v-mf! ««^'■' LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Shelf .Ä:95'4 UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ^ J:/,^^ttJ:r^ ,^^//^/r a^/// 16 DECLINE OF THE RELIGION Calcutta, over the strange metamorphoses, warfares, and figures, of the Indian mythology. The code, which con- tains the religion of Persia, was so closely connected with a definite form, and even with a political system, that, after the subversion of the latter, it was not found sufficiently apphcable to the government of the coun- try which had produced it, to maintain its influence over the barbarous conquerors of the East. CHAPTER III. DECLINE OF THE RELIGION OF GREECE AND ROME. Men of great learning have proved, that the mythol- ogy of Homer and Hesiod consists of a mixture of phys- ical truths and historical traditions. It is difficult to dis- tinguish the one from the other, in particular instances. A sublime sense shines through all the decorations, all the superstitions and the priestcraft of this mythology ; but human nature displays itself, at the same time, in those prejudices which represent God as partaking of the infirmities of man ; and the whole religion of the Greeks and Romans, though embellished by the most celebrated poets, and applied, in the most advanta- geous manner, by statesmen, was only capable of hold- ing its place during the infancy of the world, and un- der the governments which then existed. The primi- tive traditions are here found more distorted, than in the sacred books of the Orientals and the unwritten sa- gas of the North, because they furnished occupation for greater powers of invention, and for more active minds. The ancients always distinguish the father of gods and men, at whose nod Olympus shook and all the lords of heaven trembled on their thrones, from that unknown power, which imposes a universal law on Ju- piter himself, and from the number of subordinate be- ings, who seek partly to fulfil the counsel of the sove- OF GREECE AND ROME. 17 reign, partly to resist or to influence his will.* The lat- ter idea is suited to the infancy of the human mind ; for, since no finite being has faculties sufficiently com- prehensive to conceive, in every case, how the principle of the universal system acts, in all its parts, and how the whole can be governed by a single thought, men imagined it impossible for God to rule his empire with- out ministers and inferior agents, just as in a great mon- archy the mind of the prince is incapable of extending to particular affairs. Instead of reflecting, that all forms and modes of being are mere words, and that only one essentially exists ; and that, although the universe con- sists of an innumerable multitude of parts, it is yet, in re- lation to infinite power, more minute than the least of its component particles is in comparison with the whole, they absurdly refused to admit the universal providence of God. But, in the sight of God, nothing is great ; nothing little ; nothing difficult : with one act of his will, at a time known to himself, he called forth, from his mind, that idea, which we call the world, or the sys- tem of Nature. The opinion, that a number of vassals of the court of Olympus were necessary, that every one might serve * Jupiter and Fate are invoked, as separate and independent beings, by Epictetus, ""^you Stj ,u£ cd Zsv, xal ov H IIsnQwj.iivri onoi jiod-' Vfitv iifil SLarsrayuivog." " Lead me, O Jupiter ! and Thou, Fate, whith- ersoever I am destined by you to go." iEschylus represents the power of Fate, or Necessity, as superior to the might of Jove. " Who, then, is ruler of Necessity ? The triple fates and unforgetting Furies. Must Jove, then, yield to their superior power ? In no way shall he 'scape his destin'd fate ?" Potter's JEschylus. In other places, we find Fate described, as the result of laws dictated by the arbitrary will of Jupiter ; as in the celebrated hymn of Clean- thes. The crowd of inferior gods are continually represented as ministers of the supreme Jupiter, and as scarcely less dependent on him than mortal men. See the fourth chapter of Dr. Cudworth's Intellectual System, where that learned writer has collected a large number of passages from the ancient authors, with the design of proving that the religion of Greece and Rome was fundamentally monotheistic. — T. 2* 18 DECLINE OF THE RELIGION in his proper capacity, (for thus the fictions of allegory were misinterpreted,) diffused an irksome uncertainty over the life of the devotee. Full of dread of the irresistible, unseen power, and, at the same time, desti- tute of confidence, the wretched mortal turned himself to every side, and sought, by every new and absurd invention, to excite, in favor of his prayers, the atten- tion of the gods. During the prevalence of these childish errors, the most exalted patriotism displayed itself, together with a degree of refinement, which has never been surpassed, und very seldom equalled, in later times. Great mental powers are not so much formed by maxims of reason, as developed by contemplation and by sympathetic feelings, which, in those ages, had, on many accounts, a greater influence over mankind. The strength of character decreased, as the minds of men became more enlightened. The Delphic god, who had replied to Themistocles and Lycurgus, in bad verses, but according to the standard of their own knowledge, uttered, in the time of Alexander, his responses in plain prose ; and, towards the decline of Grecian liberty, became wholly silent. In fact, he was seldom interrogated ; for what means of information did he possess, when affairs ceased to be directed by public magistrates and popular conventions ? How could Apollo pry into the secrets of cabinets? Silence was imposed upon him, by necessity. The old religion now became more and more. the object of philosophic doubt and of profane jesting ; and it was soon found incapable of exciting, even among the ignorant, either confidence or terror, with its former power and dignity. In fact, by the alteration of lan- guages, of times, and manners, the ancient symbols had become obscured, and the forms and functions of relig- ion changed. The philosophers had not derived suffi- cient instruction from antiquity and from the East, to comprehend the spirit of the mythology. Ignorance is ever disdainful. The keen-sighted Academics, the in- OF GREECE AND ROME. 19 telligent Stoics, the witty and profane disciples of Epi- curus, beheld only folly, in the popular superstition, and discovered nothing but fabulous tales in the theogony of Hesiod. A growth of intellect, unknown in China and India, brought the religion of Greece into perils, which Confucius had no reason to dread. It happened, moreover, that, while the maxims of rehgion had inculcated a republican simplicity, and even a virtuous purity of manners, those who had sur- vived the liberty of their country, and knew nothing better, under the reign of the Caesars, than the enjoy- ment of their uncertain treasures, according to the spir- it of the age, disdained every species of control. Thus, the influence of worldly passions cooperated, in this respect, with that of philosophy. The inquiries of natural philosophers contributed to the same effect. Scanty as their knowledge was, they speedily concluded, from the real or fancied discovery of the causes of some phenomena, which had been deemed supernatural, that all effects depend on the agency of accidentally-concurring circumstances. They did not proceed further, and ascend, along the chain of a thousand causes, to that first link, which is fastened to the throne of Jupiter ; a few syllogisms afforded a triumph to wit and levity over correct sentiments, and even over sound reason. They proudly maintained, that every thing has known or unknown causes, but that the universal system of causes has no efficient or antecedent ; they rather delighted in the darkness which is spread over the origin of man and of the world, than in Üie discovery of new views which hold forth motives to virtue. Thus, Cicero gave, as the result of philoso- phy, that, respecting the future hopes of man, and the Almighty power which governs him, every thing is un- certain ; and that even the existence of such a Power is scarcely removed from doubt. Under the emperors, all the gods vanished, before that power whose shrike was in the palace of the Cae- sars. Every thing now yielded to private interest; 20 DECLINE OF THE RELIGION crime prospered, and was even adorned with the im-- perial purple ; Tiberius and Claudius were seen among the gods ; the gods, themselves, were inexorable to the prayers of their eternal Rome ; Augustus had seated himself on an immovable throne ; Brutus had been abandoned ; and Psetus Thrasea had fallen a sacrifice to Nero. All these things filled the minds of virtuous men with involuntary indignation, and with very excus- able doubts. Men of comprehensive minds generalized religions. With Phny, the universe is God ; every thing from eternity is God, and all things are pervaded by Him. It is vain to inquire into His nature ; He fills all things, — our senses, our souls, our spirits. In vain, the Stoical senators and philosophers con- tended for the gods of ancient Rome, and for the maj- esty of religion, against the corruption of the times ; in vain they sought to erect the new edifice of manners on philosophic maxims ; that is, to build a palace upon a foundation of mosaic work. Their wise maxims yield- ed, one after another, to the violence of the passions. So much energy was requisite, in order to govern the practice of life, by mere abstract principles, that their adherents, at length, consisted only of a few sedate per- sons, who gradually lost themselves in other sects. The Epicureans, holding the belief that the follies of men are indifferent to the gods, adopted the princi- ple of passing, as agreeably as possible, through the short career of life, without giving themselves any fruit- less trouble, for promoting the honor of beings, who take no concern in human affairs. In order to render their enjoyments more various and delightful, they cul- tivated the perception of the beautiful, in every kind, and formed their minds to every mode of pleasure. In the pursuit of refined and benevolent pleasures, they sought to observe that temperance, which serves to prolong every enjoyment. These sentiments were adopted by all, who were more inclined to reconcile themselves to the times in which they lived, than to strive against them. OF GREECE AND ROME. 21 Thus, to the Stoics, all human things were indiffer- ent, while they feared nothing and desired nothing, passionately ; and the Epicureans, while they despised them, contemplated the cares of life with pity, and participated in them as httle as possible. Among the former, there were more hypocrites ; among the latter, too many who forgot the pleasures, which are worthy of men of refined sentiments, in the impulses which are common to us with the brutes. The strength of the human character suffered on both sides, and the common good was pursued, by neither party, with suffi- cient zeal, while the sublime doctrine was adapted only to a few vigorous minds, and the Epicurean was often more enervated by indulgence, than the principles of his philosophy permitted. The people, alienated from their ancient gods, too natural for the lofty virtues of the Stoics, and not suffi- ciently refined for Epicurus, were destitute of consola- tion, and looked around, for a foreign creed. The Egyptians brought their Serapis, and the priests of Isis spread themselves through the whole empire. The gi- gantic fictions, the prodigies of their ancient mysteries and of their country, the strange absurdities of their mythology, excited the wonder of the Roman populace, both rich and poor. Their fictions were believed ; and it was agreed, that nobody should attempt to compre- hend them. In the most irreligious cities, credulity is at its highest pitch. It has been remarked, that the depraved Romans were the most zealous cultivators of the mysterious arts. They felt the void, which pleasures, pursued to disgust, leave in the human soul, and they longed for the delights of another world. In this state of the human mind, when the world was destitute of gods, it came to pass, that a few obscure, uneducated, undignified individuals, from the most de- spised people in the whole Roman empire, laid the foundations of a rehgion, before which, all the former opinions and prejudices of men, and the laws of all nations, were doomed to yield. We must trace the 22 MOSES. causes and progress of this event, from the most remote antiquity. CHAPTER IV. MOSES. The land of Canaan, or Palestine, is situated between the thirty-first and thirty-fourth degrees of north lati- tude ; it extends from the Phoenician coast to the great Arabian desert, and from Lebanon to the Black moun- tains which occupy the rocky Arabia, and of which Sinai is the centre ; hence a chain of hills is continued north- wards, to join the arms of Lebanon. The river Jordan flows through the country, and, after forming the beauti- ful lake of Gennesareth, loses itself in the dreary expanse of the Dead Sea, which seems to occupy the crater of an old volcano, or the cavity of deep fountains of bitumen. Canaan is sufficiently fertile to support an uncommon- ly numerous population ; and Polybius thought Gali- lee adequate to the sustenance of considerable armies. Magnificent cities ornamented the coasts ; gardens of balsam and palm-groves decorated the plains of Jeri- cho ; exuberant harvests crowned the extensive cham- paign of Esdraelon ; noble pastures covered the hills of Bashan and the meads of Sharon ; and the vine flourished on Carmel and on the mountains of Judah. It happened, about twelve hundred years after that celebrated Deluge, which is the first epoch of all his- tory, (for, from the ages that preceded this event, noth- ing has survived but fragments and poetical traditions,) that an emir, as he would now be termed, named Abra- ham, renowned for his wealth, his wisdom, and probity, took his departure from his native country, at the time when the Assyrian monarchy began to extend its pow- er, and led his flocks into the land of Canaan, which was at that time but little inhabited. The worship of the one true God, free from superstition, and the pecu- MOSES. 23 liar dignity of his own character, rendered Abraham so renowned, that the memory of his name is, to this day, held in the highest veneration, not only by the Jews, whose patriarch he was, but by the most ancient tribes of the wilderness, who are likewise his posterity, and among other Oriental nations. He merited this renown, for he abandoned his native land, to escape the pollu- tion of foreign rites and customs. His descendant, Joseph, obtained, by his wisdom and intelligence, the confidence of an Egyptian monarch, and the family of Abraham migrated to Egypt. This was a happy event, for them ; for they were already too numerous to remain separate, in Canaan, without hav- ing yet become sufficiently powerful, to repel the Phoe- nicians, who were descending from Edom to the coasts. In Egypt, it was more easy for thenj to maintain their primitive manners, as they dwelt in the remote tracts of mount Casius, and fed their flocks amid the deserts. As no calamity interrupted the regular progress of increase, their families, in which number we must in- clude their servants, of whom Abraham had already several hundreds, multiplied exceedingly, in the course of four hundred and thirty years. A new royal house, elevated to the Egyptian throne, beheld, with disquiet, the growing power of a race entirely devoted to the former dynasty, which seemed, by strange customs, to disturb the uniformity of the national manners, and held in their possession the districts bordering on Asia, which were the keys of Egypt. The new Prince resolved upon the attempt to disperse them, to change their habits of life, and to mix them with the people of his country. They were dragged from tlieir quiet pas- tures, and forced to undertake laborious works. During this time of oppression, Moses was born, among the Israelites, as the posterity of Abraham were called. His fate (for, like Cyrus and Romulus, he was exposed) brought him under the protection of a daugh- ter of the Egyptian King. This Princess commanded the child to be educated in all the learning of Egypt. An- ^ MOSES. cient authors inform us, that the young IsraeUte fought vaHantly, in the Egyptian armies, against the Ethiopians of Meroe ; but Moses himself despised this reputation. In the royal court, he never forgot the freedom and simplicity of his forefathers, while they led a happy and virtuous life, devoted to the pure and spiritual worship of the only true God. Happening to see one of his nation ill-treated, as was customary, by an Egyptian, he felt the injustice, and slew the oppressor. After this act, he took flight, and followed, for many years, on mount Sinai, the occupation of a herdsman, in the ser- vice of an Arabian prince. This wanderer, who had taken refuge in the wilder- ness, and who fed the flocks of a foreigner, his laws, his history, and his name, are now, after four thousand years, the objects of veneration, among all the nations, from the Tagus to Hindostan, and from the frozen seas of Scandinavia to the country of myrrh and frankin- cense. By the help of God, alone, from whom come all wisdom and courage, he forced the Egyptian King to release the Israelites from his dominion, and to suffer them to depart out of Egypt ; he led that Prince, who believed them to have mistaken their way, and who fol- lowed them imprudently, into the dangerous tract, which borders on the inmost Arabian Gulf, and which, accord- ing to Agatharchides, bore, long afterwards, the name of the Fatal Pass, given to it as a memorial of this ca- lamity. There, Pharaoh received the recompense of his rashness and tyrannical conduct. But Moses excelled all other illustrious men, who have restored independ- ence to their country, in this respect, — that he formed his people to the idea and sentiment of freedom, and secured the maintenance of it, by such laws as no other nation has possessed. With this view, he made a long halt, in a country where Israel might be entirely free from the contagious influence of foreign manners. A sandy desert, nearly two hundred leagues in extent, stretches from the bor- ders of Egypt towards the mouth of the Euphrates. MOSES. 25 Where the two arms of the Arabian Gulf extend them- selves into the land, a lofty mountain rises, which abounds in green pastures and pleasant valleys ; every where else, the whole hfe of Nature seems extinguished, in wastes of sand. Far hence, towards Canaan, there is not found a shrub, nor any vestige of soil ; nothing is seen, but the heaven, and burning sand strown with vast fragments, which have been thrown down, by earth- quakes, from the rocky mountains, and which testify the former operations of subterraneous fire. The high- est summit is a granite rock, on Mount Sinai, above twenty-two feet long and twelve feet wide. These heights and pastures breathe the balmy perfume of fra- grant vegetation ; secret recesses conceal fountains of cool water, and even ice and snow ; while, in the plains, the burning sand resembles a fluctuating sea of fire. In this frightful atmosphere, every object is mag- nified, every thing becomes prodigious and wonderful ; a bird appears as large as a camel ; the storms heap up the sand into hills, and transport these hills from place to place. Wherever, in spots which Nature favors, fountains spring forth, the noble palm-tree rises to view, excellent pastures are found, and woods, in which the salutiferous resin distils from some plants, while others are covered with manna. Such is the vicinity of Mount Horeb, which is the half of Sinai, and is separated from the latter, by a deep valley. On one of these hills, the most ancient tribes of the desert paid their adora- tions, every fifth year, to an unknown god. Every scene of terror inspires the sentiment of devotion, and Nature here displays the acts of Omnipotence. A hill rises on both sides of Paran, where, for a league in extent, the rocks are engraven with huge characters, to the height of about fourteen feet, which no man has yet been able to decipher. Are these the letters of the first Phoeni- cians, older than Tyrus and her mother Sidon ; or the most ancient memorials of the traditions handed down by the patriarchs ? or have the Garyndes and the men of Mara here recorded their resorts to the five years' II. 3 u. H. 26 MOSES. festival, as the seventy-two princes of China on the marbles of Tai-chan ? Into this land of prodigies, Moses led the Israelites. From the heights, v^^here prayers were offered up, of old, to God, amidst thunders, which resounded, with un- wonted terrors, through the hollow clefts and among the rocky tops of Sinai, Israel received her law ; but the spirit of this law was, itself, the greatest prodigy. The few principles, by which the primitive world was elevated to the knowledge of the Supreme Ruler, had become deformed, by numberless superstitious notions and practices ; the happiness of life had been destroyed, and the tranquillity of its last moments imbittered. It was not, that there was a necessity for a revelation of new truths, which rare dispensations mankind had not enjoyed, for a long course of time ; but for a removal of the follies and errors which had crept in, and for the purification of those testimonies, which were engraven on our nature, and are as ancient as our race. There was no need of the foundation of a new religion, but of the restoration of the oldest in the world, and of the settlement of the same, by institutions, which were suit- ed to the condition of human nature, in the age and circumstances of Israel, and which might gradually prepare the people for a more pure and exalted doc- trine.* By the agency of that power, which con- tains, in itself, the causes of events, and guides their course, the forefathers of the Hebrews, in their simple, pastoral life, secluded from all intercourse with stran- gers, had preserved the primitive doctrines, down to the age when population was every where extending * This idea, that certain feelings or principles of religion are im- pressed, by Providence, upon the heart of man, so as to form every where a part of his moral constitution, and that these universal sentiments or ideas, according as they have been developed and represented, in various manners, and with different degrees of pu- rity, in different countries and ages, have been the foundation of all religions, both true and false, (though none are, in this way of contemplating the subject, absolutely and entirely false,) seems to be a favorite speculation with our author. In a beautiful passage of MOSES. 27 itself, so that Moses was enabled to adopt them, as ac- knowledged truths. In like manner, it afterwards came to pass, through the wisdom of that legislator, aided by the same governing Providence, and through the per- manent character which he impressed upon his nation, that a people, otherwise illiterate and ignorant,, has brought down that treasure of the pure patriarchal faith, protected by a safeguard of holy rites, for the illumina- tion and improvement of the most distant times. Moses did not conceal truths under the mystery of certain numbers, of magic squares, and symbolical lines. He perhaps reflected, that the connexion and interpre- tation of such expressions would be too difficult, too arbitrary ; and that such a style would be too dry and abstract, for his sensual people. As little was he inclin- ed to the use of hieroglyphics. Men too quickly lose sight of the sense, under the veil which is thrown over it, and forget the object of their adoration, in the out- ward form. He ordained a great allegorical system of observances, consisting wholly in actions ; so that, while the simple moral law only contained the renovated faith of the patriarchs, with the addition of warnings and examples, the ritual kept the people unceasingly em- ployed in ceremonies, striking to the senses, and suffi- cient to satisfy the most restless activity. That he cleared up the hidden sense of various rites, and de- rived them, by tradition, from antiquity, is an opinion, the ' Antigone' of Sophocles, we find the idea, which forms the basis of this opinion, expressed in striking and remarkable words. ovSs ayccTtra xqffcpctlri dswv ydfiiixa ÖTüVaadav dvrjTov ovff {meodqa^eXv, 6v yäQ TV vvv ys naxOhg dikV asL noxe t'T^ Tama, xdvdslg Zi8ev h^ otov "cpccvrj. *' Nor frail, and subject to mortality. Dare to transgress the unwritten law divine. Firm and immutable, and not like these Of yesterday. It was, ere time began ; Nor can we guess from what mysterious source It first derived its being." Sophocles, Antigone, v. 460. 28 MOSES. which is supported by many vestiges ; yet he might have foreseen, that intelhgent men would not have lost the true sense, without such aid. The name of God, Jah, or Jehovah, the self-existent, indicated the character which His worship, and which Israel itself, was to assume. In Egypt, Moses had be- come acquainted with the danger of sensible represent- atFons, and he allowed no visible forms. In the mova- ble temple which he erected in the wilderness, the deepest reverence was excited, by a mystery, into which no man penetrated ; enough of splendor was exhibited, to make an impression on the senses ; the Holy of Ho- lies, which was inaccessible, except to one who was the highest of the priesthood, and who entered it once, annually, after many purifications and offerings, bore, in all things, the appearance of awful mystery. The law was there contained, in a costly ark ; over the ark, singular forms exhibited the agencies by which God displays himself, but God himself was not represented ; never was His name pronounced, but in adoration. Thus, there existed enough to impress the senses, and enough to elevate the mind beyond the bounds of visi- ble things. This worship, Moses confided to a partic- ular race, who were allowed to have no other posses- sions, than what were set apart for them, under this relation, and were obliged to be dispersed through ev- ery district, in order that they might be induced to watch, every where, over the religion of God. Moses mixed his own sons among the officiating priests, that no private interest might prejudice the great work he had performed, and he committed the high priesthood to the house of his brother Aaron. Having instructed Israel to worship none other than the eternal, self-existent God of their fathers, to have Him always in their minds, and, as a self-existent na- tion, to maintain, among the Gentiles, the valuable pos- session of ancient manners, now renovated, purified, and developed, Moses gave no commandment to his people, concerning the mutable forms of political gov- MOSES. I 29 eminent. In two particulars, he displayed extraordi- nary greatness of mind. First, he rendered the most essential doctrines independent of less important mat- ters, which admitted, indifferently, of divers forms ; and secondly, he did not reckon upon the eternal duration of his religious institutions, but predicted to his people that a prophet, or an interpreter of celestial truth, would come, like to himself, whom Israel should in all things obey. As one of those illustrious men, whose power of seeing into futurity is admirably explained by Cicero, he surveyed, with prophetic eyes, the land of Canaan, and beheld the completion of those times, when the bulwarks which he had erected, to defend the truth against the storms of superstition and the inroads of fraud, should no longer avail, and when another should arise, who might imbibe' the spirit of his institutions, and reduce them into a form more favorable to the happiness of mankind. He left to the people the full enjoyment of freedom, with a system of kindred societies, founded on the pos- session of land, which, under the influence of natural and moral circumstances, gradually formed itself into a federal commonwealth. Festivals, which returned three times, every year, and which assembled the peo- ple, in the common celebration of their deliverance from bondage, of the establishment of the law, and in the social enjoyment of rustic felicity, formed the bond of unity. For the preservation of these ordinances, Moses wrote no system of theology, the dead characters and ambig- uous sense of which might afford, in the course of time, a theme of contention for priests. The few truths which it is given to man to know, concerning those subjects which are beyond the compass of our faculties, lived in the traditions of the patriarchs, which he puri- fied, and they were more safely confided to the feelings of men than to a written text. He had, accordingly, no occasion to discourse, even on the immortality of the soul, (of which belief, sufficient traces are found 3* 30 MOSES. in his writings,) either in writing history, which pur- sues men no further than the grave, or in giving laws, which are founded on the relations of the visible world. For the composition of these works, he collected tradi- tions and poetical allegories, concerning the origin of good and evil ; concerning that Deluge, so celebrated over the world, and the affinities of nations : to these, he added the history of Abraham and his house, and the history of his own time. Every trait of the first book has its relation to circumstances and objects, which belong to it, alone. When the author makes mention of the head of his own race, the spirit of truth manifests itself; his whole style is striking and char- acteristic, and its minute peculiarities stamp it with the seal of authenticity. It was indeed the custom of remote antiquity to omit the relation of particular circumstances, and represent great events in a more elevated and striking manner, as proceeding from the act and will of the first Cause ; in order that the nar- rative, while it moved the soul with a stronger feel- ing of solemnity, from being unburdened with minute distinctions, might simply impress the sentiment of dependence on the universal Ruler, and of resigna- tion under His government, which speaks to us in the voice of Nature. Seven hundred and fifty years before the Tchu-king of the Chinese, one thousand years be- fore the oldest historian of the Greeks, these books were written by Moses, in the deserts of Arabia. Stra- bo has praised his law ; Longinus admired the sublimi- ty of his genius ; its peculiar majesty has produced an effect on all the nations who have become acquainted with it. Thirty-four hundred years have elapsed, since Moses, in the one hundred and twentieth year of his age, ascended to the top of a mountain, and having, by a last command, prevented his remains from becoming the object of superstitious veneration, departed to his fathers. The East still worships his memory; the West and North yet hold it in sacred reverence. HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 31 CHAPTER V. HISTORY OF THE JEWS. After the Hebrew people, under the conduct of their leader, Joshua, had, in a few years, obtained se- cure possession of the greater part of Palestine, the course of the ten succeeding centuries showed, by a striking example, how difficult it is for men to adhere, with constancy, to simplicity and truth. Israel perpet- ually vacillated between the law of Moses and the cus- toms of strangers. During the first five hundred years, they seven times abandoned the former for the latter, and were as often punished for their infidelity. The neighboring nations perceived, rightly, in the Mosaic ordinances, the foundation of a power, which threaten- ed them with the utmost danger ; yet the Hebrews had not sufficient wisdom and fortitude to adhere to the faith of the patriarchs, in preference to more fascinating systems, and to persevere in the manners of their fore- fathers, when attracted by sensual pleasures, which were forbidden to Israel, but which, among other na- tions, formed a part of the service of the gods. When the consequences of these defections were experienced, illustrious champions arose, who delivered Israel from bondage ; but their exploits produced a transient effect, which perished with those who achieved them. The nation, seeking the cause of their misfortunes, not in themselves, but in the imperfection of their government, resolved, at length, to choose for themselves kings. The second of their monarchs, David, full of energy, in the pursuit both of good and evil, was magnanimous enough to acknowledge his errors ; and, combining with exalted virtues and great talents, a fine genius for poetical composition, and a soul endowed with noble sentiments, he gained an illustrious name, in the cata- logue of heroes and sages. Solomon possessed all the 32 - HISTORY OF THE JEWS. country from the Euphrates, and from the mountains which contain the sources of that river, to the confines of Egypt. David concluded an alHance with the Phoe- nicians, obtained a share of their commerce, and ren- dered Jerusalem a splendid capital. We mentioned, before, that Palmyra was built by his son, Solomon. The Mosaic institutions obtained, by means of Da- vid and Solomon, not only a completion, which their founder was unable to give them, because he died be- fore his people had gained possession of the Promised Land, but also a more expressive moral interpretation. The exalted soul of David foresaw a happier age, when a more lasting and glorious throne should be raised, on the foundations of Israel ; the faith of the people looked for their champion from his own house, for it was seen, that every thing prospered in his hands ; that God was with him. His own age and that of his son comprise the finest period of Hebrew literature, of which only a few frag- ments, since the time of Moses, had survived the ca- lamities of the nation. These are full of sublimity, and of valuable information, for the history of manners. The Psalms of David, with the hymns which are add- ed to them, are the finest flowers of Hebrew poetry. They appear to have been the expressions of the heart, under the influence of vehement emotion or lofty inspir- ation, and to be devoted to strong feelings, rather than to the pleasing or brilliant sallies of poetical fancy ; they are designed, not for the amusement of the idle, but for the necessities of the soul which is suffering under the pressure of affliction. More tranquil, more labored, and displaying more deep reflection, are the Proverbs of Solomon. The lovesongs which were written by him, or in celebration of him, are more passionate and pleas- ing ; and the orations or discourses,* on the shortness and vanity of human enjoyments, which, if not composed in his age, are inscribed with his name, are still more * Ecclesiastes. HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 33 bold, more profound and striking, even, than the doubts of Asaph.