JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SERIES INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE WEEDandRiLEY D.C.HEATH&. COMPAN I t fc II CJasa n y-tf£ Book 1/ ¥ Gop>iight N°_ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL SERIES INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE PRACTICAL STUDIES IN CROP PRODUCTION BY CLARENCE M. WEED AND WILLIAM E. RILEY STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, LOWELL, MASS. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO COPYRIGHT 1914 AND IC)l6 — BY D. C. H E A Til & CO. I G6 ©CI.A4 371JM) / 7t^0 ( , PREFACE The art of agriculture is based upon the production of crops. Consequently, it seems highly desirable that the study of agriculture should be begun by a general survey of the field of crop production. By such a survey the stu- dent acquires a general knowledge of the many kinds of crops grown in America. He is thus able to supplement by a broader view the knowledge gained in the compara- tively narrow field of personal experience. In this book the attempt has been made to carry out con- sistently a method of teaching which has led to successful results through many years of use. It is a combination of the laboratory and the project methods in which personal experience with real objects precedes the study of each crop considered. So far as possible these laboratory and project outlines are made so simple that they can be carried on in connection with any school. While the book is especially intended to meet the needs of the Junior High School, it should also prove serviceable in other schools. The book furnishes the teacher with an abundant series of simple directions for work for each pupil to follow out before taking up the study of the text. The latter gives the most essential facts concerning the characteristics, history, culture, varieties, and enemies of practically all our crops. There are in addition many charts which show the total production of the various crops in the world as a whole, as well as the production in the United States and in special states. In nearly all cases more outlines are given than are neces- sary for an adequate study of the text, hence the teacher iv PREFACE need not feel that it is essential that every set of directions should be carefully followed. There is, however, so little duplication that all of the directions may be followed without detriment to the pupil. The work should be espe- cially valuable in connection with those schools that are carrying out project methods with the home or school garden. The book is divided into live main parts treating respec- tively Vegetable Crops, Flower Crops, Fruit Crops, Farm Crops, and the Soil, its Origin and Improvement. It is by no means necessary that this order should be followed. The topics can readily be taken up in any other sequence, but our experience indicates that the order here given is likely to yield the most successful results and to fit in best with the calendar of the school year. An exception may well be made, however, in connection with the soil, and lessons on this subject may be taken up at various times in connection with some of the crops. The authors' desire is to place especial emphasis upon the importance of having the pupils get a foundation of personal observation in connection with each crop before they study the text. By so doing, they come to the latter with knowledge and experience which enables them to visualize the discussion instead of merely learning so many words and phrases. In this respect the book differs from most others and it is be- lieved that for this reason it will yield more successful results in real knowledge than is the case where the pupil simply goes through a few observations as a supplement to the lessons studied. CONTENTS I. VEGETABLE CROPS pace Root Crops: Radishes, Turnips, and Rutabagas 3 Root Crops: Beets, Carrots, and Parsnips 9 Tuber Crops: The Potato 15 Bulb Crops: Onions, Leeks, and Shallots 24 Cole Crops: Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Kale 29 Pot-herb Crops: Spinach, Chard, and Dandelion 38 Salad Crops: Lettuce, Celery, and Parsley 42 Pulse Crops: Beans and Peas 50 Vine Crops: Squashes, Melons, and Cucumbers 59 Solanaceous Crops: Tomato, Pepper, and Eggplant 66 II. FLOWER CROPS Annual Flowers 73 Annual Flowers: The Composites 8i Hardy Perennial Flowers 89 Spring-flowering Bulbs 101 Summer-flowering Bulbs 108 III. FRUIT CROPS Pomaceous Fruits: The Apple 115 Pomaceous Fruits: The Pear 126 Stone Fruits: The Peach 135 Stone Fruits: The Plums 143 Stone Fruits: The Cherries 155 Small Fruits: The Grape 161 Small Fruits: Currants and Gooseberries 167 Small Fruits: The Raspberries 176 Small Fruits: Blackberries and Dewberries 1S2 Small Fruits: The Strawberry 186 vi CONTENTS IV. FARM CROPS page Farm Crops: Indian Corn or Maize 195 Grain Crops: Wheat 209 Grain Crops: Oats 218 Forage Crops: Grasses 224 Forage Crops: Clovers 22S Forage Crops: Alfalfa 233 V. SOILS: THEIR ORIGIN, CHARACTERISTICS, AND IMPROVEMENTS The Making of the Soil 241 The Water in the Soil 245 Soil Fertility 249 Soil Tillage and Crop Rotation 253 The Kinds of Soils 257 Appendix 261 Suggestions for the Teacher 203 VEGETABLE CROPS ROOT CROPS: RADISHES, TURNIPS, AND RUTABAGAS The Radish Germination Test Twenty-five or fifty radish seeds for each pupil. If practicable, let each pupil get the seeds from seed- pods in school or home garden. riacc in the germinating box or plate. Examine daily. Remove those that sprout, making a careful record each day. At the end of a week determine the percentage of germination. Leave some seeds in a germinating dish until they develop root-hairs, as in the picture above. Growing Radishes Fifty radish seeds for each pupil. Choose early round varieties. A. Outdoors Plant the seeds half an inch apart in rich mellow soil. Cover one-half inch deep. 3 4 CROP PRODUCTION Watch for the seedlings to come up. Dig up one when the first true leaves appear. Draw on paper or blackboard. Dig up another three weeks after sowing. Draw the root. Pull as fast as the roots are large enough to eat. Compare crispness of different radishes. B. Indoors Plant in a window box next the window all the seeds for which there is room. Watch and draw as in A. • Forms of Radishes Different varieties of radish roots from garden or market, or pictures of the various types as shown in the seed catalogues. Practice drawing on blackboard or paper the outlines of these types of radish roots: Round or turnip-shaped Olive-shaped Long Radish Maggots Radishes growing outdoors. Cut open radishes of any age, even those that have gone to seed. Find brownish tunnels where white maggots have eaten the roots. Examine several young radishes to see if you can find the maggots at work. Read the life story of the radish maggot in Farm Friends and Farm Foes, pages 126-128. RADISHES, TURNIPS, AND RUTABAGAS 5 The Turnip and the Rutabaga Types of Structure A flat turnip, a round turnip, and a rutabaga, all with leaves if possible. If any types are missing, replace with pictures from seed catalogues. Make drawings on blackboard or paper of each type of structure. Notice which types have hairs upon the leaves. Germination Test Twenty turnip seeds for each pupil. Place in germinating box or plate. Examine daily. Record and remove those that sprout. At the end of a week determine the percentage of germination. Growing Seedlings One hundred seeds. A window box filled with garden soil. Scatter the seeds over the soil of the window box. Cover lightly with fine soil. Water through cheese- cloth. When the seedlings have three leaves dig up carefully. See: The roots and root-hairs with soil particles clinging to them. The stem above the roots. The seed-leaves. The true or foliage leaves. Practice drawing the seedlings on blackboard and on paper. ROOT CROPS The Radish Radishes are justly esteemed as valuable roots for eating. They are easy to grow and mature in so short a time that many crops may be taken off the same land in a single season. They require cool weather for their best development, so in most regions they are grown in spring and autumn more than in summer. There are three principal forms of Radish roots. namely: the Round or Turnip-shaped; the Oval or Olive-shaped; the Conical-cylindrical or Long radishes. The chief colors are red or white or a combination of the two. Radishes thrive in rich moist loamy soil and are grown in enormous quantities in practically all market gar- den regions. Winter crops are forced in greenhouses. Good varieties mature in a month or less under favor- able conditions, the seed being generally sown in drills ten to sixteen inches apart. The smallest seeds should be discarded, as much better plants are produced by large seeds. In addition to the ordinary spring rad- ishes generally grown in America, there are varieties especially adapted for summer use and others for growing in autumn to store for winter use. It is not known whether the Radish was developed from an original wild plant that cannot now be found or from the common weed called wild charlock. As 6 RADISHES, TURNIPS, AND RUTABAGAS 7 an experiment, edible radishes have been developed from this charlock. So it seems probable that it is the plant from which the radish came. The most troublesome enemy of the radish is the Radish Maggot. This is one of the root maggots that ruins the roots for food. Eggs are laid by a two-winged fly about the base of the young plant. These soon hatch into larvae that feed upon the thickened root, burrowing through it in all directions. After a few weeks they become full grown as larvae and change to pupae, to change again soon into two-winged flies. A heavy mulching of unleached wood ashes or refuse tobacco powder over the rows just after sowing is said to be a good remedy for the pest. The earliest crop of radishes is seldom infested. A good way to save a later crop would be to start it under gauze-covered frames, as recommended for starting cabbage plants, taking the covers off when the crop is half grown. Frequent rotation of the radish bed is desirable. The Turnip and the Rutabaga The origin of the Turnip is not known. It is be- lieved to have been first cultivated in Europe or Asia. It belongs to the great mustard family. The thickened roots are used as a culinary vegetable as well as for stock feed. Two common types of turnips are grown, the Flat and the Globular. The flesh is white or yellow. Like the radish, the Turnip is a cool season crop, doing best in early spring or late summer and autumn. It requires a rich moist soil and is grown either in drills or broadcast. The chief enemy is the root maggot, to prevent which crop rotation is necessary. 8 CROP PRODUCTION The Rutabaga, or Swedish Turnip, is recognized as a species distinct from the ordinary turnip. While turnip leaves are hairy, those of the rutabaga are smooth and glaucous. The top of the swollen tuber is lengthened into a sort of neck and the lower surface sends out many roots in addition to the long tap-root. The flesh is yellow and generally richer than that of the turnip. The Rutabaga requires a rich soil and a rather long season. The seed is sown in June for autumn har- vesting. In addition to its use as a culinary vegetable it is used largely for feeding cattle. ROOT CROPS: BEETS, CARROTS, AND PARSNIPS The Carrot Types of Structure A long, a half-long, and a short or round carrot. If any types are missing supply with pictures from seed catalogues. Practice drawing on blackboard and on paper until pupils can draw each type from memory. Germination Test Twenty carrot seeds for each pupil. Place in germinating box or plate. Examine daily. Record germination and compute percentage. Compare time of germination for carrot seeds with time of germination for radish seeds. Growing in the Garden Sow a row of carrot seed in early spring in the school garden. At the same time plant several carrots that have been kept over winter. Be sure the crown bud at the top is not injured. 