mean time, processes were carried against sorr.c of the most violent bi' the abettors of the late tumults and disorders, particularly the commissioners who had sanctioned the most dreadful proceedings at Lyons, Nantes, Orange, and Arras. The execrable law nndep which they had acted, "• Loi des suspects," was repealed, and a just vengeance directed against those who had been most forward to car- ry it into execution. 7. At length a new constitution was framed, presented to the convention, and approved. Two legislative councils, one of live hundred members, and the other of two hundred and tifly, were t >_enact the laws; the former to propose, the latter to saiiction or reject them. The executive government was ccmniiifcd to iivo directors, chosen by the legisiature, but whose responsibility was i!l-detined, and their connexion with the legislative bodies not sulii- ciently provided ibr, either as a balance, or controlling power. It was not without other limits and blemishes, but it may undoubtedly fee regarded as making a much nearer approach to onier and reg- ularily, than the one which it was intended to supersede. It was forniiUly accepted and proclaimed, September 23, 1,795.* S. This may be considered as the third conslHution established since the firsl meeting of the slftU^s-general, in 1,789; great objec- tions were made to one article, whicli spcured the relurn of a very large proportion of the members of the comention, to .serve in the new legislature. Tumults were raised in the sections of Paris, and an attack made upon the convention, which, however, was at last rescued from the violence of the mob. Buonaparte, wiio was then at Paris, was appointed to act upon this occasion in defence of liic assembly. 0. Externally, the affairs of France may be said to have been a? this moment in a high and extraordinary degree of prosperity. The campaigns of 1,794 and 1,795, committed to the charge of very al)le generals, Pichegru, Sonham, Jourdan, Kleber, Moreau, and 3Du- gommier, had hitherto succeeded beyond their utmost expectations. The Belgian slates, and the uniled provinces, hud not only been * The directors being Reubel, Letourneur, Lareveillere-I.epaux, Bar- ras, and Sieyes ; but the latter decliniug the honour, Caruot supplied his place niODEllN HISTORY. 337 wrested from the hnnfi- of thoir dofenflpr';, the Anstriar.s, Pnissians, anJ BriLish, hut ;)sso<-!:iifii ^.i',illile IVeuc'i ie;iiil>'ic in ;i' ciose coti- iedenicy. The sLioHicrlo;--^.,!!' \sm< u^.\n\ ;i!.<.,, ^.i,sl, j.nd the sladt- liohler iind his I'lruiiv obiij^i'd to l;iivc iV'liu!' i!i l"ii;^l:!tid. In liie mv,\n timi>_, peace luul bjeii conchid,?:! wiUi liiiiiiy ol' tiie l>ehii;ei-(>iit powers, liighly advanla^eous (o riMnc; wilh rru^-ia, .Spalii, ihii laiid-^rave ol'lies^se, the grand duke of 'ruscany, and oiliers ; wliile *he navi;;atioa of tiie rivers Riiino, Meusc, and Scheldl, had hceii rendered i'ree, in all their courses and brandies, to the people <.f France. These proceedi;ij;s, with regard to the Belgian stide* arid Holland, were tiie commencement of a system pursued jrom l!,.tl ti-na on all the frontiers of the new repul'lic. By a decree of tiie national assembly, the French generals were directed to prociaiiu even'v where the sovereignly of the ^*«yj/c, to suppi'oss all auUiorilies and privileges, to repeal ail taxes, and L'Staoli-h jjrovi-ional g(.\ei'n- rnenls on democratic principle-. By this system of "frulcnv.zutim)^'' ^ •■i< it wa-i called, tiie subdue.) countries being formed inio re).ub;ios,' ^^ rcpuljliqucs sutellues,'''' as they were siguilic.iiitiy denoiuiiiated by llie French themselves, \vere a-;>ociat.'d \vilh Fr.ince as sulioivhivile states. Ol'tlie states first re'obitionized in Ibis mai'.ner, the j;;ita\ian republic look ih(! leail, surrendering to Fr.mee, witliout In siiation, the ciiii'f of her foriresscs, and thu'< cxleiidiug, and at ihe same time protecting her tVoiilier. The mi-lake ^he m ule in thus welcoming the French, was but too soon discovered. The French levied heavy contriiiutions ; the faigiish took from them many of their l"oreign Settlements, and particularly the cape of Good Hope, and the island of (Jeylon. 10 "In the month .of Juno, 1,795, Louis XVll., the urdoi'tunate son of Louis XVI., died in the temple, under circuiastances ex'.remely suspicious, and very deploraiile, having been some time in tiie i;u-;- lody of a low-born drunken wretch, \vho did every thing he couid to Tiisult and torment him, and unl.rmine his healih. He was in (he eleventh year of his age at the lime of his death, iris sislc^r, the princess royal, (the present duchess of Angouleme) wrTS soon atlei- v/ards most happily released from her miserable prison, whence i, father, mother, and aunt, had been successively led to execution. and wiiere an only brother had died a victim to cruelty, and perhaj>* poiso'.i. Her royal highness \vas cxclianged tor certain members of the late convention, who had been delivered up to the allies, by the l^enerals who had incurred the displeasure of their rulers at Paris, or had fallen into the hands of the enemy by other accidents. SECTION XV. FU.VXCE, FR0:S1 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE DIRECTORY, 1,795, TO THE PEACE OF AMIENS. 1. ThE appointment of the five directors, was an act of policy on the part of the ruling members of the convention, who thought it better to hazard such a division of the executive power, than to give umbrage to the people, by the renewal of a first magistrate* though an elective one. As these new ofiicers, however, owed their nomination to the influence of those members of the late con- vention who were chosen to form a part of the legislative bodyj a Ff 43 538 MODERN HTSTORY. close union was soon found to subsist between the iIirectoi"S and the ' cnajoiity of the council. i. The council of ;incien(s, consisting of two hundred and /:fty members, at tir-st appeared to ibrm tlie ()ul\vark of (lie new coiisU- iution ; liaving no share in the framing of tlie hiw;-, they were aide to interpose with the greater dignity in pronouncing tlieir judgment upon such as were reterrcd to them, and olton exercised the re- stored privilege of the veto beneticially for the public. The judi- cial murders of tiie reign of terror were terminated, and the guv- e iicaten."' The Austrian army in those, parts was commanded I.T :;;eneral Beauiieu, an oilkcr peculiarly active and enlerpiising. (iiieral Buonaparte took the commantl of tiie Trench armv on the :;i ill (.f March, and between tlie 12lh and loth of April, beat the .\;;stiian troops in three distinct engagements, at IMontc'iiotte, Mil- !i»imo (or Montelezino,) and J3ego. in the space ot four days, it -b.is h-ien computed, that the Austi'ian army was diminished to tiie aliiount of 15,liUU men, being separated a.t the same lime frOm their t'iedmontese idlies. After the battle of iJego, Buonaparte advanced rapidly inlo Biedmont, nor did he stop till lie had arrived at the very gates of Turin. There he agreed to an iirmistice soliciled by the king, who was ignominiously compelleil to submit to his occu- [)yiug with French troops all the principal tbrtresses of liis coun- try, ilappy to be allowed to retain the capital, he was also obliged to cede Savoy, Nice, Tende, and Bcuil. i'rom Turin, Buona- parte pursuecf his course into Lombardy, and by the celebrated M0JJE1L\ HISTORY. SS9 battle of Lodi, ^n the 10th of May, obtained complete possessior, of the Milnnojse. 5. Ltivviliing to entor immediately mlo the narrow parts of It.ily in this stage of his proceediiigj^, he salisfieu himself n\ iih threaten- ing the i)0^3C and the king of JVaples, (ill he brought ihcni to terms of peace ; the former surrendering to the French j-ej-ublic, Bologna, Ferrara, and the orasts ol the Adriatic, from the months of the J'o, to Ancona; and the latter consenting to contribute largely to the maintenance of the French army, and to close his ports againft the enemies of Fiance. The dukes of Parma and Rlodena, made, submission in time to save their countries. The grand duke of" Tuscany luul previously acknowledged the French republic, hut was bidden very })eremptorily to exclude the English from the port of Leghorn. The submission of all these princes and states to the overwhelming force of the army under the command of Buo- naparte, was but part of the victory he obtained over them. In every step he took, he was careful, by new laws, treaties, and po- litical ai'rangements, to '"'' revolutionize'' the countries over which he obtained an ascendency by arms, and to incorporate them uilh t!ie Fiench lepuLlic. Savoy, Nice, and the Milanese, were thus brought under his dominion, and ultimatdy erected into distinct, tiicugh subordinate republics. <3. It was at the very commencement of the military career of this extraorilinary man, that he adopted a system of i)lunder, which, for a long lime, engaged the attention of the whole civilized world. In all the treaties concluded with the Italian princes, he stipnIaleJ that French artists should be admitted into then- public galleries, Tiuiseunis, and palaces, to select as many as they might choose, of the choicest peribrmances of the celebrated painters and sculptors of all ages, and cause them to be conveyed to Paris. French sentiment has dwelt upon the circumstance of the immortal Raphael, Titian, and Pomenicliino, having thus had it in their power, and in such crilicai moments, to pay the ransom of their native countries, ovei- looking the sad violation of sentiment occasioned by the removal of these jtrecious pledges of their stupendous talents" from the hands wliich had so lonj^ [jreservcd them, and from 'places of which they hid been so justly regarded as the choicest and most valuable ornaments. 7. The siege of Mantua was attended with many severe contlicls, Ou the reduction of that ifnportant place, Buonaparte is staled to hav e tt.us addressed his soldiers : " The capture of Mantua termi- n;iles a campaign which has justly entitled you to Ihe everlasting graiitude of yoiu' country. You have triumphed over the enemy in three iiilched battles, and seventy inferior engagements ; you have f.dicn a hundred thousand prisoners, til'ty field-pieces, two thousand baltering cannons. The country you have subdued has nourished, niaiiitaiiKMl, and paid the army during the whole campaign, and you Irive reniilled thirty niillions to the minister of finance, in aid of the puljiic treasuiy. Von have enriched the museum at Paris, with more than three hundred of the choicest and most valuable works of ari, both of ancient and modern Italy, and winch it had taken thirty agi'S to produce.'''' 8. Though we know from subsequent accounts of French victo- ries, that they are net always to be depended upon, yet there can be no doubt, that the above address does pretty I'airly describe the exlraordinurj rapidity and extent of Buonaparte''s tii-st operations 340 MODERN lliSTUKV. in the fip.ld. The years 1,796 i\nd 1,797, wore indeed marked by S'lf.li siirprisinsj iusliiiires of this iiiiluro, that they deserve a place ill l)i-.i()iv, ihcugh the piuiieiice and good gcMieiaisliii) of sucii jue- cipilnle steps iiii.s l*i;on n%ur,aiably questioned. Ahiiilua cajiilulnlcnl on the 2d of Fobniary, 1,797, and Duoir.ipnrle pursued his course in the direction of tlie Austrian capital, lea\ing Italy hehind Idni, with a view of penetrating to Vienna. Though oldiged to hglit his way, he succeeded, Marcli 2, 1,797, in taking possessicai ol' (imdis- ca, which laid open to him tlie provinces ol Cioritz, Carniola, and (Jarinlhia. 9. The Austrian grand army was commanded by the emperor's brother, the archduke Charks, an able general, a great tiivourile wiih the soldiei's, and who had coinhaled the French on the Kliiue nith sij;nal success. lie \vas not, however, strong enough to awidt the vipproHch of the French, who soon reached Leoben, only thiriy miles ffom Vienna, udiere great consternaticai was excited, and iho; iaiperi.d fnriily compelled to retire. As both armies, however, were brou^jiit into a v^ry critical position, nogolialions were en- tered into at this place, an armistice concluded on the 8th of Apiii, and prean.iaarios of peace signed on the loth of the same month, 1,797. 10. Before we notice the celebrated treaty of Campo-Formio, by vvhicli the peace was settled and confirmed, it may be lit lo con- sider the slate of those countries which Huonaparte had left behind on his march upon V'ienn;i. He had made peace on ids own terms («vom advantageous ones for France') with Fanna, IModena, Kome, and x\ iples. fie had overran Sa\oy, obtai;K'd pos-ession of the .Miia^iL's.:-, and reduced Manlua. irie had erected Cienoa into (he Li-^ii:i ai republic, an I the Milanese he converted into the Ci-^aipiue r--j)ub.ic,;d"ler h.iviii^ lirst given it the name of Transpad.ui:-, in retv-rence to the rive-r Fo, and in oontradi^dnction to the Ci-padane r.'puijiic, con-isting of iModena, Bologna, ileggio, and Ferrara, con- led:'ratc'd in 1,796. He had passed \ enice on his way lo 'J'riesie, of »vidc!i lie took possession on the 3d of Ajjril, 1.797. The Veneiians had aiiur.lod an asylum to Le>vis Xv 111., and wavei-ed greatly in taldng part either with the Ausii-ians or liie French not being able !o calculate upon tile i-sue of the contest. They h.ad also fallen into do nesiic broils and dissensions, which gave the FitMich cr.mniaud- (!r t!ie opporluniy lie always sought, of introducing a i'reucli army to allay their dider.Hice'-'. I'he consequences were, that liiey ini- mediileiy sei/..'d upon the licet, tlie loni.in islands, and, in I'acI, all Uie Veneiian states, uhicli eivUaed Buonap.irto greatly to improve 'he peace he was inakiag with the Ausiri ins. Aloania arid the loni- ■v.\ i-lanJs he kept to hi use!!'; to t!ie Cisalpine republic ise assigni'd Ihe western i'ars to h.ave been the ciu'f ii)undaiion oC iheceie ftnUed ti-eaty of €'aiii;)0-Fonnin, c<>iicliiv!ed between the emperor and tlie French republic, October, 17, 1,797. U. Treviously to the coaciusion of tli>'; treaty of-Caaapo-Forniio, MODEKiN' liiSTOiiV. 341 the iillics had lost three of their confederates, the dukes of Wir- teinlmig and Bavaria, and tlie Margrave of Baden, all of whom had f.)H!i(l it necessary to purchase peace ol' tlie directoi-y by heavy coiilributions. Such great advantages in its external relations ucre, however, far from conlrihiiting to the internal tranquillity of the republic. The first live directors, as might naturally have been expected, were by no means accordant in their views, or of equal taleiils and abilities; and provision seemed to have been macle lor iresh revolutions, by the continual recurrence of new elections, boiii in the legisia.tive assemblies and directory. One of the live dii'ectors vas annually to go out, and one third of each of the le- gislative bodies to be renewed. The tirst event of this kind, as miglit be expected, revived all the jealousies of rival parties, and produced an explosion almost as violent as any that had yet occur- red ; liie explosion of the ICth of Fructidor, as marked in the short- lived republican calendar. Le Tourneur quitted the directory by lot, and was succeeded by Barlhelemi, who soon appeared inclined to join Carnot against Reubel, Barras, and Larevilliere-Lepaux. The three lalter were for assuming a despotic power ; their oppo- nents were divided, some inclined to the restoration of royalty, oliicrs to the emancipation of the councils from the sway of the directors, Reubel and his two associates ; but as they tbrmed a mi- uorily, and their enemies were prompt in their measures of revenge, and iiad moreover the command of the mihtary, it was not long be- fore the latter obtained the victory they sought. On the 4lh of September, 1,797, tiie legislative assemblies wt?re surrounded with ^j'oops, and at the instance of the three ruling directors, two of their colleagues, (Carnot and Barlhelemi) several members of the tvvo coiiuciis, many pul)lic ministers, and many men of letters, declared guilty of ai.ti-Vepubiicah measures and principles, arrested and impri- soned ; and, on the 5th, sentenced to deportation to the unhealthy and remote settlement of Guiana, in South America. The authors, editors, dl rectors, and proprietors, of no less than forty-two public jf-u-nais wei-e included in the sentence. Some of the proscribed rneiiiticrs found means to escape ; but those who were conveyed to (juiana, suffered dreadfully from the voyage; many died from the umvholesomeness of the place, some found means to return to Europe, particularly general Fichegru and the ex-director, Barthelemi, who n'ere conveyed to England from the Dutch settlement of Surinam. 12. liuonaparte returned to Paris not long after these disturban- ces, and was received w ilh peculiar honours. The people began to look up to him for deliverance from the tyranny of three direct- ors; and l!ie latter were a? eager to remove him from the metropo- lis. In the midst of the honours paid to him, on account of his vic- tories in Italy and Germany, Barras, with great emphasis, nominat- ed him as the hero destined to place the tri-coloured Hag on the tower of London. Troops were actr.aliy assembled on the coasts of Fianders antl Normandy for the purpose ; hut Buonaparte him- self, seeing the impracticablility of such an; attempt, meditated more tiistant expedition. 13. In the course of the Tear 1,798, the system, began so suc- cessfully in Flanders and Holland, of revolutionking the countries into which the Frencii armies should penetrate, was earned to a great extent. ^Vatchful to seize upon every opportunity aflorded them by internal dissensions, the French this year obtained posses- sion ot Koine, Switzerland, the Pays de Vaud, the Gnsons, and Ff2 .54i> MODHKIN MISTOUr, Goneva, undp.r circnni«tnnce« peculiarly ili*tro«'iing to liie existing governments, am3 comrnotily wltciuied with lie:>vy cxaclioii!!, .ukI the piiHider of thf't oliiuclie"*, piilaces, and tniisemi.s. 'i'lie pope w.iri driven from Ivonic, p;irtiy hy Id^ own suhjt^cl*, and piuHy thmngli an overweening contidencc in \n^ own power and indii- ence. 'J"'liP Konian republic was prociaiined Keliniary la, l,7;)o; and the tinances being Ibuu'! in a bad slate, tlie Vatican and uliiei , public buildings slrippv*d of their contents. Tiie I'ays de N'aiid. ubitlier the French iiad been invited, to protect liieni agaitisl tlie ai-i-tocr.itic despotism of the Bernese, was l"ormed into the Lcnutiu and Switzerland, alter many ciaiel sacrilices, into the Jlclvclic re public, or rather into three republics, tor that was ultimately the arrangement adopted ; provisional governnjeiits being in ail plat.es appointed, conformably, in a great degree, to the ])rinciples of the French constitution. J>Jo remonstrances on the part of the free can- tons could save them from the directorial decrees. An address to this eilect, peculiarly pathetic and elocpient, frotn tlie cantons of S'liwi;/., Uri, Appeii/.el, Claris, Zug, and Underwalden, irad no etfect whatever in preserving them from a change of constitution, fiirccd upon them by (kuincmtic France. The degenei'ale lioimms Ijarl appeared to pride themselves upon emulating their heroic an- cestors, in re-establislung tlie republic, under the auspices of CiaHic invmlers. But the brave Swiss resisted to the utmost the rude dis- turbers of their ancient freedom. Tiie modern repulilicans of Home chanted a Te Deum. to hallow their deliverance. The Swiss sung their antiquated songs of patriotism and freedom, (ill the moussi-an army, under Souvaro'f, entered the latter country early hi the spring of the year l,7b9, and on the l3lh of April was at Verona. The. character and manners of this northern general, made a great im- pression both upon the aljied armies, and upon the inhabitants of the couatries he invaded The l-'rench, under the celebrated Rloreau, 344 MODERN lilSTOIlY. were obliged ti) fall back, leaving tnc Milanese exposed to the com- bined {orces. After various actions, Milan was invested ; and, after a nineteen days' siege, t;iken May 24. Turin, Alessandria, Mantua, and rortona, were reduced in the months of June and July- and in most of these places, as well as in other parts of Italy, Tuscany, Naples, and Rome, great indignation was manifested against ihe Frencli, of whose tyranny they had all tasted, and of whose friend- sliip they were already become \veary. In a sliort time the French retained, of all their conquests in those parts, only Genoa and i^avuy. 19. While these things were going on, the councils at Paris be- gan to ili^lrust the government of the direci-ors, and to ask why Ijuonaparte Avas at such a distance. Inquiries of this kind were often put to his brother Lucien, who had a seat in the council of live hundred. A party was ibrmed against the most obnoxious of the directors, and three found it necessary 1o retire. Anotiirr revo- lution in the government was evidently preparing. Buonaparte's absence and olyect seemed equal!}- mysterious. It was supposed that he meant to open the old channel of trade between the East Indies a^id the Mediterranean. Atler the destruction of his lleet, as though banished irom I'rance, he appeared eager to establish a colony in Egypt, which, perhaps, was originally in his view, in carrying thitiier all tliat the arts and sciences of Europe could con- tribute of utility or beauty. All his works were superintendi'd by persons of known celebrity lor talent and knou'Iodge ol' every de- scription; but he w;as turned from this object by the jealousy ol Ihe Turks, who, alter the battle of Aboukir, (or of the Nile, as it is generally called in England,) were ready enough to join (be English in attacking the French, confined, as it were, within their territories. Buonaparte, to be beforehand with them, marched into .Syria, where the pacha of Acre, a man of ir.ost ferocious character, commanded. He succeeded in taking many fortresses, and ibr three months m.untained a war in the very heart of the country, but his artillery haviui' been irtercepted by the English, who bad also been admitted into Acre, his attempts upon the lalter place were frustrated, and, being threatened on ail sides, he resolved to return to Egypt ; there be received letters to inform him of the reverses in Ital)', and the disonlers at Paris, and to pre«s his return ; but the Turks had landed at Aboukir, and taken possession of the fort, and it was judged necessary for his limie, that he should not qiiit E^'ypt wiijiout l)eating them. He hastened to atta'^k them, antl succeeded ; but not without mr.ny severe conflicts, and an eight days'" siege of the fortress of Aboukii'. Soon ai\er this success, he embarked clandestinely for France, leaving the army under the com- mand of gener.d Kleber, (who comphdne I greatly of oeing so duped iuid abandoned,) and in a very extraordinary manner escaped ail the English ships cruising in the Medilerranean. 20. Buonaparte arrived just in time to take advantage of the distracted state ot"the govei-nment. The legislature was a prey to faction ; the directors divided in opinion ; the jacobins and anarcuisti extremely troublesome, and nut unlikely to recover their sway; while m;my departments were in a state. of insurrection and civii war. Sieyes, the most wise and politic of all that had yet been in the directory, foresaw the necessity of a change, and wantcil only some military genius to support his measures, and to whom he could confide his desio;ns. Three other important characters ap- peared to rest their hopes on the interference of Buonaparte; MODERN HISTORY. S45 Fouche, minister of police; Canihaceres, minister of justice; i\ntl Hip cx-miriistcr for fbicign alTairs, ''j'iilleyrand i-'crigonl. 21. Williiii a month after tiie anival of BiionaparUr. a proposal was made in the council of ancients, to remove the legislative bod- ies to St. Cloud, and to coafer on Buoaaparle the command of the troops at Paris. At the moment the decree was passed, liuonaparte, accompanied by many of the generals who had disiinguished them- selves under him. ajipeared at the bar, denouncing thnjats again*t all uho should traverse the decree just passed. The council of live hundred, taken by surprise, made some show of resistance ; and Buo- n;ip,ute appearing amongst them, gave stich oli'ence, that he was in danger of assassination, amidst the cries of '"Down with the tyrant !"' "i\o dictator!" His brother Lucien, at that time president, was loudly called upon to pronounce a decree of outlawry against him, which he evaded by throwing aside his ollicial dress, and renour.ciiig his seat in the assembly ; after which, Buonaparte, in some alarm, liaving joined his troops, the meeting was dissolved, and violently dis- persed by the soldiery. It was allowed huwever to assemble again under the former presidency, the Jacobinical members being excluded, when a new order of things, appi'oved by the council of elders, was br(Might forward, decreed, and proclaimed. The directory was abol- i-lied, and tkrre new cliief magistrates appointed under the name ol consuls, while committees were formed to prepare a new constitu- tion. Eighty persons were to compose a senate, one hundred a tribunate, arid three h'^'idred a legislative body. 22. The time seemed now to be arrived when the excesses of the revoluiiouiiry movenient hati prepiretl men's minds for a transition from a state of anarchy to one ot despotism. I'opular liberty had fdlen into disrepute, I'ram the violences of tiu; jacobins; and a strong executive government seemed indispensably necessai'y to re- store things to any degree of order and consistency. Thougli tlie Jive directors appeared to be exchanged ibr Oiree consuls, there was, in the last instance, no correspondent division of power and authority To the lirst consul were assigned functions and pre- rogatives exceedi:igiy distinct Irom those of his colleagues. "■ Unity of thought and acHon was dechired to be a lundamenlal quality in the executive power."'' So far they were evidently going back to tlie lirst and best principles of monarchy. Hitherto, however, an elective and limited consai;;te was all that was contemplated. Gen- eral Buonaparte was apjiointed lirst consul, Cambaceres the second, and Le iirun^he third , tlie tirst two for ten, the last for only live yea.rs; Buonaparte, to s:!y the least, having ail the power of a iving, thougii not the n;nne, j'ssigned to liiin, — a power approaching too [ near to absolute ai'd uncoiUroliablc despotism. 23. In the tirst discharge of his new functions, however, he was careful to display a spirii of moderation, forbearance, and conciliation, in many popular acts at home, and overtures of peace to England. The iailer were witlioui ellocl, and a large subsidy being granted bv the British parliament, to eni.l>ie tb.e emperor to continue the war tio time wiss lost by the French m endeavouring to recover their fooling in Italy. In" the month of May, l,8Ut», the tirst consul left I'.iris, to take the commiuid of the army in those parts; and allet a iuost sur|)ri.-ing passage through the mountainous parts of Switzer- land, ;u>.d ihe capture of the town ol' Costa, with the celebrated fort of Bard, succeeded so far as to be able to enter Milan once more in tiiuniph, the Austrians retiring before him, littkj expecting that he 44 346 MOJDEKN HISTORY. could find a way into Lombardy by the road he had chosen. The Russian army had been withdrawn in disgust, after the proceedings ia Switzerland, which had greatly oti'ended the czar. Previously to the entrance ot" the (irst consul into Milan, the French, under Masse tin, had been compelled orlion of Germany, (;ieneva. Piedmont, ;uiil Savoy had been iticorporated with it; liol land and Switzerland were rendered effectually dependent u|)on it. The Cisalpine republic, including tlie ftlilanese, the duchies ol" Mo- dena. Mantua, and Parma, and part of the \'enelian and Roman ter- ritories, was placed under the presidency of the lirst consul, for a term of ten years. Genoa, or the Ligurian republic, had been re- covered by the treaty of Luneviile; Spain was entirely at the com-f aiand of i'rance, as well as Tuscany, uuder its new possessor, iht vassal king of Etruria. It had recovered also its West Indian setlle- meats, and acquired a considerable footing in South America. MODERN HISTORY. S47 SECTION XVI. FRANCF, FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS TO THE TREATY OF TILSIT, ],B07. 1. It has already been observed, that tlie first steps of the con- inlafe were of a concilialory nature. Endeavours were made (o nacily tlic rebellious deparlmcnts; the law of iiostago, which iiad he(>n in its operation extremely vexations, was repealed; and Ihe list of emigrants closed. On the lirst change of the jrovernnuiii, measures were taken to repress the violence o{' the jacol ins, ;i!ui awe the factions ; hut the sentences passed on the most obnuxions were afterwards mitigated. 2. Soon after the conclusion of (be peace of Amiens, the first consul gave great satistiicticai to the bulk ol' the ration, by restoring the catholic religion. On Easier-day, 1,802, the peace was raliiied in the metiopolitan clitirci), ;vith all the sanctions of the ai.>,icnt religious forms, and a laige atlfudancc of new juxda'.cs. 'The basis of the convention w illi tb-j iio[)e had been siiUed and arrangid in the preceding year, wy.rw the following pi i.icJplcs : — 'I'ha.t a r^ew division ol' the French di. ;c>os should lie matle, ssnted to the re- publican division of llie cvunlry ; and that the Ih-SL consul should nominate the new arcbM^- i k- I'iii] I i-'.o;!-. leaving it to Iho [-ope, as a matter of cour.-e, 1' n.-liinlinns. 'I'lse I'-hops to appoint the p-.i-ish j, r niMiioiiuiion c.f g /v. fn- ment. The pojietoi;:'. ,. ■ :,;•■ i ■• i ml l!i~;.ii;s (o i'c;si^ii, :'.-;i to engage not to distnr') i'; • ;j .-:ii' ■! pi"! ■■!■;■,• < V llso church. No bull, rescript, &c., Ii-oiii li-' < . i,;; ci .:- ;-; , i.'- .i. crcos ij' syiaids, or general councils, to lie r;cci\<'d, or pi-c-jiulgai'.-i', i.iiiiuul life C{;u:-( r.t of government. No naiional or ciioccsai uieeting ii> take place with- out the sa.me autliorily ; or any nuncio, l-jgale, or \icar, to be albnv- cd to exercise his functions. 3. Such were sooic of the principal articles of the concordndtm of 1,801. The pope seemed to be glad lo make any concessions that might recover France i'rora the depths ( t' inlideliiy ; while ihe iuticles themselves plainly shov.' llait the llr-t consul," in roMiaing Catholicism, had no irstention tosu!)j(>ct the nalion, us berelolbre, to the dominion of the lleman see, vww in si,i;ili;;,l n;;:iKTS. A slill slroi^i;- er proof, however, of wliicii, apiu'ars ia the lil;eriy aiT(ii'(kMl, at (IU3 same ti-.ne, to the Lutherans ;nul "Cr.i\i!ii?ls, wb.o were placed uca'ly upon the same footing with the catb.olics: and we.o even albuvtd to have three seminaries of cdiicalion ; two in the eastern parts ol France, lor the Lutherans, raid one at Geveva, tor liie C'alvinists. i'rovisiou was also made in the new concordiJum for the supposed case ol a protestant being chosen clucf magistrate of the republic. 4. On the second of August, 1,SU2, by an extraordinary expres- sion of the public will, the consulate, the term of which, in the case of Buoiiaparte and Cambaceres, hail been limited to ten yeai's, was conferred on the former for iife. The original proposal" had been only lo extend the term ; but the people in the different communes bein^ called upon to give their opinion, voted, almost unanimous* ly, lor its being continued to the first consul tor life, vvliich was readily .•janctioned by the senalp. S4S MODERN inS'l'OHY. 5. This appoinlment was soon followefl hj a new form of con- stitution, c;Ucuiatc(l to throw greater power into t!ie hands of llie first niagisti-ate, wiio uas permitted, not- only to nominate his rol leagues, but to make war, Ibrm alliance?, conchiilo peace, patdo'i criminals, and virtually to choose (he memberri of liie legislative body, by means of t!ie senate, w'nicii was aunost entirely under his inlhience. He was carciu!, at the same time, to put the govern- ments of the Cisalpine and Liguriui republics, and other newly ac- quired states, upon a similar fooling, reserving to himsell', in all cases, the supreme power as Hrst magistrate. All liiese steps were so art- iiiUy taken, as to appear to be the regular result of popular choice ',xiid deliberation. Liberty, equality of civil rights, and national reitresentation, were professed to bo the objects in view ; hut care was taken to render each dependent on the domineering inlluence ant! directions of the fjrst consul. It was at this period that the Cisal- pine was convertetl into tlie liaiian republic. t). Switzerland was not so easily to be brought under the Frcncli yoke, though its struggles ibr libei'ty a.nd independence were iinaliy laiavailing. Many of the canto!is displayed an almost invincible ;it- tachmenl to their ancient constitution, and resisted, in every way they could, the menaced invasion of their rights and pi-ivileges; but tiie more they were divi'.led amongst themselves, which nnhappiiy proved to be the case to a high degree, the greater opportunity, was alforded to the despotic ruler of France to interpose his olhces to restore peace, nominally as a mediator, but really and efiectually to the subjugation of the c(/untry, v/hich, when reduced, was in mockery declared to be free and indeiventleut. Kemnnstrances on the part of the English court, are supposed to have hati some elTect in mitigating the rigour of his exactions, and rendering the new constitution pre- pared for them, more congcni il to their ieelings than might other- wise have been the case. 7, hi 1,&'J2, by the death of the duke of Parma, and m virtue f>f a previous convention with Spain, the first consul, in the name of the French republic, took possession of the duchies oi' Farma, Placeritia, antl Guasialla, and incorporated them soon alter with France. The only son of the tleceas'ed duke of Farma, by a Spanish princess, having iisrigneil to him by the treaty of Luneville, the Tuscan stales, under the title of the kingdom of Etruria. o. Though, by the above treaty, the indemnification of those princes, whose rights and property 'had suffered from theprogress of the French, seemed to be left chietly to the decision of the diet of tlie empire, ikionapartc ibund means to interfere to his own atl- vantage, favouring those most from whom he haicca and Piombino ; and to acknowledge Buonaparte as king of Italy. Bavaria acquired a part of the Brisgav,^ and Tyrol. Such were the terms of the peace of Presburgh, October, 1,80-i. 17. The succession of some of the Gerntqu states from the empe- ror of Austria, had, in the mean time, produced changes that require to be noticed. The electors of Bavaria and Wirtemburgh were elevated to the rank of kings of their respective countries ; and MODERxN HiSTOKV. 351 Eugene Beauharnois, viceroy of Italy, son of the French empress Josephine, obtained in marriage the daughter ol' the new king of Baviiria, though she had been previously betrothed to the prince of Baden. 18. The court of Naples, during this war, through the injudi- cious, but natural, resentment of the queen, sister to the hite un- fortunate queen oi" France, had the misfortune to incur the iiigh dis- pleasure of Napoleon, by admitting a British and Russian army to land on its territories. The French despot lost no time in pronounc- ing sentence on tlie rebellious neutral. He quickly madp it known that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign at Naples. The royal family was compelled to retire to Palermo, and in a short time after, Napoleon conlerred the Neapolitan crown on his brother Joseph, much to the discontent, however, of the people, who for some time gave him great disturbance. Joseph was proclaimed king, March SO, 1,806. 19. The emperor of the French had another kingdom in view for his brother Lewis, constable of France. Holland had submitted to several forms of government, without obtaining that order and tran- quillity which was supposed to be in the contemplation of those who directed her affairs. It was suggested that a monarchy would remedy all the disorders to which she was exposed ; and it was hint- ed, too plainly to be misunderstood, that it would be agreeable to the emperor, if the leading persons of the state, not the community at large, would give countenance to such a change. So great was the infatuation, or timidity, of the persons to whom these suggestions were made, that they did not scruple to solicit the appointment of the eniperoi's brother, who declared himself king of Holland ac- cordingly, June 5, 1,806. To the credit of the new king, it should be observed, that he soon fell into disgrace with his imperial brother, by being too lenient to his subjects, and by ende ivouring to mitigate the rigour of the French decrees. 20. In the year 1,806, Napoleon succeeded in subverting the constitution of the German empire, by detaching many of the prin- cipal states, chiefly of the western and southern divisions of Ger- many, to Ibrm what was denominated '■'• The Confederation of the Rhine,''' by which the several princes consented to renounce the laws of the empire, to contract a federative alliance with the I'rench emperor, and to supply him with troops whenever he should demand them. In consequence of this gross defection of so many members, the emperor, by a solemn edict, abdicated the govern- ment of the Germanic empire, absolving all the electors, princes, and states, from the obligations by which they stood bound to him, as their -legitimate head ; thereby terminating, as it were, a gov- ernment which had subsisted for a thousand years, and been un- interruptedly confided to the house of Hapsburgh from the yeai 1 ,438. 21. It seemed as if every thing, at this time, was doomed to fall befoie the power of the Corsican. Prussia, which had hitherto acted a most unwise part, in neglecting to add its weight to the confederacy of 1,804, and even submitting to be cr.joled into an alliance with France, became, in the course of the year 1,806, sen* feible of lier error; but to no good purj)ose. She now precipitately entered into a \var for which she was ill-prepared ; with no sup- port but that of Saxony ; and having put her army under the com- mand of the duke of Brunswick, sustained two signal and almost S52 MODERlN^ iliSTOKY. fatal defeats, at Jena and Averstidt, laying the capital open to the advance of the enemy, who entered it in triumph ; and, Iteing too well received and entertained by tlic people, did not fail, as m all other cases, to take due advantage of thuir willing submission. In the course of the contest, the Saxons were detached from Prussia, and the duke of Brunswick being wounded, and obliged to quit his dominions on the advance of the French, died miserably at Altona: Napoleon, in resentment, meanly refusing to sutler his body lo be buried amongst his ancestors. 22. It was during his sojournment in Berlin, November, 1,806, tiiat the French emperor dictated that extr:iordinary decree, de- claring ttie British islands to be in a state of bloclaule, though lie had no naval iorce capable of interrupting their commerce in any piirt of the world. By this decree, the whole trade uf Britain was proscribed ; no intercourse of any sort was allowed to take place ; ail British subjects on the continent were threatened with arrest and confisi,alion of property, and every port shut against English ves- sels, in I'russia, J?'2umark, the lianse towns, liolland, Flanders, France, Spaiu, Italy, &.c. 2,3. The progress of the French, in the *.erritories of the king of Prussia, occasioned fresh alarm to the emperor of Russia, and to the British goverimient, and procured for Frederick that assistance which his lormer supinein ss and intrusion on the Hanoverian states might very reasonably have rendered hopcles?. The king of bvve- den was also subsidi/cd by England, to send an ai-my into Pome- rauia ; but all the elforts ot the allies were insnilicient to stop the Career of the French. The Rus.-i.u;s fought many severe battles, at Eylau, Friedland, &,c., but were unable to prevent the French getting possession of Dantzic and Konigsberg ; losses so severely lell by the king of Prussia, as to compel hiin to conclude a separate peace, as a conquered enemy ; while Napoleon, with consummate art, not only pcisuadod Alexander to abanilon the king of Prussia to his fiite, but to form an alliance with himself", for the further spoliation of the^ Prussian douiinions, and lo concur in arrangements very adverse to the general interests of Europe, and serviceable only to his own tamily. By the treaty of Tilsit, July, 1,B07, the emperoi ot tiussia agreed to acknowleilge the Rhenish contederaoy, now con-listing ol' many slates, and Josejih and Lc-ocis liuonaparte, as kings of Ntiples and Holland, lie suliered the Freiich empei'cr to conlier on bis yo'.aigest brother, Jerome^ with the title of king of Westpha- lia, the Prussian provinces between the Elbe and the Rhine, the stales of Hanover, and the territoi'ies of the duke of Brunsivick, and landgrave of flesse Cassel, while the greater part of Prussian Poland was given to the elector (now king) of Saxony, witli the tith'. of duke of Warsaw ; and by secret articles, as it has been allegeil, most of the usurpations of the French, in all parts of Europe, were sanc- tioned and con!ii-med. During. the whole of the yeai^s 1,806 and 1,807, the German states were undergoing continual changes, through the overbearing tyranny of Napoleon. All the princes who Joined the Rheni-^h confederation were /ewarded willi lilies or ter- ritorial possessions; all who favoured the allies, dispossessed of their dotniuions, and declared enemies of France. To particularize tdl liiese revolutions, lew of which were permanent, would exceed the limits of the jn-esent ^vork. 24. Among other acquisitions resulting Irom the treaty ot TiJsit, Napoleon recovered the Ionian islands. These islands, subsequent MODERiN" HISTUKV. S53 to the treaty of Campo-Formio, had beeu greatly agitated and di.> turbed, and it seemed difficult to know what to do with them. In March, 1,800, however, by a convention between Russia and the Porte, it WHS settled that Corfu, Cephalonia, Zante, Itliaca, Cerigo St. Mauro, and Paxo, sliould be formed into one state, under the' guarantee of the contracting parties, by the name of the Ionian republic. By the treaty of Amiens, 1,802, Napoleon engaged to acknowledge the Septinsular republic ; but, by the treaty of Tilsit, it was restored to iiim again by Russia. This treaty, iri short, ap- peared to be dictated entirely by the despot of France. Prussia, abandoned by her Russian ally, suffered dreadfully. The king of Sweden refused to become a party to this memorable convention, and manifested a determination to resist, to the utmost, the en- croachments of the French ; but he had little judgment or prudence to direct him ; and he had not the means to contend against such an adversary as Buonaparte. After many inefllectual attempts to save Stralsund, and keep his army in Pomerania, he was at length compelled to retire, with the loss both of Stralsund and the isle of Rugen. SECTION XVII. SPA N AND PORTUGAL FROM 1,788 TO 1,814. 1. These two countries are by nature so connected, that though their interests are, and generally have been, very different, and *he people little disposed to friendly associations, yet, with regard to the affairs of Europe, they have very commonly been involved in the same troubles, and never long permitted to enjoy tranquillity, while the leading powers of the continent have been engaged in war. This has been already sufhciently manifested in the history of these two contiguous kingdoms, during the former part of the eighteenth century, but has been rendered still more conspicuous by the eVents of the subsequent years. 2. Charles IV'. of" Spain, came to the crown in December, 1,788. when the French revolution was just beginning ; and it was not till some few years after, and in the midst of the reign of terror, that his kingdom became involved in the disturbances of that great catas- troph.e. The Spaniards, in Ht^ year 1,793, offended with the vio- lence offered to the royal family of France, had invaded the latter country, and taken the town of Bellgarde, little foreseeing the speedy and severe reprisals to which they were exposing them- selves. Early in the year 1,794, the French, under general Dugom- mier, invaded' Spain, and succeeded, not only in beating the Spanish, army, but in securing the occupation of many places of importance. These successes were not only available to the restoration of peace with Spain, but procured for the French, by the treaty of 1,795, the Spanish portion of the valuable island of St. Domingo, in the West indies, and, in 1,796, an alliance with the Spanish monarch against England, — an alliance fatal to Spain in many respects ; her fleet be- ing beaten by the English in battle, ofli" the cape of St. Vincent, the island of Trinidad taken from her, and retained by Great Britain at the peace of Amiens, and her commerce crippled and impeded in all parts of the world. 3. Though she sought, by a large subsidy to France, to be pet- Ge2 46 ■ 854 MODEiliN illbTOKV. mitted to remain neuter, after the renewal of the war in 1,803, yet she was not long allowed to be at peace. In 1,801, the English, sus- picious of her close connc xion with Franco, seized upon some of her treasure ships, coming from South America, with a suddenness judg- ed by many to be not strictly justitiable ; and, in 1,805, war was Ibrm- ally declared against Great Britain. But in tins new war she was agiun doomed to suffer misfortune, her fleet being totally beaten by lord Nelson, on the 1st of October, 1,805, in the celebrated battle off cape Trafalgar. (See Sect. XVI., § 16.) 4. During the year l,80t;, Spain appeared disposed to break with France, had any misiortune befallen the latter power ; but her suc- cesses in Prussia .seem to have intimidated Spain, and to have in- duced her, in 1,807, through the manoeuvres of Godoy, the Spani.'^h minister, who had a view to the principality of Algarves, to enter into a regular treaty with France, for the partition ol' Portugal. 5. Hitherto the latter country, since the elevation of Buonaparte to the chief magistracy, had been suffered to remain neuter. Ihe reigning queen having been declared insane, the power had devolved to the prince of Brazil, crown prince, in 1,799, who, in virtue of his purchased neutralit}^, had been able to keep his commercial relations with England, unmolested by the French, till the treaty just mention ed between the latter power and Spain. 6. France was not long in availing herself of the permission she had obtained to march an army through Spain, for tlie subjugation of Portugal. Having made demands on the I'cgent of Portugal, with which he could not, in honour, comply, it was declared that the house of Braganza had ceased to reign ; and, shortly afterwards, the French army, under general Junot, pa.ssed the frontiers. In these extremi- ties, instigated by the English, the royal family determined to embark for America. They set sail on the 21st of November, 1,807; and, on the 30th, Junot, with his army entered Lisbon. 7. The state of Spain, at this period, was undoubtedly «uch as to encourage the most ambitious vieivs of the French emperor. Nothing could exceed the weakness of the court of Madrid, or the confusion of the nationul affairs. At the very moment of the parti- tion treaty, the hereditary prince, Ferdinand, who had refused to marry the ministers sister-m-huv^ on the suggestion of the court, was arrested, imprisoned, and threatened with a criminal prosecution, for having secretly sought a matrimonial alliance with Buonaparte^s family. 'Phis was followed by disturbances, and the imprisonment of the obnoxious mudster, Godoy, duke of Alcudia, and, since the convention of 1,795, generally called the " prince of peace." Charles iV., harassed and distressed by these tuniults, was induccMi, on the 19th of March, 1,808, to resign his crown in f.ivonr of his son, now become Ferdinand Vll. ; but he soon alterwawjs revoked his abdication, as forced upon him, and extorted by the ilre;ui of personal violence. Nothing could be more directly calculated to promote the views of Buonaparte than these divisions, whose con- stant policy it was, in all cases of premeditated conquest, to promote dissension, in order to be called in as an arbitrator or mediator, which was the case in this instance. After Buonaparte hail been baffled in his hopes of compelling the king and queen to emigrate, through the resistance of the people of S{)ain to such a measure, the whole royal family were invited to repair to Bayonne, to confer on the state of afil^irs ; an invitation the most insidious, but which bad its eftect. On the 14th oi" April Buonaparte arrived there; Fer- MODERN HISTORY. 355 dinand on the 20th, and en the I si of May, Chailes IV. and his queen, after the favourite, Godoy, liad been released, on their application to Bi'onaparle. i]. The transactions at Bayonne exceeded almost every thing to be met with in any preceding history. The persons invited were exactly those whom Buonaparte would have been glad to have seen driven into his toils • in this case they were weak enough to go thither of their own accord. Having the two kings completely in his power and beyond the frontier of Spain, he compelled Cluuie? to resume his authority, on purpose that he might resign it into the hands of the French, proposing, on the terms of an equivalent else- where, a similar act of renunciation on the part of Ferdinand; which the latter indignantly refusing, was at once declared to be excluded from all he had, and all he might have had, and even threatened with the loss of liberty. This so intimidated the degrad- ed prince, that at length he unconditionally resigned his royal digni- ty, tirst into the hands of his father, and through hnn, into those of Buonaparte, who soon obtained, though in a manner the most extra- ordinary, the consent of most of the principal personages of the state, as weil as of the constituted^ authorities, to the appointment of his brother Joseph, then king of Naples, to the vacant Spanish throne, and to render it hereditary in tlie lamily of the usurper, hi the mean while, Ferdinand was sent to \';i'.;uii:''v. ;irid afterwards to Fon- tainebleau, as a prisoner, and Cliaiii'< ;!ii;i iw-. queen iu Compieguc : their joint abdication of the Spani>i] croivu \vas publicly anuDiinced at Madrid on the 20th of May, to the great disgust of the Spanish people in general, who soon resolved to be re\'enged for the horrid indignities they were n)ade to undergo. 9. In the course of the very month in which all the transactions at Bayonne took place, and Joseph Buonaparte entered the cai'ital of Spain as king, the national resentment was manifested by a gen- eral rising, and insurrection in all the principal provinces; but it was lirst in Andalusia that any thing like an organized gONernment was formed for the conduct of the war, on the part of the patiiols; there, 'a provincial junta, or council of magistrates, inhabitiuit«, and constituted authoriiies, was Ibimed, at &^•lL^, which, led to other conventions of the same nature, in places least molested by the p-rench, and in all of these Ferdinand VII. was [:!ii; en the 9th of Jniy, Ifioi^, eM:orted hy feui' iiioii-.md iiaii.ui (i-.m'i,., and followed by upwards of one Inuulred caniaKe-, rcii\e\ii!i; liis sidle and the members of the junta as.-.enil/ied at ilaviiine. io assist at his iriauguration. He was ill received, or rather sullrnlv li'ealeouis, his nephew, son of the king of Holland ; and on the 17th of May the pope's temporalities were declared to be incorporated with tlie Kreiich dominions, and the title of king of Rome'approi)riated to the imperial prince, heir to the French empire. The situation of the papal territories, between the kingdoms of Italy and Naples, was such as in hostile hands might he made use of to intercept the com- munication between the two ; and therefore the pope, who appeared friendly to England, was of necessity to be despoiled of his domin- ions, but to receive a revenue of two millions of francs.^ The new constitutional government was to be in lull activity and force on the 1st of January, 1,810. On the 14th of January, 1,810, the elector- ate of Hanover- was annexed to the dominion of the emjperor''s bmtiier, Jerome, king of Westphalia; and on the 20th of March, ],81 1, Napoleon was gratified with the hirth of a son, who, accord- ing to the arrangements already spoken of, was immediately digni- fied with the title of king of Rome. 10. In Jnne, 1,812, Napoleon, offended with some parts of the conduct of the emperor of Russia, Avho had begun to appreciate more justly the character of the artful and ambitious Corsican, once more declared war against him, having influence, besides, to prevail upon. Prussia and Austria to join him. His advance towards the Russian dominions was most rapid ; but, considering the distance to which he was can \ii;g I'.is army, and the inveterate lir.tred and indignation he had excited by Ids bold threats against his imperial adversary, his subjects, and his empii-e, extremely rash. His power, it is true, was immense, 4UO,UliO, inliuitry, tiO.OUO cavalry, and 1,200 pieces of artillery : (jlermans, Folanders, Dutch, Swiss, Italians, Sf^aniards, and Portuguese, being numbered amongst his lroo]JS ; but nothing could exceed the anger and resentment of the Rus- sians. 11. On the 9lhofMay the French ruler left St. Cloud; on the 24Ui of June he crossed tlie Niemen, and on the 14th of September attrJncd his gnuid object of entering the capital of the Muscovite dominions. Rut his reception was liir from Lieing such as he ex- pected, or such as he ha^l met with in other capitals. The c'ty was tired hy order o{ the governor, and by the hands of the enraged iu- hal>itanls; and the French had only ruins to occupy, in a latuude lo which they were totally unaccustomed, aiid with all the horrors of bil>erian winter helbre them, ^ 12. On the lOth of October, after having solicited an armistice, and proposed peace, both 'of which were peremptorily refused. Buonaparte cind Ids disappointed army began their dieary and perilous march biick to Fiance. Nothing could exceed the ditli- cuUies and distresses to which they were exposed, from the severi- ties of the weather and climate, and the attacks of the Russians, trom IWoscow to the capital of Lithuania, uhere they arrived on (he IClh of December. On the fiih, the emperor Napoleon totally abandoned Ins harassed army to its fate, having quitted it at Smor- gonie in disguise; destroyed the bridges by which he passed, regard- less of those he left behind ; and traversing Poland and Germany, made the best of his way to Paris, where lie airived at miduight, Hh 46 362 MODERN iilSTORV. December 18, h;uing lost, or rather sacrillced, upwards of 150,(KMi tiion. iiichidini;; prismiers, U)7,r)iJ(). iJ. H vva-- iiaturitlly exi)eclc'(l (hat this lolai ilelVat el all liii proji-cis in regard to l'v»l^sia, tog^Hlicr wiili tlie iiiisoraliiL' co!ulitio!'i at ins army when it re.iohed the <;oi)tiiies ot" rraiice, unuld have lerini- nattui Ills giddy career el pride and ainbiiion : iiuf in lhi« the \v< rid was deceived. In the Ibllouiag year, he eagei-ly resnnied hosiiliiies', bat ma-iiresliy to great disadvantage. Thoiia;h' he was readily i\ir- id'hi^d ullh a iVesli army, amounting to ;jr>U,OiJU men, lie had .soon ojiixjsed to him not only Ku.ssia, bnt Anslrilace at Leiji^ig, in >v!)icli the Krencli sustained so signal a defeat, as seemed evi lentiy to progiioslicate the ruin and discomtiture of tiie great tlisturber of Europe. Tiiis celebrated batlle, or succession of engagements, took place on the 16tb, 18th, and 19tb days of October. Leip/.ig w IS taken oidy two hours af'er Buonaparte had eliecled his esciipc. i'ije king of ,'5axony and all his court wam captured by the aides; a French gairison of oU.UOO men, besides 2".^,UUU sick and woundedj with the French magazines, ariiliery, and .stores. The emperor ot iiu-isia, th(,' king of Prussia, and crown pri.ice of Sror,laiined sovereign of the United Nelherlands. On the i'd ot J)ecember, 1,813, the allies passed the llhine; (he southern Ironiier of the Pyrenees iiaving been invaded by the Brili.sli and Forluguese in Octoi)er preceding. 15. Though (our great armies of the allies were now within (he territories of France, their work was not accomplished. The French generaU, and Buonaparte himself, who, in a very aflecting maiiner, quilted Paris on the i:5lh of January, 1,814, iiilerrupted the progress of tlie Kussians. Prussian«, anil Anstrians, endeavoured to prevent, in every way Ih.^y couh', their advance upon the canital ; but ill! their exertions proved vain, though the attainment ol' that great object was deferrtSi for some months. It was not till the SJst MODEim HISTORY. 3C3 day of March, that their ti-iiimjih nmy bo ?;ii(! to have been ccmplet- e(l': on dial day the emperor ol' iii;^;.-!,i -.nul llie Ling i^l' Fru.S'^ia, at llu; head d' tin "ir i r-;;' < !i". ^' ;i!-n,i -, iMil 111.' .-. n.ii ■. ..;... ■ i; li;.' i Hi: l.c wa- iHMiiiilled lo alxlicale, npcii leriiis j:algr(l l\ iii;iny lo lie liir loo ta\ ourahk'. ]le \\;i> al- liuved io roiise lo h'Aln\. (a le-i.hiice ol' lii^ own oiuiice,) redlining his U)iji»'i-i .1 lilies, ami lia\ i.ig thai i-laiid ami il- deia^ndeiicics assij^ned lo him a^ son ei->-i.;i!. \\ iih n i\v(aiue oi" Iwo millions of Iraiics. The dia.'h- ies ol' t'.ii-fn.i,Liii;i>l:ili;i, ;iiid Piacen!i;i, were at ihe same time . secured to the eiiijircs-i M uii Loids^i, jiiid her d.'sceiidiuils, and pioxision made lor all hi< other r.'lations. Buonaparti', having t''"<'\i')nsl_v had a j»nard ajipointed, set onl on the 2Ulh for the seat ot' his new and very reduced doniiiiions, much exposed occasionally on his passage to popular rese-:iln)(.'iil. lu. On tiie ihc entrance of tlie allies, they were careful in their m.inifesloes lo distingui.-h between the French people, or nalion at iari^e, aiki the lyi'ant whom they had conspired to overthrow ; and evinced the strongest '.lisposili'ii to bury in oblivion, with bec.mung magnanimity and torhe;ir.mce, the numberless insults and injuries they had n;ceived at llu; hands nl' the !• lench, while under the do- minion of their now prostrate Ibe. They took no steps to force upon tliem the exiled family, but left the settlement of their government and consiilution entirely to the senate and provisional administration. Tiie Bourbons had been proclaimed in the south, and the count d'Artoi- appeared at Paris on the loth of April; but the recal of tlie king was the work of the French themselves, as we shall have occasion to observe in a subsequent section. SECTION XIX. POLAND, FROM THE COMMENCEMENT OF TIIE EIGH- TEENTH CENTURY TO THE TREATY OF VIENNA, 1,815. 1. No country in Europe has suffered more from a faulty constitu- Uon thati the kingdom of Poland. No country has afforded more 'convincing proofs of the mischiefs appertaining to an elective mon- archy, the constant source not only of internal commotions, calnd, and intrigue, but the occasion generally, upon every vacaricy, ot foreign interference. At no era did Poland sufter more, perhaps, from tliis combinalion of evils, l[ \n tovvai'ds the commencement of the eighteenth century ; nor has she ever since been able lo re- cover her inde})endence. The arbitrary, though not unprovoked, proceedings of Charles XII. of Sweden, in l,7Uk when he deposed Augustus, and insisted upon placing Stanislaus on the throne, in despite of Austria and Russia, plainly showed how little power a divided counti-y possesses against the encroachments of an ambitious neigh- bom-, and how naturally the inlerl'erence of one such neighbour exposes the invaded country lo similar measures on the part of others; for Augustus himself had been previously forced upon the Poles by Kussia. From the above period lo the present day Pojarid has hnen exposed lo a continual recurrence of such events; audio promote the views of a combination of foreign potentates, kept in a state of internal disunion and distraction, constantly favourable to their ambitious designs. S64 M0DE5IN HISTORY. 2. Augustus, elector of Saxony, who was deposed in 1,704, and compelled form:iily to abdicate the Hirone hy tiie treaty ot" All- Ranstadt, in 1,706, was restored l>y the assistance of liussia, after the battle oi Fultawa in 1,709, and reigned for the space of l\vet)(y- four years, dying in 1,753. (Sect. I.) liis reign was fir from being an happy one : he offended the Poles by the intnxhiction of Saxon troops, and by residing too nnnch away t'rom them in his electoral dominions : he lived in the mid it of tactions and consi)iracies, being continually at war with the dissiilcnts ov anii-catholics^ while he totally failed in his endeavours to render himself absolute, or the crown he- reditary in his family. 3. The war which arose upon the death of Augustus, has been already noticed. Had the Poles been wise enongii to remedy that great defect in tlieir constitution, which rendered the crown elec- (ive, they could not have done better, perhaps, than to have made it hereditary in the person and family of Stanislaus Lescinsky, the principal competitor of the house of Saxony, he being a Pole by birth, and very amiable in his private character: but they were ne longer their own masters; and tiiey were divided amongst them- selves to such a degree as to render the interposition of some loreign power almost necessary to detprtnine their choice. Upon this oc- casion tlie emperor of Germany, whose niece the young elector of Saxony had married, assisted by the liussians, overcame the French inllnence which had been exerted in favour of Stanislaus, ai.d, by eflectually removing the latter, procured the election to fall on the son of the late king, Augustus 111. 4.- This king of Poland, on the death of the emperor Charles VL, 1,740, laid claim to the whole Austrian succession ; and not ult');;ether without reason, had not the i^'agmatic Sanction stood in his way, his wile being the eldest daughter of the emperor Joseph, elder brother of Charles \ 1. ; the object of the Pragmatic Sanction being insecure the inheritance to the females, in default of male issne ; and on the demise of Charles VI., his dau;^hler becoming his imn^edi- ate heir and representative, it certainly appearetl hard that the daughter of the elder brother, who had been emperor, should be so entirely excluded. The hope of succeeding to some part, at least, of the late emperor"'s hereditary dominions, induced the king of Po- land to enter into a cont'ederacy with Bavaria, Prussia, and France, against the house of Austria; but he derived no advantage from the alliance : he afterwards changed sides, and at the commencement ot the seven years' war, as has been before shown, (Sect. Vi.) suffered n ost severely for having espoused the case of the empress queen, and entertained views against Prussia, which the wary sovereign of tlie latter country found means to detect, and cruelly to revenge. i-sA 5. It was not likely that a king who owed his election so entiie'ly to the interference of foreign powers, should acquire any thing like independence, or authority at home or abroad. During the reign of Augustus III. great feuds and animosities prevailed among tlK? Magnats, while the king himself was entirely subject to the intluonce of Russia; a circumstance so resented by his su'ijectsa.s to induce Jhem to avail themselves of the privilege of the Liheruin ^eto, to dissolve all the diets he convoked, and thus leave the king- dom almvSt vAithout any govemmem. Augustus 111. died in the year 1.703, at a period when the Itussian sceptre had passed into Imnds well fitted to promote- in every way possible, (just or unjust.) its aggrandizement and splendour. Catherine II. is supposed to nave MOIJI'JIN HISTOIiV. £&b had lier eyes upon Po];in(] hoforo the demhe of Atigiislus, and to liavf l.feii prrj-iiircd not only lo set nolicit;itions of the lions<> of Saxony, and w-s very i^Iiorliy relieved, indeed, Irorn all cnmpetilioii in thai quarter, liy iiie eai-iy dealli of the ni^v elector. In conjnnction with l^rnssia she succeeded, hnl not without a s|iirited opiiosjtion on tlie part of a iinv Polish patriot>, in hestowini; the crown of i'oland on connl }'o- tiiatowski, one of \w\- favoiiriies,\nid a Pole Ity hirlh : a man of talent, and ariiiahle iti his disp(.'-ilion, lint likely to continue, as well as liis pret'f^cessor, entirely nnder her control. 6. Nothing conld'l)(! a greater mockery than the care which the czarioa and the kiui; of Prussia pretendeci lo take of the liherties ot Poland, at ihe veryrnonient lliat they were forcing upon the nation a kjugOf their (Ami choice and nomination, bo far from trying to amend their laidty conrdcd them plausible grounds o_l interference, anil which they coiild therefore have no sincere incli- nation toail>'y or adjust till Ihcy iiad effectually gained their own ends: the oiijvct of Russia prol)ably was to maintain her own power and ascendiincy over the whole country ; but Prussia meditated a pa.rti- tion, which might put her into possession of Polish ('r Western Prus- sia, a district of much importance in every ]5oint of view. 8. Whatever may have been originally the distinct views of the several parties, it is very certain that they derived peculiar ailvan- tages from the extremely unsettled slate of the country, which was at this tune torn to pieces by the contests and disputes between the catholics and t/?s.«(/en,'5, or dissenters from the established religion: the latter, who since the middle of the sixteenth century Inal ac- quired muny privileges, were supported by several dilli-M'ent Ibreign jjowers; those of the Cireek church by Russia, and the protcstants of all pei-suasions by i'nl■^^ia, Denmark, ami Great Britain, all of whom were called "upon lo interpose as guarantees of the famous treaty of Oliva, 1,GGU. The diet, instigated by the court of Jiome and heads of the church, Judged it right to uphold the established iidth. and Stanislaus, though his principles were more^ tolerant and liber.d, ap[jearcd to take the same side, being jealous also of the too grea.t power of Russia, of which he couUl not lail to be conliinially reminded, not only by ihe open favour shown lo tne dissidents by Calheune, but bv the insolent superiority assumed by her general, command.ing in Polanil, prince R-epnin, and the extremely arbitrary and sanguinary m.uuier in which the empress sought to maintain her preponderance. 9. In the mean while confederacies \vere forming in all pa. ts of M h 2 Sb6 MO^JEKN HISTOKY. rlip Icinwflnm tatit>j all tlie riglits ami privileges to which they .11 i (iaim, and ol" soin;^ of which tiiey had been iinjustlv deprived. ! lie latter, under pr,nce Kadzivil, supported by Russian troops, (()fii|)('lietl the diet of Warsaw, ii the year 1,767, to accede to liieir de-niauds i tins hacened the grand confederacy of the catho- lics at Bar, in Podoiia, in 1,768, who.