* The kingdom of the Hebrews was soon after divi- ded, and its greatness decUned. The kings of the northern tribes, whose only endea\^or was to maintain the dominion they had acquired, undermined their throne, by numerous transgressions of the law. The house of David, which reigned in Jerusalem, was, at one time, weakened through the imitation of the sins of their forefathers, and, at another, rewarded by the feel- ing of new strength, for returning to the principles of the Mosaic constitution. During the ages which had hitherto elapsed, before the rise of the great Asiatic monarchies, the neighbor- ing nations had seldom interfered with the affairs of Is- rael in such manner, as to produce any material effect. A king of Egypt had inflicted a transient calamity ; but, when the powerful hosts of Nineveh made their appearance, the tottering throne of Samaria was una- ble to maintain its independence ; and, when it became impatient of subjection, it was overthrown. The dan- gers which threatened their country roused the genius of the wise and great, and a third age of Hebrew liter- ature appeared, in songs and orations. Many excellent prophets, in bold denunciations, full of wrath and an- guish, but never abandoning all hope, lamented, threat- ened, and chastised, the crimes and follies of the falling monarchy of Samaria. But it was Isaiah, in Jerusalem, who took the loftiest flight, and surveyed all the evils that were springing up in the surrounding states, in the corruption of their manners and their laws, and which afforded cause for alarm, to them and to their people, to his own and to all future times. As he lived at that epoch when the spirit of conquest began to rage more extensively and with greater vio- lence, his work is a precursor of all the complaints * Asaph was a celebrated musician of the tribe of Levi, in the time of David. Se© Psalms I. Ixxiii. Ixxxiii., which are said to be his compositions. — T. 34 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. which have been uttered, to the present day, against this evil and its devastations, and a general prophecy of the calamities that have befallen the world, in conse- quence of such disorders. One single assurance sup- ports him, amid present afflictions ; namely, the con- viction that the germ of true rehgion and pure morali- ty, which, for thousands of years, had been preserved in Israel, would obtain, at length, a champion, who, although through suffering, should find the way to vic- tory. Little as it became a Roman to doubt of the fortunes of the eternal Rome, far less could a descend- ant of those Hebrews, who had often experienced such wonderful deliverances, who had been saved by Moses, by Othniel, Ehud, Barak, Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, Samuel, Saul, and David ; far less could one, who knew well the dignity of his law, and the unfailing power of his God, doubt concerning that hope, that certain assurance for the Hebrew nation and the royal house, which so often had been conceived in lofty in- spiration, and, amidst increasing perils, had only been the more eagerly embraced, and the more explicitly declared. Jeremiah, in the increasing ruin of the state, attained not to the lofty elevation of the royal Isaiah, which has seldom been equalled by others, even in single passages. He saw, what the other feared ; his voice is that of lamentation and admonition; abandoning the thought of freedom, he provided only for a temporary exist- ence. But the government, blinded by prejudice or corruption, embraced, with falsely-estimated strength, the dangerous part of making Jerusalem a bulwark for the declining greatness of Egypt, against the rising power of Babylon. Consequently, the remains of Isra- el, Jerusalem herself, the temple of God, the house of David, the whole commonwealth of Judah, as Jeremiah had forewarned, fell a prey to the flames, and to the arms of the Babylonian King. Israel, appointed still to maintain her ancient laws, was led away captive, from the coast of the Mediterra- HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 35 nean Sea to the mountains of Media, into provinces which had lately been depopulated, in consequence of the fall of the Assyrian empire, and to Babylon, where the great King chose to environ his throne with innu- merable hosts. Israel was transplanted, among nations to whom the traditions of the primitive world, the foundation of her religion, were not unknown, but by whom they had been cultivated in a different manner, and variously corrupted or developed. Before those wise men died, who had brought with them, from their country, the spirit of the Mosaic laws, the monarchy of Western Asia feU into the hands of the Persians, who had so different an interest in the population of Babylonia, that Cyrus willingly permitted the Jews to return to their native land. With respect to religious ideas, the pastoral people of Persia were much nearer to the simplicity of the ancients than the more refined Babylonians. The impression, which both nations pro- duced upon the Jews, is conspicuous in the style of the fourth period of Hebrew literature. Both the language and composition assumed a Chaldean character. The representation of Ezekiel's vision abounds with combi- nations of wonder ; a manner, of which we have some, though more rare, examples, in earlier times, of Egyp- tian origin ; and Daniel speaks more definitely than Moses, concerning angels, from sources which we can- not trace. The most important consequence of these events was, that the Jews brought back with them, into their country, a more entire dependence on their law. Per- haps this change was promoted by the circumstance, that, in many ancient traditions, preserved at Babylon, the foundation and sense of the relations of Moses were traced, and the folly of former misconceptions perceived, while the pure sublimity of the Persian faith overpowered the enemies of one which had far higher claims. Slowly, amid the impediments, which envy, the fick- leness of royal favor, and the despondency of its vota- 36 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. ries, occasioned, the new temple, and with it the new constitution of Judaism, rose to its complete form. Two thirds of the lands were in the possession of hostile neighbors. The former energy of the nation, which had effected so many extraordinary things, but which already, in the time of the kings, only survived among prophets and psalmists, perished under a foreign domination. The Hebrew literature lost its peculiar character, so that the old writers were rather admired than understood. The body of Hebrew literature, as it is contained in the collection which we name the Old Testament, abounds in manifold learning, and af- fords us the most important instruction, by displaying how the faith of the primitive world, concerning one God and the relations in which we stand to Him, and an invisible world, to which we shall, in a future peri- od, rise again, was maintained among the Jevv^s, some- times in one, sometimes in another, mode, until it be- came renewed and confirmed, by revolutions among all nations. The decline of Hebrew literature was an event favor- able to this predestined end. As the people became more acquainted with the philosophical decorations, which the Oriental nations and the Greeks had handed down, it was to be expected that the peculiar charac- ter of the Mosaic doctrine would rather be distorted, than represented with faithful accuracy : and the more the learned became separated from the people; the more they derived their knowledge from books ; in the same degree the ancient style of their philosophy, which consisted entirely in living and tangible representation, declined. The latter was alone fitted to produce that wonderful effect, which was far greater than any more decorated literature has ever displayed, in such different ages and nations. After the fall of the Persian empire, the Jews re- mained, for a considerable time, undisturbed. The singular aspect of their country and of their manners excited the attention of learned foreigners ; the spirit HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 37 of traffic, to which the great population of their httle territory had necessarily given birth among them, in- duced the Syrian and Egyptian kings to establish Jew- ish colonies, in their principal towns, in order to rouse the' commercial activity of the inhabitants. Annual of- ferings and tributes, proportioned to the increase of opulence, and the concourse of multitudes, consisting of deputies and pilgrims, who assembled, from all coun- tries, at the great festival at Jerusalem, raised the tem- ple and the city to a greater degree of splendor than they had attained since the age of David and Solomon. This progressive increase was promoted, though with an opposite intention, by Antiochus Epiphanes, the King of Syria, and son of that Antiochus who fought, unsuccessfully, against the Romans. He was an en- terprising chief, and aimed at restoring the power of his enfeebled throne, by giving unity to all parts of his dominion. The diversity of manners, which distin- guished the Jewish race from other nations, seemed to weaken his authority, inasmuch as the combination of all the Jews, who were scattered through different king- doms, might, under various contingencies, produce ef- fects detrimental to his interests. The King was strengthened in this opinion, by observing the spirit of independence, which animated the Jewish nation, and which was every where displayed, in proportion to the maintenance of their ancient laws. Antiochus, after the manner of despots, gave tyrannical orders for the introduction of Grecian manners, and was astonished at meetings with resistance. Judas, descended from the same tribe from which the ancient lawgivers of Israel had sprung, maintained the freedom of his people, and established an indepen- dent pow^r, which was afterwards favored by the Ro- mans. All nations beheld, with wonder, the unsocial nature of Judaism, with respect to customs and religious rites, which elsewhere were considered as indifferent. While the Maccabees, of the house of Judas, maintain- ed, with valor and wisdom, the supreme authority in II. 4 u. H. 38 HISTORS" OF THE JeWS. religious and political affairs, first, as high-priests and chieftains, and, afterwards, as kings, the independent and peculiar character of the Jews became more and more established ; so that Israel, even to the present day, though scattered among all nations, has never be- come mingled with them. Philosophical sects, like those of Greece, sprang up among the Jews, as far as was consistent with their law. The austere Pharisees were teachers of the people ; they not only interpreted the law, but, in every letter, in the number of words, in the different modes of read- ing, they sought a double or manifold sense. The alle- gorical interpretation may be not without foundation, but they seized not its peculiar spirit ; and, after strik- ing into the wrong path, they were led, by their extrav- agance, into the greatest absurdity. The cause of this error lay in the temper of the times : the more prone the people were to complain of many things as burden- some, and to hold many as indifferent ; and the nearer they approached to the epoch, foreseen by Moses, when another prophet, like himself, should introduce a new form of rites, or display the essentials of faith, without any further veil, for the universal good of mankind ; so much the more eagerly the Pharisees endeavored to strive against their age. They expected every thing from pushing, to the utmost extremity, what could no longer be maintained ; and they sought so to subdue the mind, under a yoke of multiplied superstitions, that it should not be able to rise from under its load. In this attempt, some acted from error, but the greater number from interested motives. Many principles of the Phari- sees have come down to our times, in their great doc- trinal book, the Talmud, in which the gross absurdities of the later rabbins are mingled with the sublime ideas, and often important explanations, of the learned Hillel. We seem to stand among the ruins of a palace, in which the old architecture is so defaced, by incongru- ous ornaments, and the huge columns so hidden, under capitals of hideous design, that we are obliged to dig, HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 39 in order to bring forth to view the ancient workman- ship. This sect accustomed the Jews to a false taste for subtilties, for minute frivoUties, under which, the true sense of the law vanished from their view. The Sadducees adhered so strictly to the letter, that an explanation, suited to human nature, seemed to them a blamable violation of its authority. They were indul- gent towards strangers, to whom" the law had not been given ; and, on the whole, more just and humane than their rivals. Immured in cloisters, after the manner of the Pyth- agoreans, the Essenes, careless of fame and of worldly influence, led a chaste, contemplative, and benevolent, hfe. The splendor of the supreme power inflamed the am- bition of Aristobulus, whose brother, Hyrcanus, ought to have held it, according to the right of the first-born. Hence arose internal dissensions, the first eflfect of which was the loss of independence. Jerusalem was conquered by Pompey. When the civil wars broke out, between him and Caesar, the latter gave counte- nance to Aristobulus, who had been dethroned by Pompey ; and, after the death of that Prince and his son, patronised Antipater, an Idumsean, to whom the weak Hyrcanus had confided the administration of af- fairs. After the assassination of Caesar and Antipater, a youth, named Antigonus, sought, by the aid of the Parthian s, to reestablish the throne, which his ances- tors, the Maccabees, had founded. The Romans, who would scarcely endure an independent state on the confines of Asia and Africa, and least of all, a dynasty who had to thank the Parthians for their existence, placed Herod, the son of Antipater, upon the throne of Judea, regardless whether he was a foreigner or native. The latter was an enterprising and crafty chief, who made Antony, in the first place, and afterward Augus- tus, his god, while he considered the religion of the people as the means of attracting riches to his capital. Herod in vain sought to introduce the manners of the 40 JESUS CHRIST. conquering Romans, and the culture of the Greeks, which were scarcely compatible with the rites of Mo- ses. The national prejudices impeded his success, with so much the more effect, as, according to the opinion of the learned, those circumstances concurred, which, in their interpretation of the ancient prophecies, point- ed out the speedy appearance of a deliverer. CHAPTER VI. JESUS CHRIST. Such was the condition of the human mind, such the declining state of all the old religions, when, in the seven hundred and fiftieth year from the foundation of Rome, Jesus was born, at Bethlehem, the paternal city of King David. His mother was a daughter of the ancient royal house of Israel, which had long before sunk into obscurity. She had been betrothed to a car- penter, of Nazareth, in Galilee. We read, in the ancient history of the Jews, that one of the most zealous champions of the law, when, after a struggle of many years against increasing idola- try, he had taken flight into the wilderness of Sinai, demanded of God, a signal of his presence. The earth trembled, but God was not in the fearful earthquake ; a tempest arose, but the blast of the storm marked not the approach of God ; at length, the Prophet heard the low murmur of the wind, and, in the still sound of the breeze, the voice of God came : — So He came in Jesus Christ. While the Jews expected a warrior, who should liberate Israel from the yoke of the Caesars ; who should raise the throne of David above that of Augus- tus and the Parthians, and establish an everlasting sceptre in the hands of his people ; Jesus of Nazareth, supposed to be a native of Galilee, a country which. JESUS CHRIST. 41 even among the Jews, was held in no respect for wis* dorn and learning, travelled through Judea, and resort- ed to the temple, at Jerusalem, teaching and perform- ing works of benevolence. He paid respect to the authority of the Emperor and the rites of the temple, but set the dignity of His own doctrine above the wis- dom which Moses and Solomon possessed ; while He claimed obedience and faith, as God, He called the meanest fishermen and publicans, when they believed in Him, His brethren. The doctrine of Jesus was none other than that which was impressed by the Creator on the most an- cient of the human race, " that He is, and governs all things, in such wise, that no man, even by death, es- capes from the recompense of his deeds." He announc- ed, also, the important principle, that " those sacerdotal rites, which had long been permitted, in indulgence to the rude infancy of nations, and to the imitation of antiquity, but whose insufficiency David and Isaiah had already felt, were now to cease ; and that man should henceforth seek to acquire the favor of God, by that gentleness and benevolence which He taught and practised." Accordingly, Jesus not only made no alteration in the political affairs of the state, but He even introduced no order of priesthood, nor any outward form of religious worship. He connected the remembrance of Himself with the enjoyment of the in- dispensable necessaries of life. Those primitive truths alone, which, since man possesses, by his organization, no means of acquiring them, as he does the ideas of sensible things, must certainly have been implanted by God, in His creature, were by Him renewed, and restored to that purity, in which it is necessary that they should, from time to time, be reinstated, and which, at inter- vals, they have received from Providence, but never before in so perfect and excellent a manner, or com- bined with principles so universally beneficial to the human race. After He had openly testified, in the most impressive 4* 42 JESUS CHRIST. manner, that no other completion of the hopes of Israel was to be expected, but this blessing, which was des- tined for all mankind, through the medium of their tra- ditions and system of worship, Jesus knew what He had to suffer from the disappointed vanity and the selfish- ness and ambition of the priests, and foresaw, with compassion, the misfortunes Vhich their prejudices would bring upon their nation. But, as Providence, by the direction of events, had combined in Him the most striking traits of the ancient prophecies, by which the Jews might know the Saviour of Israel, Jesus had no other purpose than the completion of His destination. Hereupon, He was calumniously accused by His nation before Pilate, the Roman governor, and sacrificed by him to the factious spirit of the Jews. With more than human fortitude. He suffered death ; He rose again to life, confirmed His words, and left a world, which was unworthy of His presence. . The work of the Author of mercy and love was com- pleted ; the root, which He had planted, namely, the renovated doctrine of the Patriarchs, in the course of a few centuries spread its shoots beyond the boundaries of the Roman empire, and, together with the venera- tion of His name, subsists, in the most essential points, even among the disciples of Mohammed; expiatory sacrifices, polytheism, and the belief in annihilation, have vanished from the greater portion of the human race ; the more clearly the true nature of His doctrine is displayed to our view, when purified from the cor- ruptions of calamitous times, the more deeply does its spirit penetrate into the foundations of society. Many, who have supposed themselves to be His adversaries, have labored in the accomplishment of His plan ; and, after Christianity, like its Founder, had long suffered abuse, by priestcraft, every developement of our senti- ment for moral goodness, and every successive advance- ment in philosophy, give us new feelings, and open to us more exalted views of its true principles and inesti- mable worth. FOUNDATION AND FIRST CORRUPTIONS, ETC. 43 CHAPTER VII. OP THE FOUNDATION AND FIRST CORRUPTIONS OF THE CHRIS- TIAN RELIGION. After the death of Herod the Great, three of his sons, as far inferior to him in mental endowments as in power, reigned, for a time, over different portions of Palestine ; the eldest of them, named Archelaus, being sent into exile, a Roman prsefect governed Judea, the finest division of the monarchy. In a succeeding peri- od, Herod Agrippa, the nephew of the founder of the family, who was more skilled than his relatives in the arts of a courtier, by the dubious favor of the Emperor, Caius Caesar, was enabled once more to unite the whole country under his sway. After the premature death of Agrippa, all Palestine, with some trifling exceptions, fell under the Roman government; and, in conse- quence of the extortion of the prsefects, and the violent prejudices of the Jews, against which, forewarnings had been given, in vain, by Christ, furious wars were exci- ted, in which the whole state and religious constitution of Judea were destroyed, amidst the most frightful ca- lamities. All these events deserve our attention, as constituting a most remarkable conclusion of the his- tory of a people, whose destination, under the form in which they had hitherto existed, was now complete, and who, from this time, have incessantly wandered over the whole earth, as a living monument of the most wonderful dispensation. As the seed, which is sown in the earth, is, for a time, still concealed, and slowly developes itself and buds forth, and at length opens and ripens into a nu-^ tritious fruit; so it was with the doctrine of Jesus Christ, concerning the early history of which, we pos- sess but scanty information. Matthew composed a history of His life, in the popular language of Judea ; 44 FOUNDATION AND FIRST CORRUPTIONS Mark has left a more concise account of it ; Luke has given to his narrative a somewhat more historical form ; and John has transmitted his testimony in a more phi- losophical spirit, and with more intimate knowledge. The third of these writers has also described the estab- lishment of the first community of Christians. The actions of the other disciples of Jesus have not been preserved by any authentic testimony. A few of their own epistles are extant, which prove, that the object, which all of them had in view, was an amelioration in the principles and actions of men ; but John, whom Christ loved, seems to have most perfectly conceived the spirit of the Gospel. As far as we can judge, from the scanty information we possess, Paul, a Jew of Cili- cia, excelled all his brethren, in activity. His zeal and the whole energy of his soul shine forth in his writ- ings, which consist, partly, of replies to objections, or to questions relating to the government of Christian socie- ties, partly, of epistles, in which he confirms or warns the converted, or opens his heart, full of love and char- ity, to his Christian friends. Our information concerning the two or three follow- ing generations extends to a few pages, only, which rather affect us, by their simplicity and tenderness, than instruct us, concerning facts. Only anxious to imitate Jesus, in works of love and duty, the Christians, among whom there were not many learned men, never thought of making an ostentatious display of the innocence of their lives ; and, instead of making many curious inqui- ries into the nature of Christ, they were chiefly anxious to know what it was necessary for them to do, in order to be sure of obtaining, in another world, that happi- ness, which, on earth, was never more difficult to gain than in the times of which we are now treating. Fra- ternal equality was the character of their social consti- tution. As long as this was preserved, a diversity of action and opinion, in unimportant matters, according to local circumstances, was allowed. Those who had been converted from Judaism were permitted to retain OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 45 their hereditary veneration of the Mosaic rites ; and the Greek and Roman Christians seemed to be no other- wise distinguished from other men, than as a particular philosophical sect. Had it not been for the commo- tions excited by the Jews ; had not Nero accused the contemners of the gods as the authors of the conflagra- tion of Rome ; had not so many groundless fears been excited by the enemies of the Christians, and by certain misinterpretations of prophecies ; the tender plant might have grown longer under the shelter of obscurity, and might have budded forth, before it was assailed by storms. The abuse of doctrines half understood was a more dangerous evil than Nero's rage or the edicts of Domi- tian. This misfortune of Christendom appears to have originated in the furthest East, in a country which has very rarely exercised an influence on the fates of our Western world. Nearly all the kingdoms comprehended in Si-yu, — namely, the regions which are situated between China and the borders of the Caspian Sea, — were, in the first century of the Christian era, conquered by the Chinese arms. It appears, that, by some consequence of these convulsions, the Samanseans, disciples of Buddha, who probably lived about the time of the fall of the Israel- itish kingdom of the Ten Tribes, departed from their former seats, the ancient Aria, and took refuge in the mountains of Cashmire and Tibet, and, descending into the fertile plains of India, reached Ceylon, and traversed the sea to Siam, whence they extended their progress to China and Japan. The chief doctrine of the Samansean Bonzes was, that Buddha, worthy of re- ceiving adoration, as next in dignity to God, had come among men, in order to publish the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. They obtained, with ease, an ascendency over the simple forms of religion, and the wretched systems of philosophy which prevailed in Ti- bet and in part of China. On the other hand, they underwent severe castigation, for having presumed to 46 FOUNDATION AND FIRST CORRUPTIONS contend with the Indian caste of Brahmans, who were powerful in poHtical influence. While these events occasioned the utmost danger to the old religions of Eastern Asia, it came to pass, by means with which we are unacquainted, probably in consequence of the wars at which we have above hinted, that the allegories of the Chinese book, Y-King,* were introduced to the knowledge of the learned men of Babylon, and after- wards propagated with greater zeal in Western Asia, * The mysteries of the Y-King had already furnished matter of dispute to the sages of China, for centuries before the time of Con- fu-tse, who endeavored to interpret them. They are supposed, by some, to contain a system of pantheistic philosophy, concealed under an obscure symbolical representation. The first principle, or Great One, the source of all existence, is termed Tao, Reason, or Intellect, and Tai-ki, the universal point whence all things are derived, and into which all distinctions or varieties of being are ultimately resolv- ed. It is said, that, from Tao was produced One ; from One, Two ; from Two, Three ; and from Three, ail things that exist. The first principle is figured by a single line ; by modifications of it, are rep- resented two opposite natures, which are generated from the former. The Image, or expression of the perfect, masculine, or active, nature, which is teriuerl Yang, consists of a uontinued or unhrokea line 5 that of the imperfect, feminine, or passive, nature, called Yn, is a broken or divided line. According to De Guignes, the original sense of the Yang is. Light or Motion, and that of the Yn, Darkness or Rest ; and it is conjectured, that this allegory had some ancient connexion with the two principles of the Persian philosophy. From various combinations of the Yang and Yn, all things are generated according to a certain invariable mechanism, or blind fatality, inhe- rent in the nature of the primitive Tao. The four Forms, or the greater and lesser Yang, and the greater and lesser Yn, are the next grade, and are represented by doubling the Images, and combining two broken and two unbroken lines, for the former, and by placing a broken line under or above an unbroken line, for the latter. The eight Symbols, or Koua, in the triple combination of Yang and Yn, represent as many original or simple powers. By the sixth combi- nation, produced by doubling the triple ones, moral ideas are ex- pressed. The five uneven numbers, according to Con-fu-tse, from one to nine, represent heavenly objects ; and the five even numbers, up to ten, earthly objects. The whole scheme resolves itself into a mere play upon numbers ; or, according to the philosophical expres- sion, all apparent individuality is only variety in degree and combi- nation. In referring the origin of the Gnostic philosophy to the Y-King, the author has, at least, taken a position, from which he cannot be easily dislodged ; since it is even doubted, whether Con-fu-tse himself comprehended the enigmas ofthat book. — T^ OP THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 47 where the Christian religion was then receiving its first developement. The idea of an unknown first cause, without will or intelligence, a mere instrument of eternal fatality ; and the allegory of a double image of four forms and eight symbols, which, arising from the infinite void, or noth- ing, by means of secret combinations produced the num- ber of man, and from the five elements developed as many principal virtues ; were the foundation of the se- cret doctrine of the Gnostics. The origin of these al- legories has been ascribed to the first Chinese lawgiver, Fo-hi ; and their illustration by Ven-vang and Tsheu- king is thought to be as ancient as Homer. Confucius held them in so high an estimation, that, for the sake only of investigating them, he placed a value on his life. The Gnostics were a sect, divided into various schools. They had their origin in those burning regions of the earth, where faquirs emasculate themselves, and where the soul, sunk in contemplation, loses itself in splendid dreams, the incoherence of which makes them appear like sacred mysteries. The Chaldaeans, divided into a number of celebrated schools of learned men, seem to have received the doctrine of the Gnostics with appro- bation, and even found a preparation for it, in their own doctrines. There are traces, indeed, which indicate that a communication was maintained between the most distant Asiatic nations, about the period of the founda- tion of the Babylonian empire by Nabonassar. The Gnostics held the existence of an unfathomable Abyss, or primitive Night, from which, according to some. Time, or, according to others. Wisdom, (in this instance, there is a fundamental difference, for the for- mer opinion allows of no intelligent principle,) produced Revolutions, or JEons, of which, each had a peculiar character. After a space of time had elapsed, of which no other computation could be given, but the greater or lesser number of revolutions assumed by different sects, the confluence of elements, or the rushing together of 48 FOUNDATION AND FIRST CORRUPTIONS the chaotic parts, developed Intellect, or Mind, which, being unable to find its like, exerted its power upon Chaos. From its operations, the Demiurgus, or Cre- ator of the world, had his origin. The' latter, in order to obtain beings to pay him adoration, imprisoned sparks of the pure ether in earthly bodies, and thus produced mankind. In order to destroy his work, Wisdom, the first of beings, called into existence, Jesus, w-ho had only the outward form, or shadow, of a body, and underwent death only in appearance, from a conspiracy of the priests of the Demiurgus. To liberate the soul from the chains of the body was, accordingly, the fundamental principle of the moral doctrine of the Gnostics. In the JEons, or Revolutions, of the Gnostics, may also be recognised the four ages of the Indian Veda, in the fourth of which we live, and which has three hun- dred and ninety-five thousand years to continue, until the final consummation of all things. In fact, these iEons only differ from Buffon's epochs of Nature, in the same manner in which we may suppose the style and character of the ancient Oriental people to differ from that of a European poet of the eighteenth century. It is incredible, how extensively the Gnostic mystery spread, in the course of a few years, in Asia and the south of Europe. There is a considerable work, still extant, which is conceived in the spirit of the Gnostic philosophy, and which has been erroneously attributed to Clemens, a disciple of the Apostle Peter : it is, how- ever, a book of high antiquity. Even the Apostles found it necessary to contend against Gnosticism ; and Irenseus, chiefly in opposition to it, composed a work, in which the good intention of the author is more con- spicuous than his ability. This heresy could not fail to scandalize the new converts to Christianity, who came over from the synagogue, and who still continued to revere Moses, according to his merits. These per- sons unwilhngly abandoned the falling Jerusalem, and, at Pella, whither they had fled for refuge, lived sixty years, under circumcised bishops, — there being no arti- OF THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION. 49 cle of Christianity which enjoined the abohtion of their national rites. On the other hand, Simon, who passed ^ under the name of the Magician, would seem to have been a Gnostic. He possessed a mysterious emblem, which was only shown to his most confidential disciples, and which was probably a symbolical representation. The moral doctrine of the Gnostics, the final scope of which was to liberate the soul from the body, ad- mitted two opposite applications, according to the dis- position of the teachers and students. That suicide was recommended, as the shortest way to the end pro- posed, was perhaps a calumnious misrepresentation of some adversary. It is, however, highly probable, that this act was not reckoned among crimes. On the other hand, it cannot be disputed, that some of the schools of this philosophy held all sensual enjoyments to be indifferent. This tenet was deduced, by many, from that view of human nature, which considers the grati- fying of our passions as sometimes involuntary, often innocent, and as only becoming sinful through circum- stances and the relations of society ; but supposes it to be overlooked, in the sight of God, in indulgence to human frailty. It would seem, that Carpocrates, added to this licentious doctrine the principle, that excess in debauchery is a more certain, speedy, and, at the same time, a more agreeable, method of destroying the bur- densome body, than the path of self-mortification. In the history of many mystical sects, we find traces of that maxim, that, when the heart is pure, actions of this description are of little or no importance. Yet, the more severe method of destroying the lusts of the flesh, by mutilation, obtained a greater number of votaries. In one point of view, the Gnostic princi- ples were dangerous, from the abuse to which they were exposed, and the misrepresentation which they so easily admitted. In another, they became powerful, by the assistance which they received from human pride, so that the real purity of good men was brought into alliance with the false sanctity of hypocrites. Aus- II. 5 u. H. 50 FOUNDATION AND FIRST CORRUPTIONS, ETC. tere professions commonly find the most public appro- bation, because vanity is the passion which governs both sexes, and subsists through every stage of human hfe. Between such dangerous extremes, the first Christian societies, particularly those over which St. John presid- ed, until the one hundredth year of his age, held a middle path, and maintained that pure simplicity of morals and doctrines, concerning which Trajan only required the information of Pliny, in order to put a stop to the persecution begun by order of Domitian. Even. in the second century, they were chiefly known by that perseverance, in works of charity, which Lucian treats with ridicule, and by their complete separation from the character and manners of a corrupt age. The few writings, which remain from this period, are full of the sentiments of holy confidence and inward peace. The Christians were, in general, ill-informed, credulous of things which might afford salutary motives and ex- amples, and bad writers ; but their moral feelings were of the noblest kind, and, supported by the hopes of fu- turity, acquired the most sublime elevation. The death of John, the beloved disciple of Jesus, exemplifies the genuine spirit of primitive Christianity. After a life, as much revered by the heathens, for its purity and goodness, as by the Church, for the doctrine which he taught, he beheld the approach of death ; and, for the last time, caused himself to be carried into the congregation of his brethren. He looked upon them, and, holding up his hands, said, " Children, as the Lord hath loved us, so I beseech you always to love one another." Having thus said, he laid down his head, and expired. Yet, for some time, these societies, without adopting the Gnostic subtilties, remained equally remote from the superstition of polytheism, and from the burdensome yoke of the old law. They took no share in public dignities, which were mostly entered upon, with the heathen ceremonial ; they were unwilling to become THE CHURCH. 51 soldiers : for the rest, they hved quietly, were the best fathers of families, the most faithful husbands, men of gentle manners, of Spartan temperance and frugality, and inspired towards their Christian society with the affection of Roman patriots. The same men became undaunted and heroical, when the disputatious arts of the philosophers, or the imperious commands of tyrants, or the most cruel tortures, would have induced them to abjure the love and adoration of their Lord. These times are the heroic age of Christendom, during which, the religion of Jesus was spread from the Ganges to the Atlantic ocean. The decline of the ancient religions and ancient morals, and the eagerness which prevailed, to receive every new and more sublime discovery, favored this rapid propagation of the Christian faith. A circum- stance, which also contributed to its progress, was, that the fundamental tenets of Christianity were only anoth- er appeal to those universal principles, which rouse into hfe the dormant feelings of our nature, and bring to completion the rude and imperfect ideas of unenlight- ened men ; while, at the same time, there were many things in them, which admitted an interpretation not adverse to the wishes and opinions of the age. CHAPTER VIII. THE CHURCH. The first Christian societies, independent of each other, maintained a fraternal intercourse, by means of epistles, and, when circumstances rendered it necessary, by reciprocal alms. Among others, the mother-church of Jerusalem, which, in the first effusion of Christian charity, had introduced a community of possessions, stood in need of such aid. The adoption of this mea- sure, together with the consequences of persecutions, 5^ THE CHURCH. of famine, and of the want of necessary prudence, en- tailed poverty on the Christian society of Jerusalem. Perhaps this effect was promoted, by an opinion, con- nected with the old Jewish prejudices, that the destruc- tion of the whole fabric of the earth was speedily to follow the ruin of that metropolis. While this opinion rendered men indifferent to all temporal concerns, it roused in them a more animated zeal. When experi- ence had convinced them of their mistake, Christianity was too firmly established, to suffer any evil consequen- ces from the discovery of an erroneous interpretation, in no wise important, and against which the apostles themselves had occasionally given warning. It soon happened, in the natural course of things, that overseers, or bishops, were required, to regulate congregations, to direct the interchange of epistles, and administer the gifts of charity. The elders, or presby- ters, naturally became the counsellors of the bishops ; and attendants, or deacons, executed their commissions. After the departure or death of a bishop, the elders proposed him or them who seemed fittest to succeed, and the assembly determined the choice. In conse- quence of the fraternal association that was formed among the churches, when the elected person entered on his office, the neighboring bishops were invited to, offer up the prayers and perform the service of the day. But, in a short time, the bishop came also to be re-' garded as the successor of the Mosaic high-priest, the presbyters took the place of the inferior priests, and the deacons assumed the rank of the Levites. These com- parisons were at first mere verbal allusions ; but the vanity of individuals, which was flattered by them, and, at length, private interest, spread over them a degree of sanctity, and gave them a powerful impression. Hence, arose an abuse, which was unheard of among the Greeks and Romans, and which had not the smallest foundation in the precepts of Christ. A particular class of ministers was formed, under the name of the clerus, or the clergy ; to whom, in the course of time, the con- THE CHURCH. 