9 io CROP PRODUCTION Give good tillage and care. Thin the seedlings to two inches apart. See that the seedlings develop roots by autumn and that the roots from last year's growth develop flowers and seeds. This sort of a plant is called a biennial, because it takes two years to produce seed. Beets and Mangels Seed Structure Twenty beet seeds for each pupil. Place in germinating box or plate. When germina- tion begins examine the seed under a hand lens. Find the exact number of plants starting from one seed. Examine many seeds to see if they are really seeds- or a sort of seed-pod, each holding two or more seeds. Growing in the Garden Sow seeds and plant beet roots as directed above for the carrot, to show that the beet also is a biennial. The Parsnip Germination Test Twenty parsnip seeds for each pupil. Place in germinating box or plate with carrot seeds. Examine daily. Record germination and compute percentage. Compare time of germination of parsnip seeds with the time of germination for carrot seeds. BEETS, CARROTS, AND PARSNIPS n The Wild Parsnip Pull up a wild parsnip. Compare its root with the root of the cultivated parsnip. Examine the seed. Find the use of the wing. ROOT CROPS {Continued) The Beet The various forms of Beets now cultivated have been derived from the Wild Beet, which is common in Southern Europe and other regions bordering the Mediterranean sea. In addition to the Garden Beet, with which we are now especially concerned, there are the large, coarse- grained Mangel Wurzels or Mangels, grown for stock feed; the Sugar Beets, grown for their sugar content; the Foliage Beets, grown for ornament ; and the Swiss Chard, grown as a pot-herb. It is believed that all of these have been derived from the original Wild Beet. This shows what can be done by selecting seed with reference to different characters of the plant. The varieties of Garden Beets are divided into four classes as to form, namely. Top-shaped or Turnip-rooted, Oval, Half-long, and Long. The Turnip-shaped sorts, however, are the ones now grown chiefly for use as a culinary vegetable. They require a rich, deep, moist soil in good tillage, and under favorable conditions will become large enough for bunching in eight weeks from seeding. They are usually planted very early in spring for summer use, and again in summer for fall and winter use. The so-called seed of the Beet is really a seed-head or fruit, in each of which there are usually several seeds. BEETS, CARROTS, AND PARSNIPS 13 Because of this it is necessary to thin the seedlings even if the seed is scattered sparsely in the drill. The seed- lings thinned out are commonly saved for beet-greens. Early in the season the beets are sold in bunches; later by the bushel. Three hundred bushels per acre is a fair yield. The Carrot The great family of plants which have small flowers grouped together in flat-topped clusters or umbels is called Umbelliferae. It includes three well-known vege- tables, two of which — carrot and parsnip — are culti- vated for their roots, and one — parsley — for its leaves and leaf-stems. All are hardy species and from the point of view of seed production are biennials. The cultivated Carrot is believed to have been de- veloped at least two thousand years ago, from the Wild Carrot, a familar weed called by botanists Daucus carota. Its original home was probably Europe or Asia. The Carrot is now an indispensable vegetable for use in soups, stews, and salads, as well as for table use alone and for feeding stock. The original long Carrot has been developed through selection into three distinct forms as to length — Short or Globular, Half-long, and Long. The two latter have also two types of pointedness, one set of varieties being distinctly pointed at the lower end and the other set blunt or rounded. There are also four types of color in the roots — white, yellow-red or orange-red and purple. The yellow and the orange-red types are the most popular. The main crop of Carrots requires a long season for i 4 CROP PRODUCTION growth. With most sorts the seed is sown early in spring and the roots are harvested late in autumn, but quick- growing forcing varieties that become large enough for use in early summer are now available. The Carrot thrives in a rich, deep, moist soil in the best condition that tillage can give it and as free as possible from weeds. The seeds are slow in germinating, so it is well to mark the rows by adding a few radish seeds. The seeds are commonly planted in drills twelve to sixteen inches apart for hand hoeing. The seedlings must be weeded and thinned so that each root will have plenty of room. Two hundred bushels to the acre is a fair yield. The Parsnip Like the carrot the Parsnip is believed to have been developed more than two thousand years ago from a wild plant — the Wild Parsnip, which is a common weed along many roadsides. There are three types of roots - the Short or Globular, the Half-long, and the Long. The Parsnip requires a soil even deeper than that for the carrot, as the slender tap-root of the long variety has been traced down nearly three feet. The soil should be rich and moist and in fine tilth. Seeds are planted early in spring in drills fifteen to eighteen inches apart and the seedlings thinned to four or five inches apart. The seeds germinate slowly, so the rows should be marked by radish seedlings. The roots mature late in autumn and may be dug then or left in the ground through the winter, if protected by a light mulch. Five hundred bushels to the acre is a good yield. TUBER CROPS: THE POTATO Types of Form Potatoes showing variety of form — long, round, and intermediate. Make outline or shaded drawings on blackboard or paper. Depth of Eyes Potatoes of various forms, some with deep, some with shallow eyes. Weigh a potato with shallow eyes. Make a record of its weight. Peel this potato. Weigh the peelings. Determine the per cent of peelings. Weigh a potato with deep eyes. Make a record of its weight. Peel this potato. Weigh the peelings. Determine the per cent of peelings. In which potato is there the greater waste by peeling? Seed Balls Seed balls from potato tops, brought in by the pupils. Examine carefully and draw. ' Open and examine. What do they come from? How do they differ from potato tubers in origin? Cut the balls in two. Place in water in a dish. In a week or so they will begin to ferment. Then wash out is 1 6 CROP PRODUCTION the seeds and store carefully for planting the next spring. In the spring plant and see the development of new tubers when the vines are dug. Insect Enemies Find as many stages of the potato beetles as you can and bring to school. Do these insects bite the leaves or suck the sap? Where and in what stage do they pass the winter? Read pages 135-136, Farm Friends and Farm Foes. Can you find on the leaves tiny black beetles that jump when disturbed? These are flea beetles. Can you see the little holes in the leaves that these flea beetles make? How do farmers destroy potato insects? Spray or dust the potato plants in school or home garden with arsenate of lead to prevent injury by these insects. Are potato leaves sprayed with Bordeaux mixture injured by flee beetles? Fungous Enemies Find potato leaves injured by blight. Compare with healthy leaves. If there are sprayed potato plants near by see the difference between them and unsprayed plants. Spray your own plots with Bordeaux mixture. Find out if the tubers from blighted plants are more liable to rot than those from healthy plants. Find some scabby potatoes. Inquire if any one in the neighborhood soaked the seed potatoes in formalin solu- tion. What was the result? A better way to find out is to soak the seed potatoes you plant in formalin solu- THE POTATO 17 tion. Dilute one-half pint formalin with fifteen gallons of water. Soak two hours. Scoring a Hill of Potatoes Let each pupil bring to school the total product of one hill of potatoes. Score each exhibit according to some approved score card, preferably the one in use at your state or county fair. If such is not available use the following : Per ccnt Name of variety 10 Eight or less tubers, at least two inches in small diameter 20 Uniformity of size, not too large or too small 15 Freeness from dirt, scab, rot, or insect injury 15 Smoothness, with shallow eyes 10 Flesh white and firm, without hollow center 10 Story of how they were grown 10 Drawing of the tubers on the blackboard or paper ... 10 100 Let each pupil fill out a fresh score card for each exhibit at least three times, each time on a different day. POTATOES AVERAGE ANNUAL PRODUCTION DEC/WE r/399-/90eJ //V rt/u/b/vs orsc/s/fSiS THE POTATO The Potato is one of the most important crops grown by man. Taking the whole world into consideration it ranks next to rice in extent and value, the world product in a single year amounting to nearly five billion bushels. In America it is by far the most important vegetable crop, and is grown for market as a field staple in many states. New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Wis- consin lead in the production of potatoes, while Maine, Montana, and Nevada lead in the average number of bushels per acre. The average annual crop for the whole United States is estimated at more than two hundred and fifty million bushels. The cultivated Potato has been derived from a wild plant called Solatium tuberosum, which has been growing since prehistoric times in South America and Mexico. The natives of Peru appear to have brought it into cul- tivation some thousands of years ago, so that when the Spaniards invaded that country in the sixteenth century they found the Potato in cultivation. They were so impressed with its value that tubers were sent to Europe in 1542 and later. Potatoes were also grown by the early colonists of North America, though whether they were obtained from Indians or Spaniards seems not to be known. A notable date in the history of the Potato is the year 1586, when it was introduced into Ireland. It there became so 18 20 CROP PRODUCTION important a crop that to this day it is known as the Irish Potato. While the sweet potato is a root-tuber, the Potato is a stem-tuber, developing from an underground stem or root-stock. The eyes upon the tuber are really buds and are arranged in spirals in a way that may be read- ily seen by placing a pin or tack in the eye of each potato and then twisting a piece of string along the line. The tuber is a store house of Potatoes as they Form in the Hill starchy plant food by means of which the plant is a perennial. It now rarely reproduces by means of the berry-like fruits that follow the blossoms above ground. The Points of a Good Potato For the ordinary purpose of home or market a potato should be of good size, but not so large as to be liable to show hollow spaces when cut open. It should be thick for its length and have few and shallow eyes, that there may be as little waste as possible in peeling. When grown under favorable conditions it should cook to a good mealy quality. Stems and leaves should be held erect and have as much resistance to disease as possible. In most markets a white skinned, white-fleshed potato is preferred to one showing red colors. THE POTATO 21 Potatoes thrive in a deep, moist soil which is well- drained and loamy, with an abundance of humus or de- caying vegetation. The details of culture vary