«e object was to *'irow olf the Rii-si.m ycilvR, with the aiil of Turkey, who had been induced by Traiif o to declare war against the liussians in that very y. nr, upoa •xiiQ occasion of the latter having passed their Ironlier in pursuing^ ;i Polish parly, and comtnilted considerable depredations. lU. Though the coot'ederate catholics had clearly the good of their country in view, yet such was tlie influence of Russia, that the king and senate were compelled by Catherine to declare war against the Porte, and so far to counteract, as much as possible, the olforts that were making to accomplish their own independence. In Austria, indeed, during this stage of the business, the confede- rites at Bar had a friend in ;\laria. Theresa, who espoused the claim-; of the Saxon family, and who sent (hem both arms ai\d money, to enable them to check, if possible, the domineering pro- ced-'igs of the czarina, of which indeed she had good cause to be jealous. But the time was approaching in which, notwithstanding tiie most striking and formal declarations to the contrary, Poland w.-; to l»ecom ^ a prey (o ht?r three more powerful neighbou"s, and when all other feelings were to give way to that of duly apportiou- iiig and dividing the spoils of that unliappy country. II. It seems mnv to be pretty generally agreed, that the plan o! dismembering this unfortunate kingdom originated with the kmg oi" Prussia, or his bi-olher, prince H tiry : and that it was owing to pariictiiar circumstances that tlicy were able to bring the (wo otiier oiiriit^s so readily to ai^quiesce in tlieir trseasures of partition. Had r'rederiek himseit been more rapacious, it would proijably not have heen so easily accomplished, but, in order to gain what he most roveled, for his own share, he appeared willing to allow the other • rvo partitioning powers to acqnu'e rather more than /ell to bis lot, b-)th in extent of leri'itory and amount of population. In admilliiig A-istria to any share at ;di, he made no scruple to assert that his fj.uicipd motive w parti- tion, in l,7i);3. Russia and Austria, in the years l,7o7 and 1,788, by too close an alliance, having given umbrage to the king of Prussia, he insisted that thft constitution iormed for Poland, in 1,773, was void, and oilered to assist the Poles in framing a new one. which was completed under his auspices, May 3, 1,791. Had this consti- tution been able lo keep its ground, Poland, so much of it at least as remained to the natives, might have recovered some degree of credit and tVeedom; it was in a great measure the work of real patriots, enligiitened and moderate relbrmers; it abolished the libenan veto, and the elective monarchy, except in the case of the. extinction of some hereditary dynasty f it rendered the person of tlie king invioialde, but gave him responsible ministers ; it provid- ed a representative senate, hot much diiTering from the Engiish house of commons. Unhappily, this good work found enemies amongst the ancient nobles, who did not like to give i.p their pre tensions to i-oyaliy, and wlio had recourse lo the old and ruinous expedient of inviting foreign help, always at hand to avail itself of the internal CMiunotions of that devoted country. Russia was called in, by the confederates of Targovitz, and a renewal of losses and calamities en.sued of course. The king of I'russia, so far from supporting the .lew consiidiiion, the diet, or the king, as he seem- ed ab.solutely bound to do, by hLs own acts, eagerly seized upon the towns of Dantzic and Thorn, vvhich had been speciidly excepted iii the last partition, joined the czarina, in her cfi'orts against the patriots, under the brave Kosciusko, and finally succeeded in pre- vailing over a country, which, from the enthusiasm and spirit dis- played on this occasion in he4' dclence, deserved u better fate. By the secoiiil partition, in 1,793, Russia is said to have accpiired 4,0U0 German .square miles iif territory, in Volh>nia, Lithuania, Podolia, and the Ukr.une ; and Prussia, besides Ihe towns of Dantzic and Thorn,- 1,0U0 square miles in south Prussia, with al'l the Hans;silic toun-. A f/ii/t/ and last partition soon iuilowcd, in the year 1,;;(5, betiveen Rus>ia, Prussia, and Ausliia. which may be said to have put an end to the kingdom and republic of Poland ; Stanislaus, lis unhappy monarch, being lensoved to Russia, where he soon afler died, February 12, 1,7P£ in this last partilion, Cracow was given to Austria, and VVarsaiv to Prussia. From the resistance of the natives, who gained greater advantages in niany engagements than could hive been expected from the nature of their force, the s!;utgl> ter liccompanying these latter revolutions was dreadful, and on the part of the ku.-sians attendc'd with circumstances of cruelty too much resembling wh it had taken place ia 1,772. lu. It would be diflicult to describe the state of Poland, from the period of the last jmrluion, in 1,795, to tlie treaty of Vienna, i» MODERN lliSTOKY. - 369 T,8ir). The injuries (he nntives had experienced at the hands of the three nartilioning powers very naturaily disposed them to ac- cept any oi\'eri Irom the enetiiies'of their oppressors; and, ■is fjuo- naparle had frequent opportunities of nraking siicli offeis, it is not to he wonden^d tiia.t he shotdd have oi)tained their assistance, and snhjected them, more or h^ss, to Ids go*crnment and control; I ut as he was only at times in opposition to, and as ol'len allied with one or other "of the three powers, Russia, Austria, or Pnissia, he was never able to propose their entire emancipation, even il' he had desired it. Thus continually deceived and mortified, they derived no advantage from the aid they gave to France, if we except that ten- dency to»vards the recovery of a separate existence, (for it can scarcely he called more,) the creation of the grand ducl.y of War- saw, in' 1,807, which, by the treaty of Tilsit, and with tlie consent of lluonaparte, was consigned to the king of Sax-ony ; the emperoi of Russia at the same time acquiring much of Poland irom Prussia. hi 1,812, the kingdom was declared hy the diet of Warsaw to be re- established; and by the treaty of Vienna, in 1,815, being formaiiy delivered up by the king of Saxony, it became annexed to Russia and was deeiared to be," irrevocably attached to it by its constitution, to be possessed by his majesty the emperor of all the Russias, his heirs and successors in perpetuity." Tlie part assigned to Prussia took the name of the grand duchy of Posen. The salt-mines of X'ieiitzka were confirmed to the emperor of Austiia, and such dis- tricts as had bepn acquired by the treaty of Vienna, in 1,809. The town of Cracow was declared to be for ever a tree, independent, and strictly neutral city, under the protection of Ausliia Russia, and Prussia. The navigation of the rivers and canals, in all parts of an- cient Poland, (as it existed in the year 1,772,) was hy particular treaties, between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, declared to be lice, so as not to be interdicted to any inhabitant of the Polish provinces, belonging to either of the three powers. SECTION XX. GREAT BRITAIN, FROM THE PEACE OF AMIENS, 1,802. TO THE DEATH OF GEORGE II!., 1,820. 1. Bf.fore one year had passed from the conchision of the peace of Amiens, circumstances took place which too plainly indicated a strong probability of the renewal of hostilities, and so early as the month of May, 1803, letters of marque and reprisal were again is- sued against the French, by tlie Britisn governnient, apparently with the full consent of the people at large, notwithstanding the enthusiastic joy which had been expressed on the termination of the war in the year preceding. It was upon this occasion that the first consul had recourse to a measui'e, singular in its nature, and which exposed many persons and i'amilies to great inconvenience He tbrcibly detained all the English who happened to be in Franct. not only for purposc^s nt business, but ol" pleasure or curiosity ; rioi'. with very !e\v exceptions, were any of tliem able lo rettn-n to their native country, for the long space of ten or eleven years. Prepa- rations also were made tor the invasion of England, wnich only ex- cited a stronger disposition, on the part of the latter country, to pic- 47 370 MODERN HISTORY. pare against such attempts, in a way well calculated to destroy a' once alt ttie enemy''s hopes nnd piospccts ol" success , in Ireland. indeed, a new conspiracy was set on ibot, which w;is snppoicd ii, rest on some promised support iVom France ; but this iv;is denied hy the cons}»irators themselves, and the disturbance soon quelled, whu- out spreading, in tact, beyond the capital. 2. Though the king of Great Britain had declared, liiat, willi regard to his electoral st;ites, he should remain neuter, liu(in;ip:u'ie did not neglect such an opportunity of wounding his leeiiii^s, by the speedy occupation of Hanover, under circumstances pecunariv apgravaling to the people. Early in the month of June, 1,80J, llie Ilanuverian troops were made to lay down their arms, and engage not to serve against the French without a previous exchange. 3. Holland was still too much under subjection to France, to be permitted to remain at peace ; letters of niaique \verp, therelbre. also issued against the Batavlan republic, on its refusal to agree to a perfect neutrality. 4. In 1,8U4, a change of ministry in England brought Mr. Pitt again into power, at a moment when the arf.iirs of the continent, and the increased power of the tirst consul, who, in the course of the same month, assumed the imperial dignity, demanded all Ids attention. Before the conclusion of the year, the aid which bpain was compelled to render to the French, together with certain ap- pearances of hostile preparations in her ports, exposed her to an attack oa the part of Groat Britain, which soon drew from her a declaration of war, very tiital to her interests, though scarcely to be avoided, considering th& circumstances in which she had been placed by the extraordinary proceedings and demands of the British government, which uas supposed to have violated the strict rules of justice, il not of international law, by arbitrarily and prematin'ely seizing her treasure-ships^ on their passage to her ports, in an action f)erl"ectly unforeseen and unexpected, and in whicli many lives were ost. 5. But if t)ie character of the British nation or government suf- fered in any respect from errors or mistakes m the commencement of the war, its naval power and credit were nighly advanced be- fore a year had passed, by the splendid victory obtained ov'er the Spanish and French tleets combined, ofl' cape Ti'aJiilgar, in Octo- ber, 1,805; a victory not achieved, however, without a correspon- dent loss, as has been before stated, in the death of the very cele- brated lord Nelson, commander of the British squadron, wbo lidl early in the action, and whose body, being afterwards brought to England, was buried with very unusual honours in the centre ot" St. Paul's catheilral. 6. in 1,806 died Mr. Pitt; a minister whose extraordinary talents and integrity of life attached to him many friends and adherents, by whom he was ably supported through a very arduous contest; a contest which, though some thought it might have been avoided, others as contidenlly regarded as entiiely just and necessuiT, and a timely securiiy against the propagation of revolutionary princi- ples, more threatening and dangerous than .any aggressions purely hostile. It IS always easy to say, such and such events would not have happened, hid a dilTerent coui'se iVoin the one actuall}' adopted been pursueil ; but tins is at best mere matter of surmise. It js im- possible now to speak decisively of what might or might not have been the consequences of a longer forbearance from warj it is ex- MODERN lilbTORV. 37 1 tfemely certain that mnny untoward circumstances prevente*! the accomplishment of all that Mr. Pitt h;>choiy a catastroplie, uas rescueil Ircm liie jtsniSji eC Itie Fivnuli nilcr, i(y its limely I'ernoval, inider liie |i()tec:liun of a British armament, to tiie ports ol" Brazil. Tiie diifert nee hetvv«'en Ihi' Hw> cases seemed to in; liii.-; that in ^ettiiij^ i^o^st'ssion of tii'' j-dlier fleet ue wei'e actnafiy assisting an aiiy ; iii'the i'ormer, we ueie crni- pelling a neutral to adopt a measure jiaigt-d to he uimecessary on h( r part, and on suspicions, the grounds o*i uliicli she disa\o\ved; liUt the stale of Europe, at that perioil, appears to have lieen such, es])ecially with i-egard to the^ minor states, as to justify precautions against French power and French intrigue, seldom, it' ever, lesorlad to in other instances: it may also lie ad(]ed, lli->t I'oringal unreseivediy communicated to Fngiand the avowed designs ol" France; Jjenmark, to say the least, acted with a reserve tar t'rem t"rier.dly, and resisted ail negotialio[) ; the consequences to the latter, huu ever, were cer- tainly d.'[)loralde. if. It was in the year 1,807, that the royal family of France, whose situation on the coniiuent became every day more alarniiisg and insecure, took lefuge in lu)gland ; they hxed their residence at liartwell, in BucUinghamsiure, ins majesty slyiing hinisilf the courM (.'e Lisle, vud modestly declining all honours and attenlit,ns, beyond such as might be due to a private nonleman 12. Ihe vmflictive measures adopted by the French government to ruin the trade and commerce of Great Britain, naiui-aiiy drew from tli.e latter retaliatory esjiedients, which were n:ore or fess ap- proved, as aiVecti.^g neutral and friendly powers, but which could scarcely luue been avoided, witliout surrendering her mariiinie rights, and su'jmitting to a preteoce of blockade on the i«irt ol' a power, whos', sliips, had been fairly driven ("roni llie sea by the Bi'ilisli fleets. Orders in council were issued in the months of .lanua- ry and November, 1,807, not only ))ro]ul)ifing all trade between the pons of France and its allies, hut ullimateiy compelling all neutrals, trading to France, to stop at a Britisli port, and pay a duty in propor- tion to the value cd" the cargo. These embarrassments to trade iii general conk! not i'r.ii to excite great uneasiness in ai! parts of tiie world; hut the commencement of them is justly to be im|juled to the extraordinary decree, issued by the French ruler at Berlin, (the basis of the "■ continental system,") November, 1,806, an account of vvbich is given in Sect. XVI. : r.ni'ortunately the impossibility of salisliictoiiiy exempting other states from the etVect of these prohibitory m-A regulating decrees, on the part of the two lival countries, involved England In a very unpleasant dispute with the United States of America. 13. Of the part England tock in (he aflairs of Spain and Fortugal, Irom 1,803 to 1,814, an account is to be foutid elsewhere \^See Sect. XV'Il.) It may be sufHcient to say, that, during the whole contest, the emancipation of those two ancient kingdoms from Ihe power o{ the French seemed to be contemplated by the whole mass of British subjects as their own cause. The people of Great Britain and Ire- laml, on the tirst application for assistance from Spain, appeared ready to rise in a body. They hailed the dawn of liberty on the cqniinent with tlie most enthu&iastjc ti^elings. The deputies from the MOl^EKW illSTORV. 373 supreme junta of Seville, did not arrive in England, on their mission to the British government, till the 24th of Jul}, l,8u8 ; but long be- fore that, other deputies from the principality of Asturias had been received in London, with the mo.-t cordial tokens of esteem and (Viendi^liip. They were sj^leiididly entertained by the City .if Lori* don, the Bank, and other public bodies, as well as by individuals of the highest distinction. Sui)scnptions were opened in London, Liver- pool, Bristol, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Dublin, Cork, Waterford, and many other places, for sup.porting the cause of Spain ; and several military corps, militia, and volunteers, oflered their services. Govei'ii- ment supplied them immediately with three hundred thousand pounds in dollars, live thousand muskets, thirty thousand pikes, and an im- mense quantity of powder and balls, with promises of more efleclual aid, which were ultimately amply fultilled. The spirit thus display- ed by the British public, on the first certain intelligence received "ot the anti-gallican insurrection in Spain, may be said to have conliiii.' d unabated till, through the matcliiess skill and valour of the confede- rate armies under the duke of Wellington, the French were tiually driven from the peninsula in 1,814, as related in our account tl Spain. 14. His majesty George III., having, in the month of October, 1,809, entered upon the 5Ulh year ot his reign, the event was celo- brateti throughout the natior> in a very striking manner, by services ol" thariksgiving in all the churches and chapels, with suitable dis- courses, iiluminati'>os, feasts, and other testimonies of joy, but paili- cularly by liberHl benefactions to the poor. In the month ot Novem- ber in the lollowing year, his majesty, much troubled and affiicltd i y the long illness and death of his daughter the princess Amelia, bad an alarming return of his lormer complaint, which terminated in a second suspension of his regai lunctions, and from whicn he n-^ver so sufficiently recovered as to be able to transact any business of slate. On the 20th of December, his royal highness tlie prince of V\ ales was appointed regent, subject ior a period to restrictions simiiar io those which had been proposed in 1,788-9. This plan was \iolenliy opposed, as unconstitutional and impolitic, but finally ferried in 1-eiI- ruary, 1,811. The bill was x- pense, during "their stay, both by the court and public bodies: the prince regent accompanied Ihem on a visit to the university of Ox- ford ; and to Portsmouth, where they l»ad an opportunily of witness- ing a naval review. 18. In May, 1,816, the heiress to the British crown, princess Char- otte, only child of the regent, was married to his serene highness Leopold George Frederic, prince of Cobonrg. This marriage was contemplated by the nation as an object of the highest hope;?; and for several months the amiable and e*xempliiry conduct of lier royui highness cheered the people with the brightest pros^pccts of fcti-re good ; but a very sudden and unexpected disappointment took place in the month of November, 1817; tiie princess w;is delivered of a still-born male iidant, and survived lier delivery otdy a lew hours. Nothing could exceed the concern manilested by the public on this n>elancholy and distressing occasion. " In the month of November, in the following year, her majesty nueen Charlotte died at Kew, al'ter a long and painl'nl illness; and on the 2'Jlh of Jaiuiary, 1821), was followed by her royid consort king George III. Hi.> m.ijcsty died at the castle of Windsor, at a very advanced age, and in the -sixtieth year of his reign ; greatly beloved l>y his subjects, and universally respected for his many i'.miahle ar.d royal virtues. MOJ)ERN HISTORY. 375 SECTION XXI. FRANCE, FROM THE ENTRANCE OF THE ALLIES INTO PAR- IS, MARCH, 1,814. TO THE FINAL EVACUATION OF IT BY THE FOREIGN TROOPS, 1,818. 1. Soo\ alter Buonat^arte departed lor Elba, Louis XVlll. was freely recoiled to tlie throne of his ancestors; he had been resident ir many places since his first ennii;ration, and been driven iVom almost all, by t!>e approach of republican troops, the dread of republican vengeance in those who afibrded him a refuge, and not nnseldom the Jear of poison or assassination. England, at length, afibrded him the asylum he sought in vain elsewhere: there lie lived secure against French a'niies, French inlluence, and, as far as Englishmen could protect him, tlie poisonous drug, or the sword of the assassin. When the way was opened for him to return to his native country, and re- ceive the crown and the throne, which his peo|)le now off'ertiJ iiim, but which had been so insulted and abused, it was characteristic of Englishnien to rejoice at his restoration, and at the great change pre- pared for him, from a state of banishment, outlawry, and depe[idence, to the recovery of one of the most brilliant thrones of Europe, and from which his unhappy brother had fallen in a way to excite the sympatliy of every feeling and generous mind: his departure Irom England to France^ was accompanied with Ine acclamations and sin cere gralulations of all ranlcs of people ; the prince regent persoirally escorted him not only^lo London, but from London to Dover; and took ler.ve of him, in sight of the French coast, in a manner the most atLcting and impresjivc. While flags were exhibited on alnjost all t!ie cluM'ches, near wjiich he had to pass, and nothing could ex- celled to sub- mit to the intrusion of strangers into their country and metropolis, strangers, whom thjy had previously been able not only to defy aud resist, but in some instances, to triumph over in theii- own capitals 376 MODERN HISTORY. 4. The situation of the king of Fnince, therefore, on hi* return to his (iominions, however acceptable to the greater part ol Europe, coiild scarcely l)e such as lie might liimsell" wish or ilei^ire : il was mii)i):=.sil)ie tor him to return to the ancient ^tate of tilings ; and he musl luive foreseen how ers ; the popular representatives were to consist of 262, not under 40 years of age : they were to be convoked every year, and were to have ihf^ power of impeaching the minis- ters for treason or extortion ; the k iig was to appoint the judges, and trial by jury was to b."* continued : the press was placed under a cen- ijorship, and an order was given lor closing the theatres and shops on the sabbath; an order not only extremely unpopular at the time. ^ut,as it would seem, inelfectuai. In nominating the .senate, some of 1 lonaparte's courtiers and marshals were included, particularly lalieyrand, who be'-nme minister for foreign atiiiirs. 7. The king, who irom the tirst commencement of the revolutior had displayed a disposition to i'avour the rights of the people, more than others of his family, or the chiefs of the emigrants, was little likely of himself tc deviate from the principles o(" the constitution, MOULKN lllriTOKY. 37^ *» to disturb unnecossarily the existing state of things, in which so rr>rfny interests were invoivetl, but bo was supposed to have around hitn persons still bigotted Iv the ancient system, and anxious to re- cover ail that they bati iorfeited l)y the course of the revolution. These tilings, together willi the dissatisiied state of the army, paved the way for tiie return of Buonaparte. ". Tlie proltabiUty of such an event seepi^ to have been strangely overlooked l.y those who were most in<-i'ested in preventing it: the pi>;)ul.iiily (if the d"iosed emperor l'<>d been miscalculated. On the I si of March, 1,815^ he landed oaca more on the shores of France \\\i\\ only 1,140 attendants: .m attempt wiiich many judged to br. altogether hopeless, yet, t" the utter surprise of those who though? so, nis progress towar'Ai Paris, though not unmolested, aflbrded him ev.-ry hour, from h'le defection of the troops sent against him, siron^jer hopes of recovering his authority. On the 20th of March tiie king was jxjrsuaded to retire from Paris; and on the evening of erefore, issued some popular decrees, establishing the jVeedom of the press; abolishing the slave-trade; and regulating iho taxes which weighed most heavily on the people; he also conde- scended to offer to them the plan of a constitution, very different from the system of despotism upon which he had before acted, and con- taining many excellent regulations: he had, however, but little time to spare tor legislative measures. A manifesto ol expulsion and ex- termination had been issued against him bv the congress at Vienna, signed t)y the plenipotentiaries of Austria, France, Great Britain, Ki.ssia, Prussia, Sweden, Spain, and Portugal, and it was indispensably necessary for him to prepare for war. To this manifesto on the part of the allied powers, Buonaparte was notsiow in dictating and present- ing to Europe a counter manifesto, asserting in the strongest term? the right of the French to adhere to the dynasty they had chosen on the expulsion of the Bourbons; and declaring that the coniederate princes had been the tirst to violate the treaty of Fontainebleau; but it is remarkable that, though Buonaparte so peremptorily assert- ed, in his manifesto, the right oi' the French freely to choose what dynasty they pleased to reign over them, he had inserted in his new constitution an ariicle, total/y, and for ever, to exclude the Bourbon fimily from the succession to the throne. 10. It was not till June that th^ several armies were prepared to take the lield,an(l between the 15th and 19th of that month, the fate of Europe seemed once more to become dependent on the decision of the sword. The battle of Waterloo, which took place on the 18th of .lune, and in which the British and Prussian armies, under th<« duka of Wellington and marshal Blucher, totally defeated the Frencii, effectually put an end to all the hopes and prospects of Buonaparte. On the '-' from whom they were taken, and however severely it must ha\.e added to the morliticationb ihey had l)een doomed to sutler from weakness or defeat. The justice of such a step could not i)e dis- p;;ted, though nothing was more likely to excite the resentment and indignation of the l-'reiich, in whose hands, it must be acknowledged, had they been properly acquired, tliey were likely enough to be preserved and exhibited to the world, in a manner the most condu- cive to the glory and immortality of the illustrious artists to whom they owed their origin ; but, as an act of honourable restitution, in many instances, to persons and places whose claims would otherwise have been mocked and derided, the interpoMtion of the two victoii- ous chiefs upon this occasion may be justly admired. Prince Blucher, indeed, had a direct interest in reclaiming (be spoils of Berlin and Potzdam, but the duke of VVellington, while he had nothhig to re- cover lor his own country, freely assisted those whose pretensions re- quired the support of such paramount anihority. 13. By the second general pacification of Paris wi'.h the allies, ."^Tovember 2Uth, 1,815, it was agreed that an army of occupation, amounting to 150,UU0 men, and to be maintained in a great measure by France, should for the space of tive years be put in possession of her frontier fortresses, while her boundary should be larilier reduced than on the former occasion ; terms suiricienl'y mortiiying, but justi- fied by the turbulent and unsettled principles of the French nation. Though the period of five years, however, had been specificidly MODERN HISTORY. 379 'Agreed to, the state of things afterwards appearing such as to justify the allies in departing from tlie exact letter oi' (lie ti eat), in the spring of the year 1,817 they consented to r.^diioe ll:e iniiiy ol' oc- cupation one tilth, and in the autumn of 1,810, it was vvholly with, drawn froa. tlie French terrilories, and tlie furlre.-j>es on ilie iicnilier restored. SECTION XXII. NORTHERN STATES OF EUROPE, FROM THE CLOSE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1. Though much has been said of the nortiiern courts in tlie pre- ceding sections, as bearing a part in the transactions on the coiitineiit, during the last and present centuries, yet as they have not been mentioned distinctly and particularly, some brief account of them may be necessary, to give a clearer view of the course of events during the period under consideration. 2. Peter the great, of Klssja, who died in 1,725, (see Sect. LXVI. § 2.) was succeeded by his widow, Catherine I., who survived him only two years. It is remarkable, that though Peter had taken par- ticular care to secure to the reigning monarch a power of nanuiig his successor, he should himself neglect lhi*i precaution ; and foi such an omission the law had made no provision. Catherine, how- ever, had httle or no dithculty to take his place. She was a woman. if not of a superior, yet of rather an extraordinary character: had attended Peter in his travels and campaigns; been serviceable to him in his greatest extremities; olien checked the violence oi his pas- sions; and manifested a disposition, during her short reign, to encour- age a .spirit of liberty amongst her subject-^ and to promote, in every way ske could, the progress of improvement and civilization. Hei death was little expected, and excited some suspicions against tlie prince Menzjcofi', who had just negociated a treaty with Austria, and entered into a stipulation to raise the sen ol" the unlbi'tunate prince Alexis to the throue, upon the condition of.liis marrying bis daughter. 3. The empress ilied in 1,7^27, and was succeeded by Peter II., grandson of Peter 1. MenzicotT, however, seemed to take into bis own I'.ands the reins oi government, till he was supplanted bv one of the Dolgorouk; family, and banished to Siberia, with his wife and children. The new favourite designed to marry bis sister to the emperor; but on January 29, I,7oU, Peter died of the small-pox. 4n him the male issue of the line becoming extinct, Anne, duchess of Courland, was called to the throne through the intluence oi I)'>it>o- rouki, contrary to tlie order of succession established i>y Peter I., and in prejudice of her elder sister, the duchess of Mecklenburg. They were both of them the daughters of l\van, the eldest brother of Peter. 4. The reign of Anne was pros[)crons and glorious; she showed great sagacity and (iinmess in resisting the intrigues, and la!;!nciug the credit of rival statesme::, connseiioi's, and generals, Ku.-sian and foreign; maintaining her pi erogati\rs against lliose who sought to invade them, to iurther tbeir own ambition, parlicularly Dolgorouki, who, though he had placed her on the throne, was disgraced and banished to Siberia. Ai.ne died in 1,740, leavhig the crown, bv he». will, to her giaad-nephevv Iwan, son of her niece, Anne, princess of S80 M01>EilN HISTORY. Mecklenburg, married to the duke of Brunswick Bevern ; but she appointed iier tiivourite, count Biren, whom slie had brouglu with hei' tVoni Conrland, regent 5. This liijsl arrangement threw things into tiie utmost confnsinn. Biren was (L't-crvedly no lijvoin'ite with the Russians, more than 20,000 of wliom he is said to have sent into banishment; ho had, besides, a poweri'ni rival in count Munich, the conqueror of Ocz;'.- kow, a German, and a man ol' singular bravery and resoiutio.i ; t!ie latli r succeeded in dispossessing the regent of ids authority in favour of tiie inolher of tlie emperor. Biren was sent to Siberia; and ihe princess of Mecklenburg (duchess of Brunswick) assumed the r.d.i- of government ; but not attending suflicientiy to the duties of her higii station, and appearing to give too great enconragemcnl lo foreigners, a new revoluhon was set on foot, to place on ihe lliroiie the youngest daughter ol Peter the great, the princess I'di/.alieli]. Tins party, supported by French gold, and headed by Leslocq. a physiciiu, quickly becoming strong, seized upon the emperor hvaii •and his par(uils, and proclaimed Elizabeth empress ofall Ihe i-!nssi,i-. The life of the infant Iwan was preserved by (he clemency and ex- press interpesilion of Elizabeth ; but only to undergo a iiarder fat;-. (See below, § fj.) Munich was banished ; and other foreign gener;il'^, who had favoured the former government, either shared the same destiny, or contrived to escape irom the Russian dominion--. 'J'he people were well pleased to see t!ie throne rescued from the basii's of foreigners in favour oi' so direct a claimant as the daughter ol Peter tlie great. Ttiis revoluiion took place in the month of Tvo- ve'mber, 1,741. '^. Russia flourished under the s\vay of Elizabeth, whose reign ,ex- nuiited an uninterrupted career of glory and success; her alii.mce WIS couiled by some of the greatest powers in Europe. Before her death, which iiappened in 1,762, she look care to restore the natural order of siicce>sion in Ifer iimiily, by declaring the duke of HolsUin Gottorp, her heir, son of her eldest'sister, and who became emperor, on her demise, by the title of Peter 111. 7. Tins uidbrlunate prince was not sufi'ered to reigu long ; he had married a princess of Anbalt-Zerbst ; a woman of singular character, peculiarly lilted to avail herself of any opportunities that migiit offer in so unsettled a cou'^^y, lo gratify her amlution, and give scope lo her abidties. The prmce had not behaved web to her, and niaiiy things concurred to render him unpopular, if not hateful to his sub- jects; particularly an enliiusiastic attachment lo the king of Prus.-ia. ti)en at war with the Russians, and projected innovations, well-meant but ill-timeil, some particularly atlectiiig, the clergy. He proposed to citcnmscribe the power of the noldes, and seemed to prefer tiie Hoistein troops to his Russian guard. As these things rendered his removal ])robable, accon'ing to the ordinary course of proceedings in tliat semi-barbarous country, the sagacious Catherine willingly gave ners-elf up to a party wb(^ had conspired against her husband, li is generally conjectured tliat slie connived, not oidy at the deposiliut nndor circumstances so mysterious as to ir.volvp tiio em- press in .suspicion. Siie reigned under the title of Catherine II. ibr the long sjKice of U{)wanU of thirty-ibur yeai-s. continually occupied in advancing the glory of her people, m augmenting her dominions, and rewarding merit. She obtained many signal advantages over the Turks, and succeeded (1,784) in wresting from them the whole dis- trict of the Criniea ; hut her designs extended much farther, even to (he expulsion of the Ottomans, and restoration of a Grecian empire, having for its capital Athens or Constantinople : she contemplated, in short, the complete triumph of the Cross over the Crescent. An ex- pedition was even undertaken tor the liberation of the Greeks, in the year 1,770; Init it proved ineffectual, though it might have been otherwise, had the Russian commanders consented to follow the ad- vice of th Scotch admiral, Elpliinstone, who commanded one of the divisions ot tlie l]ee(. 9. Catherine bore a large share in the partition of Poland, and seems to have been i-estrained by no principles of justice, humanity, morality, or virtue, from turthering the purposes o'fher ambition and policy :_ her prodigality was great, her largesses enormous, and her love of magniticence little proportioned to the smallness of the im- perial revenue: her aluiities and her resolution were remarkable, and she may be considered as having contributed largely to the im- provement and glory of the country over which she was permitted so long to bear unlimited rule. Her domestic regulations savoured little of the despotism displayed in iier foreign enterjjrises : she miti- gated the rigour of tlie penal laws, abolished torture and slavery, protected the arts and sciences, and endeavoured to elevate the mid- dle class to a proper degree of importance. 10. Catherine II. was succeeded in 1,796 by her son Paul I., a strange character, e.nsetlled in his principles, dissolute in his manners, jealous, vindictive, and, in his last days, scarcely in possession of liis senses. On his tirst accession, however, he wisely endeavouretl to provide against the evils arising from an unsettled inheritance, by 'enacting a law to secure the crown to his lineal and direct descen- dants, not absolutely excluding females, but admitting them only into the line of succession on a total failure of male heirs. 11. The emperor appeared to be extremely eager to secure an entrance into the jMedito-n-anean, and was highly gratified with being f.liosen patron of the order of Malta, which he consented to take under his protection in the year 1,798. He had been induced to take a part in the war against the French, and succeeded, in conjunction with the Turks, in getting possession, for a short time', of the Ionian islands; a Russian army was also sent to co-operate with the Austri- ans. under the couuiiand of the celebrated Souwarow, (or Souvarofl',) wlio, after having achieved great victories in Lornbardy, seems to have been cr'uelly ab;nidoned in Svvisserland, and to have unjustly in- curred the displeasure of his capricious master- A misunderstanding between the English and Paul on the subject of Malta, entirely alienated the latter from the confederacy. In the mean while, his violent coniluct had induced the great othcers of state and the nobility to conspire to dethrone him. He was slain in defending himsoKi during a contiict, in his own chamber, Marcli 24, 1.801 ; and, gn^ally to the joy of his oppressed people, succeeded by nis son Alexander, 382 MODEllN HISTORY. the present emperor, of whose accession, and share in the continental v/ar. an account has ah'eacly been given. 12. Prussia, as a kingdo'in, is not older than the eighteenth century, and entirely belongs tborei'ore to tiie period under discussion, lis history, as connected willi tlie electorate of Brandenbui'gli, ascends as higii, perhaps, as that of any sovereignty in l^urrpe. Its present power may be said to have taken its rise from the wisdom, judgment, and good sense of the elector Frederic-William, commonly called the great elector, who liad Ducal Prussia confirmed to him in 1,637. a.nd liy the convention of VValau and Krombei-g, rendered independent ol the crown of Poland, of wiiich, till then, it hati been a tief In the time of the great elector, advantage was taken of the unsettled stale of Europe, to increase the population, and thereby advance llie wealth and improvement of the country in every respect. The rcvocalion of the edict of Nantes in IVance, 1,G85, contributed large- ly to these ends, the Prussian states being freely set open to the ref- ugees of all descriptions; an act of mere policy, as tlie elector iiim- sell', though tolerant, was extremely devout and careful of the privi- leges, and even exemptions of the clen^y. 13. The elector, Frederic-William, died in 1,688, and was succeed- ed l)y his son Frederic, who, through the intJuence of the jirotestanl state's, and the good-will of the emperor Leopold, to whom he had been of service in his contest uith France, but who seems to iiave taki.^n such a step with little judgment or consideration, became king in 1,70!, and died in 1,713, at the very period when, by the treaty of Utrecht, his regal title ^vas contirnied and generally acknowledged by the other states of Europe. Frederic 1. was genei'ous, but tickle, superstitious, and vain; he tbnnded the University of Hall, the P>oyal Society of Berlin, and the Academy of Nobles, b it without taking much interest in their concerns, anil chietly at the inslig.itinn of iiis more learned consort, the princess Charlotte of Hanover ; he man- aged, however, to augment, by many acquisitions, purchases, and exchanges, the extent of his dominions. 14. Flis successor, Fredcric-Wiliiam II., is judged lo have done much, more to raise the creciit and character of bis new kingdom, by excessive prudence, and good management- and the utmost attention lo bis army ; whereby he not only repaired the losses occasioned by bis father's extrava.garces, but amassed great treasures, and laid the foundation for those stupfindous military achievements, which, in the oext reign, advanced Prussia to that high state of glory and eminence »vliich has given it such weight in the political scale of Europe. Frederic abolished, in 1,717, all the liels in bis kingdom; he invited colonies I'rom all jiarts to settle in his dominions. Like his gre;it pied- ecessor -md namesake, he estai)lished military schools and ii' spiials, liut he was no friend to literature ; unpoiis-hed in his mianuis, and iMipl-.ic;\ble in his resentment. He added to the domhiions of Prussia. ISleaia and the greater part of Swedish Pomerania. _,, — 15. On the deatii of Fredeiic-Wiliiam Jl., in 1,740, his son, (who is sometimes calltcl Frederic II., to disiinguish him from Itie F rederic- \Viili.ims, and sometimes Frederic 111.,) c;une to the throne. Of this n. 'inarch so much is known, and so much has already been noiired and recorded in the other sections of this work, that we h.ne liiile to say here, but that he managed to raise a scallered, ili-sorlcil, dis- jointed kingdom into the lirst rank of power and renown ; tinit he applied himself incessaully to promote the weJlare and improvcmeul MODERN HISTORY. 383 of his dominions, to augment the wealth and advance the civilizndop of his people, though, in m;iny of iiis regulalions ;irul measures to Uii.s end, he erred occasionally as his predccesriois hiu! done, lor »;int of a due knowletlge oi' some ot' \.\\c liis; j.'riitciples of poli;ical cc-.c u- omy, a science at that period liillc cullivaled. I'rod.Mic died Aii^ur-l, t,7ijli, in the seventy tilth year ol his ai^e, mul l()rly-se\ eiilli nf Lis .'eign, more admired liian esteemed; moi-e disiingidsiied for inaveiy in Ihe lield, wisdom in Ihecahinet, and literary attainments, than for any virtues or qualities of a nobler naiure. lie has had the re|H!la- tion of being the author of two very important measuies, l!ie ]>;)i 'i- tion of [-"oland, and the armcNJ neutrality. The credit ol'tiieliist m.iy probably be very liiiriy di-, ided between himself and Catherine of Russia; the second, a- a m;ill(^r of self-defence, and a jr-alons i e- gard for the liberty of the seas, leiiecls no dishonour on his character It is a point that should Ije belter sc'tlied than it seems to Ijc, by llie strict rules of internalional ae.d mariiime law. 16. Frederic was suc-iecded by bis iiepheiv Frederic-William. Oi the part taken by this monarch in support ot' the house of Orange, in 1,7l{7, of his opiiosition to the Frencli, in IiTlt2, and of lb(> sbire he had in the two last partitions of i^'oland, in 1,7;V^ and l,79rijiy which he gained the territories, tirst of South i^ru^^ia, a.ud. >ee(iuiiy of South-eastern Prussia, an account h:.s been ;;i\en el-ew in iv. Frederic-William II. died in i,797, aged tifty-three, lea\ ing the crov\n to his son, the piesent king, Fredeiic 111., who, as he came to tlie throne at the moment that i)U0uaparte began his exlraordinai y ca- reer, in disturbance of the peace of the continent, was necessarily involved in all the difiiculties and confusion of those times, as has been already shown : he jei:ied tiie .wniod neiUndity in l,80(j, criu-^ed Hamburgh to be slte.t : ;'; i ■ I the -lates of llano\er, l,Bt>l, \vhici, .w' ; in-^i,;, in l.'jij.'j, in exch.inge for a par. .... ..,., , .,/.,..;...-, Anspa;:!:, Ikir-'.saii, iVeufcbatel, and Salengin, provoketl the resentnu'iit of Fr.ghuid and Sweden, in 1,806, the king rashly engaged in war with France, and was nearly deprived c-f bis kuigdom : tiio losses he s;,^;;,incd le, liie treaty of Tilsit, have been memioned. (Sect. X\'i.) In l,ui-, Fred- eric was compelled by i'Vance to fuini.-ii an auxiiiary foire a^ainsi Russia, but was afler\varus, on Hit; retreat i"nnid glories of that day in conjunction with the iJiliiii. bi;;." ''■■'' 3ed a state ef peace, though not !Muli^;i;. ;• \^,\^ maj * duc'erns. 17. The crown of Sv.s,!t,n, on •,, , (;iia,ies Xll., IJlB, (see Sect. LXVL § 9. Fail 11.) was ^.-./t'l i-u ,,n ius youngest sister, Ulrica Eleanora, by the tree election of the stales. On the death ot" Charles, whose strange proceedings had greatly exhausted the king- dom, and occasioned the actual loss of many nrovinces, an opportuni- ty was taken, once more, io limit the kingly power, which had been rendered almost absolute in the reign of (^diaries XI., and to make the crown elective. The new queen, who was married lO the hered.. itary prince of Hesse Cassei. and wlio had been oflered the crown in prejuciice of the sou aad represeutative ol her elder sister, the 384 MODEKJN HlriTOilY. duchess of Holstein tioltorp, readily submitted to the conditions pro- posed l.iy the states for limiting the royal authority, but soon aftei her accession resigned the government io her royal consort, v' o was ^rowned by the title of Frederic i., 1,720. 18. The new king ruled the nation with lillle dignity and less spir- it; submitting to every thing imposed on him by the states, nil tl.e gover-.ment became more republican than monarchicaL The *^,ie- dish territories were also mucli reduced during the early part of his reign, hi the course of the years 1,719, 1,720, 1,721, Sweden ceded to Hanover, Bremen, and Veiden; to Prussia, the town oi Stettin, and to fiussia, Livonia, Esthonia, higria, Wiburg, a part of Careiia and several islands. 19. It was during this reign that the rival fictions of the Hats and Cap!, had their origin, and which caused great trouble; the fornier reing generally under the inlkience of France, the latter of Russia. To deter the latter from assisting the queen of Hungary, in the war that took place on the death of (Jhailes VI., France made use of iis mlluence with the Huts, to involve Sweden in hostilities with Russia, for which siie was ill-prepared, and from which she suffered cr.nsii!- erably. Her losses were restored to her in some meastu'e by the peace of Abo, 1,743, but upon the positive condition that Fieueiic should adopt as his heir and successor, at the instance of th(> cz;iriyi;t, Adolphus-Frederic, bishop of Lubec, uncle to the duke of llol!:;tein Gottorp, presumptive heir to the throne oi" Russia, and nephew to the queen of Sweden, who would more willingly have hud the latter for her successor. 20. Adniphus-Frederic came to the crown in 1,751. The same factions wbic'i had disturbed the former reign continued to give him trouble, and though he made some endeavours to get the better ot foreign influence, and recover his lost authority, all his efforts were vain. Nothing coidd exceed the anarchy and contusion that prevaii- etl, encouraged and fomented both by Russia imd France, to lurther the'r private ends. The king is supposed to have fidlen a sacritice to these disturbances, dying wholly dispirited in the year 1,771. 21. He was succeeded by his eldest son Gustavus ill., tvven(y-fjvr. years old at the time of his accession ; a Swede by birth, and an ac live and spirited prince, \vho was bent upon recovering what hh predecessors had too tamely suri'cndered oi' their rights and prerog- atives; in which, being supported by France, he had the good fortune to succeed. Having found means to conciliate the army, and to rec oncile the people to an attack upon the aristocrats, who were betray ing the interests of the country, he established a neu' consliinlion 1,772, with such good management and address, that the public tran quillity \vas scarcely for a moment disturbed. This new arrangemenl threw great power into the hands of the king, by leaving him the option of convening and dissolving the states, with the entire disposal of the army, navy, and all public appointments, civil, military, and ecclesiastical; some alterations vvere made in 1,789, but nothing could reconcile the party whom he had superseded; at least it is probable that this was the occasion of the catastrophe which termi- nated the life of the unfortunate monarch. Tou'ards the commence- ment of the French revolution, in the year 1,792, v/hen he was pre- paring to assist Lewis XVi., (an unpopular undertaking,) he wag nssassinated at a masquerade by a person encouragful, if not directly employed, by the discontented party of 1,772. 22. Gustavus lU. was brave, polite, weil-intornied, and of a ready MODERN HISTORY. S86 eloquence ; but profligate in his habits ol' life, and careless as to mat- {(•!•■> of religion. He promoted letteis, agricuKnre, and commerce, its fii as Ijs means would enaldc liim to dc so. His measures appeal to li.ive been more arbitrary than his disposition. To. His son Gustavus iV. bein^ only fourteen years old at the time r>l' id* father's death, the duke of Sudermania, brother of the deceas- ed king, became regent for a short time. No monarch in Knrope riianifesled a greater zeal in the cause of the French royal family, iir disgust at the ai'bitrai'y proceedings of Buonaparte, than Custavus IV,, [)ut he was little able to give eflect to his wishes; his judgment being weak, and his tbrces inadequate to contend with the French, especially after the latter, by the treaty of Tilsit, (see Sect. XVI.) had fojud means to detach and conciliate the emperor Alexander. Alter this disastrous treaty, Gustavus became not only the object of French resentment, but of Russian rapacity. He was peremptorily lorliidden to admit the English into his ports, and Finland was quickly wrested from him. The Danes also attacked him. hi this dilemma, Kngl.ind would have assisted him if she could iiave trusted him, but, 111 truth, his rashness and incapacity were become too apparent to justify any such contidence. A revolution was almost necessary, nor was ii Idiig betbie a conspiracy was formed, which, in the year 1,809, succeeded so far as to induce him to abdicate His uncle, the didie of Sudermania, being appointed protector, and very soon afterwards king, by the title of Ctiarles XilL, the slates carrying their resent- ment against Gustavus IV. so far, as to exclude his posterity also from the throne. 21. Charles XIII. submitted to new restrictions on the kingly au th.-'ity, and iKuing no Issue, left it to the nation to nominate an heir t,> I he c.'own. Their tirst choice fell upon the prince of Augusten- liuig, a Daiush subject, but ids death happening soon afterwards, noi wiiliout suspicion of ibul play, Rernadotte, one of Buonaparte's gen- era is, vv as, in a very extraordinary manner, nominated in his room by the king, and approved by the states. As crown prince of Sweden, tempted by tlie otfer of iN^orvvay, he joined the conlederacy against Buonapai'te in 1.813, and w..s present at the battle oi'Leinzig. (See Sect. XX.) On the death of Charles XIII., i,81S, he succeeded to the crown, and still reigns, having, by the treaty of Vienna, 1,815, obtauiocl Norway, and the island of Guadaioupe. 2b. The history of Denmark during the eighteenth century, and ijoginning of the nineteenlh, is very uninterestuig, in a polilical point ol view. Incap.abie of taking any'lcading oi- consjdcuous part in the •tlfairs of Europe, all that we know concenung her relates rather to Oilier coiinlries, as'lvussia, Sweden, I rus>ia, France, and England ; in i\iiose i'rit ndsliips and hosiililies she has been compelled, by circum ri.ioces, to take a part, little advantageous, if not entirely detrimental, lo her own interests. 2i). live kings have occupied the throne since tlie close of the sevonteenlh century, but it will be necessary to say very little of il.oni. Frederic IV"., u ho came to ihe crown in 1,G99, died in l^llKK .Hid Nvas succeeded by Christian VI.; a monarch who paid great at' tention to the welfare of bis sui jects, in lightening the taxes, an-l en- couraging trade and manulactures. He reigned sixteen year?, and was succeeded by his son Frederic V., in the year 1,746. Fredeiic tiod in the Ibotsteps of his I'ather, by promoting knowledge, encour- aging the manufactures, and extending the commerce of his country. lie bad nearly been embroiled with Russia during the six Qiontlis' Kk 49 386 MODERN HISTORV. leigi of the unfortunate Peter III., who, the moment he beCurae eni' peror, resolved to revenge on the court of Denmark the injuries nhich had been committed on his ancestors of the house of Heilstcin Gottorp. In these attempts he was to be assisted by the king of Prussia. The king of Denmark prepared to resist the attacks uith which he was threatened, but the deposition and death of the em- peror fortunately relieved him trom all apprehensions, and he wag able to compromise matters with Catherine II., by a treaty that was not (o take eifect till the grand duke Paul came of age. By this con- vention, the empress ceded to Denmark, in the name of her son, tbe duchy o( Sleswick, and so much of Holstein as appertained to the Gottorp branch ol" that family, in exchange for the provinces of Ol- denburg and Dalmenhorst. 27. Frederic V. died in 1,766, and was succeeded by his son Chris- tian VII., who, in 1,768, married the princess Carohne Matilda of England, sister to his majesty king George 111. The principal event m this reign was one which involved the unhappy queen in inextric- able dithcultios, and probably hastened her death ; but which seems still to be enveloped in considerable mystery. A German physician of^ the court, (Slruensee,) who had risen from rather a low station in life to be tirst minister, having rendered himself extremely obnoxious by a most extensive reform in all the public offices of state, civil and military, and which, had they succeeded, might have done him great credit as a statesman, was accused of intriguing with the young queen, and by the violence of his enemies, headed and encouraged by Juliana INIaria, the queen-dowager, and her son prince Frederic, brought most ignominiously to the scaflbld. The unfortunate queen Caroline, whose life was probably saved only by the spirited inter- position of the British minister, quitted Denmark after the execution of Slruensee and his coadjutor Brandt, antl having retired to Zell in Germany, painfully separated from her children, there ended her days. May 10, 1,775, in the twenty -fourth year of her age. 28. During the latter part of his life, Christian VII., whose under- standing had always been weak, fell into a state of mental derange- ment, and the government was carried on by the queen-dowager and prince Frederic, as co-regents, with the aid of Barnstoff, an able and patriotic minister. In 1,773, the cession of Ducal Holstein to Den- mark by Russia took place, according to the treaty above spoken of: tins was a very important acquisition, as giving her the command of the whole Cimbrian peninsula, and enabling her, by Ibrming a canal I'rom Kiel, to connect the Baltic with the German ocean. In the continental wars of 1,788, 1793, Denmark remained neuter, but by joining the armed neutrality in 1,800, she excited the suspicions and resentment of Great Britain, and, being supposed to lavour not only Russia but France, became involved in a contest, which was attended with losses and vexations the most melancholy and deplorable. (See Sect. XX. § 9.) 21^ Christian VII. died in 1,788, and was succeeded bv his son I'rederic VI., the present monarch, who had, a few years before, on entering the seventeenth year of his age, been admitted to his proper share in the government, having with singular moderation and pru- dence succeeded in taking the administration of aifairs out of the hands of the queen-dowager and her party. Denmark appears to liave suffered greatly from the peculiarity of her situation during the struggles arising cut of the trench revolution, being continually forced into alliances contrary to her own interests, and made at last to MODERN HISTORY. 387 contribute more largely than almost any state, to the estahlisliment of peace. The cession of Norway to Sweden, which had been held out by the allies as a boon to the latter power, to induce her to join the last confederacy against 1* ranee, being a severe loss to Denmark, and very ill requited by the transfer ol' Pomerania aTid the Isle of Hugen, wliich were all that she received in exchange. SECTION XXIII. SOUTHERN STATES OF EUROPE, FROM THE CLOSE OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. 1. The southern states of Europe underwent such extraordinary revolutions during the pi-eponderance ot" the French under Buona- parte, that what happened to them during the eighteenth century, previously to these surprising events, seems comparatively of very iitlle conrequence ; of the changes and disturbances to which they were subject through the interference of the French, an account i* to be lound in the sections relating to France. 2. Switzerland at the beginning of the eighteenth century was in- volved in disputes between the prolestants and catholics, which were attended with very unpleasant circumstances. These differences, however, were brought to an end by a convention in 1,717, which established an equality of religious rights. Things remained very quiet in most of the cantons from this time to the French rovolutionj with the exception of the towns of Geneva and Berne, and a few other places, where a disposition was manifested to limit and restrain tJje aristocratical governments, but which only led at that time to such iudicious reforms, as were sufficient to appease the ardour of the people. These disputes, however, may be held to have contributed 10 the evils which befel the country afterwards. Though the states endeavoured to preserve their neutrality during the progress of the French revolution, it was not possible, while revolutionary principles were afloat, to keep the country so free from inteinal disputes and commotions, or so united, as to deter the French from interfering. Geneva had already been cajoled out of her independence, but the first decisive occasion afforded to the French of taking an active part In the affairs of Swisserland, arose out of the disputes, in 1,798, rel- ative to the Pays de Vaud ; the gentry and citizens of which, not thinking themselves sufficiently favoured by the rulers of Berne and Fribourg, began to be clamorous for a change. The peasantry of Basle also, instigated by an emissary of the French directory, de- manded a new constitution. These disputes opened the way for the introduction of French troops, tirst under the orders of the directory, and afterwards under Buonaparte, as has been shown in our account of France ; and from that period to the conclusion of the war in 1,815, Switzerland can scarcely be said to have known a year of repose. 3. Of the condition of Venice during the eighteenth century, much may be collected from the foregoing sections. She lost the Morea in 1,718, but acquired in exchange some towns in Albania and Dalmalia. Some ecclesiastical reforms took place in the middle of the last cen- tury, at which period many convents were suppressed, and the Jesuits expelled. Venice endeavoured to remain neuter during the first 388 MODERN HISTORY. movements of the French revohjtion, but was soon drawn into the vortex when Buonnpurte assumed the command of the French aim\. By the treaty of Campo Formio, 1,797, (see Sect. XV.) her dooin was sealed, and this celebrated republic entirely overtlirown. 4. In Rome, since the close of tbe eighteenth century, there ha? been a succession of many popes, though tlie last two have tiilod the papal chair longer tlian might be expected, in a sovereignty where the election is generally made from persons advanced in years. Lit- tle more than the ■' magni nominis umbra'' remained to the popes at the beginning of the eighteenth century, of that temporal power which at one time or other had shaken every throne in Europe. The clergy of France in particular had effectually asserted that kings and princes, in temporal concerns, were independent of the rcclosi- astical authority. Clement XI., who was of the family of the Albaui, and assumed the tiara in the year 1,700, opposed the erection of Prussia into a kingdom ; an extraordinary measure of interposition, and which had so little weight as almost to expose his court to ridi- cule. He espoused the French interests in the contest ,:oncerning the Spanish succession, though in 1,708 he was compelled, l>y the vigorous proceedings of the emperor, to acknowledge Charles III. king of Spain. From this pope the famous bull ^inigenitm was ex- torted by the Jesuits, to the great disturbance of b'rance, and the whole Romish church ; and the consequences of which, indeed, may be traced even in the present state and circumstances of Europe. 5. Pope Clement XI. died in 1,721, and was succeeded l)y tin- car- dinal Michael AngeloConti, who took the naineof Innocent XIII., hut - beinn^ far advanced in years, lived a very short time, dying on ttie .3d of INlarch, 1,724, and on the 29th of May tbllowins;, cardinal Frsini, Benedict XllL, was chosen his successor. During his papacy, f'oiu- machio, which had been lost to the Roman see in the time of Clem- ent XI., was recovered ; Benedict was zealous for the honour of the bull unigenitus, and in conjunction with cardinal Flem-y, succeeded in procuring the cardinal de Noailles, one of the most respectable and zealous opposers of it in France, to subscribe it. He had a disposi- tion to unite the Roman, Greek, Lutheran, and reformed churches, but could not succeed. He died 1,730, more admired for his viriues and talents, than praised for his wisdom in the management of afTaii-s. 6. Benedict Xlll. was succeeded by Clement XII., Laurence Coivi- ni, a Florentine, whose public acts were of little importance. He had disputes with the king of Sardinia, the republic of Venice, with the empire and Spain ; but much of his pontificate was passed in tranquillity. He died on the 6th of Februr.ry, 1 ,740. He made con- siderable and valuable additions to the Vatican library. On hi^ death, a struggle arose between the Albani and Corsini families, and the conclave was much agitated. The former prevailed, and suc- ceeded in elevating cardinal Prosper Lambertini to the papal chair. who took the title of Benedict XIV. His government of the church was extremely mild, and he was regarded as no fiivourer of the Jesuits, who, during his pontificate, fell into disrepute in Forlugal. the fn-st symptom of their decline and tall. This pope was a man of most amiable manners, a great writer, and possessed of considerable learning. He corrected several abuses, particularly such as had arisen out of the privileges of a^iylum. lie carefully endeavoured to keep clear of disputes and contests, thinking the tinies unfavourable to the papal authority. He died in the year 1,758. 7. The cardinal Rezzonico succeeded Benedict XIV., and took the MODERN HISTOKY. 339 title of Clement XIII. His pontificate is nnemorabie for being the Kra of the expulsion of the ordrr of Jesuits, (in some instances un- der circumstances of very unju^titiable precipitation.) from Portugal, France, Spain, Naples, Sicily, Parma, Venice, and Corsica, notwith- standing the utmost efforts of the pope to uphold them ; many of them were actually landed from Spain, Portugal, Naples, and "^icily, on the pope's territories, as though it belonged to him To maintain them when abandoned by the catholic sovereigns. The pope re- monstrated, but with little elTect. The French seized upon Avignon, and the Neapolitans upon Benevento, to induce him to abandon the order, but he would not. Clement XIII. died suddenly, on February 2, 1,769, and was succeeded by the celeorated Ganganelli, w^ho, in compliment to his predecessor and patron, took the title of Clement XIV. This enlightened pontiff was sensible of the dechne of the papal authority, and of the prudence of conciliating, if not of humouring, the sovereigns of Europe, against whom, he was accus- tomed to observe, the Alps and the Pyrenees were not sufficient pro- tection. It was in consequence of this leaning towards the temporal princes, that he secured their concurrence to his being made pope, his freedom of thought and manners being otherwise obnoxious to the court of Ror/ie. The conclave, by which he was elected, was tumultuous ; but at length the cardinal de Bernis succei.ded in pro- curing liim to be chosen pope. May, 1,769. It is well known that this accomplished pontiff", in the year 1,773, after much deliberation, suppressed the order of .lesuits ; and, dying in the next year, suspi- cions were raised that he had been poisoned, but, on ojiening his body, in the presence of the French and Spanish ministers, enemies to the Jesuits, it w;is pronounced otherwise. There is little doubt but that he regretted, as head of the church, the step he had been compelled to take ; it procured for him, indeed, the restitution of Avignon and Benevento, which had been taken from his predecessor; but in consenting to the dissolution of an order so essential to the papal dominion, he must, in all probability, have yielded to the power of irresistible circumstances. He was of an amiable disposition, much given to literature, indefatigable in business, and highly re- spected by foreign nations, plain and simple in his manners, and very disinterested. 8. Fady in the year 1,775, Angiolo Braschi, a descendant of the noble family of Cesena, was chosen to fill the chair vacated by the death of Ganganelli. The new pope took the title of Pius VI. He is sai J t(i have been elected contrary to the wishes and intentions of most of the members of the conclave, a circumstance not unlikely to happen amidst such a contrariety of interests, and the complicated forms of proceeding. As he had thus risen to supreme power, he acted afterwards more independently of the cardinals, than any of liis pi-edecessors. 9. He had taken the name of Pius VI., in acknowledged defiance of a prevailing superstition, expressed in the following verses, and applied to Alexander VI. particularly, if not to others. " Sextus Tarquinius, Sextus Nero, sextus et iste Semper sub sextis, perdita Roma fuit." He is known to have, in his troubles, reflected on this rather sin- gular circumstance, with sorrow and dismay. Certainly no pope hatl greater indignities to sustain, nor could any have greater cause to K k 'I 590 MODERN HISTORY. apply fo tiiemselves the ominous presages conveyed in the lines just citetl; lor in the year 1,798 his governmt'nt tvas overthrown, and Ronve lost. The French took possession of it and proclaimed the restoi-alion of the Roman republic. 10. The pope's troubles began in 1,796, when he was compelled to cede to Buonaparte the cities of Bologna, Urbino, Ferrara, and .-Xncona, to pay twenty-one millions of francs, and deliver to the French commissioners, sent for the purposes, pictures, busts, statues, and vases, to a large amount. He afterwards endeavoured to raise an army to recover what he had lost; but he had formed a very wrong estimate of the power of his opponent. He was socn com- pelled, February 12, 1,797, to sue for peace, and submit to further' , sacntices at the will oi Buonaparte, whom he had certaitdy very in- caiiliously provoked. By the peace of Tolentino, he renoimced all right to Avignon and the Vanaissiii, Bologna, Ferrara, and the Romag- na. On the entrance of the French in 1,798, the Vatican and quit inal palaces, and private mansions of the obnoxious amongst the iiobiiily, were stripped of all their ornaments and riches. The peo- ple who had invited the French, fancied themselves free, but had very little cause to thank their deliverers. The pope was forcibly removed from Rome, at the age of eighty, and, by order of the French directory, transferred from place to place, as the course of events diclatoil, Irom Rome to Florence, from Florence to Briancon, and from Bri;incon to Valence. Another removal to J)ijon is saiil to have been in contemplation, had not the decline of his health become too visible to render it necessary, lie died at the latter place on the 29th of \ugust, 1,799, in the eighty-second year of his age, and twenly-lonrtli of his poni.'ticate. 1 1. Pius \1. \vas correct in his manners, and a patron of genius, particularly of the tine arts. He spent much money on buildings, notwithstanding the distressed state of the iinances, and devoted large sums to the draining of the Pontine marshes, in which almost im- practicable undertaking, he partly succeeded. He endeavoured to correct the abuses of sanctuary, which had been carried so far as to give impunity to hired assassins, much to the disgrace of those who protected them. It deserves to be recorded of him, that he display, ed great magnanimity, as well as pious resignation, when dragged Irom his dominions ; and though he fell severely the wrongs that had been committed againsi«.i;ini;e airain-it each other, 'nid ii is io I'e feared yreaily fo- iiientinij their quarrels, soon becaoie ar^(iii;unie(l wiiii the ruamfest superioriiy ol' their own tactics, and ilie iriHuence tliis oiurt give them in such contests. The French went farther, ami lirsi liii upon the expedient of training: the natives in the European manner, and ia- corporaiini? litem with their own armies; these were called Sepoys. 