53 gregations were brought into a state of pupilage, which finally passed into an absolute subjection ; and the cler- gy obtained an authority and influence totally opposite to the fraternal character of the primitive Christian so- cieties. From a comparison with the high-priest of the Jews, the bishops gradually aspired to be compared with Je- sus Himself, who, as the sole and eternal High-priest of the Christian world, was supposed to have appointed vicegerents in His place. In this relation, they usurped a dominion over the consciences of men, which was incompatible with the simplicity and freedom of the primitive times ; and, since he, who presides over the most essential and weighty concerns, has an authority so much the more indisputable over the less important, so the spiritual power, in the- course of a few centuries, elevated itself above the temporal, the objects of which are perishable, and stand in the same relation to heav- enly things, which the earth holds to the heaven, mat- ter to spirit, and body to soul. We clearly trace the vestiges of this domineering temper, in a work of the fourth century, which is termed the * Apostolical Con- stitutions.' Already, the episcopal dignity, like the imperial throne, had been the recompense of factious intrigue. Under the name of church discipline, the life and actions of Christians had been subjected to a censorship, which, in the first ages, had for its pretext, to take care that the congregation might neither become contemptible, by any scandalous affair, nor the object of public odium or suspicion, and which afterwards mainly contributed to the elevation of the sacerdotal power. The rules, laid down by the ancient lawgivers, had always some real or apparent foundation, in nature or in circumstan- ces ; but, in these times, forced applications of the Scrip- tures, unconnected and erroneously interpreted, came to be established as precepts of paramount and indis- putable authority, whereby the faith of mankind, in a few great principles, which, by a directing Providence, 5# 54 THE CHURCH. had been renewed, from time to time, became extend- ed into an infinite multitude of observances and subtil- ties; and a yoke was formed, which, in conjunction with the political circumstances of the empire and the decay of literature, contributed not a little towards the debasement of the mind and the introduction of bar- barism. Thus was the work of Jesus corrupted by men. But, as no particular event is without its appointment, in re- lation to the whole, so it came to pass, without the in- tention of its founders, that the hierarchy itself cooper- ated, for a time, in promoting the general good. When the uncivilized warriors of the North broke in pieces the falling monarchy of Rome, Europe would have become what the Asiatic countries now are, under the yoke of the Turks, if its conquerors had not found, within the limits of the empire, an establishment, as yet in the full vigor of increasing power, which imposed re- spect, by its sacred character ; which could not, indeed, humanize the rude minds of savages, by the benevolence and refined gentleness of its doctrines ; but which, by the dreadful ban of the Church, by the terrors of hell- fire, of the devil and his angels, knew how to keep in check the unruly passions of our ferocious ancestors. Having thus become more docile, they were rendered, at length, capable of , receiving that purer light, of which the Church had preserved the spark from the times of antiquity. At first, only capable of receiving the forms of religion, they became, by degrees, susceptible of re- ligion itself; and, by means of this long training, ap- pointed for them by Providence, have finally obtained an equal rank with the ancients, in moral and intellec- tual greatness, and, in many respects, have risen far above them. It was a most happy circumstance, that events have followed this course, in Europe, the inhab- 'itants of which exercise so powerful an influence on the rest of the world. If other regions, whose richer endow- ments render them independent of the North, had ac- quired the same exclusive culture, we might have been THE CHURCH. , 55 left for ever in the darkness of barbarism. But man is only the instrument of an invisible hand. The association of the churches gave occasion to as- semblies of the rulers, which, at first, were summoned in particular provinces. For caUing together and regu- lating these assemblies, presidents were required, to whom, also, application might be made, during the- in- tervals, for the appointment of extraordinary meetings. For this office, the bishops of the capital city, which was the centre of affairs in each province, seemed best fit- ted ; and such was the origin of metropolitans, or arch- bishops. When the empire, especially after the time of Dio- cletian, fell into several great divisions, it was necessary that the bishops of each should hold meetings, from time to time, to consult on affairs of common interest, and, by means of communication with other great de- partments of the Roman world, should add weight to their deliberations. The Church, which was erected on the ruins of Jerusalem, claimed a high reverence, from the first; but the poverty and oppression which it underwent' left it not so much influence, as fell to the lot of the great Antiochian, the Alexandrian, and particularly the Roman, Church, which not only owed its original foundation to St. Peter, the first of the Apostles, and his confidential disciple, St. Mark, but, by early connexions with illustrious and powerful fami- lies, acquired a degree of influence, even in the impe- rial court. These four churches were considered as the principal families, or branches, of Christendom, and their rulers as heads of tribes, or patriarchs. When the imperial residence was removed from Rome to Constantinople, a jealousy arose, between the bishops of the old and new capitals ; between the most powerful Patriarch of the Oriental empire and the su- preme Bishop of the West. But the Eastern church had four patriarchs, the Western, only one. The branch- es of the former were soon lopped off, by the conquests of the Mohammedans, while the latter, by means of in- 56 THE CHURCH. defatigable missions, extended itself far over the boun- daries of the empire. The Roman Pontiff stood alone, while the Byzantine was held in humility, by the pres- ence of the Emperor, and his dignity often compro- mised, in the revolutions of a fickle court. It was so much the more easy for the Pope of Rome to animate his flock with one soul, and to give it the power of a well-disciplined army. The origin of this preponder- ance, and of the present superiority of Europe, was con- cealed in events, of which no man could foresee the developement. The history of the first ages of the Roman pontifi- cate is as little known, as that of the oldest times of the ancient republic. The collections of Anastasius are filled with examples of afflicted and intrepid virtue. We behold a multitude of popes giving their blood for the faith of Jesus, and distributing their earthly goods and the treasures of the Church to the destitute, adding continually new majesty to the worship of God, and liiaintaining the dignity of their office, by the serious and venerable gravity of their demeanor. Scarcely are their names known to us ; the numbers of their congre- gations, and the revenues of the Church over which they presided, are wholly concealed in oblivion. Learn- ed bishops, in other congregations, often obtained great personal influence ; but the imperial city elevated the dignity of her ecclesiastical rulers, in those days, as she afterwards raised them to a second sovereignty over the world. CHAPTER IX. CONCLUSION. Vain contentions afterwards sprung up in the Church, concerning the relation of Jesus to the Eternal Father, against which He Himself had warned his disciples. Hence, a system of belief was formed, which consisted CONCLUSION. 57 of a string of tenets and authoritative dogmas, the foun- dation of which was laid in error. Another source of corruption in rehgion existed in the new Platonic philosophy, which flourished at Alex- andria. Plotinus, Jamblichus, and Porphyry, felt the weakness of the mythology, which they labored to sup- port : they accordingly turned it into allegory, and con- cealed some things under a cloak of mystery, while they set others in comparison with the Scriptural Writings, which were equally destitute of a philosophical construc- tion. Thus, they induced men, who were endowed with more genius than sound learning in the languages and character of antiquity, to give up the literal sense of the Sacred Writings, and to seek, in arbitrary conjec- tures, for a hidden meaning. The philosophers also held the Gnostic principle of separating the soul from the impure affections of the body. This became, in the hands of the bishops, who were determined not to be left behind, in any specious doctrine, the fruitful source of many prohibitions, contrary to Nature, and tending to throw a gloom over human life. Among other ab- surd practices, it gave rise to the seclusion of useless and indolent monks. The Alexandrian philosophers failed of their object, which was, to support mythology ; their representations were too artificial, and their lan- guage betrayed a secret weakness. The people re- quire teachers who assume a. decisive and authorita- tive tone. When the Christian Church had extended itself over the whole empire, and beyond its boundaries, and, well organized under its bishops, archbishops, and patriarchs, had stood, with unshaken fortitude, under the ten years^ persecution of Diocletian ; when its votaries had dis- played to the world a far greater zeal for the earning of martyrdom than for the preservation of their lives; when the eyes of mankind were fixed upon virtues ex- alted to heroism, and even weakness elevated to the dignity of virtue ;- when all the abuses and irregularities which had crept in gave way, all at once, to the most 58 CONCLUSION. wonderful demonstrations of strength, and, from the ashes of the martyrs, as, in ancient Rome, from the blood of the legions, the warriors of the faith sprang up a hundredfold ; all nations became at length convinced, that the churches of Christendom were inspired by mo- tives of invincible strength ; that they were animated by clear and certain prospects of an infinite and glori- ous futurity. These things attracted the attention of Constantine, whose father, induced by wise and gentle principles, had put an end to persecution, in his portion of the empire. If Constantine was not always, guided by cor- rect views, he was at leas.t inclined to great and novel undertakings. It seemed to him advantageous to his interests, to declare himself on the side of the oppress- ed Church. It was, besides, a part of his design, in the place of the antiquated, corrupt, and declining, religion, to introduce one which was held in the highest venera- tion by the people. A measure of this nature was nec- essary, in order to give a new soul to the whole system of political society, the machinery of which had now become worn out and unserviceable. We have so far traced the history of the various rep- resentations and revolutions, by which those principles have been set forth and renewed, which are engraven on our nature, and which have been preserved by tra- dition, though often darkened by a temporary obscu- rity; principles, which elevate the unlettered person who believes them, above the wise and great who re- ject their authority ; which raise man above the limits of time, and exalt the human soul to the highest imag- inable hopes of advancement in wisdom and excellence. He who is incredulous sees, in these things, the history of a delusion which has been and yet is more fertile in virtue, consolation, and happiness, than the most deep- ly-reflected systems of skepticism. Those who hold the testimony thereof enjoy, in surveying the history of the human race, the same advantage which they ex- perience in resolving the perplexities of human life ; a CONCLUSION. 59 faith, pure and gentle, leads them, as the pillar of fire guided the host of Moses, not dazzling them, but ani- mating their footsteps through the dark and gloomy paths of this world of mortality. Per varios casus, per tot discrimina rerum, — Tendimus sedes ubi fata quietas Ostendunt. [Through various calamities, through so many vicissitudes, we hasten where the Fates promise peaceful abodes.] 1 UNIVERSAL HISTORY. BOOK X. THE LATTER PERIOD OF THE EMPIRE, UNTIL THE DESTRUCTION IMPERIAL AUTHORITY. IN ROME. II. 6 U. H. I BOOK X. THE LATTER PERIOD OF THE EMPIRE, UNTIL THE DE- STRUCTION OF THE IMPERIAL AUTHORITY IN ROME. CHAPTER I. CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. LiciNius perished shortly after the termination of a second war, which he had undertaken against Constan- tino, and the whole empire again fell under the sway of a single ruler. [A. D. 306 — 337.] A few years af- terwards, Constantino undertook to remove the imperial residence from Rome to Byzantium ; and the latter city exchanged its ancient name for that of its new founder. [A.D. 330.] Constantino has been reproached, for leaving Italy, by this removal of the seat of government, exposed to the attacks of the barbarous assailants from the North ; yet the most fatal calamities of the Roman world came chiefly from the eastern and northeastern side ; and, if resistance had been possible, the seat of imperial gov- ernment could not have been more favorably chosen. The Emperor was fully convinced of the necessity of giving a new organization to the state ; and, on the ruins of the former constitution, of erecting an empire, endowed with fresh vigor and animated by a new prin- ciple of life. But the energy, that was necessary for such an undertaking, had been dissipated, in the cor- ruption of the four preceding centuries ; and, while most of the princes, who followed Constantino on the throne, were far inferior to him, in creative genius, Ju- lian, who alone emulated his talents, pursued wholly different principles of action. , 64 CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. Constantine was fortunate in all his undertakings, and merited success, by the active and enterprising character of his mind. He defeated the Goths, and, instead of giving them motives which might perpetually incite them to formidable projects of revenge, he granted them a treaty of peace, which left among them a strong and lasting remembrance of his name and generosity. He adhered as strictly to military discipline as the tem- per of the times allowed. He established laws, some of which were perhaps superfluous, or merited the reproach of excessive severity ; yet the scope and tendency of all was, to restore the private virtues of the ancient Romans. He provided anxiously for the welfare of the peasantry, who were sure of always finding his ear open to their petitions. Nature had given him a sound un- derstanding and a regard for social order ; and, though he was not possessed of extensive knowledge, yet he respected and patronised men of learning, and labored, sedulously, by comments ajid extracts from the best authors, to cultivate his own mind, and form principles for the regulation of his conduct. He despised foren- sic arts ; and endeavored, though without success, to place the subtilties of theology beyond the reach of further dispute, by authoritative decisions. For the rest, he maintained decorous and dignified manners in his court, and permitted to his eunuchs and other cour- tiers neither the exercise of power, nor indulgence in scandalous abuses. He seems to have been capable of the sentiment of friendship ; but, where he discovered ambitious views, he was inexorable, not less from feel- ings of jealousy, than because he knew, by experience, the disastrous consequences of seditious projects. It was believed that he might, without incurring further danger, have spared the life of Licinius ; the unhappy fate of his nephew, Commodus, was lamented ; and it was still more difficult to pardon the violent passions, which led to the sacrifice of his son, the excellent Cris- pus. The Empress Fausta had indeed borne an affec- tion towards her husband, which induced her to betray CONSTANTIUS AND HIS BROTHERS. 65 to him the designs of her father, the old Maximian; yet, afterwards, hke the wife of Theseus,* she appears to have conceived an unlawful passion for her step-son, Crispus ; and, when the latter refused her addresses, she accused him to Constantine, who gave too credulous an ear to her calumnies. After the death of this noble youth, he is said to have discovered the black stratagem, and to have abandoned Fausta to the just punishment of her atrocities. He was deservedly reproached, for giving up the captive princes of the Franks and Alle- manni as victims to wild beasts, in the theatric games ; but, after his conversion to Christianity, he put an end to those barbarous exhibitions. On the whole, it is manifest, that the genius of Con- stantine, fertile, if not in happy, at least in specious, ideas, gave a new direction to the course of human af- fairs. He maintained peace, by the reputation of his arms ; and his name, alternately too much exalted and unjustly degraded, by prejudiced historians, deserves an honorable mention among the monarchs of the Roman world. CHAPTER H. CONSTANTIUS AND HIS BROTHERS. Constantine, during his life, had divided the empire between his three sons, retaining to himself the supreme sovereignty, [A. D. 337 — 361.] Constantine the Sec- ond obtained Britain and Gaul ; Constans, Italy, Illyri- cum, and Africa ; and Constantius, the eastern coun- tries. His nephews, Dalmatius and Hannibalianus, were declared Caesars; and the former was intrust- ed with the government of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece ; the latter, with that of Armenia. It again became evident, how difficult it is to separ- ♦ Gibbon discredits this anecdote, induced, as it should seem, by the desire of imprinting a deeper stain on the memory of the first Christian Emperor. — T. 6* 66 CONSTANTIUS AND HIS BROTHERS. ate the possession of unlimited power from the ambition of obtaining the sole command. The Caesars were put to death, by their soldiers, apparently not without the approbation of the Emperors. Constantino attempted to possess himself of Italy, and expel his brother Con- stans; but, at Aquileia, he lost a battle, which put a period to his life. [A. D. 340.] Ten years afterwards, Magnentius conspired the death of the Emperor Con- stans; a prince, who, in his youth, had been held in high esteem, but who had abandoned himself to the most flagitious lusts. In a wood, at the foot of the Pyrenees, where he often spent whole days with the companions of his debaucheries, Constans was seized and put to death. [A.D. 350.] Illyria would neither acknowledge the surviving brother nor the assassin, as its sovereign. Vetranio, an old and experienced offi- cer, was raised, by the legions in that country, to the dignity of the purple. Constantius intrusted to his kinsman, Gallus, to whom he gave the rank of Caesar, the prosecution of the un- fortunate war, in which he was engaged against the Persian king. Sapor, and marched into the West. Vetranio gladly accepted the offer of a large annual stipend, and laid down the purple. Italy declared in favor of Constantius, before the fortune of the war was decided ; and Rome suffered, in consequence, the furi- ous vengeance of Magnentius. After many indecisive and bloody contests, Constantius gained a complete vic- tory, not far from Essek, in Hungary ; whereupon, the rival Emperor, having rescued his mother and one of his brethren from the horrors of captivity, by putting them to death, terminated his own life, by suicide ; and his example was followed by his brother, Decentius. The whole empire again acknowledged one lord : even the Caesar Gallus, who had suffered himself to be exci- ted to some acts of violence, was punished with death, by order of the Emperor. [A. D. 354.] Julian, the brother of Gallus, now began to obtain a part in the conduct of affairs. Educated under the CONSTANTIUS AND HIS BROTHERS. 67 Oppressive restraint, which the jealous suspicion of his relatives imposed, he had found a noble consolation, and food for his powerful mind, in the writings of the ancients, with whom he became better acquainted, than with the character of his own age. As the worthless court of Constantius afforded no illustrious example, to excite his emulation, he formed his mind after the pat- terns of Alexander, Caesar, Trajan, and Marcus Anto- ninus. Constantius was the slave of his wife and his eunuchs, and the sport of sycophants ; he was most ac- tive in the subtilties of theological dispute, and full of distrust towards Julian. The latter, holding his impe- rial kinsman in the lowest contempt, embraced every maxim that was opposed to the principles of Constan- tius ; and, among other instances, formed a strong at- tachment to the religion which the eloquence of Greek and Roman authors had painted in such attractive col- ors. He apostatized from Christianity, and only dis- guised his sentiments, in order that no imprudent act might shorten a life which he had destined for the com- pletion of the most splendid schemes. It happened, at this conjuncture, that the Allemanni, whom Constantius, during his war against Magnentius, had himself excited to commotion, were now giving rise to the most calamitous disturbances, in Gaul ; and the Emperor saw himself under the necessity of send- ing Julian thither, with the title and authority of Caesar. Constantius entertained no gi*eat respect for the talents of his kinsman : he considered him as a man learned in books, who was not likely to display any remarkable talent, in the conduct of affairs, or skill, in war. When Julian learnt that the Franks and Allemanni had uni- ted their troops in a common cause, he occupied Co- logne and Brumat, in Alsace, as two chief positions, from which he might hold the Allemanni in check, and reduce the Franks to sue for peace. Having granted their request, he entreated the imperial General, Barbu- tio, who was conducting twenty-five thousand men to his assistance, through Helvetia, and across the Rhine 68 CONSTANTIUS AND HIS BROTHERS. at Basil, to expedite his march. On the other side, the Allemanni contrived to cut him off from this reenforce- ment, and to avoid a battle, until the troops of Julian were reduced to thirteen thousand men. Chnodomar, the Barbarian General, led an army three times more numerous than the Roman : his troops were full of courage, and not unskilled in the art of war. A battle was fought not far from Strasburg, on the Rhine. The Caesar animated his whole army by his example and eloquence ; and victory rewarded his valor. After this success, the naval Praefect refused him the use of the ships, which he demanded, in order to pursue the ene- my who had taken refuge in an island of the Rhine. But his soldiers undertook to swim over, with the help of their shields, and Chnodomar himself, with two hun- dred of his most noble warriors, were made captives. Julian afterwards traversed the whole country of the Allemanni. The tribes who had disturbed the peace of the Rhaetian province were subdued, under his aus- pices, and the perfidious Franks, under his personal command ; and the boundaries of the empire, and the terror of the Roman name, restored. Julian now lib- erated Gaul from oppressive imposts ; and the barba- rians, who had so often sold peace, at so great a price, were themselves obliged to sue for it, and to submit to the hardest terms. The Caesar listened personally to the complaints of his subjects, and was so equitable to- wards his servants, that he passed sentence upon none, without a fair scrutiny ; for, " who could be secure of a blameless character, if accusations were sufficient to condemn ?" The gravity and temperance of his man- ners obtained for his youth the veneration which is claimed by age^ During the conduct of the most im- portant affairs, he never intermitted the cultivation of his mind. The machinations of an invidious court were pre- paring his ruin, when the army saluted him by the title of Augustus. Scarcely had Constantius received this information, when he died, in Cilicia, of vexation and JULIAN. 69 anxiety. He was a prince of moderate talents, and possessed all the good and bad qualities which are com- bined with weakness of character. CHAPTER HI. JULIAN. [A. D. 361 — 363.] Soon after Julian had ascended the throne, he publicly declared his apostacy to the old religion of the Greeks and Romans, as it was illustrated in the writings of the later Platonic philosophers, and clothed with the mysteries of the theurgic art. That system, which, for centuries, had been associated with the customs of the state, seemed to him likely to main- tain the highest reverence, as it was also connected with the preservation of taste by the writings of the greatest and finest authors. It is a fact, that many Fathers of the Church, at this time, held in undue disrespect the writings of the an- cients, which contained many passages that were highly favorable to their purpose, and of which great advan- tage had been taken by the older Christian authors. Apollinaris, of Laodicsea, undertook to introduce into the schools his own works, which bore some imperfect resemblance to our Chrestomathies, in the place of the compositions of antiquity. His idea was, hke that of Gregory of Nazianzus, that it was more important to avoid all impure thoughts, (as if the classical authors were the chief source of mental impurity !) than to correct inelegances of expression. The idiom of these times could not be otherwise than corrupted, through the translations of the Scriptures, which were made, on the one hand, with greater literal accuracy than correct feeling; and, on the other, in a popular style, that they might be suited to the comprehension of the lowest classes ; and it was not without reason, that the Fath- 70 JULIAN. ers of the Church dreaded a comparison with the an- cient authors. The same anxiety revived, in the six- teenth century, when Sebastian Castellio and other w^riters, having acquired as great skill as it is possible to attain, in Latin composition, attempted to supply the place of the classical authors ; as if elegance of language were the chief resource, which is to be found in the writings of the ancients, for the cultivation of the human mind ! Julian immediately exerted himself, with the utmost activity, to introduce into the worship of the gods and among his followers, the salutary practices and institu- tions of the Christians. With a similar view, Maxi- minus Daza had before attempted to appropriate to the old religion the most striking and specious recommen- dations of Christianity. He adopted, moreover, the principle of universal tol- eration, in order to lull into indifference the enthusiasm which had displayed itself in favor of a persecuted faith. He gave no commands for shutting up the churches, but ordered the temples to be opened. All the bishops, who had been deposed from the exercise of their functions, in consequence of the theological controversies, w^ere by him recalled, in order that the harmonious sentiment of the Christian church might become weakened, by factions. During the last forty years, Athanasius, the patriarch, and Arius, a priest of Alexandria, with their respective followers, had exhibi- ted to the world the most scandalous example of the spirit of persecution. Ambition, envy, and a restless disposition to inquire into subjects which cannot be illustrated by definite expositions, seem to have been the motives which inspired these agitators. The ques- tion, whether Jesus is similar, in essence, to God, or entirely of the same nature, had convulsed, particu- larly in the reign of Constantius, all the Christian con- gregations in the empire ; and, as no dogma has a secure hold on the mind, when men once depart from the province of reason and from that of simple and JULIAN. 71 practical faith, none of the general councils of the Church, the first of which was assembled by Con- stantine, at Nicsea, were able to invent an illustration, which might restore unanimity or impose assent, by its internal evidence. Both these parties were obliged, by Julian, to observe peace and quietness. He expressed, in all instances, favor or dislike, in proportion to the degree of sympathy which every man seemed to feel towards his own views. He restored the priests of the temples to their offices, and spared no pains, in order to form among them virtuous and ven- erable characters. He introduced readers, who were appointed to preach, after the manner of the Christians, in the pagan temples. He established laws among the votaries of the gods, in imitation of the rigid censures which the Church pronounced against scandalous offen- ces ; but his regulations were more lenient and indul- gent towards human frailties. He set apart consider- able sums for the use of the poor ; remarking, that the institution of alms had contributed to the more rapid spreading of Christianity. He recalled the remem- brance of the splendid and illustrious times of the old Romans, and of the noble representations which were given by the ancients of the gods. He was endowed by Nature with a lively wit, and with a particular talent for turning into ridicule the grave demeanor and pre- tended virtues of hypocrites. Julian labored, day and night, to increase his knowledge, to reduce his princi- ples to a definite form, and to invent well-arranged discourses, for the recommendation of them. Temper- ance presided in the imperial palace. The numerous cooks and the powerful eunuchs of his predecessors were excluded from its walls. The Persian king, Sapor, probably not ignorant of the secret discontents which prevailed among the Chris- tian population of the empire, continued to disturb the repose of the eastern frontiers ; and Julian marched to Mesopotamia, in order to maintain the credit of the Roman arms. He laid waste Assyria, and threatened 72 JULIAN. Ctesiphon, the capital of the Persians. On this march, he suffered himself to be induced, by a pretended de- serter, who undertook to be his guide, to follow a path which his conductor assured him would be more expe- ditious than the usual track, and he was brought by it into the midst of a desert. While his army was suffer- ing great difficulties, from the nature of the country, it was assailed, on all sides, by the light cavalry of the enemy. The traitor was put to death by the soldiers,, and esteemed himself happy, in having protected his country from the greatest calamities, by a stratagem which only cost his own life. The Emperor resolved upon a battle ; but, while he was preparing for it, and haranguing his army, to give them courage for the con- test, he was ' mortally wounded, by an arrow which came from an unseen hand. Some ascribed the deed to a soldier, weary of a long and difficult march and of the rigor of military discipline ; several Fathers of the Church, to a supernatural power ; while other au- thors impute it to an enemy of the gods. When Ju- lian felt himself to be on the point of death, he admon- ished his chief commanders to exert themselves valiant- ly, and expired. Julian had more genius, Constantine a much more correct and enlightened understanding. The latter sought to erect, on the character and disposition of his times, the basis of new virtues and original plans, while Julian attempted to build upon foundations, which the lapse of ages had already undermined. Instead of la- boring to carry forward the plan of Constantine, and to give it that improved form, which it so much required, he- waged war against the age in which he lived, and exerted himself, in vain, to prop up an edifice that was every where falling into ruins. His intentions were sin- cere, and he was unconscious of the influence, which the hatred he bore towards Constantius, and the resentment he felt for the sufferings of his youth, could scarcely fail to produce upon his mind. His fate calls for our com- passion J for, after having abandoned the hopes of Chris- JOVIAN. ^VALENTINIAN. VALENS. 73 tianity, he was always tormented by superstitious ter- rors. In his expedition against Persia, he ordered a woman's entrails to be examined, in order to gain an in- sight into futurity. In another point of view, he deserves our commiseration : he, who had undertaken an une- qual contest against the voice of the whole world, felt, in his last hour, that the work of his life perished with him. CHAPTER IV. JOVIAN. VALENTINIAN. VALENS. Sapor made so good use of the distance which sep- arated the army from their magazines, that he obliged Jovian, whom the legions had declared emperor, in the place of Julian, [A. D. 363 — 364,] to purchase a peace, by abandoning to the enemy Nisibis, the most important, garrison of the eastern frontier. The new Emperor was a Pannonian, an able sovereign, and a man of exalted character. Though addicted to pleasure, he was not unlearned, and so sincerely devoted to the Christian religion, that he had exposed himself, for its sake, to the displeasure of Julian. He died, before his arrival at Constantinople. Two other Pannonians were elected, by the army, to succeed him, [A. D. 364 — 378.] Valentinian was the person chosen, but he immediately nominated his brother, Valens, as his colleague, and confided to him the govern- ment of the eastern provinces. Valentinian was a man of courage, who had made military affairs his principal ötudy, and was the inventor of certain weapons. He secured the banks of the Rhine, by fortresses, and car- ried on war, successfully, against the Saxons, the Alle- manni, and the Sarmatic tribes. He was only deficient in temperance ; and, if he had known better how to govern himself, he would have found his army more obedient to his commands. Valens was not deficient II. 7 u. H. 74 JOVIAN. ^VALENTINIAN. ^VALENS. in understanding, but too often became violent, through the influence of his passions, and exercised the most dreadful atrocity towards the rivals of his power. He took a part in the controversies of the bishops, and treated those, who were not inclined to the Arian doc- trine, with extreme severity. The court of Constantinople now resembled the resi- dences of Oriental monarchs. Empresses and eunuchs soon became powerful, and ruling ministers rendered the Sovereign inaccessible. Cruelties w^ere as often perpetrated, as under the ancient tyrants. They were not, as formerly, the excesses of the fiery souls of rude and impetuous warriors ; but the effects of suspicious weakness, which apprehends danger on every side, and becomes the more intolerable, by its contemptible mean- ness. Hortar, a leader of the Allemanni, was burnt slowly, from the soles of his feet upwards, by order of Valentinian ; Withicab, another chief, who had surren- dered himself to the good faith and honor of that Prince, was put to death, during a banquet ; Procopius, who had been declared emperor, was, by order of Valens, bound to the branches of trees, which were bent downwards, and which, in rebounding into their natural position, tore him in pieces. The old laws against treason were revived ; and, under this pretence, persons were em- ployed to lie in wait, to observe the conduct of all men possessed of great property. Many fell sacrifices to the ill-placed confidence of friendship. Justus, who pre- sided over the administration of justice in the Picentine, was put to death, because he had dreamed that he was clothed with the purple. Valens surpassed even this example : a soothsayer having foretold that the Empe- ror should be succeeded by a man whose name began with Theod, he caused many distinguished persons to be destroyed, because they were named Theodorus, Theodotus, or Theodosius. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. ' 75 CHAPTER V. DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. The military virtues, which were already extinct in Rome, declined, also, among the legions. The treas- ures of the world were allotted to the pay of the barba- rians, who constituted the strength of the armies, and who became generals, and rose to consular dignities. The coats of mail were now laid aside ; and it seemed as if the object in view was to enable the troops to flee more expeditiously. The infantry fell into disuse ; but it was rather the love of ease and the motive of personal convenience, that gave the preference to the cavalry. The garrisons, that were placed in the frontier towns, degenerated into a militia, who applied themselves to civil arts and trades. The fortresses of Valentinian were unable to withstand the progress of the enemy, who left them behind, and advanced into the heart of the empire. The hired barbarians often refused to fight against their countrymen, and as often they betrayed the Ro- mans into their power. As their pay was the only mo- tive of their service, they preferred robbery to battle ; and, as soon as they chose to fight, the general was obliged to engage, though it were contrary to the max- ims of warfare. It was thus that Constantius was de- feated, by Sapor ; and thus, a secret march of Valenti- nian was revealed to the enemy, by the smoke of plun- dered villages, which he could not prevent his soldiers from committing to the flames. " Yet the ferocity of the Saxons," says Salvianus of Marseilles ; " the robberies of the Alani ; the rage of the inebriated Allemanni ; the unfeeling cruelties of the Gepidi ; the abominable licentiousness of the Huns ; the perfidy of the Franks, with whom oaths are mere forms of speech ; all these enormities are nothing, compared 76 DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. with what we have to suffer from the Romans, who hold the true faith. When our unjust judges dare not open- ly to punish innocence, they liave the art of so perplex- ing the most simple affairs, of so drawing them out, that it is useless to think of the aids of justice. T^e empe- rors, when they wish to reward a favorite, grant him a branch of the public revenues, and he immediately be- comes the pest, even of our meanest villages. We have advanced so far in crimes, that he, who will not become wicked, cannot live in security."