consider- ably in different regions, but all agree in having the roots so well covered that there is plenty of room for the tubers to mature without exposure to the sun and air. In regions where potato production is a specialty the culture, planting, spraying, digging, and sorting is done with the help of special machines, but in most regions the work is done by hand. The most successful growers cut the tubers to not more than two or three eyes before planting, the cuttings being placed about a foot apart in rows about three feet apart. The crop requires a complete fertilizer with an abundance of potash. A good average yield is about two hundred bushels per acre, but much greater yields are obtained by scientific culti- vation. In the southern states the production of early tubers for northern markets is one of the most important phases of the great truck crop industry. Northern grown seed of early varieties is planted as early as the climate allows. The new pota- toes are packed in slatted barrels with burlap covers and sent by rail to New York or Boston and other northern cities. From these great centers they distributed to local markets everywhere. Adult COLORADO POTATO-BEETLE are 22 CROP PRODUCTION Insect and Fungous Enemies Potato leaves are almost universally attacked by the Ten-lined Potato Bug, the most destructive enemy of the crop. The adult beetle appears as soon as the plants come up, feeding upon the young leaves and depositing clusters of yellow .eggs. These eggs soon hatch into dark brown larvae that also eat the leaves and if undisturbed soon defoliate the plants. The larvae become full-grown in about a month. Then they enter the soil and change to pupae, to change again a little later to the second brood of adult beetles. These lay eggs for the second brood of larvae, which is likely to be much more numerous and destruc- tive than the first. Spray- ing or dusting the leaves with arsenate of lead or other arsenical is the general remedy for this pest. The Leaf Blight or Early Blight of Potatoes is one of the most widespread of diseases. It is due to the attack of a parasitic fungus that develops only in the leaves and stems. About the* time the plants blossom the disease begins to show as small grayish or brownish spots scat- tered over the leaflets. These spots are dry and brittle. They enlarge from day to day as the threads of the fungus invade new cells in the green tissues. Finally many of Potato Leaf affected Late Blight THE POTATO 23 them run together to form large brown blotches, so that the plant is killed and the growth of the tubers ceases. The latter do not rot, however, as in the case of those affected by the Late Blight. In the regions where it occurs the Downy Mildew or Late Blight is the most destructive fungous disease of Potatoes. The fungus attacks both leaves and tubers, causing a serious rotting of the latter. Fortunately it can be prevented to a large extent by spraying with Bordeaux mixture, a treatment that also helps in prevent- ing injury by flea beetles and Early Blight. Arsenate of lead is generally added to the fungicide whenever the potato beetles threaten damage. BULB CROPS: ONIONS, LEEKS, AND SHALLOTS The Onion Types of Bulb Crops A collection of as many varieties of onions as teacher and pupils can bring together — large onions, small onions for pickling, bunch onions, and sets. Also chives and leeks if available. Make outline or shaded drawings on blackboard or paper of round and flat types. Also of groups of sets or small onions. Origin of Seed The tops of an onion gone to seed in school garden or some home garden. Let each pupil pull out some of the black seeds from the withered flowers. If multiplier onions are available show how these originate. Seed Germination Twenty onion seeds for each pupil. Place in germinating box or plate. Examine daily and determine the per cent of germination. 24 ONIONS, LEEKS, AND SHALLOTS 25 Growing Seedlings One hundred or more seeds. A window box filled with garden soil. Scatter the seeds over the soil. Cover lightly. Water through cheesecloth. When the seedlings come up, have the pupils examine them carefully and make outline drawings on blackboard or paper. ONIONS PRODUCT/ON //V /899 CENSUS-/900 W 7H0USANOS OF BUSHELS BULB CROPS The Onion The Onion is by far the most important of the Bulb Crops. Immense quantities are raised commercially for home and export markets and considerable quantities are also raised by individuals for home use. During recent years the production of early Onions for northern use has become a leading phase of the trucking industry in many southern states. Successful Onion growing requires more care in culture than in the case of most crops. Rich level land free from weed seeds and in the very best condition as to fineness and freedom from stones is necessary for the crop. Early in spring the small black seeds are planted thickly in shallow drills and covered with about one-half inch of soil. The slender seedlings soon come up. When they reach a height of three inches they are thinned to an inch and a half or two inches apart. Then later, when the young bulbs are large enough to eat, they are thinned again if mature Cnions are wanted. The plants pulled up can be used and the distance between those left will vary from three to six inches, according to the size of the variety and the conditions of culture. Frequent and shallow tillage is needed to keep the soil surface free from weeds or a crust, and hand weeding of the rows must be given whenever weeds appear among 26 BULB CROPS 27 the seedlings. Care must be taken not to cover the bulbs with soil. Toward the end of summer the leaves should begin to die down as they ripen off. This process is often hastened by rolling a barrel along the rows to break down the tops. When the leaves are all brown, the bulbs are pulled and left exposed a few days to the drying sun to ripen off. Five hundred bushels to the acre is a good yield for Onions. While the main Onion crop is grown in the way de- scribed, there is a large demand, in both home and market, for bunch onions in spring and early summer. These are partly grown bulbs either from seeds or "sets." Sets are simply dwarfed Onions grown so thickly on poor soil that they crowd one another and ripen off as little bulbs, less than an inch in diameter. They are then pulled and stored until next spring. Planted early, they soon start into growth and in a few weeks yield young Onions for pulling. Instead of sets, seedlings are often grown under glass and transplanted when the ground is fairly warm. In regions where Onions are grown commercially two fungous diseases are often troublesome — the Mildew and the Smut. The Onion Mildew appears as a grayish velvety mold upon the leaves, many of which soon wilt at the tip in a characteristic way. Millions of spores are soon developed and serve to spread the malady. Damp weather is favorable to the disease. Onion Smut is entirely different in appearance. It shows on leaves and bulbs as blackish streaks made up of the spores of the fungus. It is able to live over winter in the soil, so that if Onions are again planted the disease is likely to be more destructive. Consequently frequent 28 CROP PRODUCTION Other Bulb Crops rotation is one of the best preventive measures for this disease. The other Bulb Crops — Leeks, Chives, Shallots, and Garlic — are of comparatively little importance in a commercial way. Chives are very useful for the home garden, the leaves furnishing excellent material for seasoning and salads. Leeks, Shallots, and Garlic are not in general demand in America, except in the larger cities. The appearance of Garlic as placed on the market is shown in the picture below. COLE CROPS: CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, AND KALE The Cabbage Types Mounted pictures from seed catalogues of flat and con- ical varieties, as well as those with crumpled leaves. Let pupils tell of the kinds of cabbages they have grown or seen. Seed Germination Ten seeds for each pupil. Place in germinating dish and determine the percent- age that germinate. Growing Seedlings About fifty seeds. Window box of garden soil. Sow seeds on surface of soil outdoors or in sunny window. Cover lightly. Water through cheesecloth. When seedlings come up, dig up and study structure. See roots, stem, seed-leaves, and true leaf. Compare with radish seedling. Draw for booklet. Enemies Find cabbage worms or chrysalids and keep in glass- covered box to rear adult butterflies. 29 3 o CROP PRODUCTION In spring and early summer plants that die are likely to show that roots are destroyed by root maggots. The Cauliflower Structure A cauliflower and a cabbage, each cut through the center vertically. Compare the structure of the cabbage and the cauli- flower. Find out who grow cauliflower in your neighborhood. Kale, Kohlrabi, and Brussels Sprouts Structure A plant of each or mounted pictures from seed catalogues. Describe kale. How does it differ from cabbage? Describe kohlrabi. How does it differ from kale? Describe a Brussels sprouts plant. How does it differ from cabbage? COLE CROPS Under the phrase Cole Crops are commonly included several plants now quite different from one another, but which have all been developed from the Wild Cabbage, a member of the Mustard Family, native to European sea coasts. It is a rather small plant and is very different from any of those which have been derived from it. These include Cabbage, Cauliflower, Kale, Kohlrabi, and Brussels Sprouts. The Cabbage The Cabbage is much the most important of these Cole Crops. It has been grown since prehistoric times and has become a staple article of human food over a large part of the globe. The head is really a shortened stem or giant bud in which in vertical cross-section one can easily see the leaf-stems and leaf-blades, and even the small buds in the axils of the stems. The plant is a biennial, forming heads of leaves the first year and send- ing up flower stalks the second. There are several dis- tinct types of Cabbages; some have conical heads, others flattened ones. The Savoy Cabbages have crumpled leaves. In each type there are red as well as green or white-leaved sorts. To mature successfully. Cabbages require a deep, moist, rich, loamy soil in which they can grow continu- ously until the heads are formed. The young plants are 31 3 2 CROP PRODUCTION commonly started in hot-beds or greenhouses for the early crop, and in outdoor seed-beds for the late crop. When started outdoors or when properly hardened off from indoor culture, they are quite hardy as to frost. The small-headed sorts may be planted two feet apart each way, but the large ones require thirty inches or more. After the plants are set, good tillage must be given to save the moisture in the soil, so that there may be no checking of growth. Unless the ground is very rich, the plants will be benefited by one or two light applications of nitrate of soda or other fertilizer rich in nitrogen. Young Cabbages may be planted from late in April until early in July for successive crops. It is especially important that Cabbage seed be selected from the best plants of each type. Commercial growers appreciate the importance of this and willingly pay high prices for strains of seed produced by specialists. The differ- ence between profit and loss from a given field may easily depend upon the percentage of plants that make sound heads, and this depends very largely upon the quality of the seed. Insect Enemies Two insect pests are often destructive to cabbages — the Root Maggot and the Cabbage Worm. The Root Maggots hatch from eggs laid about the base of the young CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, AND KALE 33 plants by a small two-winged fly, somewhat resembling the common house fly. These eggs soon hatch into whitish maggots that feed upon the roots, checking the growth of the seedling, if not killing it outright. In a few weeks the maggots change to pupae, to change later to flies like those that laid the eggs. One of the best ways to prevent such injury is to grow the seedlings in a frame covered with cheesecloth. The cloth is removed a week before the plants are set out to harden off by full exposure to sunshine. The Cabbage Worm is one of the best known garden insects. The adult is the familiar white butterfly com- mon from spring till fall. These butterflies lay eggs upon the cabbage leaves The eggs hatch into greenish caterpillars that feed upon the leaves, remaining hidden in the forming head. They feed and grow for several weeks, often riddling the head with their nibbling when several are present. Then, being full grown as cater- pillars, they crawl out, and attaching themselves by silken threads to the sides of boards, stones, or other shelter, change to chrysalids, to change again a little later to butterflies. Thus the life-cycle is completed. There are commonly several broods a year. On young plants which have not begun to head, the larvae may be killed by kerosene emulsion. On heading plants insect powder may be used. Fungous Diseases There also are two diseases especially injurious to cabbages — Black Rot and Club-root. The Black Rot is a bacterial disease, the germs of which develop by millions in the sap tubes of the plant, causing death and 34 CROP PRODUCTION decay. The destruction of affected plants, rotation of crops, and soaking the seed in a dilute solution of for- malin are the most important preventive measures. Club-root of cabbage is due to a low form of fungus — one of the so-called slime molds — that lives in the soil and attacks the roots, causing them to become abnor- mally swollen. Rotation of crops, setting healthy plants, and heavy applications of lime, both to the land and to the seed- bed, are the chief methods of prevent- ing the disease. The Cauliflower The Cauliflower is ranked as a vari- ety of the Wild Cabbage, so its Brassica oleracea, variety botrytis. The Later Stages of the Cabbage Worm: Larva, Chrysalis, Butterfly technical name is The edible part consists of the curiously modified flower clusters which form the succulent white head. It requires constant and careful selection of seed to keep the type perfect, so that it is more important to use the choicest seed with this crop than with almost any other vegetable. Until recently practically all the seed used in America was grown by specialists in Europe, but CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, AND KALE 35 of late excellent seed has been produced in the Puget Sound region. The climate there is especially favorable to the growth of Cauliflowers. The best strains of Cauli- flower seed cost five dollars an ounce wholesale, but an ounce will yield more than two thousand plants. Other strains are listed at half this price, but in this case the best is cheapest, because it yields a greater percentage of salable heads. The Cauliflower is essentially a cool-season crop. In certain regions where the summer climate is cool and moist, the crop can be grown successfully all through the season. Such regions are found near the sea coast or the great lakes or in mountainous localities. In other places where the summer is hot and dry, it is necessary to plan to grow the crop either early or late. For the former the plants are started under glass in February or March, hardened off in early spring, and set out when the ground is in good condition. Such crops mature in early summer and are harvested before the heat and drought of midsummer. For this crop early varieties are planted. The late crop is started in seed-beds outdoors and planted in June, maturing in early autumn. A chief danger of the summer heat is the burning of the delicate heads, so that the late crop escapes this because the heads are not formed until late in summer or early in autumn. It is desirable, however, to tie up the outer leaves around the heads by means of raffia or bast, thus insuring better blanching and cleaner heads. 36 CROP PRODUCTION Culture and Enemies It is even more important with Cauliflower than with cabbage that the plants grow steadily and thriftily from beginning to end. To insure this, particular pains must be taken in the selection, preparation, and tillage of the soil. In selecting the location, choose if possible a deep, moist, well-drained loam, rich in humus and easily worked. In preparing the land, work in a large amount of fer- tilizing material, with plenty of vegetation to furnish humus, and get the soil into the best possible tilth. In tillage, after planting keep the soil surface in so finely pulverized a condition that no weeds can grow and little moisture can evaporate. In regions where irrigation can be practiced throughout the growing season, success with Cauliflower is comparatively easy. The Cauliflower is subject to attack from the same insect enemies and fungous diseases as the cabbage, and their injuries are likely to be even more disastrous. It is especially important to keep the Cauliflower heads free from worms during the later growth of the crop. The same remedial measures may be used as for cabbage. Kale, Kohlrabi, and Brussels Sprouts Of all the forms derived from the Wild Cabbage, the Kale or Borecole is most like the original plant. It forms no head, being grown for its clusters of leaves, which are more or less thickened, especially in midrib and stalk, and in modern varieties are of various colors and much cut, curled, and crumpled along the margins. There are dwarf and tall, plain and variegated, green CABBAGE, CAULIFLOWER, AND KALE 37 and purple types. Kale is probably the hardiest plant of the cabbage group, enduring exposure through south- ern winters and even at the north surviving with slight protection. Large quantities are grown in Virginia, harvested in early winter, and shipped to northern markets. In the Kohlrabi the edible part is the curiously swollen stem just above the ground. This is sometimes called the Turnip-rooted Cabbage, but this is not a correct name, because the swollen part is not the root at all. Commercially this is one of the least important plants of the cabbage group. The culture is much the same as for cabbage, it being important to harvest the crop before the swollen stems become tough and woody. In studying the cabbage we learned that there are buds in the axils of the leaves. In the Brussels Sprouts we have a form in which these buds are developed into tiny cabbage heads which are very good to eat. Seed is planted and seedlings transplanted much as with the cabbage. The central stem elongates and sends out coarse leaves along its sides. In summer the buds de- velop in the axils of the leaves, and the leaves are then to be removed in order that the strength of the plant may be sent into the buds. These increase rapidly in size, looking like miniature cabbages strung upon the stem. A lot of these as they are marketed are pictured on page 29. Cabbage Brassica oleracea, variety capiiata. Wild Cabbage Cauliflower botrytis. Kale acephala. Brassica oleracea Kohlrabi " caulo-rapa. . Brussels Sprouts " ' gemmifera. POT-HERB CROPS: SPINACH, CHARD, AND DANDELION Spinach Seed Testing Twenty seeds for each pupil. Determine the percentage of germination. If old seeds are available test those also and compare germi- nation with that of fresh seeds. Leaf Miners Find spinach leaves with discolored blotches. Hold them to the light to see the maggots inside. Swiss Chard Seed Testing Ten seeds for each pupil. Place in germinating dish. When seeds sprout, see if there is more than one seedling for each seed. Compare with the results found in germinating the seeds of beet. 38 POT-HERB CROPS The Pot-herb Crops include the various plants grown for "greens." Spinach, Chard, Dandelion, and Mustard are the most important of these. They all require for their best development a moist, rich soil that promotes quick growth of leaves and stalks, the parts used. To insure such growth, light applications of nitrate of soda or sulphate of ammonia are often made to the growing crops. Spinach Spinach, pronounced and often spelled Spinage, is commercially the most important Pot-herb. It is suffi- ciently tender to make good greens and sufficiently tough to bear shipping long distances. Consequently it is raised in nearly all trucking regions and sent to near or distant markets. It is a cool-season crop, thriving in early spring and late autumn and hardy enough to live through mild winters. In the north it may be wintered over in cold frames, but in Virginia and other southern regions it requires no protection. In the latitude of New York a covering of litter or straw is often given. The culture of Spinach is simple. For home use at the north the seed should be sown in spring as soon as the ground can be worked to advantage, being scattered sparingly in drills and covered with half an inch of soil. When the seedlings have five or six leaves they should be thinned to four inches apart, the plants pulled up 39 4 o CROP PRODUCTION being used for greens. The main crop should be ready for use late in May or early in June, the ground being cleared in time for a crop of beans or other vegetables. In more southern regions the main sowing may be made early in September so that the plants are well grown by winter and will mature in early spring. Spinach has been cultivated for many hundred years. It is thought to have originated from a wild plant native to Asia, called Spinacia olcracea. It belongs to the Pig- weed Family. This is probably the reason why it is commonly attacked by a leaf-mining fly that develops in our native white pigweeds. This leaf miner is the most injurious insect enemy of Spinach. The infested leaves show discolored blotches through which the outlines of the footless maggots are readily seen. In northern regions spinach leaves that mature before the end of May are generally not infested. Swiss Chard For summer and fall use at home Chard or Swiss Chard is the most desirable Pot-herb. It is really a beet, developed for leaves rather than roots. It is sometimes called Leaf-beet. Seed sown very early in spring in rich, moist soil will yield leaves large enough to use by early summer and a continuous succession there- after until winter. The comparatively new variety called Giant Lucullus is a great improvement over the older sorts. The leaves of Chard are too tender to stand shipment, so they are seldom seen in the markets. POT-HERB CROPS 41 Dandelion In a few trucking regions the Dandelion is an impor- tant commercial crop. Seed is sown in early spring in rich, light soil, the ground being kept well tilled until it is covered by the spreading leaves. The plants are large enough by fall to yield a cutting of leaves and may then be left until spring, with perhaps a light mulch in winter. In spring they are to be harvested and the roots should be plowed out or they will form new crowns that will blossom and scatter seed over the surrounding country. The varieties developed in France and offered by seedsmen are much better for crop purposes than our wild Dandelion. Several other Pot-herbs are occasionally grown as crops. Various Mustards, the French Purslane, or "pusley," and Orach, another member of the Pigweed Family, are the most important of these. The Kinds of Pot-herbs Spinach Chard Dandelion Mustards Purslane Orach SALAD CROPS: LETTUCE, CELERY, AND PARSLEY Lettuce Types of Form A cabbage lettuce, a Grand Rapids lettuce, and a Cos lettuce or mounted pictures from seed catalogues. See how each type differs from the other types. Harvesting Seeds Lettuce plants gone to seed in school or home garden. Let each pupil separate twenty seeds from seed-heads to use in germinating test. Seed Germination Twenty seeds for each pupil. Determine the percentage of germination. Plant part of the seeds in a window box and use the seedlings in drawing exercises on blackboard or paper. Celery Varieties Study two or three seed catalogues and make a list of varieties to plant for fall and winter use. 42 LETTUCE, CELERY, AND PARSLEY 43 Seed Germination Ten seeds for each pupil. Determine the percentage of germination. Parsley Seed Germination Twenty or more parsley seeds and five radish seeds for each pupil. Place both kinds of seeds in the germinating dish. Record germination. Determine which kind germi- nates first and the difference in time between the germi- nation of the radish and the parsley. What advantage would there be in planting the two kinds of seeds in the same row in the garden? Growing Seedlings Sow parsley seeds broadcast in a window box in north or west window. Seedlings grow slowly and do better out of direct sunshine. Transplant occasionally to get a good root system. In spring plant in outdoor garden. Endive and Chicory Sow seeds of endive and chicory in the school garden or in the home gardens. Plant in early spring, as soon as ground is in good condition, in rich soil and thin to eight or ten inches apart. 