7. It was not long before tlie French and English, who liad at first only taken the field as auxilaries, became opposed to each other as principals; in which contlicls the English succeeded beyond ail ex- pectation, and instead of being driven out of tiio peninsula themselves, which was evidently in the view of the French under Dupleix, ia the year 1,751 and 1,752, found means to establish iheinselvcs liiere, throuih the victories of Clive, to the exclusion of all other European nations, except for purposes purely commercial. 8. Clive has justly been regarded as the founder of the British em- pire in India ; lie was the first to procure for the company grants of territory and assignments of revenue, which totally changed the char- acter of our connexion with that country, and rendered the native princes, even the mogul himself subservient to our purposes. The English had received areal provocation from tiie subahdar of Bengal, in an attack upon Calcutta, and Clive was selected by admiral Wat- son to recover froui Sourajud Dowlah the town and fori, which had been surrendered to him. At the battle of Plassey, 1,757, he not on- ly succeeded in the recoveiy of Calcutta, hut in the deposition of the subahdar, and iiaving appointed his general in his room, obtained a grant of all the effects and factories of the French in Bengal. Bahar, and Ori«sa, and money contributions to the immense amount of £2.750,000 sterling, exclusive of private gratuities. 9. It would have been well if theso advantages could have been acquired with less loss of credit to the nation than was actually the case ; but there was too much in these first steps towards a territorial establishment, to feed the ambition and cupidity of those intrusted with the management of affairs, to render it probable that they would keep clear of abuses. The opportunities that occurred of intermed- dling with the native powers, were eagerly seized upon as occasions for enriching the servants of the company, (drawn from home in ex- pectation of makinir rapid fortunes,) at the expense of the company itself, whose affairs were in danser, not only of becoming more em- barrassed by the extraordinary expenses of such interference, hut by the alienation of tiie minds of the natives, under circumstances little short of the most determined plunder and persecution. In the man- agement of the new-acquired territories and inland trade, it is no lonser to be doibted thai the natives suffered in every pos>iible man- ner, from the most unreasonable monopolies, exorbitant duties im- posed on articles of ijeneral consumption, abuses in regard to leases, and fiscal oppressions; .so that the British nume became dislioDt)red, and it wa-; found to b? nb-ioltiiply expedient that some change shoulil lake place in the admisiration of affairs so remote from the seat of all rule and direction, and which, from simply commercial, were now clearly become political and military, 10. The charter of tlie co npany being subject to periodical le- nevvai-^, affurlcri oppuriuiiiiies for tlie inierfereni-e of the legislature, nor was the com|)any itself backward under any pressure of pecu- niary embarrassments, to apply to government for assistance. On one of these occasions, the great change that had taken place in the 394 MODEIUV HISTORY. «late of things in India, induced the government at home to claim fot Ihe crown ail revenues arising from any new acquisitions made by military force, and in order to repress the inordinate proceedings of the company's servants, of wliich the natives, the public at home, and the company itself, had but too much reason to complain, gov ernment also insisted upon taking into its own hands the political jurisdiction of India. 1 1. These claims and regulations were first proposed in parliament^ November, 1,772, and may be said to have laid the foundation foi that enlarged system of administration and control which has prevail- ed since, though under different modifications, from lord North's bill in 1,773 to Mr. Pitt's in 1,784. By this latter bill, a board of control, composed of certain commissioners of the rank of privy counsellors, was established, the members of which were to be appointed by the king, and removable at his pleasure. This board was authorized to check, superintend, and control the civil and miUtary government and revenue of the company ; a high tribunal also, for the trial of Indian delinquents, wiis proposed at the same time. The manage- ment of their commercial concerns was left in the hands of the com- pany ; the political and civil authority only transferred to the crown. In 1,786, some alterations were made in the bill; the offices of com- mander-in-chief and governor-general were for the future to be unit- ed in the same person, and a power given to the governor-general to decide in opposition to the majority of the council. The presidencies of Madras and Bombay had been previously, by lord North's bill. E laced under the superintendcncy of the governor and council of bengal, but by this bill that point also was confirmed. 12. When this bill was passed, it appeared from the preamble, tc be decidedly the opinion of parliament, of government, as well as of the court of directors, whose orders had for some time breathed the same spirit, that " to pursue schemes of conquest and extension of dominion in India, were measures repugnant to the wish, the honour and the policy of the nation." It had previously been resolved by the house, " that the maintenance of an inviolable character for moderation, good faith, and scrupulous regard to treaty, ought to have been the simple grounds on which the British government should have endeavoured to establish an influence superior to other Europeans, over the minds of the native powers in India ; and that the danger and discredit arising from the forfeiture of this pre-eminence, could not be compensated by the temporary success of any plan of violence and injustice." 13. Such was the tenor of the resolutions of the house of commons in 1,782, recognised as the principle of the bill of 1,784, and farther confirmed by an act passed in 1,793. In all we perceive an evident allusion to those mal-practices of the company's servants, which will for ever, it is to be feared, remain on record, to tarnish the lustre of our first victories and territorial acquisitions in India, and to detract from tlie reputation of persons, whose names might otherwise have justly stood high on the list of those, from whose pre-eminent talents and abilities, the nation has derived both glory and advantage. 14. The English system of jurisprudence had been extended to India by lord JNorth's bill of 1,773, but under disadvantages extreme- ly embarrassing. The difference of manners, habits, customs; the difficulty, if not impossibility, of mingling two codes, so very dissimi- lar as those of Britain and Hindoostan ; the forms and technicalities of the English law, totally unknown to the native courts • the ap- MODERN HISTORY. 395 parent injustice of subjecting a people to laws (o which they were no parlies, and to which, of course, they had given no sanction; these, and other difficulties have been acknowledged by those who have had to administer the laws under the new system, in India, as having prevented those happy eflects taking place, which might otherwise have been expected from the introduction of the English jurisprudence. Since the passing of Mr. Pitt''s bill, however, much beneht has certainly been derived from the residence and superin- tendence of noblemen of the highest rank and abilities, as governors, general, and of judges the most enlightened, to preside in the Indian courts. The first reforms that uere attempted under the new system, though not so successful as might bo wished, proceeded from those two most amiable and highly respected personages, the marquis Cornwallis, and sir William Jones. 15. From the conduct of lord Cornwallis, and his successors lord Teignmouth, and lord Mornington, now marquis Wellesley, it is ex- tremely evident that tiie system of neutrality and forbearance pre- scribed by the resolutions of parliament, and preamble of the act of 1,784, would have been scrupulously adhered to had it been possible, consistently with the security of our settlements; but towards the close of the eighteenth century, the English were compelled to de- fend themselves tVom the most' formidable designs of the celebrated Hyder Ally and his son Tippoo Saib, who unquestionably had it in view to exterminate the British, and probably all other Europeans, fiom the peninsula of India. 16. The result of these conflicts, which took place in Mysore, and the Carnatic, Avas the total overthrow of^ a Mahomedan dynasty ol only two sovereigns, commencing with a mere adventurer of most singular character, who having waded through crimes to his object, succeeded in placing himself and his son on one of the most brilliant thrones of the east, and in a condition to give very considerable trouble to the English government there. 17. Hyder Ally, the father of Tippoo, was born in 1,722, and died in 1,782. Tippoo was born in 1,753, and lost his life in the celebrat- ed assault ol the capital of his new dominions, Seringapatam, inl,799, They were very different men, having been difterently edixated. The former had strong natural powers, which compensated for his want of acquired knowledge ; Ihe latter was vain of his scanty pro- ficiency in Persian literature, and a few otherattainments, toa degree of absurdity ; flmcying himself the greatest philosopher of the age, the wisest, bravest, and handsomest of men. Hyder was tolerant in religious concerns to a degree of indifference ; Tippoo, a bigoted mussulman, to the utmost pitch of intolerance and persecution. The former meddled little with religion. The latter contemplated changes in Islamism, as in every thing else, having, as a preliminary, substi- tuted a new era in his coins, dating from the birth instead of the flight of Mahomet. Both father and son were devoid of principle, but the former was much the greatest man. 18. It was owing to the vigilance and prompt measures of lord Wellesley, that Tippoo was so opportunely overthrown; though hit proceedings were weak, they, were carried on with much duplicity and deceit, and upon principles of alliance which in other circum- stances might have become very alarming. Under the most positive and repeated assurances of peace and amity, he had intrigued with France, Turkey, the king of Candahar, (a descendant of the celes orated Aflghan chief Abdallah,) the INizam of the Deckan, and the 396 MODEKiN HISTORY. Mahrattaa, for the express object of forming a strong confo <-iHir;« i.l" (\,iv'-. IKW :Ui(i CoilMliDlihup',', iruh'Cli. :l- !;;;:! d.;Cl:;nd \Clii:,.;,;,ro :;^:.,:,.i the infKic'is gcinT.iiiv, whence it has been fi'a.-oualtlj cnucluui'il tij,M his schemes ot" destruction eniiiraced all the European po»\ers, li < Flench not excepted, had his projects l)ul hcen :i»iiC'X'.-^stiii. fHiin ri-itoly, lord Wellesley delected all iiis plots, and when il hecan.r itDpossihle to ij-eal tiiilher with him on any liiir groniids, i;y i., most decisive measures, ;ind I'apid moveiOL-iils, efi'celualiy averi- ed the blow that had been decidedly auued at the Jhia-ii enii.ire i:. hulia. - ' ■ 19. On the lid! of Seringapatam, the Mvsoreati dDniiiiiou"^ \v> . , by allotments to the allies, the British, the iS'i/.ani,and tiie xMahra;;,. nearly reduced to the limits by which they were bounded betor>> l . usurpation of Hyder, and, a surviving representative (>( tiie liiu;' ilynasty, a child only live years old, placed on the tlirone. wiiii an acknowledged dependency on the liriiisli government. Tise ... - scendants of Tippoo being, however, liber.dly provided lor. ai • settled in me Carnatic, disturbances in the northern and north-wcM . pai-ls of the peninsula, among the iMahratta chieftains, occupied :; attention of the English army, in the early part of the presrut c ,i- tury, when a fresh opportunity was ;ilforded of triumphing over i ;■ intrigues of the French, \vho headed the advej-se ibrces, and eii.i ■ ;k • onred to procure for that goverument a cession of the di-tiici-' ; i trusted to their care; but the issue of the contest was entire!} i,i f ivour of the British. From this time the ascendancy of the Br'iti^ii in the peninsula has continued so decidedly established, as to reiuK i it needless to say any thing of the other European settlements. 20. The acquisition of territory in Lidia, together uitli tiie new system_ of government and control, by rendering it necessaiy lor per- sons of learning and talent to reside there, have had the effect of im- proving our knowledge of those remote countries, and opened to u-^ a lield of inquiry and research, peculiarly interesting and ctnious. Among those who may be considered as paving most parlicularly contribe.ted to Ib.ese ends, we may reckon Mr. Wilkinsanu sir William Jones: the former by having first, xvith any real success, pursued the study of the Sanscrit language, the root of all the vernacular dialfcis of the peninsula, and thereby opened to the contemplation of the historian, the antiquarian, the philosopher, and the poet, whatever is interesting in the literature of all the nations east of tlie Indus; and the latter, by instituting the first philosophical society in those pails, and inviting the learned, in all quarters of the globe, to propose que ries in every branch of Asiatic history, natural and civil, on the phi losophy, mathematics, antiquities, and polite literature of Asia, and on eastern arts, both liberal and mechanic, as guides to the invesiiga lions of the persons resident in the peninsula, qualified to pnivue such inquiries on the spot, and communicafe to the world in general liie results of their discoveries. 21. To this learned society, first established in Bengal, under Ihe presidency of sir William Jones, we are indebted ibr all those curious papers preserved in the several volumes of the Asiatic Uesearclu's and the Indian Annual Register, and which have so largely conliib- uted to enlarge the boundaries of oriental literature. 1 o the n.imes already mentioned, as having taken the lead in this curious braucii of science, we may add those of our countrymen, Halhed, Vansiilait, Shore, (lord Teigamouth, the second president, on t!ie deatli ot sir MODERN HISTORY. 99t WiHiam, 1,794,' Davie, Colebrook, Wilford, Rennoll, Hunter, P«ntlfy, Rlarsden, Ornie, Carey, Buchanan. Barlow, Harrington, EdmonStone, Kiik Patrick, ^c. 22. At the commencement of the present century, it became ob- vious, to the nuiirims of Wellesley, then governor-g-,;neral, ;hat the state ot tiio I5ntish ^-mpinj in India absolutely required, that the per- sons .sent out to di.sciiarge the important functions of magistrates, ji-cisesj ambassadors, and governors of provinces, should have some Ijetter means of qualifying themselves for such high stations and compli<:aled duties, than were then in existence. His lordship's view ol' Uiese matters, as recorded in the minute of council, dated'August UJ, l.KOO, .s [lighly deserving of consideration, and his plan for forming snd en- dowing a college tor these purposes at Calcutta, reflect the highc^sl credit on hts wisdom and discernment, though the latter lias nol been carried into execution in the wa}- his lordship proi)osed, for want of funds. The East Iruiia College, since e-labli>I.ed in Hertlordslrire, nny be considered as entirely owing to tiie adoption by the company ot the enlightened principles contained in the minute alluded to. A svstem of oriental education i« now efl'ectually establislied, which, though on a mucli more contracted scale, and in a great measuie con- fined to Englaml. bids fair, it is to be hoped, (o accomplish most of the ends contempiateld its couMtf:sance from the original institution, the studies afc^ve chalked out have l^een, in a great measure, adopted in the Hertfordshire college, and its g';n- eral success hitherto has been y/onounced answerable to ^he expecta- tions of tliose who were most solicitous in effecting its establishment The education of the young men, destined to fill the civil offices iu India, is now therefore partly European and partly Asiatic ; tijr so much of the collegiate establishment in India may be said to remain, that there the students, who have been taught in England the eiemeii;s of Asiatic languages, are enabled to advance to perfection, and lo be- come masters of the several dialects prevailing through th(! peninsula. Though the original plan of the noble founder of the college o( Fort V> illiam has not yet been adopted by the East India Company, yot to apply the words of one of the most distinguished of our orieritalists, ** Ciood has i'een done, which cannot be undone ; sources of usel'ul knovvleage, moral instruction, and political utility, have bet;n opened to the natives of India, which can never be closed." Jn i,ti4, an ecclesiastical establishment, under the immediate auspices c-f govsriu in«Dt, was formed for India, the right reverend Dir. Thomas Faiishaw LJ S9S MODERN HISTORY. Mfddlefon bcin» consecrated at the archiepiscopal palace, at Lambeth, the first bibhop oi Calcutta. It must surprise the Eiig^Iish reader to be told, that the population of the British empire in India has been lately estimated at 90,000,000 . STATE OF ARTS, SCIENCES, RELIGION, LAWS, GOVERN- MENT, &c. 1. The historical events of the eighteenth centiiiy have, we must confess, been found to be of such magnitude and importance, as lo occupy rather too large a space in a work professing to be merely elementary , but we should be compelled in a still greater degree lo exceed tlie limits assigned to us, if we were to attempt lo filter into Ihe details of the very extraordinary progress thnt lias Uikcn placo during the same period, in arts, sciences, and literature : some changes, indeed, have occurred, and more been contemplated, in religion, la^vs, and government, but in regard to the former, almost all things have become new : we have new arts and new sciences ; and in literature, such an overflowing of books upon every subject that could pussibly occupy or interest the mir.d of man, that the inost diligent compiler of catalogues would fail in endeavouring barely to enumerate them. 2. it is somewhat extiaordinarj^, indeed, that this gieat and rapid advancement of knowled«;e has after all been confined to only a small jiortion of the globe. The great conln-rnt of Africa, though botu-r known ttian in past times, has made no advances in civilization. Asia, Itioujh many parts have been diligently explored during the last centu- ry, and a large portion of it actually occupied by Europeans, remains, as to the natives, in its original stale. The vast empire of China has made no progress at all. Japan has effectually shut the door against all improvement. South America, indeed, though labouring under difficulties unfriendly to the progress of knowledge, is yet reported to be making no iuconsiderable advances, particularly in Mexico, where both tlic arts and sciences are culti\ated with credit and effect. In Noith Amtvica, also, the arts and sciences and literature may certainly be said to be iii -i progressive state, but under circumstances of rather slow and pa"tial improvement.* 3. Civilized Europe is \t,e only part of the world that can claim the credit of almost all that has Wen done towards the advancement of knowledge since die commencement of the eighteenth century, and onl}-- a few parts after all of civilized Europe itself. Turk<'.y has stood still, as well as her Grecian dependencies, till very lately. Sd.iIii. Portugal, and even the greater part of Italj.-, have laboni^ ficulties and restrictions exceedingly inimical to theii' and which have gready arrested their progress hi the caro. ; .. !, ,. ..j and philosophy. The north and north-eastern parts of Europe have produced many learned men, have been diligently explored, and ma- terials at least collected for great improvements ; other patts arc alsii upon the advance : but England, France, and Germany, are undoubl- [* The -writer must be under a mistake. Is it not acknowledged throug-h- out Europe, that the United Slates of North America are not only fartiier advanced, but faster advancing, in the discoveries of science, and that Uieir progress iu literature is more rapid, than any otlier ualiou of the new woild ?J 5, MODEilN HlSTORi^. 31)3 edly the principal countries to which we must look for the most strfk- ine: progress in every branch of human knowledge. In these three countries, in particular, discoveries; have now certainly been madf, and principles established, whicii can never be lost again, and vvliich must, as far as they may extend, be constantly operating to the lasting iui- piovement of the world at lai-ge. 4. It would be quite unnecessary to go back to the origin, or former state, either of the arts or sciences, now known and cultivated in Eu- njpe. It is pretty generally understood, that, comparative/y witli tb* age of the world, the}^ have been only very recently submitted to sucti piocesses as bid Aiir to !)ring them to the highest state of perfection One art has helped another, and new sciences been brought to light, that have greatly promoted the advancement of those before under- stood and cultivated. Galvanism has assisted efcctricity ; and gal- vanism and electricity together been exceedingly serviceable to chemistry ; chemistry to mineralogy, and so forth : new systems and arraiigeinents, and new nomenclatures, have contributed greatly to render every step that has been takffn more accurate and certain, and to place evoiy object of attention or inquiry more exactly in the rank and order it should occupy in the general circle of arts and sciences ; but the thing of most importance of all, in regard to the improvements that have taken place since the beginning or middle of the eighteenth century, is, that every thing lias beei* conducted exactly upon those piinciples, which the great lord Bacon so strongly recommended, and has, tln;ret'orc, been found conducive to all those great ends, the r.t-g- lect of which, in his own and preceding ages, he so much deplored : {•\ery thing has had a tendency to augment the powers, diniini-ih the paijis, or increase the happiness of mankind. 5. Amongst the sciences so cultivated and advanced, since the sev- enteenth century, as justly to be regarded as new, we may rank chnn- hfn/, botany., electi-icity, galvanism, mineralogy, geology, and in many respects, geograjihy : every one of these sciences has been placed on so very different a footing, by the recent manner of treating them, and by new discoveiies, that it is better, perhaps, at once to consider them a.s new sciences, than to advert to former systems, founded on totally er- roneous principles, and which have been, on that account, very rea- sonably exploded. 6. Chemistry, however, even in the course of the period before uf the old philosophy, and totally supersede the pre- vailing theory of heat, light, and combustion ; a theoiy wnich was itself not much more than half a century old. Stahl, the celebrated disciple of Beclier, born in 1,660, but Avho lived to-1,734, has the credit of being the author of the phlogistic system, which began to be attack- ed late in the last century, and seems now to be totally exploded. Whether the rival theoiy will ultimately maintain its ground in alJ r)oiiifs, may, perhaps, appear-still doubtful to some : the French claim to be the authors of the new theory ; but though the experiments they very ably conducted were higlxly conducive to the esJ^ulishmeatofitj 400 MODERN HISTORY. the way seems to have been more opened to thern by others than they are willing to acknowledge, particularly by English observers. The pliloo;istic sv^teni was a plausible theory in certain respects, but in ot!}ers totaify indefensible ; and, perhaps, a better proof oC the utility ol" repealed experiments could not be produced, than that which as- certained, that, inst(;ad of the extrication of a particular substance b}; con.bustion, something was undoubtedly added to, or imbibed by, t lie combustible body, in cn-der to the separation of its parts ; that, in fact, in the actual process of combustion, affinity produces a double decom- position, and that a certain portion of the atmosphere entering into nmon with the combustible body produces all those appea:iixes whicli, under the former system had been attributed to the ex- trication of an unknown principle of inflammability, denominated phlogiston. 7. The veiy curious experiments, made to confirm and establish the latter system, have been of the greatest importance in regard to other matters, particularly to that branch of the new chemistry which has been denominated ihe pneumatic system. The discoveries in this line of experiment, which has the air lor its subject, exceed, perhaps, all others in importance and interest : the analysis of the common atmos- phere has opened to our view a series of physical operations constant- ly going on, the most wonderful and delicate that can possibly be con- ctived : the respiration of animajs is of this description. The atmos phere is now known to be a most curious compound of two sorts ot air, or gases, (as thty have been named of late,) the one capable of supporting life and ilame, tne other destructive of both : in combus- ticjii, talc'.iation of metals, and respiration, the process is the same,— a decomposition of the atmosphere : the [)ure part is imbibed, and the impure part left sulyect to further contaniination, by what is giveii out by tlie combustiuic, calcining, or respiring bodies during the ope- ration ; lor, as it ^vas before said, tiie decomposition in all instances is a 'iouble one ; the pi'ftportion of the two parts of the atmosphere has been ascertained to be in a hundred, twenty-two of pure or vital, and seveiUy-eight of impure or azotic gas. B. Tlie discovery of the vital air is acknowledged by M. Lavoisier !o have been common to nimself with two other eminent chemists. Dr. I'iicstiy aiul the celebrated Scheele. Dr. Priestly discovered it in l,774,"S(;heele in 1,777, M. Lavoisier in 1,775 : the former seems im donbtedly to have the best claim to the discovery. M. Lavoisier, at first, called it " higlily respirable air ;" afterwards, as entirely essen- tial lo tlie support ot life, " vital air :" Dr. Priestly, who lived and died an advgcate for the phlogistic system, " dephlogisticated air :" and Scheele called it " empyreal air." It at last ol)tained another n;inie, from its being supposed to be the cause of acidity, viz. " oxy- gen gas." 9. Who is justly to be accounted the lather ot the pneumatic tnem- i-try, it wotiW, perhaps, be hazardous to say : Dr. Black of E.linl)uigh lit- hail the cridit of being so, from his experiments on *he cajbonic ,icid. St has been claimed for Dr. Priestley, Sch.eele, and AL Lavoi- sier : the discoveries in this line ceitainly constitute a grand era in iheiriij-tiy. ']>ie many various kinds of gases that h:-.ve been ifw diseovered ;. the very curious exp<;riments made lo ascertain their piiilVerti'es : the instruments invented to render such experiments cer- l.!-i'n , the new compounds that have been detected by th( ir. means, and their operation and etfects in almost every branch of physics, it V.ouki liar exceed our limits to describe but it is impossible not to MODEiixN HISTORY. 401 notice the extraoidir.ary discovery ol the decomposition of water, wliicli belongs entirely to pneumatic chemistry. 10. Till within less than hall' a centuiy ago, water was esteemed to be so ceilainly an eli;mentary principle, that but tew ever dreamed of its beiiisr oJierwise ; and it was almost by accident that it was at last t()und tl) be a conipound. In the course of certain pneumatic experi- ments, it was ascertained by Mr. Cavt:ndish, that xi^ater was produced by a combination of two particular gases : both analj'sis and synthesis were resorted to, to render this curious discovery more certain, and it was at length ascertained, not only that those two gases were constant- ly produced in certain proportions from the decomposition of water, but that water was as constantly the result of a judicious mixture of I those two gases : the gases thus constituting the proper principles of ivater, wf-re die vital and vi/Iommable airs ot the first chemical nomen- clature ot' modern days, better known now by the names of oxygen gas and hydrogen gas ; the latter evidently so called from its im- pi.u'tance, as a constituent base or radical of Avater ; we owe the dis- cnvi,ry of it to our countryman, Mr. Cavendish. The proportion be- tw(>en the two gases in these curious experiments has been found to be eighty-five of oxygen to fifteen of hydrogen ; both oxygen and hydro- gen being combustible, their combination for experimental purposes is brought about by inflammation, through the means of the electric spark. 11. Having given this short account of the leading discoveries in pneumatic chemistry ; discoveries which have opened to us totally lew views, of certain physical operations of the first importance, and greatly extended our knowledge of chemical substances and their prop- erties, simple and compound, visible and invisible, confineable and unconfineable : we shall be compelled to be much more brief in what further lelates to modern chemistry. 12. Of late years almost all the substances in nature have been ex amined ; and probably almost all the combinations of them exhausted : new metals to a large amount, new earths, and new acids have been disctwered ; the fixed allralis decomposed, and their nature ascertain- ed ; the whole range of chemical affinities and attractions nicely ar- ranged and determined, as hr as experiment can reach ; and many elastic aeriform fluids brought to light, distinguished from each other by their diflerent bases, which were totally unkno^vn before to natural philosopheis, under the forms in which they are now obtained ; and which have been thought deser\ing of being formed into afmirth class «>r kingdom, amongst the productions of nature : the proper distinction of the>e elastic fluids, or gases, as they have been denominated, (after a term adopted by Vanhelmont, signifying a spirit or incoercible vapour.) being that of some base, saturated with the cause of heat or expansion, called in the new nomenclature caloric ; by means of some vS these gases, so combined ^vith caloric, a power has been obtained of fusing the most refractory substances in nature. 13. To render the nice and delicate expfjiments necessary in this new l)ranch of chemical science more accurate, numerous instruments have been invented, of very curious construction ; such as the eudicm' etcr, to measure the purity of any given portion of air ; the gazumiler to measure the quantities, 'vo. of gases; the calorimeter, for measures of heat ; to which we maj add various descriptions of theruwmc^:r$ and pyrometers, particularly the dijfercnlial thermometer, invented by xMr. Leslie, of Edinburgh, and its accompaniments ; the pyroscoj}e, Kit measure of radiant heat : tlie pkotometei\ to ascertain the intensity L 1 2 M 402 MODEKxN HISTORY. of light ; veiy curious and delicate bnlances, some that are said to hh capanle of ascertaining a weight down to the seven millionth part deserve to be mentioned, as extraordinary instances of skilful woik- inausliip ; many different sorts of hygrometers also 'nave been con- structed, particularly one by the same ingenious experimentalist already mentioned. Mr. Leslie, calculated to render more correct the examination of all processes dependant upon evaporation; but it would be endless to attempt to describe the many instruments and con- trivances rendered necessaiy by the extreme delicacy and minuteness of modern chemical and pneumato-chemical experiments ; it is sufii- cient to state, in a history of the progress of arts and sciences, th.n in all instances, invention appears to have kept pace with experiment ; and that the world has been almost as much enriched by the new-in- vented means of discovery, as by the discoveries to which they have conduced ; while the skill and judgment requisite to construct tiic expensive and complicated instrum-ents indispensably necessary tor asctrtainmg the analysis and sj'nthesis of bodies, with such exquisite precision, as to quantity and proportion, have conspired greatly lo advance the several arts connected with such machinery, as well as tu quicken the intelligence and ingenuity of the artists themselves ; in this line, perhaps, nobody has acquired greater celebrity than die late Mr. Ramsden, the maker of the balance of the Royal Society, whose extraordinary powers have been alluded to above. 14. Among those who have principally distinguished themselves in the improvement and advancement of chemical science, since the commencement of the eighteenth century, we may justly mention the names of Stahl, Fourcroy, Macquer, Lavoisier, Guytonmorveau, Berthollet, Klaproth, Vauquelin, Chaptal, Gay-Lussac, Kirwan, Ten- nant, Wollastoti, Priestle}', Cavendish, Black, Irwine, Crawford, Leslie, Hall, Thompson, Biande, and Davy. To the last of whom, our illustrious countryman, we stand indebted for some of the most remarkable discoveries, and most laborious analyses of compound substances, which have taken place under the new system ; nor has he been deficient in applying his scientific attainments to practical purposes, in his elements of chemical agricuUu'-e, and above all, the safety-lamp, whereby he may possibly, in combating the fatal effect? oi the fire damp in coal mines, have contributed to preserve the lives of thousands and thousands of his fellow creatures ; this discovery was the fruit of many most laborious, diflicult, and even dangerous ex- periments. 15. When we consider the many uses of chemistry, and the im- mense advantages to be derived from every improvement of it in a variety of manufactures, in medicine, in metallurgy, in the arts of dying, painting, brewing, distilling, tanning, making glass, enamels, porcelain, and many others, we may easily conceive'that the progress and advancement of this one branch of science alone, during the last and present centuiy, must have contributed largely to the improve- ment of many things, on which all the comforts and conveniences, the happiness, the security, the well-being, the prosperity, and even the lives of men, deperd. BOTANY. \. BoTANV IS another ot the sciences, which, from the changes u has undergone, and the great progress it has made since the MODEKiN HISTORY. 403 totnmenceinent of the eighteenth century, may justly be regarded as new. 2. Already were the names of Ray, Rivinus, and Toizrnefort, well known to the lovers of this interesting study, forming as it were a new era in the history of botany, and imparting a lustre to the close of the seventeenth century, for which it will ever be memorable. Their at- tempts at arrangement may be justly consideied as the commencement of a career which was destined to acquire its full degree of deveiope- ment during the eighteenth centuiy, under the happy auspices of ihe most celebrated botanist the world ever saw ; the great and illustri< us Linnaeus. 3. This extraordinary' man was born at Rashult, in the province of Smaland, in Sweden, on the 24th of IMay, 1,707, and beiore he was twenty -one years of age, had made himself so thoroughly acquainted with the study of plants, as well as with the merits and defecis of his predecessors in that line, as to conceive the idea of remodelling the whole fabric of systematic botany, and of placing it on a new founda- tion, namely, the sexuality of vegetables. This bold and enterprisin!» undertaking he not only projected, but accomplished with a rapivlity and success that excited the wonder and astonishment both of his friends and enemies. 4. His first work was published in,l,730, being a brief exposition of the new principle on which his system was to "he founded ; ?nd the method may be said to have been completed in 1,737, when he pub- lished his Genera Plantarum, which contained a description and ar- rangement of nearly one thousand genera, comprising upv/ards of eight thousand species, and constituting what has been since known by the name of the sexual system. 5. At first it was either opposed as a fanciful hinovation, or received with doubt and distrust ; but its fame soon began to spread, and tc bear down before it all opposition, till it ultimately met with the almost universal reception of botanists in ever}* country in Europe. 6. In 1,742, Linnaeus was chosen professor of botany at Upsal, and in 1,753 he published his Species Plantarum. His authority was now supreme, and the impulse he communicated to the study of vegetables unprecedented in the annals of botany ; hence the various voyages that v.ere undertaken by his immediate disciples, Kalm, La'pling, Hasselquist, and others, or which have been since undertaken by their successors, aided by the munificence of princes, or the zeal of private individuals, as well as the various societies that were sooner or later instituted, with a view to the advancement of botanical knowledge ; amongst which the Linnasan society of London, founded in l,7tS8, stands pre-eminent, under the presidency of sir James Edward Smith, or.e of the most distinguished of the followers of LInnffius, and the pos- sessor of his herbarium, library, and manuscripts. 7. The acquisitions thus made to the mass of botanical knowledge, are altogether astonishing. Botanists are now saiil to be acquainted with upwards of forty thousand species of plants ; and still there are regions of the earth unexplored, and flowers without a name, (" et sunt sine nomine Jlores.^'') 8. We cannot, however, refuse to acknowledge that botany ha? also derived the most important advantages from such cultivators of the science as cannot be ranked amongst the discipies of Lhhwus, though they have equally contributed to the advancement of" the knowledge of plants, at least in the department of the study of their natural affini- ties ; the grand and ultimate end of botany, which Linn?eus himself •104 MODERxN ilisTORY. knew w<;ll how to appreciate, and even to improre, as may be seen in iiis prelectioiii^ publi^slied !)y Giseke, and in his Fragments of a JVutu- ral Method. Bui it was Itit ior the illuslrioiis Jus.sien, the most ac- couipli.siied bo/^nist of the piesent age. to give to tiiat nieUio.i ihe comparative i)crrection which it has actually obtained, an.'. lo erect the noble superstructure ef lii.s Genera PUnna-ruin ; a work e.\liibiliiig tlie nsosl philosophical arrangement of plants, as well as the most complete \iew of their natural affinities, that was ever presented lo (he coiiti-mplation of man. 'I. This work was pubhshed at Paris in 1,789, and the vaturul nielh,>d vi' Jiissieu, which may be regarded as having at all limes stood ir. opi)ositio:i to the artificial method of Linnaeus, seems now to be advancing to a n^.ore direct rivalship than ever. Ev»;n iri liie works of such botanists as protess lo lie the disciples of Linna-us, there seems to be a leaning to tlie method of Jussieu ; but Avhetiier tlie natuial method of the latter will be sui'feied ultimately to prevail, or the .ntificial method' of the former, time only can show. ^, 10. Great, however, as the progress of systematic botany has un- .doubtedly been, during the course of the last atid beginning of the present century, the progress of physiological bo«any has perhaiw be(;n still giealer. In proof of this, it will he sullicient to m.ention the nimes of Hales, Bonnet, Du Hamel, iledwig, Spallanzani, GaM-tiu-r, i'Cii'ght, Keith, and Mirbel ; each of wliom has distinguished himself ill tlie held of jihytological investigation, and eminently contributed to die advancement {>{ tiie science. vVbove all, we must not tail to men- lion the name of Priestley, as being the first who introduced into 'he ■-tudy of phytology the aid of pneumatic chemistry, which, under the nappy auspices of Ingcnhouz, Senebier, Saussure, Ellis, and Davy, and lastly of Gay-Lussac and Kenard, has done more to elucidate the phenomena of vegetation, than all other means of investigation, and In": furnished as the foundation of the physiology of plants a body of the most curious and undoubted facts. 11. Before we dismiss this part of our sulvject, it is not unfit that we should notice the extraoidinary progress that has been made al the same time in distinct branches of the science, as well as in the appli- cation of the arts of drawi.,g, engraving, and colouring, for the pur- poses of illustration, and tor exhibiting to the eye, at all times, in al |)laces, and at all seasons, the beautiful and interesting productions of the vegetable kingdom, in such pertectic)n, as, iri seme degree, to su- persede the necessity of living specimens ; sometimes so raie and in- accessible as to be out of the reach of the most scientific. There is no branch of knowledge which has furnished more splendid and elabo- rate works of this nature, than that of botany, or in which the arts have been carried to a greater degree of perl'cciic^n and delicacy ; and as a stuily so elegant and agi'eeable canno^ weii be rendered too general, it is pleasing to observe, that throuah llie improvements that have thus taken place, and the facilities alt'orded to such pulilicatioiis, not a mcvnth passes in this kingdom without huQ:ii additions being made to the general stock of botanical knowl(;;lge, in works of singniar beauty and conectness ; though far trom cost!}-, considering the pains bestow- ed upon them. 12. The lovers of botany stand gieatly indebted also, to those leaned persons whoha\e in.ide it Iheir particular business to roihct, examine, and describe the plants of countries ami districts, and to supply them with distinct A7ora. both foreign and domestic, as tbo Flora Britaiinica of Smith, the Flora Angiica of Hudson, the Flyr? MODERN HISTORY. 405 Seotica of Lightfoot, the Flora Cantabrigiensis of Relhan, the Flora Oxoniensis of Sibtliorpe, the Flora Londinensis of Curtis, the Flc;ra Gr*ca, the Flora Peruviana, the Flora Danica, the Flore Francoii^e, and others much too nurnorous to mention ; in the same class may be reckoned those works which are still further confined to the descrip- tion or illustration of particular genera of plants, as in our own country, the Carices, by Goodenough ; the Grasses, by Stillingfleet ; the Mentha? Britannica;, by Sole ; the Pines, by Lambert ; the Fucij by Turner ; and various others. ELECTRICITY. 1. Though the property of excitation existing in omJer, (elektrottt) appears to have J^een known to Thales six hundred, and to Theopiiras- tus thrive hundred years before Christ, yet electricity, (which lakes its name from (his circumstance) and galvanism, as it is still calfed, may decidedly be regarded as sciences which have sprung up during the period to which our present inquiries belong. If Avas not, indeed, till towards the middle of the eighteenth centuiy that experiments in electricity were piirsued with any degree of ardour, success, or ad- vantage. Mr. Hawksbee wrote learnedly upon the subject in 1,709, but it was not till twenty years afterwards that Mr. Grey and M. du Faye at Paris, engaged in some experiments which contributed lo throw light upon the subject. Mr._ Grey, who resumed his experi- ments in 1,734, saw enough to lead him to suppose that the electric fluid and lightning were the same, which was not, however, effectually proved till the year 1,752, when the celebrated Dr. Franklin, of America, with great ingenuity, and no small degree of courage, ascer- tained the tact bv decisive experiments ; a discoveiy which he soon applied to practical purposes, by the invention of metallic conductors for the security ol buildings, ship?, &c., during storms. 2. As experiments could not be profitably undertaken till a suitable apparatus was provided, it is equally evident, that the improvement of such apparatus must greatly have depended on the progress of the science^ The Leydcn phial for the accumulation of the electrical pov.'er in glass, was invotinMi -.Ko-.t ^ t-:- -...i f!.<. o-enera! apparatus gradually improved by^':lli '.;,:«. ' . ioo'h, Mr. Nainie, Dr. Priestley, Messrs. !\(;!> I, !. V. -■ . ■ . To professor Voita, of Como, we stand indelited ior two vt- sy ;'=<-'"l ^nd important electri- cal instruments, the electrophorus, and condenser of electricity. Many sorts of electrometers lor measuring the quantity and quality of elec- tricity in an electrified body, have also been invented. 3. In 1,747 electricity begnn to be used for medical purposes, and wns supposed to be of efficacy in cases of rheumatism, dealhess, palsy, scrofula, cancers, abscesses, gout, ivc. ; i.'jt tlie progress of medical electricity has not iieen great, while the \v;.:it of an apparatus, and the knowledge and skill requisite to apply it properly, must always pie- vent its becoming any vc\y common remedy. 4. Galvanism, which may be said to have been engrafted on elec- tricity in 1,791, was the discovery of the celebrated Galvahi of Holcgiia ; it has been called animal elecfric'ty ; his first experiments having been made on animals, and tending rnariifestly to Drove the tity ot the nervous and electric fluids, ihoogh this was Tor sbme time doubted. 31. Galvani discovered that, without any artificial identity of the time doubted. electricity, and by merely presenting some conducting substance to 406 MODERJ^ HISTORY. different parts of the nerves or muscles of a dissected fr(^, violent motions nere produced, exaclly siinilar to those which were excited by a di.schnrge of the electrical inachrne. 5. The (liscoverj- of M, Galvaiii has since led to very impoitant eiKis, through the great care and attention of M. Volta, who, improv- ing upon his discoveiy of the power of cor.ductors, has been enabled to supply the pliilosophical world with an instrument of veiy extraor- dinary powers, especially for purposes of chen)ical decomposition. At first M. Volta was led to supposi; that it required only a set of dif- ferent conductors, two metals and a fluid, to collect and distiibute the electrical matter ; he considered that, ujion these principles, he had produced an artihcial imitation of the electrical powers exhibited by the torpedo, Uie gymnotus, silujus, and tetrodon electricus ; but liirther discoveries demonstrated that there was a chemical agency going for- ward ail the time, and that much ilepended on the action of the riuids on the metals, which are all naturally excellent conductors, but I;rronie non-conductors when oxydated, some being more easily oxydated tL-^n others. The voltaic pile is a simple galvanic combiration ; a series of them forms a batteiy. The most perfect galvanic combination is held to consist in such an arrangement of metals, exposed to the action of an oxydating liuid, as are liable to very diflerent change^ ; the a'reatest and the least. In every simple galvanic combination, water js decomposed, the oxygen entering into linicjii with the metal, and the hydrogen being evolved. 6. Since this discovery, many have engaged m electro-chemical re- searches, of the utmost importance, particularly our own countryman, sir Humphrey Davy. His experiments on the alkalis and earths, and discovery ot their metallic nature, being in themselves sutficient to show how wide a range of inquiry is opened to the experimentalist, by tliis powerful agent ; it being reasonable to suppose, that there is scarcely any substance in nature, either above or below the surface of die earth, that is not subject, more or less, to tiie chemical agencies of electricity. Heretofore the observations of the philosophpr were chiefly, if not entirely, conhned to those sudden and violent changes \\i)ich take place through any powerful concer.tration of the electric fluid. These new discoveries seem to afford him a fair .chance and opportunity of tracing some at least of those manifold changes which may be brought about in a more quiet, tranquil, and insensible nirui- ner i and which, in all probability, are incessantly operating effects, hitherto little known and little suspected. It is obvious that medicine, clu^mistiy, physiology, mineralogy, and gcfilogy, may all be gieatly assisted by a more perfect knowledge of such curious and hithei to hidden processes of nature Before the galvanic method of excitirig electricity had been discovered, many very furious experiments had been made, to prove the inrluence «- -vsienis of ni'.;n)c!iu-, who pubii-hed in 1,730 ; Wallerkw, in l.Vi"": Woiterxiurf, in 1,74!; ; Curthcu^c!'. in 1.775: Justi. in 1,757; Cronstcdt, In i 758 ; and \'.f;ci, in l,7i;2, iijtmaMis, however, bns tin- cirdit of liaviui; lii'si roilured tlic science of mineralosry mto ; i.i-' - , r ■ <• ^,1- ,,:1 \',;;i!crius and hiniM-if un- dertook die arduous and ii;'/,iii:ni> n -k cii' lixino; die sjiecilic characlcrs of minerals. WalleiiusV htoii-I -3 Mcni ai.peared in 1,772. In 1,7!J1, Vellheim published bis >ysteni at bbun-wick. and in 1,7C2, Berga- man's mad'; its first appearance at Leit'-ic. 4. Before this time tlic celebrated \N erner, i)rotessor of mineralogy at Kreyburg, in Saxony, had published a Realise on the classification of minerals, according to their external characters^, '.vliich was more fully illustrated in his notes to a translation of Cronstedl, whicli ap- peared in 1,780. Werner has olitained a name amongst mineiaior.ists and geologists, whicli stands deservedly high; though he seems only to have prepared die \\i\y for the obscrvalions and experiments of others, by an accumulation and description of facts and apiicarapces, extremely curious and valuable. The tundameatal principle in \\er- ner's mineralogical arrangement, is the natural affinit)^ of fossils, of which ho enumerates three kinds : the chemical, the oryctognosfical, and the geognostic. Mr. Kirwin first iiitroduced tlie Wernerian syj- tem into Britain, in h'S treatise on mineralogy, 1.704. 5. in 1,773, the study of the regular or crystalline forms of mino'^als ceemed (o give a ne^v turn to minf;raiogy. The first work of emini nee ill iliis line was the Crystallographic of the celebrated Rome de I' 1 5lf», which was made the basis of the system of Hauy, published in 1,'01. Ail mineral bodies are supposed by this svstem to be r(;ducib!e by mechanical division to an integrant mnlecnle. From the form and component parts, it has been proposed to deduce tlic specific charac- ters. The forms of the integrant molecule are found to be three ; the tetraiiedjon, the triaisgular prism, and the parallelapiped. Miich 408 MODEK>; HISTORY. attention has been paid to this systeTii, and it must be acknowledged that if the te?*s proposed were 'easily to be applied, and chemi«lry had proceeded so tar as thorouglily to enable us to distinguish between the accidental and essential inj:?rcdients of minerals, a? has been done m some remarkable instances \\itli much effect, more direct means of distino^uishing; minerals could scarcely be devised : but as things stand at present, there seems to be too much geometiy and chemistry ne- cessaiy to render such a system generally useful. In l,fiun, however. M. Chevenix, in the Annales de Chymie, gave great support to the £ysleni of Hauy, to the disparagement of that ot Werner, to whom nevertheless, he is careful to give due praise. Crystallization wiil long remain, probably, a subject of most curious research and inquiry among geologists as well as niineialogists; the appearances of it in prnnitive rocks, leading immediately to the grand question concerning the operations of fire- and water, which have di\-ided the cultivators ot this branch of study into the two parties of Pliiloiiists, who contend toj the ig-iieous origin of those locks, and the jyeptmiists, who refer them to an aqueous origin : of the latter of which, \^as the celebrated Werner. 6. Many other systems, more or less connected with Werner's, liave been made public, as Brocharl's, Schmeisser's, 1,795 ; Babmgton's, 1,796 ; Brogniart's, (a very usei'ul and valuable one-,) Kidd's, 1,809 ; Clarke's, 1,811 ; one by Mr. Arthur Aikin ; and, lastly, that of Ber- zelius, a Swedish chemist, who has lately attempted to establish a puie scien''fic system of mineralogy, oy the application of the electro chemical theoiy and the chemical proportions : as (his systcin is closely connected with the latest discoveries and improvements that have been made in chemistry and electricity, we sh^l' liore close our remarks f)n mineralogy, as a scJ^'ice by no means perfected, but open to further experimf'"t.i and observations, though very materially ad- vanctjd since tlie close of the seventeenth century 7. (jieology has arisen out of mineralogy ; and though no new science as to name, is entirely so according to the principles upon wi)ich it is now conducted. Werner was for giving a nezc name at onCL- to the new science, which was a judicious step to take, though it has not been generally adopted ; he called it Geognosie : it is fit, in- deed, that it should be distinguished from the geolog)' of old. which only engendered a parcel of lanciful theories of the earth, unfounded on facts. How the globe was formed, is a very different inquiry [mm that of " what has happened to it since it was formed :" modern gt'ology is chiefly conversant with the latter ; to examine the interior of the earrti, as far as it can be examined, in order to understand the course of the revolutions and clianges that have taken place, and of wiiich we perceive the most manifest proofs : already very extraordi- (ioiy circumstances have been discovered, indicative of successive changes, both before and after any organic beings existed, and there- fore both before as well as alter the globe became strictly habitable; among the most curious effects plainly to be traced, may be reckoned the extensive operations of fire and water, the extinction of many t-pecies of vegetables and animals, and the very extraordinary preser- \ ation of some of the latter, bespeaking a state of congelation, at the moment of the catastrophe by which they appear to have been over- .vliohned ; remains of ansmais in places where they no longer exists fiU'\ the extraordinary absence of human reliquiae. The science of 'comparative anatomy has been of great use in these researches, in which iK)bodv has distinguished hisaself so much as M. Cuvier, secre- tarv of the FiencU Institute. MODERNS fliSJ'OKY. . 40^ ■ !' ,' - ' 8. Many geological societies are formino^, or have been already formed, in ditfereiit parts ot Eiiiopc ami in Amfirica. and pnttc--Mr- sliip-? tounded in our uiii\c.'>:tKrs : but it nill be \imic, pi'iliap>, i'l lort the several ubservat !<)!..•< and discoveries iriakinir iii all [khIs ol tlu- n-crld, can be so compared, classed, and inirtliodi/ed, as to brinii out iuch results as may be admitted io^r certain and indisputable triiihs, in regard to the history ot the earth ^id ot'nian. In the mean while, we fshould consider that geo!o2,isls have always a field to woik in. alcimid- ing in materials so a[)p!icat)le to every useful ast as to promise cun- liiiual accessions ot" knowledo'c, not snerely scieiitilic, but oi n-A practical utility. We ought not, perhaps, to disn Iss this part of our subject, ulthoul noticing the very cmious geological map of England, jiubli.-hed by our countryman, Mr. Smilh, in 1,815, a work of great merit and oiiginality. GEOGRAPHY. 1. Wf. have mentioned geography^ also, as among those scierires which may be regarded as almost new, not only because it is since the middle ot' the last century that we have acquir(;d a more correct kiiowl- (ii]l!;('. ot' the figure ot' the earth, but I'rom the extraordinary maiirjer in nhicli the whole terraqueous gloiie has been explored ol" late, and (he additions consequently made to our former knowieilge of its paits: the discoveries that have taken place since the close of the seventeenth centuiy, have, according to the French geographers, presented to ns two n(;w quarters of the world, and which have been denominated Jlnnh-ilasia and Polynesia. The folknving account may serve to ex- plain these additions to modern geography: 2. The former is held to contain, 1. New Holland, and all the islands between twenty degrees west, and between tAve?ity and thirty degrees east of it. 2, New Guinea and the islands adjacent. 3. Neu Britain, New Ireland, and the Solomon Isles. 4. Neu- Caledonia and the New Hebrides. 5. New Zealand. 6. Van Diemaifs Land, which is separated from New Holland by Basse's strait or channel, and is about thirty leagues wide. ■3. The division called Po/7/Hesj'«., consists o(, 1. Tin; Pelew Islands. 2. The Ladrone or Marian Islands. 3. The Carolines. 4. "^rhe Sandwich Islands. 5. The Marquesas, which are very numerous. 6. The Society Islands, about sixty or seventy in number. 7. The Friendly Islands. 8. The Navigators' Islands. The largest ish-nd HI this division is Owhyhee. one of the Sandwich Islands, a.'id the place where the celebrated circumnavigator, Cook, lost his life. 4. Tlie voyages and travels conducive^ 1o these discoveries are too generally known-^o be much dwelt ujKjn in such a work as the prescMt. li \vill be sutticient merely to mention Uie namf:s of those who, .since the years 1,733 and 1,736*. (when the Spanish and French mathein;iti- cians undertook their celebrated missions to measure a degree ol' the meridian under the pole and at the equator,) have been employed l)y the dilhuent powers of Europe on voyagfts of disco\ery. 6. Of the English we may enumerate : By I on.. 1,764 — l,7tiG. Mr. Harrii-on's time-piece ai'pbcd to the di>icove!y of the longitude. Wallis and Carteret, 1,766. Sailed together, but soon septJiteJ; Olaheile and other islands discovered. Mm 52 410 MODERN !n STORY. Cook, three voyages : — F'irst voy^oe, 1,768—1.771. 'Jhe transit of \'emis observed at M.Uavr.i. in Otaheite, June. 1,769. New Holland, and Nt-w Z^lamJ e.xfil()rehed die period ol which we are treating. In the north and south, east and west, of both hemispheres, ahnost every region has been explored, and every inform?.t'cn obtained that can throw light on the history either of the earth or of man. The two peninsulas o*' India, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Abyssinia, the northern and the southern, and in some instances, the interior parts of Africa ; Syria,. (ireece. and Tuikey ; Norway, Lapland, Siberia, and even the wlUlf^ :>i Tarlaiy and Kamschatka ; New Spain; the back settlements oi' ,Nordi America, and North America itself; Iceland, Greenland, &c., h:ive ail been visited by persons of science and learnirig, and are alitin.-; as ueil known now, as the most frequented and civilized {)arts of Eu- rope ; all that can be ascertained of their histoiy ; all that the re- mains of antiquity could unfold to the eye of curiosity ; all the animals, plants, minerals, they produce ; have been so amply examined, dc- Scrii;ed, classed, and methodized, that it may reasonably be supposed, that in very many instances, all that can be known is known. Amoni; the fnivels enumerated, the scholar, in particular, has beeii in no cr- duiary degree gratihed by the visits that have been recently paid ki Uiodcrn Greece, and by the able, classical, and scientific description^ vvhicii have been given of that very interesting portion of the coiui- neiit, ijy lord Byron. I\lr. Hobhouse, major Leake, Dr. Hoiland, -ii vViiii.iin Drumaioiid, Dr. Clark, lord Aberdeen, sir William Gell, and ;"i;;;s of our own countrymen ; and by M. Pouqueville, wh.o ha\ ii;ii ipanied Buonaparte to Egypt, at the close of the last century iiong the first to explore those celebrated regions. ... 1 iie new means of inquiry and investigation, have so kept yuct Wim die wide field lately opened to the world, that even utilividiiiil> have ijeen tbund competent to bring home with them from the nio^i remole countries, ample ':iformation upon all the gieat poitits that can po-.-MOiy mterest die curiosity of man ; a greater instance ol' this, could ;:f.', perhaps, be produced, than in the case of a living traveller ami ■uc, die celebrated M. Humboldt, of Pru?sia, who.-e multifariou- .iches, at a very early age, in almost all parts of the globe, have .1 more to the general stock of knowledge in the compa.ss of a wiy y^'uis, than could have been attained by ages of inquiry in lime.^ .11 i'.isl;int. In speaking of this very celebrated tra\elrt'r, wIiom' ,iiiis of Spanish America in particular have lately excited .so nuijii .!ion, it is fit also to notice the removal of many restraints and iir,- ...i.eiits in llie way of i?uch researches, through the more liberal . y ol' the mother countiy ; so far t'rom exjiressing, as would have . .1 tile case in tormer times, any jealou.sy of such a visit to her colo- . !•■, iU. humboldt obtained the express approbation and concurrence o. iiit: Spanish court. The removal of the court of Portugal to tlu' JSj.i/iis in the year 1,807, has also proved favourable ir» no small de- ^i.-e io tbe prosecution of s-ich inquiries ; the king having, with con- -r.lerabie liberality, i),-\tronised such undertakings. 9. The .sovereigns of Russia, from the time of Peter the great, thn)Ugh a natiral desire of acquiring a correct knowledge of their very e.xtended dominions, buiied, at the clo.se of the seventeenth century, in protound ignorance and obscurity, were careful to employ proper persons to make such discoveries, who so ably di.-^chaiged their coni- mi.ssions, that before the end of the eighteenth century, a very cele- brated German professor declared that they liad airiassed such a quan- tity of materials, entirely new, for the histoiT of the three kingdoms 412 MODERN HJSTOllY. of natjire, for the theoiy of [he. eartii, for rural economy, and for an iiifiriily ofotlii-r ohji-ct* jclalivc to the arts and sciences, as wni-Iil 'in- plov many ieained nien fcr se^ eial yc;us, in their j^roper anaiiiTi nu-nt and liasMiication. TIh- ninies ot' Beerinp; and Spangherg, Pallas, (Miicliii. IMiiller, Cliapi)e D'AiUerocIii', Geoi^i, Lepi^tliin, are welj !;i>()\vn, as among those who liave most distinguished themselves in lh':-e northern and noilh-eastern expeditions. Among the inijirove- liKiits connected with the science of geography, and its progress, we slionld he ghid if we could do jnslice to tlie very leanied and eminenl perscn* who have, in a manner u'nknown before, devotetl their )in:e to (lie moie coirr-ct dehnention of the face of the globe, in the f oi,.(njc- tion (^f maps and charts, which seem to be advancing rapidly lo the I'.'ghest degree oi" perfection. M. d'Anville, wiiose lal-ours ii. mis wvy are so well known, uiay he justly consid<>red perhaps as l)a\ir.^ given the lirst stim.ulus in this line of study, to the gecgraj hers of n:odern times. 10. As the .-cience of astronoiny is in many instances connected with Hecgraphy, we may here notice the changes that have taken place; ir, . regard to the totmer, during the last ::iid piesent centuries ; which, liowever, being only in the wav of addition upon the estahlislicd ))iin- ciples of the Copernican and iSewtonian syslen-.s, are not such as can be said lO have altered the character of Ihe science ivself ; and, mdeed, the additions that have been made are very easily enunieraied, thoigli li.ey must have cost much pains, and are the results oi very curious i)i.ser\atioi,s and iiitricate calculations, on the part of those to whom \m: stjiiri indebted for them. 1 1 . We have added i\\o. planets to tliose formerly known as helong- ii !!• U) our solar system. The Geoigium Sidus, or Uranus, discovered y the celebrated sir W. Herschel, l,7ni. and its satellites, 1,787 , Ceres, by M. Fiazzi, at Palermo, 1,801 ; Pallas, by Dr. Olbers, at Hremoi, 1,802; Juno, by M. Harding of Lilienthal, in 1,804 ; and Vesta by Dr. Olbers, 1,8U7. To the f(!nner of these celebrated ob- servers we owe a most enlarged knowledge of tlie celestial regions, nnrticularly of the nebulous parts, from the application of his new elescopes'of most extraordinary powers, which have enabled us to ascertain that the milky-way, and other similar appearances in the rjeavens, are a congeries of fixed stars, in strata, prodigiously numer- ous, and exhibiting ver}^ curious phenomena. Of the immense an:ount of these stars, which may still have beyond them an unfathomable and .!iiexi)iorable abyss of the sam.e kind, we may form some corjecliue le stars, and what he calls changing stars. 12. We have learned to correct our ideas concerning the su!;strnre of tin; body of the sun, heretofore considered as entirely of an igr.ec^is iialiiie. Tlioiigh its rays contribute largely to tlie production of heal on the ea'-th's surface, many veiy obvious appearances oujihl sooner t. have coin inced us of what now seems clearly to be understoo(J, that the sidi is not a body of (ire. I.-' The >.cience of aslror;omy has l)e' the Imieof V hich we have Ijeeii tieating, by the iif.piovement or iiiveiilioii 01 in: iiy curious and necessary i.istrunients, and tiie buiUiiiig and CHtablisliinent of regulai' observatories ; anr'. practical astronouiy has MODERN HISTORY. 413 been carried to a veiy hig'i pitcJi, by the talents and ino:enuity of many vcrj- eiuin«Mit persons in Fraiire, Britain, Gerrnatiy, Ilalv, vvr. ; a- M. Clairault, d'Alenil.ert, De la Caille. La Plnce. l.u Grange. Bailly, Ih la Lamie, i^c. ; Bradley, Ma^^kelyn. Hersclicl. Hiilton. RoltiMin. Kei-i^uson, Vince, c-.c. ; Etiler, 3Iayer, Boda, Biancliini, Bo.> ich. Frisi, Piozzi, .vc. 14, We have spoken elsewhere of the travels, expressly undertaken in 1,753, lo measure in the northern and southern parts ol the world, a decree of the meridian, liy which die fissure of the earth was as(ertain- ed to be an oblate spheioid, according; to the conjectures of sir I.-.iar Newton, and contrary lo the assertions of the Cassinis and Bernouilli. who had for some lime insisted that the polar diameter was loiigei than the equatorial : all the experiments seensed lo concur in jMoviria; the reverse. The steps that were taken, ni the years 1,7(>1 and 1,7(19, to determine the parallax of the sun, by observing: the transit of Venus, alford another strong proof of the extraordinary zeal and resohition with which science was cultivated duriisg the period of which we have been treating. On the recommendation of Dr. Halley, who had oIj- served a trans'* of Mercuiy at St. Helena, but who did not exnec! to live lo see a transit of Venus, and who in fact died in 1 ,742, mathema- ticians and astronomers were sent out in the years before mentioned, both from France and England. 15. Among the modem inventions appertaining to astrononi}', be- sides the instruments absolutely necessaiy to correct observation, we may reckon those curious and elegant machines, e\hii)iting the moti<»ns ana phenomena of our solar system and ils several pails; our orreries planetariunis, tellurians, luniuiunis, ice, all of which may be consider- ed as extremely interestmg and ingenious contrivances. 