* This corruption and relaxation of all morals were the true causes of the well-merited fall of the empire. " lii a short time," as St. Jerome and Isidore of Seville re- mark, " innumerable swarms of Q,uadi, Vandals, Sar- liiatae, Alani, Saxons, Gepidi, Heruli, Allemanni, and Burgundians, broke loose, on all sides, and passed over the Rhine. Then, the inhabitants of Mentz, flying into the churches, w^ere hewn down, at the feet of the al- tars ; then, after a valiant resistance. Worms fell a sac- rifice to their rage ; Spire, Strasburg, Rheims, Arras, Amiens, Tournay, the cities of the Netherlands and of the Lyonese, the province of Narbonne, Novem-popu- lonia, and Septemania, became an interminable scene of ruins. When no sword destroyed, hunger insured a more protracted death ; when all Spain was plundered, and laid waste by fire, mothers nourished the last hours of their exhausted life with the flesh of their own chil- dren ; when sword, and pestilence, and hunger, gave a moment of repose, wild beasts came, without fear, to feed upon dead bodies, in the defenceless towns." After the old Romans had conquered the fairest por- tions of the earth, genius, and all other excellence, found their only consolation in the imperial city ; after the manners of the citizens had been corrupted and de- based, military virtues, alone, survived, in the field of battle and in the camp ; when the discipline and valor * " In hoc scelus res devoluta est, ut, nisi quis malus fuerit, sal- vus esse non possit." [The closing sentence of the quotation, in the text, is th-3 translation of this passage,] THE HUNS. 77 of the legions had declined, every thing was lost. While the hordes of German barbarians prepared and consum- mated these frightful calamities, in the West, events happened, in the remotest East, which, by a wonderful concatenation of causes and effects, gave origin to the first disintegration of the empire. As Asia and Greece had fallen under the yoke of the Romans, whose very name was unknown, but a short time before, to the people of those countries ; as the splendid superstitions of the Grecian poets and philosophers had vanished, before the face of a few fishermen of Judea ; so it came to pass, that a war, carried on in China, of which no European had even heard, had already, in the age of the first Caesars, given rfse to calamities, by the conse- quences of which the Western empire of Rome was doomed to fall. CHAPTER VI. THE HUNS. On the mountains and lofty plains, which divide Si- beria from India and China, three great nations have wandered, from the earliest times. Siberia itself is in- . habited by at least four-and-twenty races, distinguished from each otber, more or less, in origin, language, and manners, who, in the last age, were subdued, as soon as they were discovered, by the Russians. It was far otherwise with those pastoral tribes, who, without fixed habitations, and ignorant of the use of money, roam, with their herds, over the wastes of Ural and of Altai. "One of these nations, the Turks, have subjugated Western Asia and a part of Europe. We shall observe another, the Kalmucs, or Mongoles, conquering India ; the third, the Mandschu, a people full of courage and subtilty, ingenuous, and susceptible of the best culture, reigns in China. The Mandschu are connected by affinity with the Tungusians, a nation, who roam about, 7* 7ö THE HUNS. SO unceasingly, in the plain of Boghdo, that it is diffi- cult to find them settled, during two successive nights, in the same place. The chase affords them sustenance ; and they follow it, in the wide regions which extend from the borders of China to the river Jenisey. On these fields, where the Russians and Tungusians together hunt the sable ; where the Daurians call only that place their country, whither no oppressor may be able to follow them ; where the Natkis and Gilankis have no other means of supporting fife, than what they obtain by fishing ; where the Tunguse-Sabatschieh, drawn by huge dogs, in swiftly-gliding sledges, fly over the mountain plains which are buried in deep snow; there, dwelt the Hiongnu, who, in the age of Hannibal, shook the flourishing Chinese dynasty of Han, and who appear to be the same nation of Huns, which, in the time of the Emperor Valens, occasioned a movement among the nations, and before whom, in the fifth cen- tury, the banks of the Volga and the kingdom of the Franks, at the same time, trembled. Their history is contained in unpublished Chinese annals, which are preserved at Petersburg and at Paris. That of the Huns is given by Ammianus, in the rela- tion of the embassy of Prisons, and by the historians, Jornandes and Procopius. We find many ruins of towns, where the Hiongnu dwelt ; in the midst of their wastes, rocks ofler themselves to our view, regularly disposed round a middle point, and marked with in- scriptions. To these monuments, unintelligible, indeed, to us, the Chinese annals refer. The old Romans be- lieved these regions covered by an unnavigable ocean ; missionaries and later conquerors have opened them to our knowledge. We derive some information, from the first Christian teachers, of the Nestorian sect, who wan- dered thither, through the medium of abstracts from Syrian manuscripts. It is even now observable, that the Kalmucs are indebted to these persons, for their knowledge of the art of writing ; their alphabet is the Syrian Estrangelo, with inverted characters. The West- THE HUNS. TO em monks, and Marco Polo, the Venetian, who pene- trated into the same countries, agree with the Chinese, in their accounts of these mountain hordes of central Asia, which appears the more remarkable, when We consider the ignorance of most of them, and the negli- gence of their editors, without excepting Bergeron. Abulgasi's Tartarian history is rather distorted than translated. The most learned investigator of the his- tory of these nations, that has hitherto appeared, was Deguignes. This author, in his narrative, is often dif- fuse and brief, on important points ; he even appears to contradict himself, and is so much the more worthy of credit ; for, if he had translated less scrupulously, he might have glossed over these faults ; and it is fortu- nate for history, that he had less imagination than learn- ing and accuracy. We propose to survey the history of the Hiongnu, chiefly according to his relation. We have not sufficient traces of their language, to establish, on more than probable grounds, the opinion, that they were a race of Kalmucs. In referring to the resemblance of figure, we may remark, that the Kal- mucs have, in general, scarcely any beard ; their eyes are small and sunk very deeply in their heads ; they have flattened and very broad noses, broad shoulders, and squat bodies; most of them are puny in stature, but possess great muscular strength, without having strongly-marked features. A similar description is giv- en, by the ancients, of the Huns. They were of short stature ; their eyes were like the eyes of moles, and could scarcely be discerned ; their countenances were full of scars ; (it is customary, among good families of the Kalmucs, to mark the cheeks with incisions ;) the Huns were, besides, broad-shouldered, had thick necks, were very swarthy, and seemed properly to have no features, but to be moving masses of flesh. Like the Kalmucs, they loved to dwell in the plains of Bserastala, abounding in rich pastures, where the soil, the water, and the herbage, are impregnated with saline particles. With the same good fortune which gave to the Kal- 80 THE HUNS. mucs the throne of Delhi and the high-priesthood of Tibet, besides the dominion of the Crimea, lately sub- verted by the Russians, the Hiongnu flourished in a more remote antiquity. Their history begins with Te- u-man, who, about the time of Hannibal, was a pow- erful chieftain, on the banks of the Amur and Onon ; and, from the Eastern ocean to Tibet, was sovereign of six-and-twenty nations. The Siberian tribes honored him with tributary gifts, in peltry and wool. Others, flying from his yoke, precipitated themselves on the kingdom of Bactria, and overturned a throne founded by the successors of Alexander. The Hiongnu lived like the Scythians, described by Herodotus. They drove to and fro, through the wil- derness, the wagons which bore their tents, in quest of the necessary sustenance for their herds. The latter aflforded them the support of life ; the hides became their clothing, and served them for banners, in time of war. From the Chinese, they learnt the use of silk. The following is the lamentation of the Chinese Prin- cess, wife of the Hiongnu chief of Usiun : ^' A tent is my melancholy habitation ; a palisado the wall of my new city ; raw flesh is my food ; and my daintiest drink is curdled milk." The title of the chief was Tanshu, * Son of God,' or Tschemli-koto-tanshu, ' Son of Heaven and Earth ; lord by the power of the Sun and Moon.' There was, on this subject, a religious controversy ; for the Chinese maintained, that the prince could only be called ' Image of the Son of God.' Pope Clement the Second, however, has proved, that the Chinese prince also might be named ' Son of Heaven,' but not ' Son of God.' Originally, the oflSce of the Hiongnu chief was a burden which one brother willingly threw upon anoth- er, and against which, tender mothers sought to pre- serve their sons not yet arrived at man's estate. In the first month, the nobles used to assemble round the Tanshu ; in the fifth month, they sacrificed with him to the Heaven, the Earth, the Spirits, the Shades of their forefathers ; the third assembly was a review of THE HUNS. 81 the army ; each tribe gave an account of its population, and the number of its herds. The Tanshu had two great officers under him : one was governor of the east ; the inferior of the two had authority over the western people. Four-and-twenty chieftains, each commander of ten thousand men, formed his council ; as afterwards in Moldavia and other countries, conquered by these barbarians. All the Hiongnu were freemen ; their cap- tives became slaves. They worshipped God, according to the ancient custom of Siberia, in the sun : every morning, when he arose in the East, the Tanshu pros- trated himself before him ; he performed the same ceremony, in the evening, when the moon appeared. When the mother of a certain Tanshu lay sick, the soothsayers answered, "The anger of the ghosts of our forefathers causes this affliction, because we have neg- lected to offer up to them a captive taken in war." Soon after this offering had been performed, snow fell, of supernatural depth and long duration ; a pestilence spread itself, of which the Tanshu died ; and it was thereupon perceived that human sacrifices were not agreeable to the gods. The Hiongnu made this obser- vation, only ten years later than the period when the Romans abolished the custom of offering human victims. Honors continued to be paid to the Tanshus, after their decease, by their wives and slaves. At the full of the moon, games were celebrated around their graves ; towns were erected in the vicinity of them. (The same cus- tom still prevails in China ; and in like manner, Con- stantino the Great, and even the kings of France, to Louis the Fourteenth, were honored forty days after their death.) As the shepherd nations, who, on their plains, remark various phenomena of Nature, are in general addicted to superstitious observations, the pas- toral region of the Hiongnus was called by the Chinese, " the mountain of ghosts," of apparitions. In war, the Hiongnu, like the Germans, the Arabs, and the Mon- goles, were irresistible, so long as they preserved their ancient manners, which gave them advantages, such as 82 THE HUNS. the armies of more civilized nations scarcely obtained from their superior skill in tactics. Every fifth man was armed ; (it was the custom, at the same time, among the Helvetians, to arm every fourth man ;) their finest troops were cavalry, (as were those of the Par- thians and the Poles,) their wars being carried on chief- ly, on plains. Under the four-and-twenty generals, were two hundred and forty captains of a thousand, twenty-four hundred centurions, and a proportionable number of those who had only ten men under them. (In the same manner, at a later periad, Gengis Khan appointed his army, in a similar country.) As, in fight- ing, they threw their weapons from a distance, and often during their flight, and as the contest depended chiefly on swiftness, they bore no defensive arms : but they had manufactories of arrows, in the mountains of Altai. They dressed their children in warlike attire ; the latter, riding on huge dogs, shot a kind of animal which has been compared, without sufficient likeness, to the mouse, and the flesh of which was esteemed a delicious morsel. When they became older, they hunt- ed the fox. The Tanshu, like the Chinese emperor, often proclaimed a national hunt. The collecting of an army, estimated at one hundred thousand men, was once effected secretly, under this pretence. To this day, the Tungusians still hold such hunts. A youth became of full age from the time in which he had first slain an enemy. The law of war was as severe, as among the Chinese. The old men, the women, and the children, were wont to seek safety in forests lying to the northward ; and the same refuge served the de- feated army as a rallying point. As the Hiongnu, like the Greeks, believed that the severed soul wandered around the body, until the latter received interment, he who buried the- corpse of his fallen comrade became his heir. It is moreover related, that the Tanshu Huhan- sie drank out of the skull of an enemy, who had been killed, a century and a half before. The plains of the Hiongnu lie so high, that a travel- THE HUNS. 83 ler, who goes thence to the Chinese wall and to Pekin, constantly descends. The wall was erected by the Chinese general, Mum-tien, a valiant and learned man, for protection against the " wild people of the moun- tain." He raised this work, within five years, through a tract of country ten thousand lis in length. One li is seventeen hundred and fifty feet. Its foundation is of granite ; the wall itself consists of flints and bricks ; the height varies according to the situation, but is, in general, two fathoms and a half, and the breadth two fathoms. At certain intervals, there are fortified towns in the wall, some of which contain ten thousand inhab- itants ; and in the land of Schen-si there are four-and- forty cities, defended by walls and fosses of water ; but these are of far more recent date. For a long time, there were many petty kings in China, who defended, in arduous wars against the great Monarch of Pekin, their usurped dominion or their original independence. These were finally subdued ; and now, a more exalted title is given to the single victorious chief. About this period, the Hiongnu exhibited a proof that a state has never more reason for fear, than when it believes itself secure. They forced the Chinese to purchase their friendship, by annual gifts. They main- tained treaties with the same fidelity, which, in the Ha- jatalah, or Euthalite Huns, a tribe of the same people, excited the admiration of the Grecian emperors, in later ages. As the Chinese always sought to weaken them, they also availed themselves of more than one oppor- tunity of invading the borders of China, and breaking through the wall by the three ways which lead through the desert of Gobi, and through the fruitful valleys into which the latter open themselves. They were at length weakened by internal dissen- sions. It thus came to pass, that, though the stronger party, in war, they were overcome, in policy, by China. The Tanshu Wo-yen-ki-u-ti wished to restore the au- thority of his predecessors, which had decayed, from the time when the highest honors became hereditary. 84 THE HUNS. By this proceeding, he excited the discontent of many great and ancient famiUes, so that they left their coun- try, and moved eastward, to the peninsula of Corea. Disputes about the succession arose, also, in the liouse of the Tanshu, and Huhansie was induced to call in the aid of the Chinese, in defence of his right. This dis- graceful act inflamed many valiant men, lovers of their country, with the desire of revenge, and they departed into the countries towards the West. All these move- ments excited a tumult, of which the Chinese availed themselves, to mediate a treaty, which, under the pre- tence of restoring peace to all, established fifteen Tan- shus instead of one. It was intended to render the administration more easy, by these means, and it be- came more perplexed. After a long civil war, the kingdom of the Hiongnu was separated into two parts. One division of the nation passed under Punon into the forests of Upper Siberia ; those who followed the Tan- shu Peh mixed themselves with the Chinese ; the noblest of them were enlisted among the body-guards, and soon rose to distinction. The wild freedom, which Punon's adherents maintained, occasioned perpetual disquiet to China ; but these tribes again weakened themselves, by their own fault, and the northeastern Hiongnu became divided. There happened, in addition, a drought, ex- cessively destructive to the cattle, and swarms of veno- mous insects prevailed, which occasioned a pestilence. Accordingly, at the time when, in Rome, Domitian reigned sole emperor, in his second year, thirty-eight thousand fathers of families determined to go over to the Chinese, with forty thousand horses and one hun- dred thousand oxen and sheep. Four years afterwards, fifty-eight other tribes followed their example. The long duration of misfortunes broke the spirit of the nation. After this, the ' Chinese obtained the great victory, of which the historian Panku caused a memo- rial to be inscribed on the rocks of Yen-yen. At the time when Domitian reigned at Rome, in his thirteenth year, the decisive battle took place between the Tanshu, THE HUNS, 85 Yut-shu-kien and the Chinese general, Te-u-hi-en, in which the former was defeated, taken prisoner, and beheaded. Then, all submitted themselves to the con- queror, to whom the land of their forefathers was dearer than liberty ; those who preferred losing all, to passing into a state of vassalage, raised their tents from the Onon and Selinga, passed, with all their herds, into the deserts of Dsongar, on the side of Turfan, and onwards to Mamaralnahar and the Caspian Sea. Where they found fine pastures, and a favorable country for the chase, they halted, for a time. For the space of nearly two hundred years, the Chinese have information con- cerning their wanderings, until they lost themselves, entirely, among the obscure nations of the West. On the other hand, as the European geographers mention only a small tribe of Huns on the Caspian Sea, towards the latter period of the Roman empire, so we continu- ally find these barbarians making a more conspicuous figure, in succeeding times. Lastly, the Romans relate, that, about the time of the Emperor Valens, from snowy mountains as high as the heavens, there descended, at once, a swarm of unknown tribes, the warlike Huns, the Avires, or Avares, and the Hunuyur ; appellations which point to Siberia, where there are yet countries with similar names. They were begotten by devils, and brought forth by sorceresses, in the forests of the North. They were distinguished by uncommon strength, by swiftness of foot, and by a keen eye. They were excellent archers, continually fighting on horsebalck, and flying. Some huntsmen, as the Ro- mans inform us, in pursuing a hind, had discovered a ford in the Maeotic morass, and thus opened Europe to these barbarians. It is said, that they immediately offered up the first European captives to the ghosts of their ancient chiefs. Hermanrick, king of the Goths, was sovereign of the country ; and all the nations, from the Black Sea to the Baltic, revered his name. He survived not to see the calamity of his people. Ammi and Sar, two Roxolan, II. 8 u. H. 86 THE GOTHS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. perhaps Russian youths, whose sister he had condemned to death, because she had occasioned the desertion of her husband, killed the great Hermanrick, in the one hundred and tenth year of his age. The Gothic nation had two great divisions ; the Baltes were chiefs of the western Goths ; the eastern Goths obeyed the house of Amalu. The Huns seldom waged a regular war with the western Goths ; but they were so much the more successful in carrying off their wives and children into captivity. CHAPTER Vn. THE GOTHS IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE. While the Gothic nation was in this state of confu- sion and dismay, their princes, Safrach, Aleth, and Fri- digern, sent deputies to the Emperor Valens, who prom- ised, on the condition of being allowed to pass over and occupy land on the southern side of the Danube, that their people, protected by that river, should at all times maintain this boundary of the empire. The Emperor accepted their proposal, and caused them to be instruct- ed in the Christian religion, by Ulfilas, according to the tenets of the Arians. They were not pursued by the Huns, who continued, for more than fifty years, to fol- low the chase, and occupy themselves with remote wars in the forests and mountain plains of Southern Russia, of Poland, and Hungary, before they came into any re- lation with the Romans. The Goths, who departed reluctantly from their pas- tures in the interminable plains of Moldavia and the Ukraine, found themselves and their flocks too much confined among the people of the Roman provinces, and they begged permission to supply their necessities, by barter. The Emperor accordingly granted leave to Lupicinus and Maximus, praefects of the neighboring districts, to trade with them, with an exclusive privilege. THE GOTHS IN THE HOMAN EMPIRE. 87 The latter made so shameful an advantage of this li- cense, that, for a loaf of bread and ten pounds of un- wholesome flesh; which was often dog's flesh, the Goths were obliged to surrender to them a slave. The flocks of the latter were for the most part exhausted ; the number of their bondmen was very much reduced ; and many were compelled, by the cravings of hunger, to sell their children for bread. While the nation groaned under these calamities, Fridigern, their prince, was invited to an entertainment by the Roman Governor. He was a valiant youth, full of the heroic spirit of the ancient Baltes. He went, accompanied by many young warriors, his friends and companions in arms. While he was feasting, .the cries of his party saluted his ears, whom the Romans had suddenly attacked, and were putting to death, with the hope of making their leader an easy prey, and of thus breaking the spirit of the Goths. Fridigern, with rage in his looks, rose from table, and rushed out of the apartment with his sword in his hand ; he rescued his companions, and escaped with them out of the Roman territory. He afterwards represented to the Goths that the Romans, who were regardless of treachery and the basest crimes, had conspired their destruction, and that war was the only means of preventing the evils that threatened them. The Goths immediately spread blood and devastation over all the countries which lay on their way through Mysia to Constantinople. Valentinian, in the West, is said to have refused succar to his brother, because Valens entertained the opinions of Arius, and rejected those of the Nicene council, concerning the person of Christ ; and the same pretence availed Te- rentius, the governor of Armenia. Accordingly, the imperial general, Trajan, was easily defeated. This misfortune spread dismay among the multitude. ^' Shall we ever be victorious," said they, " under an emperor who has the Son of God against him ?" In the mean time, the Goths approached, and the flames of burning villages were seen from the walls of Constantinople, 88 THEODOSIUS THE FIRST, AND HIS SONS. At length, the Emperor Valens marched with an army against them, which they resolved to encounter in the plains of Adrianople. The Gothic infantry soon over- powered the cavalry of their enemy, and the Romans were compelled to betake themselves to a precipitate flight. Their loss was great ; the Emperor was wound- ed and fled, his horse fell, and he was scarcely able to conceal himself in a peasant's hut. The barbarians, who pursued, without guessing that a Roman monarch was concealed under the thatch, set fire to the straw, as they were accustomed to do, and in this manner Valens ter- minated his life. [A. D. 378.] When the Goths appeared before Constantinople, the Empress Domnina excited the people to resistance. The city was newly built, and secure, in every respect, and regular sieges were not within the power of barba- rous assailants. In the mean time, Gratian, who, with his brother Valentinian, then four years old, had suc- ceeded their father in the West, had declared Theodo- sius his colleague in the sovereignty. Theodosius was a Spaniard, of an old family, allied to the house of the illustrious and excellent Trajan ; his father, a very re- spectable warrior, had formed him by his own example ; and that jealousy, alone, which, under the suspicious government of the former emperors, attended the dis- play of shining talents and virtues, had hitherto pre- vented the youth from rising to distinction. CHAPTER VIII. THEODOSIUS THE FIRST, AND HIS SONS. Gratian now confided to Theodosius the Eastern em- pire, which was the theatre of the Gothic war. [A. D. 379.] The latter found Fridigern in Greece, while Aleph and Safrach were employed in plundering Pan- nonia. He now endeavored to weaken the Goths, by THEODOSIÜS THE FIRST, AND HIS SONS. 89 fomenting jealousies among them, at the same time that he strengthened his own authority by vigorous meas- ures, and prepared the means of overthrowing the ene- my. After the death of Fridigern, he invited his suc- cessor, Athanaric, to a conference, in which a treaty was agreed upon, and a considerable subsidy, in corn and cattle, was promised to the Goths. On this occasion, Theodosius renewed tJie appointment of an auxiliary body of troops, consisting of forty thousand men, levied from that nation, which had first been instituted by Constantino. When Athanaric, educated among herds and in the camp, first beheld, in Constantinople, the splendor of a court; the imperial palaces, the war-ships which filled the haven, and the imposing aspect of a regular army ; he exclaimed, in astonishment, '^ Truly, he must be a god, who reigns here : all his people have but one soul ; all things hang together, in his kingdom !" • Theodo- sius had restored, as much as possible, the appearance of military discipline. The Gothic Prince died in this capital ; and so deeply had Theodosius impressed these barbarians with the admiration of his wisdom and jus- tice, that they now declared, that, as long as he hved, they would acknowledge no other chief. About the same time, the Persians demanded a renewal of the treaty of peace. Gratian, who was a meritorious prince, but incurred the hatred of the Roman army, because he placed great- er confidence in the foreign auxiliaries, had conducted a successful war in the West, against the Vandals or Burgundians, who were often confounded with each other. The licentiousness of his soldiers imbittered his good fortune ; and, although he was endowed with an enlightened mind, and with mildness and generosity of character, these good qualities were not sufficient to prevent a seditious movement in the army, which ele- vated Maximus to the throne. [A. D. 383.] Gratian was put to death, by a secret stratagem, at the instiga- tion of the latter. 8* 90 THEODOSIUS THE FIRST, AND HIS SONS. Maximus, to whose lot Gaul and Britain had fallen, in consequence of this revolution, drove the young Va- lentinian out of Italy, and stationed strong garrisons to defend the passes of the Alps, while he remained in per- son at the head of a powerful army, on the road which enters the country above Aquileia. He had not perse- verance to adhere firmly to these prudent measures, and Theodosius soon availed himself of the errors which he committed, and which finally cost him his life. [A. D. 388.] From that time, the empire remained in tranquil obe- dience to the two Emperors, until the secretary Euge- nius and the Count Arbogastes murdered the young Valentinian, whose good qualities were scarcely begin^ ning to develope themselves. The assassins were con- quered by Theodosius, at the foot of the Alps, though not without difficulty, and, as it is said, a wonderful concurrence of the elements. [A. D. 392.] Theodosius afterwards reigned alone, with modera- tion and abiUty, and displayed a great knowledge of mankind, and the peculiar character of his age, togeth- er with a wise indulgence to its ruling prejudices ; but, unfortunately for the empire, his reign terminated in the course of a few months. [A. D. 395.] His weak and indolent sons, Arcadius and Honorius, who retained the title of sovereignty, the former at Constantinople and the latter in Italy, confided their power to ministers, and were not possessed of sufficient discernment to make a good choice. The ministers of government sought, in order to render themselves the more necessary, to multiply the dangers of the em- pire. The Goths were defrauded of the subsidies which had been assigned to them by Theodosius ; and men of sound understanding among them soon discovered how different his administration had been from that of his successors. They accordingly chose Alaric, of the race of the Baltes, for their prince. Rufinus, the min- ister of Arcadius, was informed of this proceeding, and THEODOSIUS THE FIRST, AND HIS SONS. 91 thought he deserved the gratitude of his master, by counselUng the Goths to turn their arms against the Western Emperor, to whose aid he promised to send no succors. Stihcho, the minister of the Itahan mon- arch, was rejoiced at the prospect of the war, in the course of which he contrived to surround Radegast, a Gothic chief, in the mountains near Fiesole, and to cut him off. The Roman General took no precaution to guard the frontiers of Italy against the incursions of Alaric. [ A. D. 408. ] In the last year of the reign of Arca- dius, and in the thirteenth of Honorius, while Stilicho and Aurelian were adorned with the consular robes, the Visigoths, under Alaric, the Baltic Prince, broke up from their settlements in Mysia and the Hither Dacia, passed the Illyrian frontier, and came, without resist- ance, to Istria, and to the pass which leads into Italy. They crossed the last arm of the Alpine range, travers- ed the Venetian territory, and, passing the Po, arrived within three miles of Ravenna, which was then the im- perial residence, — for Honorius was at enmity with the senate and people of Rome. Thence, Alaric caused the following message to be conveyed to the Emperor : " That the Goths had arrived in those districts, with their wives, their children, and their cattle, and begged him to grant them a country to dwell in ; that, if it pleased the Emperor, a day might be appointed, in which the Gotlis and Romans should measure their prowess against each other, in the open field." Ho- norius returned answer, that he allowed the Goths to take possession of any territo-ry that might please them, in Gaul or Spain. This permission was of no great value ; for Gaul was every where laid waste, at that time, by the Franks ; and the Allemanni, preceded or accompanied by the Vandals, had already passed the Pyrenean mountains. The Minister held it to be the wisest policy to destroy the barbarians, by engaging them in mutual wars ; but they understood better their interest, and united themselves in projects of common 92 THEODOSIUS THE FIRST, AND HIS SONS. plunder and partition. They experienced no resistance, for all good generals were suspected, by the feeble Monarch, or disdained his inglorious sway. Alaric, however, accepted the offer of Honorius ; and, without permitting his people to commit the smallest act of vi- olence, retired to the Alps, which separate Italy from France. He took with him no booty, nor did any of the Italian people suffer by his arms. In the moun- tains of Piedmont, the Gothic host were celebrating the festival of Easter, when, in the midst of the solemnity, they observed, with astonishment, the approach of Sa- rus, the personal foe of Alaric, at the head of a consid- erable army. They were suddenly attacked ; but, after suffering some loss, sated their vengeance and indigna- tion in the slaughter of their insidious enemies. The Goths now turned* their arms towards Italy ; and, after laying waste Liguria, the JEmilian and Fla- minian provinces, Tuscany, and the Picentine, ap- proached the walls of Rome, determined to revenge their injuries, and drive Honorius from the throne. In the one thousand one hundred and sixty-fourth year from the building of the city, on the twenty-third of August, Rome was taken by Alaric the Visigoth. [ A. D. 409.] He entered the imperial palace, plunder- ed it, and the houses of the great ; but so far modera- ted his wrath, that he suffered no blood to be shed, and preserved the city from flames. He proclaimed a pri- vate citizen, named Attains, Emperor, and caused him to pay homage to himself. Alaric proceeded to the southward, made an easy conquest of Campania, and traversed Calabria to the vicinity of the Straits. It is said, that he meditated the reduction of Sicily and Af- rica, where Gildo had rebelled against the imperial sov- ereignty ; but, while he was engaged in such undertak- ings, death overtook him, at Cosenza, in the thirty-fourth year of his age. The whole nation of the Visigoths mourned his loss, with sincere lamentations. They turned aside the course of the river which flows through the place, buried their chief with the memorials of his THEODOSIUS THE FIRST^ AND HIS SONS. - 93 victory, and then gave to the stream its wonted chan- nel, that Roman cupidity might not envy and disturb the great Alaric, in the grave where he rested from his deeds of glory. The Goths elected, in the place of Alaric, his kins- man, Adolphus, the most illustrious of their nobles, who returned with his army to the Tiber. Thence, the con- querors carried away the most costly ornaments of the public edifices, having destroyed many splendid monu- ments of the pride of ancient Rome, and defaced the finest productions of the arts. The Emperor was oblig- ed to give his sister in marriage to Adolphus, who, af- ter having chastised Italy, directed his march to Gaul. Gauls, Barbarians, and Romans, yielded to this formid- able host. The Visigoths occupied the whole country between the Rhone and the Loire and the feet of the Pyrenees ; they took possession of the mountains, and, passing over them, forced the Vandals in Spain to con- tent themselves with the country on the Bsetis, and the Allemanni to seek refuge in Gallicia, and the hilly re- gions of Portugal. Thus, the Visigoths founded the kingdom of Spain. The policy of Stilicho, or the factions which caballed against his counsels, the weak- ness of the Emperor, and the decline of military tactics, deprived Rome of the province which the Scipios had added to her dominion. The Spaniards had not for- gotten their ancient valor ; but they cared little to de- fend the sovereignty of the effeminate Romans a^gainst Barbarians, whose manners were, in many respects, congenial to their own. About the same time, the Scoti passed over from Ireland into Caledonia, where a part of their nation had dwelt, from remote times, and grievously oppressed Britain. Warmund, or Pharamond, at the head of the Franks, made a settlement in the Netherlands > and Gundichar, or Günther, Prince of the Burgundians, took possession of the country on the Upper Rhine, and held his court at Worms. By degrees, the Heruli and Ru- gians came down, through Silesia and Moravia, into 94 THE AGE OF VALENTINIAN THE THIRD. Noricum, or Austria, while the Lombards seized Pan- nonia, now Hungary, and a part of Lower Austria, and the Ostrogoths gained possession of many towns in Thrace. Maximus and Jovinus rebelled in the heart of the empire, and Heraclianus, Praefect of Africa, de- tained the supplies of corn 'which were destined for Rome. In this calamitous time, Honorius left the throne to his nephew, Valentinian the Third, a boy of five years of age. CHAPTER IX. THE AGE OF VALENTINIAN THE THIRD. [A. D. 424 — 455.] Scarcely had the aid of Theo- dosius, the Eastern Emperor, secured the minor in the possession of his tottering throne, when Africa was lost, by an act of treachery. Galla Placidia, the mother of the Emperor, administered the government with pru- dence and reputation ; but Boniface, the Count of Af- rica, was unjustly accused of treacherous designs. Ae- tius was an experienced warrior, but, in pursuing the objects of his ambition, careless of right and wrong, who had lately attempted, by the aid of the Huns, to seat an usurper on the throne. A e tins wrote to Boniface, in the following terms : " That evil-minded persons, envi- ous of his merit, had basely accused him to the Princess, who had the weakness of a woman ; that his friends in vain employed their eloquence, in defending his char- acter and conduct ; that his recall and death were final- ly resolved upon ; and that A e tins, bound by the ties of ancient friendship, had not failed to give him warn- ing." He afterwards went to the mother of the Em- peror, and informed' her, that ''his inquiries had dis- covered a great calamity, which threatened to befall Africa ; that Boniface was dangerous to the empire ; for, if he revolted, the supplies of provisions would be withheld from the city ; that this misfortune was likely THE AGE OF VALENTINIAN THE THIRD. 