44 CROP PRODUCTION When well grown tie the outer leaves together with raffia to blanch the inner ones. Some blanched hearts of Chicory as shipped from Belgium to America are pictured on page 42. It should be easy to grow similar ones here. SALAD CROPS The three most important Salad Crops are Lettuce, Celery, and Parsley. In addition to these, Endive, Chicory, Cress, and Water Cress are commonly grown in many regions, although they are not so generally used as the three first named. Lettuce Lettuce finds a place in practically all home gardens and is grown in vast quantities both indoors and out for market. It is one of the most important truck crops in market garden regions. Lettuce has been grown as a garden plant for thousands of years. The original form from which it developed is unknown, though it is sup- posed to have come from the Wild or Prickly Lettuce, now an introduced weed in America, belonging to the great family of Composite plants. The form most commonly grown is the Head or Cab- bage Lettuce, of which many varieties are offered in every seed catalogue. This is in general the most satisfactory type either for home use or market. Seeds sown in drills in early spring soon develop seedlings that may be thinned to six to ten inches apart in order that each may have room to head. The soil should be loamy and rich. A light application of nitrate of soda when the plants are half grown is very helpful. Two or three plantings should be made at intervals throughout the summer. 45 46 CROP PRODUCTION Two other types of Lettuce are of value. The plants of the Curly or Grand Rapids Lettuce do not form com- pact heads, but have large leaves of value for salads and garnishing. The Cos or Romaine Lettuce produces long slender heads which are especially valuable for summer use, as this type stands hot weather much better than the others. It was formerly necessary to tie the leaves together near the top to blanch them, but self-closing sorts are now available. Celery Celery is a garden form of Wild Celery, a plant of the large Parsley Family, called by botanists Apium graveo- lens. The wild form is native to great regions in Europe and Asia. The cultivated form has been in use for hundreds of years, though it is only during the last half century that it has become the universal favorite it now is. Before that it was a winter vegetable, grown in summer and carried into cellars in autumn to blanch before being used. About 1885 two important self- blanching sorts, White Plume and Golden Self-blanching, were introduced; these were earlier and easier to grow, SALAD CROPS 47 so they were helpful in extending the season and making the plant more popular. Many other sorts are now known. Celery requires good care and a deep, moist, soil rich in decaying vegetable matter. The seeds are sown early in hot-beds or cold frames and the seedlings thinned to an inch apart and later transplanted, at least once before the final transplanting to the garden or field. At the first transplanting the tap-root should be pinched off to induce a strong development of other roots. In the garden the transplants are. set six inches or more apart in the row, according to the variety. Good tillage is given until the plants reach full size or nearly so. Then stalks are to be blanched by some method that will exclude the light. This used to be accomplished by setting the plants in trenches and filling the trenches with soil. This is still a good method for home gardens where the soil is deep enough. A common way is to set the plants in rows four feet apart and gradually hill up the sides with earth. Instead of this, boards are often used, set vertically along each side of the rows, or the plants are set in solid beds and boards placed along the outer borders. Celery is commonly attacked by Leaf-spot or Early Blight. This is a destructive fungous disease that some- times causes the loss of more than half the crop. It first shows as small, irregular, yellowish green spots upon the leaves. These enlarge and become brown and soon spread over most of the leaf. Spraying every two weeks with Bordeaux mixture is a preventive. 48 CROP PRODUCTION Parsley Parsley is a member of the great umbel-bearing family, often called the Parsley Family. It is used for flavoring soups, stews, and salads, and especially as a garnish in serving meats and other foods. It is a biennial, though for garden purposes it is treated as a hardy annual. Seeds are sown in hot-bed, greenhouse, or window box in March, and the seedlings transplanted outdoors in May. Or the seed may be sown outdoors as soon as the ground is in good condition and thinned to six inches apart in the row. Parsley is a cool-weather plant, requiring rich, moist soil for its best development. In the hottest summer weather it does better in shade than in full exposure to the sun. Plants may be taken up in autumn and planted in window boxes for winter use. The outer leaves and leaf-stems are pulled off for use, but care should be taken always to leave some to keep the plant growing. Three types of leaves are now grown — the Plain, the Curled, and the Fern-leaved sorts. The Dwarf Curled ones are most popular. Cress and Endive In city markets small bunches of Water Cress are commonly sold for salads and garnishing meat dishes. This is a perennial plant found in our brooks and easily propagated etcher by seed or cuttings. It thrives best along the margins of streams, where the running water keeps it clean, healthy, and healthful, but it may be grown in almost any moist location where the water supply never fails. This is really a much more desirable SALAD CROPS 49 plant than the Garden Cress, which is easily grown in spring or fall in rich, moist soil. The leaves of garden cress are rather too peppery for most people to enjoy. Endive is much more generally used in Europe than America. It is used both as a salad plant and as a pot herb for greens. For salads the leaves are blanched by tying them together. Seed sown very early in spring will develop into plants for use in summer, or seed sown in early summer will mature for use in autumn. There are two principal types — the Curled or Fringed and the Broad-leaved Endives. PULSE CROPS: BEANS AND PEAS Beans Types of Seeds Collection of seeds of as many varieties as possible, gotten together with the help of pupils. Learn to know each of these types : Pea beans or field beans String beans Shell beans Lima beans Make a set of drawings for booklet. Seed Germination Ten beans for each pupil. Determine the percentage of germination. Leave seeds in the germinating dish until you can see easily these parts : Outer skin Thickened seed-leaves or cotyledons Root Plumule or little plant Make a drawing for the booklet. 5° BEANS AND PEAS 51 Root Nodules 'f^ Dig up plants carefully. Examine roots to see if little whitish nodules are present on them. If bean roots in one garden have nodules and those in another do not, notice which plants are the more vigorous. Enemies Find pods affected by pod-spot or anthracnose. Draw. Find beans in storage affected by bean weevil. Look at the insects through a lens. Peas Types of Seeds Collection of seeds including smooth white field peas, smooth blue peas, and wrinkled peas. Sort out the peas into these three kinds: Smooth field peas Smooth blue peas Wrinkled peas Learn what varieties are generally planted for green peas in your neighborhood. Seed Germination Determine the percentage of germination of the peas to be planted in the outdoor garden. Pea Weevil Find peas in storage that show presence of pea weevil. Study through a lens the appearance of the insects and the holes they make in the seed. 52 CROP PRODUCTION Ordering Seeds Write an order on your local dealer or one of the seed houses for enough peas to plant your garden, naming a succession of varieties. PULSE CROPS Beans Two distinct species of Beans are commonly grown for garden purposes — the Field or Kidney Bean, Phaseolus vulgaris, and the Lima or Sugar Bean, Phaseolus lunatus. Both are believed to be natives of tropical America, and the typical forms of both are pole or climbing beans, although dwarf or bush forms of each are largely grown. The Field or Kidney Bean serves two important pur- poses. It is largely used both in the condition of the ripened dry seeds and in that of the green seeds or pods. For shell and string beans both climbing and bush varie- ties are grown, the latter being most popular, while for the ripened field beans, only bush varieties are grown. The Bush String Beans form one of the most important vegetable crops. They are commonly divided into the Yellow-podded or Wax Beans and the Green-podded Beans. The shape of the pods varies greatly in both colors, but in all good varieties when well grown the pod is thick and meaty and can be easily broken with little or no "string" along the inner edge. The seed is com- monly planted either in drills or hills in garden practice, a succession of sowings being made about three weeks apart to produce successive crops. If no pods are allowed to ripen the vines will continue to bear a month or more. Early varieties of string beans are ready for use about seven weeks after planting. 