1. It would be useless lo attempt to give any circumstantial account of the ])rogress that has been made in other sciences, during the period of which we have been treating, and vain to s<'ek, by a mere eniiiiu- ralion of names, to do justice to the many emijient and illustrious per- sons who have distinguished tliemselves in varioiis parts of the w<)rld, in every branch of learning, useliil and ornamental, since the com- mencement of the eigb.lcenth cenluiy. The numerous biographical works, chronological charts, ciitical and philosophical journals, "wiiich have from lime to time been published during tin's p,c-rio;l, may suf.'jilv information much more full and copious than would be at all consistent with the limits of this work, already extended beyond their orierlnal design. As, however, the surprising burst of intellect, investigatioi.;, and enterprise which has so marked and distinguished the 1:>>1 and present century, appears to have been in a great degree connected with the history ol' JMirope (hiring the same period, we shall take a brief view of tlw latter; bt-ginning with England atid I'r.tnce ; the two countries which seem in several re-^jx-cts to l!ous matters, liad compelled many cf her subjects to taUe retiij^-e I!! ioreigo countries, ^\hele they wc.eat libcMt}' to ir.ake their own le- (It ctions, to print and to publish their thouiihls upon tlie comparative (ir-potism of tne coiintiy fiom which they had been driven, and the delusions to which the subjects oi" the laltei' were exposed. A. Among: those who iiad been thus lianishe(i. or compelled to retire, noe-ne could liave done more to unsettle the minds of his countryn.en, in rejiaid both (o j'cliii;iori and politics, than the celebratid Hayle. His object appears, howev(;r, to have l;ecn mcrdy to wxactile them ; for his ^vhole work is a tissue of doubts and difliculties, whi'.h he had no disposition to resolve, but to leave lo every man's own judgment to determine, after having seiy impartially staled all the arguments and all the facts he could possibly collect, on both sides of every question. 5. The French had bi^en so long used to submission, that nierel}' to teach them to doubt was a grand step towards a revolution in their opinions ; but Hayle did not live to see the seeds he had been sowing come to any jjerlection. ft was not. according to the account of the I'rench themstilves, till \'oltaire, partly in a state of exile, had visiied England, that they began to ripen. In England, Voltaire became ac- quainted with the philosophy of Newton and Locke, and saw some o4 liie best political principles of the latter established and in action ; but I eiTig tl'.e guest of Bolingbiok(!. his deistical princi[)les, which v\ere very ca.ly made known by a passage in his tragedy of (Edipus, nr'de'went no change, or were probably more deeply lixed and con- finu(!d. fi. Though Shaftesbury, Wolston, Collins, Toland, Tindal, and others, had attacked re' cfation. and eithei' openly ov insidiously scjughf to imiine the im'i is of the English with their (l('i,4ical principles ,• the public in geneial were little atfected ij}- their wiitiiigs. Men of supe- rior talents, supeiior creilit, and veiy 'superior learning, had lived, oi were living, capable of giving a different tone (o the teelings of the people. Neuton, Locke, Addison, Stc<;!'.', Claikc, Swift, N;c., were amply suflicient to suj)po.rt the cause el" leliglen ; and not only to de- ll-nd the vei3- outworks of chri.slianily. but io avert the shafts of ridi- cule, and sv\ at nauglit the sarcasms of infidel ily. In those admirable periodical papers, the Spectator, the Guardian, the Tattler. &:c., we may trace a direct and most benevoler.t design of rescuing the lisiiig 2:<'iieration from tlie coniagion of bad example-, and the ii;llueiice of (a.'se firinciples. 7. Ill France it \vas oih'iwise : ileism, though weak against the plain evidenr(:sof Christianity, was strong .-gainst, the fai'.aticisin of a l)i.il>iled, and the superstit'en of a coriiiiited church. The banter of \'o!taire soon began to take efiect, y.hen aimed at things and persons so vulnerable as the monastic orders, and the controvc-rled poii'ts in di.sjMite between tin; .Jesuits and .iacseirsls. The defence of religion also, in cotisequenci! of these disgraceful and puerile c(>nllict'-, and ttie plausibility of the attacks that were made upon it, which stiuck hard at lis abuses, iell into hands little capable of wielding ihe weapons so effectually employed in England. The dread of derisicvi too soon MODER>i HISTORY. 4lB damped the spirit, of pulpit eloquence, which had cast such a lustre on the names of Saurin, Blassillon, &c. ; and converted even the chris- tian preaclier into a philosopher of the modern school. Among those uho fnst appeared in defence- of revealed reli2:ipii ag:ainst the deists, Ihe French Ihemselves have particularly mentioned the younger Ra- cirie, the cardinal de Polignac, and M. Le Franc, de Pompignan. 'J'he first .vrote a he.'vy poem, which few read ; the second a long philosophical poem in Latin, Avhich not many could read ; and the las! Published some sacked odes, of which Voltaire found room to say, with his usual wit, " Sncres ih sont, car personne ny (ourhe.^^ Though \'ol)aire might have imbibed his deism in part tVom Boling1)roke, it was plainly not a plant of English growth ; but it proved to be sadly congenial at that time to the soil of France. y. The regency had wrought a great change in the principles and manners cf that lively people. The profligal.^ habits of the duke of Oi leans opened a w^de field to liliertines and freethinkers, and^ natu- r.dly encouraged them to speak their minds more freely upon all suh- jocts than would otherwise have been consistent with the spirit of the government. Religion and morals, indeed, could not have received a ereater blow than from the extraordinaiy elevation of the infamous Dubois to the rank of cardinal, and to the archbishopric of Cambray, so lately filled by the amiable and virtuous Fenelon. 9. While the morals of the French were thus becoming daily more depraved, the manners of the English were evidently much improved. The grave and austere character of William III., the correct deport- ment of Mar}% and iier sister, queen A.nne, had effectually checked tlie licentiousness of the two preceding reigns, and given encourage- meiit to n s( t of writers peculiarly capable of amendiii"; the v^ge. of mcii'c Mi; ' f lie piety and sound morality, and giving a nettcr tone to lb;.- :i;: \:^ :i ;iis of the public. Instead of the gross indelicacies which liad d:^-i;!MC!j(l the writings and degraded the talents, of Vanburarh, Relin, Congreve, and evcn'Dryden, the taste and manners of the nation derived great improvement and advantages from the more chaste and correct pei formanccs of Addison, Steele, Rowe, Prior, Pope, Thomson, Akenside, &c. The stage underwent a wholesome reformation, and in every department of literature there appeared a nianifest leaning towards whatever could conduce to 'purity ol sentiment and delicacy of fee/ing. 13. Had Voltaire carried back with him from our shores, as he might have done, a purer foiin of Christianity, and a bettei system of morals, ns well as a more correct philosophy, and sounder principles ol government, he might have conferred a lasting benefit on his country ; a benefit the more timely and critical, as it would possibly have pre- vL-uUd some of the worst evils which befel that unhappy nation in her subsequent struggles for liberty. Rayle had taught the French to iluii!)t : Voltaire, having- taken a near, though imperfect view of Kng- la.nd, ti.uglit them to liiink and to inquire : while a greater man than hiii'self was contributing, though more slowly and quietly, to the same end. t^ , j m 11. Almost at the veiy time that Voltaire was in England, Montes- tiuieu visited the same countiy ; hut appears principally to have con- fined his views to the great object of his researches, the spirit of her laws, and the leading principles of her admirable constitution. There lie learned to admire, in its purest form', a liniited monarchy, and a system of jurisprudence, equally adverse to tyranny and licentiousne^ ; equally friendly to the wlwlesome authority of the magistrate, and the 4iG MODERN HISTORY. }v>>[ lights of the people. Montesquieu vho« ever, (thouplt in his Pi"-- -i.Mi Letters he had betrayed a leaning towards deism.) mo\ediiia titio distinct from that generally taken by the philosopher.^ of llxf day. While X'oltaire very soon manifested a desire of taking (lie leailof ali llie wits and fntethinkeis, however different their talents, their charac- ters, or (heir principles, Montesquieu was not displeased to be !'::fl to himself, and to leave his gre:.t work to make its own niipressions, hov.- evt-r slowly, on sensible and ingenuous minds. Its fust eifecls of a/.y importance may, perhaps, be traced in the remonstrances of the par- liaments, wiio began to take a higher tone after the ijubiicalion of L'c'iprit (les Lois, ami to consider themselves more in the light of rej)- resentatives of the people. 12. A number ot veiy extraordinary men were beginning at the same lime to draw upon then'.selves the attention of the A\()rid, and to ei»iplx)y their talents in different lines, and often ujion very (bflerent prmciples, to enlighten the world, and cniancipatt^ it from the thral- dom of ancient prejudices and inveterate abuses. Among these, how- ever, none were more extravagantly eccentric than J. J. Jvousicai:. This extraordinary man was decidedly for new modelling the whole system of political society, and reducing it to principles which existed only in his owfi imagination. Not having ever seen a race of savages, lie fancied they must be the more perfect the nearei tiiey Mere to a state of nature; and being tormented with the restraints of civilized iociety, he concluded civilization itself to be an evil. These sophisms served to render him the idol of the equalizing and destroying deu. »- gogues of the revolution. It was impossible to resist the impressions made by the captivating^ pictures he drew ; but they seldom had any better effect than that of rendering his votaries as dissatisfied with the world as he himself was, and bewildering their imaginations with loubts and difTicukies innumerable. He knew how to appreciate the • ibiime morality of the gospel, though he could not regulate his own a.tions by it; and having found in the bible, as in all other cases, something that dissatisfied his restless and iriitable mind, and revllir.g what he could not approve, or did not sufficiently understand, he jects might be presented to the world in a niass. This was the oi-igir. ot] that great and volumiiuius und»;rtaking, the Encyclopedic, spoken of before, planned by Diderot and D'Alembert ; and which, to say the least of it, seemed to be a treasure of universal science, far more comprehensive, at least, than any thing of the kind before attempted. being not confined t.' what might strictly be called the aits and sciences, but extending to every question of government, civil econ-i- my, and finance. 14. The Dictionnaire -sncyclopedique, amidst many faults ana ea. travagances, contained ut» 'oubtedly much important matter, written ip MOD£Rx\ [J! STORY. 41? so agreeab e a etyle, as lo be admirably fitted to excito and promote a thirst nlU'r central kiKmledo^e, universal inquiry and investis^ation a contidcnco in private jiidg-incnt, and a i)iojndire a;i:ninst every tbin" that ;'i>i)cnrod to have no\)ther support than custom and autii()ril}\ ^Vheat nii,a,Iit be torn up with tiie tares, and lares often sown inste;.ii ot" com : but it must be acknowledg-ed that we stand indebted to llie projectors ot" this work for the detection and extirpation ot^ many cuTors, and the powerl'ul stimulus given by their movements to tlie spirit of free inquiry and useful research. 15. The persons enga-ged in it have been so s:enera!!y called phiJos- o})liers, and have been styled such in so many histories of the French revolution, that it is almost necessary to observe that the greater pan of them hore little resemblance to those who had heretofoie been dig- nified with that title. The regent, duke of Orleans, though dissolute in his habiVs of life, was a man of taste, talent, and inlbrmation ; so iliat the savc.ns of France, who had heretofore been a retired order of men. became about this period the life of society, and the ornaments (if the highest circles in the metropolis. .Some tew, indeed, still ke,it at a di>^lance from the court, but, generally speaking, such was the slate t.f things during the regency ; and afterwards, when Le^vis XV. fell into that disgraceful course of life, which clouded his latter days, and •'•ulijected him and his mistresses to the censure of the clergj^^ even Voltaire, whom the king personally disliked, and the Enc3-clo- panlists, as enemies to the clergy, were taken into favour. They were often indeed dismissed again, but never entirely driven iVom court. If). This change of public opinion, even in the highest circles, m- t'-oduccd the learned into places where they never appeared before, and gp.ve them a new character. Wliile the influence which the men of letters thus began to acquire in society, obliged the noblesse to chai'ge their' habits also, and to mingle with those who before formed a distinct class ; it obliged them also to cultivate learning themselves, and (i\\-n the teinales found it necessary to become more or less philosophical. 17. In the mean while some of these modern philosophers had otlicT European courts set open to them, particularly in the northern p^■rts of Europe, ^vhere a greater degree of liberty in the article of opinion already prevailed, very different from the bigoted and Machiavelian ]tr iciplesof lloine and Italy, which had hitherto borne sway. Gath- er e 11. of Russia, and Frederic of Prussia, through a laudable (\e:.\rp pi (Ijably of improving and enlightening their semi-barbarous domin- ions, invited thither some of the most busy of the French literati ; but with little judgment or discrimination.'^ Frederic, besides Voltaire, D'Aleiubert, and Maupertius, gave free admission, and even encom-- agement,to the atheist t.a Methrie,the marquis D'Ai-gens,and the abbt- de Prades ; and Catherine received, and greatly patronised "> his latter years, the celebrated Diderot. Th'us,'^with the kn'"»ff;<%« «i'i'l learning which the new philosophers really possess*-'^ scepticism anrf iiifidt the repiihlir.an spirit in \vm. Indeed it has heen asserled of hiin, tiiat '■ lie loved kiiii;:s." Jlaynal is said to have shuddered when he saw his own violent imprecations on «les- po'isni and tyranny brought into action. Son;e, however, undoubted- ly threw aside all restraints, openly declared thejnselves deists, atheists, i^c, and to llieir abominable blasphemy and intidelity we ir.ay rea- sonably impuie many ot the evils which markeo those dreadful times: but, in tru'li, the history oi opinions ceases to be connected atler a short lijne widi llie French revolution. It veiy soon became a struji- tfie oi passions and private interests, and at length termiiiated in a r.itastnipheiiS t'atai to the literati as to the thione and the altar, 'i bat liilal instrument, the ^w?7/(///ne, so much spoken ol at that time, w:s -.taimrd with die blood ot" some ol" those very persons wiio had con- Iriliuted most to the advancenient ol' knowledge, and the piopagnticn 111' liberal ideas. 3 9. The impulse, however, was now given to two of the most curi- ous, ingenious, and inquisitive nations ot" Europe, and m>thiiig tould possibly «iACved the raj.iiiily with which eveiy branch «it" science has ?incu been cultivated ; in Hritain, constantly with more- steadiness, gravity, and unignient, than in France, though not with more zeal and iclivity. ""J'he Germans, in the mean while, in the noitliein parts :n(;r.'; parlicniaily, seem to have devoted their time to studies ot rather a 'oiy, and chemisliy, have indeed leen also cultivated '1> iliein r(igressi>e ..s* -uK.'rii. 'ilie mighty genius ol" Peter the gieat determined ir;i!: to introduce his own extensive empire at once into the conm-onweailh of Lurope ; and, instead of waitii:g to give bis sul jecls a c;'j->acity liii i!np!o\ ;ne themseives, as other nations bad done, fie eafer'y ao'op-ed I-'-'. Mial iiad been discovered e!sev\ here, aiiii comcited lii> lude peoo-e imo a civilized nation, just as tar as such methods cfjiild leacii. lie tandit them to adopt and imitate what tiiey were as ye» in no c«.i.di-, (Kill U) i.ivent, or even improve, arid left it to his successors to tiil up lb- g;ijis iK-.t might remain unprovideil lor at the time of liis de.-tb. ' his subjects, Ol vjiliei- s|ay(.s^ Qjicyed his dictates, ajid have continued since to learn bom tlitl,- neighbours, till they have attained U, M.ch [irohciency in the arts of life, os (o be no loi.ger reL^^lded as a rude ol ignorant people, though all the othc: countries of Euiope had the start tt Ihfm till the veiy close ot the sevenleeiMli century. 2\. Peler the gieat had, in a small <-"nipas^o( time, some ver> weak and some very wise successors. The former ha\.: not been suffered to stand long in the way of tb.; !alt< ", ;i:,(! thoiij:h tht.'ir re- moval has savoured little of the civilization and improvement of which we have been speaking, it cannot be denied that Russia has been pre- MUUEKJN' iil.^TUKY. 419 vented by many singular occurrences from relapsing: into her former sfate of TMrleness ?.!>(! barbarity.^ The extremes of mag-tiificence and mdeness, indeed, are too ofte:i foun«l to meet ; and the (hiddle class lias !)y MO inearu yet acquired tlial juiportaiice in -ocietj' which is sc essential to every well-regulated governinerjt. The state of tningb still exiiibits too much of llie old narrow line of distinction, ol lord.-, and vassals ; nevertheless, Russia has obtained much, and advanced considerably. Where, little more than a centuiy aj?o, wolves i\n\ ani sought their prey, an immense and mao:nificent city and metropolis now st;';ids. thronged with inhabitants from ail parts of the g\ube ; but pejiiaps it would be well if she would consent to step back and give a solid and more iiatmal base to her acquirements. The system of adoption and imitation has brought her to a state rather of superficial than of real gieatness. She has had her universities belore her schools ; but it could not well be otherwise in so sudden an improve- ment : much remains to be done betbre the nation at large, in its sev- eral relations, social and political, can be said to be really and effectu- allj' civili/.(;il. 22. Sweden, du>iri}f (lie eighteenth centuiy, produced many eminent men, and rontrilniled larg<;!y to the advancement ol" science. It may be suflicient to mention, in jnoof of this, the names of l^innieus, Wal- lerius, Cronsladl, Bergman, Scheele, 'J'hunl;eiii, and S[)arrmaii. 23. The !^ Uies have not been idle, but have encouraged in many wixjH the promotion of literatinv and phiiosophy ; mathematics and a.>ti()nomy, zooiogy, botany, and otlisT sciericrs, I'lnvf been cultivated with good ^iicce^s ; and m;-ny splendid wdiks are extant, that letlcc! threat credit on the spirit and ardour of the government, as well as of individuals, and the learned societies institnied and eslabiislied t|jere. DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 1. Maw new discoveries and inventions of lasting !a-n*?fif to man kind, as wi-ll ns many most essentia! imi)roveinents of old invention" aiul discoveries, have marked the eighteenlh and nineteenth centuries: some of the most remarkaljle of which it wiij be siifiicient mcic!y to name, as they are airendy become tt)o conmion and I'ntniliar to tned explanation ; such as iiionilalion, and iiuicli more recent'y, I'ttcamt- tioti ; stediii-cns^incs and sleo m -hoots ; printing of llpc7i\ud cotton cloths ; ;w;jer for rooms ; Ji,gured silks and carpets; spivning inn- rhines ; stereotype printing, and Uthographic emrrariug : musicnl types; ^'orcelain and pottery; particu'aily PVe/c/i and iron-stone china; lightning conductors ; tinic-piecrs ; purn/iu/dc, electrical^ and gohantc appaiTitd-; : lift'.-boats atid hfr-preserver." ; the speokiiig-triiiitpet, saje- ty-ldirt}), teleisriij)lis, gus-ltghts, panorauws, hntloons, rejlecting and achromatic telescojes, concave mirrors, with various other optical and astronomical instruments. 2. Laws and governments have been advancing towards a grealei degree of perfection, though irr many countrie-^" veiy slowly, and maiiilently under dilliculties and imiJediments which time oiily can remove. The French revolution opened people's eyes to ancient abuses ; but by inducing all the evils and and (ixpected ; like other tumultuary revolutions, it termniated in a miiitary desj'otism, and its effects on the ci mankind, the steps takina," in sev- trai states to restoie or estabh'sh the representative system of g-overn- rnent ; the dissolution of many monastic institutions, and feudal priv- ileges ; the check that lias been ^'iven to ari,)ilrary imprisonment, torture, lie horrors of the inquisition, and the African slave-trade ; the iniprovements that have tak(;n place, principally through tht; in- teipo«ition of our benevolent countryman, Mr. Howard, in the ina.n- a2;ement of prisons, and the extraordinary steps lately taken, especial- ly in the Britisii dojninions, lor the better education of the poor and their instruction in relij>ion. 3. It would be vain indeed to attempt to enumerate the astonishing ailditions that have been made within these few years, to the public establishments ii;)r the promotion oi knowledge, the advancement ot protessional skill, and the relief of the necessities of mankind. Phil- osophical societies of all descriptions have been formed in various parts, under the most favourable circumstances of support and encour- agement. The propaga.tion of Christianity has been attended to, and piomoled with exlraordinaiy zeal, not only by individuals, but by missionary and Bible-societies, far too numtrous to mention. Eveiy description of medical, chirurgical, and other assistance, has been (urnished to the poor, by a most extraordinary increase of hospitals and iniirmaries, dispensaries, asylums, and charity-schools. The naval and military professions have had the benefit conferred on them o' new ancl distinct academies, including a charitable provision for the chilfiicn of those who have ])eri.shed in either service. The .'rproved 4tate of chemistry and mechanical skill, has advanced many arts to a /try- high degree of perfection, anil much assisted both the manufac- turing and agricultural industry ; nor should we omit to mention, as among the improvements of latter yeais, by which our own countiy in particular has been benefited in the highest degree, the amendnient ol Oie public roads, the increased means and facilities of public con- veyance and communication, and the advancement of inland navigatioi), RELIGION. 1. In regard to religion, from the close of the seventeenth century to the year 1,5520, we may remark that paganism continues to prevail over the greater part of Asia, Africa, and the new discovered Islands, ss well as aniong the Indians of America, North and South, (in the settlements of the Sprmiards and Portngue?^., the Roman Catholic re- ligion has been intiodiced of course.) Mahometanism prevails in Kome parts of India, in Persia, Arabia, Egypt, the States of Baibaiy, Syria, and 'J'urkcy. The Jews continue dispersed over every j)art ut the world, but in a state and condition lar better than w;is i'urmerly the case ; in Europe they are no longer exjwsed to cruel and wanloi; acts of oppression and persecution, and in some countries they have ol'tamed important privileges. In Abyssinia the majority of the peoj)le are said to be christians, and thrcnighout tlie whole oi the Eu- ropean settlemenis of North America, Christianity is the received re- ligion, rhough under a variety of deiicniinations, — Conirregationalists, Presbyterians, Dutch reformed church, Episcopalians, Baptists, C^ua- kers, Methodists, Roman Catholics, German Lutherans, German Cal- MODERN HISTORY. 42i inists, Moravians, Tunker.*, JMennotiisls, Universalists, Swcdenboi aiis, and Sli;ikrrs. 2. Ill regard to leligion or Christianity, on the rontment of Europe ha.* been already shown what rude otliicks it had to sustain, dui'iig ne course and progress of tlie French revohitioii. Deism and even theism were openly avowed in their national assemblies ; llie im- mortality of the soul and resurrection of the bot themselves into two great parties, one espousing the Calvinistic, die other the Arminian, tenets. It is .common to refer the oricin of filelhodism to the year 1,729, when the two brothers, John and Charles VVesle3\ took the lead of those who adhered to the Arminian d(;ctrirrs, Mr. George Whilcfield., who joined them in 1,735, became, in 1,741, the head of the Calvinistic division. 4. The modern Moravians take their date from the year 1,7-23, when they first settled at Hernhut, in Upper Lusatia, on the estates of Isicholas Lewis, count of Zinzendorf, who, in 1,735, became their bishop. They profess to receive the Augsbui^ confession ; are meek and quiet in their liabits and principles, but have at times adopted a strange phraseology, which uas thought to affect their moral character, and procured them many enemies. As missionaries they have been extremely active, particularly in the West Indies and America : they profess to be the remains of the Hussites. 5. The emperor Joseph II. ndieved his protestant subjects of all denominations I'rom many galling restrictions, and greatly abridged the power of the pope. Many catholic princes, even the 'eccl(!siasti- cal states, followed his example in various particulars. In favouring, however, an unlimited fi-f^edom of opinion at such a moment, he open- ed the door to the introduction of deistical principles, and facilitated the formation of a sect -of illuminati, which, during the course and progress of the French revolution, taught and disseminated doctrines adverse in the highest degree to th'^ order of civil society, Mie rigiils of pioperty, and the christian faith. 6. 'J't'.e papal authority, during the latter yeprs of the period under discus-sion, has been greatly abridged in all countries lieretotore sub- ject to it ; even in Spain, Portugaf, Italy, and Sicily ; nor is it likely to be recovered, notwithstanding the attempts lately made to restore »^artially the order of Jesuits and the inquisition. Of the indlgiii N n 422 MOI-)EllN IliSTOUY. oflVred to the la.«^t and present pope by tlie French we have spoken e|i(\vh(!re. At or.e time tliey so entirely took the reins org:overiinient St Koine into their own hands, that liie pope and cardinals wne oblige(i to take llie^ht, in which situation Pius \' I. died. His suc- cessor, Pius V'll., since the final overthrow ot' Buonapaile. has lived in peacid and quietne;^, in his capita!, exercising, riotwilhstanding lus recall ol'the Jesuits, a veiy tole'ant and inoffensive «way. It is, liow- ever, to he lamented, that, in the instance oi" the pope, as well as of llie king of Naples, and others, their resentment ot the French ustn'- i.alion< on their return to their dominions has been carried so far as to abrogate every ordinance oi the Frencii Emperor, however wise or sa utar^', and even to undo what had been begun, manifestly tending to the improvement of their respective countries. HISTORY, POLITE LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, &;c. 1. Wk fee! ourselves rather at a loss to give any satisfactoiy acccnint of the progress that has been made in the l)ranches of knowledge pointed out by the title of this section : it would far exceed our limits to atten-.pt to enumerate the many historical woiks tliat have been pub- lished during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, or to go into any regular discussion of the x)articular merits of the several poets, paitit- ers, nuisicians, philosophers, philologists, &lc. ^:c., who may be swid to have distinguished themselves in the period of which we have b«-en treating. To do this with any degree of justice, we should be :blig- >.'d, perliaps, to divide them into many classes, and assign to the sev- eral individuals of the long list that might be produced, their respec- tive ranks and stations, from the liighest degreti of perfection to medi- ocrity, or lower ; we should have to draw a comparison between (hem and their predecessors, and consider, in various points of view, every advance they had made in their different callings, studies, and pur- suits : but sucii a discussion would be quite unsuitable to a work like (he present. Many of those, indeed, who have contributed toenlaige (he boundaries of knowledge during the eighteenth and ninettenth centuries, have been already mentioned ; but tliere aie still son.e ;iames which almost demand our notice, belbre we entirely close this volume. It should, however, be observed,, that many very emir.ent persons, who lived till long after the commencement ot the eightt'C-nth lentuiy, belong to a different period, having been the ornan.enls of tvbat is called the age of Louis XIV. It may be best, perhajis, to arrange tlic few we feel Ijound to select from tlie great mass of au- ihors, artists, ^:c., according to their countries. 2. In Germany the following may he said to have acquired a h'gh reputation: Mascov, Moslioim, Pteffel. Herder, Muller, in ///s/or?/; Scliilk-r in History and Tragedy; Klopstock, Gesner, \\ ieland, k'olzebue, Goethe, in Poetry and Dramatic writing ; in Paivlivg, iMengs ; ingenhou'/ in Cliemistry, and Bode '\n Astronnmy ; Handel, Giuck, Haydn, and Mozart, in Jilusic ; Lavater in the fanciful science < f Pliysiognoiiiy. Even the names of Blesmer, Maiiiaduc, Gall, aiul Spurzheim, may require to be mentioned, as having for some time, in an extraordinaiy nianner, amazed the ignorant, and (U-celved the credulous, by their strange systems of Animal Magnetism am' i'raniolfgy. 3. in Fiance, Camlet, Monttaucon, the Count de Caylus, Kullin- V'ertot, Rapin, Gcguet, Millot, Raynal, Mably, and the Abbe Bar- MODEKiN HISTORY. 423 theleiny, part cularly distinguished themselves in the line of History and Jnlif]iultes ; to whom ue may now add, pediaps \vitii rear^oii and justice, Mad. de Stat-!, and M. J,a Cretelle M. Rail!y, one of the vi'.:tin:.s ol' tiie Kevohition, vendeitd hinisell' conspicuous b}- h:< very curious Hisloiy of Astronomy, and other works. Miiny (;f his con- temporaries, wlio applied themselves to other branches of scif-nce, have been already m.;ntioned. Sonie ot them also fell by the hands of the public executioner, during the dreadful period of the Revolu- tioii. Their most celebrated painter, however, David, escaped, 'uit widi more reputation as an artist than as a man ; for his own proceed- ings, a' a revolutionist, were base and sanguinaiy. 4. In Great Britain, we have to boast, in the line of History, of (he names of Robertson, Watson, Hume, Gibbon, Lyltelton, Goldsmith, Roscoe, Russell, Gillies, Ferguson, Stuart, Mil ford ; in Lrta;, of Sir William Blaclistone, whose Commentaries, for elegance and perspi- cuity of diction, stand unrivalled. Bolingbroke and Swift are justly held to have improved the English language, in the two main articles of eneigy and beauty. The style of Dr. Johnson is less chaste, though, perhaps, equally forcible. The name of Adam Smith will probably descend to the latest posterity, for his masterly work on the wealth of nations, a subject in which he seems almost to have taken llie lead, as an original writer. In Painting, the nam.es of Hogarth, Keyn.ilds, and West, stand hisii for originality, taste, conception, and expression ; in Melaphi/sics, Hume, Har'ley, Berkeley, Reid, Baxter, and Priestley, nave distinguished themselves. To the Poets already mentioned we iraist add Gay, Young, Shenslone, Collins, Gray, Ma- son, Cowper, Crabbe, Scott, Pyron ; as JVo-velists, Richardson, Smol- lett, Fielding, Burney, Edgeworth, &c. Garr'ck and Siddons have conferred immortal honour on the English Stage. 5. Italy, though lai)(»uring under great disadvantages, has been by no nutans deficient in learned and scientific persons, since the close of llie seventeenth century. In history and antiquities, in poetiy, dra- matic works, natural history, drawing, engraving, and sculjjturf!, the fo!towii.'^ nimes richly deserve to lie delivered down to posterity : Bironiu.-, Giannone. Muratori, MatTei, Metastasio, Goldoni, Aigarotti. (nizzi, Tiraiioschi,Beccaria, Spallanzani, Alfieri, 13aito!ozzi, Cipriani, CaiK'va. France and Italy seem to have a joint claim to a living HUlhor of considerable fame, M. Simondes de Sismondi. TREATY OF VIENNA, 1,815. Bally that of the duchy of Saxony. Prussia, besides, recovered 'aittzic, Q,uediinbiirg, and many other places ; yielding, however, to the kiiig of Great Britain, now become king of Hanover also, many 424 UMTED STATES. lordships and principalities, in othnr parts of Germany. A new Ger- n'.anic conieticratioii was established, the members of whiiJi were declared to be equal in their rights, and boun 1 to render to each other nrntuiil asfti.slance. Tlieic afFairs to be conlided, first to a J'edentlive diet, amounting to seventeen votes ; and, 2dly, to a general assembly, forming sixty-nine votes ; uIk> are to decide upon all regulations touching the fundamental l;uvs of the confedention. The diet to assi'inble at Fratikldrt on the Maine, and Austria to preside. The three important lortresses of Landau, Mentz, and Luxemboui^, beijig assigned over to the confederation. 2, The united provinces of the Netherlands, late the Belgic states, were Ibrined into a kingdom, jointly with those of Holland, in favour of the house of Orange Nassau, late sladlholders ; and to the same so\ereign was granted the duchy of Luxembourg, with the title of grand duke. 3. The integrity of the nineteen cantons of Switzerland was ac- knowledged, and guarantied ; and Geneva, for the fii-st time, consti- tuled a .canton ot the Helvetic conti'deracy. The states ol Genoa were annexed to ihe kingdom of Sardinia, in the place of many re- nunciations on the part of the latter power, principally in favour of (leneva. The grand duchy of Tuscany was settled on the archduke Ferdinand of Austria ; and king Ferdinand the IVth was restored to the sovereignty of the Two Sicilies. PART FOURTH. UNITED STATES. - SECTION I. DISCOVERY OF AMERICA. 1. It was somewhat natural that the distmguisheJ author of the Elements of Histoiy should almost exclusively confine himself to the great events of the old world. It will be observed that the discovery ot America by Colundjws embraces only a shori space, (see Section XLI.) and tuat North America, the first settlement of the United States, the revolution and severance of those states from the crown of Great Britain, and the more recent dispute of the States with Great Britain, aie dismissed by both nuthors it. a few words. (See S(;ctiott XL!!., and Sections VIll. and XX. of the Continuation.) This con- sideration will suggest the j^ropriety of a more particular narration of tiie events which relate to the United States, for whose particular use the present edition of this work is intended. UNITED STATES. 425 2. The hoiK)ur of accomplishing an exploit, so sublime as ihat of the disroveiy of lliis western lieinisphere, was gained liy Cli!i.sto[)hei Coliimhns. This srrent ninn, a native of Gt-rioa, de>ccii(lf;(l fioni a respectable family, was well cpiaiitied ny nature and c-diKati!s that ele'.nent, he went to sea at the age of fourteen. At'ler a variely (»'. adventures serving to enlarge iiis knowledge more than lo inci«'a>e his fortune, he went to Lisbon. Here, having marrie-d the daughter ot Feresireilo, a Porlnguc:se navigator (jf much celebrity, hi-^ l,i\(uni!e passion of making discoveries was rendered more inl•^i^lil,l](- I y ic.d- ing tlie journals of his father-in-law, which had lalleii ir.to hi.- hand.-. 3. The attention of the Portuguese was at that time diiictiMl lo I'lt finiling a passage by water to the East hidies ; and lluy intmdcil to accoiuplish this purjjose by passing lo the south until they reached die soulhern e:vti'emity of Africa, and then taking an easteily C(>in>e. The spherical tigure ol the earth was then known, and its magniluiU had b'jeii ascjrlained with some good degree of accuracy ; and tin active mind of Columbus, after having attentively compared tlu observations of modern navigators with the conjectures of the ancients, at last came to t[)e conclusion, that, by sailing directly to tlie we,-i, new countries, wliich it was likely formed a part of the great continent of Asia, mu>t be discovered. His opinion was strengtiiened by the aiscovuiy, alter a long course of westerly wind, of piict's of cai\e I wood, lree^, and canes, and dead bodies, "the natives ol' another clime, ilriveii on the shores of the Madeira isles and the Azores. 4. Full)' satisiied with the truUi of his system, Columlnis was im- pa.tieiit tu bring it to the test of experiment. He fust made a])i)licj tiiiU lo the senate of Genoa foi patronage, desirous that his nalivt cuuiiti} should ''"ap the fruits of his labour and ingenuity ; bi.I hi.-ru his proposals wevv. rejected as the dream of a diimerical projectf>r. N«)t discouraged by this repulse, he laid his plans before John king of'Fortugal, who basely attempted a fraud on him, by despatching i. vessel in pursuit of the discovery, alter drawing from Columbus all the information wliich treachery could devise. The pilot selectttd foi this purpose, being no less deficient in courage than were his em- ployers in dignity and justice, returned to Lisbon without making nnx discovery. 5. Disgusted with the treacher}% Columbus instantly went to Spair., and laid his plan beiiDre Ferdinand and Isabella, at the samn tit-.ie tliftj he sent his brother Bartholomew lo England, for the purpose of neg(/- tiating for the pationage of Henry VHl., reportetl to be one ol ii.e most sagacious and opulent princes of lue age. Accident deprived England of the renown of this discovery; the brother of Ci.himbus Oil his way being captured by pirates, and detained ip eap'nity many years: although arriving in Englaiul in great indigcfict, Ib'iiiy i<"- ceived the ovtM-luies of Columbus more' favourably than any odiei '"onarch, and invited him lo that country. But it was too !al<-. 'J'lie gre.i discoverer, after combating many and soi'e disappointuK-nts, 5ucreed.^d at length in securing the Spanish court, aided by two lich. generovis, and vigilant patrons,' Q,uintanella an^ Santangel. Ferdiiraiui was still restrained by his characlerisiic caution and reserve ; but Isabella, aiV-e l» the gloiy which must accrue from the accomiihsh- nient ot so graud an enterprise, declared her nisolution to employ Columbus ; and, in ihe low state of her finances, consequent on a long and serious contest with lUe Moors, who had then but just been ex- pelled Irom Spain, ofiered to pledge her jewels in order lo complete 426 UNITED STATES. the preparations of the voyage : Santaiigel however leheved the diffi- culty, by advancnij? trom liis private purse the necessary sum. 6. April 17, 1,492, more than seven 3 ears aitei the ciate of his first ap{)lication, an ag;re;ement with Columbiis was conchided. ^J'he ex- pedition was filled out at Palos, a small town of the province of Andalusia ; but i*. was badly suited to the service for which it ^as intended. 1* consisted of three vessels, the Santa Maria, the Pinia, and the Nigna — the first of inconsiderable burthen commanded by Columbus as admiral ; and the two last, not supeiior in size to h\i>e boats, by two brotiiers, Maitin and \'incent Pinzon : the whole p-o- vided with nineU' nien, and victualled for twelve months. 7. Aug-ust 3, Columbus set sail. He touched at ihe Canaiy islands, where ^. refitted his crazy vessels, and departed from Gomera, Sc-pt 6 Here he took his course due west, leaving the track of .ail former navigators, and stretched boldly into seas "unknown. Veiy soon his sailors, alainied at the distance 'they had proceeded without finding the expected land, began to mutiny, and placed Columb>is in a situation in which any other man would have yielded to their enlieaties to return. Feitile in expedients, possessing a thorough knowledge ot mankind, an insinuating address, and a liappy talent at governir.g, lie succeeded day al'ter day in beguiling the discontented seamen far beyond their own determinations, until ever}' succeeding hour present- ed stronger and stronger indications that land could be at 1.0 g:eat distance. For some days the sounding line had reached the bottom ; (he flocks of birds increased, and some of them of a kind supposed to fly not far from shore ; the clouds around the sun assumed a new appearance ; the air was more mild, and, during the night, the w ind became unequal and variable. On the evening of Oct. 11, he ordered the ships to lie to, in the fear of running ashore. That night Colum- bus observed a light, which seemed to be carried about fiom place to place ; and a little after midnight, ivas heard from the Pinta the joyl'u) cry of Land ! fi. When the morning dawned, an island was seen about two leagues to the north : its verdant fields were well stored with wood, presenting the aspect of a delightful country. All the boats were immediately manned and armed. The Spaniards rowed towards the shore witn their colours displayed. As they approached th.e beach, they saw it covered with a multitude of people, whose attitudes and gestures dis- covered wonder and amazement. Columbus was the first who set loot on this new world which he had discovered. His men followed; and all kneeling, kissed Uie ground that they had lon-g desired, but nevei expected to behold : here he erected a crucifix, returned thanks to God, and with the usual formalities took possession of the countiy. To this island, calle(| by the natives Guanahana. Columbus gave (he name of St. Salvador : it is one of the large cluster called the Baha- mas, irore than three tliousand miles west, but only lour degicts south of Gomeia, the port of the Canaries which he last left. 9. After discovering several other islands, amongst which v^''^^, Cuba and Hayti ; and using eveiy precaution to secure the b"'*^''^ "' a first discovery, by erecting a fort and leavine: a Darty of 'litn <^"' '. *^ island of Hayti ; on the 4th of January, 1, 49^:3, Columbus «;t sail lor Europe. The shattered condition of his vessels would I'-^ve rendeied the voyage at any time unsafe ; but a succession of sfoims had well nigh committed to the bosom of the deep, and ''I'th it ih? secret 01 Ills discovery, his little flotilla. The whole, however, arrived. _ 10. At first it was generally supposed, from a sinnil?nty in the UNITED STATES. 4«1 productions, that, the discovered country was a part of those vast re- gions of Asia, comprehended under tlie general name of India. The name of India was given to it bj^ Ferdinand and Isabella ; and, atler the error which gave rise to the opinion was detected, the name ot West Indies has remained, and the aborigines are C3lJed Indians. 11. in 1,498, Columbus, on his third voyage, readied the continent, and landed in several places in the provinces oi Paria and Cumana. But he was dcpri\ed of the honour of associating his name with this vast portion of the earth, being supplanted by Amerigo Vespucci, a native of Florence, who, in 1.499, wriit on a voyage to America, and who published an account ol hi.s adventures so ingeniously framed as tc make it appear that be had the glor}' of fii;st discovering the conti- nent of the new world. 12. On the 20tli ot November, 1,497, Vasco deGama, employed bv the king of Portugal, first doubled the Cape of Good Hope, which ojeiiecf a passage to the Ea.>t Indies; and twenty-three years after thu first ui.scov^eiy of America by Columbus, Magellan, a native of Port'igal, in the service of Spain, penetrated mto the Pacific ocean, by the strait whick bears his name, situated at the southern extremity of the American continent. SECTION II. DISCOVERIES BY THE ENGLISH. SE^rLExMENT OF VIRGINIA. 1. Thk English were the seco-^^^ people that discovered the new world, and the first that discove-^'d the rontinent of America. On the 24tli of June, 1,497, G iovann-' ^''.-el.s a rived at the same .-ipot, with one hundred and fifty sett'eis. !ii a! ( ut oi'.e nuintti after, the daughter of capt^njd AVhite, who commanded the exysedijion, and the wile of Ananiu:-- Daio, one of his as'^islants, trave hirth tu llic lust English female child, which was named. Viiojiiia. Rlisfdriui^t pursued tliis infant settlenient. The \hreatened S])anish armad;. eigrossing the attention of Ihr- paretit country. t!ie c^ 'oiiy rccei\()d k supplies, and the inliahitants pcri.-luid mist-iah!) I.y famine, or hs li.« hands of their surromidiuis: enemies. 6. Sir \Valter Ivaleijjli beiiiii engnsfcd in oilier .-.i-.i! itious imi('«i- takings, .so vast and various as vvt^re'ley. tid !ii> i()\v<'r to accoii iiii.-'i. and becoming cold t- die unprolilalile scheme of effecllrg .-ctlieu'enls in America, assigned his interesi in ihat cruntry to sir Thomas Sti!i.!li and a ompany of merchants in Loi'.d')n. in Ijiw. These were satis- fied tor the viesent to pursue a petty traflic wiui the natixe-s, ai.d Uiade no jitlempt to if.ke possession of the soil. 7. But m the succeeding leign of .lames, who ha\ ing concluded ;'n amicable treaty wiJi r.pain, anil terminated a tedious war. lla- |>erK.d was more auspicious lor .s.-ulements in America. The attenticn v( '! e monarch was called to this subject by the efforts of distirgu-.d.ed geographers and men of science. James di\ ided into districts of nearly equal extent, that pi^tion of ^!or^h America uhicli stretcnes frt.m the ■o4th to the 43tii dcjiree of north latitude, exceptirs: llie territory of any other christian i>.;„(..(; or people already occup'ed : one called the Fust, or South Colony, the otlier the Second, or Noitli Colony of Vn^mia. In 1,606, he anthorV/ed certain gentlemen, most- ly residents ot Lo'idon, to settle ir. a liniii.-..,] district of the former ; an equal extent of the latter he alloued to teveral gentlemen (;f' Bristol, Plymouth, and other jiarts of tho west tf England. Tliese grants laid the first foundation of states whTdi in a toy centuries were destined to become rivals to the mother country in weaVJ,^ in science, and ir) power. The supreme government oi' the c')lonie.s\vas vested in a council resident in England, to be nominated Irj the k-.,>v ■{\)q subordinate jurisdiction in a council which was to reside in Am.'fica and also to be named by 'he crown, and act contormablj U) its ■'.J structions. Whatever was requi'-^jd for their sustenance, or Kir the support of commerce, he permitted to be shipped from England I'v.-e of duty, during the space of seven years ; and as an incitement to in- dustry, granted them the liberty of trading with other nations, apfuo' priating the duties to be laid on foieigii tratlic for twenty-one years, as a fund for their exclusive lumetlt. 8. A vessel of one hundred tons, and two barks, under the command of captain Newport, sailed with one hundred and five mei., destined to romain in the countiy : among these was a Mr. Percy, brother of die earl of Noilhumberland, and several officeis wh(» had served will) rep- utation in the pieceding reiffn. The first land that was discovered v.'as a promontory, the southern bound.iiy of the Chesapeake, A})ri!, 1,607 : this was named cape Hemy, m honour of the prince of Wales. The soacious iniel was entered, and the expedition coasted the southern shore, and up a river sixty miles, called by tb.e native:? Powhatan, to whicli the English gave the name of J^mes r'^er, in honour of their UNITED STATES. 429 sovereign. Here a site was fixed for tlie infant settlement, which was named James Town. y. Imprudent in their conduct towards; the natives, this feebie socie- ty was early involved in v/ar. Scarcity of provisions introduced dis- eases ; and in a few months half their original number was swept away, and the remainder left sickly and dejected. 10. The government soon devolved on captain John Smith, who was originally one of the council appointed by the king, but who had unjustly been deprived of his authority by the colonists. This gentle- maji, who was emphatically the father of Virginia, was a native of Linc«,>lnshire : he had distinguished himself in feats of courage and cliivalry, particularly while engaged in the Hungarian army against the Turks. His ursdaunted temper, deeply tinctured with the ro- mantic spirit of the times, was happily adapted to the present trying situation of the colony. Soon after he had been called as their leader, while hunting in the woods, he was attacked by two hundred Indians, who poured in upon him a continued tlight of arrows. After perform- ing \vt)nderful feats, he sunk in the unequal contest, and was made a prisoner. Charmed by his arts and his valour, they released him from captivity. Alterwards he was beset by three hundred more of these ferocious people, pui-sued into a marsh, and, after he had thrown away his arms, which he could no longer use by reason of the cold, he was taken and carried in triumph to Powhatan, the principal chieftain of Vii^inia. Here the doom of death was pronounced upon him, and he was about to receive the fatal blow, when the favourite daughter of Powhatan, interposed in his behalf. This amiable child (not then thirteen years of age) not only prevented the execution of Smith by her entreaties and tears, but caused him to be set at liberty, and sent him, from time to time, seasonable presents of provisions. 11. The colony was now reduced to thirty-eight persons. Soon after, however, succours arrived irom England, and an addition of one hundred new planters was added to their number. But the culture of the land, and other useful employments, were neglected, in the futile idea that gold had been discovered issuing from a small stream which emptied into James river. Tlie etTects of the delusion were soon severely felt in the prospect of approaching famine. In the hope of o!)taining relief. Smith, in a small open boat, and with a feeble crew, went in search of aid from the Indians. In two different excursions, that occupied upwards of four months, he visited all the countries on the eastern and western shores of the Chesapeake bay, entering the principal creeks, and tracing the rivers as far as their falls, and ob- tained a supply of food for the suffering colony. In these tours, he sailed upwards of three thousand miles, amidst almost incredible hardships, and brought back with him an account of that large tract of ctmntry, now comprehended in the two states of Virginia and Marj'- land, so full and correct, that his map is the original from which all subsequent delineations have been formed until lately. 1-2. About this period, the old charter being found inconvenient and oppressive, a new charter was gianted by James, by which the boun- daries of the colo!iy Avere enlai^ed ; the council in Virginia was abolish- ed, and the government vested entirely in one residing in London, the members of which were to be chosen by the proprietors, and these to nominate a governor, who was to reside in Virginia and cany their orders into execution. Lord Delaware was at first appointed to this olTice ; but as this nobleman could not immediately leSve England, the power was vested in sir Thomas Gates and sir George Soiners, 430 UKITLD STATES. who were despatched from England with five liundred planters. A violent liunicane sepamted the (Icet on llieir ^\ay ; and the .ships with- out the otticers only arrived at Jimies 'J'oun. rrtsentiy eveiy liiine was reduced to a statu ol anarcny ; captain Sniitli, at once the sliield and die sword of the colony, being disal^led ly an accidiMital exj)iosion of gun-powder, the wretchedness wiiicli followed is hcyoud descri|)- tion ; and the arrival of Gales and Sonier?, who had Le<'n cast avNay on one of the Bermuda islands, although it savtd the wietched sur- vivors at James Town ik)m inunediale lieath, was uiiahle Ic^ jirestne lliem until the autumn. Nothing- remained but to seek inur.ediale assistance ; and with only sixteen days' provision, the colony set sail> in hop<;S of leaching the banks of Aewtoi;;idiand, and gettii.g lelieU Hut i)eiijre they had arrived at the iiioulh of the river, they njt;l loid Delaware, who brought a laige supply of suslenanre, new settlers, and eveiy thing requisite either for cultivation or deleiice. L nder die skilful adiinnislration of this nobleman, the colony' began, (^r.ce more, to assume a promising ai^jieaiaiice. He was succeeded by sii Thomas Dale, who concluded a Ire; ty of friendship with the Pu\\lia- tans, one of ibe nio.-t powerful and warlike tribes of V'iiginia. 13. Pocahontas, die amiable female who had preserved the life of captain Smilh. frequently visited the ICnglish settlements; and durii.g diis int<;rcourse, she was betrayed on board a ves>el, and iheie im- prisoned, lier fallur, who loved l:ei with the m(»1 anient aflection, u;is obliged to discontinue luistililies on such condition- a.« weie d':t- lated by his trea.cheious eiiem.y. She was afterwaid.-, solieiu-d I y •Mr. Pvolfe, a iesi)ectable planter, in marriage. Powliatan con.-enieti. niid the marriagt: was celebrated with extraordinary j onp. J him Ibis thru;, the most fiii-ndJy inteiTomse subsisted between the c»)Ion.sl> n-.d the Indians. Rolle ;'t..ple of V'iiginia, was introduced; but the eagei flemnia; ioi i!;e aiticle in Eiigland cau.sed lor some time a scarcity ol" lood in the c<>!()iiy. l.'S. AImuiI this time, a Dutch ship. from tiie const of (luim-a, hp\ it g :« i'ed up James river, .*old to the planters a -part o!' her i:( -(<■-; i\!ii(li r,-t'c<- has he(;n augmented in V'iiginia by successive mit nita(;e, ■ ii,d i.'V natural increase, till it forms more than one diiid i.ai li i: pojHli.i'.'.ull. 16. Ill l,<^iy, sir George Yeardley, the governor, b.iyeiled by d; fiopular spirit of freedom which hss ever been tlu^ characteristic i.l .Americans, c.dleil the first general as.^eii.bly which was held ii; V ii- y'uhi. At this lime eleven corporations sent representatives to the c(.h- *ention, which was permitli;d to a.-.-ume iegisiative j.-ower, the natUKil privilege (;f man. ThV su[)reme aulhoiuv was lodged partly in ttie ^ovtMiior, [larlly in a council of state appointed by the company, at:d in a general assembly, coiaposed of }c-pje.:-eiitativcs cf the people, A natural effect of \e happy change i/a"^ ?n increase of agricullune, UNITED STATES. 431 The company extended t}ie trade of the colony to Holland and othrr coti.iiries. Tliis mensiire produced tlie first difTerence ot >-entiiiifnt oelkvccn d'f; colony and tlic {)nier)l stale. .Jealous . 1 s<«'ii;>;- a riiiular voice : he recalled Harvey, tiie obnoxious a^overnor, and appointed sir Wilpam Berkeley, a man of great abili- lies, prudent, virtuous, and popniar ; wlujse iiiHurnce was directed in linally resloriiig; to die i>eople mu( h the same share in the goxeiiiiient as lliey had enjoyed piv\ ious'y lo the lexocatioii ot the chaiter. I«. "After tlie'e\eciilion oftlie king, and iht estabhshteent of the comnKiiiweakh u-nder Cron.wcll, through the iulluence of the goveii or. the colonists continued to adhere to their loyalty to the king:. I" l,'i.'Jl, the Eng-lish coiiimoinvealth took vigorous n'.easures to rtsduce the \ ir- ginians to obedience. A numerous squadron, with land iorces, wai ciespatched for this purpose. Berkeley lesisted, but was unable to maintain an unequal contest, and was soon defeated. The peojiie were, however, allowed to retain the privileges of citizens: l.u! Berkeley rctiied as a private citizt-ti. Cronnvell's parhainent framed acts prohibiting all intei'course between the colonies and foreign stites, and allowing ti(j trade but in Engii.-h ships. On the death of i\Fatln'\vs, t. e 'ast govei'uor appointed by Ciomwell, tlie Viiginiaiis l.iujsl ( ut in new violence. 1 hey ca.llt'd sir W iliiam Berkeley from his i\.-tiren I'nt. boldly erected ibe royal standard. ;uid proclain;ed Charles II., son of their late monarch, to be their lawliil soveieign. Chailes was, how- ever, soon placed on the thione. and ihi; V'iiginians weie thus saved Ironi the chastisement to which they were exposed b}' their previous declaration in his favour. . But the r-ew king and parliament rew.irditd their (Idelity by increasing tin; restraints uiH)u colonial commerce ! I.'.. '1 he numijer of ii.habiUuUs in Virginia in l,G«8, exceeded sixty thousand, atvl its [)opulatioi) in the previous twenty-eight years was doubled. In 1,091, th^- college of William and Mary was lounded. To aid in its erection and .'■up[)or(, the sovereigns whose name it bears, gave nearly two thousand pounds out of their private purse, and granted twenty thousand acres of land, and a duly on tobacco, for I'.s turther encuurasceniciit. SECTION III. sr.TTf.F.MENT OF MAS-SACHUSFTTS, RHODE ISEAND, CON- NKCTICUT, Ni:\V flA.MPSJtlRK, .MAINE, AiARVLANt), NOKTI) AND SOUTH CAIIOIJNA, M'AV VOIIK, NEW JEUtEV, i'EN.X- SYLVAMA, DELAWARE, AND GEORGIA. 1. The i-arlition of the great tcrritoiy of Virginia into North and South colonies has already been mentioned. Still more feeble were 432 UNITED STATES. the operations o( the Plymouth company, to whom was assigned the comhict of tlie noitlicni division, allliougli aniniDled by the z(;al of sir John Popham, chiet' justice of England, sir Ferdinaudo Goraee, and other public spirited gentlemen of the west. 5J. In the year 1,607, the same in which James Town was founded* a small settlement was commenced on the viver Sag;adahoc, now called the Kennebec ; but this was soon abandoned. Some fishing; vessels visited Cape Cod several limes ; among- them, one cummaniied by captain Smith, who returned with a high-wrought description of tlie 'coast and country : exhibiting^ a map of the bays, harbours, &c., on which he inscribed " New England ;" the prince of Wales, delighted with the representations of Smith, iarimediately confirmed the name. •3. To the operations of religion, rather titan to the desii;e of pecu- niaiy emolument, are the various settlements of New England indebt- ed for their origin. The sacred rights of conscience and of privat* judgment were not then properly understood ; nor was the charitj and mutual forbearance taught christians by their divine master piac- tised in any countiy. Eveiy church employed the hand of power in supporting its own doctrines, and opposing "the tenets of another. Ir« reforming the rituals and exterior symbols of the church of England Elizabeth, lest by too wide a departure from the IJoniish church sh^ might alarm the populace, had allowed many of the ancient ceremonies to remain unaltered. With several of these a large number of lier subjects being dissatisfied, they wished to addre'5 :*ieir Creator ac- cording to their own opinions, but were subjected to veiy rigorous penalties. Those who dissented from the established church obtained the general name of Pvritmis. a term applied to them because xluy wished for a purer form of discipline ami worship. Among the most po})ular and strenuous declaimers against the established church were the Brownists, a sect formed about 1,581, by Robert Brown, who after- wards renounced his pri-nciples of separation, and took ordeis in the church against which he had so loudly declaimed. The Kev. Joiui Kobinson, the father of the first settlc'inent of New England, is said to have been a folIoAver of Brown, but afterwards renounced the principles of the Brownists, and became the founder of a new sect, denominated Independents.* Mr. Robinson adirmed that all christian congregations were so many independent religious societies, that had a right to be governed by their own laws, independent of any foreign jurisdiction. Being persecuted in England, he, with many others embracing his opinions, removed to Holland, where they formed churches upon their own principles. Remaining there some years, the society were de- sirous to remove to some other place : they turned their thoughts to America, and applied to James, who though he refused to give them any positive assurance of toleration, seems to have intimated some promise of passive indulgence. * By several respectable historians of this country, the Indcpc^ndenta have been connected ^vith the Brownists, betv.ecn the opinions and prac- tices of whom was a wide diflertnce. The Independents excelled the Brownists in the niodiTation of their sentiments, and in tlie order of their discipline. They possessed candour and charity, believing- that true re- liofion and solid piety mi^ht flourish in those communities under the jnris- diction cf bishops, or Uie goNeniincnts of synods or presbyteries. '1 luy approved of a regular ministry. While the Brownists allowed promiscu- ously all ranks and orders of men to teach in public, the Independents le- quired a proper examination of the capacity and talents of their teachers. UNITED STATES. 433 4. They readily procured a tract of land from the Plymouth com- pany. One hutid'red and twenty persons sailed from Plymonlli in 1 n'iO, llieir destination being Mud-son's river : by sonie treachery ot the Dutch, who then contemplated and afterwards effected a setth nient at lh« place, they were carried to the nortii, and landed on cape Cod, the eleventh of November of that year. They chose f(*r iheir resi- dence a place called by the Indians Patuxet. to which they gave the name of New Plymouth. Betbre spring, half their number were cut off by famine or disease. In a few days after they landed, captain Stand isli was engaged in skirmishing with the Indians ; and the many disasters which folloAvcd, together with the implacable hostility of the Indians, which always has subsisted, are perhaps more owing to the imprudence of the first settlers, than to the bad disposition of tiie natives. 5. This colony, like that of Virginia, at .first held then- goods and property in com.mon ; and their progress was retarded as well by this circumstance, as by the impulse of imaginary inspiration, which reg- ulated all their actions. At the end of tei> years, these well meaning people, when they became incorporated witii their more poweiful neighbours of Massachusetts bay, did not exceed three hundred. 6". In the year 1,629, Mr. White, a non-conformist minister at Dorchester, having formed an association, j)urcliased from t!ie Ply- mouth cfMnpany a tract extending in length from three miles north of Merrimack river to three miles south of Charles river, and in breadth from the Atlantic to the Southern ocean ; and obtained a charter from (Charles, si-milar to that given to the two Viiginian companies by James. Five siiips were fitted out, on board of Avhich wci-e embarked upwards of three hufidred souls, amongst whom were several eininent non- conforming ministers. On their arrival, they found (he remnant of a small )'arty that had left England the precediiig year, under the con- duct of Mr. Endicott, who had been api)ointed by liis comjianions deputy governor. They were settled at a p'ace caHed by the Indians Naumk jag, to which he had given the scripture name of Silem. 'J'lie new colonists immediately formed a church, elected a pastor, teacher, and elder, disregarding tlie intentions of the king. They disencum- bered their public worshij) of cveiy superfluous ceremony, and re- duced it to the lowest standard of calvini'^tic simplicity. But much as we respect that noble spirit which enaijicd them to pari with dieir native soil, we nnist condenm Ihc persecuting spirit nt" the colonists themselves. Some of the colonists, retaining a iiigh venera- tion for the ritual of the church of England, refiised to join tlje colonial state establishment, and asscinbied scy)aiately to worship : Endicolt called before him two of the principal offenders, expelled them fron) the colony, and sent them liome in tlio first ships reiurning to Engiand. 7. The government of the colony was soon transferred to Ainerica, aiid vested in those members of the company who should reside tliert. h)lin Winthrop was appointed governor, ancl 'J'homas Dudley (iepiily governor, with eighteen assistants. In the course of the next 3'ear, i,(V30, fifteen hundred persons arrived in Massacliuselts from England, amongst whom were several distinguished families, sonie i.f them in easy, and others in adluenl circumstances ; and Boston, Chailestown, Dorchester, Roxbury, and other towns, were settled. H. '^riie first general couit, held at Char'estown, ventured to deviate from their charter in a matter of gieat moment: a law was passt-d, declaring that none should be freeiiien, or be entitled to any share in llie government, except those who had been received as members ol O o 55 434 UNITED STATES. the church. The fanatica. spirit continued to increase. A niinistei of Salem, named Rog;er Williams, having conceived an aver.-^ion lo the cross of St. George, a S3-mbol in llie English standard, declaimed against it with great vehemence, as a relic of superstition ; and Endi- cott, in a transport of zeal, cut oui the cross from tlie ensign displayed [>efore the governor's gate. This frivolous matter divided the colony ; but the malter was at length compromised by retaining the cross in the ensigns of ibrls and vessels, and erasing it from the colours ot the militia. 9. In 1,636, Williams was banished from Salem ; and, accompanied by many of his hearers, the exile went south, purchased a tract of land of the natives, to which lie gave the name cA Providence ; ami a Mr. Coddington, with seventy-six odiers, exiled from Boston, bought a fertile island on Narraganset bay, that acquired the name of Rhode- Fsland. Mr. Coddington embraced the sentiments of the Quakers, or Friends ; he received a charter from the British parliament, in which it was ordered, that " none were ever to be molested for any diffeience of opinion in religious matters :'' yet, the very first assembly conve/i- ed under this authorit}', excluded Roman catholics from voting al elections, and from every office in the government ! 10. To similar causes the state of Connecticut is indebted for its origin. Mr. Hooker, a favourite minister of Massachusetts, with about one hundred families, after a fatiguing march, settled on the western side of the river Connecticut, and laid the foundation of Hart- ford, Springfield, and Weathersfield. Their Fight to this territeiy was disputed by the Dutch, who had settled at the mouth of the Hudson, and by the lords Say-and-Seal and Brook, who had com- menced the settlement called Say-Brook. The Dutch were soon ex- pelled; and tlie others uniting with the colony, all were incorporated by a rojal chartei'. 11. New-Hampsliire was first settled in the spring of 1,623, under the patronage of sir Ferdinando Goi-p-es, captain .Tchn Mason, and several others, who sent over David Thompsoti, a Scot, Edward and William Hilton, and a number of people, furnished with the requisite supplies. One company landed at a place called Little Harbour : the olhers settled at Dover. Mr. Wheelwright, a clergyman banished from Massachusetts, founded Exeter, in 1 /)3!). 12. fllaine was not permanently .settled until 1,635. Gorges ob- tained a grant of this territory, which remained under its own govern- ment untn 1,652, when its soil and jurisdiction, as far as the middle of Casco bay, was claimed by Blassachusetts. 13. The mutual hostility of the English and Indians commenced U'ith the first setlieinent ; but it was not until the year 1,637, that a systematic warfare was begun. The Pequods, who brought into the field more than a thousand warriors, were exterminated in a few months by the combined troops ol" Massachusetts and Connecticut. In the night, the Pequod's were attacked, near the head of Mistic, by the Connecticut troops and Narraganset Indians, commanded by cap- tain Mason : in a lew moments, five or six hundred lay gasping in their blood, or were silent in the arms of death. '" The darkness, of flif> fore>t," observes a New-England author, " the blaze of the d\vr!ling>-, Ihegliastly looks C)f tlu' dead, tlx; gToans of the dying, the slirit'ks of the women and children, the yells of the friendly savages, presented a scene of .