95 to happen ; and that the only way to prevent the dan- ger was to recall the General, before his plans were brought to maturity." Placidia followed this counsel ; and Boniface, hereby assured that the information sent by Aetius was correct, disobeyed the summons. The imperial court was accordingly persuaded that Aetius had not accused the Governor of Africa unjustly, and it was resolved to prosecute him, by arms. Boniface, in his extremity, applied to Genseric and Gonthakar, sons of Modogisel, Prince of the Vandals in Andalu- sia, and promised, on condition of receiving succor from them, to yield into their possession the fertile country on the coast of Africa. Genseric was young, enter- prising, but insensible to every motive that was not favorable to his designs ; he was a great master of dis- simulation, and more temperate than is usual with bar- barians. He immediately sailed across the straits. His march was not like that of Alaric ; terror preceded his footsteps ; he laid waste the whole country with fire and sword. [A. D. 427.] The fatal error was now discovered, which had occasioned these calamities. Boniface took arms, for the protection of the country ; he received reenforcements from the Emperor of the East ; but Genseric, whose brother had fallen in the mean time, defeated Boniface, and Aspar, the general of Theodosius, and finally reduced Carthage, the me- tropolis of Africa. He suffered all the nobles to be put to death, the city to be plundered, and men and wo- men to be put to the torture, in order to force them to the discovery of hidden treasures. [A. D. 439.] The same tyrant, and his son, Hunneric, or Henry, renev»^- ed the persecution of the Christians who professed the Nicene faith. Many were burnt ; many had their tongues torn out ; while others suffered a long and painful martyrdom. Genseric became more and more suspicious, with his increasing years. His son had married a princess of the Visigoths, whom her father- in-law accused, in his imagination, of a design to poison him, that she might become queen of the Vandals. He 96 THE AGE OF VALENTINIAN THE THIRD. accordingly ordered her ears and nose to be cut off, and sent her back into her country. Apprehensive that the Visigoths would take vengeance, for this outrage, and dreading, moreover, that the Romans might unite their arms against the Vandal power, Genseric despatched messengers into Hungary, to Attila, King of the Huns. In the country between the Danube and the Theiss, in a great village surrounded by palisadoes, in the midst of a spacious court, stood a wooden building, environed by many avenues ; this was the dwelling of Attila, or Etsel, King of the Huns. Attila was of small stature; he had a large head, disproportioned.to his body, and small and deeply-seated eyes, which he turned around him, with looks of ferocious pride. His manners and gesture bespoke the imperious ruler ; and his most fa- vorite appellation was Godegisel, " the scourge of God, for the castigation of the world." Yet, when he had forgiven an enemy, Attila thought no more of his past offences ; and whoever submitted to his authority, was sure of being treated with gentleness. He was inclin- ed to benevolence, and mirth abounded at his table ; but Attila himself never laid aside the dignified gravity of his demeanor. All the tribes of Huns, and the con- quered nations which were dispersed from the Volga to Hungary, reverenced his commands. He was supreme sovereign of the Gepidi, the Lombards, the Avares, the Ostrogoths, and many other tribes, in Southern Germa- ny ; and the imperial Theodosius paid him tribute. He marched at the head of seven hundred thousand men ; his subjects were all hunters, or warlike nomades ; each nation was commanded by its own prince, but Attila was at the head of all ; all the chiefs trembled in his presence ; the army had but one soul ; and the nod of their supreme ruler decided every movement. Such was the chieftain whom Genseric invited to invade the West, in order to employ those whose union he most dreaded. Attila, who knew the nature of the Western coun- tries, resolved on the undertaking, and endeavored to THE AGE OF VALENTINIAN THE THIRD. 97 insure the event by stratagem. With this design, he wrote to Toulouse, the capital of Theodoric, King of the Visigoths, begging that Prince to " call to mind, how often the Romans had shown treachery towards his nation ; that, had the Visigoths been a less valiant people, they would long ago have been extirpated ; since the Romans considered themselves, from ancient times, the lawful rulers of the world, and never would suffer it to obtain peace and tranquillity until their em- pire was overturned ; that this might be best effected by a friendly understanding among its enemies, com- bined in a compact, for dismembering and sharing its provinces." At the same time, he wrote to the Ro- man Emperor, to inform him, that '' the Huns, from remote times, had ever been good friends and faithful allies of the Romans ; that it could not be discovered that they had ever waged war against each other; that he was inspired with similar sentiments ; and, having now leisure, was disposed to give the Emperor a great proof of his friendship, if the latter would unite his arms with those of the Huns, in order to drive the Visigoths out of Gaul and Spain, and restore in those countries the ancient boundaries of the empire." The imperial court discovered the craft of Attila, and the Emperor wrote to all the barbarian chieftains in the West, inviting them to unite their forces with the Ro- mans against the common danger which menaced them. He addressed the Visigoth in these terms : " Be vigi- lant, brave Chief of the Visigoths ; the King of the Huns is resolved to subject all things to his sway ; every crime which is in his power he will perpetrate ; in order to satiate the burning thirst of his ambition, he allows' himself every excess ; justice is his sport ; he is the en- emy of the human race. Resist him, noble Chief of the Visigoths ; the finest province of the empire has been given to you ; fight for us and for yourself." Theo- doric the Visigoth thus replied : ^'Never has a just war appeared too hard for a king of the Visigoths ; never has he known terror, when glorious exploits were tobe II. 9 u. H. 98 THE AGE OF VALENTINIAN TPIE THIRD. achieved ; all the great men of my kingdom have but one mind with me, and the w^hole people of the Visi- goths joyfully grasp their ever- victorious arms." Valen- tinian also roused the Burgundians. By a treaty, which Aetius had concluded with them, in his earlier years, Rome had abandoned to them all that country called Upper and Lower Burgundy, to the present day, to- gether with the district which has since received the name of Dauphine, the whole of Savoy, and the west- ern side of Switzerland. They were bound, in return, to assist the Romans, in their wars. The Emperor al- so summoned King Sangipan, leader of the Alani, who governed the country on the Loire. He sent messen- gers to the allied towns of Armorica, to the common- wealth of Paris, to the Ripuarian Franks, who dwelt between the Rhine and Maese, and to their brethren who, under the Salic name, obeyed the commands of Mervey.* He warned the Saxons, beyond the Rhine, of the dangers which menaced all the West. Thurin- gia was already, in part, tributary to Attila. All rush- ed to arms ; the Burgundians, under Sangipan, the Alani, under Mervey, the Franks, Armorica, the Parisians, and the Saxons who inhabited Westphalia, raised the war- like standard, with one accord. Attila, who had already caused his brother Biet to be murdered, that the latter might not excite disturbances at home, during his absence in his campaigns, broke up from the banks of the Theiss, traversed Austria and Stiria, passed the Rhsetian frontiers to AUemannia, crossed the Rhine at Basil, and routed the King of the Burgundians, who waited for him at the passes ; he passed over the ridge of the Wasgauerberg, overcame every obstacle, and appeared on the Marne, in the plains of Croisette, near Chalons. In the extensive plains through which the Marne takes its course, a hill rises, of moderate elevation. Here it was, that the armies of the Western nations encoun- * Or Merovius. THE AGE OF VALENTINIAN THE THIRD. 99 tered the forces of the Huns. Aetius led the left wing ; Theodoric, the right ; in the midst, stood King Sangipan, on whom less reliance was placed. On the other side, the hordes of Huns seemed immeasurable. Harderich, King of the Gepidi, led one wing ; Theud- mir, Dietrich, Valamir, chiefs of the Ostrogoths, com- manded the other. A multitude of lesser kings waited, like the lowest vassal, on the nod of Attila, and anx- iously received his orders ; he, alone, the king of kings, thought for all. When the battle was about to com- mence, he sent for his lieutenants, and said : " No com- mon, incentive to valor does it become me to suggest, or you to hear ; behave like men ; assault the enemy, break into his ranks, and level every thing before you. They are forming their troops in array ; it is the signal for you to attack them ; rush upon the Alani and the Visigoths, for in them consists the chief strength of the enemy. If your destined hour is come, you must per- ish, although you should betake yourselves to a shame- ful flight. Fix your eyes upon me. I rush forward ; and he who does not follow me, instantly dies !" Both armies made an effort to possess themselves of the hill, and a furious contest arose, in which Theodoric, while he was exhorting the Visigoths to exert themselves to the utmost, fell, by a mortal wound. The carnage on both sides was prodigious. At the approach of night, Attila found himself under the necessity of retreating ; and, not knowing whether he should be pursued, he ordered the saddles of many thousands of horses to be heaped up, in order that, if it were needful, he might set fire to them, and perish in the flames. At the same time, in order to terrify the enemy, he commanded the Huns to make a most frightful noise, through the night, with their arms, and with horns, trumpets, and clamor- ous songs. The Visigoths burned with impatience to rush upon them and avenge their King ; but the crafty Aetius thought it more prudent to suffer the Huns to retire, that it might still be possible to make use of them against his present allies» He seems, also, to 100 THE AGE OF VALENTINIAN THE THIRD. have been afraid of obscuring the glory of the victory he had achieved, by a defeat ; and was probably glad to protract the war, that he might prolong the term of his command. He therefore counselled Thorismund, the son of Theodoric, to march homewards, lest some usurper should seat himself upon his father's throne. Attila returned into his country, — the maintenance of so vast an army being impossible for a longer time. Soon afterwards, eager to revenge this defeat, or in consequence of the secret invitation of a sister of the Emperor, who wished to become his queen, Attila set out to invade Italy. In vain did Aquileia oppose to him the resistance which had so often arrested the prog- ress of barbarous invaders ; the city was levelled to the ground, all its male inhabitants who were able to bear arms were put to the sword, and the women and chil- dren sold into slavery. The Huns afterwards plundered and defaced, without entirely destroying, the ancient and flourishing cities of Concordia, Montefelice, Vicen- za, Verona, Bergamo, Brescia, Milan, and Pavia. At- tila descended to Ravenna, and entered it through an opening in its walls, which the people themselves had been obliged to make, in order to show their submission to his will. Here he was met by Leo, the Roman Pon- tiff", the eloquent and venerable teacher of the Christian Church ; the great men of Rome accompanied the Priest, and brought presents, to conciliate the ferocious Hun. A tradition prevailed, that the chief of the Apos- tles held Rome under his especial protection. Alaric had experienced the truth of this rumor, who, after treating that city with indignity, suflfered a speedy death. The wrath of Attila was assuaged, and he retired from Italy, loaded with the plunder of a hundred unfortunate cities. He afterwards threatened the Eastern empire, and continued to inspire terror in the West, which was so much the more appalling, as the power of the Visi- goths was weakened by internal dissensions. But, at length, having espoused the beautiful Hildichunde, in THE AGE OF VALENTINIAN THE THIRD. 101 addition to a multitude of wives, he perished in the night of his marriage ; intoxicated, as it is generally re- lated, and slain in a drunken fray. According to Ag- nellus, he fell a sacrifice to female craft. He was in- terred after the manner of the ancient Tanshu, and the Huns gashed their faces with wounds, and cut off their hair, in honor of their King. His body was exhibited under a silken pavilion, in the midst of a wide plain, and the horsemen of the Barbarians rode round it, and celebrated his exploits in funereal hymns. The whole nation of the Huns chanted songs of praise to his memory, and exalted the good fortune of the great At- tila, who, after immortal victories, and while his people were at the summit of human glory, had finished his career without pain, and in the arms of pleasure, and had ascended to take his place among the spirits of the ancient heroes. His son Ellak then entertained the people at a sumptuous banquet. In the night, the body of Attila was placed in a golden coffin, and the latter enclosed in one of silver ; for Rome and Constantino- ple had given him silver and gold. The whole was then shut up in a chest of iron, because he had ruled all nations with an iron sceptre. The trappings of his horse, his arms, and costly insignia, were buried with him ; and all the men who labored at his grave were put to death, that no mortal might disclose where the warrior of the Huns reposed. When the terror of his name no longer kept the sub- ject nations in union, they separated, and many of them refused the accustomed tribute. His first-born, Ellak, Attila's favorite son, a valiant chief, fell, in a great bat- tle against the rebels. The Huns were more able to lay waste the earth, than to establish a permanent con- stitution founded on the principles of government ; and their mighty power vanished with Attila. 9* 102 DESTRUCTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. CHAPTER X DESTRUCTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. Scarcely had the empire rested from this calamity, when Aetius was falsely accused before the Emperor, as he had before calumniated Boniface, and Valentinian was persuaded to destroy the General, on whom alone his safety depended. [A. D. 455.] The guard, whose prsefect Aetius had been, and who loved and revered him, were excessively enraged at this proceeding ; and Valentinian, who had before rendered himself contempt- ible, by his sensuality and superstition, was now hated, for his ingratitude. It happened, accordingly, that, as he ventured to expose himself among the soldiery, a short time afterwards, attended by a single eunuch, he was slain, by an unobserved hand. Maximus, the assassin, whose wife the Emperor had violated, and who, in order to obtain a more secure re- venge, had incited him to destroy Aetius, was now ele- vated to the throne ; and persuaded Eudocia, the wid- ow of the deceased Monarch, to receive him as her husband. Once, intoxicated by wine, Maximus hap- pened to disclose the secret of his participation in the murder of Valentinian, who had been the beloved con- sort of her youth. She concealed her indignation, and wrote secretly to the King of the Vandals, to entreat his aid. "The Emperor," said Eudocia, "who yielded to Genseric, during so many years, the quiet possession of Africa, might claim, as a debt of gratitude, that he should turn his arms to take vengeance on the base as- sassin, and release from captivity the widow of Valen- tinian." When the tidings of the speedy arrival of Genseric were spread abroad in Rome, all the principal citizens and senators took flight into the Sabine and Tusculan mountains. The Barbarian entered the city, plundered and laid it waste, according to his manner. DESTRUCTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 103 and was with difficulty induced by the intreaties of Eu- docia, not to commit it to the j^ames. Maximus had already fallen a victim to the rage of the populace. Fourteen days, the Vandals remained in the imperial city. The flower of the Roman youth, all the artificers and mechanics, together with the Empress and her two daughters, were carried away to Africa. These rapa- cious robbers overwhelmed Campania ; the fertile and luxuriant coasts, adorned, by Scipio, LucuUus, Cicero, and Phny, with gardens and splendid villas, were laid waste, with fire and sword ; Capua, to whose pleasures even Hannibal had yielded, was burnt to the ground, by these more barbarous Carthaginians ; and Nola, the beloved retreat of Augustus Csesar, was destroyed. Here, Paulinus, the bishop of the town, -came to offer, for the ransom of the captives, all the treasures of the church, and the private wealth of himself and his friends. Witnessing the despair of a widow, v/hose only son had been dragged away, in chains, he offered to substitute himself, and redeem -the youth from slavery. All who were in the age of vigorous manhood, and fell not by the sword, were taken captive, and carried to Carthage. [A.D. 456.] After this calamity, the virtuous A Vi- tus, in Gaul, a man of ancient family, and of enlighten- ed mind, for the times in which he lived, was with diffi- culty persuaded to accept the imperial crown. He soon laid it down, and the Romans elevated to the throne, Majorian, a brave warrior, well calculated to de- fend Italy against its perils. [A. D. 457.] The Alani threatened it with an invasion, and the new Emperor immediately marched to encounter them, but was mur- dered by his own people. He was succeeded by Seve- rus. [A.D. 461.] The Alani, a wild mountain horde from the chain of Caucasus, who had accompanied the Goths and Huns, when they inundated Europe, and who found them- selves hardly pressed by the Franks and Visigoths, in 4he territories which they had for some time occupied upon the Loire, now traversed the Alps, and appeared 104 DESTRUCTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. before Bergamo. Here, Richimer, the imperial gener- al, had the good fortune or the talents which enabled him to defeat them ; and he took advantage of the glory thus acquired, in order to revolt from his Sovereign, and raise his father-in-law, Anthemius, to the imperial throne. [A. D. 467.] While the victorious General endeav- ored to govern under the name of his relative, and An- themius resisted the attempt, faction threw all things into confusion ; the Franks, in Gaul, and the Alleman- ni, in the second Germany, made, in the mean time, irresistible encroachments. At length, Richimer, not far from Rome, gave battle to the Emperor, and, flush- ed with victory, plundered the city and slew Anthemi- us. Famine and pestilence were the consequences of this devastation. The conqueror survived, three months. Olybrius, husband of a daughter of Valentinian, and favored by Leo, Emperor of the East, governed Rome, seven months. [A.D. 473.] After his death, the Ro- mans raised Glycerins, a nobleman of the court, to the highest honor ; [A. D. 474 ;] but the Byzantine Mon- arch, in order to maintain his influence, gave his niece to Julius Nepos, and undertook to seat him on the Western throne. Glycerins preferred peace, and en- tered into the ecclesiastical order, in which he obtained the bishopric of Porto. The barbarians threatened Italy more and more, on the northern frontier, and Orestes was sent with an ar- my to secure the passes of the Alps. The General took advantage of the power intrusted to him, in order to throw off" his allegiance, and raise his own son, the young Romulus Momyllus, to the throne. [A. D. 475.] The Ostrogoths made incursions to the very gates of Rome. Spain and Gaul were already lost; and Hengist, with his Anglo-Saxons, secured to himself the possession of Britain. About the same time, Odoacer, Prince of the Heruli, set out from the banks of the Dan- ube, and marched from Austria into Italy. Pomerania was the native seat of the Heruli, whence they gradu- CONCLUSION. 105 ally moved southward, together with the Rugians, the Skirri, and the Turtzlingians, who clothed themselves with hides, and arrived in Pannonia, in the neighbor- hood of Vienna ; whence they now advanced, through Noricum, into Italy. Many of their countrymen served in the imperial guard. In Pavia, they besieged Ores- tes, the father of the Emperor ; and, having taken the town, cut off his head. Terror preceded their march, and all the cities immediately surrendered to them. The tender age of the young Emperor, who laid aside the diadem, the purple, and his arms, and came as a suppliant to the camp of Odoacer, excited pity in the Barbarian. Romulus was sent to Campania, and ob- tained an asylum in the ancient castle of Lucullus. In the twelve hundred and twenty-ninth year from the building of Rome ; in the five hundred and fifteenth from the battle of Philippi, in which the freedom of the republic perished, with Marcus Brutus ; in the four hundred and seventy-sixth year of the Christian com- putation ; the empire of Rome terminated in the person of Romulus Momyllus, and fell by the arms of 'a bar- barous horde from Rügen and Pomerania. CHAPTER XI, CONCLUSION. We have traced, with a lively interest, the laborious beginnings and rising efforts of Rome ; we beheld with admiration the victories of her age of freedom; her corruption excited our abhorrence ; and the end of her career is contemplated with regret. From this period, the chief power in the West was possessed by the Northern hordes. During the course of some centuries, one nation after another came forth from the night of obscurity, in which their history and their existence had lain concealed. They had, with the 106 CONCLUSION. exception of the Papacy, no point of union, but lived wild and free, until, after a thousand years of war and treachery, the proud descendants of the old warriors began to respect the authority of laws ; but, under such circumstances, that universal power never again fell to the lot of a single chief. Great and critical changes in the commonwealth of nations, founded in Europe on the general principles of popular rights, religion, and humanity, have gradually developed the political cir- cumstances of the present century, the theatre of which is more extensive, and the interests more complicated, than those of any former time ; in which it was only required that the Czar should infuse animation into his immense empire, in order to establish a balance of power between the other potentates, and in which Great Britain has erected an unheard of dominion on the waves of the ocean. In this age, war, politics, religion, morals, and science, have undergone the most impor- tant revolutions : and, in a country whose existence was unknown, three centuries ago, a new theatre of free governments has been opened ; whence a wonderful excitement has pervaded almost the whole human race, giving us reason to expect future eras of a character far different from the past. So much the greater necessity is there to examine the foundations on which all our constitutions and au- thorities were originally formed ; wherein was the se- cret of their strength and the germ of their decay. But the task of the historian is wearisome and gloomy, from the period of the destruction of Roman liberty ; for, as soon as the supreme power became the hereditary pos- session of a single despot, the first causes of all events were concealed in the obscurity of cabinets ; and, where favor was the only road to fortune, annalists have sacri- ficed the public to personal interest. It is only in the history of a few nations and governments, that we can trace the plan and connexion of events. We have in- deed an object of admiration, in the vast colossus of the hierachy, erected by two hundred popes, under the CONCLUSION. 107 favor of circumstances, before the feet of which all Europe trembled, and whose head was concealed in the heavens from the scrutiny of irreverent eyes ; we ob- serve, with interest, the constancy and vigilance with which Venice preserved, for so many ages, her inde- pendence, and a constitution that could scarcely be found tolerable to the majority of her people; we con- template with delight, the heroism and the long vv^ars of the ancient Swiss ; the pertinacity with which the Hollanders maintained their country against the sea, and their rights against Philip the Second ; and the events, by which, in the midst of anarchy and fanata- cism, a constitution has been developed in England^ perhaps too artificial to be long preserved, in purity : — but can we remark, without indignation, how the hor- rors of the inquisition enslave nations of noble charac- ter ; hov/ others are the sport of the caprices of their neighbors ; or witness, elsewhere, without execration, the omnipotence of chains and fetters, of the rod and the knout? In the end, we may observe, that, what military discipline was to the Romans ; what fanatical zeal was to the Arabs ; such, in the modern common- wealth of Europe, is the balance of power among dif- ferent states. This is what we have to consider: it depends upon situation, laws, revetiues, arms, and prin- ciples of government ; and upon national character, among those nations who possess it. UNIVERSAL HISTORY. BOOK XI. SETTLEMENT OF THE BARBAROUS NATIONS RUINS OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. II. 10 u. H. BOOK XL SETTLEMENT OF THE BARBAROUS NATIONS ON THE RUINS OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE.— A. Ü. 476—615. CHAPTER I. THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. Since the death of Attila, the Ostrogoths, under their princes of the house of the Amah, had gradually rees- tablished their ancient independence. They now in- habited the country between the Danube and the Save. They received a tribute from the Emperors of the East, and, in return, gave them hostages for the maintenance of peace. Of this nation was the young Theodoric, son of Theudmir, whom Ehrenlieb, his concubine, had borne to the Gothic chieftain, on the Ferto, in Hun- gary. At Constantinople, Theodoric derived the same advantage from the remains of the old Roman institu- tions, which Philip of Macedon had drawn from the lessons of the conqueror of Leuctra. His father had been a successful warrior, and, by victories over the AUemanni, had extended his dominion to the feet of the Alps. [A. D. 484.] When Theodoric, in his eighteenth year, returned to his country, at the head of six thousand warriors, devoted to his cause, he at- tacked, without the knowledge of his father, and de- feated, the armies of a Sarmatian king. The Goths, assuming new courage, demanded to be led into regions where they might dwell with greater freedom, and ob- tain the reward of arms. Theudmir accordingly passed the boundaries of lUyricum, spread his troops over Macedonia, and conquered Larissa, the paternal town 112 THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. of Achilles. He obliged the imperial court to make considerable additions to those tributary recompenses, with which it was accustomed annually to reward the valor of the Gothic youth. Theudmir, on his death- bed, declared Theodoric to be the most worthy, and he was accordingly chosen to be the successor. The Emperor Zeno, a monarch of very moderate en- dowments, spared nothing, in order to conciliate the young Prince. He bestowed upon him the consular dignity, in the same year when he himself bore it ; he permitted him to triumph ; and erected to him an equestrian statue. But the gifts of the Emperor not being sufficient to satisfy the wants, and still less the wishes, of the Ostrogoths, who were now rising into national greatness ; and their land, on which they could not be induced to bestow a laborious cultivation, neither affording them sufficient bread, nor pastures so exten- sive as their herds required ; Zeno at length came to the resolution of formally surrendering Italy to Theodo- ric, by a prEigmatic sanction, after recommending to his patronage the Roman senate, which now groaned under the sway of the Heruli. [A. D. 490.] Immediately, the Ostrogoths, under the guidance of their Chief, now in his twenty-fourth year, set out, with all their herds, and the whole of their property, from the Danube and the Save, and approach- ed the confines of Italy. On the Lisorzo, which flows through fertile plains, included in the modern Goritz, they were opposed by their first enemy. Theodoric twice defeated the Italian armies, who fought without zeal for their king, Odoacer ; he entered the Venetian country, and the Prince of the Heruli fled to Rome. This city, in the fifteenth year after the subversion of its empire, shut its gates against Odoacer, who took refuge in Ravenna. The territory which borders on the southern feet of the Alps revolted from his sway. Having shut himself up in Ravenna, a place strong by nature, from the morasses which surrounded it, and at that time fortified by art, Odoacer, at the head of twenty THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. 113 thousand armed men, held out to the third year. After the fortress had surrendered, and the King had suffered death, Theodoric laid aside the national dress of the Goths, and assumed the Roman purple. [A. D. 493.] The senate and people of Rome received him with respect. He reestablished the court, the salaries, and the distributions of bread, as they had been conducted under the emperors. Humanity, temperance, and pru- dence, elevated Theodoric above all other barbarian kings. Although he himself adhered to the Arian creed, he in no instance oppressed the Church, which maintained the Nicene faith. On the contrary, he treated its dignitaries with reverence, confidence, and favor ; but it was kept in subjection to him, and his will decided all contested elections. Pope John, who, in an embassy, had acted contrary to his instructions, was suffered, on that account, to die in prison. By family alliances, he became the relative and friend, by his power and wisdom, the protector, of all the kings of the West. His consort, Odeflede, was the daughter of Childebert, King of the Franks, and a sister of that Clovis, to whom the establishment of the French mon- archy is chiefly to be ascribed. He gave his own sister to Hunneric, son of Genseric, King of the Vandals ; Amalberge, his niece, to the King of Thuringia ; and his own daughters to Sigismund, King of Burgundy, and to Alaric the Second, King of the Visigoths. He had an army always ready for maintaining public tranquillity and undertaking necessary enterprises. The former was his chief object ; and on that account he wrote to the young kings, with the authority of a father : " All of you have proofs of my regard for you. You are youth- ful warriors, and it is my office to give you counsel. Your disorderly proceedings occasion me vexation. It is not without concern, that I observe you give your- selves up to the government of your passions." Vl^hen Clovis had subdued the Allemanni, Theodoric wrote to him, recommending clemency. When inevitable wars broke out among the kings, and when his own power 10* 114 THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. could be extended without injustice, he found means of obtaining his object without bloodshed ; and he made himself master of Sicily, Rhsetia, the Alps, and Geneva. The banks of the Po, which, in the first years of his reign, had been laid waste by the Burgundian King, Gondebald, were by his command repeopled with Alle- manni, who sought a refuge under his gentle sway. Theodoric caused Pavia, where he often resided, as well as several other Italian cities, to be ornamented with magnificent architecture ; and he was more proud of the arts and learning, which yet flourished in his kingdom, than of the power of his arms. This pride was dis- played, in his sending to Clovis a troop of musicians, and to Gondebald, water-glasses which marked the lapse of time, together with persons who knew how to manage them. His chancellor, the senator Cassiodorus, was the most learned man of his age. Boethius, one of the last Roman authors, who wrote with elegance, was sent by Theodoric to the King of the Burgundians, and commended with the following remark : " Your people will no longer compare themselves with us, when they learn that such men dwell among us." Theodoric himself was unable to write. At the approach of his death, he assembled his counts and other nobles around him, and recommended to them, Amalaswinde, his daughter, and her son, Athala- ric, then ten years old. He advised them to pay regard to public order ; to treat the senate and people of Rome with kindness ; and to maintain peace with the Empe- ror of Constantinople. [A. D. 526.] Dissensions, however, were soon excited, between the son and his mother, by the intrigues of ambitious no- bles ; and the Queen sought in vain for a new resource, in associating her nephew Theudat in the regency. This Prince was so blinded by the lust of power, that he be- came equally neglectful of gratitude and of his own in- terest; and, Athalaric having perished by disease, he put to death Amalaswinde. [A. D. 534.] About the same time, a similar crime had involved THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. 115 Gelimir, the King of the Vandals, in a war against Jus- tinian, who ruled the empire of the East with an ener- gy, to which it had long been unused. The Queen, who had been assassinated, had favored the Emperor, by suffering provisions to be conveyed from the island of Sicily to his relief. The general, Belisarius, in whom the most splendid military virtues were displayed, de- feated the Vandals ; and having forced Gelimir to sur- render himself, brought him, in triumph, a prisoner to Constantinople, together with all the treasures amassed by Genseric, and obliged all Africa to submit to the im- perial yoke. The instability of the barbarian kingdoms was else- where manifested, by events. The sons of Clovis, in the course of a few years, made themselves masters of the territories of Thuringia and Burgundy. [A. D. 535.] It was at this period, that the crime of Theudat incited Justinian, by the aid of Belisarius, to revenge, on the nation of the Ostrogoths, the ca- lamities of the house of Theodoric, which had been recommended to his protection. Sicily was speedily conquered, the chieftains and the troops abandoning, either by choice or the necessity of arms, the cause of the falling King. The nation, accustomed to the splendor of victory, drove him, with indignation, from the throne. He was put to death, and Witig, a val- iant warrior, was placed upon the chair of the Amali. [A. D. 536.] The latter, in order to confirm his au- thority, persuaded Mathaswinde, daughter of Amala- swinde, to become his consort. His intention was disappointed ; for Belisarius was unwilling that the Ostrogoths should choose a king, at their own discre- tion, and without the consent of the Emperor, as their territory was originally Roman. This General had lately taken Naples, by stratagem, after it had resisted, with great constancy, a long siege ; and, in order to infuse terror into others, he caused all the inhabitants to be put to death, without regard to age, sex, or rank. Rome was now abandoned by the Goths, and its forti- 116 THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. fications were strengthened by Belisarius. A part of the wall, which was built by this General, is yet stand- ing. He afterwards conquered Tuscany, and gained a victory over the Goths, near Perusia. Witig, in des- pair, resolved to arm all the men who were able to fight in his cause ; [A. D. 538 ;] and he led against Milan, and the neighboring towns, an army of ten thousand volunteers from Burgundy, which was already in the possession of the Franks. Milan, perhaps out of preference for the faith of the Nicene council, had declared for the cause of the Byzantine Emperor ; it withstood the Gothic King, with a resolution which could scarcely be weakened by the pressure of a fam- ine, so severe, that its defenders were reduced to feed on human flesh. The Burgundians became masters of it, and massacred its inhabitants, without even sparing infants at the breast, or priests, who sought refuge in the sanctity of the altar. According to their own his- torians, they put to death three hundred thousand men. At the same time, Witig lay, fourteen months, before Rome, which lost all its splendor and its ancient inhab- itants, chiefly in these wars. Belisarius raised the siege ; he even conquered Ravenna itself, and brought Witig a captive to Constantinople. [A. D. 539.] The victories of the imperial arms excited the jeal- ousy of the Franks, and a war ensued, which had the same termination as most of the former enterprises of the Franks, in Italy. They overran the country, and, weakened by intemperance, afforded their enemies op- portunities of cutting them off'. The Ostrogoths resist- ed, with a heroism which they inherited from the great Theodoric ; and, after Euthar and Hildebald had been elected to the throne, and deposed, on vari- ous pretexts, Totila showed himself worthy to renew the work of his illustrious predecessor. [A. D. 540.] He gained many victories, and destroyed the walls of the towns, having experienced, in sieges, the effect of superior skill in the military art. [A.D. 541.] He had the good fortune to make himself master of Rome, in THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. 