53 54 CROP PRODUCTION Field beans are planted in rows two feet or more apart, the plants being about four inches apart in the row. On a large scale the seed is put in with seed drills, special care being taken to have the soil in good tilth, so that the tillage with hoe and cultivator may be easy and effective. After the plants are well grown, shallow cultivation only must be given to avoid disturbing the bean roots which grow near the soil surface. The crop may be harvested by hand and tied in "shooks," but those who grow many acres generally use a two-wheeled bean harvester which does the work very rapidly, cutting off the stems close to the ground and leaving the vines in windrows. The pods were formerly shelled by hand flails, but in the more important bean-growing regions they are now threshed by special machines called "beaners." A yield of twenty-five bushels of shelled beans per acre is a good crop. As the Bush Beans have largely taken the place of the Pole Beans for garden and held growth, so the Bush Lima Beans have taken the place of the Pole Limas in our gardens. There are three types of these Bush Limas, corresponding to the three types of Pole Limas: the large flat-seeded type, represented by Burpee's Bush Lima; the medium, thick, or potato-seeded type, represented by Dreer's Bush Lima, and the small seeded type, represented by Henderson's Bush Lima. The last named is the best for northern regions as it is earlier and hardier than the others. All the beans belong to the great Legume Family and have the power of fixing nitrogen from the air by means of bacterial nodules on their roots. In most gardens where beans are grown the necessary germs are likely to BEANS AND PEAS 55 be present, but in soils where few nodules develop upon the bean roots it will be worth while to experiment with inoculation by means of special cultures. This ability of the bean to fix free nitrogen should be taken in con- sideration when planning for fertilizers. A loamy soil with a fair amount of humus is likely to require only potash and phosphoric acid for the growth of beans. The crop thrives on a clover sod plowed and put in good tilth. A soil too rich in nitrogen is likely to produce vines rather than seeds. In garden culture, however, it is sometimes worth while to hasten the early growth by a little nitrate of soda or similar fertilizer. Beans being of tropical origin are essentially warm- weather crops. They are tender to frost and the seed rots in cold, wet soil. Consequently planting should be delayed until the soil is well warmed and the danger from frost is past. Lima Beans require more time to mature than the ordinary sorts and so should be given the sunniest location, especially in northern regions. Enemies Anthracnose, Pod-spot, or Rust as it is variously known is the most destructive fungous disease of the Bean. It shows on the young pods in the shape of small reddish brown spots that soon increase in size and become blackish in the center. The pod shrinks and the young beans inside often shrivel up so as to be of little value. The disease is most destructive in wet seasons and its spores are easily distributed if the vines arc hoed or cultivated when they are wet. Consequently they should be tilled only when dry. The spores winter over on the diseased seeds, which start the infection the 56 CROP PRODUCTION season after. Consequently an important preventive measure is to choose seed from fields or pods in which the disease is not present. The Bean Weevil is about the only insect enemy that is generally destructive to this crop. The eggs are laid inside the green pods by the small brown beetles. The larvae that hatch from these eggs feed upon the beans for about a month; then they change again to beetles. They are able to develop also in dry stored beans, but are easily destroyed in these by fumigation with carbon bisulphid. Peas While the garden bean is a tender plant from tropical regions requiring a warm soil and season for thrifty growth, the Garden Pea is a hardy plant from northern regions requiring a cool soil and climate for its best growth. Peas have been cultivated for more than twenty centuries and probably were originally grown as garden plants in Asia, where the Wild Pea, Pisum sativum, is a native species. The characters have been so greatly modified that the garden varieties now grown, are great improvements over the original form. There are dwarf, medium, and tall sorts, and those with small or large seeds and pods. The Field Pea, grown for forage, is ranked as a special variety of the garden species. The Garden Peas are commonly divided into two principal groups — the Smooth-seeded and the Wrinkled- seeded Peas. The Smooth-seeded sorts are firmer and hardier; the seed can be planted very early with little danger of rotting in the ground, but the resulting crop is poor in quality and soon becomes too hard to be BEANS AND PEAS 57 relished. The Wrinkled-seeded sorts are softer and more tender; if planted too early the seed is likely to rot in the soil, but the quality of the crop is very good and the peas remain on the vines in good condition for some time. Practically it is scarcely worth while to plant the smooth sorts, like Alaska, except to get two or three very early pickings. The smooth sorts may be planted as soon as the frost is out of the ground, but the others should not be planted until two or three weeks later. Culture The most approved way of planting Peas is to have two parallel rows about six inches apart, with about two feet distance between each double set. Then in the case of the taller sorts, brush may be placed in the six-inch space and serve for both rows, or in the case of medium or dwarf forms the vines will support one another. For early crops the dwarf varieties are planted, and for late the tall ones, though many people prefer to plant for midseason and late crops a succession of such a splendid variety as the Telephone. Peas thrive best on a light, loamy soil. On a heavy soil, especially if rich in nitro- gen, they are likely to run to vine rather than to pods. A little quick-acting fertilizer in the rows at planting time helps to get the seedlings well started. Enemies The most destructive fungous diseases of Peas are the Spot and the Powdery Mildew. The Spo*. attacks stems, leaves, and pods, forming characteristic blackish blotches and interfering with the growth of the plant. The 58 CROP PRODUCTION planting of seed from fields free from the disease and adequate rotation are the chief preventive measures. The Powdery Mildew is often troublesome late in the season and in rather moist climates. The methods of preventing the Spot disease are also helpful for this. The most destructive insect enemies of Peas are the Pea Aphis and the Pea Weevil. The Aphis, fortunately, is only abundant during occasional years and ordinarily is not troublesome. The Weevil is more regular in ap- pearance. Its life-history is similar to that of the bean weevil. If all the pea weevils present in a locality in spring are destroyed by concerted action in fumigating stored peas with carbon bisulphid, there will be little trouble from the pest. » VINE CROPS: SQUASHES, MELONS, AND CUCUMBERS Squashes Types Samples of different varieties or mounted pictures from seed catalogues of different types of squashes. Let each pupil name the types that he has seen in garden, cellar, or market. Seed Germination Ten seeds of squash, pumpkin, or cucumber for each pupil. Leave in the germinating dish until the root is an inch long. Study the sprouting seeds to find these parts: Outer seed-coat Inner seed-coat Seed-leaves or cotyledons Plumule Growing Seedlings Plant twenty or more seeds in a window box or indi- vidual flower pots. When the seedlings come up, watch to see how the plant gets out of the seed-coat. 59 6o CROP PRODUCTION Write a story telling what you see and illustrate the story by drawings. Enemies {May to October) Find eggs and the various stages of the black squash- bugs. Try the plan of trapping the adults in early summer by placing old shingles or boards near the plants. Look under these early in the morning to find the bugs. Find examples of striped or spotted cucumber-beetles. Try cheap tobacco powder as a repellent. VINE CROPS The Vine Crops belong to the great family of Cucur- bits (Cucurbitaceae) . The native home of most species of this group is in tropical regions, where an abundance of warmth and moisture furnish ideal conditions for growth through long seasons. So it is natural to find these plants easily injured by frost and unable to grow in cold soil. They require the warmest summer weather for their development, and in northern regions must be given every possible advantage in inducing a rapid start and an early maturity. The principal Vine Crops are easily separated into three important groups — the Cucumbers and Muskmelons of the genus Cucumis, in which the short-stalked pollen- bearing flowers are borne in clusters; the Squashes and Pumpkins of the genus Cucurbita, in which the long- stalked pollen-bearing flowers are solitary; and the Watermelons of the genus Citrullus, in which the pollen-bearing flowers are also solitary, but borne on short stalks. In all members of the family the pollen-bearing, or staminate, and fruit-producing, or pistillate, flowers are separated, though borne upon the same vine. The pollen is carried from one kind of flower to the other chiefly by bees, especially bumble bees, which are very useful in this way. 61 62 CROP PRODUCTION Cucumbers and Muskmelons The Cucumber is a standard crop in every garden. It can be grown in a shorter season than the other Vine Crops, both because it is eaten green and because it matures more quickly. The fruits for pickling are pulled when quite small and those for eating fresh as soon as they reach full size. The Cucumber is one of the most important truck crops, especially in the south, from whence vast quantities are shipped north in winter and early spring. It is also an important crop for forcing houses in the north. Colonies of bees are kept in the Cucumber houses to bring about the pollination of the blossoms. The Muskmelons are so variable in form and structure that they have been separated into several groups, of which the Cantaloupes and the Netted Muskmelons are the most important commercially. In the Cantaloupe the rind is hard and generally rough or scaly, while in the Netted or Nutmeg Muskmelons the rind is softer and netted or reticulated on the outside. The famous Rocky Ford melons are typical examples of the netted type, which includes the most popular varieties now grown. In certain regions the crop of these melons is the most important product of the soil. Squashes, Pumpkins, and Gourds The Squashes, Pumpkins, and Gourds are closely related plants, the first named being the most important as a vegetable. Two types of Squashes are commonly grown — the Bush or Summer and the Running or Winter Squashes. The Summer Squashes are related to the SQUASHES, MELONS, AND CUCUMBERS 63 Pumpkin. They vary greatly in form, some having the shape of a Pumpkin, others having a long crook-neck, and others having an outline suggestive of a pineapple. The vines of these run little or not at all, and so the hills may be planted only about four feet apart. The Winter Squashes vary also in form, the Hubbard, shown on page 60, and the Turban, shown on this page, being two of the ,. ,. ,. , rpi Turban Squash most distinctive types. Ine vines of these run so far that the hills must be about eight feet apart. Watermelons Most Vine Crops appear to be native to tropical America., but the Watermelon is native to tropical Africa. It is now grown in our southern states to a greater extent than elsewhere, vast quan- tities being shipped to northern markets every year. The long warm season and light soil of many southern regions afford ideal conditions for Water- melons to develop, but even in the short seasons of the northern states Developing Hubbard Squash, Show- ing Withered Flower 64 CROP PRODUCTION certain selected varieties may be brought to maturity, especially if the seedlings are started early in the hot- bed or greenhouse. The Citron Melon is a special type of the Watermelon which is grown for preserving. Enemies The several Vine Crops are subject to serious injury by insects. As soon as they come up they are likely to find the Cucumber-beetles and the Black Squash-bug waiting to attack them. When the true leaves develop they are liable to attract the little Melon Aphis, and when the stems begin to lengthen the Squash-vine borer is likely to