^uldimily and terrcr indescribably dreadiul.'" 14. In 1,643, an alliance for mutual defence was fomied between the New-England colonies, excepting Rhode-Islar.d, which Ma&sachusetts UNITED STATES. 435 was unwilling to admit. This alliance continued until the churters were annulled by James tho second. 15. Up to 1,638, tuenlj-one thousand British sul)jccts had settled in New-England ; and the country had begun to extend the tislieries, and to export corn and hiinber to tiie West Indies. In 1,656, tiie per- secution of the Quakeis was at its height. A number ol" tliese iuollen- sive people having arrived in the Massachusetts colony, ("rom England and Barbadoes, and given ot!"ence to the clergy ol the establisiicd church by the novelty ol their religion, Avere imprisoned, and by the fiist opportunity sent away. A laAV was passed, which prohibited masters of ships iVom bringing Qiiakers into Massachusetts, and them- sejvcfs tVoin coming there, under a graduated penalty, rising, in case Ol a return i'rtmi banishment, to death. In consequence, several were hanged ! These pj'oc((edings are still the more reprehensible and re- markable, when contrasted with a previous declaration of their govern- ment, which tendered " hospitality and succour to all chiistian strangers, tlying from wars, famine, or the tyranny of persecution." The anabaptists were also persecuted ; many were disfranchised, and some were banislied. 16. On the accession of James II., several of the Nevv-Erigland colonies were deprived of their charters ; but these, with various un- important modifications, were restored after the revolution. Sir \\ iJliam Phipps, a native of Maine, who rose to wealth and power in a manner the most extraordinary, was the first governor of Massachu- setts under the new charter. With a force of seven hundred men, he wrested from the French, L'Acadie, now called Nova Scotia. He atterwards made an unsuccessful attempt on Quebec, with the loss of one thousand men. The new charter, whilst it curtailed the libeities, extended the territoiy of Massachusetts ; to it were noAV annexed New Plymouth, Maine, and Nova Scotia, Avith all the countiy between the latter and the river Si. Lawrence ; also Elizabeth islands, Martha's \ ineyard, and Nantucket. The people, however, had just reason to complain that they no longer chose their governor, under whose contiol was the militia, and who levied taxes without their consent, and tried capital oftiinces. 17. About this time the pillars of society were shaken to the foun- dation, in and about Salem, l)y imaginaiy witchcraft. The delusion commenced at Salem village, now Danvers, in the family of Kev. Samuel Paris. Two young girls, one a daughter of Mr. Paris, aged 9; the other a niece, aged. 11, were affected with singular nervous dis- orders, which, as they badled the skill of the physician, \yere thought to i)ioceed irom an "' evil hand." The children weie believed l)y the neighbours to be liewitched, and the belief, sanctioned ])^ the opinion of the physician, became general throughout the vicinity, 'liie more the girls were noticed and pitied, the more singular and extravagant was their conduct. Upon the advice of the neighbouring mini.-ters, two or three piivate fasts w^ere first kept ; afterwards a pub- lic one in the village and other congregations; and finally, the general court appointed a fast through the colony. This cour.-ie gave the occurrences a solenm aspect, and probably contributed to the public credulity, till the supposeil witchcraft had extended throughout a great part of the county ol Es.'^ex. The inHituation prevailed fiom .Alarch t») October, 1,692, during which time twenty persons, men and women, were executed. It was ihen that suspicion roused from its lethai"gy ; condemnation ceased ; the accusers were silent ; those under sentence were repritved, and afterwards pardoned. 436 - UNITED STATES. 18. In the years 1,627 and '38, '63 and '70, New-England expe- rienced violent earthquakes. In the year 1,638, Harvard college, near Ho.'ton, the oldest seminary of learning in the United Stales, was lonnded. Four hundred pounds were voted to it hy the general court ; and this sum was nearly doubled by a bequest from Mr. Johu Harvard, a minister of Charh.'stown. This institution is now the m.ost richly endowed of all the Am.erican colleges. Yale college, at New-Haven, was founded in 1,701, ten years after that of William and Mary, in Virginia ; and Dartmcjth college, in New-Hampshire, was fouiided in 1,769. The first printing press established in the British colonies v\a» in 1,639, at Canibridge, superintended by Stephen Dnye ; but erected chielly at the expense of Mr. Glover, an English cleigyman, who died on his passage to America. 19. Maryland, the first colony tliat, from its beginning, w^as directly goverru'd as a province of the British empire, was found-iid by sir (jeorge Calvert, baron of Baltimore, in Iieland ; a Roman catholic noljleman, born in England. He first went to Virginia ; but meeting an unwelcome reception there, on account of his religion, he fixed his attention to the lands north of the Potomac, and obtained a grant of them from Charles h This cc'unlry was called Maryland, in honuui f>f ihe queen, Henrietta Maria. 'J be religious toleration established by I he charier, the first diaft.of wiiich is said tt) have been written by sir George himself, is honourable to his memoiy. The giant was given to his eldest son, Cecil ius, who succeeded to his titles ; but Leonard Calvert, brother to Cecilius, was the first governor, and made llie firsl stand, at an iilatvl in the l-'otomac, which he named St. Clements, in 1,633. He made several purchases of the Indians, witli uhom he cultivated a constant friendship, as uell on the Potomac, as ')n both shores of the Chesapeake. Never did any people enjoy more haprdness than the inhabitanls of Maryland. Whilst Virginia liarnss- cd ail who dissented from the English churcli, and the northern colonies all who dissented bom the puritans, the Ivoman catholics of Mnryhuul, a y.t.a who in ih.e old world never professed the doctrine of loleration, rtt«i\(d and protected iheir brethren of every christian church, and i;> jvnjMilation was i;!)iidly increased. 20. Ai)out the middle of the seventeenth century, some emigrants, chielly from Viiginia, began a settlement in the county of Albemarle , and soon afterwards, another establishment was commenced at cape Fear, by adventurers from Massachusetts. These were held together by the laws of nature, without any written code, for son.e hme. But Charles H. compelled the colonists to become subservient to his rule, and granted to lord Clarendon and others the tract of land which now composes North and South Carolina : perfect freedom in religion Vi'as granted in the charter. The fi-rst settlement was placed under the command of sir William Berkeley, governor of Virginia, who assigned his authority to Mr. Drummond. in 1,761, the proprietors extended their settlements to the banks of Ashley and Cooper rivers, where C'iiarleston now stands ; and eventually this became the separate state of South Carolina. The culture of cotton commenced here in 1,700, and that of indigo in 1,748. ?1. New- York -was first settled by the Dutch, and was li^ them held for about half a century. It was, howeve:, claimed by England as the first discoverer. Peter Stuyvesant, the third and last Dutch governor, began his administration in 1,647, and was distinguished no less tor his fidelity than h.is vigilance. In 1,664 tlie colony .surrendered to the English ; aiid the whole territory now comprisiiig New-York. UiMTED STATES. 43T New-Jersey, together with Pennsylvania, Delaware, and a part of Corrneclicut, was asKijrned by Charles 11. lo his brother the duke ot V'ork. The Dutch iiiiiabilants remained ; Stuyvesant retained his estate, and died in the colony. The country' was £ovenM;d by the duke's officers until I,6;i8 ; when representatives of the people weie allowed a voice in the legislature. 2-2. In 1,664, the duke of York sold that part of his grant now call- ed New-Jersey to lord Berkeley and sir Geoige Carteri't. It had previously been settled by Hollanders, Swedes, and Danes. TIk; county of Bei^en was the first inhabited ; and very soon the towns of Elizabeth, Newark, Middleton, and Shrewsbury were settled. The college, originally established at Newark, was, in l,74f?, finally fixed at Princeton : its chief benefactor was governor Belcher. Ainoiig the governors of New-.f'ersey was the celeijrated Barclay, author of the Apology for the Quakers, of which sect a laige number had establish- ed themselves there. 23. Pennsylvania was founded by William Pcnn, son of a distin- guished admiral of the same name. From principle this excellent rnan joined the Qiiakers, then an obscure and persecuted sect. As one of the membeis, and a preacher. Penn was repeatedly imprisoned ; but he plead Ids own c?u»e with great boldness, and procured his own acquittal from an independent jury, who with himself were imprisoned until an unjust penally was paid. In 1,681, he purchased of'Charies the tract now called Pennsylvania, for an acquittance of sixteen thou- sand pounds due to his father ; and soon after, he ol)tained from the duke of York a conveyance of the town of New-Castle, with the country which now forms the state of Delaware. The first colony, who were chiefly of his own sect, began their settlement above tiie confluence of the Schuylkill and Dehnvare rivers. In August, l,fi8'J, this amiable man embarked, with about two thousand cmigraiUs, a;id in October, arrived in the Delaware. Besides his own people, he was aided in the first settlement by Swedes, Dutch, Finlandeis, and other English. The first legislative assembly was held at Chester, at that time called Upland. Among the first laws was one which de- clared "■ that none, acknowledging one God, and living peaceably in society, should be molvsted for his opinions or his practice ; nor be compelled to frequent or maintain any minisiiy whatever." Pliiladel- phia was begun in 1,683 ; and in 1,699, it ct)ritained seven hundred houses, and about four thousand inhabitants. During the first seventy years of this settlement, no instance occurred of the Indians killiiic unarmed people. The wise and good man, Penn, made every exer- tion and sacrifice to promote the peace and prospenly of liis fnouiilo colony ; and between the persecution he had to encounter in F^r.gland and the difliculties in Pennsylvania, his lifi- w.is a continued scene oi vexation — his private fortune was materially injured by the adv.uices he made — he was harassed Ijy his creditois, and dbligc d to undeigo a temporary deprivation of his personal liberty. He clieil in London, ir 1,718, leaving an inlieritance to his cliiklren, ultiiiialc'y of iiiiiuei.-e value, which they enjoyed until the revolution, when it'\\,is a--igiu(i to the commonwealth lor an equitable sum of money. In tiie intena! between 1,730 and the war of the re\()hilion, in this st.'.h, liiere was a great influx of emigrants, i)riiicij)ally Ironi G( ini.Miv and irelaiui ; and these people early brouiiiit the u-eful ait- and PiaiHifacture- into Peiiii- syivaiiia. To the Germans, she is indebted for the spinning and weaving of linen and \voollen cloths ; to the Irish, for various trades indispensable to use fill agriculture. Oo2 438 UNITED STATES. 24. Delaware was first settled in l,fi27, by the Swedes and Fin- landers, and the colony bore the name of New-Sweden. It wag afterwards con(]iiered by the Dutch f'roni Ne\^-Yo^k, and remained subservient to that colony until it pa«sed into the hands of the Eng:lii-h. ■ " 5;5. Geoi'gia was the last settled of the thirteen colonies that re- volted from Britain. It rccei\cd its name from George II. In November, 1,732, one hundred and sixteen persons embarked at Gravesend, under general Og-lethorpe ; and early in the ensuing' year ai-rived at Charleston. From this port thry proceeded to their destin- ed territory, and laid the Ibundation of Savannah. The Spaniard laid claim to this territory, anil made extensive preparations to attack it. But tlirough the finesse of Oglelhorpe in practising an inaocent deception, their plans were defeated. For many years, this settle- meiit languished from a variety of causes. General Ogletiiorpe was distinguished as a soldier, a stntesnian, ai:d a philanthropist. At the hegiiining of the American revolution, he was offered the command of the British army in America, but this from principle he declined. After the contest was derided, he died at the age of ninety-seven years, being the oldest general in the British service. SECTION IV. WAR WITH FRANCE, AND CONQUEST OF CANADA. DIS- PUTES WITH GREAT BRITAIN, AND WAR OF THE REVO- LUTION. 1. N'fari.y coeval with the first English settlement atJam.es Town, in Virjiinia, was the establishment of a French colony at QijeLec, on die great river St. Lawrence. The question of boundaiy between England and France, had long been a subject of unavailing negotia- tion. France, beside having Canada in the north, had also discovered and settled on Mississippi in the south ; and in 1,753, she strove, by a military chain, liie link's of which were to be fomied by outposts sti etching along the Ohio and the lakes- to connect these two extrem- ilies, and tiius restrain the British colonists to a small territoi}' on the Atlantic ocean, if not entirely expel them from the country. The que-lion of jurisdiction rema.ined to be decided by the sword. Re- peated complaints of violence having come to the ears uf the governor of Virginia, he determined to send a S'.iitaijie person to the Fiench conmiandant at fort Du Quesne, (now Fittsburgli,) demanding the reas(;n of his hostile procecidiiigs, and insisting that he should evacuate (he fort which he had recently erected. For tliis arduous undertakii g, George Washington, a maior of militia, then little more than twe'Hy- one years of age, offered his services. I'iie execution of this ta^k seems to have been accomplished with all that prudence and courage which were so eminently displayed by thi"; hero in after life. At imniincnt peril, being ^vaylaid and fired at by Indians, he not oniy taiflifuiiy acconip-ishetl ll;e erraiid on which he had been sent, liu. gained extensive information of '.he disfancfS and bearings of piac«?, and of the number, size, ana sirengih of nearly all the enemj 's (ortjesses. 2. 'i'he reply of the French commander brought matters to a crisis ,• and in 1,754, the Virginian assembly organized a regiment, to supp-'Tf UNITED STATES. 439 the claims of the English over the territory in dispute : of this regi- ■meiit a Mr. Fry was appointed colonel, and the young Washington lieutenant colonel. Colonel Fry dying, the command of the whole devolv«jd on Washington. The French having been strongly rein- Ibrcca, Washington was obliged to fall back, was attacked in works Mliicli he had not time to complete, and, after a brave delence, was obliged to capitulate ; the enemy allowing him to march out with the honours of Avar, and to retire unmolested to the inhabited parts ot Virginia. o. The next year, 1,755, general Braddock was sent from Europe to Virginia, \vilh two regiments, where he was joined by as many provin'ci'als as made his torce amount to twenty-two hundred. Brad- dock was a brave man, but lacked tliat courtesy which could conciliate the Americans, and that modesty which should profit froni the knowl- edge of those who better knew the ground over whicii he was to pass, and the mode of French and Indian wa'rfare, than himself. He push- ed on incautiously, until, within a few miles of fort Du Quesne, he fell into an ambush of French and Indians. In a short time, Washington, uho acted as aid to Braddock, and whose duty called him to be on horseback, Mas the only person mounted who was left alive, or not wounded. The van of the army was forced back, and the whole thrown into confusion. The slaughter was dreadful. Braddock was mortally Avounded. What was remarkable, the provincial troops pre- served their Older, and covered the retreat under Washington ; while the regulars broke their ranks, and could not be rallied. 4. Three successive campaigns procured nothing but expense and disappointment to the English. With an inferior ibrce, the French had succeeded in every campaign ; and gloomy apprehensions were entertained as to the destiny of the British colonies. But in 1,756, a change of ministiy in England took place. William Pitt was placed at the helm. To despair, succeeded hope ; and to hope victory. Supplies were granted with liberality, and given without reluctance: soldiers enlisted freely, and fought with enthusiasm. In a short time, the French were dispossessed, not only of all the territories in dispute, but of Quebec, and her ancient province of Canada ; so that all which remained to her of her numerous settlements in North America, was Netv-Orieans, with a few plantations on the Mississippi. Full of youth and spirit, the gallant general Wolfe, who led the European and colonial troops to victoiy, fell before the walls of Quebec, in the moment of success. In 1,762, hostilities having raged nearly eight years, a general peace was concluded : France ceded Canada, and ■Spain relinquished, as the price of recovering Havana, which had been taken by the British, both the Floridas to^Great Britain. 5. Although the American colonies had principally contributedto the great extension of the power of Great Britain, co-operating with ibe vigilance of more than four hundred cruisers on ^he sea, and furnishing more than twenty-four thousand soldiers; yft the latter re- garded her plantations as mere instruments in h^f hands. On the contrary, the high sentiments of liherty and independence nurtured m the colonies from tlieir local situation and haJ^its, were increased by (he; removal of hostile neighbours. Ideas Avourable to independence increased ; and Avhilst conibustible raah^rials were collecting in the new world, a brand to enkindle them was preparing in the old. 6. In 1,765, under the auspices of the minister, Geoi^e Grenville, the obnoxious stamp act passed m the British parliament ; by which the instruments of writing in daily use were to be null and void, unless 440 UNITED STATES. executed on paper or parchment stamped with a specific duty : law documents, leases, deeds, and indenturrs, newspapers and advertise- m'ent.s. almanacs and pamphlets, executed and printed in America- all must cuntiibute to the British tieasury. The hill did not pa«;s without the decided ojjposition ct patriots in the Biilish legislature »vho lor(;told the result, and wiu) declared that, the colonies lieir^ I)lanted hy Briti.sh oppression, and having- assisted the mother country, tiKit the n.oilier liad ni) claim on the child to derive liom it a rexe-u e. 'I'he bill did not take eO'ect until seven months after its passrg<' ; thus giving the colonists an opportunity oi' leisurely examining and vicn iig the s'ibject on eveiy side. They were struck with silent consterna- tion ; but the voice ot" opposition was first heard in Viigima. Faliick Ihmry, on the 2Uth of May, brought into the honst; ol' Largesses in that colony a number ol' resolutions, vhich ueie adopted, and whidj t.mcluded with declaring, " That every individual, x\lio, by spe:.kirg or acting, should assert or maintain, that any person or body of n;« n, except the general assemoly of the province, had any right to imptjse taxation theie, should be deemed an eneniy to his majesty's coloi.y."' These reso'utions were immediately disscnnnatcd through the other provinces ; the tongues and the pens of well-ini'ormed n>en laboured in the holy cause — the fire of liberty blazed ibrth Irom the press. Tlie assembly of Massachusetts passed a resolution in favour of a ctiutinenlal congresi.-5, and fixed a day lor its meeting at New-York, in October. The other colonies, with the exception of four, acce))led this invita- tion, and assembled at the appointed place. Here they agreed on a declaration of their rights. There was, however, a considiMahle de- gree of timidity evinced in this congress. 'J'he boldest and most im- f ressive arguments were offered by James Otis of Massachusetts. 7. The time arrived lor tiie act to take effect ; and the aversion to it was expressed in still stronger terms throughout Uie colonies. By a common consent, its provisi(jns were disregarded, and business was conducted, in defiance of the parliament," as if no stamp act was in existence : associations were formed against importing British manu- factures until the law should be repealed ; and lawyers were prohib- ited from instituting any action f(,r money due to any inhabitant ot England. The spirited conduct of the colonists, atfecting the interests ol" the British merchants, had the desired effect. Warm discussions took place in the British parliament ', and the ablest speakers in both houses denied the justice of taxing the colonies. The opposition could not be withstood ; and in March, 1,766, the law was repealed. 8. Simultaneously, however, widi jepealing this act, the British parliament passed another, declaring that the British parliament had a right to make laws binding the colonies in all cases whatever ; and soon alter another bill was passed, imposiiig in the colonies duties on glass, paper, painters' colours, and tea. The fire of opposition was now reliindled with additional ardour, by the same principle, exhibited in its new form. The best talents throughout the colonies were engaged, in the pulilic prints and in pamphlets, to work up the public feehng against the arbitrary measures of the British parliament. New associations were formed to suspend tiie importation of British manu- factures. The Massaduistiiv assembly, having passed resolutions to this effect, dre\v Torth the marlred di.' pleasuie of the crown ; and, on their refusal to cancel their resolutions, were ilissolved. 9. In 1,768, Mr. Hancock's sloop Liberty was seized at Boston, for not entering all the wine? she had brought t'rom Madeira : this mrianied the populace to a high degree of resentment. Soon afterwards, two UNITED STATES. 441 British regiments, and some armed vessels, were sent to Boston, to assist the revenue officers. The parliament, encourag;ed by the ex- pecfation of quelling the refractory by their arms, continued to dis- solve the opposing assemljlies : but the colonies remained firm in their purposes. 10. Lord North succeeded the duko of Grafton, as British premier in 1,770 ; and the act was repealed imposing a duty on glass, paper, and painters* colours ; but that on tea was retained. Some slight prospect of allaj^ing the difficulties succeeded. But on the second of March an affray took place in Boston, between a private soldier and an inhabitant. This was succeeded, in a few days afterwards, by a m(j]) meeting a party of British soldiers under arms, who were dared to fire, and who at length did fire, and killed five persons. The cap- tain who commanded, and the troops who fired, were afterwards tried foi' murder, and acquitted. 11. Th'Rgs continued in this mode of partial irritation until 1,773, when the British East India company were authorized to export their ' tea-to al' places, (ice of duty. As this would enable them to sell that article cheaper in America, with the government exactions, tfian they had before sold it without them, it was confidently calculated that teas might be extensively disposed of in the colonies. Large consignments of tea were sent to various parts, and agents appointed lor its disposal. The consignees, in several places, were compelled to relinquish their appointments. Popular vengeance prevented the landing at New- York or Phiiadelphia. In Boston it was otherwise. The tea tor the supply of that port was consigned to the sons and particular friends of governor Hutchinson. The tea was landed by the strenuous exertions of the governor and consignees. But soon a party of men, dressed as Indians, boarded the tea ships, broke open the cargoes, and threw the contents into the sea. Enraged against the people of Boston, the par- liament resolved to take legislative vengeance on that devoted town. Disregarding the forms of the British constitution, by which none are to be punished without trial, they passed a bill, closing, in a commer- cial sense, its port : its custom house and trade were soon after Re- moved to Salem. The charter of the colony was new modelled, so that the whole executive government was taken from the people, and tlie nomination to all important ollfices vested in the crown ; and it was enacted, that if any person was indicted for any capital offence com- mitted in aiding the magistrates, he might be sent to Great Britain or another colony for trial. Property, liberty, and life, were thus subject to ministerial caprice. The parliament went still further, and pa;:.sed an act extending the boundaries of Canada, southward to the Ohio, westward, to the Mississippi, and north\vard, to the borders of the Hudson's bay company, assimilating its laws with the French, which dispensed widi the trial by jury, and rendering the ixibabitants passive agents in the hands of power. 12. The flame was no^v kindled in every breast ; and associations were formed, a-nd committees of correspondence were established, which produced a unity of thought and action throughout the colonies. General Gage, the British commander-in-chief, arrived in Boston, in 1.774, with more troops, with the avowed intention of dragooning the refractory Bostonians into compliance. A general sympathy was excited for tiie suffering inhabitants of Boston : addresses poured in from all quarters ; Marhlehead offered to the Boston merchants the use of her wharves, and Salem refused to adopt the trade, the offer of which had been proffered as a temptation to her cupidity. Maira 56 442 UNITED STATES- rapidly approached a crisis. The preparations foi offence and defente, iiid'jcr-d general Gage 1o fortity Boston, and *0 seize on the poAvdef iodfftd at the arsenal at Charlcstown. 13. In Seplemher. deputies troni most of" the colonies met in con- ?res.«, at Philadelphm. These delegatrs appioved of the condw t of the people oC Massachusetts ;" wrote a letter to jrenera! (lage ; pub- lished a declaration of rights : ionned an association not U> iiiipoit or u'e British icoods ; sent a petition to the king of Great Britain ; an au.iress to the inhabitants of that kingdom ; anotlier to the inhabitants cf r.4nada ; and another to the inhabitants ot the colonies. In the Ijcirinning of the next year, (1,775,) was passed ihe Jishciy hill, by •.vhi( h the northern colonies nere forbidden to fish on the har.ks ot Nenfonndland lor a certain time. Tlvs bore hard upon the conimerce of diese colonies, which was in a great measure supported by the fishery. 14. S , was totally dispersed. But general Carleton, instead of pursuing his viu^iy, landed at Crown Point, le- connoitered our posts at TTconderoga a>.id Mount Independence, and tetunied to winter quarters in Canada. 29. At the close of this year, the American s-nny was dwindled to a handlul of men; and general Lee was taken prisoner in New-Jersey. UNITED STATES. 445 Far fioni being discon.-aged at these losses, congress took measure? to raise and e?tablisl) nn army. In this critical situation, genera! \Va>h' in^^t'in Kurprist.J and to()^< a larg-e body of h'es.^ians, wJio Were c.iiitor- ri{ at Trenton ; and soon af','?r, anolher body of the British troops, nt Princeton. Tho address in piannms; and exocntnig- these enterprisee, n'llecled the hijrliest honour o>i tiie commander, and ihe success leviv- ed tlie desponding- hopes of America. The loss of g-enera-j Mercer, a gallant ofticer, at Princeton, was the principal circumstance tliat allay- ed !he joy of victoiy. 30. 'Jlie follovviiig year, (1.777,) was distinguislsed by v?iy memo- rable events in i'avour of America. On the opening of the campaign, governor Tryon was sent, WMth a body of troops, to destroy die st'>"re3 at Danbury, in Connecticut. This plan was executed, and the town mostiy burnt. The eneniy suffered in their retreat, snd the Americans lost geiuiral Wooster, a brave and ex [lerienced ofticer. General Prcs- cott was taken tVom his quarters on Rhode Island, by the address and enterprise of colonel Barton, and conveyed prisoner to the continent. General Burgoyr.e, who commanded the northern British army, took possession of Ticonderoga, which had been abandoned by (he Ameri- cans. He pushed his successes, crossed lake George, and encamped upon the banks of the Hudson, near Saratoga, flis progress Avas however checked by the defeat of colonel Baum, near Bennirgton, in which the undisciplinod militia of Vermont; under general Stark, dis- plaj-ed unexanip'ed bravery, and captured almost the whole detach- ment. The militia assembled Irom all parts of New-England, 1o stop the progress of general Burgoync. These, with the resiular troops, formed a respectable army, commanded by general Gates. After two severe actions, in which the generals Lincoln and Arnold, behavf;d M ith uncommon gallantly, and were wounded, general Burgoyne found hiriiself enclosed v.ith brave troops, and was forced to surrend«;r his whole army, amounting to srven lhc!isaiid men, into the hanils ofthe Americans. This hn])peried in October. This event dilTused a uni- versal joy over America, and laid a foundation for the treaty with France. ;>1. But before these transactions, tlie main body of the British forces bad embarked at New-York, sailed up the Chesapeake, and landed at the head of Elk river. The army soon began their march for Philadelphia. General Washington had determined to oppo^^c them, and for this purpose nuide a stand upi)n the heights near Brandy- v\ ine creek. Here the armies engaged, and the Americans ^vf;re over powered, and suffered great loss. The er.emy yccn jiursued their march, and look possession of Philadelphia townrils the close of Sep- tember. Not long atter, the two armies were again engaged at Ger- man'.own, and in the begMining of the r.ction the Americans had the advantage ; but by sonie unlucky accirlent, the fortune of the day was turned in favour of the British. Both sides sufl'ei'ed considerable loss ; on the side of the Americans was general Nash. 3-2. In an attack upon tlie forts at Mud Island and Pved Bank, (he Hessians were unsuccesslul, and their commander, colonel Dom p, killed. The British also lost the Augusta, a ship of the line. Uut (he forts ^vere afterwards taken, and the navigation of the Delaware opened. General Washington was reinforced with pari cf the troops which liad composed the rtirtliern army, under general Gates : and Doth armies retired to winter quarters. 33." In October, the same month in which general Burgoyne was taken at Saratoga, general Vaughar. v-ith a small fleet, sailed up P p 446 UmTF.D STATES. Hudson's river, and wantonly Inirnt Kingston, a beautiful Dutch settle- ment, on the west side ol" the river. 34. The beginning- of the next j^eav (1,778) v.r.s distinpiiished by a treaty of alliance between France and America ; by whicli we obtain- ed a powerful ally. When the Englisli niinistry were informed that this treaty was on foot, they despatched conmn'ssioners to America, to attempt a reconciliation. But America woukl not now accept their otfers. Early in the spring, count de Estaing, with a ileet of fifteen sail of the line, Avas sent liy the court cf France to assist America. 35. General Howe left the army, and returned to England ; the command then devolved upon sir Henry Clinton. In June, the Bi itish army left Philadclpliia, and niarclied f(ider the command of colonel Campbell. In the tbllowing year, (1,779,) general Lincojii was appointed to the command of the southern army. Governor Tryon anr sir George Collier made an incursion into Connecticut, and burnt, with wanton barijarity, the towns of ['"aiilield and Norwalk. 37. But the American arms were crowned with success in a bold a'tack upon Stony Poin!, which was surprised and taken by general vViyne, in the night of the 15th of July. Five hundred men were made prisoners, Avith a small loss on either side. A parly of British lLoiv.es attempted, this summer, to Iniild a fort on Penobscot river, for the purpose of cutting timber in the neighbouring forests. A plan was hiid, liy Massachusetts, to dislodge them, and a considerable fleet col- lected for the purpose. But the plan failed of success, and the whole ip.arine lorce fell into the hands of die Briti.sh, except some vessels, which were burnt by the Americans themselves. 38. In October, general Lincoln and count de Estaing made an assault upon Savannah ; but they were repulsed, widi considerable loss. In this action, the celebiated Polish count Polaski, who had ac- quired die reputation of a brave soldier, was mortally wounded. 1» Uiis sun-,nier, genera! Sullivan marched, with a body of troops, into tliH Indian conuliy, and burnt and destroyed all their provisions and seUlcmenl.-. tiiat tell in his \\:\y. 39. C)ii ihc opening of ttie"^campaign, the next year, (l,780,) the British troops It-ft Rhode Island. An expedition under general Clin- ton an i lord Cornwallis, was undertaken against Charleston, South Carolina, where general Lincoln commanded. This town, after a close si.ge of about six weeks, was surrendered to the British commander ; and gi;neral Lincoln, and the whole American garrison, were made pnsrnt rs. 40. General Gales was appointed to die command in the southern department, and another army collected. In August, lord Cornwallis atta.cked the American troops at Camden, in South Carolina, and rout- ed them with considerable loss. He afterwards marched through tlis Bouthern states, and supposed Ihem entirel}' subdued. The sanr^ UNITED STATES. 447 funin-ifciY the Britis-li troops made frequent iiicinsions from New-Yorls inlo tlic .Nirseys; rav;io^iiig and plundcritiG; (lie countiy. In some ot these dencenls^ tlie Rev. Mr. Calducll, a rei^peclable clergyman and waiiTi patriot, and his lady, were inhuniauly murdered by the sava^je .soldieiy. 41. In July, a French fleet, under Monsieur de Ternay, Avilii a Ijo iy of land forces, commanded by count de liochambcau, arrived at l\liu(ie*lr.land, to ihe great joy of the Americans. '12. Tliis year was also distinguished by tlie infamous treason of Anuild. General Washington havmg seme business to transact at Weathersfieid, in Connecticut, left Arnold to command )he important post of West Point, wliich guards a pass in Hudson's river, about sixty miies from New-York. Arnold's conduct in the city of Philadelphia, tlie preceding winter, had been censured, and the treatment he receiv- ed in cdtisequence had given him offence. He determined to have revenge ; and lor this purpose he entered into a negotiation with sir Henry Clinton, to deliver West Point and the army into the hands of the British. While general Washington was absi'Ut, he dismounted the caniKjn in some of the furts, and took other steps to render the taking of the post easy lor the enemy. But by a providential discov- ery, the whole plan was defeated. Major Andre, aid to genera! Cimton, a brave officer, who had been up the river as a spy, to con- cert the plan of operations with Arnold, was taken, condemned by a c(jurt-marlial, and executed. Arnold made his escape by getting on board the Vulture, a British vessel which lay in the river. His con- duct has stamped him with infamy, and, like all traitors, h" is despised by all mankind. General Was'hington arrived in carnp just af!er Arnold had made his escape, and rcsiored order in the garrison. 4:5, After the defeat of general Gates, in Carolina, general Green was appointed to the command in the southern department. Frui.-; this period, things in this quarter wore a more favourable aspect. Colonel Tarleton, the active conmiandt-r of the British legion, was defeated by general Moigan, the intrepid commander of the riflemen. After aVariety of movements, the two armies met at Guilford, in Noilh Carolina. Here was one of the best tbiight actions during the war. General Greene arid lord Cornwallis exerted themselves, at the head of their respective armies, and, although Ihe Americans were obliged to retire from the field of battle, yet the British army suffered an im- m<-:ise loss, and could not pursue the victoiy. This action happened on liie 15th of March, 1,781. ■t4. In the sprii^g", Arncjld, who ^vas made a brigadier-general in the British service, with a small nu:nber of troops, sailed lor Virginia, and plundered the country. This called the attention of the French fleet to that quarter, and a naval engagement look place, between the English and French, in which some of the English ships were much damaged, and one entirely disaijled. 45. After the battie at Guilford, gen' ral Greene moved towards South Carolina, to drive the British from their posts in that state. Here lord Rawdon obtained an incori;iiderab!e advantage ovei" tl;e Americans, near Cainden. But general Greene more thrm iccovert!U tiiis disadvantage, by the brilliant and successful action at the Eutaw sprinu> ; where general Marion distinguished iiimself, and the brave colonel Washington Avas wounded and taken prisoner. Lord Corn- wallis finding general Greene successful in Carolina, marched to Vir- ginia, collected his forces, and fortified himself in Yorktovvn. In tlie uwau time, Arnold made an incursion into Connecticut, burnt a part 448 UNITED STATES. of New-London, tixjk fort Griswold by bloini, and put the garrison to the sword. The a-arrisori consisted cliiefly of men suddenly rollected frdiu tiie liUlc town of Groton, uliicli, by the sa^nge criiilly oi' ihe IMtisii officer wiio commanded the atiack, lof^t, in one hour, ;.hiuist all its iieads of families. Tlie brave ci)!()nei Lcdyard, wiio command- ed ihe furt, was slain with his own s-\vord, alter lie had suri'endcreil. 4^. The marquis de la Fayette, the brave and g:enerous nobleman, ulw)se S(.'ivires conmiand the g^ratitude of eveiy American, had Ijeen s fiom her enemies ; lost many lives, and much treasure — but delivered herself from a foreign dominion, and gained a rank among the nations of the earth. SECTION V. F.STAP.LISIIMENT OF THE STATE AND NATIONAL GOVERN- MENTS. WARS WITH TRIPOLI AND THE INDIANS, &,c. 1. TiiR iuiportant revohjtion, as regarding the dependance of llie olonii-s on Great Britain, reqnire(l a correspundine alteration in iheh govenimei.ts. Conventions were assembled in tlie several states, which formed new constitutions, agreeably to (he strictest prmciples of republicanism ; retaining \vhateve!' was desirable in (he original !i:Mi(u(ions, and at (he same time pnwiding additi<;na! securily against tyianny or conuiition. The s(a(u(e and coiriinon laws of Fnglaiul, lormerl}' olj^^erved in (he provincial courts of jusdce, remain in prac- tice as before. The inestimable pri\ ilege, of British origin, a trial by juiy ; the freedom of the press, with the additional right, in case of prosecuting for a libel, of giving the truth in evidence ; are de- UNITED STATES. 449 cTarc'l to be fundamental principles. The g-overnments resemblf;. in their prnicipal oi^anizdtiori, tiie frame of the new federal constitution ; they consist of three brandies — a p:overiior, a ?enate, and a lower hou^e of repre-sentative-s. The elections leciir tVeqiiently, in which, in mo.st of the states, e\ery freeman has a right to p:iitici[)ate. 2. As yet t!ie genemi government was not eslai^Iishod on a soli I foundation. The. artic'es of union, Ibrmed under the prcs-ure of com- mon danger, were founrt inadequate to the etlicient management of the same country in the sellisli periods o-f peace and security. ' No ciTicirnt fund bad been provided to pay tlie interest of the national debt, and the public securities tell to one tenth of their nominal value. An open resistance to tiie government was made in Massachusetts, headed by a person of the name of Shays. Danger increased, and the friends' of rational liberty became alarmed. 3. The Virginia legislature, in 1,7^7, in accorflar.ce with a motion made by .lames Madison, made a proposal to the other stales to meet in convention lor the purpose of digesting a system of governnn-nl ecpjal to the exigencies of (be union. The convention n;et at Pliila- delphia, May 25, 1,7JJ7, and chose general Wa-hinir'or, prc-iderit ; and, af'er deliberating with closed doors until the 17ll, of iinpn-nuxT, agreed on a new plan of national government : this was aft«->wanls ratified by the several st:.tes. 'J'his I'.ew con.-tilulion not only fixes the national government on a republican basis, but guaranties to each state of the family a republican form of government, anil binds the whole to i)rotecl each against fortign invasion or domestic violence. Gtn- eral Washington was unanimously chosen first presideii! under the new constitution. March 4, 1,789, the first congress under the new consti- tution assembled at New- York ; and, in 1,790, duties were levied on imported merchandise, to replenish an empt}^ treasury. The peblic debt incurred during the leNolutionarj' war was liiiuled, aiul bioii:;!il at once to its par value. A national i)ank was ealr.blislied, not how- ever without opposition. An excise duty laid on domestic spirits. {)ro- duced an insurrection in the we«hed. 4. Two new states were admitted into the confedcrncy. viz. : \er- mont in 1.791, and Kentucky in 1,792. A war with the Cieek India. ,s, whose fighting men a^mounted to about six hundred, some tinu- existed on the frontie-r of Georgia : peace, however, was r«'-lo!ed there in 1,790. A sanguinary waifiie, with various success, was t'.r voive im'e kept up with the north-western Indian?'. In 1,791. geneial llaiiiiai was defeated, in the Ohio country, \vith the loss of liiree bundled ; i.d sixty men killed. Gen(;ral St. Clair, at the Iiead of two thoiis.uul militia and regulars, was subsequently worsted, near the Indian vil!; bosom, new sources of difficulty discoveied tliem>(i\es in the great convul.-ions of Europe. The French revolution had commenced, and that nation was under the wild misrule of its directory. Claims ibr assistance were made on the United States. Genet, the French tnvoy, Pp2 57 450 UNITED STATE?. havin;^ arrived at Charleston, undertook to authorize the annir.g of vessels ill that port, and the eiilinting of men ; giving conimissioiw, in tlie nnine ol' the French government, to cruise at sea, and commit hos- lihties on land, against nations with v«hotn the Ihiited States were ai peace. TJie British minister remonstrated. The president i.-sued orders lor defeating the \inwariantab!e interference of the Fier.eh :uii- bassador. Genet tlu-eatened an appeal to tlie people, ^but was soon alter recalled. Afterwards, the French directory authorized the in- discriminate capture of all vessels sailing under tlie ilag of the United States ; and ordered the Amerjcan emoys to leave France. Tmo severe actions occurred in the \Vost Indies, between the American fiigate Constellation, of thirty-eight guns, and the French frigate l-Mnsui«ente, of forty, and the same frigate and the La Vengeance, of fifty guns, in which L'Insurgenle was captured, and La Vengeance worsted. 6. In 1,797, John Adams was chosen president; and in the 3-ear ailar, Washington was called to the head of the army, in the prospect of a protracted war with France. But speedily after the overthrow of the directory go^•ernment, all the disputes between France and the United Stales were amicably arranged. 7. Although, since the definitive treaty of Paris, there occurred no open hostilities between England and the United States, yet they were far from being on terms of amity and conciliation. On various pre- texts, the English retained possession of the forts on the south side of the lakes, tbrming the northern houndary of the United States ; and irritation was continually excited by the English in.sisting on the right of searching American ships for enemy's property. Mr. Jay was de- puted envoy to London, aiid negotiated a treaty, in 1,795, which set- tled the diOisrences between tlie two nations, but the terms of which were much opposed in the United States, 8. December 14, 1.799, died the illustiiuus Washington, of an in- flammatory snre throat and fever, contrac1(>d iiom a slight exposure lo the wet weather, after an illness of only about tweiity-lbur hours. 9. The seat of government had been removed from New- York lo Philadelphia, both of ^vliich places being deemed inconvenient, pro- vision u'as made, at the second session after the formation of govern- ment, tiir the removal of the goveruRient to a district on the Potomac, which was ceded to the United States by Virginia and Maryland ; and, in 1,800, the public offices were removed to the infant capital, on which magnificent buildings had been erected. This city bears the name of Washington, and the district that of Columbia, 10. The war with Tripoli connncnced in 1,801, by an engagement of the Enterprise, captain Sterrett, with a Tripolitaii corsair, olf Malta, in which the American was victorious. Commodore Murray, the fi)!lo\vir.g 3-ear, in the fiigate Constellation, was attacked, while cruis- mg olT Tiiv!o!i, by a ibrmidable number of gun boats, but obliged (hem to retire in contu'-ion, Jn 1,003, the Philadelphia frigate, cap- Jain Hainiiridge, ran upon a rock, in the very jaws of the piia1(s; waf t.biiged to strike, and lier officers and crew, amounting to three hun- dred, were made pri^:oneis. This vessel was, however, recnjs'ured and burnt, while lying in tii(: harbour of Tripoli, Februar}' Ifi, l,8i;4, b}- captain Stephen Di.'catur, jr,, and seventy- liK-n — one of the most (hiring anil gallant exploits on record. From the '3d to the 29th of Augu-t following, commodore Preble made three general atlaeics upon tliG Tripolitan "batteries, Ttie barbarian enemy continued lo treat tiio American prisoners with the most atrocious cruelty. Another UNITED STATES. 451 expedient vvns tried by the American government. General Eaton tvas despatched to co-operate witli Hamet, who had been driven from the gnveriiiiient of Tripoli Ity the iisurpatiun of his brotlier. Travel- ling lo Egypt, he found the exile, and proceeding lit'ty-two days thmiigh a hideous desert, he arrived before Denie, a city in the rcgfiMcy of Tripoli, and carried the town at the point of the bayonet. Twice did the enemy attempt to retake the town ; but, against feartui odds, they were repulsed by Eaton. This brought the reigning bashaw to terms ; a peace was concluded by colonel Lear, and tiie prisoners long detained in captivity, were released. 11. Tennessee in 1,796, and Ohio in 1,800, were added to the states of tiie unjoii. In 1,803, Louisiana was purchased trom the French government, for the sum of tifteen millions of dollars ; and in 1,812, a portion of this extended territory v.as erected into a state by that name. J}y this cession, tl:e United States have acquired a territory of vast inr.a^nitude, and extraordinaiy fertility, from which new states will continue to be incorporated. 12. In the autumn of 1,806, Aaron Burr was detected in an enter- prise of great moment, the separation of the western states from the union, and the subjugation of New-Orleans : his plan was defeated by the vigilance of the government ; Burr was anested on a chai-tjC of high treason — but no overt act being proved on him, he was released. SECTION VI. WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN, &c. 1. We come now to treat of those interesting events which brought on a second contest between Great Britain and the United States. The custom of searching American vessels on the ocean, and impress- ing from them British seamen, had long been practised by the English. But hitherto the custom had been confined to private vessels : now, it was extended in some instances to public armed vessels. Four seamen, desertei-s from the Briti>h navy, were reported to have entered the service of the United States, and to have been received on board the frigate C'hesapeake, at the time lying at Hampton roads, preparing for the Mediterranean. Admiral Berkeley ordered captain Humphries, of the Leopard, to follow the Chesapeake beyond the waters of the United States, and demnnd the deserters : this he did, and, afte: demanding the seamen, iiicd a broadside upon the American frigate. This unexpected attack so disconcerted captain Barron, that he im- ;tiedialely struck the colours of the Chesapeake, and permitted the foiii scnmen to be taken without resistance. The Leopard carried (illy, the Chesapeake only thirty-six gut>s. On board the latter, four men were killed and sixteen wounded. One of the impressed seamen w;is altcrwards hanged, and one died in prison : and there was reason for suppo-ing that three of them were native Americans. Captain liarroii, lor neglect of duty, was suspended from connnand for five ye.Ks. Th!s tingical occurrence produced a general indignation, /'he Hrilisli, however, disavowed admiral Berkeley's orders, and re- moved him trom the station, but soon after appointed him to a more impurt'iiit one. 2. New systems of blockade were invented by the belligerenfsj commencing with the French decree of Berlin, of Novemoer 21, 452 UNITED STATES. 1.80C) : Januai7 7, 1,807, came the British order prchibiting coastiiif (rade; Novfciiiber 11, the celel)rated British orders in council; and December 7, the Frencii Milan decree. December 22, of the sanie year, congress, on the recomii^ind.ilion of Mr. .'etTerson, (lien fjiesi- dent, orde^i-ed an embai^g-o, prohibitiiiq: the exportaiion ot ever/ arficle i"iom the United Stater." ftiarch 4. 1,K09, the embaigo \va.« renxivfd, and non-intercourse substittited. April 19, an arrangement was made rtith Mr. Eiskit.e, which induced the American goveiiiment to n-new (he trade with England ; this arrangement was subsequently disaNow- td by the British government. Tiie insulting deportment of the suc- ceeding negotiate;', Mr. Jackson, heightened thi; resentnwnt of the republic ; and a rencounter between the American and British ships of war. President and Little Belt, increased the uiifi ieiidly sentiments of Ei;srland. 3. Mr. Foster, a new British minister, ofl'ered honourable reparation (ar the indignity on the Chesapeake ; but no change could be procur- ed in die systems practised by Great Britain and France against American trade. 'J'he United States now offered to either of the belligerents, or both, as soon as they ceased to violate the nciiti.il commerce of the republic, that the non-intercourse arrangement shoeld be discontinued. The French artfully embraced the oiTt r, ijy information that the French Berlin and Milan deciees had been re- voked ; and non-iniercourse with France was discontinued by procla- mation ol the president. 4. War was declared by the United States against Great Britain. June 18, 1,812, too late to avail themselves of the retraction of the British orders in council, which followed the repeal of the Berlin and Milan decrees. The congress voted an addition to the regular ainiy, of twenty-five thousand men ; authorized a loan of eleven millions; and nearly d(jubled the duties on imports. 5. Previous to the declaration of war, indications of hostility had appeared among the Indians on the tVontiers bordering on Canada. A body of troops, under governor Harrison, was attacked on the 7th of* November, 1,811, near a brar.ch of ll)e AVabash, by a laiger boiiy iiC Indians, who were defeated, not wiUioul considerable loss to the Americans. , 6. On the 12th of July, general Hull, governor of the Miclrt^nn territory, crossed from Detroit into the province of Canada, witli a considerable force. In this situation, he soon received intelligence of the capture of the American post at iilichillimackinac. On the 8lh of August, he returned to Detroit, followed by the British geneial Brock", with his regulars and Indians ; and he soon surrendered to the British, not only his army, but included the whole teiritory of Michi- gan in the articles of capitulation. He was afterwards tried, and found guilty of cowardice andi neglect of duty, and sentenced to be shot : bu*, in consideration of his revolutionary services, and his age, the court recommended him to mercy, and (he president withdrew The punishment of death. He has since endeavoured, by letters address- ed to the people of this country, to justify his conduct ; and witlj many persons his endeavours have been succe^-lul. 7. On the 19th of August, the Constitution fiigate, captain Hull» captured the B;itisli frigate Gueniere, captain Dacres, after an action of thirty minutes : loss of the Gueniere, fifteen killed, sixty-four wounded, and twenty-one missing — that of the Constitution, seven killed and seven wounded. October 25, the frigate United States,, captain Decahir, met the Britidi frigate Macedonian, ofi' the western > UNITED STATES. 4&3 islef5i and captured her after an action of one hour and a iialf :Biitifsh loss, t!iirly-six killed and sivl3'-ei5:ht wounded — American loss, seven killed, five woundeil. The next nava! aciiievein(;nt was the capture ol' llie Britisii brig' Frolic by the American sloop Wasp, coiiiinanded bj' captain Jones : Bri'ish Joss, thirty kiHed and fitly wounded — ■ American, five killed, five wounded. In Ueceiiiher, tiie Constitution, captain Bainbridg'e, ag'ain met the enemy, and the iVi^ate Java was ciiplured : Brilisli loss, sixty killed, and one hundred and one wound- ed — American, nine killed, twenty-five wounded. Besides these vic- tories of public ships, numerous privateers svvarn)ed the ocean, and before the meetings of congress, in November, nearly two hundred and fifty vessels were captured from the enemy. H. In November, general V^^n Rensselaer, with about one thousand troops, crossed the Niagara river into Upper Canada, and attacked the British r.t Queenstown ; and, after an obstinate engagement, was oi)!iged to surrerjder, with a loss of sixt}^ killed, and about one hundred wounded. In this engagement the British general Brock was killed. 9. Eaily In l,fir3,an action was fought at the river Raisin, between an American detachment, under general Winchester, and a British and ijidian force under colonel Proctor. The Americans were defeated, and the greater part of five hundred prisoners were immediately massacred, Proctor being unable or unwilling to protect them, as he had expressly stipulated ! Soon after, general Harrison was attacked and besieged, by the combined British and Indians at tort Aleigs. A desultory >var uas kept up for some time. Colonel Dudley was detached from the fort, to attack the eiKuny's battery on the opposite side of the river.. He succeeded in capturing" the batteiy, but iiis troops, imprudently pursuii^g the enemy, were soon surrounded by an Indian army, three limes their number, headed by the Indian general Tecumseh ; a des- ]K!Mte fight, and a scene of slaughter almost as terrible as that at j Kaisiii, ensued. Of eight lumdred men composing the detachment, 1 only about one hundred and fifty escaped. j 10. On the 21st of February, the British attacked Ogdensburgh, on j tlie river St. Lawrence, with a force of twelve hundred, and compelled the Americans to evacuate the place. In April, the Americans, under general Fik'e, landed at York, in Upper Canada : and, after some se- vere fighting, succeeded in capturing or destroying a large amount ot pulilic stores. Tlie British lost seven hundred and fifty men, in killed, w( inded, and captured. The brave Pike was mortally wounded, by 111 r! explosion of a magazine, which had been purposely set on fire. Tiie object of the expedition being gained, the American forces evac- uated York on the 1st of I^Iay, and re-embarked. 11. Fort George, commanded by general Vincent, was taken by th.e American (brt es, under general Boyd and colonel Miller, May 27 t'ter a sharp conflict. Thc'^British lost, in killed and wounded, about tv\o liunilred and fifty men, besides si:; ismMiicd prisoners — their an- onist-, thirty-nine killed and one h;iii;i!!ii ;in(l eight wounded. >n ;dlerwar(ls, generals Chandler and Winder, wJio had advanced li a considerable force, were attacked in the night, by general X'incent, who had been reinforced, between fort George and Burling- ton bay, and, in a scene of confi;sion, v.vre both made prisoners ; ihcii troop.- retired to foil George. 12. Captain Jame.- Lawrence, of the Hornet, fell in with, and cap- lured, ilie British sioop of war Peacock, February 24. The aclioii Jasted eirhi mnrutes ; and the British captain and several others were kille*], and twenty-nine wounded— the Hornet had three wounde4f 464 UiMTED STATES. The Peacock sunk soon after the action, and thirteen British sailors went down witli her. Captain Lawrence \\as ai'terwards appointed to the command of liie ill-ffled Chesapeake, then lying- in Boston harliour. The Britisii frig-ate Shannon, commanded hy cajitain Brol;;'nient ^\ ith an American frigate. Lawrence, burnir.g vvitli impatience to meet tlie eiiemy, did not wait to inqnire into the relative ctnidition of the \essels, ' I'he Shannon had a picked crew, and was accoutred for the express pur- pose of engaging an American frigate of the lai-gest size. Tlie Ciits- apeake, not of die hirgest description of frigates, had recently dis- chaiged .a part of her crew, and enlisted others : several of her ofiiceri? ueiv si(-(<. Lawrence sailed on the fir'^t of June ; and wiien he cm e widiin sight of the Shannon, addressed his crew, but they listened wiih n(> enlliusiasni : some complained that they had not received their prize Jiioney — murmurs and dissatisfaction were general ; in frrt tbe erew -i\t-fe almost in a state of mutiny. The Chesapeake closed witli ilie enemy and gave the first broadside ; and at the first iiie of the Sbannon, captain Lawrence v.-as mortally wounded. A sec(jnd anr! a third bi'oadside gave the Britisli a decided advantage, which was fol- lowed up by boarding the Chfsapeake. A scene of carnage ensued ; captain Lawrence was carried hehnv, exclaiming, as he lett the deck, " bon't give up the siiip." Every oflicer qualified for command in ibe Chesapeake, was either killed or disabled : about eiglity weie killed, and as many wounded. Of the British, twenty-three weie ki'led and 'i'''y-six wounded. The captured frigate was carried in tiMunpli to Halifax. The brilliant achievements of Wellington rnd Ne!son scarcely called forth more lively expressions (>f exuitati-j-" ='^ r,'!g!.'ind, than did the capture of the Chesapeake. Tiie tower guns c) London were filed on reception of the news, and tlic prince regent cotilerred on captain Broke tlie order of knighthood. 1'3. On the 4th of 7\ugust, tlie American sloop of war Argus wrs captured by the Pelican, a vessel of licr own cl.-iss, but said to be two euns superior. Captain Allen, commander of tlio Argus, was n*oi(;;l'y ».(.undefl at tlie first broadside of the enemy. In the following int)r;lh, ihe American brig Enterprize captured ilie Boxer, a vessel superior in tl^eclive torre. The only pei-^on killed en b'oai'd the Enteipiize ivas her gallant commander, lieutenant Burroughs, and thiiteen \\eie wounded, 'llw British loss was greater : among tlie slain wns capl.dii Bl-ythe, who commanded the Boxer, and nho was buried by the side of his antagonist in the town of Portland, oil" whose harbour the actioa was fousrht. -' 14. But the most briliinnt acliievement this year was that of thf yoiitht'ul Periy on lake Erie. The Briti^h force consisted of six ves- sels, tiaving sixiy-three guns ; tliat of the Americans, of nine vessels and fifly-six guns. The conihct was tremendous. The flag ship ot Perry suffered dreadfully in Ib.e loss of men, and was on the point of sii kii'g : he left the ship in the nn'dst of the hottest fire, and proceed ed to another vessel ; and'after three hours conflict, the laurel ot victory was assigned to Perry ; the triuni[)h was complete — not a singU le-se! of the enemy escaped. This pctien took jilnce on d'c U'di of ^'-ptember, and made the Americans inasleis of the hike. The gallaiii I I !iy annouiK ed this viclory in the folioAving laconic epi-t!e to gerieral Hanisoii : *" We liave met the enemy and they are ours — two ^hip^. t«o briirs, one schooner, and -one s!oo]\'" 15. Cluesapeake bay was blockaded by the British duiing tke spring of lliis year, and several predatory uicursions by their troops were UNITED STATES. 455 Wiade. M4jch property was plundered and destroyed, and many dig- praceful scenes occurred, particuliuly at Hampton and Havre dr- (irace. 16. An attack uas made, May 29, on Sackett's harbour by about one thousand l>riti'alls, and rockets : he attempted to cross the Saranac, but was repulsed at three different place?. So eflisctual was the fire of the Americans, that, before sunset, the batteries he had erected were all silenced; and at nine o'clock in the evening his whcile army began a rapid retreat, leaving many wounded, and much ammunition, provision, and baggage. The American loss this day, and in skirmishes previous on land, was thirty-nme killed, sixty-twO' ivounded, and twenty missing: the loss of the British, in killed» wounded, and deserters, besides those on hoard the fleet, was estimat- ed rit Iv.o thousand five hundred. General Alexander Macomb com- manded the American land forces. • 28. As on Eric and Cliamplain, so on the lake Orifario, each party strove for a naval ascendimcy. Several large ships were built by the Americans at Sackett's harbour, and bj' the British at Kingston. The American fleet "was commanded b}' captain Chauncey, and the British by commodore Yeo. As at no lime, one side equalled the other in strength, so at all times one avoided as the other sought for an engage- ii'ent. A partial action once took place; bi,t the Blitish commander, at tiiat time supposing his force inferior, look llie advantng-e of cir- cumstances to make his port. One of the British vessels ready for sea at the close of the war manned nearly one hundred guns; and two of the larg-est class of vessds in the v.orld »vere at the same time electing at Sackett's harbour. 29. In a sortie irom foit Kiie, under the command oi ^-eneral Jacob Brown, after a severe engagement, the British were deleated with the loss of nearly a thousand, in killed, wounded, and prisoners: (lie American losh exceeded Inc hundred. ■ ^ 30. The frigate President, commodore Decatur, sailed from New- \ oi!<, January 14, 1,815, and was (he next day pursued by four frigates and a brig of the enemy. An enongomeut took place between the foremost of tlie pursuing- vessels, the Kndymioii and the President ; .d!er a severe action of two hours, the Endymion was silenced and bealcn off. The Pamoiie and Tenedos in one hour coming up, the 1 'resident was obliged to surrender. ol. One of the most splendid events or; the part of the Americans closed llie late war: it was the disconitiiiiie and rej'ulse of the British :n New-Orleans. A very large Bii4ish force entered lake Pcntchar- train, near New-Orleans,' early iu December, 1,!!14, defealintc, after ..!) oiistinate conflict the smalf American naval ic'ice stationed there 'I'he British were commanded by general Packenham, one of Welling Q.q 58 45S UNITED STATES, ton's irivincibles who had conquered the ffreal Napoleon , the Ahieri-. can army was led by genera! Andrew Jackson. Seseral *kinni>he3 ((M)k place, in which tlie British wore alni(>st*ll'.e e.vclnsive «ii(Vfv»-r!*, On Sunday mornini;- early, January 8, a grand attack ua.s made iiy tla' liritisii on the American iruojis in llicir enlreiK linu-nls. Alter ari f-nt^a^enienl of more than an honr, tiie enemy weic cnt lo piece.- In a :](•"■!(■(! nhno^t jjeyonii example, and iled in c<>n!"u>i<>n. Ieaviii)>- nn ilie iteld ol' !)attle tlieir dead atid wonnde(i. Tlie Briti-li loss uas se\4. Since the peace the attention of tiie country has been called to the ])ropriety of augmenting the national detijice. Congress having maiie :ip|»ropr!. By an act of congress in the year 1,818, a yearly j^cnsion, sufii- ci"i«i l"or their di'cent niamtenance, having been granted lo those oilicers and I'livates nho served more than nine months at any one time in die w.ir of llie revolution, moiv than thirty tliousand individuals made ap- plication for relief. The snm reqinred much excecdeii geiKial cx- } e(!:ii!on: and the following year an additional act was |)a.->t;d which (jjreuniscrihed the applicants to a narrow space. ImporlatiiUiS iiaving fe-sened, die amount received into the treasury iioni duties became UNITED STA'lES. 453 less than tlie calculations ; and in l,f!21. liie standing military force was ictliircd tVoni t^i) In six lliLUisand, aiid ilic building ot'.-diipa of war U;i-. in -u;iic ilc^'IV-!!', siHji(:nii<'d. :Ui - ii 'ii. ;(iiii!.-«i()!i ol Lc'iisiana in 1,r;i2, six olhor «(alt,'8 liaAe lit r:i : i ;:;.ii' I 'ilk) the Uiiinn — iiidirtiia in l,f'«16, Missis.'ipjM in l,!il7, li.iiM.l^ :.; ! ':n:. Alabama in l,!n9, lAlaine in 1,«.20, and l\!;sM;iiri in l.!;2I. IndiiiM ?.w\ Illinois art; sections of the sanu; terrilory (Vein wbicli Oiiii) \v,i^ inadi; a rtalc. Mississippi and Alaiiania bcioiiivcd to (ii-oriii 1 and l.uiiisi.Tna : Maine \vas separated t"roin Massncliiis(!(.>~, aiif' M;>>oinI lVo:n lliu vas'. tract ceded by tlie Freiich, under llie name oi Liui'siana. :>". A treaty was conclnded at Washington in 1,"19, by which Spain ceded to the United Slates that portiofi ot hi;r territory, known by the nr^.me ol' Floiida. Five millions ot' dollars was tht?' price ; and the strii. Ml pin'>ij nice ot" the treaty, lias been paid as indemnity to .Amer- ic.in citizens l()r illeg^a! ^eizuies ol" their property in Spanish ports. :iii. ik-siile- tlie (UlFerent state g'overnments, territorial i!;overn:nenls, with mj:';'ist rates appointed by the president and senate, exist in Michiij^an. Aikansas, and Florida. 39. In the year I,f;20, the tbnrth anthorized census of the inhaldtar.ts was recorded. 'J'he progress of population lias been rapid almost be)(ind a parallel. In 1,790, the population was three millions nine hundred and twenty-one llirusand : in 1,800, five milliuns three hnnlreil and twenty thoiisan I : in 1,P.10, seven millions two hnndrid and torty th(ajsa!i(i ; and in 13,20^ nine niilhoiis six hundred and thirly- e;?ht tiiousand. PART FIFTH. SECTION [. ADDITIONAL FACTS, BRLNGING DOWN THE GENERAL HIS- TORY TO THE PRESENT TIME. 1. In l,S20,soiiie commotion was caused in France by the assassins, lion of the DukeofBeni; nephew of Louis XV^III. and son oftlie present king. He was stabbed at the door of tlie opera house by aii obscure person named Louvel. It appeared that the assassin was instigated to this horrid deed merely by a thirst lor revenging an al- leged injury, which he suffered many years previous. 