117 the presence of Belisarius, who had returned from quelhng an insurrection in Africa, but found his army weakened and dispirited ; and he resolved upon the destruction of its fortifications, that he might not be obhged to employ the flower of his army in its defence. [A. D. 546.] The people were driven out ; those sen- ators who had not obtained safety in flight were carried away captives ; and the immeasurable circuit of the Roman walls almost levelled with the ground. Totila soon afterwards defeated the reenforcements which Be- lisarius expected from Calabria. Being now, as he believed, secure lord of Italy, To- tila renewed the gentle administration of Theodoric. He repeopled Rome, and lived like a father among the inhabitants of the reviving city. The restoration of Naples was effected by Belisarius, in consequence of the persuasion of the Pope Sylverius. Those who still dwelt in the ruins of Cumse, and the inhabitants of the small Liboric towns, Puteoli, Stabia, Sarrentum, of Calabria and Apulia, with captives from Africa and Sicily, resorted to Naples, again rising from its ruins. The intrigues of the court occasioned the recall of Bel- isarius, who was always worthy of his fame, but whose exertions were ill supported ; and the prosecution of the. war, which was not wholly abandoned, was confi- ded to the eunuch, Narses. Yet, one more important service was rendered by Belisarius to his country, after a seclusion of many years, in the defence of the impe- rial city itself, against a Slavonian horde which had in- vaded Thrace. Though benevolent and unsuspicious, he was not the more secure against envy ; and, for his final triumph over the calumny of his accusers, he was indebted, not to his virtues, but to the influence of his unworthy spouse. Narses, now proconsul, with his Lombard allies, pro- ceeded into Italy : and that superiority, which could not fail to manifest itself on the side of a Roman army of sufficient number, under an able commander, gave 118 THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. him a victory, of which the death of Totila alone se- cured to him the fruits. [A. D. 552.] The Gothic nobles, in Pavia, elevated Teja to the throne ; but their efforts were vain : and at Nocera, the last strength of the Ostrogoths fell, with their Prince, under the arms of Narses. [A. D. 553.] The AUemanni, who were subject to the Frankish King of Austrasia, also attempted, under Lanthacar and Buzelin, to snatch Italy from the grasp of the Emperor. Their enterprise began gloriously ; but had the usual termination of such efforts, in famine, pestilence, and total defeat. CHAPTER II. THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. Narses governed Italy under the Byzantine Empe- ror ; and under his administration it enjoyed plenty, internal tranquillity, and undisturbed peace. [A. D. 568.] He quelled, without difficulty, the commotions which the Heruli excited in Tuscany. Rome again rose from her foundations ; but the shadow of the old republic, the names of consuls and senators, had passed away. The city remained without external power ; but still great in fame, in the majestic aspect of its ruins, and the increasing multitude of its inhabitants. Narses at length incurred the disfavor of the Emperor Justin the Second, whose conduct was not always governed by wise and moderate councils. He abandoned Rome, where he thought himself insecure ; and from Naples sent letters, to invite the Lombard King, Albwin, into Italy. Albwin had not long before subdued the Gepidi, another tribe of the same kindred with his hereditary subjects ; he had drunk out of the skull of their prince, Kunimond, and had taken Rosamond, the daughter of his enemy, to his bed. He possessed a warlike spirit, -- THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. 119 which gained him the hearts of the barbarians ; and his praises were celebrated in the songs, not only of his own people, but of the Saxons and Bavarians, for cen- turies after his death. [A. D. 568.] Forty-two years had elapsed, since the Lombards, under his father Audwin, had conquered those tracts in Pannonia, which the Ostrogoths former- ly occupied, and three years, since the wars of the Ge- pidi ; when, on the second of April, King Albwin, at the invitation of Narses, broke up, with all the men, women, and children, of the Lombards, and set out from Pannonia, with twenty thousand Saxons in his train. It was on a beautiful morning of the Spring, that the astonished multitude, from the heights of a projecting arm of the Alps, threw their dehghted eyes on the extensive and luxuriant plains of their new country. Wherever Albwin advanced, he paid vener- ation to the Church, and sought to gain the love of his subjects. Multiplied misfortunes weakened the pow- er of Justin ; while tribes of Sarmatians, Allemanni, people from Noricum, and even Bulgarians, strengthen- ed the armies of the conqueror. The possession of Pavia gave him, at length, a decisive preponderance in Italy. He stationed his nobles, Gisulf, his marshal, and Zotto, over Friul and Benevento, as dukes, to guard the boundaries of his new domains. To the Romans of Constantinople, (for still, after nine centuries, they preserved this name,) Ravenna, the Gothic capital, still remained, together with the city of Pentapolis, Rome, and some other towns near the seacoast. Over these possessions, a proconsul, or ex- arch, was appointed to preside. It was fortunate for the Lombards, that their valor was thus kept in exercise ; for anarchy would otherwise have soon undermined the foundations of their power. After a few years, Rosamond made the revenge of her father's death an excuse for an intrigue ; and the mur- der of Albwin made room for Kleph, [A. D. 573,] a more severe master, who paid, with his life, for the 120 THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. throne which he had just ascended. The nobles, dur- ing the minority of his son, kept the government in their own hands, and conducted it by means of a common council. [A. D. 575.] The Lombard kingdom of Italy was as well secured on the northeast, in which quarter this nation had giv- en up their seats in Pannonia to the Avari, as the un- stable character of predatory hordes, who too well re- called the remembrance of the Huns, would permit. In Noricum, the Bavarians, who, since their arrival in that country, had given name to the greater part of it, maintained a league of amity with the Lombards. Au- thar, the son of Kleph, and Agilulf, his successor, espous- ed, one after the other, the Bavarian Princess, Theude- lind, whose rare endowments were long revered by her people. The Franks were by far the most formidable enemies of the Lombard power ; and it was only by the flattering distinctions and presents which they lav- ished on this nation, that the Emperors contrived to preserve their friendship, and with it the existence of the exarchate in Italy. Hence it has happened, that this country has remained to the present day without a common government. The Venetian territory extended from Pannonia to the Adda ; the islands of the Lagunes began to have inhabitants ; yet Aquileia continued to be called the capital, and Friul was the seat of the governor. Near- ly all Lombardy was included under the name of Ligu- ria ; it was separated from the country of the AUeman- ni by both the Rhsetias. The first Alps, which rise from the Varo and run towards Savonna, were named the Cottish mountains. A particular province was dis- tinguished by the name of the Apennine, which divided Tuscany from iEmilia. Tuscany reckoned Rome among its cities, while Piacenza, Parma, Imola, Bologna, adorn- ed the ^milian province. To the southward, in Um- bria, from the time of Ferwald, a Lombard duke held his residence in Spoleto. The country from Rome to the confines of Calabria was included in Campania, a THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. 121 district important, on account of the strength of its mountainous recesses, and the fertihty of the beautiful territory which surrounded its four cities of Naples, Salerno, Benevento, and Capua. Capua and Salerno owed their restoration to Lombard dukes, and Beneven- to acquired from their munificence a splendor which it had never before seen. The impetuous Authar, King of the Lombards, penetrated through Lucania to the Straits, and thrust his spear into a pillar on the shore, to point out how far his dominion extended. The dominions of the Emperor lay chiefly on the coast of the Adriatic, and embraced Apulia, together with a part of Calabria. Here Otranto, and more es- pecially Bari, rose to fame and magnificence, — the opu- lence of the country depending on the fertility of the soil ; and in the same vicinity was the residence of the Strategos, or Catapan. In the ancient Samnium, the boundaries of the dominion of Constantinople and of Benevento fluctuated with the fortunes or courage of the parties, and the Picenum and the Valerian province, almost to the gates of Rome, were the objects of fre- quent wars. In the former, it appears that the Lom- bards finally prevailed ; while, in the latter, they con- tinued unwilHngly to divide their power with the Greeks. Ravenna, the seat of the exarch, was the capital of Flamin ia. The Lombard kings held their residence at Pavia, where Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, had caused a splendid , palace to be erected, at the confluence of the Ticino and the Po. Their dominion extended northwards, as far as the pass of St. Gothard, and they defeated the Franks near the fortress of Bellinzona, or Bihtio. The memorials of the Lombard kings are still preserved, every where through the valley of Leventina ; and the Devil' s-bridge was probably their work. In the first years, they penetrated over Mount St. Bernard, as far as the Leman lake. Towards Rhaetia, the most fi-e- quented pass was at Spliigen. The towns of the Lom- bards were rather built for strength than for beauty ; ii. 11 u. H. 122 THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. but this nation destroyed none of the remains of better times. The Lombards delighted in pasturage ; yet, under their hands, the newly-conquered land obtained so fine a cultivation, that the dismal vestiges of former devas- tations were, every day, more and more obliterated. The king was supported by the revenue of his estates ; he went round, from time to time, among his farms ; and lived in the simplicity of the father of a family, with the dignity of a military chieftain. The free sub- jects, as among the old Romans, labored personally, with the assistance of their slaves, their freedmen, and aldions, (who were perhaps hired servants,) in the cul- tivation of the conquered lands. Agriculture flourish- ed, more especially around the monasteries in the vicin- ity of the wild Novalese, of Nonentula, Farfa, and par- ticularly of Monte Cassino. Their chronicles contain rather grateful than splendid annals of the victories which man gained over the sterility of Nature, and of the gradual efforts which covered the ruins of ancient Italy with rich corn-fields and smiling pastures. The king, with the concurrence of the nobles, pro- posed his laws to the general assembly of all the free Lombards. '^ His Excellency," — such is the preamble of this code, — " His Excellency, Rothar, seventeenth king of the Lombards, in the thirty-eighth year of his age, having taken into his consideration, that the com- moner may want the protection of ordinances generally known, against the cupidity of the great officers, has, with the advice and consent of the chief judges, renew- ed the book of laws." The land was divided into districts, each of which had its amman, or headman.* On all affairs relating to property, the beadlef gave judgement ; a count pre- sided over several headmen and beadles, and over sev- eral counts a duke, all of whom were under the control of the king : the latter was chosen by the nation, or by * Namely, Herimannus, or tribune, t Sculdais, or schultheiss. THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. 123 persons to whom the election was confided. From this source, contentions frequently arose. Aspiring and crafty men, by means of presents, entertainments, and promises, often made their way to the supreme power, which, on the other hand, sometimes fell to the lot of those who were distinguished by popular virtues, by upright judgements, and courage in war. The kings, however, who had no independent resources of power, had always the nobles and the expectation of popular movements, to keep them in check ; for the arms of the nation could effect every thing. The residence of the exarch was a splendid city, the seat of all that remained of arts and sciences. The fear of the Lombards restrained him from rendering himself independent. He remained, for the most part, on the defensive ; and was satisfied to enjoy his dignity and to enrich his relatives. In- Rome, the emperors soon lost all their power. By participating in the theological disputes concerning the two natures, the double will, and the incomprehen- sible relations of Christ ; and by entering, with little knowledge of human nature, into the contest concern- ing the use of images, which was carried on, by both parties, with superstition and fanaticism, they alienated the affections of their subjects ; and, by degrees, the popes, many of whom were distinguished by great mer- its, became more respected in Rome than the em- perors, against whom they stood forwards as the pro- tectors of liberty and of the faith. The pontificate of Gregory the Great, a true Christian bishop, " the chief servant of the servants of God," distinguished by the fer- vor of his devotion, the sanctity of his discourse, and the animation of his genius, had greater influence in exalt- ing the power of the Church, than that of Boniface the Third, who first began to exult in the title of Patriarch of the World. 124 THE KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY. CHAPTER III. THE KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY. The country which bordered on Lombardy, on the othei- side the Alps, had received the- name of Burgun- dy. We have already seen both the Burgundies, and the land of the Allobroges, which included Savoy, Dauphin e, and Lyons, united with the western part of Switzerland, under the former denomination. The Burgundians had concluded a compact with the native people of the country, by which the latter agreed to surrender to them two thirds of their estates, the half of their forests, gardens, and houses, and a third of the whole number of their slaves. During fifty years, every freedman obtained this- allodium or lot, from his Burgundian lord ; and all Burgundy was called the great allodium of the Burgundians. Estates of this description were hereditary ; th^y were divided on the principles of equality. Pasture and agriculture were the business of freemen ; while all mechanical employ- ments, including arts, belonged, on the old footing, to the servile class. Thus, the ancient manners of the people were long maintained, in their primitive simplic- ity. The royal boor was whipped, if he refused to any person the rights of hospitality ; and a bondman, who had cut off the hair of a free woman, forfeited his life. The law apportioned the reward of the soothsayer, who enabled the owner to discover stolen property. On the other hand, it was no longer allowed to make a composition for murder, with a sum of money ;* but revenge of bloodshed was still permitted. Witnesses were allowed to maintain their testimony, by the judi- cial combat ; and the partisans of the worsted champion * " Chrenechruda !ex deinceps nunquam valeat, quia per illam ce- cidit multorum potestas." — Decretal Childebeiti. [The law respect- ing the composition for murder shall hereafter never prevail, because the power of many has fallen by it. — Decree of Childebert,'] THE KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY. 125 were condemned to no inconsiderable fines. Wives were purchased, and they might be dismissed, in cases of adultery, the administering of poison, or witchcraft. The sentiment of personal dignity had not, as yet, de- veloped itself among this people. A man, who had stolen a dog, was condemned to kiss its haunches, in the presence of the multitude. Yet there were already different ranks of society : the king's council, his do- mestics, his mayor and chancellor, his counts in the towns and in the country, and other officers of justice, belonged to the first order of nobles.* There was a middle rank,f an inferior class of freedmen,J and a still lower order, consisting of such as were born slaves.<§» In the law of the Lombards, there was this difference between the two last-mentioned classes — that the king's slaves were considered as equal to freeborn persons, and his freedmen became entitled to the rank of nobles. There were no perquisites of justice ; but the fief be- longing to each office was its appropriate salary, and the royal viteschal, or serjeant, levied the amount of fines. As the Burgundian law was one hundred and thirty years older than that of the Lombards, and was a relic of the imperfect civilization of countries but little ac- cessible to us, I have not chosen to pass it over, in si- lence, although it has already been treated of in anoth- er place. II - At their entrance into Gaul, the Burgundians had received instructions, during seven days, concerning the doctrines of the Christian faith, and, on the eighth, had caused themselves to be baptized. Whether Gundechar, Gundioch, and the several chieftains who probably conducted the enterprises of different tribes, before the departure of the Burgun- * Optimales Nobilium. t Mediocres. t Minores personae : lidi, leudi. § Originarii. II History of Switzerland, Vol. i. Chap. 8. 11* 126 THE KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY. dians from their native seats, were princes, or merisly leaders in time of war, we are as little able to deter- mine, as with respect to the commanders of other bar- barous hordes. In either case, their power was pro- longed, in its duration, in consequence of the general desire to maintain the conquests acquired ; and it was increased in a very important manner by the addition of a patriciate, or permission to exercise imperial au- thority over the former inhabitants. This privilege was conceded by the Eastern Emperor, who judged it ad- visable to relinquish, voluntarily, what he was unable to maintain. Thus, to the great influence which these chieftains already possessed, as leaders of their hordes, was united the unlimited sway of the Roman despot. Whether they were originally generals or princes, they now became hereditary rulers, in consequence of the preponderance that resulted from the greatness of their lot, in the conquered land : for, as there were no im- ,posts, it was necessary that the kings should be opulent. These beginnings of absolute and hereditary monarchy are as ancient as the migration of .our forefathers from the forests of Germany into the Roman empire ; and, as the free companions of the conqueror became nobles, we may at once discover, why the nobility so frequently and so long opposed the kings, and why the crafty founders of arbitrary power sought, so diligently, to confound this less obedient order with those, who had to thank the monarch solely for their promotion to dig- nity and honor. With this view, Gondebald, the Burgundian King, had already begun to show favor to his more obedient Ro- man subjects, when the spiritual and temporal lords, and all the free Burgundian men, assembled themselves at Geneva, and obliged their hitherto victorious Mon- arch, [A. D. 502,] in the thirty-sixth year of his reign, to abrogate the laws he had made, and to enact, at Ambleu, with the advice and subscription of thirty-six principal barons, that code, of which we have given an abstract, in the foregoing pages. /hi / St] THE KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY. 127 The same Prince, in order securely to place the crown, during his own life, on the head of his son, whose tal- ents were greatly inferior to his' own, held a court at Quarre, not far from Geneva, in which Sigismund, ac- cording to the ancient custom, was elevated upon a shield, and declared king. [A.D. 515.] Anastasius, the Constantinopolitan Emperor, conferred on him, also, the patriciate. Sigismund was so unfortunate, as to sacrifice his son. Siegreich, whom the daughter of The- ^odoric. King of the Ostrogoths, had borne him, to the calumnies of a second consort : and this crime entailed the destruction of the Burgundian kingdom. Theodo- ric, in order to revenge his grandson, sent his general, Tolonik, against Sigismund, and excited, in the sons of Clovis, the Frank, a determination to take that ven- geance which their mother Chlotilda had long desired. er own father. Hilfreich, had fallen by the cruelty of his brother Gondebald. The King, persecuted by the stings of conscience, or perhaps more inclined to the retirement of a cloister than to arms, fled to the mon- astery of St. Maurice, which he had founded at the en- trance of the Valais ; he soon suffered a defeat, and fell, by an ignominious death. During ten years, his brother Godemar maintained the defence of the coun- try. [A. D. 526.] He slew Chlodomir, the son of Clovis, who had appeased the rage of his mother by the slaughter of Sigismund. The Franks, as if to dry up the tears of Chlotilda, laid waste Burgundy, with fire and sword, until Godemar fell, and with him the royal house of his fathers, and the kingdom of Burgundy be- came extinct. [A. D. 534.] The family of Clovis henceforth governed Burgundy ; but the laws and usages of the kingdom remained, and also the separate existence of the state, in peace and war. Burgundy Proper was governed by a duke, under the king ; and the country on both sides of the Jura by a patrician. 128 THE ALLEMANNI. CHAPTER IV. THE ALLEMANNI. From the Helvetic Aare to the Lahn, and further down, towards Cologne, dwelt the Allemanni, who, be- ing a pastoral people, retained their ancient virtues and poverty with greater constancy, than those tribes who had learnt the practice of agriculture in the Roman empire. It was their custom to burn towns. They possessed cattle and arms, and knew no other property. Their territory was an undivided common land,* and their laws were unwritten. The Allemanni carried on war against Clovis, the Frank, on account of the undetermined limits of their respective countries. A battle was fought near Zulpich, [A. D. 496,] in the district of Juliers ; and the victory seemed ready to declare itself on the side of the Alle- manni, when Clovis, in the sight of his army, of whom a great part were Gauls and Romans, raised his hands to heaven, and uttered a prayer to his God. His sol- diers, burning with zeal to show how much mightier was Christ than Thor or Woden, rushed upon their enemy and put him to the rout. The Allemanni ex- claimed, " Spare, O King of the Franks ! thy own sub- jects. We are thy vassals." Yet, many of these people chose to migrate into distant lands ; and, while several districts at length submitted to the conqueror, a national animosity may be traced, in every age, between the Allemanni and the Franks. King Theodoric, or Dietrich of Austrasia, the greatest of the sons of Clovis, assembled the chiefs and all the Christian people of the Allemanni, (for the worshippers of idols were excluded from participation in civil rights,) and appointed them a code of laws, which Childebert, * The common land of the nation was termed Allmende, in the Upper German dialect. THE ALL.EMANNI. 129 Clothaire, and Dagobert, renewed, corrected, and am- plified. - ' According to these, the duke, with the consent of the people, had the nomination of the counts, or justices of the hundreds. A hundred probably consisted, original- ly, of as many houses, and, in the sequel, comprehended a small district, which acknowledged the authority of a select body of a hundred persons. Each hundred or district had its convention, every eighth or fourteenth day ; and, on the first of March, every year, the general assembly* of the whole people was convened. For the rest, there were the same divisions of rank as in the kingdom of Burgundy. The land, as it is still in some places, was cultivated by slaves, for half the produce ; yet the distribution was various. In some districts, the slave tilled the ground three days, for the owner, and spent as many, in turn, upon that portion which was allotted for his own support. In general, the agricul- turists were of servile condition, while the pastoral peo- ple were more free. The former consisted of those nations who had been formerly subdued by the Alle- manni. There are, accordingly, in the laws, prolix regulations alluding to dogs and the chase. Stags were tamed, and bears' flesh eaten. The object of these laws is evidently, for the most part, to render the manners of the people more gentle ; and, on that ac- count, no man was allowed to visit another, with arms about his person. If a man was killed by a dog, the owner of the animal was fined half the sum by which he might have made composition, if he had himself been guilty of the deed ; or the dog was hanged up, at the door of the owner's house, which remained open till he fell to pieces. Many precautions were adopted, in order that no man might be murdered on his way to the judge, that the country might not be betrayed by any man to the enemy, and that the son of a duke might never levy war against his father. As it was * Publicus Mallus. 130 THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. designed to alienate the people from bloodshed, the greater number of penalties consisted of pecuniary mulcts. Lastly, as the terrors and ordinances of relig- ion were indispensable for the forming of manners, it was enacted, that he who neglected to attend public worship on the Sabbath day should be condemned to slavery. The bishops enjoyed the same dignity as counts. Thirty-five of the former, (for their number was considerable, as long as the duties of the function were more regarded than the splendor and power at- tached to it,) seventy-seven of the latter, and thirty- three dukes, were assembled, with other freemen, for the enactment of these regulations. CHAPTER V. THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. Among the enterprising warriors of this age, the Franks were the most prosperous, so far as prosperity consists in victories and the possession of power. We saw them, in the third century, pass over, as a military confederation, from the wastes and swamps of Lower Germany, into Gaul, where, at the fall of the Western empire, they afforded protection to many cities. When Rome was stripped of her dominion, the lieutenants in Gaul acknowledged the nominal sway of the Constan- tinopolitan Emperor ; but the nations of the West re- ceived no assistance in their difficulties. At this era, Clovis,* (descended from a race of former chieftains, who had established themselves in the Low Countries, and had gradually extended their dominion, as far as Paris,) having attained the age of Alexander at the commencement of the Persian war, won a victory over the Roman lieutenant, which secured the permanence * The author calls him Chlodwig ; but he is recognised by English readers under the name of Clovis. The modern form is Louis, and in German, Ludwig. THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. 131 and independence of the Prankish monarchy. [A. D. 486.] He invited the Gauls to throw off the feeble sway of the Emperors, which was abused, for the pur- poses of oppression, and to associate themselves with a more energetic and better government. In the course of twenty years, he united, partly by voluntary acces- sions and partly by his victorious arms, all the country, from the Maese to the Pyrenees, under one head. In the mean time, he secured the old Salic settlements of his people, by taming the Thuringians, and the Rhine, by overcoming the Allemanni. The bishops of Gaul, offended with the Emperors Anastasius and Zeno, for their interference in theological disputes, which they were incompetent to decide, and not without hope of acquiring a salutary influence over the ardent and open mind of the young Barbarian conqueror, favored the cause of him who was alone able to protect them. How much more willing was their allegiance, after Clovis had received baptism, at the head of three thousand Franks ! A courage, which was not founded on the consciousness of superior tactics, but inspired by the national charac- ter of ancient Germany, generally decided the contest on the side of the strongest party ; but any unexpected turn, or sudden impression, often threw an army into confusion, or gave it the victory. Though Burgundy, the feet of the Pyrenees, and the southern provinces, were subject to other princes, while, in Gascony and Armoriga, the genius of ancient free- dom still exempted those countries from dependence, yet the kingdom of the Franks, after the death of Clo- vis, perhaps on account of those very circumstances, appeared too great for a single ruler. [A. D. 511.] The principle of dividing monarchies became the more readily established, from the analogy which the exercise of the supreme power seemed to bear to the inheritance of a private estate, the civil law being the only one in existence, and the law of the realm being as yet un- known. On the same grounds, females came to be excluded from the succession, because a Salic estate 132 THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. required a male administrator in the council and in the field. The genius of Clovis survived with his posterity. His sons, las vv^e have seen, amidst the conflicts of Burgundy with the Ostrogoths, united that country to their domin- ions ; and the Franks, during the wars of the Ostrogoths and Romans, gained Provence, or the ancient Province, as the reward of their assistance or neutrality. While those Kings extended the boundaries, on this side, the fourth of them, Dietrich of Austrasia, penetrated far into the German forests, that he might obtain security for his frontiers, and increase the number of his subjects. [A. D. 536.] Thüringen was subdued by his arms, — a coun- try which comprehended the territory now called by that name, — together with Lower Hesse, and various parts of the Electorate of Brunswick. The Bavarian princes, intimidated by the barbarous hordes who were issuing from Pannonia and the Bohemian forest, willingly ac- cepted a defensive treaty with the Franks. In the mean time, the French kings in the West lost none of the opportunities, which the frequent convulsions of the kingdom of the Visigoths afforded, for taming the wild Gascons, and uniting the modern Languedoc under their sway. The kingdom of the Franks was at the same time hereditary in the family of Clovis, and subject to an election among the descendants of his house.* He had obtained from the Emperor the dignities of consul and patrician. The Salic laws were drawn up by four lords, who, in three general assemblies of the elders and wise men of the people, had given information concern- ing the rites and customs of the nation, and they were ratified by the King, the nobles, and the whole Chris- tian people, in the dominions of the Merovingian princes or descendants of the royal house. The national hber- * " Ita reges Francorum elections pariter et successione soliti sunt procreari, ä primo Pharamundo usque in Hildericum regem." — Chro- nic. Fossat. [Thus the kings of the Franks used to be constituted by- election and inheritance, from the first Pharamond to King Hilderic. — Fossat' s Chronicle.'] THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. 133 ties were at this time greater, than when the nobles and deputies of the Bavarian people received their code of laws from the King of the Franks, at Chalons, on the Marne. The name of the King did not at first figure at the head of all public ordinances. The most ancient deed in which it is found, is one of Childebert, " the exalted man,^^* King of the Franks. [A. D. 554.] These ordinances were the resolutions adopted by the King, his liege servants, and the general assembly, in the field of March, or in whatever place it might be necessary to summon them. The assemblies of the nation obtained, by the sanc- tion of the bishops, who, in this respect, followed the practice of the old German priests, a kind of sacred authority. The bishops made use of these assemblies, in order to procure enactments favorable to the propa- gation of Christianity. Their supreme pastor, the Pope, came, in this way, to be regarded as a sort of father, or protector, of the growing states of the West ; and, in return, he considered it as his duty to give stability to such conventions. " It has been ordained, not without the particular providence of God," said Sigismund, King of Burgundy, " that these assemblies should be held twice, in every year ; they have been neglected, and we now receive from Rome the severest reprimands."! He commanded, accordingly, that an assembly should be held, for the future, on the sixth of September, ev- ery year, " at which time, the ecclesiastics are not so much engrossed with the worldly cares of husbandry." From such meetings it was, that the capitularies pro- ceeded, the oldest of which were, for the most part, reg- ulations concerning morals. The oldest epistle " of the most gracious and blessed King Childebert," had for its objects to prohibit " the worship of images, drunken- ness, and dancing women." All the regulations, how- * Vir illuster. , t " Q-ua propter Papa urbis mittit mordacia scripta." [Wherefore the Pope sends cutting words.] II. 12 U. H. 134 I'HE KINGDOM OF THE EflANltS. ever, of barbarous tribes, before their settlements had become permanent, by long custom, were merely per- sonal or popular ; and there was nothing that comes under the denomination of law of the land. Accord- ingly, among the Romans in Gaul, the code established by Theodosius the Second, before the time of Clovis, still remained in authority ; and, among the Visigoths, who affected to imitate the manners of more civilized nations, and the Burgundians, whose kings were vice- gerents of the Emperors, it not only maintained its in- fluence, but, amid the strange turns of human affairs, during these times of ignorance, even assumed the place of the common law, of which the code had fallen into oblivion. When the genius of Clovis ceased to animate his suc- cessors, the royal dignity still remained in his house ; but the power was transferred to hands which were able to wield it. Already, during the reign of Gontram, his grandson, a patrician of Burgundy had raised himself to a degree of power, which the King was scarcely able to withstand, though he conciliated the nobles by grants of land and slaves. Similar contingencies diminished the Merovingian inheritance, the source of the authority of the kings. [A. D. 560.] The nobles, who were elevated by these grants, brought into fashion, through their influence in the assemblies, a right of prescription, and afterwards caused their investments to be estab- lished by pragmatic sanction. [A. D. 587.] From this time, an aristocratical middle power began to arise, between the king and the freemen, a constitution, the advantages of which could only be maintained and dis- pensed by kings of extraordinary discrimination, until, in the twelfth century, the accession of the class of bur- gesses established a balance of power, which lasted un- til the nobility were depressed, and all things reduced under the control of a single ruler. The house of Clovis declined, through a corruption of manners, which left no room for forming the rising princes of the family to the pursuit of great and noble THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. 