feed upon them. \ There are two kinds of Cucumber- TOW / beetles — the Striped, more common in the ' north, and the Spotted, more common in the south. Both attack Melons, Squashes, and Pumpkins as well as Cucumbers. They eat the leaves and stems of the young plants and deposit eggs that hatch into larvae that burrow through the roots. Using cloth or wire screens over the young vines until they are well started is a helpful measure. So is a heavy mulch- ing of refuse tobacco powder or an application of Bor- deaux mixture. About the only way to get ahead of the Black Squash- bugs is to place shingles or short boards near the plants: the bugs will seek these for shelter at night and may be collected early in the morning. Squash Bug Magnified SQUASHES, MELONS AND CUCUMBERS 65 Vine Crops Cucumbers -i f Field Forcing Genus Cuciimis Uuskmelons C T antal ? Upe I Netted or nutmeg f Pumpkins Genus Cucurbita Gourd s \ r. , J Summer or Bush ( Squashes .... I Winter or Running Genus Citrulhis I Watermelon I Citron melon SOLANACEOUS CROPS: TOMATO, PEPPER, AND EGGPLANT Tomato Seed Testing Ten or more seeds for each pupil. Find the percentage of germination. Growing Seedlings Start seedlings in window box in February or March. Transplant to three-inch paper pots when they have two or three true leaves. Pepper Growing Seedlings Start seedlings in window boxes, hot-beds, or cold frames in March or April. Transplant when they have two or three true leaves. Set out in the garden when danger from frost is past. 66 THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY The Nightshade Family {Solanaceae) includes the Potato, Tomato, Pepper, Eggplant, Husk Tomato, and many wild plants. The Potato differs from the others in that it is the tuber rather than the fruit which is used for food, and so it has already been considered as a tuber crop. The three important solanaceous crops whose fruits are used for food — Tomato, Pepper, and Eggplant — are native to tropical regions. Consequently they are tender to frost and yet require a long season for develop- ment. So the seedlings must be started in greenhouse, hot-bed, or window garden, that the young plants may be set out when danger from frost is past. They require hot weather for their best growth and should be given a good start at the time of transplanting by means of a rich soil or nitrogenous fertilizer or both. They should be started under glass one or two months before the time they are to be set out. The Tomato The various forms of the cultivated Tomato are de- rived from a plant native to the western part of South America. Although the plant has been in cultivation for more than three centuries, it is only during compara- tively recent years that it has been generally used for food. It has now reached a high degree of development, 67 68 CROP PRODUCTION with many distinct types of plant and fruit and a great number of varieties. The garden culture of Tomatoes is very simple. The plants are set out in May three to three and a half or four feet apart and given good tillage until the fruit is well set. It is better to hold the plants up with some support, either ty- ing to stakes or using various forms of trellises. It is generally worth while to fasten a bit of stiff paper around the stalk of the plant when it is set out to prevent injury by cutworms. The Tomato has lately become an important truck crop. Great quan- Tomato in Paper Flower Pot t [ t [ es are g r0W n in the south every winter for shipment to northern markets. It has also become an important greenhouse crop near large cities in the north. Pepper and Eggplant The Red Pepper is also a native of tropical America and was first discovered by Europeans when Columbus made his most famous voyage. It is often called Chili Pepper and belongs to the genus Capsicum. There are now many types and varieties, though the botanists think that originally there were only one or two wild TOMATO, PEPPER, AND EGG PLANT 69 species. In garden culture the treatment is much like that of Tomatoes, though no supports are needed. It is a simple matter for any one to grow enough of these Peppers for home use. The Eggplant is more difficult to grow than either the Tomato or the Pepper. It is essentially a tropical species and requires much hot weather to develop properly. It is grown to a considerable extent in the southern states, but very little in the northern. The plants require an early start and rapid growth for succcessful results. II FLOWER CROPS From The Flower Beautiful China Asters in a Bamboo Wall Holder ANNUAL FLOWERS Nasturtium Flower Structure A flower for each pupil. Study the structure of the flower. Find these parts: The outer sepals The colored petals The nectar spur The stamens The pistils Find out what part develops into the seed-pod. Draw a side view of a flower. Seed Harvest (Summer and Autumn) Gather ripe pods from garden. Store for future use. See the difference between the outer pod and the inner seed. • Growing Seedlings Indoors Sow seeds of the dwarf nasturtiums in a sunny window. Dig up part of the seedlings for drawings; leave some to grow. 73 74 CROP PRODUCTION California Poppy Flower Structure Study buds and blossoms in garden or newly-picked in schoolroom. See: The sepals that fall off as the flower opens The petals The stamens The pistils The various stages of the seed-pod Seed Harvest Collect seed-pods in autumn. Store for sowing in early spring. Seed Planting (Spring) Early in spring sow the seeds sparingly in a little drill or furrow along the border of the flower garden. Thin the seedlings to six or eight inches apart. Keep the surface of the soil stirred and free from weeds. In a garden where the flower grew the season before there are likely to be so many self-sown seedlings that sowing the seed is not necessary. Pansy Flower Sliow Early in autumn or late in spring plan for a Pansy Show. Let each pupil bring in a few attractive pansy flowers of as many colors as possible. Invite parents or friends to send others. Have draw- ings of pansies on the blackboard and colored drawings mounted on paper. ANNUAL FLOWERS 75 Let pupils mount colored pictures from seed catalogues. Let pupils make dainty invitations to give their friends. Drummond Phlox Planting Outdoors (Spring) Early in May plant a package of seed in a row in the school garden, covering lightly. When the seedlings are large enough to transplant let each pupil who has a place to grow them take a few home. Sweet Peas Flower Show (Early A utumn) A sweet pea flower show is well worth having in Sep- tember, soon after the fall term opens. Have pupils and friends bring in as many kinds as possible. Decorate the room with blackboard drawings of sweet peas and mounted plates from seed catalogues. Label as many exhibits as possible with the name of the variety. Germination Test Shortly before it is time to sow sweet peas outdoors, let pupils test the germination of a few of the seeds they are going to plant. Always test all old seeds saved from the year before. Growing Indoors Plant seeds in late autumn or early winter in a win- dow box in a sunny window. Select varieties used for forcing in greenhouses. Earliest of All is a good one for the purpose. Water carefully. Furnish support. In a few weeks the plants will blossom. Use for drawing and language. ANNUAL FLOWERS Annual flowers are very satisfactory garden crops. The seed costs but little and the yield in beautiful blos- soms follows soon after planting. Most of them can be grown in such limited space that no one need lack them even if a garden is not available. A box or a barrel may be made to produce a host of blossoms. There is space here to discuss only a few of the most popular of these flowers. Nasturtiums Three common types of Nasturtiums are grown in our gardens. The most popular of these, perhaps, is the Dwarf Nasturtium, which has smooth, shiny leaves and beautiful irregular flowers. The next in popularity is probably the Tall or Climbing Nasturtium, which differs from the Dwarf chiefly in its climbing stems and larger habit. The third type is the Lobb's Nasturtium, which is known at once by its hairy leaves and stems : it is also a climbing sort. These Nasturtiums are all natives of South America and belong to the genus Tropceolum. They are tender annuals of the easiest culture and yield a profusion of beautiful flowers, colored in tones of yellow, orange, and red. 76 ANNUAL FLOWERS 77 The California Poppy The California Poppy or Eschscholtzia is a native of California and Oregon recently introduced as a cultivated flower. It is a low spreading plant, reaching a height of twenty inches, with finely cut, glaucous foliage and large single flowers that were originally yellow, but are now developed into white, orange, red, and striped sorts. The sepals are united into a cap, which is dropped off when the petals open. Though originally a perennial, it is treated as a hardy annual in cultivation, the seed being sown where the plants are to flower as the seedlings are hard to trans- plant successfully. It is especially useful for the border of a garden. The Pansy The Pansy has been cultivated for so many centuries that the history of its origin is unknown. It is believed, however, to have originated from the Tricolored Violet (Viola tricolor), a charming little wild plant, abundant in Europe and parts of America. Like other violets this is a perennial, as is the Pansy when left to itself. In garden practice the Pansy does best when treated as an annual, growing new plants from seed every year California Poppy 78 CROP PRODUCTION and discarding them when the best blossoming period is past. The seed may be sown late in summer or early in autumn for spring flowering or in spring for late sum- mer and autumn flowering. The Pansy does not thrive in direct sunshine in the hot weather of midsummer, but at other times it enjoys full exposure to the sun. The best Pansy seed is raised by specialists, who use great care in selecting strains and varieties. The Drummond Phlox The various varieties of the Drummond Phlox are desirable garden annuals. They are derived from the original wild form found in Texas by the botanist Drum- mond, who sent the seed to England in 1836. Its beauty was at once recognized and numerous color variations were soon developed: white, pink, rose, lilac, scarlet, crimson and many combinations of these colors are now available. Variations in form have also developed, the most striking being the Star Phlox, in which the centers of the petals are prolonged into curious rays. Phloxes are especially desirable for cut flowers and for massing along borders. They grow readily in sunny situations from seed sown outdoors after the early frosts, and bear transplanting as well. The True Poppies Three distinct species and a great number of varieties of annual Poppies are in cultivation. The most popular are forms of the Corn Poppy, a wild plant native to Europe. The Shirley Poppies are the most beautiful of these. The leaves and stems of this type are small and slender and thickly covered with fine hairs. The flowers ANNUAL FLOWERS 79 will bear cutting and placing in water, though they last but a short time. The forms that rank next in popularity have been derived from the Opium Poppy of the Orient, one of the oldest of cultivated flowers. The leaves and stems of this type are thick and succulent and have a smooth, hairless, glaucous surface. A great variety of single and double flowers belong to this group, some of the most beautiful being the Mikado, Snowdrift, and Fairy Blush. The third species, the Iceland Poppy, is really a peren- nial, but in garden practice is classed as an annual. It is a plant with small leaves and slender leafless stems, a native of arctic regions, where it is often very abundant. All these Poppies are excellent for flower borders. They do not bear transplanting well, so the seed should be sown very early in spring where the plants are wanted. The seeds are small and care must be taken to cover very lightly if at all. The Sweet Pea The Sweet Pea appears to have been in cultivation for more than three centuries. Originally a native of Sicily, the Wild Sweet Pea was improved by a great many flower lovers until in 1876 there were many good varieties. In that year, however , Henry Eckford of Shrop- shire, England, began experimenting with it, and con- tinued for the rest of the century. During this time he originated nearly a hundred new varieties, which were wonderful improvements over the older ones. Conse- quently a large proportion of the Sweet Peas now grown are Eckford introductions. There are several distinct types of flowers and many beautiful colors. 