2. Napoleon Bonaparte died at St. Helena, May 5lh 1,321, aged 52. He was a man of talents which few other men are competent to esti- mate : of astonishing foresight and intrepidity : of insatiable ambition. His career was marked by the most splendid achievements. He was destined by Providence to humble the pride of the Princes of the earth, to shake the foundations of arbitrary power, and then, to be himself humbled and debased. To France he gave a code of laws, the influence of which has been felt throughout Europe, and will ex- lend through the world. He gave to the lower classes of the commu- nity, an activity and importance, which they had never felt ; but which, having been once appreciated, they are not likely to surrender. Hi3 political maxims, however sellish in their ends, were utterly at vari- ance with that baser love of arbitrary dominion, which is regardless of the welfare of its subjects. He loved to govern ; but his ambition made him wish to govern an industrious, enlightened, and happy world ; and wherever he extended his conquests, he endeavoured to elieve the oppressed, and break the shackles under which hum..nily groaned. The efforts which are now making by the lower classes in almost eveiy arbitraiy government, to obtain free constitutions which shall elevate them from the rank of slaves to that of citizens, are lo be ascribed, in a great measure, to the influence of his institutions, and his example. We can mark no limits to the blessings which, under Heaven, he dispensed while he lived, and bequeathed to posterity. If we judge him by the effects of his conquests, his institutions and his administration of government, he will appear one of the greatest bene- factors of mankind ; but if as Christians, we estimate his character by the motives which he manifested throughout his career, we shall find ittle in it to applaud, but much to condemn. Although it was a pari of his policy to ameliorate the condition of men, a wish to extend and lo secuie his own sovereignty over them appears lo have been his ruling motive. An all-wise Providence converted his deeds into blessings, but they cannot entitle him to the praise of Christian virtue. If his rise and reign was all that men call glorious, his do\nffall ex- hibited a reverse no less signal. Confined on one of the most barren and dismal islands in the world, — guarded and controlled by gaolers, wlio exercised towards him a petty tyranny, which denied not unfre- quently the common civilities ol lile. — wasted by a long and painful disease, — all the circumstances about him combined to mock his for- mer greatness, and to witness to an ambitious world that he vtha exalleth himself shall be abased. ADDITfONAL FACTS, &c. 461 3. In l,r>23, France obtained penniss.on from the Congress of Allied Sovereifcns. IicM nt V^cionn,to invade Spain, and re-establish the king in h\< li)rn)er atithoril}-. Il wa.-; expected thai the friends of tiie new coiPtilution would have been able to make a powerful resistance to thi? invasion ; imt the conquest piovcd easy ; and this revolution, like that of 1,820, was acconiiilished with very little bloodshed. On the 16th day of Sept. 1,!J24. Louis XVIll. died of the dropsy; his biother succe-eded to the tbrone and took tiie title of Chaklks'X. 4. A revolution sill. ilar in its cliarncter to that in Spain took place in rortuu:al in 1,820. In 1,821, the Ko^-al Family, with the exception of the Fiince Royal, the king's son, returned from Brazil. The king awcre to the free constitution, and the kingdom enjoyed a good de- gree of Iranciuillity until May 1,f!2J, ^^hen a countei-revolutio!) was conmienct^d, and on the 3d <">f .bme the king issued his proclamation anniajMcirig t!ie n.'stoia.tion of the Ancient Monarchy. .". In Fngl;.-iid, George IV. succeeded to the thrcjne upon the death of his fallit-r George III. He had lur many years been Prince lletrcnt. 'i'lii- year was distinguished by domestic connuotioMS, of ixhicii the disturbances among the labouring classes in Manchester and other manul'acturing towns, were the most alarming. 'J'he al- leged cause of complaint was the low price of wages, which was declared to be quile disproportionate to their services. Large meet- ings were held in man}' places, and very riotous proc(!edings passedj .•^nil tii(^ nation was much alarmed b}^ t!:«e prospects oi' a ci\il war 'J'lie malecontents Ipund ,-everal able leaders, among whom llunl and 'J'histltwood were pjominent. The 'commotions v.eie, however,^ quelled without their objects bcinp; obtained. Himt sutfered a lon^; iniiMiso;im<;nt ; Tiiistlewood and tour others were executed, and five we 10 transported. '■>. J-iut ihi.s year was principally memorable for die trial oi the Queen on a charge ofadulteiy. Tins allair produced a remarkable degiee of excitement not only tlirougkout that kingdom, but also on the continent and in Ameiica. 7. Since the teiniination of these difiiculties the nation has enjoyed tranquillily and a high degree of prosperity. '•>. The sunur.er ot' l,f!2l,was remarkable for tiie scantiness of the crt)j)s ill Irchmd. The following winter brought a most distressing laiiii.ie, ol" which great numbers perished. 9. Since the establibhment of peace in 1,815, the Northern States oi l^lu I oj.'e have enjoyed a good degree of tranquillity. Few events ha\e o'curied, to serve as iten>s of general histoiy. By a decree of tiie Kniperor cf lliissia in 1,811, the government of that emp'ire was declared to he a con^^titutional monarchy. Little was done till aftei tlie [)eace to limit its despotic character, but since that perioti some constitutional privileges have been granted to the subjects. Similar improvements have been made, and are making, in the governments ol most ol these States. Prussia has established assemblies, which bear a rei)resentative character. 10. In 1,815, Ihc; Congress of Vienna, composed of the authorities of Austria, France, Great-P>ritain, Prussia, and Kussia. made a solemn declaration of their resolution to put a stoj) to the African Slave 'J'raile. This wicked trallic was not, however, diminished by this mea.sme, be- cause France \vas totally unfailhlul to her i)romise. At the Congiess ol Verona in l,ii23, the same powers, with the exception of France, declared that this crime ought to be assimilated withibat .of i)iracy, aud hence punishable with death. Qq2 462 HISTORY OF NEW SPATTT. 11. In 1,816, the Jesuits were expelled from Moscow and Petera- burprli, and in 1,020, iVora the whole Russian empire, and forbidden ever to return. 12. Pope Pius VII. died Aug. 20, 1,823, in the eighty-second year of his age, and the twenty-fourth of his pontificate. He was succeed- ed by the Cardinal Delia Genga, who assumed the title of Leo XII. The present Pope, was born on the 2d of Aug. 1,760. He was Ntin- rio fourteen years in the electorates of tlse Rhine. At the i)eriod of tie persecutions exercised by Bonaparte against the Catholic Church, he was obliged to quit Rome with the other prelates and cardinals- At the restoration, he was the cardinal selected by Pius Vll. to congratulate Louis XVIli on his return. The commencement af his pontificate has been signalized by his refusal to restore the Inquisition ui Spain, declaring it inconsistent with the liberal spirit of the age. 13. in (he summer of 1,820, an insurrection broke out in N:»ples and Sit:i!y, and s.o feeble was the established government, Ih-it the in-urgf'Mts sunn compelled the king to grant them' a free constitulion. 'i'iie Allied Sovereigns of Eui ope at their session at Troppau, near the cl(:»e of the same year, made a formal declaration of irreconcilable hostility to this new government. In 1,821, they decided at the Con- e:res> of Laybach, that a iiorlion of the Austrian army should occupy Naples, to restore the authority of the king. This was readily ac- coiiiplir^hed, and with little opposition. The Spanish constitution ot 1,812, was granted to Naples and Sicily, and tranquillity was restored Similar disturbances took place at the same {)eriod in some of (he Sarilinian Slates, but they were quieted by the result of those in Na- ples and Sicily. 14. TuRKF-V has enjoj-ed little tranquillity for many years. The Greeks revolted fiom the OHoinaii power in 1,821 ; and from that ])f riod •() (he present a liloody war has been carried on between them and the Turks. The latter have committed frequent and horrible massacres of the Christians in Constantinople, Scio, and odier places ; and have endeavoured to reduce their revolted subjects by every act of cruelty and oppression. The Greeks have maintained their strug- gle f"r indepeniience with much bravery and spirit, which lias some- times become ferocity ; but they are neither sufiiciently virtuous nor civili/ed to act in full concert in resisting oppression. It is impossible to judge how far they have been really successful, aixl what are their prospects of ultimate success, owing to the want of authentic channels (if information ; but at this moment the existing probability is decid- edly in favour of their success. SECTION SECOND. HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. coMPii-En PRi.xciPALr.y from Poinsett's notes on imexico. 1. Whkn this couritry was first visited by the Spaniards in 1,519,' it havi attained a high degree of civilization. Of this Ave may judge by the form of its governnient. its laws, and its ci\ii institutions. 2. The monarch was chosen iVom among the members of tlie reign- ing laiT'iiy by six electors, chosen iVom among the thirty princes of Itie first rank. The political system was (eudal. The first class of nobles, consisting oi thirty familiesj had each one inmdred th(«isand HISTORY OF NKW SPAIN. 4C3 vassals. The second class consisted of more than three thousand families. The lords exercised the right of life and death over their vassals. Al! tlic lands were divided into allodial, hereditary, and contingent estates, — the latter depending upon places in the gift of the crown. 3. The priests were charged Avith the education of youth ; and on th'jir testimony of Uie merit of their scholars, depended their future raiik. Under Montezuma, the emperor at this period, the governmeni was despotic, hut he was subject to the high priest. Each piovince was subject lo a trihutej but certain nobles were excepted, who were conipelled to lake the field in case of a wai', with a stated number ot l&liowers. ']'he tribute vras paid in kind, and was fixed at one thir- tieth part of the crop. Ttie governors oi' provinces also vietl with each other in the magnificence of their presents to the emperor. 4. Sacrilege, murder, and treason, were punished with death ; and the laws of the empire were generally as much respected as in th<> most civilized European nations of that age. The attention of the government was principally directed towards the internal commerce, so as to secure an abundant supply to the people. Posts were estab- lished bet\veen the capital and the remotest provinces. A court of len magistrates determined the validity of contracts ; and officers were constantly employed to examine the measures and the quality of goods exp(jsi;d tor sale. 5. P)esldes the empire of the Mexicans, of which we have been speaking, there were other powerful states, whose form of government was republican. The most powerful of these was Tlascala, the gov- ernment' of which continued for some time after the coiuiuest of Mexico. It was a thickly settled, fertile, and populous country, di- vided into districts, each under tlie authority of a chief. These chiefs administered justice, levied the ti'ibuie, and commanded the militaty forces, but their decrees were not valid, or of fori:e, until confirmed by (he senate of Tlascala, which was the true sovereign. A certain num- ber of citizens, chosen from the different districts' by popular assem- blies, fitnued this legislative body. The senate elected its own chief. The laws were strictly and impartially executed ; and the people are rcjtresented as numerous, wealthy, and powerful. 6. The Mexicans possessed some knowledge of Astronomy, and their calendar was constructed with more exactness than that "of the Greeks, the Romans, or the Egyptians. 'J'heir hieroglyphics, drawings, and maps — their cities and artificial roads, causeways, canals, and im- mense pyramids — llieir government and.hieraichy, and administration of laws — liieir knowledge of the art of mining, and of prepaiing metals for ornament and u<(' — their skill in carving images out of the'hardest stone — in manufacturing and dying cloths, anur by the natives, and the place defended with ob>tiii:!cy l.-y die Spaniards. Montezuma having ascenderl a terrace was killed by i stone or arrow, ami his broth<;r C^uetlavaca proclaimed his successor. This gave such vigour to the 3i(!xi(;ans, that the Span- laids were obliged to retreat with great loss. At Otumba, Cortez was obliged to tuniatul give th(;m battle. Ho was victoTious, and pro- te(;dt <1 to Tiascala without further trouble. To secure his asiender;- cy o\er thi« repul)ric, he made tVequent incursions into the territories of neiffhbourin-r nations, and with imiiorm success. 10. In Decemlier 1,5'21, he returned to the vale of Tezciico, and bom this ))lace continued to carry on the war against the Mexicans and their allies. He ordered to be constructed at Tiascala the frames ut' thirteen ves-els, and diey were brought by an inunense number of Imiians to the Lake Tezcuco. \Vhen tliese vessels were ready, he sent for his allies, amounting to fd'ty thousand troops, ^vhosoon arrived. Atter a siege of seventy-five days the city was captured, Aug. ISth. 1.521. The captured Mexicans were divided among the conquerow HISTORY OF NEW SPAIN. 465 •one fiftn being reserved for the king of Spain ; and they continued to l*e fieated ns slaves for centuries, notwithstanding tlie humane laws pa>>ed in Spain for tlieir lelief. This conquest was completed in the reign ot Guatiniozin son of Montezuma, wlio had succeeded to the throne after the death of (-i.uetlavaca. II. There is little interesting in the history of Mexico from Ihia period till the commencement of the Ke'olution in l,f!10. Almost the only briirht s])ol in the page of its histoiy during this period, is the admin'u>itration of the viceroy Revillagigedo. Good roads, leading from tl»e capital lo dilTerent parts of the kingdom, were made \)y his orders ; the streets of the principal cities were paved and lighted, and good ])olice regulations established. An authentic statistical ai.count of th« country was made, and almost every salutary law and regulation, now in existence, may he traced to Ins administration. \'i.. To understand the nature of the authority which Spain exer- cised over her American Colonies, it is necessary to remarn; that all acquisitions in America were considered as be!(.nging to the crown, rather dian to the state. Pope Alexander Vi. first bestowed them as a i'vei: gift, upon Ferdinand and Isabella. They and their successors were to be held as the universal proprietors of the regions which had been, or should be discovered. All officers in the colonies, whether civil or ecclesiastic, were appointed by their authority, and remova- ble at their pleasure. The Spanish possessions were, at first, divided into two viceroyalties, New Spain and Peru ; but subsequently, a third was established at Santa Fe de Bogota, the jurisdiction of which pxtendeti ovei' Terra Firma and the province of Q,uito. 13. Tiie authority of the viceroys was supreme in eveiy depart- ment of governnient, civil, military, and criminal. To aid them in the administratioti of government in provinces remote from their residence, magi.-itrates of various orders were appointed, subject to the viceroy ; aii'l courts, called Audiences, were established, whose decisions were, in most cases, final. Upon the death of a viceroy without any pro- vision of a successor by tJie king, the supreme power was vested in the court of Audience resident in the capital of the viceroyalty, and the seifwjr judge, assisted by his brethren, exercised ail the functions of the viceroy, while the olrice continued vacant. 14. The supreme government of all the Spanish possessions in America was, howevf r, vested in the Council of the Indies. This Council was lirst established by Ferdinand in 1,511. Its jurisdiction extended to every department, ecclesiastical, civil, militarj-.and com- mercial. All laws and ordinances relative to the gov-mment anil police of the colonies originated there, and must be approved by two thirds of the members, belore being issued in the name of the king. To it each person employed in America, from the viceroy downward?, was accountable. Beinre it was laid all intelligence public or secret, rec-(;ived from the colonies, and every scheme of improviig the ad- iniiiislration, police, or commerce, Avas submitted to its considera- ti(»n. 15. Another tribunal was established at Seville in 1,501, called Citxci tie la Contratacion, ov the house of trade. It was designerl tc i-egulate such commercial affairs as required the immediate and per- sonal inspection of those appointed to superintend them. Such i.» aa oiitiiiie of the system of government which Spain established in hei Aiiieiican colonies. 16. In 1,808, the viceroy of Mexico, Don Jose Iturrigaray, received such contradictory orders from the supreme authorities in Spain, as 59 466 HISTORY OF x\EW SPAIN. to render it necessary to call a Junta composed of a representative from each province. Tliis measure excited the jealousy of the Eu- ropeans in the capital, as it uas calculated to place llie Creoles on an equal tbotaig with themselvss in liie ^oveniiiicnt. They Ihtferoic conspired against the viceroy, surjiiised hini, and sent hjni and lii;- family prisoners to Spain. Shortly aOer the arrival of the next vice- roy, Vanegas, tlie Creoles formed a conspiracy to overthrow I,'.- powcr. They collected a large t'orce under Hidalgo a priest of seme distiriction, and for several months their success seen.cd almost cir tain. But Hidalgo, by a most unaccountable mismanagement «>uiroied bis army to be defeated with great slaughter in Oct. i,t»G9, and iheir total defeat followed in January 1,811. 17. Another attempt was soon made by the Creoles and Indinn- under Kayon, a lawyer of great influence, but the revolt vvas sup- pressed. A more formidable arm)^ was gathered by Moreios in l.fil-i — 15, and the contest for independence again appeared more hcpefiri ; but he was defieated, taken prisoner, and executed. In Nov. l,?ilti, [he Patriots were cheered by the arrival of Genera! Mina with a small force from England. Uniting himself with the army already in ope- ration, he sustained the conflict with great bravery Tor one year, but was then defeated and executed. The Independent army was noAV too feeble for offensive operation, and little was done until the revo- lution of Spain in 1,821. The decrees of the Cortez coniiscating tiie estates, and reducing and reforming some of the higher orders ot" the clergy, excited the indignation of "the church in Mexico, and from that time, the priests used their influence in favour of a separation from Spain. Although their influence had been somp\vhat diminished, it was still sufficient to produce the adoption of almost any measure which they should recommend. They were aided by the weallliy Europeans who were anxious to preserve the country in the pureiuss of despotism, that it might serve as a refuge for the king of Spain from the persecutions of the Cortez, and from the new constitution. 18. Don Augustin Iturbide was fixed upon as a proper agent to carry their plans into effect. He had distinguished him.self in the previous contests as an enemy to the patriots, and the clergy little an- ticipated that his love of tyranny would soon be exercised at the cost of their dearest plans. He at this time commanded a considerable army, and on receiving money to proceed into the southern provinces, he united himself with Guerrero, one of the patriot chiefs, and offered pardon to all who would unite themselves to his standard. From the very energetic operations of the revolutionists in the capital, the whole nation was soon roused in favour of independence. The viceroy was deposed ; Iturbide was made admiral of the navy, generalissimo of the army, and president of the Regency which w as established by the new Junta. His ambitious designs now became manifest, and he iound little difficulty in raising himself above the established authoritif s, and securing the reins of government. The Cortez were decidedly op- posed to him, but the soldiery were his friends, and they compelled the Cortez to declare him emperor on the I9lh of May 1,822. After having attained this object of his ambition, he sought by every means to render his authority absolute, and elevated the members ot his own family to offices of state. Many of the clergy were far from being satisned with the elevation of Iturbide. The archbis^iop of Mexico refused to crown him, and retired trom the capital. 19. The emperor did not long enjoy his despotic reigri. Santana, 'he governor of Vera Cruz could not brook the control of a supe- HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. 46? rior. Enj(>ying an independent command, and possessing the confi- dence of a great part of the community, he found no difficulty in raising a formidahle force. He was soon joined by Guadalupe Victoria, who nnd from the commencement of the revolution been a most faithful friend to the cause of liberty, but had been o')lis-ed, under the exist- ing despotism, to conceal himself in the mountains. Santana found that the great popularity of Guadalupe Victoria made it necessary to yield to him the supreme command. This bc'ing readily granle I, they possessed each others confidence, and the confidence of the em- pire. The army in all parts declared for the repubhcan principles of Santana, and the commander in chief, and Iturbide found it neces- sary first to summon the Cnrtez wliicli he had forcibly dissolved, and afterwards, on the eighth of March 1,C23, to a])dicate the throne. He was permitted to leave the empire, and he sailed with his family for Leghorn on the 11th of May. He returned in the summer of 1,824, but was received by republicans who justly appreciated him. An order had been passed by the Congress for his immediate execution in case of his arrival ; and as soon as he was identified, he was im- prisoned, and, a (evf days after, was brought forth by public order and shot. 20. Immediately after his abdication the nation declared for a re- publican government, and on the 2d of February 1,824, a federal constitution was adopted, amidst the shouts of the people ; and it is obviously the form of government best suited to the interests and wishes of a majority of the community. The principal defect in their con- stitution is the establishment of the Catholic religion. The nation cannot expect to enjoy the real freedom of republican institutions, while their minds are subjected under the real despotism of a national religio?). In other respects the Constitution of this republic very neai>- ly resembles that of the United States. 21. The former Captain-Generalship of Guatimala, with the ex- ception of Chiapa, declared its independence at the same time with Mexico, but refused to unite with that government. It has establish- ed' an independent, federal govertmicnt, under the title of the Confed- erated States of the Centre of America. The Roman Catholic religion i.s established here also,, to the exclusion of all others ; and in most respects their constitution agrees with that of the Mexican Republic. SECTION THIRD. HISTORY OF THE WEST LADIES. i by U( Oct. l-:ih 1,492. 'J'he first settlement was made at Nassau in New Trovidence by the English, 1,672. These islaiids soon after became the resort of pirates. Their leader was John Teach, called Black /^c«n/, who for ajjont tfii years vvas the sovereign of these islands, and the terror of the Xoiih American coast. He was killed off the const of N. Caroh'na in 1,713. Dining most of the remaining pcri(jd ihe English havequietiV piw-fs-cd the B.iliniTi.-s, but they have con- stantly -erved as Imkii.^' ■: i • ,' : wi:' ; ;Mt> ■. These have miilii- plied ijix^atly in all tlic V\ < -i li; ':, -. \MiiiiM ilic last ten years, and no tfffclua! means have been deviled lor extery^inatiiw tiiem. 2. When the Bahamas were discovered, the population was esli- ■aated at about 40,000. The inhabitants called Uiemselves Lucayans. 468 HISTORY OF THE WEST INDIES. They were mostly devoted to maritime life, and subsisted principal- ly upon fi?h. Tliey Avoie ip;norant of the use of iron, but made some ise of cottoii and of gold. They were a kind, friendly peMj)h» averse to vvar. Scarcely 20 years, however, h:ui elapsed, before tlie rapacious Spaniards transported them all by force or artifice, to dig in the mines of Hispaniola. Being remarkably expert divers, some of them were afterwards transported to tne coast of Cumaiia, and em- ployed in the pearl fishery- 3. TuK Grkater. Antilles when first discovered, w6re inhabited by a race called Arrowauks. They also possessed a great part of Trinidad. It appears that they were descended from the Arrowauks cf Guiana. All of this name spoke one language, and had the same in.-titutions. They believed in an invisible, omnipotent Creator* named Jocahuna, but admitted a plurality of subordinate deities, andj like the American Indians generall}', they believed in a fiitnre slatf oi retribiilion. Their ciiildren were entirely naked, but the aduitf wore a ^light covering of cotton cloth round the waist. They wen:- a mild and liospitable peo;)Ie, hut elfeminate and sensual. The cli- mate, and fertility of the sod nnturally made them indolent. Fiom evening till dawn they were much engaged in dancing, and as many as 30,000 sometimes joined at once in this favourite amusement. 4. These i.-lands were divided into great kiiigdf)ms, subject to caciques or hereditary mfjiiafchs. Each kingdom was subdivided into numerous yirincipalities. The regal authority was absolute, but ivas administered with great mildness. The aboriginal population has been estimated at 3,000,000 : but within 20 years after the dis- (oveiy by Columbus, the great body of them were exterminated. A \iry iew'only reiriain in tJie island of Cuba 5 but the Arrowauks in Guiana are still a distinct tribe. 5. There is liKie in the history of colonial government-- that is inter- esting anil valuable ; and none of the West India islands, except St, Domingo, have become independent. The Spaniards have lost many of the i;^l:!iids to which they firsi laid claim : but the present posses- tors are well known from common geographies, and the time wher> these trilling revolutions took place is of little consequence, while the effects produced, were so unimportant. One fact is worthy of record in favoui of the Spaniards — whose rapacity and cruelty has beeri equalled !jy no other nation in modern times, and who have, of late years, been sutTei'ing a natural and just retribution of ihei-- enormities. But to their credit be it said, — the'ir treatment of negro slaves has been more lunnane than that of other nations : and the Spanish laws enacted in their favour, have had a powerful influence to enlighten the English and French in this cause of humanity. 6. The Biiccaniers, who were the lorefathersof the present pirates, deserve some notice. They consisted originally of a body of Frencn ?.nd Etiglish planters expf lied by llio Spaniards fiom the island of Si. Chii.-tdphers m l,fi29, with circmnstances of outrageous barbarity. They first established themselves on the small island of Torlnga, near the N. W. part of St. Domingo. They were here joir,(!d by some Dutch emigrants, u'ho had been expelled in the same manner fnjm Santa Cruz. Their first occupation was hunting wild cattle on the plains of St. Domingo, which they bncccnicd and bioughl to the jilace of their retreat. The word buccan signified a grate or htniile on which meal was prepare* before the fire; and from their abundant use of it, these people \vere called biiccaniers, bucuiners, or buccaneers. A few j^ears af\er their establishment heres a Spanish armament, HISTORY OF THE Vv'EST LNDIES. 4m .♦rfhout any provocation, invaded them, and barbarotisly murdered all Mieir womon and children. This roused the Buccaniei';^ ia rt- Vettge ; and they soon Ijecamc the reohL terrible aiU; gon;,':land and France in l,( Henry I. King of Hayti. Hi* dominions were on the north part ot the island ; the southern was occupied by a republican party, -nost- ly muiattoes, under Petion who assumed the title of President oflJayti. Frequent antl bloody conflicts occurred between these two parties. On the death of Petion in 1,817, P.oyf.k was appointed President; and. on the death of Christophe, the two parties united under President Poyicr, and have nov/ estaljiished a veiy eilicieiit goveriunent. He is an intelligent, energetic, and humane sovereign ; and his administration is highly calculated to promote the happiness of his subjects. In 1,808. the'Spaniards, aided by f)ie English, re- took the eastern part of the island, but their colonj' has little lorce. and lives on friendly terms with the blacks. 9. The Caribbean Islands, when discovered, were innabited by a numerous, cultivated, and powerful nation, called Caraibe.s or Carib- bees. They were more warlike than the Arro'vauks. Towards eacl» other they were faithful, friendly, and affectionate ; but T-egarded all strangers as enemies. They were well skilled in most of the arts of life ; and their religion aclinowledged one supreme, independen! Deity; and taught a future state of retribution. Nearly all of this race have been exteiniim ted on these islands, but tluy still remain on the continent of South America a very povverlul nation. 10. There is little else that i? iiteresting in the history of the West lodies, except to those who wisn to learn more of the aborigines, and Kr 470 HISTORY OP SOUTH AMERICA. of the merciless treatment they received from tne Spaniards. A very minute history of these islands has been written by EdAvards. SECTION FOURTH. HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. UNITED PROVINCES. 1 The river La Plata was discovered in 1,516. Buenos Ayreg was iKJttled in 1,535, From the settlement of the country until 1,778 its history comprises only a series of vexations from the despotism of viceitrys, of privations from monopolies, and commercial restrictions, and of'^sufferings from wars foreign to its interests. From this period to 1,781, the Indians from the upper country continually harassed the provinces, burnt many towns, and destroyed many of tiie inhabi- tants ; but they were at length defeated by the combined armies ot Buenos Ayres and Lima. 2. In l!i806, the coiintiy was invaded by the British, and Buenos Ayres was taken without opposition. An army froni the interior soon expelled them. A second Attempt was made in 1,807, but \he people beginning to acquire confidence in their own strength, attatcked the army while in the city, and were cou.pletely successlul. 3. On the 25th of J\Iay 1,810, in conseqvipnce of the renunciation of Ferdinand VII. in favour of Napoleon, and iKe deranged state of affairs in Spain, a junta was convened at Buenos Ayres to lake the government into their own hands, still administering it, however, in the name of Ferdinand. This was the commencement of n revolu- tion which delivered them from the slavery they had sull'ered for nearly 300 years. Since that period, they have been in reality inde- pendent. 4. Since 1,810, there have been four revolutions, each of which haa changed the government, but there has constantly l^^en a representa- tive assembly. On the 9th of July 1,816, the congress made, and promulgated a declaration of absolute independence. In December of the same year the country was invaded by the Portuguese, and a considerable part v.as conquered. It has, however, reclaimed its possessions, and its government has become so well established, that its independence has been acknowledged by other nations. BRAZIL. 1. This country was discovered by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, a Por- tuguese, in 1,500. As little gold or silver was found near the coast, it was for a while wholly neglected, and none but criminals and aban- doned women were seht hither. In 1,548, the inquisition, after plun- dering the Jews of their property, banished them to Brazil. A governor was sent over the following year, v/ho immediately built St. Salvador. It was reduced i-.i 1,624, by the Dutch, and taken from them in 1,625, by the Spaniards. Portugal reclaimed it jn about 1,645, and remained in undisturVied possession of the whole country till the late revolutions throughout South America. 2. In the latter part of 1,806, in consequence of the invasion of Portugal by the French, the royal family embarked for Brazil, undei jirotection of an English squadron. Rio de Janeiro contmued to be their residence from 1,B07 till 1,821. When they left Brazil, th« HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 471 prince royal, the king^'s eldest son, remained at the head of the government. The unsettled state of the government of the mother country, soon excited i revolutionarj' spirit in most of these provin- ces, and they declared for independence. The crown was offered to the prince royal, and accepted under the title of emperor. GUIANA. The history of these colonies presents little worth relating. They have frequently changed masters, but with little detriment or advan- tage. Their present situation is well known fiom common geogra- phies. A great part of the country is occupied by Indians. Of these, the Caraibes are the most numerous, brave, warlike, and industrious. REPUBLIC OF COLOMBIA. 1. New-Granada originally constituted a part of Peru. Two au- diences were erected in 1,547, the one at Panama, the other at Santa F'e de Bogota, and the territories under the jurisdiction of both, con- stituted a captain-generalship. Quito was made the seat of an audi- ence in 1,563, but the territories belonging to it, still remained attached to Poru. In l,71o, New-Granada was erected into a viceroyalty ; Quito and Venezuela were annexed to it, and the audiences of Pana- ma and Quito were abolished. These were afterwards restored, and in 1,739, tlie territories dependent on the three audiences of Panama, Santa Fe, and Quito, were again erected into a viceroyalty. A con- gress assembled at Carthagena in Nov. 1,811, and declared the coun- try independent, but it was afterwards reclaimed by the royalists. 2. Venkzukla was discovered by Columbus in 1,498. After .several ineffectual attempts to settle it by missionaries, it was finally reduced by force, and assigned by Charles V. to the Welsers, a German mer- cantile hou.se. Their administration was so tyrannical, that they \ver(^ dispossessetl in 1,550, and a supreme governor was appointed by the king of Spain. From this period till 1,806, it remained in quiet subjection to the mother country. 3. In 1,«06, general Miranda, a native of Caraccas, placed himself at the head of an expedition, fitted out partly at St. Domingo, and part- ly at New-York, with the design of liberating this countiy from the Spanish yoke. Finding his force inadequate^ he abandoned his men to the mercy of the provincial government. 4. In 1,811, the inhabitants revolted from the Spanish yoke, and declared themselves independent. The declaration bears date July 5lh. 1,811, exactly 35 years and one day alter that of the United State.s. This revolution, like that of the United Provinces, was caused by the disorders in Spain. This country and New-Granada, continued in a revolutionary state till 1,819, when they both achieved their inilependence under the rencwned Bolivar. 5. On the 17ili of Dec. 1,819, the congress of Venezuela, at St. Thomas of Angostura, made a declaration yf the fundamental law of union of the Republic of Colombia. On the 17th of July 1,821, the representatives of New-Granada and Venezuela, in general congress at the city of Rosario de Cucuta, declared the following among others, fundamental laws of the union of the people of Colombia ; That the people of New-Granada and Venezuela be united in one body as a nation, under the name of the Republic of Colombia ; That the govern- ment be popular and representative ; The nation free, and indepen* dent of the Spanish monarchy, as well as of all other powers ; That 472 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMEKI\ja. the government consist of legislative, executive, and judiciary au- thorities ; That the territory be divided into six departments, havir^ an administration dependent on the national government ; That whei> the state of the nation shall admit, a new city saall be founded, as the capital of the Republic, which shall bear the name of the liberator Bolivar, the site to be determined by congress ; That there be an annual festival of three days on the 25th, 26th, and 27th of Dec. The constitution resembles that of the United States. Since its adop- tion the country has been prosperous, and its independence seems to be firmly established. PERU. 1. A few tribes inhabiting this country had made considerable ad- vances in civilization when it was first visited by the Spaniards. Bein^ destitute of the art of writing, the early history of the Ameri- can Tt)dians exists only in tradition. There were indeed some records preserved by the Mexicans and Peruvians, but these were mostly destroyed by their conquerors, and the iew that remained were not very intelligible to the Spaniards. Some credit however must be given to the tradition of the kingdom estaolished at Ciizco, m order to account for its great snperioritj' over others. 2. The story is as follows : — Peru was originally possessed by small indepen'.lent tribes, all of which were strangers to almost every spe- cies of cultivation or regular industry, without any fixed residence, and roamed about naked in the forests. After they had struggled for several ages with the hardships and calamities which are inevitable in such a state, and when no circumstance seemed to mdicate the ap- proach of an}' uncommon effort towards improvement, there is said to have appeared on the banks of the lake Titicaca, a man md wo- man of majestic form, and clothed in decent garments. They de- clared themselves children of the Sun, sent by their beneficent parent, who beheld with pity the miseries of the human race, to instruct and to reclaim them. The Peruvians worshipped the Sun ; and, there- fore, the commands of these strangers-were regarded as heavenly in- junctions. Several of the dispersed savages united together, and followed their guides to Cuzco, where they settled and began to lay the foundation of a city. 3. Mauv-o Capac and Mama Ocollo, for such were the names of those extraordinary personages, having thus united some wandering tribes, formed that social union, which by multiplying the desires, and uniting the efforts of the human species, excites "industiy, and leads to improvement. Manco Capac instructed the men in agricul- tine, and other useuil arts ; Mama Ocollo taught the women to spin and weave. The blessings of civilized life were gradually extended to neighbouring tribes, and the dominions of succeeding chiefs, called Incas, or Cltildren of the Sun, compiised all the regions west of the Andes from Chili to Quito. 4. To preserve the succession of the Incas pure and unpolluted by mixture with less noble blood, the sons of Manco Capac married their own sisters. As these Incas assumed the rank not only of legis- lators, but messengers from Heaven, the whole system of civil policy tvas Ibunded on religion. Their precepts were received as mandates of the Deity. Hence their authority was unlimited and absolute in the most extensive meaning of the uorJs. All crimes were con- sidered not only as violations of civil duty, but as insults offered to HISTORY OF SOL Til AMERICA. 473 the Deity ; aiid they were all punished capitally. But so great nas the veneration for the Incas, that the number of offendeis was ex- tremely small. The genius of their religion was exceedingly mild, and as divine autiiority was ascribed to the Incas, the mmds of the people were not humbled and depressed by a forced subjection to the will of a superior ; and obedience implied no degradation- 5. Thus during twelve successive reigns this happy nation ad- vanced in knowledge' and virtue, in weallii and power, and in all the essential arts of civilized life. Agriculture was in a state of high improvement ; architecture was advanced to a state equal to their wants ; their roads, bridges, and manufactures ; f^ieir use of gold and silver for utensils and works of ornament, all b'^ar testimony that they had advanced far above the common state of savage life. But there was no very distinct arrangement of professions ; no cities were es- tablished except Cuzco, to give activity to conmierce ; they knevt not the use of iron, and hence were ''ittle qualified to work in wood and stone ; they appear to have J^ad no good method for lighting theii houses, — to have been ignoran-* of the construction of arches, — ofeveiy convenient method of recording events, and of perpetuating thi*. knowledge they possessed. 6. When the Spaniard? rirst visited Peru in 1,526, Huana Capac- the twelfth Inca, was seated on the throne. He is represented ah eminent for his virti.es, his knowledge, and his military talents. He had subjected ihc kingdom of Quito and added it to his dominions. He was ibnd of residing in the capital of that province ; and contrary to the lundamental law of the rnonarchy, he married the daughter of the- vanquished monarch of Quito. She bore him a son named Ata- fctialpa, wiiom at his death, Avhicn seems to have occured about the year 1,529, he appointed his successor toQui to, leaving the rest of his dominions to Huascar, his eldest son. This was no sooner known at Cuzco, than it excited general disgust. The Peruvians were shocked at this violation of a fundamental law, coeval with the empire, and founded on sacred authority. Huascar was hence encouraged to re- quire of his brother to renounce the government of Ci,uito ; but Ata- hualpa had a large part of the Peruvian army under his control, and was little inclined to yield to the demand. Hence arose a civil war, whicli continued to rage until Pizarro with his cruel and per- fidious band, came among them in 1,532, 7. The Spaniards, availing themselves of the existing dissensions, found the conquest easily attainable. Both the Incas were put to death under circumstances of most awful barbarity. No language can describe the detestable cruelties oi' these graceless invaders. A few, indeed, among them were found to protest against it, but in the heart of Pizarro, the common ieelings of humanity had been absolute- ly annihilated by his avarice. Cuzco furnished more valuable spoil than was ever found in any other city. The whole countiy was soon subjected ; and its mines were seized in the name of the kirg of Spain. 8. Since 1,533, Peru has remained a Spanish province, subject to a viceroy. Fcr the form of government in all the Spanish provinces in America, see Sec. I. Part V. The countiy is now much smaller than when governed by the Incas. In 1,718, Quito on the north a« far as the river Tumbez, was annexed to New-Granada ; and in 1.778, Potosi and other rich districts on the southeast were annexed to Bue> nos Ayres. P. For several years Peru has been in a revolutionary state. The left^'itr of the patriots is Jose San Martin. The capital has 8«v«r«l Rr2 . M 474 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMEKRrA. times fallen into their hands, but has been retaken by the royalisfs. Their prospect for independence is yearly increasing:, and the royal- ists now possess only a small part of U])per Peru. This is the only territory now possessed Ly the Sjianiards on the continent ot" America. It cannot be many years before the New World which they discovered, and which has suffered so much tVotn their lapacity and tyranny, will be completely wrested from their cruel despotism. CHILI. 1. We know iiothing of the history of Chili previous to the middle of the fifteenth ceniviry. From the Peruvian annals it appears that Yupanqui, the tenth Ir^^a, made an attempt to subject the Chilese. He met with little opposWon till he anived as far as the river Kepel. Beyond this was -i formidable nation named Promaucians or free, dan,' cers. In a long battle they wtre successful, completely routed the Peruvians, and drove them from ihek territories. The Inca imposed an annual tribute of gold on the conquered tribes, but no innovation was attempted, either in their customs, manners, or government. 2. The country was invaded by the Spaniards uHder Almagro in 1,535. He left Cuzco with 570 Spaniards and 15,000 Peruvian aux- iliaries. Disregarding the remonstrances of hfs confederates, he § referred passing the Cordilleras, to the entrance, less dangerous at lat season, by the desert of Atacama. Winter had commenced when they reached the Cordillera Nevada, and the six)w fell in such abundance, and Vie cold was so intense, that not less thao 10,000 Pe- ruvians and 150 Spaniards perished. In a second expedition Alma- fro found the natives exceedingly friendly. They looked up to iJie paniards as beings of a superior order, and were ready to yield sub- mission. But when they arrived among the Promaucians, they met with such powerful resistance, as determined them to abandon the enterprise. 3. Keturning to Cuzco a contest ensued between Almagro and Fizarro, in which the former was slain. Pizarro, now sole master of Peru, determined on the conquest of Chili. He entrusted the expe- dition to Valdivia, one of the ablest generals among the Spanish ad- venturers. He met with very inveterate animosity from aM the tribes, but their opposition was too feeble to arrest the progress of 2,000 Spaniards, under such a lt>ader. Having overcome the Mapochinians who resided on the river Mapocho, he laid the foundation of St. Jago and erected a strong citadel for protection. The natives continued for six years their feeble attempts to regain their beautiful plain, but finding their object hopeless, the few that remained destroyed their crops, and retired to the mountains, Valdivia, haviiig received a reinforcement from Peru, invaded and conquered the Promaucians, and established colonies in many places. Endeavouring to penetrate still farther southward, he encountered the most formidable enemy which the Spaniards ever met Avith in America. This was the na- tion of the Araucanians. He gained some victories over them, but was frequently repulsed, and at length was completely defeated, him- self taken prisoner, and his whole army slain, with the exception of two Promaucian auxiliaries. Villagran, the successor of Valdivia, made a desperate attempt to revenge the death of that favourite general, but was repulsed with great slaughter. He was, how- ever, successful in a very important subsequent engagement, in which Lautaro, the Araucanian general, was slain. 4. The contest continued for several years with various success HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA. 47S till the Araucanians were much enfeebled. They have not, however, been conquered, and they retain to this day a considerable part of their ancient territories. They presene their ancient customs and language in a considerable degree of purit)^ There are few lan- guages so regular in their structure, or so copious in their inflections, as the Araucanian. They had made considerable advancement in civilization, Avere remarkably active and energetic in their bodily and mental habits, generous and dignified in their disposition and deport- ment. Connected with the perfection of their language, was their habit of cultivating the art of oratory ; and we know very few civib^ied nations that have so faithfully observed the common duties of charity. 5. From the period of the conquest of Chili till its revolution in 1,810, few occurrences of much interest are recorded. At this time the Chilese, finding the same embarrassments which were suffered by other provinces on acconnt of the disorders in Spain, took the govern- ment into their own hands, — still holding out the idea, however, of a reunion with the mother country when circumstances would permit. In 1,H14, the royal troops from Peru invaded Chili, entirely defeated the patriots at Kaneagua, and reconquered the country. A remnant of the patriot forces fled over the Andes, where, with oiher Chilian refugees and two regiments of negroes, and some officers, tliev were reorganized by general San Martin under the name of the United Army of the Andes. In 1,817, they re-entered Chili, entirely vanquished the royal troops at Chacabuco, and restored independence to the country. The passage of this army over the Andes with its artillery, deserves to be ranked among the most celebrated achievements re- corded in history. It was effected with the loss of about 5,000 horses and mules, and a small number of men who perished wiili thoi cold. 6. On the 12th of February 1,818, the nation made a formal declara- tion of absolute independence. The royal truops who escaped from the battle of Chacabuco being reintbrced by all the royal forces .•/i Peru, about 5,000 in number, renewed the contest with the patriots ; but after a temporary success, they were finally defeated in the de- cisive battle of Maypo, April 5th, 1,818. This event is celebrated by the Chilese in their songs, festivals, and histories, with the. most enthusiastic expressions of gratitude and admiration. 7. The government established in Chili is republican. Education is making considerable progress, and every ray of light confirms the people more absolutely in the love of liberty. Tlieir independence is acknowledged by other nations. They live in amity with the Araucanians, who have a minister at the capital. Weie they exempt from the tyranny of the Catholic religion, we might regard them as destmed to oecome a great and happy nation ; but while this exists, they will make slow progress in that real knowledge which can result only from the free use ot the faculties, with which Heaven has en- dowed the children of men. 8. Too much can hardly be said in praise of the disinterestedness, prudence, braveiy, and steady perseverance of Don Jose San Martin. in maintaining the cause of South American independence. Fond of the retirement of private life, he has uniformly laid aside the high digni- ties with which the gratetui patriots of Chili, Buenos Ayres, and Peru, have repeatedly invested him, wlenever the good of their cause would permit it ; and, although in time.« of such public excitement, the best men are subject to suspicion, envy, and slander, we have good reason for rankii.g this distinguished veteran among thase, who fegard not their own, but the public good. 476 HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERfCA. 9. Nor is that distinguished hero and statesman, Bolivar, entitlfed to less renown. To him the Republic of Colombia principally owes its independence, and he has been one of its most efficient ai^^ents in wganizing the new government. He is now President of the Re- public ; and, his career not being closed, we cannot decide on the rank to which his whole life will entitle him ; but he has hitherto trod in the footsteps of the Leader of the first American Revolution, and if he persist in this course to the end, his name will be ranked by pos- terity with that of Washington. 1 825. CHRQNOL^SClCAL. TABLE. EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE OF CHRONOLOGY. To give a distinct view of thfi succession of princes in the chief emi/ires or kingdoms, without employing different columns, (which distracts tlie attention, and occupies too much space,) the series of the sovereigns of difl'erent nations is distinguished in this table by different typographical characters. By this method the succession of the sovereigns in the different kingdoms is immediately distinguishable, and also the duration of their reigns. In the intervals of time between every two successive reigns are recorded the remarkable events which occurred in those periods, in all parts of the world ; and thus the connexion of general history is preserved un- broken. The series of the kings and emperors of Rome is printed in a larger Ro- man type than the rest of the table : as, 1 4 Tiberius, Emperor of Rome The series of the popes is distinguishable by this character IT prefixed to each name; as, 1513 II Pope Leo X. The names of the emperors of Germany are printed in Italic capitals; as. 887 ARNOLD, Emperor of Germany. The kings of England are designated by the black Saxon type ; as, lOGG SS^tlUam (the Conqueror) king of England. Tiie kings of Scotland are denoted by a larger capital beginning the word ; as, 1390 Robert III., king of Scotland. The kings of Franco are distinguished by the Italic type ; u, 1496 Lewis Xli., king of France. CfHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C. 4004 The Creation of the World, according to the Hebrew text of the Scriptures. According to the version of the Septuagint 5872. Acording to tlie Samaritan version 4700. 2348 The Universal Deluge. 2'.i47 The Building ofBaSel; the Dispersion of Mankind; and the Confu- sion of Languages. 2217 Nimrod supposed to have built Babylon, and founded the Kabylonish Monarchy ; and Assur to have built Nineveh, and founded tlie Monarchy of Assyria. 8188 Menes (in Scripture Misraim) founds the Monarchy of Egypt. 2084 The Shepherd Kings conquer Egypt. 2040 Moeris King of Thebes and Memphis in Egypt. 19!)6 The Birth of Abram. I8i)7 Sodom and Gomorrah destroyed by fire from Heaven. 18!J() Isaac born. 185G Inachus fiunds the Kingdom of Argos in Greece. 1830 Jacob and Esau born. 1825 The Shepherd Kings abandon Egypt. 1823 Deatii of Abraham. l7f)C Tlie Deluge of Ogyges in Attica. 1722 Sesostris or Kameses King of Egypt. I()35 Joseph dies in Egypt. .-^, "•• "■ logy of tl 1571 Moses born in Egypt 1582 The Chronology of the Arundelian Marbles begins with this year. 1550 Cecro])s founds the kingdom of Athens. 1.540 Scamander founds the Kingdom of Troy. 1532 Judgment of t.*^^e Areopagus between Mars and Neptune, two priacas of Thessaly. 152;) The Deluge of Deucalion in Thessaly. 1522 The Council of the Amphictyons instituted. 1520 Corinth built. 1500 Eroctheus or Erycthonius institutes the Panathenaean Games. 1493 Cadmus builds Thebes, and introduces Letters into Greece. 1491 Moses brings the Israelites out of Egypt. 1453 The first Olympic Games celebrated in Greece. J452 The Pentateuch, or five Books of Moses, written. 1451 The Israelites led into the land of Canaan by Joshua. 1438 Pandion King of Athens. 1400 Minos reigns in Crete, and gives laws to the Cretans. 1370 Setiiof- reigns in Egypt. 1322 Belus reigns in Babylon. 1207 Ninus reigns in Assyria. 1200 Oedipus marries his Mother Jocasta, and reigns in Thebes. 1203 The Argonaulic Expedition. According to the Newtonian Cbraool ogy 937. 1257 Theseus unites the Cities of Attica. 1253 Tyre, the capital of Phoenicia, built. 42S5 Si»ge of Thebes. War between EtooclM and Polji CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. ATJ B. C. 1225 Eurysthenes and Procles Kings of Lacedaemon. 1215 Second War of Thebes, or War of the Epigonoi. Seiniramis s«ppose Phraortes King of Media. C40 Ancus Martius fourth King of Rome C27 The Forty Years of Ezekiel began. 026 Periander Tyrant of Corinth. Nabopolassar, father of Nebuchadnezzar, begins to reign at Babylon. 624 Draco Archon and Legislator of Athens. 616 Tarquinius Priscus fifth King of Rome. 606 Nebuchadnezzar takes Jerusalem, and carries the Jews into captivity. (501 Battle between the Medes and Lvdians, who are separated by a great eclipse oi the sun, predicted by Tbales. (Newton, Chron. S85.) 480 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE B.C. GOl End of tlie Assyrian Empire. Nineveh taken by Nebuehadnexzar. 600 Jtnemiali propiiesicd. 599 Birth of Cyrus liie Great. 594 Solon Arclion and Legislator of Alliens. 578 Servius Tullius sixth King of Rome. 572 Nebuchadnezzar subdues Egypt. 571 Plialaris Tyrant of Ajrrigenlurn. 562 Comedies first exhibited at Athens by Thespis. Crffisus reigns in Lydia. 551 Cont'ucius, the Cliinese Philosopher, born. 550 Pisistratus Tyrant of Athens. 548 The Ancient Temple of Delphos burnt by the Pisistratids. 538 Babylon taken by Cyrus. End of the Babylonian Empire. 536 Cyrus ascends the throne of Persia. He puts an end to the Jewish captivity, which had lasted seventy years. 534 1 arquiliius Supcrbus seventh King of Rome. Daniel prophesied. 529 Death of Cyrus the Great. Cair.byses King of Persia. Death of Pisistratus Tyrant of Athens. 522 Darius, son of Hystaspes, King of Persia. 520 The Jews begin to build the second Temple, which is finished in four years. 510 Tlio Pisistratidas expelled from Athens, and the Democracy restored. • — Statues erected at Athens to Hannodius and Aristogiton. 509 The Tarquins expelled from Rome and the Regal Government abol- ished. 508 The first Alliance between the Romans and Carthaginians. 504 Sardis taken and burnt by the Athenians. 498 The first Dictator created at ESime (Lartius.) 497 Institution of the Saturnalia at Rome 493 The port of Piraius built by the Athenians. 490 Tiie Battle of Marathon, ir, .vhich Miltiades defeats the Persians. 488 The first Tribunes of the People created at Rome. According to Blair 493. Miltiades dies in prison. 486 Xerxes succeeds his father Darius in the kingdom of Persia. 485 Coriolanus banished from Rome. 483 Q.ua;.stors instituted at Rome. Aristides banished from Athens by the Ostracism. 480 The Spartans, under Leonidas, slain at TliermopyJ'"- Naval Victory gained by the Greeks over the Jvrsians at Salamis 479 Attica laid waste and Athens burnt by M-"'J""'us. Victories over the Persians at Plat.'»>^ and Mycale. Xerxes leaves Greece. 477 300 Fabii killed by the V^.-entes. 476 Themisioclcs robuiJJs Athens. Valerius triinopOs over the Veientes and Sabines. The Rom-in Citizens numbered at 103,000. A great Eruption of ^Etna. Hiero King of Syracuse. 471 Volero, the Roman Tribune, obtains a law for the election of magia. trates in the comit-a held by tribes. 470 Cinion, son of Miltiades, defeats the Persian army and fleet in ono day, at the mouth of the river Eurymedon. 469 Capua founded by the Tuscans. 464 Artaxerxes (Longimanu.s) King of Persia. Cimon banished by the Ostracism. 463 Egypt revolts fiom the Persians. 46ii The Tereatian Law proposed at HoDM. 45€ Cineinaatui Dictator at Rom*' - > CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 48] B.C. 456 The Ludi Ssecu ares first instituted at Rome. 455 Commencement of the Seventy Prophetical Weeks of Daniel. 453 The number of the Tribunes of the people at Rome increased from Five to Ten. 452 The two Books of Chronicles supposed to have been written at this time by Ezra. 451 Ci cation of the Decemviri at Rome, and Compilation of the Laws of the Twelve Tables. 4 !l) Peace between the Greeks and Persians concluded by Cimon, glorious for Greece. Death of Virginia, and Abolition of the Dccemvirate. 4 15 The Law of Canulcius for the Intermarriage of the Patricians and Plebeians at Rome. Military Tribunes created. 437 The Censorship first instituted at Rome. 43G Pericles in high power at Athens. 132 Meton'e Cycle of the Moon of nineteen years. 431 The Peloponnesian War begins, which lasted twenty-seven years. 430 The History of the Old Testament ends about this lime. Gieat Plague at Athens, eloquently described l)y Thucydides. Malachi the last of the Prophets. 428 Death of Pericles. 423 Darius Nethus King of Persia. 413 Disturbances at Rone on account of the Agrarian Law. 414 The Athenians defeated before Syracuse. 413 Alcibiades, accused at Athens, flies to tlie Lacedaemonians. 412 A Council'of 400 governs Alliens. 405 Lysandei defeats the Athenians at /Egos Potamos. 404 Arta.xerxes H. (Mncmon) Ki-ng of Persia. End of the Peloponnesian War. ^ •103 Lysandei takes Athens. Governnient of the Thirty Tyrants. 401 The younger Cyrus defeated by his brother Arlaxerxes, and killed Retreat of the Ten Thousand Greeks. Persecution and Death of Socrates. Thrasybulus drives out the Thirty Tyranta, and delivers Athens. 309 A Lectisterniuni first celebrated at Rome. 3D7 The Lake of Alba drained by the Romans. 306 Syracuse unsuccessfully besieged by the Carthaginians. 391 Marcus Furius Camillus Dictator at Rome. Veil taken. 357 Dishonourable Peace of Antalcidas between the Spartans and Per sians. 385 Rome taken by the Gauls under Brennus. 383 Phaebidas, the Spartan, seizes the Cil,;del of Tiiei)es. 380 Pelopidas and Epaminondas deliver Thebes from the Lacedasmonians. 371 Battle of Leuctra, in which the Lacedaemonians are defeated by the Thebans under Ej?aminondas. 364 Pelopidas defeats the Tyrant of Pheresa, but is killed in battle. 303 Battle of fllatinea, in which Epaminondas is killed. 362 Curtius leaps into a Gulf in the Forum at Rome. 361 Darius Ochus (or Artaxerxes III.) King of Persia. According to Blair, 358. 358 War of the Allies against Athens. Philip of Macedon takes Ainphipolis, Pydna, and Potidea. 357 Dion overcomes the party of Dionysius at Syracuse. 356 Alexander the Great born at Pella'in Macedonia. The Temple of Diana, at Ephesus, burnt by Erostratua. The Phocian or Sacred War begins in Greece. Philip conquers the Thracians, Paeonians, and Illyrians. 350 Darius Ochus subdues Egyot. 348 Philip of Macedon takes Olymhus.' Ss 61 482 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B.C. 3-18 End of the Sacred War. 347 Dionysius restored at Syracuse, after an e.xile of ten years. 346 Philip admitted a Member of the Amphictyonlc Council. 343 Syracuse taken by Timoleon, and Dionysius the Tyrant finally ban- islied. — Tlie War between the Romans and Saranites, which led to the con- quest of all Italy. '^40 The Carthaginians defeated near Agrigentum. P. Decius devotes himself for his country. 338 Battle of Cheronaia gained by Philip over the Athenians and Thebans 337 Piiilip chosen Generalissimo of the Greeks. 33G Philip murdered by Pausanias. Alexander the Great King of JMacedon. Alexander the Great destroys Thebes. 33."j Darius HI. (Codomannus) King of Persia. Alexander cJiosen Generalissimo by the States of Greece. 334 Alexander defeats the Persians on the banks of tha Granicus. 333 The Persians defeated by Alexander at Issus. 332 Alexander conquers Egypt, and takes Tyre. 331 Darius defeated by Alexander at Arbela. 330 Darius Codomannus killed. End of the Persian Empire. — Alexander takes possession of Susa, and sets fire to the Palace of Persepolis. 323 Alexander passes into India, defeats Porus, founds several cilieSj penetrates to the Ganges. The Voyage of Nearchus from the Indus to the Euphrates. 325 Papirius Cursor, Dictatoi .it Kcme, triumphs over the Samnites. ;!24 Alexander the Great dies at Babylon, at the age of thiity-three. 321 The Samnites make the Roman Army pass under the yoke at Caudium. 320 Ptolemy cai-rics 100,000 Jews captives into Egypt. ;;'/' Agathocles Tyrant of Syracuse. 312 Era of the Selucidae. 31 1 Cassander, Lysimachus, and Ptolemy, conclude a peace with Antig- onus. !504 Demetrius besieges Rhodes. :>03 Demetrius restores the Greek Cities" to their liberty. ■.?01 Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, in which Antigonus is defeated and slain. Fabius Maximus and Valerius Corvus Dictators. 300 Seleucus founds Antioch, Edessa, and Laodicea. 1:93 Athens taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes. j 294 Seleucus resigns his Wife Stratonice to his son Antiochus. ! 28G Law of Horte;isius, by which the decrees of the people were allowed the same force as those of the senate. 265 The Astronomical Era of Dionysius of Alexandria. 284 Ptolemy Philadelplius King of Egypt. 283 The Library of Alexandria founded. 231 Commencement of the Achaean League. 280 Pyrrhus invades Italy. - — AntiocJius Soter King of Syria. 277 The Translation of the Septuagint made by order of Ptolemy Phila-- delplius. Playfair, 285 — Antigonus Gonatus reigned in Macedon thirty-six years. 275 Pyrrhus unsuc.jessful against the Carthaginians in Sicily. 274 Pyrrhus, totally defeated by the Romans near Beneventum, evacuates Italy. 272 The Samnites finally subdued by the Romans. 2G(3 Silver Money is coined at Rome fi^r the first time. 255 The Citizens of Rome numbered at 292,224. 204 The first Punic War begins. • The Chronicle of Paros composQ4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 483 B.C. 260 Provincial Qusestors instituted at Rome. First Naval Victory obtained by the Romans under the Consul Duilius. 2.55 Regulus defeated and taken prisoner by the Carthaginians under Xantippus .25'.5 Mftnassoh cjiosen High Priest of the Jews. ,2.0] Great Victory of Metel'.us over Asdrubal. 2'->i) The Romans besiege Lilyboeum ; are defeated by Hamilcur. 241 End of the first Punic War. Attains King of Pergamus succeeds Eumenes. 240 Comedies are first acted at R,ome. 2.35 The Temjile of Janus shut the first time since the reig:. of Numa 22d Hamilcar killed in Spain. 225 Great Victory of theRoman.s over the Gauls. 219 Hannibal takes Saguntum. 218 The second Punic War begins. 217 Hannibal defeats the Romans under Fiaminius. Fabius Maximus Dictator. 2U) Battle of Cannm, in which the Romans are totally defeated by Han- nibal. 212 Philip II. of Macedon defeats the jEtolians. Marcel! iis takes Syracuse, after a siege of two years. 211 Capua surrenders to the Romans. Antiochus the Great conquers Judsea. 2i0 Asdrubal vanquished in Spain by the Scipios. Publiiis Scipio, sent into Spain, takes New-Carthage. 200 Philupcemen Praator of the Achseans. 203 The C;.rthaginians recall Hannibal to Africa. Sophonisba poisoned by Massinissa. 201 Syphax led in triiunpli to Rome by P. Scipio. r,l7 Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynocephale. l!)o The Cattle of Zama, and end of the second Punic War. 190 The Romans enter Asia, and defeat Antigonus atMagnesii. 183 The elder Cato Censor at Rome. 173 War between the Romans and Perseus King of Macedon. 172 Antiocluis defeats the generals of Ptolemy i'n Egypt. 170 Antiochus Epiphanes takes and plunders Jerusalem. 1G9 Terence's Comedies performed at Rome. 1G7 Perseus defeated by Paulus ^Emilius, and brought prisoner to Rome. End of the kingdom of Macedon. Ui6 Judas Maccabeus drives tlie Syrians out of Judea. 1(;4 TJie Roman Citizens numbered at 327,032. 1 19 The third Punic War begins. 117 Meteilus defeats the Achasans. 14() Corinth taken by the Consul Mummius. Carthage taken and destroyed by the Romans. 137 The Romans shamefully defeated by the Numantines. 1 35 The History of tiie Apocrypha ends. Antiochus besieges Jerusalem. 133 Tiberius Gracchus put to death. Numantia taken. Pergamus becomes a Roman Province. 121 Caius Gracchus killed. 113 Carbo the Consul drives the Cinibri and Teutones out of Italy. Ill The Jugurthine War begms. 108 Marms defeats Jugurtfia. 103 Jugurtha starved to death at Rome. 102 Marius defeats tiie Teutones and Cimbri. 91 The War of the Allies against the Romans. 90 Sylla defeats the Marsi, Peligni, Samnites, &c. 89 The Mithridatic War begins. 88 Civil War between Marius and Sylla. Sylla takea possession of Rome. 484 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. B. c. . ^f^ri^'ii 86 Mithridates King of Pontus defeated by Sylla. 'i 83 Sylla defHats Norbanus. Tlie Capitol burnt. i 82 Sylla perpetual Dictator. His horrible Proscription. 80 Julius Caesar makes his first Campaign. 79 Cicero's first Oration for Roscius. 78 Sylla resigns ail power, and dies. 77 The War of Sertorius. 72 Lucullus repeatedly defeats Mithridates, and reduces Pontus to a Roman province. 70 (Jiassus and Pompey chosen Consuls at Rome. *>3 V^ictories of Pompey. He takes Jerusalem, and restores Hyrcanus to the government of Judea. 02 Catiline's Conspiracy quelled at Rome by Cicero. Gl Pompey enters Rome in triumph. 5iJ Tlie first Triumvirate ; Pompey, Crassus, and Casar. — Ca3sar proposes a new Agrarian Law. 58 Clodius the Tribune procures the Banishment of Cicero. 57 Ciesar defeats Ariovistus in Gaul. — Cicero brought back from Exile with high honour. 55 Csesar lands in Britain, and makes a short campaign. 54 Cffisar invades Britain a second time, and conquers part of it. 53 Crassus killed in Mesopotamia. 52 Milo defended by Cicero for tlie slaughter of Clodius. 