135 enterprises. The same cause rendered these chieftains so often the sacrifice of factions, in the court and among the nobles, that, in the course of forty years, six kings perished, by poison or by assassination. Protadius, a Roman patrician on the Jura, was the first, who usurped the authority of the ancient chief- tains ; with this distinction, that, as he exercised it in the name of the sovereign, he endeavored to extend the power of the latter. With this view, he sought to depress the nobles, who refused, constitutionally, their service, in a war to which they had not agreed, until their true enemy, the Minister, who was a favorite of the Queen, should be removed out of the way. Pro- tadius fell, but Q,ueen Brunehild obtained revenge for him ; whereupon the nobles, remembering that the arms of the nation were in their hands, declared themselves for Chlotaire, the great-grandson of Clovis, and the en- emy of the Queen, whom they gave up to a cruel death. [A. D. 613.] On this occasion, Merovingian France became again united under a single sovereign. Soon after these events, the foundations of the French constitution were settled, at an assembly, which Chlotaire held at Paris, assisted by his nobles, liege subjects, and bishops. [A. D. 615.] Security of body and estate against arms, oppression, arbitrary taxation, and claims founded upon a royal order, were its general principles. In order to obtain these objects, spiritual and temporal lords were provided with sufficient power and independence, to render them competent guardians of liberty. Their possessions were secured to them for this end ; and, that the bishops might obtain an influence equivalent to that which the multitude of their vassals and bondmen gave to the temporal lords, it was de- creed, that they should become the protectors of eman- cipated slaves. They were secure from all fear of de- position from their dignity, so long as they observed the laws of the empire and of the Church. Every freeman was tried by his peers, and by the same forms to which his judges themselves would be subjected. No man 136 THE VISIGOTHS IN SPAIN. was allowed to attain to any political trust, in a country of which he was not a native, and with the customs of which he was therefore supposed to be unacquainted. Agriculture was thenceforward subjected to less fre- quent disturbances, and the kingdom attained a degree of splendor, which had been unknown, for many years. In the midst of the barbarians, the long-haired Franks* flourished, without disturbance, either from the van- quished tribes of Northern Germany, who began to fre- quent, peaceably, the markets of St. Denys, from the more distant and divided Slavonians, the weaker Visi- goths, or the Lombards, who were separated from them by the Alpine barrier. CHAPTER VI. THE VISIGOTHS IN SPAIN. Until the reign of Theodoric the Second, the son of that Theodoric who fell in the defence of the West- ern nations against Attila, Toulouse remained the capi- tal of the kingdom of the Visigoths. The Allemanni were the most powerful nation in Spain ; and the com- plete subjugation of that country, which was threatened by the arms of the Visigoths, was impeded by the same circumstances, depending on local relations, which, dur- ing one hundred and seventy-one years, had enabled the Spaniards to resist the efforts of the Roman legions. A hundred and seventy years also elapsed, from the arrival of Adolf in Catalonia,! before King Leuvigild, in Braga, made captive Andika, the last King of the Allemanni, and forced the whole peninsula to revere the throne of the Visigoths. Spain had boundaries, appointed by Nature ; but circumstances prevented her, during twelve hundred years, from enjoying the benefit of thi^ privilege. A time had been, when, under King * Crinosi, tricoracati : Childebert. Chron. Casin. . . t A.D. 414 to 585. THE VISIGOTHS IN SPAIN. 137 Eurich, the Visigoths seemed Ukely to extend their do- minion in Gaul, and the southern districts still remained under their sway. But never was any elective monarchy exposed to more terrible convulsions, than those which shook the Visigothic throne. In the course of one hundred and twenty-seven years, Leuvigild had seventeen successors, of whom seven were allied, in some manner, to his house, and all the others obtained the crown by forcible and irregular means. The passions of envy and re- venge played their unhappy game on a greater scale than in any other realm. The prevailing temper of manners contributed to this influence. The ordinances of the Church, or laws established through its ascen- dency, were even at that period terrible in Spain. The nobles were filled with a spirit of haughtiness, which led them to degrade the lower classes, and at the same time rendered them rebellious against the King. The people delighted in blood, and displayed firmness and constancy only in following the bent of their violent passions. The hatred of heretics was the more strong- ly impressed by the religious orders in Spain, in pro- portion as the wild extravagance of the imagination of this people had distorted the principles of the faith. A system of religious worship, burdensome by its trifling observances, and imposing by its pomp, was introduced and exercised with extravagant practices. Montesquieu has justly termed the laws of the Visigoths puerile, full of error, ignorant, contradictory, rich in rhetoric and poor in sense, insignificant in their contents and prodig- ious in their pretensions. Under King Sisenand, they were reduced, at Toledo, to a regular form. The The- odosian code, brought into use through Anianus, chan- cellor of Alaric the Second, and the ancient customs of the nation, were the sources of these laws. They were afterwards reformed, by Bermudo the Second, and again amplified by a third king, of the same name. It was under the second Bermudo, that the canon law obtained the authority of a civil code. 12* 138 THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN BRITAIN. CHAPTER VII. THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN BRITAIN. The Aborigines of Britain had long ago sought an asylum for their independence in the remotest moun- tains o'f their island, and maintained it, by the practice of warfare, for which the Scots gave them perpetual occasion. The Hebrides were divided between the Scots and Hibernians, as the islands of the ^gsean sea had been shared by the Greeks and Persians. The first Belgic Britons, in the southern parts of the island, lost, by the Roman victories, their liberty, and the strength of character which was necessary to restore it. Pressed by sea and land, they found themselves under the necessity of inviting a tribe of those Saxons, whom we have elsewhere described as a nation of for- midable navigators. The English brought with them to Britain the simple and barbarous manners of the German tribes. The followers of Hengist and the other hordes, who suc- cessively passed over and occupied the country, main- tained their national character with the greater purity, -as the insular situation of England prevented intercourse with foreigners. They were animated by a love of their country and a spirit of independence, which were cherished during six hundred years, by the weak- ness of monarchy or by impediments arising from the various states of public opinion, and the inclinations of the nobility and the popular assemblies which controlled the ambition of the kings. From this long contest, there arose, at length, a constitution, which will con- tinue to unite the various advantages of all the forms of government, and to avoid their evils, until the com- mercial spirit shall finally give rise to habits of thinking incompatible with the self-devotion of patriotism. These causes maintained life and vigor in the state. - THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN BRITAIN. 139 For the rest, England was divided into seven king- doms, of which the subjects were chiefly Saxons, or those Britons whom their circumstances had not enabled to emigrate. The remainder of the Britons sought ref- uge in the mountains of Wales, or passed over the sea, to share the fate of Armorica, to which country, they imparted the name of their native land. England, properly so called, was, long before the time of Alfred, divided into hundreds and counties. Every division had its head, who was responsible to his supe- rior, and all were subject to the king. Forty names of such counties serve still for the division of the country ; but there are large cities, which are within the jurisdic- tion of no county, and districts, which give the tenths not to any bishop, but to the king, — those towns hav- ing been built since the division of counties took place, and such districts brought into cultivation since the revenues of the Church were allotted. The institutions of England are, in this respect peculiar, — that the peo- ple have so much reverence for antiquity, as rather to bear with imperfections, than to violate the venerable form of the political fabric. Liberty, which is founded on custom and precedent, does not admit of innovations. Every district elected its magistrate ; so that, even at that early period, the ambitious had no way of obtain- ing their gratification, but by seeking to gain the affec- tions of the people, by popular manners. Laws were enacted by the king, in the council of the nobles and wise men. The latter long retained the impression of the wisdom of ancient Rome, a certain predilection for knowledge, as if the Muses had ever sought the land of freedom. This national council was assembled, in a regular manner, twice, every year. Freemen held that place in it, which in the records is distinguished by the name of Commons. The judgements, that were given during these times, were the germs and founda- tion of the common law, the oral remains of original customs and rights, as they had been declared, in every case, by the voice of twelve men of the same rank with 140 THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN BRITAIN. the accused. These decisions, handed down from an- tiquity, formed the favorite law of the country, the foundation of EngHsh hberty, as it had descended from the earliest ages. Those institutions, which had not their origin in the primitive manners of the people, were introduced, in later times, by violence and craft. How the constitution, manners, and religion, of a people, may undergo frequent alterations, while, through all such vicissitudes, the love of freedom may still re- main inherent in them, and display proofs of its influ- ence, on every occasion ; how this general sentiment, exalted by all private interests, may yet in no particular give rise to any excess, but may produce an equilibrium of power, in the whole fabric of the state ; how this spirit of independence may find the way of limiting the power of the king, by means of a parliament, and the authority of the latter by means of the king, and the influence of one house by that of the other ; and how these strong and multifarious bonds of liberty may give to all classes of the people a lofty elevation of charac- ter: all these great and splendid problems find their solution in the history of the English nation. When we observe the old Albiones, in the mountains of Cale- donia, the Britons, in Wales, and the English, them- selves, all animated with the same spirit, we are obliged to conjecture the existence of some permanent, ever- operative cause, powerful enough to overcome the original characters which these nations brought with them from foreign realms. As we have observed the laws of the Chinese, Indians, and Egyptians, resist the effect of repeated vicissitudes, and of a long series of ages, and the institutions of Lycurgus maintain their relation to the rugged slope of the Taygetus ; as we have seen the Romans and Carthaginians acquire, from local circumstances, those characters, which have exci- ted the admiration of posterity ; the manners of the Germans remain permanent, on their native soil, un- dergo, in Spain, a complete reverse, and give way, in France, to a more sprightly character : so we may con- CONSTANTINOPLE. 141 template the British isles, as destined by Nature to be the" land of freedom. Finer fruits are the gifts of a warmer climate, and colder regions bring forth still hardier bodies ; but the former enervates, and renders its people effeminate ; the latter enables them to bear even slavery with patience. The climate of England holds the enviable mean, and moderation is the char- acter of all its institutions. The whole Northern region of the world was as yet unknown. Scarcely does a faint glimmering break forth, by degrees, more like the polar lights than the splendor of day. Scandinavia, Russia, Sarmatia, and the land of the Gepidi, to the confines of the Eastern empire, were still enveloped in this darkness. CHAPTER VIII. CONSTANTINOPLE. [A. D. 395.] In Constantinople, Arcadius, son of the great Theodosius, was the sport of a treacherous minister and a too powerful consort. [A. D. 408.] The second Theodosius found himself unable to govern monks and eunuchs ; how, then, was it probable that he would venture to resist Attila? It was his good fortune, that Yezdejard reigned over the powerful em- pire of Persia, to whose upright tutelage, it appears, that Arcadius was not afraid of confiding the unripd years of the young Prince. This Monarch indeed showed so much favor to the Christians, that he made a most unfavorable impression on the supporters of the religion of his country. His successor, Bahram, whom the Persians extolled, and who was hated by the Chris- tians, weakened his own party, by the persecutions he excited against the latter. Theodosius gave himself up to the quiet enjoyments of his court, to literature, private friendship, and the 142 CONSTANTINOPLE. chase. He is celebrated, for the oldest collection of the Roman law which has come down to our time. But his good qualities were abused, by the evil genius of his age, above which he had not power to raise him- self, and which rendered him a slave to the passions of insolent priests. The earlier council of the Church at Ephesus, which was held during the latter part of his reign, deserved no better appellation than that of a synod of robbers. It was here, that the most impetu- ous of all prelates succeeded in exciting every species of violence and treachery against Nestorius. The Church was yet trembling under the conse- quences of these proceedings, when Pulcheria, the pru- dent sister of the Emperor, ascended the throne, which, together with her hand, she confided to Marcianus, a soldier of great merit. [A. D. 450.] She held the council of Chalcedon, against Eutyches, which was still more to be deplored ; not that its crimes exceeded those of the Ephesian council, for that would seem scarcely possible, but because it furnished new occa- sion for the disquieting of the Christian Churches. In the four councils of Nicaea, of Constantinople, (which was held by the elder Theodosius,) of Ephesus, and Chalcedon, it had been the aim of intemperate priests to penetrate all the mysteries of the Divine nature ; and, without knowledge of languages or critical taste, to determine the sense of the more exalted passages in Holy Writ. By thus drawing away the attention of men from that wisdom and goodness, which is given us to love and practise, the object of revelation was de- feated, and the mind was turned to a servile reverence of unintelligible dogmas. [A. D. 457.] The reign of Leo, who succeeded Marcianus, was disgraced by the ingratitude of this Prince towards Aspar, to whom he was indebted for the throne. The factions of the court and the affairs of the Church continued to engross the attention of the government, and Zeno, the son-in-law of Leo, was de- throned in the East, about the time when Rome lost CONSTANTINOPLE. 143 the empire of the West. [A. D. 474.] While Clovis was founding the kingdom of the Franks, the East groaned under a rehgious edi(^t of Zeno, now restored to the Byzantine throne. [A. D. 491.] Even the good quahties of the Emperor Anastasius were enslav- ed by the vain desire of deciding questions, which he would more wisely have left untouched. Justin him- self, the honest and ignorant warrior, had nearly en- tailed a persecution on the Roman CathoHcs in Italy, by oppressing the Arians, who held the same creed with the Ostrogoth, Theodoric. [A. D. 519.] All these emperors were eager to reduce, to unintelligible defini- tions, all the various forms under which the mind of man represents to his view subjects of which it cannot penetrate the obscurity. Justinian also lived chiefly for the court, and adorned it with a dignified exterior ; while two parties, in the Church and on the arena, disturbed its tranquillity. By his command, the learned men of the empire made the most perfect compilation, that was possible, of the Roman law ; while Belisarius restrained the Persian Nushirvan from extending his dominions, conquered Africa, and prepared, in Italy, laurels for Narses. [A. D. 527.] We cannot refuse to allow that he dis- played a perception of the magnificent, particularly in architecture. But the praise of having availed himself of the public prosperity, and the talents of his illustrious subjects, for the restoration of the real strength of the state, is denied to him, by the events of his last years, and by the fate of his successors on the throne. [A. D. 565.] During the reign of Justin the Sec- ond, the Empress Sophia possessed the same influence in pubhc affairs, which Theodora had exerted, with pernicious effects, in the time of Justinian. By her, Narses was ahenated, and Italy, for the most part, lost. The Emperor, whose designs were upright, ended his reign under the gloom of calamity, having yielded the throne to the brave and generous Tiberius. [A. D. 578.] The latter was too soon succeeded by Mauri- 144 CONSTANTINOPLE. tius, an excellent soldier, who seems to have been defi- cient in that commanding genius and in those shining qualities, which are necessary for the supreme ruler of an empire. [A. D. 582.] The Khan of the Avares defeated his troops, which were unskilfully commanded, when the Emperor was not at their head ; and, when Mauritius, like the old Roman senate, disdained to ransom those who had surrendered themselves to the enemy, Phocus availed himself of this occasion, to cor- rupt the allegiance of the troops, who had been stran- gers to military discipline. In consequence of this single instance of severity, this excellent Prince, and his whole house, lost their lives. [A. D. 602.] The young Heraclius easily expelled from his throne an assassin, stained with every crime. [A. D. 610.] Not so easy was the defence of the empire against the Persians, whose' victorious arms were already visible from the walls of the capital. But Heraclius assisted the defence by his presence ; and their fortune, for the last time, deserted the house of the Sassanidae. Al- though the Emperor excited the censures of his age, by marrying within the forbidden degrees of consan- guinity, and for departing from the received forms of belief, concerning the unity of will in the double nature of Christ ; yet he would have terminated his reign with the most splendid renown, and with well-deserved good fortune, had not fate, at this period, called forth into action a nation, which had never yet played its part among the revolutions of mankind, but which now sprang forth, like lightning ; and, having displayed, for a while, astonishing energies, and at length returned to its first limits, in freedom and security, has left behind it, on the theatre of the world, its religion, and many striking effects of its customs and domination. UNIVERSAL HISTORY. BOOK XII. RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN RELIGION, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE. II. 13 U. H. BOOK XII. OF THE RISE OF THE MOHAMMEDAN RELIGION, AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE.— FROM A.D. 622 TO 732. CHAPTER I. ARABIA. Arabia, or the Western Land, received that name from the Chaldeans, whose country lay to the eastward of the desert. Among the Syrians, the tribes of the wilderness were called Saracens, or Natives of the East. Their original name is Barbar, Sons of the Des- ert. They are proud of this distinction, and look with contempt upon the inhabitants of cities. The Arabian peninsula is formed by two gulfs which advance far into the land ; and the desert region to the northward occupies a large space, between the empires of the Per- sians and the Romans. The whole extent of Arabia may be estimated at fifty-five thousand square miles. The wilderness exhibits Nature dreary and destitute of life. The burning rays of the sun ever- descend, without interruption, through a dry and- unclouded at- mosphere. The naked hills seem stripped of their covering, by the winds, and offer unbounded prospects, where no shelter refreshes the weary traveller, where no object attracts his view. An immeasurable space seems to spread itself out between him and the an- imate creation ; in which, here and there, under the shade of a few lonely palm-trees, a spring of water bubbles forth, and is quickly choked in sand. The Arab alone is acquainted with these halting places; he alone frequents them. Free, and possessing enough 148 ARABIA. to satisfy his simple wants, he conveys hither the treas- ures and the slaves, which he robs from those caravans that venture to dispute the tolls exacted by the great emir of the desert. The camel affords the only means of communication between these islands in the ocean of sand. This ani- mal, like his master, learns, from his earliest years, to endure hunger, thirst, and the loss of sleep. He often marches three or four hundred leagues, without drink- ing more than once in eight or ten days, or eating any thing, in the space of twenty-four hours, except a few thistles or stalks of wormwood. He often bears, for weeks, a load of thirteen hundred pounds, without ever being lightened of his burden. He constitutes the safe- ty and the riches of the Arab, and is the most faithful companion of his life. While the camel bears double the burden of a mule, he is more frugal than an ass ; his flesh is not less esteemed, as food, than that of the calf; the value of his hair rivals the finest fleece ; his dung serves for fuel; his urine affords salammoniac. A nod points out the way to him, and a song reani- mates his steps. Amid orchards, on the banks of the Euphrates, the chief hamlet of these roving tribes, the ancient Anah, stretches itself out, through a long tract ; where the great emir of the Bedouins, at particular periods, fixes his abode. Among the Bedouins, several families obey the authority of one sheik, the noblest and richest of their clan ; and all the sheiks acknowledge the suprem- acy and claim the protection of the great emir. His capital is a busy town, which is laid out in regular streets meeting in one spot, where the tent is spread in which the emir dwells. He receives gifts from travel- lers, who purchase of him a secure and free passage through the desert. The celebrated schools and commercial towns of Cu- fa and Bassora he on the confines of the desert. The names of many tribes remind us of Moses and of Job. The only enemy which the Natives dread is the Sa- ARABIA. 149 moom, the angel of death, a sulphureous wind which rises out of the wilderness, the fumes of which suffocate all the animals and men who fäll in its way. Tt blows through Arabia and Africa, and is felt as far as Spain. We have already spoken of Arabia Petrsea, which received its name from the town of Selah, called Petra, by the Greeks. On -the shores of the Arabian gulf are situated the cities of the prophet, Medinat-al-Nabi and Mecca. Of Yemen, Arabia Felix, or Arabia the Happy, the shores, alone, have been accurately explored. We only know that the interior is inhabited by a people of bold and animated character, who dwell in proud in- dependence, in their pastures, or in gardens which produce, abundantly, the most fragrant plants, such as frankincense, balsam, cinnamon, cassia, and coffee. Roads have been formed for communication between the principal towns, and the land in their vicinity is cultivated to the tops of the hills. From a shrub re- sembling the juniper-tree, the Arabs gather that frank- incense, which smokes in the churches of Christendom, and in the temples of the East. They collect coffee from a shrub which is said to have been transplanted from Abyssinia to the hills of Yemen. How little did Prosper Alpinus suspect, when he described this plant, in Egypt, about two hundred years ago, and commend- ed its medicinal qualities, that it would become, in a few generations, the favorite beverage of Europe, and an article of necessity, from the seraglio of the Turk to the huts of Switzerland ; a source of much good and evil to society ; and that physicians would write books to proscribe its abuse !* The same region so much abounds with excellent horses, that, if there is any place which is the native seat of that noble animal, and which produces his race in its greatest perfection, it would seem to be Arabia.f * Du Four, Traite du Cafe ala Haye. 1685. Linnsei Amoenitates. 6. t BuiFon. — I have abandoned this opinion, and now no longer con- sider Arabia, but the kingdom of Kuku, or some region of Africa, to 13* 150 ARABIA. The steeds of the Arabs are equally beautiful, though not so large, as those of Africa. They are swift as os- triches, but fit only for the chase. One class of Ara- bian horses is preserved pure in the breed, with long and well attested registers of a remote ancestry. Oth- ers are bred from the casual mixture of various races. They are the daily and nightly companions of the Arabs, who are anxious to keep them clean and in good con- dition. They stand saddled through the day and feed by night. The coursers of the East, and of the African Moors, were brought originally from Arabia Felix. The shores of Yemen run down along the Arabian gulf as far as the straits of Bab el Mandeb, in the vicin- ity of which lies Okad, where bards, in ancient times, contended for the prize of poetry. Here, ^mong gar- dens and groves of coffee, is situated Mocha, the cen- tral point of Arabian commerce, in which is the chief receipt of the customs of Yemen. Nearer to the end of the peninsula, important by its situation and the ex- cellence of its haven, Adel is seated on a promontory, at the foot of a lofty rock. This place was visited by the Greeks and Romans, who sought spices also on the coast of Hadramaut, and brought the aloe from Soco- tora. Mara and Oman have been less known to history. We have elsewhere made mention of the attempts of the Hebrews, at Palmyra, or Tadmor in the Wilder- ness, and at Tiphsah, on the Euphrates, to settle towns, which might afford protection to the shepherds, who wandered with their flocks from Gilead. We hav« spoken, also, of their enterprises from the ports of Elath and Eziongeber, and of the commercial colonies of the Phoenicians on the gulf of Persia. The interior of Arabia has never yet been explored. There, the Tob- bah ruled, at Saba, by the authority of laws, without encroaching on their freedom, over valiant hordes. Shut up in their palaces, after the manner of Orien- tals, and surrounded with eunuchs, they exercised the the south or the west of Egypt, as the most probable country of the horse. — (Remark of the Author.) ARABIA. 151 judicial power to the common advantage of their na- tion, while Nature had made sufficient provision for de- fence against foreign enemies. The traditions of Saba yet preserve the name of Balkis, that Queen, who ad- mired the wisdom of Solomon, and who bore him a son, the ancestor of the Negush who now reigns in Ha- besh. Above the city of the Sabseans, which was also called Mareb, in an elevated valley to the northwest, there was a vast tank, or artificial lake, of the walls of which are yet seen stupendous ruins. This lake supplied the capital and irrigated its gardens ; the water was one hundred feet in depth, and palaces were erected on its walls ; the city was the abode of opulence and pleasure. In one night, as it is believed, during the reign of Ti- berius Csesar, this wall was broken down, and the town was swept away by the overwhelming waters. The years are computed from this calamity. In vain Alexander aspired to the sovereignty of Ara- bia, and vain were the efforts of the Romans. A Greek colony in Socotora may still be traced, among the hills of that island. When Anastasius the First held the imperial sceptre at Constantinople, and Naowash, King of Hamyar, in Yemen, who professed the Jewish faith, persecuted the Christians ; the Arabs were overcome by a Christian, the Negush of Abyssinia. Naowash, disdaining to submit, drowned himself in the sea. Thenceforward, the African conquerors governed Ye- men by means of deputies. The misfortunes of Arabia were of no long duration, yet the effect of them is still felt in Europe. The con- querors brought with them the smallpox from the poi- sonous Africa ; they communicated it to the Arabs ; and commerce has spread it through the world. At first, it broke out seldom, but committed dreadful ravages. Before a hundred years had elapsed, it appeared in It- aly, and made its way to Burgundy and to Germany. 152 MOHAMMED. CHAPTER II. MOHAMMED. During these times of anarchy, while the freedom of Arabia was suffering under the arms of the Negiish and of Khosru Nushirvan, the Persian Monarch, Mo- hammed was born, in the five hundredth and seventieth year of the Christian era. He was descended from a family which had produced many chieftains, and many enterprising merchants. His father, Abdallah, died early, and left to his mother, the Jewess Emina, five camels and a female slave. Mohammed displayed, from his infancy, reflection and a fiery imagination. He was generous, beyond his fortune ; compassionate, susceptible of warm frienship, and abandoned to licentious pleasures. In his exterior, he had that serious demeanor which distinguishes the Oriental people ; a dignified manner ; an animated and pleasing expression of countenance. He was of the middle stature, his limbs were well proportioned, and his features striking. In his twentieth year, he bore arms in a sacred war, which his tribe, the Koreish, waged against certain bands of robbers, who disturbed the pilgrimage to Mec- ca. The black stone of the Caaba, in the great tower of Saba the son of Cush, had been, from early times, an object of veneration. It represented the earth, the mother of all, the central mass, around which the cha- otic matter was distributed and reduced to order. It is still held sacred in the East. Five years afterwards, he resorted to the fair of Da- mascus, to sell the merchandise of the rich widow Cha- dija. His genius and address gained the affections of the widow, and she bestowed upon him her hand and fortune. As long as she lived, Mohammed treated her with grateful respect and irreproachable fidelity. MOHAMMED. 153 Mohammed beheld, with sorrow, the calamities of his country, the abandonment of its ancient manners, and the introduction of foreign customs. He had learnt, from his mother, that the Jews were still expect- ing the champion of Israel ; he had heard, from the Christians, that Jesus had promised, to those who loved him, the Comforter, who should lead them into all truth. He was persuaded, by the suggestions of his own mind, that he was the person who was capable of restoring happiness to the nations. In the fortieth year of his age, happened the night of the decree of God, in which Gabriel, one of the archangels, as he believed, or as he declared, called him to be a prophet of the Most High. [A. D. 610.] This event he related to Chadija, and to Varaca, his cousin. His words inflamed them with holy zeal, and they swore " by that God, in whose hand is the soul of Chadija and Varaca, Mohammed is the Prophet of God." Immediately, his cause was embraced by the young Ali, grandson of the chief Abutaleb, " the first of the witnesses," who received in marriage the daughter of the Prophet. The old, respectable, and upright, Abu- beker soon joined himself to the party. Often, when he was seized by fits of epilepsy, Mo- hammed fancied that he heard the voice of angels. The Prophet began in sincerity, led astray by his fancied gift ; but fraud and violence enabled him to accomplish, what piety and praiseworthy motives induced him to attempt. He expected to succeed to the office of guar- dian of the sacred stone ; but the zeal of party excited a tumult, which threatened his life. Mohammed fled, in disguise and closely pursued, from Mecca, and es- caped, through the groves of palm-trees, to Yatreb, where the Jews had secured in his interest the chief men of the city. From that day,* which was the six- teenth of July, in the six hundred and twenty-second year of our era, the Moslem compute the succession of * Or rather from the commencement of the year, sixty-eight days before. 154 MOHAMMED. time. This is the epoch of the Hegira, which Omar instituted in the year 639. The Prophet was welcom- ed at Yatreb, by five hundred disciples, and that town received the title of Medinat-al-Nabi, the prophetic city. Islam, the religion which Mohammed promulgated, teaches, that there is one God, and that Mohammed is his Prophet, by whom the law of Moses and of Jesus is perfected and accomplished. He published no new tenets ; but only adorned, and exhibited in a form adapt- ed to the ideas, prejudices, and inclinations, of the Orien- tals, that doctrine, which is as ancient as the human race. He moreover enjoined many ablutions, well suited to the manners and necessities of the hotter climates. He ordained five daily prayers, that man might learn habit- ually to elevate his thoughts above himself, and above the sensible world. He instituted the festival of the Ramadan and the pilgrimage to Mecca, and command- ed that every man should bestow in alms the hundredth part of his possessions ; for these observances already existed, in established custom, or in the circumstances which gave occasion to their enactment. In like manner, the prohibition of wine and the flesh of swine, circum- cision, and the Friday's sabbath, are partly more ancient, and in part new, or rather recommended, than strictly ordained. He established a law, adapted to circum- stances, a religion for countries, in which the sublim- ity of Islam produced a greater impression than the subtile frivolities which then divided the theologians of the Christian Church. Enthusiasm joined its influence, and elevated the soul of the true believer above the whole visible world ; above the power of perishable things ; and above the fear of death, itself. While an abject superstition debased the subjects of the Byzan- tine empire, the soul of the Arab was kindled into fer- vor, by the elevated simplicity of a doctrine, which op- posed few checks to the vehemence of his passions. Its power was first displayed in a war, in which the prophet overthrew his enemies, at Mecca. At the vil- lage of Beder, where the Moslem pilgrims still offer up MOHAMMED. 155 adorations, he obtained the first victory. Happy was he esteemed, who had fallen for the true faith ! He had departed to endless enjoyment, in fragrant and shady groves, where beautiful, black-eyed virgins await- ed him ; where heavenly youths sprinkled him with wa- ter of the roses of Paradise, from goblets of pearl and gold! After the conquest of Mecca, his command was sent to Heraclius, Emperor of Constantinople, to Khosru Parviz, the King of Persia, to the Arabian emirs, to the Negush, and the Governor of Egypt : " In the name of Him who formed heaven and earth, and who ordain ed Islam from eternity to endless ages ; believe in Mo- hammed, teacher of the divine and universal law." Arabia willingly received his command, and acknowl- edged that he restored the faith of her patriarchs. The chieftain, Chalid, marched against the unbelievers,' at the head of three thousand men, and defeated an army of twenty thousand. In the cause of the Lord of hea- ven and earth, fear found no place ; especially, when the Prophet declared, that the end of his mortal career is predestined, from eternity, to every man, in the coun- sels of Providence. When Mecca had become obedient, and all Arabia paid him reverence, Mohammed commanded Islam to be carried into every country, and all nations to be united by arms or by faith. The Prophet, having been poisoned, as it was believed, in the sixty-third year of his age, departed into the presence of that Eternal Be- ing, whose unity and goodness he caused, by the exer- tions of his whole life, to become the faith of more than half the ancient world. 156 THE EMPIRE OF THE ARABS. CHAPTER III. THE EMPIRE OF THE ARABS. Ali, the first of the faithful, aimed at succeeding his father-in-law, the Prophet. But his design was de- feated by the intrigues of Ayesha, one of Mohammed's widows, who had once received an affront from Ali ; and her' father Abubeker was raised, by the majority of voices, to the honor of khalif, or successor. The re- mains of the Prophet were deposited in a coffin of white marble. His visions and revelations were recorded in writing, that the tradition of his faith might be preserved in a firm and unchangeable form. Such is the Koran, a work, which by the importance of its contents, the sublimity of its representations, the purity of its expres- sion, has become not only the sacred, but also the clas- sical, book of the Moslem. While these affairs occupied the khalif, Chalid con- quered all the countries which lie between the Tigris and Euphrates and the Mediterranean Sea. Four thousand and five hundred of the faithful laid the foun- dation of the Arabian empire. This General and Am- ru displayed the energies of a nation bred in the hardy habits of the pastoral state, and roused to energy by the impulse of fanaticism. A flame, which was destined soon to consume its own vital force, extended the do- minion of the Moslem ; but the empire survived, sup- ported by its relations to the country and people under its sway, and by the influence of ancient opinion and never-fading passions. The great Khosru Parviz, the Persian, the terror of the Byzantine emperors, who had carried away the true cross from Jerusalem, after a reign of nearly forty years, ever victorious, until shortly before its termina- tion, was assassinated, by his son Shiruyeh. Anarchy prevailed in the kingdom of the Sassanidse. In the I THE EMPIRE OF THE ARABS. 