8o CROP PRODUCTION The culture of Sweet Peas is simple, provided the seed is planted very early in spring. This is done in order that the roots may get a good development during the cool weather of April and May. A rich soil is de- sirable, though if too much nitrogen is present the plants are likely to run to vines rather than to flowers. The drill for planting should be hollowed out three or four inches deep and the seeds covered with an inch of soil. After the plants are several inches high the little trench may be filled in level. Birch or other brush, wire netting or some similar support must be given as soon as the vines begin to run. The flowers must be picked off, as the plants soon stop blossoming if the flowers are allowed to go to seed. His ^Js H 8( Ert^i:''* •"">*? ANNUAL FLOWERS: THE COMPOSITES Cosmos and Others Flower Show {Autumn) Have a little exhibit of the composite annual flowers ■ — Cosmos, China Asters, Marigolds, Bachelor's Buttons, Zinnias, and others. Separate the different sorts of flowers and label each sort. Many pictures and suggestions as to arrangement may be found in The Flower Beautiful. Try to get a wall vase for the school. One is shown with China Asters in the picture on page 72. Growing Seedlings (Spring) Early in May sow seed of cosmos in a row outdoors. Keep the soil moist and free from weeds. When the seedlings are about three inches high, dig up to transplant into the school garden or the home gardens of pupils. 82 CROP PRODUCTION China Asters Flower Types {Autumn) Bring in various aster blooms and compare them to see likes and unlikes. A perfect aster of any of the double varieties should be double to the center. See which have this character. Seed Harvest {Autumn) Mark several perfect blossoms by tying a bit of string or raffia around the stem. Leave these flowers on the plant. When the petals have withered, pick the flower heads and pull off the seeds to store away and sow next spring. Growing Seedlings {Spring) Early in spring sow aster seeds outdoors in one or more rows. Sow the seeds about half an inch apart and cover with a third of an inch of fine soil. Keep the ground moist and free from weeds. When the seedlings have four or five leaves, transplant to flower borders at school or home. Make drawings of the seedlings for the flower booklet. Marigolds Harvesting Seeds {Autumn) Gather the ripened flower heads of the marigolds in the garden and remove the seeds. Save in a box, keep- ing in an unheated room where mice cannot get at the seeds. THE COMPOSITE ANNUALS 83 Growing Plants Indoors Sow seeds of dwarf marigold in a window box, cover- ing lightly. When the plants have two true leaves in addition to the seed leaves, transplant into small paper flower pots, one for each pupil. Let pupils water and care for the plants until they bloom. Then let each take his own home. Growing Seedlings (Spring) Sow seeds of both types of marigolds in the school garden early in May. Keep the soil moist and free from weeds. When the seedlings have two or three true leaves, let such pupils as have places to grow flowers take the seed- lings home to transplant in their home gardens. Make drawings for the flower booklet. THE COMPOSITE ANNUALS The great family of composite plants of which the sunflower, thistle, and daisy are familiar examples in- cludes several of the most beautiful annuals. The type of flower in this family is capable of great variation through the modification of the form, size, and color of the little florets crowded together in a head. Conse- quently in most of the annuals belonging to the composite family there are many types of form and color. Five of the most important of these flowers are the Cosmos, China Aster, Marigolds, Bachelor's Button, and Zinnia. Cosmos The Cosmos is one of the newest garden annuals. It was introduced only during later years of the nineteenth century. Mexico was the original home of the plant. The varieties first offered grew very tall and bloomed very late, but by careful selection dwarf earlier-flowering forms were soon developed. Most of these bore white, pink, or crimson flowers and were derived from the species called Cosmos bipinnatus, but lately new forms derived from the yellow-flowered Cosmos sulphurous, also a native of Mexico, have been introduced. The variety Klondike is a hybrid between the two species. The largest flower yet produced is shown by the beautiful pink variety Lady Lenox. 8 4 THE COMPOSITE ANNUALS 85 The Cosmos is one of the most useful annuals either for border gardens or interior decoration. Seed may be sown in good loamy soil as soon as the early frosts are past, and the vigorous young seedlings trans- planted about three feet apart along a wall, fence, or the open border. They grow rapidly. It is often desirable to pinch out the terminal bud of the main stalk in order to induce a spreading bushy habit. It is well to plant the late flow- ering sorts in a sunny sheltered corner where the early frosts of autumn will not harm them. China Asters China Aster seeds were sent from China to France about 1730. A little later they were introduced into England and America. These early flowers were single forms, resembling an Ox-eye daisy in structure. The various double types now grown have been developed since. The modern Giant Comet and Ostrich Plume types are wonderfully beautiful and should be grown by every lover of flowers. The natural season for these Asters is early autumn, the time when they are most needed in the borders. Cosmos Flowers 86 CROP PRODUCTION Seed sown in drills outdoors early in May will soon de- velop into vigorous seedlings which may be transplanted to the bed or border where the blossoms are wanted. Great numbers of Asters are florists in the cut-flower trade. China Asters The Comet Type Marigolds grown to be sold by For this purpose long stems and perfect flowers are necessary. The buds are some- times eaten by blister beetles, which should be collected and killed. The plants are likely to suffer from a sort of blight if grown re- peatedly in the same soil. To prevent this, rotation and careful seed selection are nec- essary. The China Aster is called by botanists Callistcphus Iwrtcnsis. Two distinct species of Marigolds are commonly culti- vated; the Tall Marigold is Tagetes erecta; the Dwarf or French Marigold is Tagetes patula. Both have been in cultivation for more than three centuries and have been developed into many varieties. The colors of the Tall form range only through yellow and orange, while those of the French range through yellow, orange, brown, and red. The color tones are THE COMPOSITE ANNUALS 87 remarkably rich. There are single and double varieties in both species. The Dwarf forms are desirable for bedding purposes, while the Tall forms are better suited to irregular borders, where the flowers make a brilliant show from August to Octo- ber. The culture of both is easy: sow the seed outdoors in spring when danger from frost is past and transplant the seedlings when two or three inches high to the place where they are to bloom. The marigolds have so strong an odor that they are not much used for cut flowers. Bachelor's Button and Zinnia The Bachelor's Button is one of the most popular Marigolds in a Wall Flower- Pocket hardy annuals. The many varieties have been developed from a plant native to southeastern Europe called by botanists Can la urea cyanus. The flowers range to many colors of unusual purity of tone, held on long slender stalks that give them a very decorative effect. They are of easiest culture outdoors and extremely useful for cut flowers and border gardens. The Zinnia is often called Youth and Old Age. The original single form was Zinnia elegans, a native of 88 CROP PRODUCTION Mexico. Double varieties were developed in France about i860. Since then many new sorts have been introduced. The flowers are remarkable for their range of colors, though these are largely hard and metallic rather than soft and pleasing. The flowers also are rather stiff and often do not appeal to cultivated tastes. Seed is sown in spring out of doors, the young seedlings being transplanted later to the border garden where they are to flower. HARDY PERENNIAL FLOWERS Columbines Growing Seedlings {Spring) A collection of columbines is especially desirable for the school border garden. Sow the seed sparsely in a drill early in spring, cover lightly, and keep well watered. When the seedlings are well up, thin to five inches apart, transplanting those taken up to another row. Early the next spring transplant to permanent posi- tions in the border, leaving ten inches between the plants. Give surplus plants to pupils. Harvesting Seed (Summer) As the columbine blossoms fade they are followed by the characteristic seed-pods. Cut these off after they begin to ripen but before they split open. Lay them in a box and when they split open thresh out the seeds. Save some of the seed for future planting in the school garden. Give the rest to such pupils as will agree to plant at home. 89 go CROP PRODUCTION Peony Border Bed Plant peony roots late in autumn or early in the spring in a partially shaded part of border. Have the soil deep and very rich. Flowers for Decoration Cut the blossoms a little before they are ready to open. Place in water in a flower bowl and keep out of direct sunshine. Give the peony bowl plenty of room for display. Do not crowd it on a table with many other things. Perennial Phlox This is a good plant for the border garden of the school. If there is a long vacation in summer cut off the tops of the plants in June so that there will be a crop of blossoms in September. Irises Border Garden Collection Be sure to start a collection of Irises for the border garden. It is probable that garden owners who have plants will willingly contribute two or three. Get as many sorts as possible. After the plants have been established a year or two they may be divided to advantage, and soon the school will be able to distribute many to the homes of the pupils. Flowers for Decoration Irises are particularly effective for indoor decoration. Cut the stalks just before the first flowers begin to open THE HARDY PERENNIALS 9i and pull off each day afterwards the faded blossoms. The buds will open in succession. Do not crowd the Iris flowers in the vase or flower jar. Sunflower Family Exhibit For one week in autumn arrange an exhibit of as many kinds of flowers of the composite type as you can get. Use both wild and cultivated sorts. The list might include any of these: Asters, Boltonias, Chrysanthemums, Coreopsis, Coneflowers, Dahlias, Daisies, Goldenrods, and Sunflowers. Some Coreopsis flowers are pictured on page 89. Si* ^ F^lr ■^v ?^S*<9! CV*