49 Cajsar passes the Rubicon, and marclies to Rome. — Commencement of the Era of Antioch, October, 49 A. C. 48 Battle of Pharsalia, in which Pompey is defeated. — Pompey slain in Egypt. — The Alexandrian Library of 400,000 volumes burnt. 4G Cato besieged in Utica, kills himself 45 The Kalendar reformed by Julius Cassar, by introducing the Soiai Year instead of the Lunar. The first Julian Year began January 1, 44 Julius Csesar killed in the Senate-House. — Octavius, grand-nephew and heir of Julius Caesar, comes to Rome, and is opposed at first by Antony. 43 Second Triumvirate ; Octavius, Mark Antony, and Lepidus. 42 Battle of Philippi, in which Brutus and Cassius are deieated. 40 Herod marries Mariamne, daughter of Hyrcanus, and obtains from the Romans the Government of Judaea. 34 Antony divides Armenia among the children of Cleopatra. 33 Mauritania reduced into a Roman Province. 32 War declared by the Senate against Antony and Cleopatra. 31 Battle of Actiurn and end of the Roman Commonwealth. — Octavius Emperor of Rome. 30 Death of Mark Antony and Cleopatra. Alexandria taken by Octa- vius. Octavius receives the title of Augustus. 23 Death of Marcelhis. Agrippa in Spain. 20 Porus King of India sends an Embassy to Augustus. 17 Agustus revives the Secular Games. 15 The Rhreti and Vindelenci defeated by Driisus. 10 The Temple of Janus shut by Augustus for a short time. 8 Augustus corrects an Error of the Roman Kalendar. - Death of Mneccnas. 5 Augustus ordains a Census of all the people in the Roman Empire. 4 JESUS CHRIST is born four years before the commencement of the vulgar era. AD. 9 The Roman Legions under 'Varus, destroyed in Germany- - Ovid the Poet banished to Tomos. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 485 A. D. 14 Tiberius Emperor of Rome. 19 Gcrmanicus dies at Antioch. — Tiberius banislies the Jews from Rome. 26 John the Baptist preaches in Judaea the Coming of the Messiah. 27 Tiberius retires to the island of Capreae. — Pilate made Governor of Judtea. 31 Sejanus disf^raced, and put to death by Tiberius 33 IT St. Peter first Pope. — JESUS CHRIST is crucified. 35 Tiie Conversion of St. Paul. 37 Caligula Emperor of Rome. 39 St. Matthew writes his Gospel. 40 The name of Christians flrst given to the Disciples of Christ at An- tioch. 41 Claudius Emperor of Rome. — Merod persecutes the Christians, and imprisons Peter. 42 Scrgius Paulus, proconsul, converted by St. Paul. 43 Expedition of Claudius into Britain. 44 St. Mark writes his Gospel. 45 Vespasian in Britain. 47 The Ludi Sacularcs (secular games) performed at Rome. 48 Mcssuiina put to death by Claudius, who mames Agrippina the motiier of Nero. 50 St. Paul preaches in the Areopagus at Athens. f>l Caractacus, the British Kjng, is carried prisoner to Rome. 54 Nero Emperor of Rome. C>5 Britannicus poisoned by Nero. 59 Nero jtuts to death his mother Agrippina. 60 Suetonius Paulinas defeats the Britons. 61 The Britons, under Queen Boadicea, defeat the Romans. 04 The first Persecution of the Christians raised by Nero. — Rome set on fire by Nero. GO Bareas Soranus and Tlirasea PsEtua put to death by Nero. — H Pope Linus. 07 Massacre of the Jews by Florus, at Cassarea, Ptolemais, and Alejt- andria. — St. Peter and St. Paul put to death. — Josephus, the Jewish histririan, governor of Galilee. — H Pope St. Clement. 08 Galba Emperor of Rome. 09 Otho Emperor of Rome. _ Vitellius Emperor of Rome. 70 Vespasian Emperor of Rome. — Jerusalem taken and destroyed by Titus. 77 IT Pope St. Cletus. 78 A great Pestilence at Rome, 10,000 dying in one day. 79 Titus Emperor of Rome. — Herculaneum and Pompeii destroyed by an Eruption of Vesuvius. 80 Conquests of Agricola in Britain. 81 Domitian Emperor of Rome. 83 TT Pope Anacletus. 89 Apollonius of Tyanea defends Iiiniself before Domitian against an accusation of Treason. 95 Dreadful Persecution of the Christians at Rome, and in the prov- inces. — St. John writes his Apocalypse, and Jiis Gospel. L!6 Nerva Emperor of Rome. S82 486 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.D. ; .-i-X 96 ir Pope Evaristus. W 98 Trajan Emperor of Rome. -- Trajan forbids the Christian Apsemblies. 103 The Dacians subdued by Trajan. 1U7 Trajan's Victories in Asia. 108 St. Ignatius devoured by wild Beasts at Rome. IT Pope Alexander I. 115 The Jews in Cyreno murder 200,000 Greeks and Romans. 1 17 TI Pope Sixtus I. 118 Adrian Emperor of Rome. Persecution of the Christians renewed by Adrian, but afterward suspended. 120 Adrian's Wall built across Britain. 127 ir Pope Telesphorus. 131 Adrian visits Egypt and Syria. 132 Adrian publishes his perpetual Edict or Code of the LiMirs. 135 The Romans destroyed 580,000 Jews in Judaea. 137 Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem by the name of Mlia. Capitolina. 138 IT Pope Ilygiuus. Antonius Pius Emperor of Rome. 142 IT Pope Pius I. 150 Ti Pope Anicetus. 154 Justin Martyr publishes his Apology for the Christians. 161 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus and Lucius V ems Emperors of Rome. IG2 H Pope Soter. 167 Poly carp and Pioniccs suffered Martyrdom in Asia. ir)9 War witii the Marcomanni. 171 Death of Verus. Marcus Aurelius sole Emperor. V Pope Eleutherius. 177 Pcrscijution of the Christians at Lyons. ISO Commodus Emperor of Rome. 185 IT Pope Victor I. 189 The iSaracens defeat the Romans. This people first mentioned in history. 193 Pertinax Emperor of Rome. Didius Julianus purchases the Knpire. - _ Pescennius Niger declared Emperor in the East. Septimius SeverUS Emperor of Rome. 194 Niger defeated by Severus, and put to death. 195 Byzantium besieged, surrenders to Severus. 196 Albinus proclaimed Emperor in Britain. 197 Albinus, defeated by Severus, lulls himself. M Pope Zephyrinus. 200 202 The fifth Persecution against the Christians, principally in Egypt. 208 Severus. with his sons Caracalla and Geta, in Britain. 209 The Caledonians repulsed, and a Wall built between the rivem Forth and Clyde. 211 Caracalla and Geta Emperors of Rome. 212 Caracalla murders Geta. 217 Caracalla put to death. — Macrinus Emperor of Rome. TT Pope Calixtus L 213 Heljogabalus Emperor of Rome CHRONOLOGIOAL TABLE. 497 A. D. 222 Alexander Severus Emperor of Rome. — A Tribute paid bv the Romans to the Gothflu — IT Pope Urban I.' 226 The Persians totally defeated bv Alexander Sevenw 230 V Pope Pontianiis. 235 V Pope Anterus. - Maximinus assassinates Alexander Severue, and is proo1aiin«d Ewh peror of Rome. 236 The sixth Persecution of the Christiatfie. - IT Pope Fabianus. 237 Maximinus defeats the Dacians and Sarmatians. '• 238 Maximus and Balbinus Emperors of Rome. Gordian Emperor of Rome. 2^^12 Gordian defeats the Persians under Sapor. 244 Philip the Arabian Emperor of Rome. 248 Tlie Secular Games celebrated at Rome. Pompey's Theatre bOIDt. St. Cyprian elected Bishop of Carthage. 249 Decius Emperor of Rome. 250 The seventh Persecution of the Christians under Decins. IT Pope St. Cornelius. 251 Vibiu.S Volusianus Emperor of Rome. G alius Emperor of Rome. 252 IF Pope Lucius I. 253 The Goths, Burgundians, &c. make an Irruption into Moeim and Paimonia. 254 Valerianus Emperor of Rome. TI Pope Ste])hen I. 257 TJio eighth Persecution of the Christian* f Pope Sixtus II. 2.50 Tlie Persians ravage Syria. . , IT Pope Dionysius. ' 2G0 Gallienus Emperor of Rome. The Temple of Diana at Ephesus burnt. 261 Sapor, the Persian, talies Antioch, Tai-sua, and CtBsana.. 267 The Heruli invade and ravage Greece. 268 Claudius II. Emperor of Rome. 260 The Goths and Heruli, to tho number of 320,000, defeated hf Claudius. "iT Pope Felix I. 270 Aurclian Emperor of Rome. 271 The Alemanni and Marcomanni ravage the Empire. 272 The ninth Persecution of the Christians. 273 Zenobia Queen of Palmyra defeated by Aureliaa «t ! 274 H Pope Eutychianus. 275 Tacitus Emperor of Rome. 276 Fiorianus Emperor of Rome. 277 Probus Emperor of Rome. 28? Carus Emperor of Rome defeats the Qnadi an 282 Carinus, Numerianus, Emperors of Rome. 283 II Pope Cuius. - Finga! King of Morven died. 284 Diocletian Emperor of Rome. 286 Tlie Empire attacked by the Noffticm IVationi. - Carausiufi usurps the government of Britain, and relglW I 488 CHRONOI-OGICAL TABLE. A. D. 290 The Gregoiian and Hermogenian Codes published. 292 Partition of the Erapiro by Diocletian between two Emporors and Iwo Cffisars. 205 IT Tope Marceilinus. Alexandria in Egypt taken by Diocletian. 300 302 The tenth Persecution of the Christians. 304 IT Pope Marcellus. Resignation of Diocletian and Maximian - Galerius and Constantins Emperors of Rome. 305 Maximinus Emperor of Rome. S06 Constantine the Great Emperor of Rome, lie etops the Per sccution of the Christians. .no IT Pope Eusebius. H Pope Melchiades. 314 U Pope Sylvester. 325 Constantine abolishes the Combats of Gladiators. He assembles the first General Council at Nice, wlrere the Doctrines of Arius are condemned. 326 St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, introduces iMonarchisra iu the Roman Emp4re. 329 Constantine removes the Seat of Empire to Constantinople. 336 T[ Pope Marcus. 337 IT Pope Julius I. . Death of Constantine. The Empire divided among his three Sons. - Constantine II., Constans, and Constantius, Emperors of Rome. 352 IT Pope Liberius. 350 TT Pope Felix I. 357 The Germans defeated by Julian at Strasburg. 358 H Pope Felix II. 361 Julian Emperor of Rome. He abjures Christianity, is elected Pon- tifex Maximus, and attempts fruitlessly to rebuild tke Temple of Jerusalem. 363 Jovian Emperor of Rome. 364 Valentinian Emperor of the West. Valens Empcrer of the East. 366 IT Pope Damasus. 367 Gratian Emperor of the West. 375 Valentinian 11. Emperor of the West. 376 Valens allows tiie Goths to settle in Thrace. 378 The Goths advance to the Gates of Constantinople. Death of Valens. 379 Theodosius the Great Emperor of the East. 381 Second General Council held at Constantinople. 383 The Huns overnm Mesopotamia ; are defeated by the Goths. 384 Symmachus pleads the cause of Paganism against St. Ambrose in tiie Senate. 385 IT Pope Syricius. 392 Theodosius Emperor of the West and East. 395 Arcadius Emperor of the East, and HonoruiS of the West- The Huns hivade the Eastern Provinces. 397 St. Chrysostom chosen Patriarch of Constantinonle. 399 !T Pope Anastasius. r^ Gainas the Goth obtains Honours from Arcadius. OHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. m9 AD. 400 Alario the Goth ravages Italy. 401 U Pope Innocent I. 403 Stilicho, General of Honorius, defeats Alario near Pollentia. 404 Fergus I. King of Scotland, supposed to have begun his reign. 40G The Vandals, Alans, &c. invade France and Spain. 408 Theodosius II. Emperor of the East. 410 Eonie sacked and burnt by Alario. Death of Alaric. 411 Tiie Vandals settled in Spain. 416 The Secular Games celebrated at Rome. The Pelagian Heresy condemned by the Bishops of Africi. 417 IT Pope Zozimus. 413 IT Pope Boniface I. 420 Pharamond first King of the Franks supposed to have begun hit reiffn. 422 ^ Pope Cjelestinus. 424 Valentinian III. Emperor of the West. i26 The Romans withdraw finally from Britain. i23 .^lius, the Roman General, defeats the Franlia and Goths. ■431 The third General Council held at Ephesus. 432 H Pope Sixtus III. 435 The Theodosian Code published. 439 Generic the Vandal invades and plunders Italy. — Eudocia the Empress, wife of Theodosius, retires to Jerusalem. — - Carthage taken by the Vandals. Kingdom of the Vandals in Africa. 440 H Pope Leo the Great. 442 Theodosius forced to make a disgraceful Peace with Attila the Hun. Attila causes his brotiier Bleda to be m.urdered. 445 Tlie Britons in vain solicit the Romans to assist them against the Picta and Scots. 445 Attila tlie Hun overruns Illyriura, Thrace, Dacia, Moesia, and Scythia. 448 Tl!0 Romans engage to pay a heavy Tribute of Gold to Attila. 449 McrovoEus King of the Franks. 450 Marcian Emperor of the East. — Attila ravages Germany and France. 451 Tlieodoric King of the Visigoths killed in battle. The Huns defeated by ^tius. — The Sa.Kons arrive in Britain under Hengist and Horsa. — The fourth (General Council held at Chalcedon. 4ri2 Foundation of the city of Venice. 455 Petromius IVlaximus Emperor of th« West. — AvitUS Emperor of the West. - Rome taken and plundered by Genseric the Vandal. 45G Childeric King of the Franks. 4.57 Leo the Great Emperor of the East. ^^ Majorianus Emperor of the West. '^ 461 Severus Emperor of the West, raised by Ricimer. H Pope Hilarius. 4G7 Anthemius Emperor of the West. 4 (38 Eric King of the Visigoths drives the Romans out of Spain. H Pope Simplicius. 470 .^Ua the Saxon takes possession of the Kingdom of Sussex. 471 iElla defeats all the British Princes. 472 Great Eruption of Mount Vesuvius, seen from ConsUmtinopIe. . Olybius Emperor of the West. 63 490 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 473 Glycerius, Emperor of the West, degraded and stripped by 474 Julius NepOS Emperor of the West. Zero Emperor of tlie East. AagUStuIus Romulus Emperor of the West, raised by his father Orestes, General of Nepos. 47G Orestes put to death by Odoacer King of the Heruli. Rome taken by Odoacer now king of Italy. Extinction ok the Western Empire of the Romans, 507 years from the battle of Actium, and 1^24 from the building of Rome. 4Sl Clovis King of t-lie, Franks. - Zeno makes Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, his General, and creates him Consul* 483 U Pope Felix III. 485 Battle of Soissons gained by Clovis 4.S8 Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, entirely defeats Odoacer, and is acknowl- edged King of Italy by the Emperor Zeno. 490 The Burgundians, under Gondebald, ravage Italy. Ireland, called the Isle of Saints, famous for its Schools. 4U1 Anastasius Emperor of the E-ast. 493 Odoacer put to death by Theodoric. 49(i IT Pope Anastasius II. 497 Clovis and the Franks converted to Christianity. 49S U Pope Symmachus. 499 Alliance between Clovis and Theodoric the Great 500 - Gondebald, the Burgundian, becomes tributary to Clovis. 501 The Burgundian Laws published by Gondebald. 502 Cabades King of Persia ravages part of the Eastern Empire. 504 The Eastern Empire makes peace with Cabades. 507 Clovis defeats Alaric the Visigoth, and receives a congratulatory em- bassy, with a diadem, from Anastasius. 508 Theodoric the Great defeats Clovis in the battle of Aries, and then makes peace with him. 510 Clovis makes Paris the capital of the kingdom of the Franks. 511 Death of Clovis. Division of his kingdom among his four sons, Childehcrt, Tluerry, Clotaire, and Clodomir, Kings of the FravJcs. 512 The Heruli allowed by Anastasius to settle in Thrace. 514 H Pope Hormisdas. 515 Arthur king o-f the Britons supposed to have begun his reign. 516 The Computation of Time by the Christian Mra. introduced by Dio nysius the Monk. 517 The Cetse ravage lUyrium, Macedonia, and Epirus. ni8 Justin I. Emperor of the East raised from obscurity. 519 Justin restores the Orthodox Bishops, and condemns the Eutychians. Cabades King of Persia proposes that Justin should adopt his son Cosroes, and makes war on a refusal. 523 IT Pope John I. 525 The Arian Bishops deposed by Justin, and this act highly resented ky Theodoric. Antioch and many other cities almost destroyed by an earthquake, and rebuilt by Jastin, who adopts his nephew Justinian. 52G Theodoric puts to death Boethius and Symmachus. — IT Pope Felix IV. 527 Justinian 1. Emperor of the East. 529 Belisarius, General of Justinian, defeats the Persians. «■ The Books of the Civil Law published by Jusiiniau. 530 % Pope Boniliice II. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 491 A. D. 532 Justinian congratulates Cosroes on succeeding to the throne of Persia. and concludes a perpetual peace with him. <7rcat Insurrection at Constantinoj)le quelled with prodigious slaughter by Belisarius. 533 Athalaric King of the Ostrogotns dies, and is succeeded by his mother Amalasonta. IT Pope John II. 534 Theodobcrt King of Metz. IJelisarius defeats Gelimer and the Vandals in Africa. 535 H Pope Agapetus. 536 IT Pope Sylvester. • 537 Belisarius subdues the Ostrogoths in Italy, and takes Rome. 538 H Pope Vigilius. 540 Belisarius refuses to accept the crown of Itaiy. 543 Totila, the Goth, recovers Italy from the Romans. 547 Totila takes and plunders Rome. 548 Theobald King of Mctz. 549 Rome retaken by Belisarius. 550 Commencement of the kingdom of Poland under Lechus. Rome recovered by Totila. 551 The manufacture of Silk introduced into Europe. 553 Totila defeated by Nurses the Eunuch, and put to death. .555 IT Pope Pelagius I. 558 The Huns, breaking into Thrace, are defeated by Belisarius. 659 Belisarius degraded, and ungratefully treated by Justinian. Clotaire sole King of France. 5(50 11 Pope John HI. Belisarius restored to his Honours and Command. 562 Caribert, Gontran Sigchcrt, and Chilperic, Kings of France. 565 Justin 11. Emperor of Rome. 566 Narses, recalled from Italy, invites the Lombards to take possession of the country. 568 Italy conquered by the Lombards. 571 Birth of Mahomet the false Prophet. 574 IT Pope Benedict I. 578 Tiberius II. Emperor of the East. IT Pope Pelagius II. 5S0 The Latin Tongue ceases to be spoken in Italy about this time. 582 Maurice Emperor of the East. 584 Clotaire II. King of Soissons. 590 Antioch again destroyed, with 30,000 inhabitants, by an Earthquake IT Pope Gregory the Great. 596 T/iicrri/ II. and Tlicodobert II. Kings of Paris and Austrasui. Augustine the Monk converts tlie Saxons to Christianity. 600 602 Phocas Emperor of the East acknowledges the Supremacy of the Popes. 604 IT Pope Sabinianus. 607 IT Pope Boniface IV. , , o • The Pantheon at Rome Dedicated to God, the Virgm, and the feainU, 608 11 Pope Boniface IV. 609 The Jews of Antioch massacre the Christians. 611 Heraclius Emperor of the East. 613 The French Maires du Palais first introduced by Clotaire as Regents. 614 Clotaire II. sole King of France. . j 1. u QueeD Brunechilda, accused of numberless crimes, is put to deslh by Clotaire II. 4^ CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE A.D. - 615 IT Pope Deusdedit. 616 Jerusalem taken by the Persians undej- Cosroes II. 618 IT Pope Boniface V. 622 Era of the Hegyra, or Flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina. 625 H Pope Honorius I. The Persians under Cosroes II., with the Huns, Abari, and Sclavo nians, besiege Constantinople. 628 Dagohert and Charibert Kings of France. 632 Death of Mahomet. Abubeker succeeds hira as Caliph of the Sara- cens. 633 Abubeker dies, and is succeeded by Omar in the Caliphate. 636 Jerusalem taken by Omar and the Saracens, who keep possession of il 463 years. 638 Sigebert II. and Clovis II. Kings of France. 640 TT Pope Severinus. - Tf Pope John IV. The Library of Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, is burnt by the Saracens. 641 Constantine, Emperor of the East for a few months, poisoned by his step-mother. - Heraclionas and Tiberius III. Emperors of the East. 642 Constans, son of Constantine, Emperor of the East. If Pope Theodorus. 645 Otman succeeds Omar m the Caliphate. 648 Cyprus taken by the Saracens under Mawia. 649 TI Pope Martin I. 653 The Saracens take Rhodes, and destroy the Colossus. G54 Childeric II. King of Jiustrasia. U Pope Eugenius I. 655 AH Caliph of Arabia. Mawia CaJiph of Egypt. 657 II Pope Vitalianus. C58 The Saracens obtain Peace of the Emperor Constans, and agree to pay a yearly tribute. 668 Constantius V. (Pogonatus) Emperor of the East. 669 Sicily ravaged by the Saracens. 672 IT Pope Adeodatus. The Saracens ineffectually besiege Constantinople. Their fleet de- stroyed by the Greek Fire used by Callinicus. 675 The Saracens attempt to land in Spain, but are repulsed by Wamba King of the Visgoths. 676 IT Pope Donus. 679 Thierry IV. King of all France. - TT Pope Agatho. 680 The sLsth General or CEeumenical Council of Constantinople. 682 TI Pope Leo II. 684 f Pope Benedict II. 685 IT Pope John V. Justinian II, Emperor of the East. The Britons, totally subdued by the SaxonS; retreat into Wales and Cornwall. 686 T[ Pope Canon. 686 Ceadwalla King of Wessex subdues Sussex and Kent. 687 IT Pope Sorgius. 690 Pepin Heristel, Maire du Palais, defeats Thierry, ajid acquires the chief power in France. 69? Clovis ill King of France. . 694 Justinian U. detbronod, mutilated, and banished by Leontius. 6&5 Gildtbert lit. King qf France. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 493 AD 6!)5 Lcontius Emperor of the East. Dethroned and mutilatod by 6!)7 Apsimar or Tiberius Empeioi of the East. 699 The Saracens defeated by John the Patrician. 700 The Saracens again defeated with great slauglUer by Heranlius, brother of Tiberius. 701 TT Pope Joiin VL 704 Justinian escapes from prison, defeats Tiberius, and is restored to tho throne. 707 Justinian II. defeated by the Bulgarians. 705 \\ Pope Sisinnius. H Pope Constantine. 711 Philippicus Bardanes Emperor of the East. Diigobcrt HI. King of France. 713 Aliastasius II. Emperor of the East. Spain crnquered by the Saracens under Muca, the general oi iho Caliph Walid. 714 TI Pope Gregory II. Theodosius Emperor of the East. Charles Martel, Mairc du Palais, governs all France fbr 2G years. 716 Child-eric II. King of France. Leo (tiie Is irian) Emperor of the East. 730 Omar II. besieges Constantinople without success Tliiemj IV. King of Frnnce. 72G Leo forbids the VVorsliip of Images, which occasions a great rebcrion of his subjects. Tho Pope dfifcnds the piacti<;e. 703 Leo orders Pope Giegory to be seized and serif to Constantinople; ijiit tJie order is frustrated, and Leo confiscates the Imperial Do- mains of Sicily and Calabria. 729 Tlie Saracens ravage Gallia Narbonnensis. r.M H Pope Gregory III. 'l'^2 Charles Martel defeats the Saracens between Tours and Poicticrs. 73() Leo persecutes the Monks. 7-^7 Death of Pelagnus, who preserved the Christian Monarchy in Asturiii- 7'10 The Duchy of Spolcto seized by the Normans. Recovered by the Pope. 741 II Pope Zacharj. 74'i Childeric Iff. king of France. Constantine (Co|)ronymws) Emperor of the East. An f.nemy to nnagcs and saint worship. ';43 He defeats and puts to death Artabazdus, who had seized Constan- tinople". 74r> He destroys the fleet of the Saracens. 749 The Kaee of the Abassid.-e become Caliphs of the Saracens. 751 Pepin {le Brcf) King of France, founder of the second, or Curloctr.' glan liiirr. 7."»2 H Pope Stephen 111. 753 Astoiphns King of tiie Lombards erects the Diikodom "f Ravenna* and clanns from the Pope the Dukedom of Rome. 754 Pope Stephen requests the assistance of Pepin jigainst the Lombards. Pepin invades Italy, and strips Astoiphns of his new possessions, con- ferring them on the Pope as a tem;»oral sovereignty. Ahnanzor Caliph of the Saracens, a great eniourager of learnimr 756 Desidernis, or Dider, proclaimed King of the Lombards, with the Pope's consent. - Abdalrahman I. takes the title of King of Cordova, and is the founder % of the splendid dominion of the Moors in Spain Tt 494 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. AD. 7r>7 11 Pope Paul L renews the alliance with Desiderius. 7'i!) H Pope Steplien HI. quarrels with Desiderius. 71)2 Almaiizor builds Bagdat, and makes it the seat of tlio Empire of the Caliphs. 7G7 The Turks ravage Asia Minor. 70d Charles {the Great) and Carloman, lungs of France. IT Po])e Stephen IV. 770 Constantine dissolves the Monasteries in the East. 77;:2 Charlemagne sole Monarch of France. Jle makes war against the Ba.xons. ir Pope Adrian L 774 Charlemagne defeats Desiderius, and puts an end to the kingdom of the Lombards, which h.ad subsisted iiUfJ jears. 775 Leo IV. Emperor of the East. 778 Battle of Roiicezvalles between the Christians and Moors in Spam, where Rolando is killed. 771) Charlemagne conquers JNavarrc and Sardinia. 781 ConstaiiLine (Porj)hyrogenitus) Emperor of the East. Irene, Empress, is Regent in her son"s minority, and keeps him in entire subjection. She re-establishes the worship of images. 785 Charlemagne subdues the Saxons. Haroun Alraschid Caliph of the Saracens. He invades and ravages a part of the Empire. 78(J Constantine assumes the government of the Empire, and imprisons his mother. 787 The Danes first land in England. The seventli General Council, or second of Nice. 788 Irene puts to death her son Constantine, and is proclaimed so.e Em- press. 793 Irene proposes to marry Charlemagne, which being disapproved by her subjects, she is dethroned, and confined to a monastery. Nicephorus Enjperor of the East. 794 Charlemagne defeats and extirpates the Huns. H Pope Leo III. 797 The Saracens ravage Cappadocia, Cyprus, Rhodes, &c. Nicephorus associates iiis son Saturacius in the Empire. 800 New Empire of the West. Charlemagne crowned Emperor at Rome. 807 Haronn Alraschid courts the alliance of Charlemagne. 811 Michael (Curopalates) Emperor of the East. 813 Leo (the Armenian) Emperor of the East. Almamon, Caliph of the Saracens, a great encourager of learning. 814 Lewis {I c Dehonnaire) Emjtcror of France. 81G The Eastern Empue ravaged by Earthquakes, Famine, Conflagra- tions, &c. SIG TT Pope Stephen V. 817 IT Pope Pascal I. Lewis (lb Deb.) divides the Empire among his sons. 8Q1 Michael (nalbns or the Stammerer) Emoeror of the East. 824 ir^Pope Eugene H. 6'27 32ntJCl't unites the knigdoms of the Saxon Ucptarcliy. Beginning of the kingdom of England. T Pope Valentine eiiS Gregory IV. 829 Theophilus Emperor of the East. 4 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 49ft A.b 6:58 IHtUCliDOlf King of England. — 'lilt! Scots iindnr Kennotli entirely subdue the Picta. e-lU IJJTH.ilUUa Emperor of (jiorniany. t'lidilrs {Uic Unlil) Kinif of Friincc. 841 Loiliiiiiiis defeated bv liis two brctliers in the battle of Fontcnai, and dq.o..vl. 842 LEU Si (of Bavaria) Emperor of Cenaany. Miciiacl ill. Emperor of the East. SI'.} Th»! Normans phnidei the city of Rouen. S41 II Popo Ser-iu!^ III. 8'!-') 1 iie Ncrnian.s |)lunder Hamburgh, and penetrate into Germany. ^47 11 Popo Leo IV. 848 Tlif) Venetian Fleet destroyed by the Saracens. 851 11 Pope Jnau supposed to have filled the Papal cliair for two yean. BaSillUS associated Emperor of the East. 8.').") LEH'lS If. Eiii|ierorof Germany. S57 S2t1)CillJal^ and ^UjeliJCtt Kings of England. b.'iS IT Pope Nicholas 1. 8u(i IStljfivCtf King of England. 667 The Danes ravage England. - Basiiius sole Emperor of the East. - 11 Pope Adrian IL - Potius, Patriarcli of Constantinople, c^icommuRicates Pope Adrian. S72 aif rCU (the Great) King of England. 1, Pope John VIII. 875 CHdllLES (the Bald) Emperor of Germany. 877 LElf'lS (the Stammerer) Emperor of Germany and King of FriUize. 879 LcAcis Til. and Carloman, Kings of France. The kingdom of Aries begins. 880 CfURLES (the Gross) Emperor of Germany and King of France. llavagers of the Normans in France. 882 H Pone Marinus. 884 U Pope Adrian HI. 8SG Leo (the Philosopher) Emperor of the East. The University of O.vford founded by Alfred. 887 AIIjXOLD, Emperor of Germany. Tlie Normans besiege Paris, which is gallantly defended by Bishop Goselin and Count Eudes. 888 Euiicsor Odo King of France. 8'JO Alfred the Great^ ccmposes his Code of Laws, and divides £ng!rjld into Counties, Hundreds, and Tithings. 891 IT Pope Formosus. e'.)6 II Pope Stephen VH. 897 U Pope John IX. 898 Charles III. {the Simple) King of France. 900 11 Pope Benedict IV. LEWIS IV. Emperor of Germany. 901 12'SiDtirt? (the Elder) succeeds Alfred as King of England 904 II Pope Leo V. 905 II Pope Sergius HI. 911 CO. VA'.4/J .'.' Emperor of Germany. Constantine IX. Emperor of the East. 912 The Normans are established in Normandy under Rollo. 913 11 Pope Anastasius. 914 If Pope Landon. 915 Constantine and Romanus Emperors of the East 496 CHRONOLOGICAL TABL£. AD. 915 IT Pope John X. ^, ..-.,, — The University of Cambridge founded by Edward the Elder. 020 HHKIi Y (tl.e Fowler) Emperor of Germany. <)'i:? Roilol/tli King of France. 93r, g|t1)Cll5tan King of England. !)y.S ^. Pope Le.) VI. !»•>!) ^ P<-i)(! Stpphnn VIII. [YM % |>..p.;J,.hn XI. \YM\ OTIIO (\\h: (iieat) Emperor of Germany. II I'opo Lfo VII. Ltiris I'/. {(lOutrcmer) King of France. il.'li i; I'opH Stophun IX. :MII II..W.I Dlia, King of Whales, an eminent Lawyer. !M4 iatimUna l. King of England. <.)\:\ 11 I'apo Marinns XIII. !Mt; 1i P..p.) Agapet. 04S IStirftJ King of England. 95-1 Liitliii r'nia Kitisr of Friuire. i).". jEiIVM^> Kinir of England. ^.->(i K [»o|.o'.(..l.i. XII. ).-)'.> Koaiaiius II. EmptTor of tiie East. — 12lJfiaU King of England. iHi:5 i: Popo I,f.. VIH. Niccniioriis I'liocus Emperor of the East. WA Otho tin; Great .-onipiors Italy. IK;.- i; l'op.-.Iolm XIII. 'H)7 Antioch rocov.^rod from tl.e Saracens by Niccpiioius. IiCkI .loin Zcinisscs Emix-ror of ll:e East. !tT-<; i; Pop.- BoM.riict VI. !t7.{ OTIfO 11. Emperor of G.-rmany. :>74 i; Pope. Honifa.-c VII. ;i7.". i; I'opu Benodirt VII. Basilius and Con.stantinc X. Emperors of the Eait. «)7(i litJlUartJ II. King ..f Englard. .'I7.i 22tflflCel3 n. King of England. !l.":{ or ho III. En.pt-ror of Germany. :M4 V F'op(;.lol.n XIV. !),^(i 1! I'ope John XV. — I^rirls r. {If. Fiilupanl) Kt'nsr of France. /Y„„./, Ciijct, King of France, fuundtr of the Third Race oj the •ifM 'I'lii- Arahic nnm(!ral Ciphers first introduced into Europo. 'J»'J liohirrt {Ihe IVisc) King of Fiance. 11 l't>()« (ircgory V. !>!^:» 1i Pope Sylvester II. 1000 l()Ui> 11F..\RY II. Emperor of Germany. (Jreai Massacre of the Danes bv Ethelred King of England. KitCJ i; Pope .lohn XVI. t Pope John XVII. 1(1(11 1[ P..pe J. dm XVIII. lii(».') Chnnhis first bnilt in the Gotiiic style. |()(l!t 1i Pope rfergiiis IV. H»|-J 1i Pope Ikn.di.'t VIII. 1'I13 The Danes, under Sueno, get possession of England. 101.") The Munirliuan Doctrines prevalent m Franco and luly. iOifi JStHnUntr ll. (ironside) King of England. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE, ^^ A.D. lOlfi Six Catties fought with tho Danes under Canute in England. 1017 Canute the Dane (tho Greats King of England. lOljS Tho Normans invade Italy. 1024 V Poi>o Jolin XIX. or XX. ' • — COjXIUD II. (tJie Sahc; Emperor of Germany, .025 Musical Characters invenied by Guide Aretino, 1028 Romanus ArgyniS Emucrorof the East. 10:U Hinry I. Kinor of France 10:53 n P.-pe Bonodici IX. 1034 Michael IV. Emperor of the East. 103(; l^arOlK 11. (Ilarcn.ot) Kinir of England. 11)3!) H'K.yit V III. Einpf-n.r ..f Germany. (SdlUltC H. or ?i?»irtlltanUte King of En-land, 1040 Miiihcih iisinp.s llie Tiirone of Scotland by tho murder of Duncan. 1041 IstitoarTJ m. (the confessor) King of England, restores the Sax- on lino. Michael (Calaphalcs) Emperor of the East. 1042 ConstantillC (iMonomanhus) Emperor of the East. 1043 The Turks, under Tangrolipix, subdue Persia. 1045 I1 l>(.po Crcgory Vl. 104(i ',1 Pope Clomont II. 1048 1[ P.pc Damasus II, 104!J !r Po[)e L('() IX. the first Pope who maintained a regular army, 1054 Theodora Emperor of the East. Pof-e Leo IX. taken prisoner by the Normans. 1055 H^ Popo Victor II. T!i(> T irks take Bagdat, and overturn the Empire of the Calipha. 105U Hi:.yii V IF. Emooror of Germany. 1057 ^lalcolin III. (Canmore) King of Scotland. Isaac (Comneniis) Emperor of the East. IT Po|)o 8t.-plK>n X. 1058 1; Pope Nicholas II. Tlie f-aracciis driven out of Sicily by Robert Guiscard the Norman, 10.')!) ConStantine XII. (I)ucas) Emperor of the East. KKiO P/tilij, I. k'iii T. Becket condemned by the Council of Clarendon. 1105 William (the Lion) King of Scotland. M71 T. Becket murdered it Canterbury. 1172 Conquest of Ireland by Henry II J 180 Philip Augustus King of France. 1181 Alcjius II. (Coninenus) Emperor of the East. 1183 TT Pope Lucius III. Andronicus (Comnenus) Emperor of the East. 1185 II Pope Urban III. * Isaac Angelas Emperor of the East. 1187 % Pope Gregory VIII. The citv of Jerusalem taken by Saladin. 1188 H Pope' Clement 111. 1180 ilvUiiartf I. (C.cur de Lion) King of England. Tiie third Crusade under Richard 1. and Philip Augt!Stus. 1190 HEJSRY VI. Emperor of Germany. 1191 IT Pope Ca;lost!iius ill. 1192 Richard I. defeats Saladin in the battle of Ascalon. Guy of Lusignan King of Jerusalem. 1195 Alexius Angelas (the Tyrant) Emperor of the East. 1198 PHILIP Emperor of Germany. H Pope Innocent III. 1199 IJOlm King of England. ^ 1200 1202 The fourth Crusade sots out from Venice. . Constantinople taken by the French and Venetians. 1203 Alexius and Murbzujjhlus Emperors of the East. 1204 Baldwin I. Emperor of Constantinople, and TheodorC I. caris) Emjieror of Nicsea. The Inquisition established by Pope Innocent III. 1206 Henry Empon.r of Consmntinople. 1208 OTHO IV. Emperor of Germany. London incorpcratcd, obtains a charter for electing a Mayor and Magisl rates. 1210 Cruside assiinst the Albigenses, under Simon de Alontfort. 1212 FREDEFJCK II. Emperor of Germany. 1214 Alexander II. King of Scotland. 1215 Magna Cha.-ta signed by King John. 1210 WtnVS 'II- KinjI "<■ England. Peter and John Ducas Emperors of the East. 1219 Robert Emperor of tlie East. Damietta taken by ilie Crusaders 1223 Lew^j VIII. Khiix of France. 122(; ^ lope llonoriiis 111. .S7. Lr.wis IX. Kin Popes transferred to Avignon for seventy years. 1:510 Rhodes taken by the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem. i:5l I Pierce Gaveston, favourite of Edward !(., put to death. \'M2 The Knights Temphirs suppressed by Philip the Fair. 1;5I4 The Scots under Robert Bruce defeat the English under Edward IL at Bannockburn. — LEWIS V. (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany. Lewis X. (Hutm) King of Fiance. \'.\\b John King of France. 1316 H Pope John XXII. Philip V. (the Long) King of France. i:?yO Andronicus II. (Paiwologus) Emperor of the East. 1321 Charles IV. {the Fair) King of France. 1327 JStltotrrtr III. King of En-land. 13^:^ Ph.ilij) VI. {of Valois) King of France. 1329 David II. King of Scotland. Randolph Ea.rl of Murray Regent, 1331 The Teutonic Knigiits settle in Prussia. I33y Edward Baliol, assisted by Edward III., is crowned at Scone King of Scots, but is soon driven out of the kingdom. 1333 Casimir III. (the Great) King of Poland. 1334 T( Pope Benedict XII. 13-10 Gimpowder invented by Swartz, a Monk of Cologne. Oil Painting invented by John Van Eyke. 1341 .John V. (PaUcologus) Emperor of the East. John Cantacuzenos, his governor, usurps the throne. \M-2 1i Pope Chmienl VI. 134() Battle of Ciessy won by Edward III. and the Black Prince over tlis French. Battle of Durham, in which David II. of Scotland is taken prisoner. 1347 CH.iRLES IV. Emperor of Germany. (^ola Rienzi assumes the Government of Rome. l:5r>0 The Order of the Garter instituted by Edward III. Peter (the Cruel) King of Castile. 13r,l John II. King of France. 13.')*> Ti Pone Innocent VI. The Turks first enter Europe l.JoG The Battle of Poictiers, in which John II. King of France is taken pris(mer, and afterwards brought to London. 13fi2 IT Pope Urban V. The Law-pleadings in England changed from French to English. 134(i Charles V. King of France. 1370 Tf Pope Gregory XI. — Ilobert II. King of Scotland. 1377 The Seat of the Popes removed back from Avignon to Rome. iiilCljartl II. King of England. VVicklitfe's Doctrines propagated in England. 1378 The Schism of the double Popes at Rome and Avignon begins and contmues thirty-eiiilit years. — II Pope Urban VI. of Rome T Pope Clement VII. of Avignon. 1378 IVEXCESUJUS Emperor of Germany, deposed in 1400. 13a0 Charles VI. King of Francr. ' Tamerlane invades and subdues Chorassar. 13d I Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's Insurrection in England. 602 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A.D. l^ril Peace between Venice and Genoa. P.ills of F.xcliiinge first used in JZn-jland. !:?s;? Cannon first used hy \hv luiglisii in llm dofcnce of Calais. KJd'J I'hilip llie Bcikl, iJiilu; of Bui<,Muidy, siiufcuils to tlin EarldDin of ri:ni.(lers. I'.tfii'y Tiuiniriune subdues G(;oriria. l;{.Sd Hattic cf Oti.uhurn Ijutween Percy (Iloispnr) and Douglas. l;5ri'J y l'ui)e nonifauo IX. i:?:ti) llobnrt III. Uinjj of Scotland l:;i)l M;)nuci II. (Piil.T.oiogus) Emperor of tJie E:ist. i:;:i-2 Tho rape <.f VUmH H(,pe disLovered bv tbe Portuguese. r.VM 'I'hc Jews banished Ironi Franco by Charles VI. 1i Pope Benedict A-JJI. i:{!l.") Si^ri^iiniud Kin;,' of llinigary defeated by Pajazet I. i:i ^}tilVV> iV. King of En-land. 1400 I iOvJ Bajazel is taken prisoner by Tamerlane in the battle of Angoria. Battle of Ilalidoan Hill, in wbieb tbe Scots are defeated. 14():{ Battle of Shrewsbti-y, in which Hotspur is killed. 110.1 "11 Pope Innocent VII. 1405 Death of Taniorlane. NOG .Janins I. King of Scotland. ^ Pop.; Gregory XII. 14U:) CoiuH-il of Pisa, wlune Pope Gregory is deposed. II Bnes II. King of Scotland. 1438 Jl.iiERT II. Em,!ieror of Germany. 143i) Peunion of the Greek and Latin Churches. The Pragmatic Sanction established in France. 1440 FREDERICK III. Emperor of Germany. Invention of the art of Printing by John Guttenberg at Strasbnrg. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 5fi« AD. M44 La'lislaus King of Hungary killctl in battle with the Turks. ; M4r> C'onstantinc (Pala'ologus) Emperor ol' tlio East. 14l(> Gnnit Inundation of the sea in Holland. 1447 II I'ope Nicliohis V. Rise of tlie Sf(,iza Family at Milan. 14.'j3 Coustanlinoplc taken by the Turks Extinction or the Cistern Empire ok the Romans. End of tlie English government in France. 1455 H Pope Calixtus HI. Rattle of St. Albans, where Henry VI. is taken prisoner bv the Duke of York. 1 1.58 II Rope I'ius H. (.-Eneas Sylvius.) 1459 Tlic art of Engraving on copper invented. 14G0 J a'fnes HI. King of Scotland. Rattle of Wakefield, in which tlie Duke of York is killed. 14()1 ?^tJll)aCtf IV. Kin- of England. Lewis XI. King of France. 1470 Henry VI. restored to tlie thror;e of England. 1471 RattN) of Rarnct, where Warwick is killed. Rattle of TewksLurj, where the Lanc;istrians are totally defeated. Edward IV. restored. Prince Edward of Lancaster basely murderei' l)v Clarence and Gloucester. Death of Henry VI. ^ Pope Sixtus IV. 1474 The Cape de Vsujles. The treaty of Crepi. 1545 The Council of Trent begins, which continued eighteen years. 154 i Caidinal Beaton, of St. Andrew's, ajsassinated. 1547 Fiesco's Consjiiracy at G\S 'J'he liiloriin graiiied by Charles V. to the Protestanta. ir,r,() II Pope Julius III. Ii>'y2 Tli<; TiT.iiy of Passau between Charles V. and the Electorof Sa.\on}', fitr the lislablisiimuiit of Lutheranisisi. ir)53 lilarg Queen of Eunland. I>:nly Jam; Grey beheaded. 1555 -iT Po|)e Marcrllus If. V Pope Paul IV. Many IVisho|)s burnt in England by Mary. I->5() ^'EliD^^^.ri^'D l. Kmperor of Germany. Philip il. King of Spain. 1357 Piiilip II. defeats the French at St. Quintin. 15.-.S 25U?aiJCti} Queen of England. 1.05:) i; Popo Pms IV. ■ Friincln II. Kinif of France. Tn;aly of Caltoau-Canibresis. I5';() Chnrl<:d IX. Khi-r of France. C(ins|iiraiy of Anihoise formed by the party of Conde against thai ti Guise. Bejfinning of the Civil Wars in Franco. Tiie Refuiiialion completed in Scotland by John Knox. I5til Mary Ciut'en of Scots arrives in Scotland from France. l.'/(>'.2 ISattUi of Dreu.v. Victory of the Guises over Conde. l.'XM M.iXIMlLljy H. Emperor of Germany. l.")(i() V P..po I'iiis VI. Uevolt of the Netlw^rlands from Philip 11. J5ti7 The Didie of Alva sent by Philip to the Netherlands. «i ame.s VI. King of Scotland. !.'>(;.-; M;,rv Queen of Scots flees to England for protection. I'hilip II. pi'.lslo death hi.s son Don Carlos. l.'.(*i) Tlu- r.arl of iViurray, Uejiont of Scotland, assassinated by Hamilton. Tilt; buttles of Jarnac and Moncontour in France, in which thuProt* e>lants ;iro defe.ited. 1571 Naval Victory at Lepanlo, where the Turks are defeated by Don Joht of Au.-itria. 1.57-:i ^ Pope (iregory XIII. 'i'l.e Massacre o'f Si. Bartholomew, August 24. 1571 Ihnry III. King of France. Socinus ])ropagati;s his opinions. — — Don Sch.istian King of Portugal invades Africa. 1570 nODOLPHUS 11. Emperor of Germany. H'l'ejAaguc in France formed against the Protestants. 1570 Co'mi'nenceinent of the Republic of Holland, by the union of UtrecU 1580 Piiilip H. takes possession of Portugal. The World circumnaviga-ted by Sir Francis Drake. 17>-j2 The New Style introduced into Italy by Pope Gregory XIII., the 5lh of «)ctolM'r being counted the 15tli. 1554 Williiim I. Prince of Orange murdered at Dclft. Virginia dis(;overed by Sir Walter Raleigh. 1555 1[ Pope Si.xtus V. 15S7 Mary Queen of Scots beheaded at Fotheringay. lo-^rt Destruction of the Spanish Armada by the Engli.-'h. I.5b'.l Henry HI. of France murdereil by Jaquez Clement. lltnr'ij IV. ('lie Great) King of Frame. |.5'.M} Til,, battle of Ivrv, which ruins the league in France. 11 Pop.! IMan VH. - - 11^ Pope Gregory XIV. 15J1 The University of Dublin erected. H Pope Innocent IX. Uu 64 gjjg CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. AD. . . , J5i)iJ Presbyterian Church Government established in Scotl&nd, H Pope Cloaient VIII. 15!)4 'J'he Bank of England incorporated. 15i»8 Edict oi Nuntes/toleratin;^ the Protestants in France. Peace of Vcrins concluded between France and Wpain. Philip ill. King of «pain. I 'J'yrono's rebellion in Ireland. 1600 (Jowrie's Conspiracy in Scotland. ■ The Earl of Essex beheaded. The English East India Company established. 1()U2 Decimal Arithmetic invented at Bruges. l(JO;i Jl^fllllC.Q 1- King of Great Britain. Union of the crowns of England iiiul Scotland. loO") The Gunpowder Plot discovered. It Pope Paul V. ITiOd Galileo discovers the Satellites of Jupiter. Aniiiuius pro])agiites his opinions. UilO llcmy IV. of France murdered by llavaillac. Lewis III. King of France. The Moors expelled from Spain by Philip III. liutison's Bay discovered. KU 1 r)ai-oncts fust created in England by James I. lul'> M.m'HIAS Emperor of Germany. lt)!4 Lcr^siiitiinis iuveiited by Napier. Kilti SeltJemerit of Virginia by Sir Walter Raleigh. lUlri The Syncd of Dort in Holland. XCtVd Discovery of the Circulation of the Blood by Dr. llarvcy. FEIiDLV/iAD II. Emperor of Germany. Vauiiii burnt at Thoulouse (or Atheism. 1020 The Battle of Prague, by which the Elector Palatine loses his Elec- torate. The English make a settlement at Madras. . Mavarre united to France. IGlJl Philip IV. King of Spain. Ba'.avia, in the Inland of Java, built and settled by the Dutch. V. Pope Gregory XV. mi:i -il Pope Urban Vlll. JGy5 (Ki)arlC.y I- King of Great Britain. The Island of Barbadoes the first English settlement in the West Indies. K'Ju l.r;iy,iu' t)C ilie Protestant Princes against the Emperor. ](),« (iualavus AdolphusJOUed in the battle of Lutzen, y& • 2. / JT. Ciinsllna. Queen of Sweden. l(i:?r> 'i'lic Frencii Academy instituted. IG'.j; FERDLN^^ND III. Emperor of Germany. 1038 Uagdat taken by the Turks. Tlie Solemn League and Covenant established in Scotland. 1010 John lluke of Braganza recovers the kingdom of Portugal. 1041 The Irish Rebellion, and Massacre of ihe^ Protestants, October 23. The Earl of Sualiord beheaded. 1642 Beginning of the Civil War in England. The battle of Edgehill, (.)ctober 23. lC4.'i 1x7016 XI y. King of France. Ann of Austria Regent of France .Archbishop Laud condemned by the Commons, end beheaded. I()'i4 H Pope Ii.nocent X. . Revolution in China by the Tartars. 1645 Charles I. defeated in the battle of Naseby. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 507 A. D. Ms4»i The Pence of Wnstplinlia. The Civil War of ilic Frondo at Paris. ('iini!i|iiii\\i';iiiii 111' Kiii;laii(l tn'mns. iC,:.() The A;,t;viiil.> ol' MiiiJtiV.sc pill io ilf.".til. I5:;nlii of Dmil'Mr C<)vcii:uit<;rs deleatcd by Cromwell. KmI TI..! ualll.; ..r \Voni;slfr Wdii In- Crotnweli. i(i.V> 'I ii»; liisi War betw<;i;n jIk; English and Dutch. K)")-} Kiid of ihc Coiuiiioiiwualtli of England. Oliver Croinwell Lord Pro- lijctor. 'J'lie ICiiglisii, under Adir.iraJ Ponn, take possession of Jamaica. (-"hrisiiiia Ciiiei;ii cf iSv\ eden resigns the Crown to Charles X. i'iV> i; |>u[„. Al.-\andcr VIJ. U>^<6 LKOrOlJJ I. Emperor of Germany. Kici'aid Croiiiwell Lord I'rotector of England. 1 <)"'!' 'i'lu; I'liace of the Pyrenees between France and Spain. KillO CiTljtirlCS II. King of Great Britain. Restoration of Monarchy. TliH Pi;a!> The Island of Candla taken by the Turks. ]i^7j) 1i Pope Clement X. I'j7'.i Lewis XIV. conquers great part of Holland. -— The De Witts put to death in Holland. ^(574 John Sobieski King of Poland. IU7(! i; Pope; Innocent XL lii7rf The Pea.e of Nimeguen, July 31. The Habeas Corpus act passed in England. H,7;> The Lung Parliamt'iit of Charles 11. dissolved. Hi,-)l peter the Great C/.ar of Muscovy. Itirt:? ExecHiion of Lord Rnssel, July 2i. Execution of Algernon Sydney, December 7. The Siege ol' Vienna by the Turks raised by John Sobicski. ICdr, ^f)«imeS II. King of Great Britain. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Lewis XIV. Di.ke of Monmouth beheaded. ItidG The Newtonian Philosophy first published in England. The League of Augsburg against France. lOeB Resolution in Britain. King James abdicates the throne, Decein> ber 2:i. KW ffSlllHam and S^ntS King and Queen of Great Britain. E|.isco))acy abolished in Scotland by King William. ^ Pope Alexander VIH. )f>'.tO Battle of tho Boyne, July 1. IWM II Pope Innocent XH. WJii Bat :le ornr and the Tnrks, August 21. I'«;ace between Russia and the Tinhs, November. 1740 Frc.lcriclv III. (the (Jicat) Kin- of Prussia. ^ Pope BetKi.lict XIV. War |jet\v(!en Pohmd and Hungary. 17»ll War declaiod between Russia and Sweden. Tlie Pnissiaurf masters of Sih^sia, October 20. 1742 Peace l)etwpen Austria and Prussia, June 11. L)<^tlnsive Alliance between Creat Britam and Pnis.sia, November 19. CIUIILES Vtl. (of Bavaria) Emperor of Germany. 17J3 Delt;nsive Alliance between Grejit Britain and Russia, February. War in Germany between the British, Hungarians, French, and Aiisirian.n. Tin; French defeated by the allies at Dettingen, June G. 17I-1 War declared in Great Britain against France, March 31. The King of Prusi;ia takes Prague. Commodoie Anson completes liis Voyage round the World. 17'!.') FILi.XCia I. (of Lorraine) Emperor of Geririany. tiua.ilmerino and Kilmarnock beheaded, August 18. (^oinii .'Saxi' (lel'ents the allies at Raucoux, October li. Dreaili'iil Earlliiinake at Lima in Peru, October 17. 17'17 Kouli-Khan murdered. Revolution in Persia. 17'1'S Peace of A;\-la-Clia])elio between Great Britain, France, Spain, Aus tri;i, Sardinia, and Holland, October 7. 17.-)0 Josei.l) King of Portugal. Academy of Sciencc^s foimded at Stockholm. 17.')! Adoipluis of Hulstein King of Sweden. Peace between Spain and I'ortugal. 17.")2 New Style introduced in Britain, September, 3 reckoned 14. 17.");{ The British Museum established in Montague house. 1751 (I'reat Eruption of Minn. Great Earthquake at Constantinople and Cairo, September 2. 17.5.'> Lisbon destroyed by an Eartiiquake, November 1. 17r)() War declared between Great Britain and France, May 18. I7.">7 The Kinir of Prussia coiiquers Silesia. nr.M 1! Po-pe Clement AIH. 17.')!) The French defeated by the allied army at Minden, August 1. Charles HI. King of Spain. • The .!eRui*s expelled from Portugal, September 3. Gt !'er:il Wolfe takes Quebec in Canada, September 17. 1760 Moiuieal and Canada taken by the British, Septembers. (iSCOrflC III. Kinff of Great Britain, October 25. noa Peter 111. Emperor of Russia. The Jesuits banished from F'rance, August. • Peace between Great Britain and France at Fonlainebleau, Novero ber3. ,^ Uu2 r,10 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A. D. 17(53 Poaoe bctwcpn Great Britain, France, and Spain, at Paris, February 10. Cutliariue li. Empress of Jlussia. I7G4 Staiiisluiis IL King of Poland. Ilyron"? Discoveries in tl'.c Soiitii Seas. 17()5 JOSEPH II. Emperor of Gcnuany. ITO'o 'J'lio Jesuits expelled from Bohemia and Denmark. Cliri.^ti;.n VIL Kir.g of Deiniark. 17G7 Tlie Jesuits exjielled from Spain,. Genoa, and Venice. Discoveries of Wiillis and Carteret in the Sotth Seas. 17(38 Royal Academy of Arts established at London. Tlie Jesuits expelled fron-, Naples, Malla, and Parma. Bougainville's Diseoverics in the South Seas. I7(i!) ^ Pope Clement X[V. Cook's first Discoveries in the South Seas. Corsica taken by the French, June 13. 1770 Earthquake at St. Domingo. 1771 (iustavus HI. King of Swedc-n. 177::i Revolution in Sweden, A.igust 10. Poland dismeml)(!red by Russia, Prussia, and Au.«tria. 1773 (Jouk'd second Voyage and Discovfries. The Society )f Jesuit? suppressed by the Pope's bull, AugUbt 25. 1~74 Lewis Xy[. King of France. 1775 Battle of Bunkei's "Uill in North America, June 17. 1776 11 Pope Pius VL The Americans declare their Independence, July 4. 1777 Mary Q,ueen of Portugal. Surrender of the British Armv under Burgovne at Saratoga, in the state of New-York, October '17. 1773 League between the French and Americans, October 30. 1779 Peacre between the Imperialists and Prussians, May 13. Great Eruption of Vesuvius, August S. Siege of (Jibraltar by the Spaniards, July. Captain Cook killed in the Island of Owyhee. 1780 Great Riots in London on account of the Popish Bill, June 2. War declared between Great Britain and Holland, December 20. I7dl Surrender of the British Army under Cornwallis to the Americans and Fren<-h at Yorktovvn in Viri^iuia, October 16. 1782 Sir <;. Rodney defeats the French tleei off Dominica, April 12. 1783 Peace between Great Britain, Fnuice, and Spain, and the Independ ence of America declared, January 20. 1784 Peace between Great Britain and Holland, May J!;4. 178.J Treaty of Alliance between Ausliia, France, and Holland, Novem her'.). 1780 Frederick IV. King of Prussia. 1788 Defensive Alliance between Ensland and Holland, April 25. 17.-(9 Selim III. (irand Seisnior, April. (leorgo Washington first President of the LTnitcd States, April. Tie Bastille at Paris taken and destroyed, and the Governor tnaesa- cred, July 14. 1790 M(uiastic Eslabiisliments suppressed in France, February 13. Warconimcu.ed in India with Ti|)poo Sultan, May 1. l.nOPOLD II. Emi)erorof Gefmany. 1792 FRAKCl:-: 11. Emperor of Germany. (iustavus HI. Kiu^of Sweden assassinated by Ankerstmm, March 20. .- — (iustavus IV. King of Sweden. Duke of Suderinania Regent in his minority. T!ie Thu'iijeries attacked. The King and Queen of Franco fake refuge m the National Assembly. The Swiss guards niussacrud by the popu':i,-,e, August 10. The Royal Family of Franco imprisoned in the Temple, August 14. .OHRONQLOGI€AA. TA8LE. 611 A.l). «Fr!)2 A rfrendful niassacre of the stiite-prisoners at Paris, September 2, 3. The iNiitioiial C'lnvcnlioii is constituted, tlicKing dcposcl, and France d a Kepublii;. Septeinbor 21. Savoy incor|)orated wiili the French Republic, November 27. '^—' 'l^exvis XV'l. is In-ouglit to trial, and answers each article of accusation, '£>«;i.einber 14. i7'Xi Lewis XVI. condemned to death i)y a majority of five voices, Janua- ry 17, and bcli(;a(h'd, January 21. Riis.^ia declares war against France, Jannaiy 31. The rrench Convention declares war against England and Holland, February 1. Queen ol""Frf-noe condemned to death and beheaded, October 15. 17!>-1 Robespierre, with his chief partisans, guillotined, July 28. "UaS The Siadtholder takes refuge in England. Holland overrun by the French, January. Lvotis bombarded, laid in ruins, and all its loyal inhabitants massacred, ^M;.y. I.enss XVII. died in prison at Paris, June 8. The Cape of Tiood Hope taken by the British, September IG. li.;li;iuni incorporated with the French Republic, September 30. Stanislaus II. resigns the Crown of Poland. The kingdom divided b(!tween Russia, Austria, and Prus.=ia, November 25. 17!)G The French overrim and plunder Italy. ■ Death of Catharine 11. Paul Emperor of Russia, November 17. 17!)7 John Adams President of the United States, March 4. Tiie Dutch Fleet beaten and captured by Admiral Duncan, Octo- ber 11. 1798 The Papal Government suppressed by the French. The Pope quits Rome, February 20. Tveland in 0])en rebellion, May, June, «S:c. Admiral Nelson destroys the French Fleet in the battle of the Nile, August 1. Tlie Swiss finally defeated, and their Independence abolished, Sep- tember 1!). 1709 Seriuiiapatam taken by General Harris, and Tippoo Sultan killed, May 4. DeaMi of Pope Pius VI., September. A ll(!vn!ution at Paris. Bonaparte declared First Consul, Decem- ber 25. 1800. Union of Britain and Ireland. . Bonaparte defeats the Austrians in the battle of Marengo in Italv, J.me 14. Arnn.stiee between the French and Austrians in Germany, July 15. The new Pope, Puis VII., restored to his government by the Emperor, July 2.5. Malta taken by the British, Septembers. 1801 First niHcting of the Imperial Parliament of Britain and Ireland, January. — T- Thonnis Jefferson President of the United States, March 4. — - Death of Paul. Alcvander I. Emperor of Russia, March 23 Battle of Copenhagen, in which the Danes are defeated by Lord Nel. son. April 3. 1802 The Catluilic Religion re-established in France, March. Treaty cf peac.e between Britain and France. Ti:e King of Sardinia resigns his crown to his brother, July. Benaparte (ieciared Chief Consul for life, July. T- — \Var between France, and Germany, and Russia, in which the French are successful. 1803 War between Britain and France 512 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. A. D. 1801 Emperor of Germany assumes the title of Emperor of Austria, A«« jrtist 11. Boiiuparte crowned Emperor of France, December 2. 1603 IJoiiupailo Kin.i,i joins Uii ;, . ■ 1 Fran, e, ^ian-ji. ' SDaiiisirlii'jiiiMiii'i, I. :i-hu. Tiiti Hnssian.s and tlicir .Allies enter France, December 23. 1S14 The Pope reh'ased hy H.inai arte, January 23. ^ Lorn Welliii^jtou foiik possession of Bordeaux, February 13. ' Pniis (iipituktes to ihi; Allies, March 30. •* Th.; AIIm:s einer rari.s, April 1. ' Najiolmii Bonaparte dethroned, April 4, and banished to the Island of LIha. for whieh he sails, April 26. ^\Lrt(/t> Xl'Iff., brhig called to the thrcne of France, mado his etitTj into I'aris, Way 3. Gi'iieral Peace iu Europe, May 30. ~ 'J'iie Allied Sovereiifns visit London, June 8. Iit(pr: restored in Spain, July IS. ■ 'NoiWHV annexed to Sweden, August 14. City of Washington taken by the Biitish, August 24. Britfsli St^juadroh r.n Lake Chaniplain captured by Commodore M'Dnni on^'li, Se|)teniber 11. ' "~ G*;neral Connross of Vienna, November 7. ' Peiis.icola taken by G(-neral Jackson, November 7. Treaty of Peace between the United States and Great Britain signed at ('ihent, December 24. Tl:e Briiish repulsed at New-Orleans, December 28. Idlo 'J'lie I'ritish comidetely defeated and General Packenham slain at -■-New-Orleans, January 8. United States Frigate "President taken by a Briiish squadron, Janua- ry 15. Peace between Great Britain and the United States ratified Februa- ry 2-1.' Bonajiarte sailed from Elba, February 26 — lands in France, March 1— enters Pans, March 20. Bonaparte left Paris to meet the Allies, May 2. Batll.! of Waterloo, June 17 and 18. Bonaparte surrenders himself to the British, July 15. Joachim Miirat, King o/ Na[)lcs, shot for High Tieason, October 13. Ponaparte landed at St. Hehma, October 13. Marshal Ney shot for High Treason, December 7. I8l, 1821, aged 52. Queen Caroline t>f England dies, August 7, 18:^1. — — Elias Boudinot, President of the American Bible Society, dies. 1822 William Pinckney dies, Febru.iry 2G. Iturbide declared himself Emperor of Mexico. —— Columbian College established. Massacre of Greeks at Scio. —— Revolution in Portugal with a Cortes and Free Constitution. — — Don P«!dro, son of the King of Portugal, declared E0.\olani. ':J. Azoir. ]0 lazygcs. FRANCE. GALLIA. ]. Pica-dy. J _ Ainhiar.i. 2. IsIh iif France. 2! B.'Iiov.ici, P.iri.sii, Siiossoncs. 3. Cliai;ii):!j;ue. 3. Rniii, Calalauiii, Tricasse.s, tZ 4. Normandy. 4. Liii^oiu";;. Unelli vol Veneti, Sail, Lex-' ovii, Vt'lidi-asses. 5. Bretany. 5. Osismii, Veneti, Namnetes, n Andes, Redones. G. Oileaniiois. G. Aureiia-ii, Carnutes, Seno- nes, Tu rones, Pictones, Bitin-iires. rH 7. I.ionnois. 7. ./Edtii, Si'gusiani. 8. i'n.v.'iu-e. 8. Salves, Cavares. 9. Langut.doc. y. Volcre, Arecomici, Hclvii, To losates. 10. Guienno. 10. Petrocorii, Biturigcs, Cadurci, Riiteni. 11. (iasfoisne. 11. A(|iiilani. I'J. Dawphino. Iri Allolirogcs, Centrones. \\\. Un'j:u[idy and Franclie-cwmtc. 13. Liiijjjones, ifldiii, Seqnar.i. 14. Lorraine and Alsace. 14. Letici, Modiomatrici, Triboci, Nemetes. UNITED PROVINCES, OR KING- DO.M OF HOLLAND. SAX0NE3. 1. Holland. 1,2. Frisii. 2. Frie.^^Iand. 3. Zealand. 4. Groningen. 4. Canri vol Cliauci. 5. Overyssel. 5. Franci. ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 517 MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 6. Guelderland and Zutphen. 6. Bructeri, Catti, Sicambri. 7. Utrecht. 7. Batavi. NETHERLANDS, •ELONGINO TO FRANCE AND HOLLAND. BELGiE, &c. 1. Brabant. 1. Menapii, Tungrii. 2. Antwerp. 2. Toxandri. 3. Mechlen or Malines. 4. Limburgh. 4, 5. Alemanni. 5. Luxemburgh. 6. Namur. 6. Treveri. 7. Hainault. 7. Remi. 8. Cambresu. 9. ArtoiB. 9. Atrebates, Veromandui. 10. Flanders. 10. Belgae, Morini. GERMANY. NATIONES GERMANIC/E. 1. Upper Saxony. 1. Seuvi, Lingae, &c. "^ 2. Lower Saxony. 2. Saxones, Longobardi, Gam- brivii. I 3. Westphalia 3. Cherusci, Chamavi, Gauchi, Germania Inferior. I 4. Upper Rhine. 4. Germania Superior. oc 5. Lower Rhine. 5. Marci, Tincteri. 6. Franconia. 6. Marcomanni, Hermonduri. 7. Austria. 7. Noricum. 8. Bavaria. 8. Rhsetia. 9. Suabia. 9. Vindelicia. BOHEML\. 1. Bohemia Proper. 1. Boiohoemum. 2. Silesia. 2. Corconti. 3. Moravia. 3. Quadi. POLAND. GERMANO-SARMATiE. 1. Greater Poland. 1. Peucini. 2. Less Poland. 2. Lugii. 3. Prussia Royal. 3, 4. Burgundiones, Eugii, Ou- 4. Prussia Ducal. thones. 5. Samogitia. 5. Ombroges. 6. Courland. 6. Scyri. 7. Lithuania. 7, 8. Germano-Sarmatia. 8. Warsovia. 9. Polachia. 10. Polesia. 11. Red Russia. 11, 12, 13. Bastarnse. 12. Podolia. 13. Volhinia. SPAIN. HISPANIA, vel IBERIA. 1. Gallicia. 1, 2, 3. Gallaecia— Cantabri, As- 2. Asturia. tures, Varduli. 3. Biscay. 4. Navarre. 4, 5, 6. TarraconensiS — Vnscones, 5. Arragon. 6. Catalonia. Valetani. 7. Valentia. 7, 8. Carthaginensis ^ditani. 8. Murcia. Contestani 9. Granada. 9, 10. BsEtica — B&stiani, BastulL 10. Andalusia. ^ Turdetanij &c. Xx 518 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 11. Old Castile. 11. Gallaeciae pars — Accai, Arevaci 12 Mew Castile. 12. Tarraconensis pars— Carpetani. Oretani. 13 Leon. 13. Galla>.ciae pars — Vettones. 14 Estrcmadura. 14. Lusitaniae pars — Ba:turia. SPANISH ISLANDS. insula: insPANiCiE. Ivica. Balearcs. Majorca. Minorca. PORTUGAL. LUSITANIA. Entrc Minlio c Douro. Calliaci, Lusitani, Ccltici. Tralos Montes. Beira. Estrom.^dura. Entrc Tajo. Alentajo. Algarva. SWITZERLAND. HELVETIA. I. Bern. 1, 2, 3, 4. Ainbronog. 2 Fribm-g. 3. Basil or Bale. 4. Luccrn. 5. Solotiirn. (5. Scliafi'hauseo. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Tigurini. 7. Zurick. 8 Appenzel. y. Zug. 10. Schweitz. !1. Claris. 12. Uri. 13. Underwald. 54. Geneva. 14. Nantuates. !5. Grisons, &c. 15. Veragri, ValHa Pennina, Le- ITALY. t. Savoy. ponti!. ITALIA. Lepontii, Scgusini, Tau- nni. 2. Piedmont. 2. Orobi. \ > 3. Montferrat. 3. Insubres. ( ^'S^na. s 4. Milan 4. ■a.2 5. Genoa. 5. .) •"i a 6. Parma. 6. Anamani. .2 7 Modcna. 7. Boii. 8. Mantua. 8. Cenomani. 'rt 9. Venice. 9. Vcnetia. O JO. Trent. 10. Tridentini. 11. The Popedom. 11. Lingones, Scnones, Pionum bria, Sabini, Pars Latii. ,Um. 12. Tuscany. 12. Tuscia vel Elruria. 13 Lucca. 13. Pars Tusciffl. 14. San Marino. 14. Pars Umbria?. 15. Kingdom of Naples. 15. Samnium, Pars Latii, A pulia, Campania. Lucania, Bru ttiura. ITALIAN ISLANDS. INSUL.'E ITALICS. 1. Sicily. 2. Sardinia. 1. Sicilia, Sicania, vcl Trinac ria. 2. Sardo, vel Sardinia. 3. Corsica. 3. Cyrnus, vel Corsica. Melita. 4. Malta. 4. ANCIENT AND MODERN (jlEOGRAPili:'. 519 MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 5. Lipari Islands. 5. Lipariie Insul.T. G. r.iDri, Isdiia, &c. (5. Capreie, Iseliia, &c. iiun(;ary. TRANSYLVANIA. DACIA. SCLAV'JNIA. PANNONIA. CROATIA. ILLYRICUM. TURKEY IN EUROPE. 1. Diiimalia. 1 Dalmatia. 2. Bosnia. 2. MfBsia Superior. 3. Sorvia. 3. Ducia Ripeusis. 4. WallatJ'ia. 4. Getaj. 5. JVIdldavia and Bessarabia. 5. Pars Dacia;. 6. Bulgaria. C. Ma!sia Inferior. 7. Albania. 7. Epirus. 8. Macedonia. 8. ftlacedcnia. y. Rnniania. CS 9. Thracia. 10. Livadia. 10. Thessalia. 11. Mi.rea. g ' 11. Peloponnesus. 12. Scythia et pars Dacie. 13. Parva Scythia. lii. Budzian Tartary or Bessarabia. O 13. Little Tartary. 14. Crimea. 14. Tanrica Chersonosu. GREEK ISLANDS. INSULA MARIS lONII. I. Corfu. 1. Corey ra. 2. Ceplialonia. 2. Cephaienia. 3. Zante. 3. Zacynthus. 4. Ithaee, Tliiace, &c. 4. Ithaca, »Sx. GREEK ISLANDS IN THE ARCHIPELAGO. INSULiE MARIS /EGJEl 1. Candia. 1. Creta. 2. Nci^rcpont. 2. Euboea 3. StaUmene. 3. Lemnos. 4. Scyro, &c. 4. Scyros, &c. GREAT BRITAIN. SCOTLAND 1. Edinburgh. 2. Haddington. 3. Berwick. 4. Roxburgh. 5. Selkirk. 6. Dumfries. 7. Kircudbright. 8. Peebles. 9. Wi-ton. 10. Lancrk. 11. Air. 12. Dumbarton. 13. Bute. 11. Renfrew. 15. Stirling. Ki. Liiduhgow. 17. Fife. 18 Clackmannan. 19 Kinross. 20 Perth. 21 Argyle. SCOTIA. Picti. Picti. Epidii, Gadeni, Ceronei. 620 COMPARATIVE VIEW OF MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE, 22. Kincardine. 23. Forfar. 24. Aberdeen. 25. Banff. 26. Elgin. 27. Nairn. Sd. Inverness. 29. Ross. 30. Cromarty. 31. Southerland, 32. Caithness. "33. Orkney. 34. Siietland. ENGLAND. 1. Cornwall. 2. Devonshire. 3. Dorsetshire. 4. Hampshire. 5. Somersetshire. 6. Wiltshire. 7. Berkshire. 8. Oxfordshire. 9. Gloucestershire; 10. Monmouthshire. 11. Herefordshire. 12. Worcestershire. 13. Staffordshire. 14. Shropshire. 1-^ Essex. 16 Hartfordshire. 17 Kent. 22. Vemicones. 23. Horeata). 24. 25. 26. 27. TsBzali. Vacomagi. Attaeoti. Scoti. 29. Cantse. 31. 32. Mertffi. 33. Orcades. 34. Thule. ANGLIA. Damnonii. u 3. Durotriges. 5. J>BelgJB. 6. S 7. Attrebatii. Dobuni. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Trinobantes. 16. Catieuchlani. 17. Cantii. Silures. • Cornavii. 18 Surry. 19 Sussex. 18. 19. Regni. 20 Norfolk. 21. Suliblk. 22. Cambridgeshire. 23. Huntingdonshire. 24. Bedfordshire. 25. Buckinghamshire. 26. Lincolnshire. 27 Nottinghamshire. 28 Derbyshire. 29. Rutiandshire. 30 Leicestershire. SI Warwickshire. 32 Northamptonshire. 33 Northumberland. 34 Durham. 35 Yorkshire. 86 Lancashire. 37 Westmoreland, 38 Cumberland. 39 Cheshire: ' 40 Middlesex. ni' > Simeni, vel Iceni. 22! ) 23. /Catieuchlani. 24. S 25. Attrebalii. 26. -V 27. / 28. > Coritani. 29. V 30. J 31. Cornavi. 32. Catieuchlani. 33. 34. 35. 36 gij.' > Brigantes. yornavu. 40. Attrebates et Catieuchlani. ANCiEW r AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. MODERN EUROPE. ANCIENT EUROPE. 1. Anglesey. 2. Fliiitsliire. 3. flfonlgomery. 4. Denbiglisliire. o. Carnarvonsliire. (). Merioneth. 7. Cardiganshire. 8. Carmartlienshire. 9. Penibrokesliire. 10. Radnorshire. 11. brecknocksjire. 12. Glamorganshire. IRELAND. 1. Louth. 2. Meath East. 3. Meath West. 4. Longford. 5. Dublin. (j. Kildare. 7. King's County. 8. Queen's County, y. Wicklow. 10. Carlow. 11. VVexford. 12. Kilkenny. 13. Donncgal or Tyrconnel. 14. Londonderry. 15. Antrim. W. Tyrone. 17. Fermanagh. 18. Armagh. 19. Down. 20. ISIonaghan. .21. Cavan. f22. Cork County. u I 23. Waterford. ■§ j 24. Tipperary. § I 25. Limerick. S 26. Ko.rry. 1.27. Clare. £ r28. Galvvay. so 29. Roscommon. 'a { 30. Mayo. c I 31. Sligoe. O [32. Leitrim. BRITANNIC ISLANDS. 1. Shetland and Orkney. 2. Western Islea of Scotland. 3. Man. 4. Anglesey. 5. Wight. X X S WALES. I. Mona Insula. 4. > Ordovices. DometsB. Silures. HIBERNIA, vol IRENE. 1. Voluntil. |- ^Caucl. 4. Auteri. §• jBlanii. 7 ) a" > Corondi. 9. Blanii. |V' > Manapii. 12. C'oriondi. 13. Vennicnii. H. ) 15. SRobogdii. 16. S 17. Erdini. 18.) 19. > VoluntiL 20.^ 21. Cauci. 22. Vodiffi, Inverni. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Brigantea. Velabori. • Gangani. 29. Auteri. 30. ) 31. VNagnatse. 32. ) INSULA BRITANNICiB 1. Thufe. 2. Ehudes Insuls. 3. Monaeda vel Mooa, 4. Mona. 5. Vectie. COMPARATIVE VIEW OF MPX>£RN ASIA. ANCIENT ASIA. TURKEY IN ASIA. ASIA MINOR. 1. Natolia. 1. Mys!a, Lydia, Caria, Phrygia, Bithynia, Galatia, Paphlago- 2. Amasia or Siwas. 2. Pontus. 3. Aladulia. 3. Armenia. 4. Caramania. 4. Cappadocia, Cilicia, &c. 5. Irak. 5. Babylonia, Chaldea. 6. Diarbcck. 6. Mesopotamia. 7. Curdistan. 7. Assyria. 8. Turcomania. 9. Georgia. 10 Syria and Palestine. 8 ) q' > Armenia Major. 10. Syria, Palmyrene, Phoenicia, Ju- daea. ARABIA. ARABIA. Arabia Petnea. Arabia Petraea. Arabia Deserta. Arabia Deserta. Arabia Felix. Arabia Felix. PERSIA. PERSIA. 1. Chorassan. 1. Pars Hyrcaniffi et Sogdiana. 2. Balk, Sablustan, Candahar. 2. Bactrania. 3. Sigistan. 3. Drangiana. 4. Makeran. 4. 5. Kerman. 5. Gedrosia. 6. Farsistan. 6. Persia. 7. Chusestan. 7. Susiana. 8. Irak Agem. 8. Parthia. 9. Curdestan. 9. Pars Assyriae. 10. Aderbeitzen. 10. Media. 11. Georgia. 11. > 12. Gangea. 12. } Iberia, Colchis, et Albanui. 13. Dagestan. 13. i 14. Mazanderam. 15. Gilan Taberistan. 15. Pars Hyrcaniffi. 16. Para Albaniae. 16. Chirvan. INDIA. INDIA. Mogol. India intra Gangem. Delhi. Palibothra. Agra. Agora. Cambaia. Bengal. India within the Ganges. Regna Pori et TaTtifin, Decan. Dachanos. Golconda. Prasii vel Gangaridae. Bisnagar. Malabar. Male. Island of Ceylon. Taprobana Insula vel Salice. India beyond the Ganges. India extra Gangem. Pegu _ Ton<^upn, Cochinchina Siam. Sinarum Repo. CHINA. Niuche. Cof«a. ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. MODERN ASIA. ANCIENT ASIA. Laotong. Pekin Xansi. Xensi. Xantum. Nanking. Chekiam. Honan. Fluquam. Kianisi. Fokien. Canton. Suchuen. Quecheu. Yunam. Formosa. Ainan. Macao. Bashee Islands. Seriea. CHINESE ISLANDS. RUSSIA IN ASIA. 1. Sakhatia Aaiatica. Scythia intra Imaum. 1. Astracan. 2. Orenburg. 3. Casan. 4. Siberia — Tobolsk, Jeniseia, kutsk, Kamachatka. INDEPENDENT TARTARY. 1. Great Bucharia. 1. Bactriana, Sogdiana. 2. Karasm. 2. Aria. "I It- 4. r ALUTH TARTARS. 1. Little Bucharia. 2. Casgar. 3. Turkestan. 4. Kalmac Tartars. 5. Thibet. 6. Little Thibet. CHINESE TARTARY. Kalkas. Mongol Tartars. Mantchou Tartars. Corea. ISLANDS OF CHINESE TAR- TARY. Sagalien-Ula-hata. Jedso. ISLANDS OF JAPAN. Japan or Niphon. Xicoco. Ximo. PHILIPPINE ISLES. Lucon or Manilla. Mindanao, &.c. MARIAN OR LADRONE. ISLANDS. Tinian. SCYTHIA extra DIAUM. SINiE. m COMPARATIVE VIEW OF MODERN ASIA. ANCIENT ASIA. ISLES OF SUNDA. Borneo. Sumatra. Java, «&c. MOLUCCA ISLES. C.'Iebes. Aniboyna. Coram. Timor. Flurrs, &c. MALDIVA ISLES. MODERN AFRICA. ANCIENT AFRICA. BARDARY. 1. Jforocco. 2. Algiers. 3. Tunis. 1. Tripoli. 5. Barca. Egypt. BiLurLcr.RiD. Zaara, or tlie Desert. Nkoholakd. Gu!^£A. Upper Ethiopia- JNubia, Ai)yssinia, Abex. Lower Ethiopia Lower Guinea Loango, Congo, Angola, Ben- guela, Matanan. Ajan. Zanguebar. MoNOMOTAPA. MONOEMUGI. SOFOLA. Terra de Natal. Cafraria, or country of tho Hottentots. 1. Mauritania Tingitana. 2. Mauritania Ceesariensis. 3. Nuinidia, Africa Propria. 4. Tripolitana. 5. Cyrenaica, Libya Superior. 1. jEgyptus. 2. Libya Inferior, Gjitulia. 3. SoLITUUINES. 4. AUTOLOLES. 6. iExHiopii et LIBT.S para. 7. iEruiopiiE pari. NORTH AMERICA. BRITISH AMERICA. 1. Tiio countries on the east and west side of Baffin's and Hudson's Ba3rai, 2. Labrador, or New Britain. 3. C.inada. 4. Nova Scotia. Islands. Newfoundland, Cape Breton. British Islands in the West Indies. Bermudas, Bahama Islands, Jamaica, St. Christopher's, Nevis, Montseirat, Antigua, Dominica, St. Vincent, Tobago, Grenada, Barbadoes, Ac Ac ANCIENT AND MODERN GEOGRAPHY. f; UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. New England— Maine, New-Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connect* icut, and Rhode-Island. State of Now- York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- ginia, North-Carolina, South-Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Louisiana, Alabama, Missouri, Mississippi, Illinois. The district of Columbia, the territories of Michigan, Arkansas. SPANISH AMERICA. Mexico or New Spain, New Mexico. NORTH AMERICA. Spanish Islands in the West Indies. Cuba, Porto Rico, west part of St. Domingo, Trinidad, Margarita, Cuba* gua, &c. Dutch Islands in the West Indies. Part of St. Martin's Isle, Eustatius, Aves, Buenos Ayres, Curacoa, Aruba. French Islands in the West Indies. Miquelon, St. Pierre, part of St. Martin's Isle, St. Bartholomew, Nartinico, Guadaloupe, Desiada, Mariega ' ■"> ' • ' 22. Viadrus. 22. Oder. The Vistula, the Dwina at Riga, and the Dwina at Archangel. ^ END. QUESTIONS. PART FIRST. SECTION 1. t. What books afford the earliest authentic history of the ages diately following the deluge ? 2. When were Babylon and Nineveh built ? 3. By whom were they built ? 4. Who are said to have raised Assyria to a high degree of splendour? 5. What is the condition of the early parts of Egyptian history? 6. Who was the first king of Egypt? 7. How was Egypt divided ? SECTION II. 8. What is the earliest mode of government ? 9. Of what description were the first monarchies ? 10. What was the rank of the kings of Scripture ? U. What was the character of the first penal laws in human society? 12. What were the earliest laws formed for the benefit of society ? 13. What singular usages prevailed among the anciant nations relating to matrimony ? 14. What laws next succeeded in order to those of marriage ? 15. What were the earliest methods of authenticating contracts? 16. What nation used hieroglyphics, and for what purpose were they used ? • ^ 17. What were the meihoJo for rci-ordtng historical facts, and publishing them among the ancients ? 18. What are among the earliest institutions that have existed ? 19. How was the priesthood anciently exercised ? 20. Of what are useful arts the offspring ? 21. Of what are some of the earliest of them ? 22. What were the first sciences cultivated ? SECTION III. 23. To what nation is most of the knowledge of ancient nations to be traced ? 24. How did that knowledge descend to modem nations ? 25. What presumption does the country afford of the antiquity of the Egyptian empire ? 26. To what are the inundations of the river Nile owing? 27. What was the government of Egypt ? 28. What was the character of their penal laws ? 29. What was the manner of conferring funeral rites in Egypt ? 30. What regulation was there concerning the borrowing of money ? 31. In the knowledge and cultivation of what useful arts and scicBCes were the Egyptians distinguished ? 32. ^Vhat samples of their architecture still remain 1 33. When were the pyramids built ? 34. For what were they probably built ? ,... 35. 36. Whatwa Wliat cu 1} 1>} poiary i "ir 37. 38. 39. 40. By what For V hat What IS « What 1=. t hi-,ii vftci 1 Tii£ PiuNCE or "Wales derives — p irth b^ iiiliciipnce andpait n — fion til f(l I M 1 111 i I \n^ Jill \ \ II vested w itli tl^ Ctrlfi^^iifot ( To what ( ^las '«m< ( 1 ct u lucl uli d ment^of^l^f^ < 1 " T Who we L What cole of thi 1 11 K(. Who «atl I j] h ^S- .1 Who LSt Who (s,tU Uu ]u^i Who lutic I How Wha t wa What Is s What wa' What wt termed r Of what d What goo Who ipsti What was Who laid W'hen anc AVhat was What wa; Thebes : On whose What are How were WUen did Who was What cau Ushing c What cau governm What disf' What pen new-mo^ What was To what ( How did \ I nm til ce i-'j >|itL con- j II ( re ited I \^\ (1 \s ju ilh in (, (IN liicli I 111 tilt pit Srottisli titles 1 fi un Robeit N( *(d 111 or >^ ot ^t pie 11 4 t ) hei T' K if ^f coatem first rudi- !(' 1 Ul It tile (lunit\ ley were .,.L., . Kingdom; in memory of Her Maj' sty's visit to that portion of her dominions. — His royal highness takes his seat in the^ House of Peers as Duke of Cornwall— J The following.ishis genealog^..,^ j^ His Iloyal Highness AlbWtfEt^'ard, Prince of Wales, etc., is eldest son of ^ieges of her most gracious Majesty, the present Queen, VICTORIA, who is niece of the Kings William IV and George lY, and daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, the fourth son of George III, \yho was the son of Frederick, Prince ^ Wales, the son '^" ti^ie ? of George, II, who was son of jGeorge I, who was son of Sopiiia, j']lectreas of Hanover, dangh > Elizabeth, Queen of Bohemia, wlKywa daua:hter of c;public .' by estab- publican mino. and curgus i 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. 168. 169. 170. 171. ■A-72. 173. l'74. 175. 176. 177. 173. VVlio r What When What What What What What Which empin What liyine (ler? What powe How T Whin What i What In wh; exam What i parin Gree In whf AVhich ;; feoti< ' in wh< What What What How • thosfl 179. 180. 131. I«2. 183. 184. 185. 186. Jaines T, who was son of ,.^ Mary, Que.e;j. of Scots, who waacIaiM t^TOf ^ ' ^; \' '%&- Ucfiry J Y and Kiza' id h, whic^i^Prin- cess was the undouljlo.f ]ieii-ess to ''tlie Throire of Knglaud, the repijesent^^e of the Red E9.se,^??n,u- tlie daugf^^^of EdwarcJ^IY^^^^ wa.s the' son of Richard piHfcenet, D^uke of Yoi-k, who was sou ^^ *"a ,». Annie Mortimer, who was the dangh- ter of ' Roger, Eurl of March, who' ,was son of Phillippa, who was the daughter of Lionel, Dulce. "of GlaPencJfe, wlio* was son of ^ ' Edws'-'d ITT, sVn of Edward!^Ii;son of EdwWd I, sou of ITenry in7 w.hf^ was son of King .Win, wh<. was son of s^i&pres-^Ma'nde, who was daughter of Henry I, who wa? son of a< WlLLitM THE rONQUKRoy;. H-etfyf -i married 3Iathilda, the daugh- ter of; ' ' V V' ■ M'argarct, Queen of ]\IalcoIm of Seot- \a\ul, daug-liter of Edward, ( ihe osiraidsed), who was son E||'ard II, who was tlie brothetl^f ^ Ectvyard in, tlie Conlessor, the_mrly Prineui at-that time in Eii,;rland -who could pretend to Ih'e^Cro wn. 'Ed warefuie Con- fessor was son of .■'^ What e "iQJjheli»^,rr,''M^o was son of Wh:"£.Edgfi^whow^.3ntff What iijjpdmnfld" I, \vW vf-^s son of ■'^'l!ih\/-d,.<-dled-th3!»Eider, whiT^-as son "™* "" ALFRED THE GREAT. ^ Jjk How c When Who a When m hi* rait le his coun> of Alexan- ';iacedoniaa of Greece ? for splendid as on com- istory of the gree oi per- ipare with Greek! f reece i 187. What T( THE EX«I>ISH WARS ANO tlSGL,A.^D S DEBTS. The following queer paragraph is going the rounds, having appeared already ia a hundred journals that we have seen : — "The battle of Waterloo closed sixty-five years of English.war, in which time the British Gov- ernment borrowed ,ft:,17o,000,000 and raised $105,945,000,000 by taxes ; a .total of #110,120,- 000,000 expended in war, for purposes which cer- tainly did not rise to the level of national preser- TatioD. In twelve years of waragainst Napoleon the same conntry expended .f 5,795,000,000, or five I hundred millions peif aiinum." ' f It will be observed that the figures in regard to ! English war expenses make rather "a muddle; but •me let them pass, and confine our corrections to the time mentioned. At the sixty-five years naen- tione'd terminated in^ 1815, they must date from 1750! ' In 1750 England was at peace, and so re- ^ mained until 1756, when "the Seven Years' War /began. Thus 'six -years are^taken oft" at once *~'i&-om the 'six^-five. ''The' "Seven Years' War ter- minated in 1763, and England remained at peace until ■the-spfiifgon 775,' when the war of the Ame- rican Revolution began. Thus twelve years mora ■| are taken 'from the -^sixty-five years of British ■ -war. ■■ ■:^. ^ '■• . ■; ■ J, The peace made in 1783 lasted until the begin- ning of-1793, vrhcn the contest with llepublicaa France began. Thus are ten years more lopped from Bricishiwar-tirae between 1750 and the summer of 1815.' The war 'with Itepublican Fraiice terminated in 1802. and that with Napo- leon began iriMay,»1803, Napalcon then being in u.^e conrse>of spoiling into an Emperor, as the |;-Tlepublicans had it. Thus more than a year is I to be added to the time of Britisli peace; The first war with Napoleon lasted until April, 1814, or not (luite eleyeii^y^ears.^aad was followed by peace with France for about "a year, when' the second war with Imperial France began, as the consequence of the Emperor's return from Elba; but as England was at war with the United States for most of the time between Napoleon's first abdicationand the date of his terief resumption of power, we suppose that peace can claim next to nothing of the interval. The second war with Napoleon lasted but a few months.. Of the sixty-five years that tei-minated m the summer of 1815rEnglana was at war about thnty-seveh years.- What we supnose is me:int by the writer of the paragraph we have quoted is this, that England was at war for sixty-five years between the date of the beginning of her national debt and the date of the final fall of Napoleon the first. If so, he is not farwrbng; but then the force of England's example with regard to na- tional debt is lost to us. Our debt has, as it were sprung into existence^,?;- saKum, at a bound, that 18, -while the English debt, as it stood in 1815, was ol slow growth extending over a oeriod of almost one huncjied and twenty-seven vears. The Eng- lish debt was but small when William and Marv began to rggn, early in 1689. I in GreecD f ;rs? n morality at J the prog ecame an otject of psJ- nts of Italy ? the origin of Rome ? f the city built by Rom- >^s ^ r-* Q n'*^**.— jj ri Vi f* £S.9pS "='§''gogS3 ;£sS>„tj1n«k,MP)-'a 1 -wrhat -were the poweri ponrers of the Senate 7 Tribune ? complete democracy ? med? sted ? SEC 228. What two barriers separa 229. What two office? were en 230. What successful expediei man armies ? 231. What city was taken by ( 232. At what period and afteri 233. To what event do the Ro: . ords and monuments of What is there singular Rome ? The war tbat followed wf'h Franco was ter- minated at tbe close of 1697, by the treaty of Ryswick, leaving England with a large debt. Peftce was maintained for four years and a half, | when the war of the Spanish Succession began, and was closed by the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713, the national debt being much increased. Then there came a long peace, broken only by a few short and unimportant affairs that hardly deserve to be called wars. The war with Spain began in 1739, and soon ran into the war of the Austrian Successipi: which was brought to a c''^'"> 234 in i74§> h^ the treaty of Aix la ChApelle. Eight years of peace then came, to be followed by the Seven Years' War, and that war was followed by more than twelve years of peace. Then there was war again for eight years, or SEC thereabout ; and then ten years of peace ; after ,„^ ,r , r, ^i. e A which there was almost unbroken war for more 235. How long after the founda 4^.,^ ^wo years. It wUl be seen that England otaUlt^>\y. ' had long breathing times, in which to recover 236. What ^vas (he policy obs from the effects of war ; and it is notorious that nations they had conque the vast industrial system which has enabled ?:37. What gave rise to the Pu England to bear so great burdens of seeming ex- penditure and permanent debt, was developed since the Revolution of,}G88,aud most of it si ace 1763, at which late^ date' th^debt had become alarmingly large. "Yb^'grtnlth of the English national debt is as follows :-rln 1689, £664,263; SE 238. By whom and when was 239. How many smaller cities the time of the Punic W. in 1702, £16,394,702; in 1714,. £54.145,; 240. What was the form of go in 241. To what was the wealth- SE 242. Who founded Syracuse ? 243. What was the governme SE 244. Whore did the war betw 24;. What lloman consul tm Punic war ? 246. What patriotic act did Carthaginians ? 247. How did the first Punic 248. How long did the peace 249. How did the second Pu 250. Who was the Carthagii 261. How did Hannibal con 252. Where did the Romans 253. How many were slain i 254. What is supposed woul , impro.ved tl^is victory^ 255. I" "What way did thei yteace ? 256. What Roman general j 257. At what time did the [ 258. When did the third cc 259. What was the issue 0: ■ 260. When was Carthage i 261. What othef' success a What two persons, al of the Romans ? i?«ia, £138,865;430 ; in 1783, £'249,851,628 ; in 1815 £840,850,491. The English debt grew .it the rate of six; and » \ half million pounds, or a little more, dnria^llT years, but the wealth of that country grew at a much greater rate during the same time.-; ^rom these tacts, however, no inference unfavorable^to^ the soundness of our credit can be drawn ; forVe - possess resources of increase greatetthan Eng- land ever possessed. We have a vast unpeopled territory, full of every good thing that 'feait attract the industry and demand tbe energies ot'hnman- ity ; and into that territory tens of thousands of foreigners are now going,— and on the.i^estora- tion of peace and unity, hnndreds of ihoii^nds would annually enter it. It is possible that we might feel the burden^of a debt of .t?2,.500,000,000 rather hard for th^ first four or five years after the cessation of 'hostilities,.: but it •would not be so heavy as the burden which we now bear, but T|>auld . be considerable- lighter ; for then we ■ should not be paying war taxes, as the army and navy would be reduced to small proportkms. Surely, if we can pay heavy taxes in wartime, we should be able to pay what would be, comparatively speaking, light taxes in a time .of peace ? Five years got over, and the debt would not be felt as a burden at all. The increase of wealth and prosperity in the settled part of the country alone would suf- fice to obliterate alLthe consequences of war, and . -to effect the thorough rehabilitation of the Re- , imblie. -'Both North and South would be' in the possession of prosperity, whUe the heroic deeds of both parties to the conflict would form a common fund of national reputation, and the country would have ; a character to maintain that would lead it to be careful of its acffoa .as a debtor. Then the Qpening up of new ter-; ritories, hnd the addition in that waj' made' to our means, would be so much clear gain ; and as before the war we never felt the annual ex- ^;ci.f end iture- of* almost $100,000,000, so theii..wc 10 QUESTIONS. 263. What circumstances attending the war of Jugurtha gave decisiye proof of the corruption of the Roman manners ? 264. What became of Jugurtha? 265. Between what two rivals did a civil war noi7 break out in Rome ? 266. What became of Marius ? 26'. To what office was Sylla afterwards elected? 268. What magnanimous act characf'rized the latter part of his life ? 269. Between whom was the civil war revived after the death of Sylla ? 270. What conspiracy, at this time, threatened the destruction o> Rome ? 271. By whose provident zeal and patriotism was it extinguished ? 272. What distinguished individual now rose into notice ? 273. Under what circumstances was the first Triumvirate formed ? 274. What Roman general invaded and conquered Britain, 34 B. C. 275. Who procured the banishment of Cicero ? 276. Who effected his recall from exile ? 277. What dissolved the Triumvirate ? SECTION XXXIV. 27 R. What proposltteft«^as made at this time by Caesar ? 279. Did Pompey accede to it ? 280. Did war ensue between them? 281. What decree did the senate pronounce ? 282. Where was a decisive battle fought ? 283. ^^'hat became of Pompey ? ^284. In what war was the famous library of Alexandria burnt ? ■iMb. \Miat was the ciiaracter of Caesar's administration ol the govern- ment, after the complete overthrow of Pompey's partisans .' 586. To what offices was he appointed ? 2n7. What was the end of Ca;sar ? 288. Under what circumstances was the second Triumvirate formed? 2f;0. For what did Antony summon Cleopatra to appear before him ? '2!tlJ. WJiat caused the overthrow of Antony ? -!• 1 . W hat became of him ? ,292. What induced Cleopatra to destroy herself? SECTION XXXV. 293. What power was given to every head of a family ? -.-294. What were reckoned the highest points of female merit ? 295. What qualifications contributed most to elevate persons to the hirfi- est offices and dignities of the state ? SECTION XXXVI. 296. What was the state of literature in the early ages of the Roman re- public ? 297 Who were the principal Roman historians ? 298. Who were the principal Roman poets ? SECTION XXXVII. 299. Was much attention paid to the study of philosophy in the early periods of Rome ? ■' 800. At what time did philosophy become an object of attenticm with the Romans ? ^^' ^omanl ?'''^"'^*^ ^ *^'*^ '^'" ^^''^ '*"^y o*" Philosophy amon^ the 802. Who may be reckoned their most eminent philosopher? QUESTIONS. 11 SECTION XXXVIII. ?03. ^^'llat were some of the most distinguishing traits of character in the early Romans ? 304, What contributei chiefly to their change of character and man- ners ? 306. What were some of the amusements of the Romans ? SECTION XXXIX. 306. To what may be ascribed the extensive conquests of the RomaDS ' 307 What was the number of soldiers in a Roman legion ? ^ / 308. When is it supposed that the tactic of the Romans was at its heigh' of excellence ? 309. By whom was the art of entrenchment carried to great perfection ? 310. When was the naval military art first known among the Romans ? j SECTION XL. j311. When did the most material change for the worse in the national character of the Romans take place ? 512. What were the morals of the Romans in the last ages of the com- monwealth ? 313 From what circumstances did Roman virtue so rapidly decline ' 314. To what did the Roman republic owe its dissolution ? SECTION XLI. 315. What battle decided the fate of the commonwealth ana made Octa ! vius master of Rome ? { 316. By what name was he now called ? 317. What event said to be productive of universal joy distinguished his reign ? 318. W^hat methods did he practice to keep himself in the favour of tli« j people ? 319. When did Augustus die and at what age ? 3'20. How long did he reign? 32\. Who succeeded him ? 3'22. What was the character of Tiberias ? 323. In what manner was he related to Augustus ? 324. What was the end of Tiberius ? 325. In what year of his reign was Jesus Christ crucified? 326. Who was the successor of Tiberius ? 327. What was bis character ? 328. What became of him ? 329. Who succeeded Caligula ? SECTION XI Ji- I 330. By what acts of violence was the 'eign of Nero, the successor of Clau- I dius, characterised ? 33 1. Who were the three aerc Roman emperors ? 332. Under which of the emperors was Jerusalem taken? 333. Who succeede^I Vespasian ? 334. What was the character of Titus ? 335. How was it suspected Titus came to his death ? _ 336. What three emperors next in order succeeded Domitian ? 337. What was the character of Trajan and Adrian ? SECTION XLIII. 333. For what length of time did the Antonines reign ? 339. What waa their character ? QUESTIONS 340. What 341. 342. 343. 344. 345. 346. 347. 348. 349. 350. 351. 352. 353. 334. 455. 356. 357. 358. 359. 360. 361. 363. 364. 365. 366. 367, 368 3&i 370 What 1 : '^TiTe Battles in Europe. | The Austrian* and tfae French have freq-vently |b Antonines t« the s^l met in batiie. D'^Jrlng tbe First Napoleon's time ' What ' the /oHowlng bsttle* M'ere fought, generdUy to ti, > jin n^{g period ? What « disadvf ntnpe of Amtrlv and her allies : 1^^.^ p Under v. -^^ ^'<^'^h J" l^oxnhurS-f. on the 10th of May, 170C< ,,^ , ' , _>,„„ , unaei \j^.^^^^^_^^ '^.^j^,^^ ^ deJuye vicloTj-pver ttie Ans- ^d and when f trians, the most depperatcoontcst having been at a wooden bridge over tie A*da i At Arcole. a little vlllag<: in Northern Italy, on the 171b November, 1796. Napoleon gained a great ' What t victory over the Austrians 'buS-withteni'bleslaugh- |f Rome under Consta '^''' onboth sides, the Auatriars- having 1&,0.00 and ' Tr. «rho,^^'i'"f"''ench 15, UCO killed aiwi Wisundtd. iV/u *^" ""= banks of the Tre^bia river, in Italy, 10 ' What 1 milis from Genoa, the French aymy, und?r Mar- 'owards Chris- tianit sLal Macdonald, on the 19lh «'f June, 1799, fought T W^l/^ xn an sWiPd Austrian and Russian ai^my. In a battle, L , -■ vr no w ^rhi^-f^ lastp^ tj^ree days, and in. whish the French t to Julian ' lost 12,0(jO men, atid the allies art equal number. In the plain of Marengo, at tlu' foo*' of the Ap- [ , , pfn!)iiifS,'X4 miles from the strong' Sardinian forli- In who licatiouiat Alessandria, in 1799, the Frtach, under !i religion of the Romar Marshal Joubert, were defeated by the combined '^ Whv -H, Austrians and Russians, under Suwarrov?. Each , ■^ armyhaduiiwardsof "OOOmcnkilledand wijunded, stian than they were: and several thousand prisoners. lations ? When' At Engen, in Baden, the French defeated an . j • . , ^,nje I Au5.%ian arm 7 on the ;>d of May, 1800, the foss in ^'^^ ^^^° ^ V"-"' ■ wIiabo »»•- lr« X-l Ail] Jourdon and Victor. The British and Spanish **""■* ^^•*« ,'ost 6-2(58 men, ai.d the French 8796 killed and 1 WflUJided. ,- -- ' . •" , . _. ^^ , 'p !K^_) 434. 435. 431}. 437. 438. 43y. 440. 441. 442. 443. 444. 445. 446 How loi ■W hat V When f severe A\ hat p the CO What r( What When q "SVho w What p seque When V of Ens QUESTIONS. TVV.«n 1- At Albuera, ill Spain, on the 16th of May, 1811, ^_ «„ j «„♦ :«. ^^•^^n t*e British and afliet, under General Be/eWord, FC, and put it lintler gained a victory over the French, uiider JVlarshal When I Soult. The French loss was 8000; that of the \\u,t ], allies nearly 7000, the British alone having lost nn.iL «l 43n,,outof'750(>1;ngaged. When the muster of ouQ^ British refiiment was called after the batt'.e, ouly ' three privates and one drummer answered to their ?axons ? On ttre heights, four miles from Salamanca, in o'^'' ""'^^'" <*"« Spain, the English and Sminiards, under Welling- ton, totally dtfeated the French, under Maruiont, this, desolated on the aad July, 1H12. The allies lost 5200 men, and the Fr«:'nch 16,000. , j -c v i> At the battle of Smolerski, in Russia, in 1312, t ana Egbert r ilif French loss was 17,000, and that of the Rusjians 10, (,00. At Borcdlljo, on the 7th September was fought a dtsperate battle between tbe R ussians and French. The French lost in killed, wo laded and prisoners, ' England sub- 447. 44». 449. 450, 451. 453. 45^. 455. 456. 457. ' 460. 461. 46'2. 463. 464. What \v Hiw m; How di( civilizi > 50,000) and the Russians about the same number. The survi\ors of the French army, from the Rus- - .. si an campaign, were not more than 35,000 «m of "^O* I"* an army of 500,000 men. At I.utzen, m Russian Saxony, on thslSTMafT*! 1813 the allied Russian and Prus-sian forces -Wcfre dtfeated by the French, undcrNapoleon, the French ' losing 18,000 and tLe allies 15,000 men. Lj ? At Bautz« n, in Saxony, on the 21st and 2-2d May, I 1833, a battle took place between the allies and the French, in which tie French loss was put down at as in point 25,0t:0, and ! hat of the allies 15,000. At Dresden, in Saxony, on the 26th and 27th Au- gust 1815, tbe allies were defeated by the French. The loss of the allies was about 2.5,m00 ^n killed, ■\\'i - _„ wounded and prisoners, and that of the French i W ho wa| ai,,mt ,2,o(K). ' At Leipsic, in Saxony, in October, 1813, a 4es- Europe duT* in'* the! perate batWfe was fought, which lasted three days, W'i'-it ,.- and the FiOjpch were' totally defeatrd by the allies. • i r • \\ liai \\\ NapoleoB-^ost two marshals, twenty generals and ^ PO»ni of CIT» ilizatior about 6(i,000 men. The allies lost 1,790 otiicers and ■ ^^'hat wa abouv4(>,s »■ r.. jn. • , At Vittor-:', !Ji S/nin, on the 21st .Tune, 1813, the -' l&ijgtish and Frcutu fought a batile, in which the i^^ieh io.st rCoorand En-lish 5180 men. WViQt T^ ATtrTwilouse, in France, >,Vellingtoa defeated the »> nai w.^ pjene-h. under Soult. on thel^h of April, 1814. U liat wa French loss, 4700, allied army's loss, ^oSii....^ What imj At Paris, the allies lost 90s)3 men, and the Fretvth Whlcli \y a^out4500. ,,,, '' At Ligny, in France, a baftle occurred between \\ ho wen the Prussians and French, on the 16th of June, 1815, or ? ' tw6 days befire the battle of Waterloo, in wliich Who ffCfi tb€ Prussians lost 15,000 men, and the French OS.'O. 1VU .. 1 In the indecisive battle at Quatre Bras, in Bel- What Cloi gium, on the ]6tb June, the ddybLfore that of Wa- V\'hat wa! terloo. the allies lost .V200 men, and the French 114 Wlio SUCC' ' At Waterloo, the total loss of the allies was 10,036 Hmen. Napoleon's wa? :iliout4i ,000. ow earn; _ I ._ 4^p^,«,,,„^^.„ ^^,^^uy . Under what soverei09. When did -Mazarin die? «10. ^Vhat change took place in the affairs of France at this time ? f;i 1. What was reckoned one of the weakest and most impolitic measurcj of Lewis XIV. ? 812. What was the state of the finances of France in the latter part of the reign of J^cwis XIV. ? 813. What character is given of Lewis XIV. ? 814. At what age and when did he die ? SECTION LXV. 815. What change took place in the government of France, under the Capetian race of kings f 816. What power arose to limit and check the royal prerogative, iu and from the reij;n of Lewis XIII. 817. What made the pewf^rs of parliament a constant subject of dispute? 818. In what way was the crown of France to descend? 8i9. What was the established religion of France ? 820. What took place in the assembly of the Galilean church, in 1682 ? SECTION LXVI. 321. What two distinguished characters in the north of Europe were contemporary with Lewis XIV. ? 822. When is Russia said to have received Christianity? 823. What sovereign first published a code of laws in Russia? 824. Wlien Avas Siberia added to the Russian empire'' 825. When and how did Peter b'-come master of the Russian empire ? 826. How was the early part of his life spent ? 82',. V/hat method did he adopt to improve himself in the sciences and useful arts ? 828. When and at what age did Charles XII. come to the throne of Sweden? 829. At what age and with what success was his first campaign made ? 830. \^'hat change did he eifect in the government of Poland ? 831. By whom was he defeated ? 832. How many of his army remained to him after this defeat? 833. To what means did Charles then resort to regain his lost power ? 834. What became of Charles XII. ? 835. When did Peter the Great die ? SECTION LXVII. 836. Who were the principal philosophers in the seventeenth century ? 837. For what was Galileo imprisoned ? 838. What institutions were formed which contributed to the advaace- ment of science and the arts ? 839. What work of Newton contains the elements of all philosophy ? 840. What wag Locke's theory concerning: the human mind? 841. What are some of the most distinguished poetical productions of modern times ? 842. Who are some of the most eminent English Poets i 843. Who were distinguished writers in history during the 16th ead 1?<1> centuries r ^ 26 QUESTIONS. APPENDIX HISTORY OF THE JEWS. SECTIOIN I. 144, What constitutes the basis of the first historical records? 8-44. Ho'^v can we account for the fabulous relations of the first histo- rians ? 846. From what period are the details in profane history to be received as facts ? 847. What historical records are the most ancient as well as the most ra- tional ? 843. What historical facts do they contain, not found in ether history ? SECTION II. 849. Who were the Israelites? 850. Why were they suffered to be subdued by the Romans ? 851. In what condition do their descendants exis't .' 852. What circumstance illustrates the truth and inspiration of the pro- phetic writings ? SECTION III. 853. How long: before Herodotus did Moses live ? 854. What acknowledj^ment did Porphyry mrke as to the antiquity ol the writings of Moses .' j55. What pagan traditions confirm the truth of the Pentateucli ? 856. What is said of Zoroaster ? 857. \^'hat Jewish historian successfully vindicates the authority of the Jewish scriptures ? SECTION IV. 858. What are the principal facts recorded in the book of Genesis ? 859. What ren.arkable prophecy of Isaiah is there concerninig ( yrus' 800. And what one concerning Babylon ? 861. What was the length of time from the giving of the law to Moses to the reformation in worship anil gavernment of the Jews by Nehe mi ah ? 8G2. What hereditary distinction of rank existed among the Jews ? 863. What is said of Moses, KlJsha, and Gide'-n ? 864. What internal undoubted characteristic of truth is there in the scrip- tures ? SECTION V. 865. When was the creation of the world accomplished ' B66. What was one of the most remarkable circumstances of the nntedi luvians ? B67. How long did some of the oldest of them live ? 868. Why did the Almighty destroy the world by a deluge of water ? 869. Who were saved from it and by what means? BIO. Who were some of the first inventers of the useful arta? SECTION VI. 871. What is laid of the three sons of Noah ? - " QUESTIONS. y: 672. Wliat is the most important event between the delu|^ and tht tmll of Abraham ? 873. Of what city was Babel the beginning ? SECTION VII. 874. From whom do the Jews derive theii origin ? 873. What relationship was there between Jacob and Abraham? 87(). How ca.iie Joseph, the son of Jacol), to be in l"3gypt? 877. By what means was he made governor of Egypt ? 878. How came his father and brethren to remove thither? 879. H jw long did the Israelites remain in Egypt ? 880. What were some of the circumstances connected with their IcaTiag it? 881. How long after leaving Egypt did Moses die ? SECTION VIII. 8R2. What caused a league to be formed between the Syrian chiefs? 88J. Who vas the successor of Moses in the government of Israel ? B!M. il-^w were the Israelites governed alter the death of Joshua? 8!!5. Who w?re the two last Judges of Israel ? 8b6. What change look place in the government on the death of Saaiuel f SECTION IX. ('!;7. U'hat was the original government of Israel called ? },(;8. V\ hat moral and political change took place on the death of Joabl*«^ ill the iKiidilion of l.sratl? 8!iy. Why was the regal government introduced ? SECTION X. 890. Flow long did Saul rei£;n over Israel? «';|. IJy what means v.y<; David raised to the throne as his successor? liU^2. V\ hat pros]ierous events characterize J the reign or l>^~ia > 89j. \A'!ial adverse ones characterized it ? 834. How lonjr did IJavid reign, and who succeeded him ? fi9h. Wliat is the most remarkable event in the reign of Solomon ? 89»). What books are ascrilied to him ? 897. I'niier what circumstances was the kingdom divided ? 898. Dy what names v/ere the two kingdoms subsequi;ntly to this division called ? 89"^. What became of tlie ten tribes who constituted the kingdom of Is- rael ? 9(*0. \\'hence sprang the Samaritans ? 901. When and in what manner ended the kingdom of Judah? SECTION XI. 902. How long were the Jews held captl\e in Babyl'>n ? 90'J. By whom were they released ? 9114. I'r Mn what lime and circumstance were the Israelites called Jews? 905. Wliat caused Alexander the great to march to Jerusaittm with hos* tile int. ntions ? SilG. By wjiat means was he appeased? 9il7. XN'hat favours did he then bestow on them ? 908. What advantage diof th« arts and sciences ? 918. What was the state of commerce among the Jews? 919. With what inference does Tytltr conclude his work on history ? CONTINUATION, OR PART THIRD SECTION ). 920. What was the age of Lewis XV. when the crown of France descend ed to him ? 921. When and what heirs to the crown f France, died within a few mouSeis ? 922. What made it necessary for France < i the death of Lewis XIV. to preserve peace with foreiirn states ? 523. 'U'ho was regent of France during the n inority of Lewis XV. ? 924. What distinguished minister was at the court of Spain, in this period ■ 925. W^hat wa= «i»^ v-haractcr of Uie duk* of Orleans, the regent of t ranee ' 926. By what means were the duchies of Lou lin and Bar made to revert to France ? SECTION II. 927. W^ho succeeded queen Anne on the throne of Britain? 928. ^Vhat arts of jiarliament had passed connected with the accession of George 1. concerning religion ? 929. Wlien did he enter his new dominions ? 930. How did the rebellion of 1715 in Scotland, terminate? 931. By what name were thi adherents to the Pretender called ? 932. By what name was the party called to whicn George I. committed the government of the realm ? 933. Who was king of Sweden at this time ? 934. For what purpose and by whom was he nearly instigated to invacl« Britain ? » 935. What ruined the prospects of Alberoni ? 930. In wh;H way did he attempt obtaining icvenge? 9.37. Why did he not succeed ? 9ci<}. At what age and when did George I. die ? SECTION IIL 939. When did Charles VI. become emperor of Austria and Germany r 940. Who ^vas the Au.«trian conmiander in the first war of Charles VI. with the Tuika? QUESTIONS. 89 941. Wliat arrangement did he make for the desceat of the Austrian croAvn ? 942. What was this arran[,e>iient or his act in making it called ? 9-ir3. When rtid Charles Vi. die, and who succeeded him? 944, Was she purmilted to enjoy unmolested the dominions descended to her ? 945. What circumstances were calculated to raise up competitors for d( ferent i>ai ».s of her estates ? 916. Who was the most f-irward and active of the queen's opponents? 947. What prevented the competitors of the queen from succeeding in obtaining^ their claims ? 948. Which one of them succeeded in obtaining the imperial crown ii 1741? 949. Ifow long after this did he live ? 950. On his death who obtanied the imperial crown ? 951. When did the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle take place? SECTION IV. 952. At what time and age did George II. come to the throne of Enj- land ? 953. Who was his queen ? 954. Who was prime minister of England at this time ? 955. What caused him to resign ? 956. Upon what two occasions had his views been thwarted ? 957. When did he die ? 95i!. What interesting event occurred in Scotland the same year ? 959. What was the object of the insurrection in Scotland ? 960. In what battle were the hopes of (he Stuart family for ever blasted ? 961. What became of the heir of this family after that battle? 9(i2. What is considered the most melancholy circumstance attending the Scottish rebellion .' 9C3. What singular act of parliament was passed in the year 1751 •• 964. When and at what age did George II. die ? -'' SECTION V. 965. Py what treaty was the house of Hanover effectually established on the British throne ? 966. How w.\s the British naval force left by this treaty compared with the uavai forces of other Euroi)ean nations'' 967. What did Austria lose by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ? 96f?. What dill Prussia g;iin by it? 969. How lid it effect Holland ? 970. By what moans was Russia introduced into the southern states c* Europe ? SECTION VI 971. What became a sulject of jealousy and future warfare, after (he peat e of Aix-la-Chapellf, between France and Knjrland ? 972. hi what respect did the peace of Europe, in 174!1, extend to Asia and America ? 973. What French governor in the East Indies attempted to brin» the Mogul empire under the dominion of France ? 974. In w'l.it way did the French in America train an advanlajre over the English ? 975. When did the French war in America commence ? 976. What number of French merchant vessels was captured and car- ried intc the English por'.s the first year of the war? 3* 10 QUESTIONS. 977. When the war was extended to Europe, what powers ananged themselves a»ainst each other ? 978. Who was king of Prussia at this time ? 979. What is his character ? i80. What has this war been termed ? 981. How many men have been supposed to have perished annually in the campaigns of it ? 982. What afl vantage did the English gain in America? 983. What i;t;w :illy did France obtain in the year of 1761 ? 9!>t. What induced him to join the Itague against England? 985. What advantages did England gain by this war ? 986. What change in the ministry of England contributed to the peace* SECTION VII. 987. When did George HI. succeed to the throne of Britain? 988. What was one of his first acts which showed him to be the friend of liberty ? 989. What gave rise to distressing tumults in the year 1762? 99X 'low did the measures of lord 13ute ditfer from those of Mr. Pitt? 991. What contributed to make the first years ot George HI. unquiet? 992. What besides public addresses and rtmonstrancf s contributed to the popular fervour and agitation of public feeling at this period? 993. What constitutional qu'-stion came; under discussion at this time ? 994. For what i» the year 1764 remarkable? SECTION VIII. 995. What was the pretence for taxing the American colonies ? 996. What was the first instance of imposing direct taxes without their consent ? 997. When was this imposed ? 998. When was it formally repealed ? 999. What reason is there for supposing that the Americans did not con t( inplate independence when they first made opposition to the British government ? 1000. How long was it after the passing of the stamp act before the com- mencement of hostilities ? 1001. When and where was American independence declared? 1002. Who were sent to France, and when, to solicit aid for the Ameri- cans ? 1003. What other powers besides that of France, united against England ? 1004. When did Great Britain ratify the treaty which admitted the Amer- ican independence ? SECTION IX. 1005. Who laid the foundation f -r the French revolution ? 1006. Why were the Jesuits banished from Portugal in the year 1750 ? 1007. What charge was attempted to be fixed on them at Paris, subse- quent to this ? 1000. When was the order of Jesuits abolished in France ? 1009. From what other countries were they expelled, and when? 1010. Whom did the dauphin of France, afterwards Lewis XIV. marry? 1011. When did he come to the throne ? 1012. When was an alliance formed between the court of Versailles and America? 1013. Who were the most eminent friends of liberty in the British parlia ment? \C^14. What, at this time, produced an extraordinary effect on the Part sians, againa"; the extravagance of the French court? QUESTIONS. SL 1015. What particular difficulties had the king to encounter i 1016 What, in the year 1783, tended to hasten the French reyolation and bring matters to a crisis ? 1017. Who nrst called for the states-general ? 1018. Who was in the French ministry when the states-general was call- ed^ SECTION X. 1019. What inconsistency was there in the conduct of Maria Theresa con- cerning Poland ? 1020. Wh»t led to a war between Austria and Prussia, in the year 1778 ? 1J21. What part did Austria take in regard to the war for American in- dependence ? 1022. When and at what age did Maria Theresa die ? SECTION XI. 1023. How long before the death of his mother, Maria Theresa, did Jo- seph II. come to the imperial throne of Austria ? 1024. In what manner did he labour to acquire the information needful t« his subjects ? 1025. What was the population of his dominions ? 1026. What important edict was passed by him, October 31, 1781 ? 1027. Wht-n did the Netherlands declare themselves independent of Aus- tria ? 1028. When did Joseph II. die, and by whom was he succeeded.' 1029. How long did Leopold reign ? 1030. Who succeeded him and when ? 1031. What evil did he experience Irom taking part against the French revolutionists ? • 1032. By whom were the Austrians assisted against the French in the war of 17y9 ■' SECTION XII. 1C33. When was the states-general assembled ? 1034. What was the French state prison called ? 103.5. What became of it ? 1036. How many families were there at this time in France of the ancient hereditary nobility .'' 1037. In what way did the king attempt to rescue himself from the re- straints imposed on hin.'' lOf'S. When was the national assembly dissolved ? 1039. \\hat f)revented Sweden and Russia from engaging^ in hoatillliea against the French .' 1040. What furnished the demagogues with opportunity for charging^ the king with makinsj war upon his people .' 104 1. What has this period of the French history been called .' 1042. Who was at the head of affairs in France ? 1043. How many, suspected of being aristocrats, were assassinated on th« second of September .' 1044. When was the king brought to trial ? 104.=i. When was he executed ? 1046. Into how many factions were the revoluti.-tnists divided, and what were they called ? 1047. Which one triumphed ? •04n What became of the queen of France ? aifESTIONS. SECTION XIII. 1049. What chansre to>k place in the ministry of Great Britain afler the peace with America? lOaO. W ho 5iif reeded Mr. F'>x in the nrili?h ministry ? lUr>l. \\hHt is the !^inkih» Fund oCGreat Britain? 1052. W hat important prosecution was undertaken at this time l>y the British par'iament ? 1053. IIow long did it last, and what was its result ? 1054. When was the attention of the house of common* first called to the slave trade ? 1055. When was it abolished ? 1056. What event compelled the British parliament to meet on the 20th o'^ November, 17«o? 1057. M'hat occurrence ierose to threaten war between England and Spain, in the year 1790? 1058. AN'hat h-d to the declaration of war against the king of Great Bi-itain, by France, in tlie year 1793? 1059. Wiih what success was the war prosecuted ? I0(>0. AVnat important occurrence took place in Ireland, 17n»? 1061. What important event to Ireland succeeded the suppression of the rebellion ? 1062. What took place in India during the last year of the eighttcnth century ? 1063. What led to the peace of Amiens, between France and England, October 1st, 1801 ? SECTION XIV. 1064. W'hat was the situation of France towards the close of the year 1793 ? 1065. What took place oA the 17th of November, 1793? 1066. What alteration was there made in the calendt.. ? 1067. A\'hen and where f^d iN'apoloon Bonaparte first distinguish himself? lOGfi. What became of Robespierre ? 1069. ^^'hat was the government of France, established and proclulaicd in 1795? 1070. What were the affairs of France externally at (his time ? 1071. Who were some other most distinguijhod generals? 107-2. What territories were added to the French republic ? 1073. What became of Lewis XVII. ? SECTION XV. 1074. When did Bonaparte receive the chief coii.mand of the French army in Italy? 1075. What was his age at that time ? 10.6. On the reduction oi Mantua, what did he state to his soldiers had been their sucess ? 1077. Why were the Venetians unwilling to lake part either with the Austrians or French ? 1078. Of what dishonourable conduct was Bonaparte guilty, in relation to the Venetians ? 1079. What took place on the 4th and 5(h of September, 1797? 1080. Upon what expedition did Bonaparte enter, in the year 1798? 1081. What success did he have in this expedition ? 1082. What lessened his triumph and »ave a new turn to the war? 1083. What change took place in the French government on BouapArte*£ return from Egypt? QUESTIONS. 33 .084. When, by whom and with what result was the battle of MaKngo fought ? 1085. \^'hen and between whom was the treaty of Luneville 8i 11 14. When and under whom did the British army enter Spain? 1115. What became of Sir John Moore ? r^ , , 1116. When did Sir Arthur Wellesley, with fresh troops from tnglaaU. enter Spain ? 1 117. For what service was he raised to a peerage ? 1118. What battle caused the gates of Madrid to be thrown open to the Sparish patriots in 1812? 1119. When was the battle of Vittoria fought? \l-20. What were the consequence; of it to the French? SECTION XVIII 1121. What was the partition treaty between F;rance and Spaia f ^ QUESTIONS. 119^ What was the Milan decree? , , „ ^ j nit Who was created king of xNaples when Joseph Bonaparte removed tlo4 How foCdid the war of Austria last, which commenced in 1809 » 112S' O . what condition was Austria able to obtain peace ? 1126. When did Bonaparte's second marna-e take place. 1127. When was the war renewed with Russia. . . , 1128. With how lar-e an army did Bonaparte invade Russia, m Ibl^ IVZO. What was the success of this expedition ? 1130 With what force did he comiiience hostilities in 1813. l\3\. What battle complet..ly discomfited the French empercr. 1132. When did the allies pass the Rhine ? 113:?. When did they reach Paris ? , j. . ,u r k 1134, On what conditions was Bonaparte permitted to abdicate the irencD throne ? 1135. When did the Bourbons return to Paris? SECTION XIX. 113G. From what cause had Poland suffered much ? 1 137. What ch:Mige did Charles XH. make in the stale of Pol.and ? 1 13!!. By the aid of whose power was the family of Augustus kept upon the throm. of Poland during the first half of the eighteenth cen- tury ? 1 139. Who succeeded Augustus 111. and when .' " r, iV'-.,' ^t^frna' dispute greatly (Hstiacted Poland at this time? 1(41. \\ ,th whom u.. .^^ ^^^.^^ of dismembering Pol .nd, originate ? 1112. What reasons were g-ivti. v., .,„, oartitioning rowers for the dis- miMubtrmfnt of Poland ? 1 143 I 'id thf Polrs willingly acquiesce in f'le measure? 1 144. V\'hrii wHj ihi- divisKni actually agreed upon and sanctioned by Hit !'..|ish dief : I4.S Wh. n \ tial .= the present political condition of it ? SECTION XX. \\4') 'Vhsn wfre hostilities rtnewed by England against France? ! I ii» '.V b^t < !iu5t.d Spam rtiso to be in.olved with Great Britain ? ! r>i ti.'W (li.l the English violate the rules of justice in regard to Spain ? What splrndiil vi< lory did the English obtain over the French at:.l Sp-nii-h, in 11)05 ? I ib'Z Of what act of injustice were the English judged guilty towards the I >aii.-s ' I l.'/J. What caused the royal familv of France to take refuge in England, 1 1.'«4. W).:.t wern the English ordirs in council issued in .'anuary and \o- »emt)ei, l!!()7? I \hb Wb-n Mas the prince of Wales appointed regent ol Great Britain ? i '9,6 \\ by was he appointed : I i jl. WhM distinguished personage was assassinated in the month of May, 1!:12? 1 !5«. What interesting event took place in Enj^lan 1, in May, 1816? 1159. By what m-^lancholy event was it succeeded in November uf the following year ? 2160. When did George III. die ? QUESTIONS 8S SECTION XXI. 1161. How did the French army feel toward the emperor Napoleon, aAer he was exiled ? 1162. '»Vhen did Onnaparle land in France, on his return from Elba? n6a When did he eiitnr i'aris' il64. When was tne buKle of Waterloo fought, which for ever tcnninat- ed h<5 jiiospects ? 1105. \Viieii (iiH he arrive at St. Helena, to which he was banished ? 1 166. \N hat resolution was adopted by the allit.d military coininand( rs in relation to the works of art, which the French had collected ir fl)rm£^ victories; 1167. ^\'hat jirecai.tinn did the allies adopt to prevent future revolutions ill that country ? SF.CTION XXH. 1168. ^Vho were the three iminediate successors of Peter I. ujion the throne of Kiifsi.i? 1169. How Inns: after (he death of her father did the princess Elizabeth C(Miit; to the throne? I 170. Ifow loDj; did she reign, and who succeeded her? 1171. \\hat Lcrame of Peter HI. ? I 172. \\ IkU v.as the character of Catharine 11. his widow, who succeed < d ? 1 173. ^^'hen did Alexander, the present emperor of Russia, come to th« throne ? i 174. What lurame of his predectssor .' 1 17'3. How long has Prussia existefl as a kingdom.' 1176. How many kings have reig.ied over it? 1177. Which of them did most toward raising the kingdom to the ijrsi degree of.power and renown? 1178. ^^'hat two lactions weie there in Sweden in the reign of Frederick' 1179. How loi.g (lid Gu5l;ai.f 111. reign? I IflO. How dill hf fonu- by his death ? IIHI. Why did Gustavus'lV. abdicate the throne? 1 1}!2. \Mio is the present king of Sweden ? ! lo3. When difl ne come to the throne ? 1 1SJ4. Hov/ many kings hat's reigned in l)entnark since the close of iht seventeenth century ? 1 ICik In what war was Christian VH. connected with George III. of Erg land ? 1 186. Why did his queen, Caroline Matilda, retire to, and end her day» in (Jermany ? 1 187. Who is the present king of Denmark ? SECT/ON XXIH. IlfiS. In what disputes was Switzerland involved during the first pari cl the 18th century" 11'JO. ^Vhich of the popes of Rome suppressed the order of Jesuits? 1190. Who was rasied to the papal chair in 1775? 1191. At wliat age, when, and where did he die ? 1 19''2. How came he at Valence ? 1 193. When was his successor chosen, and by what name is he called? 1 194. When did he aid in establishing the catholic religion in France? 1 195. What iiijury did he afterwards receive from France ? SECTION XXIV. T 196. Who was the reigning prince of India in the beginning of the Ibth century ? J» QUESTIONS. 1197. Tc -what 'dge did he live? 1)9{!= In wh»it manner did he come to the throne? 11^9. What singular fact is mentioned as evidence of the contentioiM common for the throne, with that semi-barbarous peojjle ? 1200. What chartered privilege has the English East India CcmpaBy with this people ? 1201. When did th^ Company receive this privilege.' 1202. What description of this people is called Sepoys ? 1203. Who is regarded as the founder of the British empire in India? 1204. When did the British parliament make provision to prevent abu?es of power in India ? 1205. What distinguished individuals were instrumental in the first re- forms under the new system f 1206. What is the reason why this system was not scrupulously adhered to? 1207. What was the object of Tippoo in regard to the English ? 1208. For what object was the East India College established? 1209. What is the population of British India? STATE OF ARTS, SCIENCES, REEIGION, LAWS, GOVERN- MENT, &:c. ' 1210. What countries have been particularly distinguished in literature, arts, and science, in the 18th century ? 1211. Which of the sciences in particular have been much cultivated and advanced in that time ? 1212. In what particulars has chemistry undergone important changes in the latter part of the IGth century ? 1213. Who claim to be the authors of the new theory of cliemislry ? 1214. What is now ascertained to be the nature of atmospheric air? 1213. By whom was the discovery of vital air, or oxygen gas, made ? 1216. To what branch of chemistry is the discovery of the decomposition of water owing ? 1217. Who discovered the constituent parts or principles of water ? 1218. What are they called ? 1219. Who are some of the most distinguished chemists of the 18th cen- tury ? BOTANY. 1220. Where and when was Linnseus born ? 12i.l. What is the foundation of his systematic botany ? 1222. With how many species of plants are botanists now said to be ac- quainted ? 1223.^ What French botanist has done nmch for the benefit of the science ' 1224. What is the difference between the system of Linna;u3 and th;^t oi Jussieu? ELECTRICITY. 1225. Who were some of the persons who first wrote learnedly on tlie subject of electricity? 1226. "Who proved that the electric fluid and lightning are the same thing ? 1227. To what practical purposes did he apply this ? 1228. Of whom was Galvanism the discovery ? 122D. What is Galvanism called ? 12S0. What English philosopher has become much celebrated for Mi eldC- tiro-cheraical researches ? QUESTIONS. W MINERAI.OGY AND GEOLOGY )S3l. When did the modem scientific arranvements of mineraj begin to occupy the attention of naturalists ? 1232. Who has the credit of reducin°f the science into claaaet and orden 1 1^33. From wb-it did geology arise i 1234. What is geology ? GEOGRAPHY. 1235. What two new quarters of the world have been presented to ui, ia the last century, according to the French geographers ? 1236. What does Australasia include i 1237. What does Polynesia include ? 1938. What took place in 1761, in evidence of the improvements in civil!* zation ? 1239. What eminent Prussian traveller has contributed to the perfection of geographical knowledge r 1240. From what period have the Russian sovereigns made laudable eP forts to obtain correct greogrraphical information ? 1241. Has the science of astronomy undergone as great chtuiges as the other sciences namsd during the last century? 1242. How mamy planets have been discovered in that time ? 1243. What fact is stated from which we can form some conjecture of the number of fixed stars ? 1244. What French writer did much to unsettle the minds of his country* men on religion and politics ? 1245. From whom has it been supposed that Voltaire imbibed his delstical sentiments ? 1246. Who were the principal delstical writers of England ? 1247. What counteracted the tendency of their writings ? 124». What other eminent French philosopher visited England, betidei Voltaire, about the same time ? 1249. To what did he principally confine his views ? 1250. What were the political opinions of Rousseau ? 1251. What was the origin of the French Encyclopedia ? 1252. WTiat courts of Europe were thrown open to the French philoao* phers ? 1253. Is it to be supposed that the French philosophers, to whom the rev- olution has been imputed, contemplated the awful catastrophe of that event ? 1254. Who was chieily instrumental in introducing the improvements of the 18th century into Russia ? DISCOVERIES AND INVENTIONS. 1255. What are the principal discoveries and inventions of modern time« .' 1256. What effect had the French revolution on the people of other cv\^' tries? 1257. What moral improvements have taken place in the condition y^ ra- rious civilized nations ? RELIGION. 1258. In what countries does paganism prevail ? 1259. What is the present condition of the Jews ? 1260. Where does Mahometanism prevail ? i 1261. What are the principal sects of the Christian religion ? \ 1262. What sects have bjcen most active as missionaries ? 4 IB QUESTIONS. 1S63. Wliat change has the papal authority experienced in the tint «■ der couiideralion ? HISTORY, POLITE LITERATURE, FINE ARTS, ^ke. 1264. What Germans have been distinguished in literature, and th* Mam arts ? .265. Who in France? 1266. Who in Great Britain ? 1267. Who in Italy ? TREATY OF VIENNA, 1815. 1S68. What addition of territory was given to Russia, and what new ti« tie to the Czar ? 1269. What is to be the condition of Cracow ? 1270. Hew did this treaty aflect Saxony ? 1271. How did it affect Prussia? 1272. What change took place in the Netherlands ? PART FOURTH. UNITED STATES. SECTION I. 1273. When and by whom was America discovered ? 1274. Under whose patronage was it discovered ? 1275. What part of it was discovered first? • 1276. Why were the islands first discovered called the West Indies ? 1277. Why was the continent called America? 1278. How long time after Columbus sailed from the Canaries before he reached St. Salvador? 1279. To what governments did he apply for patronage without success ? SECTION II. 1280. By whom and when was the contment of North America disco^'cr* ed? 1281. On what account did Virginia derive its name? 1282. Who ma-le the first attempt to colonize this part of the continent? 12«3. To whom did Sir Walter Raleigh afterward assign his interest in the country? 1284. Fnim what diil James river take its name ? 1235. Oil what account did capt. John Smith obtain his first relehae from the Indians? 1286. Who effected his second release from them ? 1287. On what account was the cultivation of the soil neglected by the first colonists ? 1288. What is the Iwstory of Focnboutas subsequent to saving the life ol capt. Smith ? 1289. A\'ho first brou<_'ht the African negroes into this part of the country ? 1290. What part ilid the \irjfiniaus take in relation to the rerolulion ot the mother country under Cromwell ? 1291. What was the population of Virginia, in 1686? QUESTIONS. W SECTION III. 1592. What wa« the origin of the Plymouth colony.' 1293. When was the settltment made ? 1294. Of how many persons did the colony at first consist? 1295. Of how many did it consist ten years afterwards ? 1296. How many emigrants came to Massachusetts, in the year 1630? 12y7. What led to the first settlement of Rhode Island and rrorideuc* plantations i 1298. Who laid the foundation of Hartford, Spriagfield, and Weathers- fit Id ? 1299. When and by whom was New-Hampshire first settled ? 1300. Whfin did a systematic v/arfare commence between the Eng^lish ami Indians ? 1301. What number of British subjects had settled in New-England, up to 1G38? 1S02. What instances of rm did Maryland derive its nvne, and by whom WHS it first s.ttled? 1306. By whom was New- York first settled ? 1307. When w-is it surrendered to the Knglish ? 13(K<. By whom and under what circumstances wad Pennsylrania settled? 1309. When and by whom was Georgia st ttled ? SECTION IV. 1310. What settlements had the French in America? 1311. la what way did IVatice endeavour to confine the English within narrow limits, or to drive them from the continent? 1312. When, and what method did the Virginia asseu.oly adopt to sup* port the Eniflish claims, over the disputed territory? 1313. When and with what force was general Braddock sent over to sup- port these claims ? 1314. What was the su^-fPSB of Braddock's expedition ? 1315. How many campaigns were attended only with expense and disiq^ pointment to the English ? 1316. What led to a change in English prospects? 1317. What celebrated English general was killed in the capture •/ Quebec ? 1318. How many soldiers did the colonies furnish in the French war? 1319. When was the British stamp act parsed? 1320. Where in the colonies was it first opposed ? 1321. Which of the colonies proposed a continental congress to b« at New- York ? 1322. When was the law repealed ? 1323. What bill was passed on the repeal of this ? 1324. What disturbances took place at Boston, in 1763 ? 1325. What change took place on the elevation of Lord North ? 132C. What disturbances took place in Boston, in March 1770? 1327. What took place in 1773? 1328. What resistance was made, 1773, in Boston, to the British | ment in relation to tea ? 1329. Who was the British commander-in-chief in Boston, at this time i 13.30. What took place at the congress of 1774, holden in Philadelphia? 1331. Where and under what circumstances was spilt the first blood •/ the revolutionary war ? 133S. What led to the burning of Charlestowa? 40 QUESTIONS. 19S3. Who iieaded an expedition into Canada 7 1334. With what success was it made ? 1335. By whom was general Gage superseded? 1356. When did the British evacuate Boston? 1337. When was published the declaration of American Inckpeadeaoe f 1338. What tended much to raise the despondin* hopes of America tai the latter part of 1776 ? 1339. \Vhat splendid advantages did the Americans gain in 1777 ? 1340. When was a treaty of alliance formed between the French u4 Americans ? 1341. Who took the commamd of the English army on the return of gen- eral Howe ? 1342. Whv was general Lee suspended? 1343. What took place on the 15lh July, 1779? 1344. Where, and under what circumstances was count Polaski mortally wounded ? 1345. What prevented West Point from falling into the possession of the English? 1346. What distinguished French military and naval commanders were sent to the aid of America ? 347. What event is reckoned to have decided the contest between Eng- land and America ? 348. How much money did England expend, and how many UYes did she sacrifice in this war ? SECTION V. 349. When did the coHvention meet to form a new constitution? 1350. When and where did the iirst congress meet under the new consti'* tution ? 1351. What produced an insurrection in the western part of Fennsylra- nia ? 1352. What was the state of affairs between the United States and France^ during the revolution in the latter ? " 1353. When did congress first meet ;« the city of Washington ? 1354. What are the principal particulars of the war with Tripoli? 1355. When and for how much was Louisiana purchased f SECTION VI. 1356. IVhat were the particulars that led to the suspension of commodon Barron ? 1357. What led to the declaration of war on the 18th of June, 1812, be- tween the United States and Great Britain? 1358. What were some of the principal disasters on land, which the Americans experiervced during the war ? 1359. What were their principal and most brilliant succeaaei on liad? 1360. What naval victories did they obtain ? 1361. What naval losses did they experience ? 1362. What American officers were killed during the ynx i 1363. What British officers were killed during it ? 1364. When and where was a treaty of peace signed ? 1365. Who were the commissioners ? 1366. What states, since the admission of Louisiana in 181S, have bMM admitted into the union ? 1367. What accession of territory did the United States reocire ia I9t9t 13(8. What was the population of the United Sutes ia ttfO> QUESTIONS PART FIFTH. SECTION I. 1S60. Wliat circumstance agitated France in 1820? 1370 Wlien did Bonaparte die, and at what age? 1371. What is said of him ? J372. What war occurred in 1823, and what vere its eiTecti ? 1373. When did Louis XVIII. die, and who succeeded hira ? 1374. What circumstances occurred in Portugal in 1820, in 1821, ud ia 1823 ? 1375. Who succeeded George Ul.? 137G. Wliat remarkable events occurred in England in 1820 ? 1377. For what was tlie Summer of 1821 remarkable, and what were ita consequences .' 1:378. What important decree was issued by the Emperor of Russia in 1811 ? 1379. What change has since taken place in the constitution of thai Empire ? 1380. What was the declaration of the Congress of Vienna in 1815, with regard to the slave trade ? 1^.81. How far were their purposes in this respect carried into eflect? i:J82. What circumstances occurred with regard to the Jesuits in 181C and in 1820 ? 1383. When did Pope Pius VII. die, and who succeeded him ? 1384. What were tiie principal events in tJie life of the present popo, pre* vious to his elevation to the papal throne ? 1385. What occurred in Naples and Sicily in 1820 and 1821. 1386. When did the Greeks revolt against the Turks ' 1387. What is said of this war ? SECTION II. 1388. From what must we estimate the degree of civilization to which the an'iient Mexicans had attained ? 1389. What is said of the political system ? 13!)0. What of the ecclesiatical ? 1391. What crimes were made capital .' |3!>2. To what was ti.e attention of government principally directed? 13"3. What is said of the otlior governments in the country ? 1394. What of the arts and sciences known to them ? 1395. Do they appear to iuive been less civilized than European nationa of the same period ? 1396. What occurred when the Spaniards first landed, and how wer« thej affected by it." 1397. What occurred in their route to Tenochtitlan or Meiico .' 1398. When did they arrive at the capital ? 1399. What force had Cortez at this time ? 1400. How were they received ' 1401. What was tl»e first act of aggression ? J402. What most excited the indignation of the MexicaiM? 1403. On what account did Cortez leave the rity ' 1404. In what state did he find things on iiu return^ 1405. How was Mon;ezunia killed ? 1406. Who was hit suocessor f 42 QUESTIONS 1407. Where did the first battle occur, and what was 'tta result f 1408. What measures did Cortez adopt to strengthen his foree .' 1409. When did he return to the neighbourhood of Tenocbtitlao, and what measures did he pursue to conquer tlie city ? 1410. What number of allies did he receive ? "1411. When was the city conquered? 1412. How did Cortez dispose of liis captives? 1413. In wliose reign did the conquest occur ? 1414. What is said of the history of New Spain from this period till tha revolution ? 1415. WIioso property were these colonies ? 1416. How were they divided ? HJ7. What was the au;hority of ihc viceroy? 1418. What aids had the viceroys in the administration of gorernment ? 1119. On whom did the supreme authority devolve when a viceroy died.' 1420. When was the Council of the Indies established, and what were ita functions ? 1421. Wiiat other tribunal was there ? 1422. What occurred ia 1803? 1423. How dirt tliis aflect the European part of the population, and what did they do ? 1424. Who was the next viceroy ? 1425. What conspiracy was formed, and how did it terminate 1 1426. What other rcvo-its arc mentioned ? 1427. When did general Mina arrive ? 1428. Whf>n was ho. defeated ? 1429. When, and from what cause, did the last revolt from the autheritj «f Spain occur ? 1430. Who now united their influence in favour of a revolution.' 1431. Who was selected to execute their plans ? 1432. What measures did he adopt to raise himself to the supreme au< thority ? 1433. Who were his friends, and who his opponents ' 1434. When was he declared emperor? 1435. How were the clei-gy attected ;- 1436. Who now arose to produce a new revolution, and what were hia measures ? 1437. By whom was Santana assisted ? 1438. When was this revolution completed ? 1430. What became of Iturbide ? 1440. What form of government was established' 1441. When was their constitution adopted? 1442. What is its princip.il defect? 1443. What other federal government was formed at the Mini puriod^ 1444. What title does it assume ? 1445. What religion is established ? SECTION III. 1446. When were the Bahamas discovered ? 1447. When was the first settlement made ? 1448. By whom wore they soon atler possessed ' 1449. Whj was their leader ? 1450. Who have since possessed the Bahamaa? 1451. What is said of the pirates? 1452. What is said of the Aborigines ? 1453. What of the Arrowauks ? 1454 How were the Great Antilles divided.' 1455. What was the authority of the caciquaa^ M56. How populous were these islands ? QUESTIONS. 1457 What became of the inhabitants ? 1458 What Tact is worthy of record in favour of the Spuutrdlf 1459. Who were the Buccaniers ? 1460. Whence their name .' 1461. Give the rest of their history ? SECTION IV 1462 When was this country discovered and settled f 14C3. Character of its history till 1778 ? 14(54. What events followed .' 14(>5. When was the country invaded ; by whom ; and with what MIOO 14GC. Where did the revolution commence, and what was its eatuM^ 1407. What is the date of its declaration of Independence ? 14G8. By whom was it afterwards invaded .' 14()9. What is its present state .-' 1470. What is the early history of Brazil ? 1471. When did the roya! family arrive, and how long 1472. How was the government then left .' 1473. What circumstances followed ? 1474. Who is the Emperor of Brazil .' 1475. What is said of the history of Guiana ? 147pe- ) d-featcd Napoleon, and saved Euro)"' ii'" '.>. The Mattie of Syracure, 413 B. C. in | hj^ o,.;isp,ng ambiton. which the Athenian povv'er was broken, and'; the Wffst of Europe saved from t3reek do- mination. .^. The Battle of Arbella, a?! B. C, in which Alexander, by the defeat lif Darius, establislii-d his power in Asia, and by the in- troductirin of European civilizatior] ]irodiv-- ed an elfcct which as yet may be tni ' )d there. 1. The Battle of Mataurus, 207 B. C, in which the Romans under Consul Nero de- feated the Carthagenians under Hasdrubal, and by which the supremacy of the great Republic was establisihed. 5. The Victory of Arminius, A. D. 9, Over the Roman legions under Varus, which se- ■ I cured Gaul from the Roman domination; < I 0. The batlle of Chalon.s, A. D. 4.>1, in ■ which Actus defeated Atilla the Hun, the /elt-stj led "Scourge of God," and saved Eu- ro;ic from entire devastation. 7. The Battle of Tours, A. D., 7^2, in which Charles Martel, by th«j defeat ofthe ,J S.iracens, averted the Mohammedan yoke [i from Eurpe. / 8. Th-^ Battle of Hastings, A.D. lOCC, in \ whicli Willarti of Norlnandy was victorious over the Anglo Saxon Harold, and the re- ^ suit of which was the formation o( the Anglo f \orman nation which is nuw dominant in 4 -he world. '; 9. Tiie Battle of Orlenans, A.D. 1S09, in dependent existence of Fiance secured. 10. The defeat of the Sbanish Armada, A. D. I'SS, which crushed the hopes of the F-A- inKi.Ali'.nd. 11. J'lic B;i!-e of Blenheim, A.D. 1704, in | which M.irlljj.i'i'gh, by the defeat of Tal- ' lard, broke the power and crlished the am- bition of Loijis XIV. tJl "07 Deacidifled using the Bookkeeper process Neutralizing agent; Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: ,.^^ JHOV, PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township. PA 16066 (724)779-2111