157 course of three years, twelve kings and queens ascend- ed the throne, and a restless spirit of independence manifested itself, in the fortresses of the chieftains. In Constantinople, the crimes of ambition, of faction, and the vices of a corrupt court, ruled under the guise of superstitious sanctity. In the mean time, Chalid tempered the fire of the Moslem, by the rules of order and discretion. Old men, w^omen, children, and ecclesiastics, excepting the shorn offspring of the devil, (for thus he termed the monks,) were spared by the sword. For the rest, to those Christians who submitted to the tribute, toleration and protection were promised. Accordingly, when, af- ter the death of Abubeker, [A. D. 634,] Omar, raised by the influence of the same Ayesha to the office of Emir-el-Mumenin, or Commander of the Faithful, at- tempted to recall Chalid, the troops still remained de- voted to him, and he carried his victorious arms and the law of Islam through Syria to the confines of Asia Minor. Amru, the son of Aasi, marched to the conquest of Egypt. [A. D. 639.] Since Egypt lost her native Pharaohs, she had been alike incapable of restoring her liberty and of submitting to the yoke. Always eager to give assistance to the enemies of her present masters,, she quickly abandoned the lieutenant of the Greek Em- peror. Then, was the ancient Memphis burnt ; Alex- andria, taken by storm ; and, according to an old tradi- tion, preserved by Abulpharagi, the remains of those archives of the human race, which had been collected by the Ptolemies, were consumed by fire. Amru at- tempted to complete a work often begun, by cutting through the land which separates the waters of the Mediterranean from those of the Red Sea. It has been supposed, that, the surface of the two seas not being of the same level, the adjoining countries may be over- whelmed by the waters of the more elevated basin. But Omar forbade the undertaking, from the apprehension that the prophetic cities would be rendered accessible II. 14 u. H. 158 THE EMPIRE OF THE ARABS. to the Christian fleets. Eastward of Memphis, Amru built Fosthath, the remains of which are still seen in Old Cairo. It was the custom of the Arabs, in their conquests, to destroy all former things, to give to every region a new face, and to make the camp of their gen- eral the metropolis of every country. While Egypt was dismembered from the Byzantine dominion, King Yezdejard, the Sassanide, descendant of those Sapors and of those Chosrus, before whose arms the Romans had so often trembled, fought several battles against another Arabian chief, and at length was totally defeated, in that of Meru. [A. D. 636.] The fate of this Monarch is differently related. Some his- torians report, that the King was overtaken and slain, while he was entreating a mariner to transport him across a river; [A. D. 651 ;] others say, that a neck- lace and bracelet of gold tempted the cupidity of a mil- ler in Segastan, under whose roof he had taken shelter. His son, abandoned and destitute, but too proud for submission, is said to have taken refuge in China. Cyprus and Rhodes were plundered : the Moslem penetrated, on one side, through the chain of Taurus, and, on the other, into the deserts of Nubia. Amru was recalled by Osman, the successor of Omar ; but the war- riors declared, that, as they revered, in the Commander of the Faithful, the teacher of the law, so they would follow the most valiant general in the field of battle. The khalifs were, for the most part, feeble sovereigns ; but the empire, founded on the faith which was im- pressed upon the nation, supported itself, and was in- vincible^ as long as the strength of this impression remained. It already extended from Persia to the desert of Kair- wan, and already the throne of the khalif tottered on its foundation. [A. D. 655.] Ali succeeded Osman, but the widow of the Prophet armed the troops against the first of the believers. The sacred chair was shaken by the arts of a woman ; while both Romans and Persians fled before the standard of Islam. Ali was at length COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL, ETC. 159 murdered, at Cufa, [A. D. 661,] and the Shiites still pay reverence to his tomb, in the vicinity of that city. The Shiites are a party, who neither acknovi^ledge his predecessors nor his successors, as lawful khalifs ; but pay honors to a sacred family, descended from him, of which the last individual, Mohammed Montatar, born in the eight hundred and sixty-eighth year of our era, is supposed by them still to survive, in concealment, that he may appear as sovereign, at the end of time. Of this persuasion is Persia. During the whole of June, the Shiites keep fast, in honor of AH and his sons Hassan and Hose in ; they lament them by night, when theatri- cal exhibitions are performed, representing their battles and assassination ; effigies of their bodies, stained with blood, are carried in procession through the streets; and every Shiite learns to execrate the Sunnites, the enemies of Ali. Of this latter sect, are the Ottoman Turks. CHAPTER IV. COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL OF THE HOUSE OF OMMIA. The throne of the Prophet devolved, by inheritance, on the house of his uncle, Ommia. Abusofian, the son of Ommia, had been the most implacable enemy of Mohammed ; while the charms of his wife, Hinda, at- tracted the passionate addresses of Hamsa, one of the most eminent advocates of the new faith. Moawiah, sprung from these parents, perceiving the success of the Prophet, acknowledged that he came from God, paid him religious homage, and, having attached himself to his cause, became lieutenant of a province ; and, after the death of Ali and the abdication of Hassan, received the dignity of Emir-el-Mumenin. While he roused the zeal of the nation in favor of the true faith, he knew how to distinguish the superfluous from the essential ; and he drank wine, clothed himself in silk, and remov- 160 THE ARABS IN SPAIN. ed the doctrinal chair from the humble Mecca to the splendid Damascus, which was reckoned one of the four paradises of the East. In Africa, some wandering tribes invited his General, Ocbah, to liberate them from the intolerable yoke of the Byzantine Emperor. Ocbah achieved this enter- prise ; and, in the country of the ancient Gyrene, the birthplace of so many poets and philosophers, confirm- ed his conquest, by erecting the fortress of Kairwan. [A. D. 671.] The city of Kairwan was built, not far from the coast, at the foot of a hill, abounding in springs of fresh water, and surrounded by fertile meadows, in a soil rich in mines of salt. Ocbah afterwards overran, in the course of a few years, the whole northern tract of Africa, which, while Garthage was yet free, had cost the Romans three Punic wars. A luxurious and refined people every where embraced the side of that faith which was dictated at the head of an armed host. At this ^time, Damia, Queen of the Berbers, arose, like a second Dido, [A. D. 682,] and aimed at rendering her country independent. She conquered Garthage, defeated the Arabs, and laid waste, as Italy to her cost experienced, those plains, abounding in corn, which had long been the granary of Europe. She hoped that the enemy would be unable to resist this mode of warfare ; but Hassan, at the head of the Arabs, called forth all the resources of enthusiasm, and Garthage fell before his arms. All the African coast, to the straits of Gibraltar, soon yielded to the sword of the Moslem. [A. D. 688.] CHAPTER V. THE ARABS IN SPAIN. Spain and the south of France were yet under the dominion of the Visigoths, whose power would have been invincible, if they had known how to obey their THE ARABS IN SPAIN. 161 rulers. We have already observed the throne of the Visigoths shaken by faction. Their kings were not ac- customed to govern by the maxims of tyrants, or they vi^ould have been more able to suppress sedition. No sooner had Rodrigo hurled from the throne and put out the eyes of King Vitiza, who held his nobles un- der an iron sceptre, than a Spanish Count invited Musa Ebn Nasir, the Arabian governor of Africa, across the straits. [A. D. 710.] It has been rumored, that King Rodrigo had violated the sister of the Count ; but it is more probable that the calamity of Spain had its origin in the spirit of faction. In the seventh year of Walid Ebn Abdulmalik, Com- mander of the Faithful, Musa intrusted to his General, Tarich, or Tarif, an army of Arabs, Moors, and Ber- bers, or wanderers of Africa. At the spot where he passed the strait, a rocky hill rises fourteen hundred feet above the sea, which it overhangs with a precipi- tous cliff towards the north and east, while the side which faces the extreme point of Europe has a more gradual descent. This height, Tarif fortified. [A. D. 712.] It was his rock ; Gej^el Tarif, or Gibraltar ; and he thence extended his incursions through the country. At length, a battle took place at Xerez, where Rodrigo fought for the crown, the freedom, and the faith, of the Visigoths, against Tarif and Musa, Islam, and the fe* rocity of the Moslem. [A. D. 713.] Long and bloody was the contest. Rodrigo fought heroically, till the betrayer, who had invited the Arabs, with Oppas, Arch- bishop of Seville, expecting that the foreigners would only assist one party of Spaniards against the other, went over to the enemy. The flower of the army per- ished together with their King, and the kingdom of the Visigoths, divided and without a master, fell under the yoke of the Mohammedans. The latter extended their arms from sea to sea, and across the Pyrensean bulwark. They conquered Narbonne, Carcassonne, and the coun- try on the further side, as far as the Rhone and Lyons- Many old and flourishing cities were destroyed by them, 14# 162 " THE ARABS IN SPAIN. and new ones built on the same territory. In other re- spects, they established the constitution of things which they found ; only the Commander of the Faithful held the place of the King. The national assemblies, the nobles, the courts of judicature, and the laws, remained. The Christians obtained a toleration for their worship, and were only forbidden from speaking against the faith of Islam. The tribute, or land-tax, was a tenth part of |;he revenue, in those towns and countries which capit- ulated, and a fifth part, in those which were subdued by arms. The product of both was given to the lieutenant of the khalif. The Visigoths were unable to endure the command which enjoined them to refrain from disputing the faith of the conqueror, and thereby obtaining the crown of martyrdom ; and the bishops in vain attempted to re- strain the indiscreet effusions of holy zeal. Some, who disdained all submission, fled to the mountains of Astu- ria. These were chiefly the nobles, and the sons of the nobles. From the Pyrenees a long chain of hills stretch- es to Cape Finisterre, the extreme point of Gallicia. An- sena, one of these hills, afforded refuge to a troop of a -thousand Goths, who sought hiding places in the cav- erns of our Lady of Cabadonga, and acknowledged Pe- layo, a distinguished warrior, as their chieftain. [A. D. 718.] The story is not free from the exaggerations of national vanity ; yet Asturia enjoys, as the ancient asy- lum of the noble Goths, certain liberties, which had no other origin than the achievements of her sons ; and the hamlet of Gijon, on the coast, scarcely observed by the enemy, became the root of a lasting monarchy, which grew up among the mountains. The chiefs con- quered Oviedo and Leon ; and it came to pass, after a contest of two hundred years, that Ordunyo the Second found himself sufficiently powerful, to restore the royal authority at Leon. [A. D. 914.] Political calamities were advantageous to the virtues and the genius of the Visigoths. A long war, waged, with various fortunes, against enemies far more pow- THE ARABS IN HINDOSTAN. 163 erful, forced them to a glorious exertion of valor and heroism ; and they witnessed, among their conquerors, arts more perfect than those of barbarous Europe, and were taught by them to know the value of the conve- niences and embellishments of life. But this happened in later ages. At that time, the Arab himself knew only his faith and the use of his sword. It is not cer- tain whether the great Prophet himself could read and write ; and Ali, the Commander of the Faithful, was the first who ordered the Arabic language to be reduced to grammatical forms, by Abul Aswad Alduli, that his people might not lose, in their distant conquests, the purity of their speech. At the same period, the dic- tionary was compiled by Chalil, and literature made lit- tle further progress under the house of the Ommiades. CHAPTER VI. THE ARABS IN HINDOSTAN. About the same time, when the Khalif Walid, at Damascus, was informed of the calamities of the Visi- goths, in Spain, he received information, from other generals, NDf conquests achieved by his arms in Eastern India. Hindostan has never withstood the attempts of foreign invaders, yet it has always offered an impenetra- ble resistance to the introduction of foreign manners. The laws of the country are so entirely founded on the manners of the people, or the latter have had so pow- erful an influence upon the former, that they have, in the course of time and by the effect of continual use, grown into an impenetrable bulwark. To this effect has contributed not only their relation to the climate and soil, but the great interest which the numerous and dignified caste of Brahmans have ever felt in the main- tenance of this system. The caste of Cshatriyas, or warriors, are interested in support of the same constitu- 164 FRANCE. tion, by the enjoyment of great privileges. The mer- cantile order are chiefly anxious for tranquillity, and the preservation of old customs ; and the fourth caste, or the Sudras, are so humiliated, that they possess no po- litical influence. The laws of India, on this subject, are more severe than those of Sparta, v\^ith regard to slaves. In no country have the higher classes ventured more or obtained greater success, in arresting the progress of the human mind. The Brahmans had already to contend against the Samanseans and the Christians. With no benignant feeling had they beheld the colonies of Jews, which were in old times settled in their country ; and now the victorious Moslem brought with them the faith of Mohammed, and forced them, sorely against their in- clination, to relax their severity, and to concede a great- er measure of justice to degraded humanity. CHAPTER VII. PRANCE. The arms of the Arabs, scarcely heard of, a century before, now domineered from the Ganges to Narbonne ; when the Spanish governor, Abderachman, enraged at the defection of the little territory of Cerdagne, carried war into the dukedom of Eudes, of Aquitaine, and into the kingdom of the Franks. In the western parts of Europe, the Franks were so superior to all other nations; their empire so great; their ability and valor so distinguished; that, if they had been overcome, neither the Lombards nor any other German or Slavonian people could have restrained the Moslem from falling, at once, on all sides, upon Italy and Constantinople. The kings of the Franks, since the time of Dagobert, son of that Chlotaire who held the assembly at Paris, FRANCE. 165 had gradually declined in power, through effeminacy, and the prodigal favor and confidence which they be- stowed on the mayors of their palace, and by the .effect of unfortunate contingencies, by which the latter con- trived to further their own advancement. The splen- dor and pleasures of the court lulled the descendants of the Merovingians into a voluptuous repose ; and, as the mayors of the palace, in the mean time, omitted no exertion that could contribute to augment or confirm their power, their influence, founded on splendid merit or successful boldness, increased to a prodigious extent. The king proposed the mayors of the palace to the ec- clesiastical and temporal lords at the time of election :* yet the power of this office, even in the age of Eberwin, so greatly exceeded that of the crown, that, if Grimwald and Pepin d'Heristhalf had not concealed their usurp- ed authority with greater address, they would have fallen victims, like that Minister, to the jealousy of the nobles. Pepin and his descendants, as mayors of the palace, acquired and maintained, by their merit, a greater than royal power, both in Austrasia and in Neustria.| It was thought right, that the greatest share of authority should be in the hands of those, in whom the nation reposed the greatest confidence. That every thing de- pended on this recommendation, Pepin, in his old age, was persuaded ; and, at his death, instead of his young- er son, a minor, born in lawful wedlock, recommended * El^ctione pontificum et cunctorum ducum. [By the votes of the bishops, and of all the dukes.] t Eberwin was mayor of the palace in the reigns of Chlotaire the Third, and Thierri. He was an able and ambitious minister, and was at length assassinated, as he was attempting to reduce Austrasia un- der his sway. [A. D. 683.] Pepin d'Heristhal succeeded him, and governed with more moderation. He was the father of Grimwald and of Charles Martel, and the founder of the Carlovingian house. He died about A. D. 712.-2". t Pepinus Dux Francorum obtinuit regnum Francorum per annos 27, cum regibus sibi subjectis ; Ann. Fuld. [Pepin, general of the Franks, governed the kingdom for twenty-seven years, even the kings being subject to him.] 166 FRANCE. the bastard Charles to succeed him in his important of- fice. It was determined that the energies of the king- dom should be wielded by the hands of him who pos- sessed the most kingly soul. The Franks had to carry on wars, in Germany, against the Frisians, Saxons, Serbians, Bavarians, val- iant enemies or faithless allies ; or in defence of weak dependants, who stood in need of their protection against barbarians. In these expeditions, the mayors of the palace engaged with alacrity. They rejoiced to find themselves at the head of their troops, and they sought occasions for war. In time of peace, they also possessed the power of pardoning offences. They gave away offices, distributed vacant feoffs, and left to the king the honor of his title, the enjoyments of luxury, and the rank of sovereign in the Champ de Mai. On that occasion, the prince was seated, before the assem- bly of the Franks, on the throne of his forefathers : he saluted his liegemen, and received homage from them ; accepted the donative offered by the nation, and gave it to the mayor of the palace, who stood by his footstool ; he divided the vacant estates according to his recom- mendation, and confirmed-the distribution of those which were already given. He then mounted his chariot, and was drawn by four oxen to his palace, where he remain- ed till the following Champ de Mai. All matters of importance were proposed by the minister to the assem- bly, and the resolutions of that body were executed by him.. His power was distinguished from that of the old German chieftains, in these circumstances, — that it continued in time of peace, and was enjoyed for life ; was handed down, in a certain manner, by hereditary descent ; and extended to the administration of all af- fairs. The dukes of the Allemanni, of Britanny, and of Aquitania, frequently, but in vain, opposed their voices to these transgressions of constitutional forms. But the circumstantial detail of these events is un- known : fear, indifference, political disturbances, dimin- ished the number of historians. These were the heroic GERMANY. 167 times of Europe. Barbarians were forced to adopt civ- ilized forms of life ; forests were cut down, morasses drained ; the nobility were free ; and the people employ- ed in producing the necessaries of life. CHAPTER VIII. GERMANY. An illustrious EngUshman, named Winifred, who was afterwards called Boniface, introduced into the German forests the first spark of religious light. In Bavaria, he renewed, purified, and regulated, the profession of Chris- tianity, according to his own sentiments and those of the Roman pontiff. The light of the Christian faith speedily diffused itself over Franconia, Thüringen, the banks of the Rhine, and in Saxony and Friesland. While Boniface established the humanizing worship of Jesus and Mary, in the places where Stuf and Bustrich had been the objects of veneration, he assembled con- gregations of people in villages, which became the ori- gin of towns. Pope Gregory the Second, Cciger to establish and extend the authority of the pontifical chair, remarked the talents and zeal of Boniface, and bestowed on him the episcopal dignity and the office of legate. The merits of Boniface obtained for him, by the favor which he acquired at Rome, and the interest which he excit- ed among the Franks, the bishopric of Mentz, which was established for his sake. The ancient city of Mentz, since the devastation of the barbarians, had given the precedence to the more flourishing town of Worms. [A. D. 756.] Thence, the Bishop promul- gated the Christian faith, according to the representa- tions of his age, together with the authority of the holy pontifical chair, and the milder manners and ordinances of the Franks, among those tribes, whom the mayor 168 ENGLAND. LOMBARDY. of the palace had overcome or meditated to subdue. Thus were the Gospel and the Law of Islam dissemi- nated at the same time, and by similar means ! Moral and religious culture was extended through the North, by means of cloistered societies, similar, but in many respects more venerable, than those of the Pythago- reans. CHAPTER IX. ENGLAND. It is remarkable, that the chief part of this laudable work was carried on, by men who had imbibed the zeal of holy enterprise, in the remote parts of Europe, at Hy, in Ireland, and at Bangor, among the Kymri. While the Scots waged wars against the Caledonians ; while the dynasties of the Anglo-Saxons carried on mutual hostilities, and were perpetually disturbed, at home, by domestic troubles, which continued, till the West Sax- ons gradually gained the preponderancy ; the light of Christianity, but lately kindled, and a remnant of learn- ing, which had never fallen wholly into contempt, were more honored in Britain than in any other region. Ac- cordingly, while the nation was insignificant, in its ex- ternal relations, peculiar talents and energies were dis- played by individuals, who formed for themselves a theatre of action, embracing nearly all the western countries. CHAPTER X. LOMBARDY. The kingdom of the Lombards acquired greater sta- bility, after Authari, the son of Kleph, had obtained the government. [A. D. 584;] Each nobleman gave up L 0MB ARD Y. 169 to the King the half of his possessions, in order to place him out of the temptation to commit injustice, either from the pressure of his own necessities, or from the desire of conferring benefits upon his friends. Au- thari governed wisely, and fought heroically against the combined strength of the Exarch and the French Mon- arch. The Franks were less formidable in the inter- sected country of Lombardy than in open plains, where the fight was decided by an impetuous attack ; and the Lombards possessed stronger fortresses. Theodelinde, the widow of Authari, chose for her husband Agilulf, the Duke of Turin, and the nation adopted him for their sovereign in the Champ de Mai. [A. D. 590.] In his time. Pope Gregory the First mediated a peace, which terminated the long-continued hostilities of the Lombards and the Greek exarchate. [A. D. 599.] " What other consequence," said he, to the contending parties, " can arise from your persever- ing enmity, but the deaths of many thousands of men, whose hands are useful to the Romans and Lombards, for tilling their land?" Agilulf had also the wisdom to make peace with the Franks and Avari. His people possessed the best cultivated soil and more of the prod- uce of industry, and it was more easy, during external peace, to preserve tranquillity at home, among his rest- less dukes. Theodelinde confirmed the establishment of Christianity, which humanized her subjects, and gave them an inclination to a peaceful life. The pub- lic repose was sometimes disturbed by the robberies and treachery of the khans of the Avari ; but the warlike spirits which were thus roused were shortly obliged to subside into the calm of peace. The king- dom became better regulated, and was not further en- larged. [A. D. 636.] The son-in-law of Agilulf was tliat King Rothari, who, as we have already mentioned, compiled the legal code of the Lombards. [A. D . 643.] It contained, at first, three hundred and ninety enact- ments ; and the number was increased, in the course II. 15 u. H. 170 LOJVIBARDY. of the next one hundred and ten years, by the addition of one hundred and ninety-three articles. It remained in force, after the Lombards ceased to have kings of their own nation, and the conqueror only ordained an equal authority for the capitularies of the Franks. The law, compiled and augmented by Justinian, prevailed in Rome and in the Exarchate, and hence arose that variety of foreign ordinances, for which Italy is remark- able to the present day. In the law of the Lombards, theft and adultery were punished with death : murder was not a capital crime. The excessive power of the great, and the confidence of the nation in the king, seem to indicate, that it was thought improper to arraign the conduct of him who had killed a man by the order of the sovereign, or had given his advice as to the method of destroying him. But whoever introduced an enemy into the country, as Narses introduced Albwin, whoever abandoned it him- self, or aided a freeman in alienating himself from the republic of the Lombards, had death for his portion. On the other hand, it was not- expressed, that he who entered into conspiracy against the king ought to die ; but it was simply declared, that such an act exposed him to the risk of death. It is worthy of remark, that he who excited a disturbance in a church* was subject- ed to a fine of forty shillings : if any man committed the same offence in the national assembly, his penalty was nine hundred ; and for any such act in the palace of the king, death was the reward. The law of war, as in other legal institutions, decreed death peremptori- ly against him who excited the soldiery to resist the command of the general, or other officer, whom the king had set over the troops ; or who induced any part of the army to neglect their duty ; or who deserted his comrades in the field of battle. The general appointed by the nation presided over the operations of war ; the gastald of the king over the police and judicial regula- * Scandalum commiserit. [Who occasioned scandal.] LOMBARDy. 171 tions of the army ;* and each watched over the conduct and restrained the excesses of the other. In the estimation of their own law, the Lombards were the noblest people, and of far higher dignity than their neighbors, the Romans. The penalty for forni- cation, committed with a Lombard slave, was a greater sum by two thirds than with a Roman. No woman was permitted to live without the safeguard of some protector,! or of the court. The distinction between free persons and bond-slaves was so great, that an ir- regular marriage was punished with death ; and if a freeman was desirous of espousing his female servant, it was necessary that a ceremony should previously be performed, which typified her regeneration. Great as was the distinction between freemen and the lower or- ders, man, as such, was valued but little higher than the other animals. A man who struck a mare that was with foal, was fined with the same penalty, as if he had committed a similar violence upon a pregnant female slave ; and for either offence, the punishment was only half so great as if he had torn off the tail of a horse. The freemen were either barons, or of common family, or men who had obtained only personal freedom, or such as also possessed the right of disposing of their property. Illegitimate sons were in every way distin- guished from those born in lawful wedlock ; but, when there was only one of the latter in a family, the former inherited one third part of the estate. In the ser- vile class, the domestic servants, who were employed in every kind of art, were distinguished from those who managed the estates ; and these, again, from the labor- ing rustics. Among the latter, some were assigned to agriculture ; others, to pastoral employments, and sever- * Si Dux exercitalem molestaverit injuste, Gastaldus eum solatiet usque ad praesentiam Regis, aut apnd suum judicem ad justitiam per- ducat. [If a general unjustly molests the soldiery, let the gastald pursue him, even to the presence of the king, or lead him before his judge, for justice.] t Mundiburdium. 172 LOMBARDY. ally to the care of oxen, sheep, goats, and swine ; and, in each division, the master rustics were distinguished from the apprentices. The domestic servants took care of the hawks, the swans, the cranes, and stags,, that were kept as domestic animals. Among the Lombards, the word virtus, as among the ancients, had the sense of strength ; and solatium was used to signify the support of armed auxiliaries,^* — the only consolation of the defenceless among bar- barians. To this code were added, at a later period, the feu- dal customs, as they were compiled by Obert-ab Orto, of Milan, under the Eniperor Frederic the First, to- gether with the ordinances of the pontifical chair. The whole system declined, when, towards the end of the twelfth century, the cities began to be governed by par- ticular statutes, and, through the exertions of the pro- fessors of Bologna, the Roman law became every where, except, perhaps, in Venice, the only scheme of juris- prudence ^:hat was used for the completion of local or- dinances. The legal system of the Lombards maintain- ed its ground, most effectually, in those quarters of Sicily where it had been freely adopted. It contained nothing that related to political institu- tions, because the code, on which the security and property of the citizens depended, ought to be wholly unconnected with the mutable forms of government. The monarchy was given by election. On this ac- count, Agilulf took care to procure the nomination of his son Adelwald, [A. D. 604,] to be his successor, twelve years before his own death. [A. D. 616.] The young Prince became idiotical, after his father's death ; idiocy, indeed, and the poison by which it is induced, are frequently mentioned in the history of the Lom- bards. Ariwald, his brother-in-law, was thereupon elected in his place. [A. D. 625.] Rothari, the legis- * Si quis homiiii libero insidiatus fuerit cum virtute et solatio, et snbito battiderit. [In case any one should waylay a freeman, with strength and armed force, and suddenly assault him.] LOMBARDY. 173 lator, was another brother-in-law of Adelwald. [A. D. 636.] Rodwald, the son of Rothari, having fallen by the sword of a man whose wife he had seduced, [A. D. 652, ] the nation elected Aribert, nephew of Queen Theodelinde, desirous of combining, as far as it was possible, respect and gratitude towards the royal house, with the privilege of electing a king according to merit. [A. D. 653.] Aribert, with more paternal than patriotic sentiment, determined to leave his two sons, Perthari and Godebert, joint sovereigns ; each of them endeavored, by factious intrigues, to increase the strength of his own party ; and they both became the victims of their own folly. [A. D. 661.] Grimwald, Duke of Benevento, of Godebert's party, ambitious and distrustful, because he supposed his designs to be sus- pected, slew Godebert ; and Perthari,- being informed of this event, fled into Hungary. [A. D. %^'^.\ The genius of the Lombard government appears in the cir- cumstance, that Grimwald, although hq had conciliated many friends, by acts of munificence, and had secured his personal safety by a body-guard, found it needful, in order to protect his throne, to espouse the sister of the last King. The events, by which he was finally compelled to resign his right to Perthari ; the impru- dent joy of the people, which brought new dangers on the latter ; the valor of his friend, who saved the Prince, at the peril of his own life ; the manner in which his foe rewarded this noble act ; and the resolution of him who had performed it, rather to suffer with Perthari, in misfortune, than to live, with dignity and opulence, in a splendid court; all these circumstances compose a romantic story, in which the heroic character of the Lombard nobles is strikingly portrayed. The Franks came to the aid of Perthari, and were defeated by Grimwald, who obtained his victory, by pretending a flight, and leaving his camp well stored with wine. He afterwards reigned, with such reputation for wis- dom and justice, that deputies were sent to his court, by a tribe of the Bulgarians, begging that he would re- 15* 174 LOMBARDY. ceive them into the number of his subjects. The terri- tory of Mohse was allotted to their establishment. This multitude of nations, each of which retained some part of its peculiar language, have given origin to the pro- vincial dialects of Italy. We find in this country vestiges of all times, of all nations, and constitutions ; and, if we comprise Switzerland in our survey, we have, as it were, an abstract or specimen of every form of govern- ment and period of civilization. After the death of Grimwald, the court and the as- sembly of nobles hastened into the passes of the Alps, to receive back Perthari, [A.D. 671,] who afterwards reigned with gentleness and benignity, having profited by the experience of misfortune. Grimwald having left a son who was Duke of Benevento, Perthari took care, nine years before his death, to cause his own son, Cuni- bert, to be named as his successor. [A. D. 677.] The latter was defeated by Alahis, Duke of Trent ; but the gentleness of his manners, and his respect for learning, and all estimable qualities, had obtained him the affec- tions of his people. Nevertheless, under Luitbert, his almost infant son, Raimbert, Duke of Turin, nephew of Perthari, by his brother, excited internal war, obtain- ed the throne, and bequeathed it to his son, Aribert the Second. [A. D. 700 — 701.] The Bavarians hav- ing undertaken to eflfect the restoration of Luitbert, Aribert in vain sought to win over to his party the Pope, by conceding a tribute from the Cottish Alps, whence are derived the revenues which Rome still ob- tains, to the present day, from Piedmont. [A. D. 710.] Both Luitbert and Aribert lost their lives, in the contest that ensued ; and Ansbrand, a wise old Bavarian chief, was invited by the nation, together with his son Luit- brand, to leave his country, which bordered on Lom- bardy, in the Tyrolian mountains, and to assume the government. The latter was celebrated for many great and splendid qualities. Never was the kingdom more powerful or better regulated, than under his sway. He remained at peace with Bavaria and with the Slavoni- THE ARABS IN FRANCE. 175 ans of Carinthia. Charles Martel, mayor of the palace to the King of the Franks, sent his son Pepin to Luit- brand, that his locks might be shorn by the hand of the Lombard King. The sons of the nobles, among the Franks, never suffered their hair to be shorn, until they had passed the age of puberty, when he, who first per- formed this ceremony, was considered henceforth as holding the relation of a second father. CHAPTER XI. THE ARABS IN FRANCE. LuiTBRAND made a league with Charles Martel, and they exerted themselves, jointly, to withstand the con- quests of the Arabs, before whose victorious arfns, Con- stantinople, Paris, and Benares, trembled. The Mos- lem had spread themselves over the plains of Gascony ; they had passed the Dordogne, and had defeated Eudes, the Duke of Aquitaine : parties of Arabs had appeared on the borders of Burgundy ; and already, Rainulf, Lord of Die, Gap, and Grenoble, had joined the Infi- dels ; already they approached Nice, on their way to the kingdom of the Lombards, when Charles Martel and Luitbrand took up arms against Abderachman, in defence of themselves, of all Christendom, and of Eu- rope. [A. D. 732.] While the Arabs were engaged in the plunder of Poictiers, the Mayor of the Palace united his forces with those of the humiliated Duke of Aquitaine. During a whole week, the hostile armies stood in array, opposed to each other, and consumed the produce of the country. The battle was fought on a Saturday, in October, in a plain which extends between Tours and Poictiers. The Franks stood in a close and impenetra- ble phalanx, protected by their shields as by a bulwark, and sustained, unmoved, the onset of the Infidels : then, 176 CONSTANTINOPLE AND ROME. suddenly, they rushed forwards, and assailed the enemy. Abderachman fell, and with him the flower of his army ; the remainder, yet a powerful body, retreated towards Spain. It is believed that Charles Martel could have inflicted a severer punishment, if he had not been de- sirous of still leaving a formidable enemy to be the ter- ror of Aquitaine. This day was decisive, with respect to the future limits of the Arabian empire. The King of the Lombards waited, in the mean time, with his army on the way to Nice ; but the Arabs did not venture to attack him. CHAPTER XII. CONSTANTINOPLE AND ROME. Three princes had ascended the Byzantine throne, in the space of one year after the death of the Emperor Heraclius : Constans the Second, the grandson of that Monarch, remained in possession of it. [A.D. 641.] This was the tyrant, who occasioned a more irrepara- ble loss to the arts of antiquity, than Alaric and Gen Se- rie, at the head of the Goths and Vandals. [A. D. 642.] He carried on a war against the Lom- bards, in which his troops chiefly distinguished them- selves by devastation, as the ruins of the formerly flour- ishing Luceria long testified. In a battle against the Lombard army, a strong and gigantic warrior of that nation transfixed the body of a young Greek officer, and held it aloft upon his halberd, above the ranks. The sight of it so terrified the troops of Constans, that they immediately took to flight, and the battle was lost. Constans then betook himself to Rome, and carried off all the chief specimens of the fine arts that he could find. The temple of all the gods, in which the senate had formerly been assembled, — that prodigy of architect- ure, built by Agrippa, the friend and minister of Angus- CONSTANTINOPLE AND ROME. 177 tus Cgesar, — ^was despoiled of its costly roof. After the Emperor had employed himself, twelve days, in these occupations, he abandoned the city, bearing with him the execrations of its people and the contempt of his enemies. He afterwards exercised similar devastations, in several towns of Italy, Sardinia, and Sicily, and ap- proached Syracuse, laden with the splendid spoils of the provinces which he despaired of maintaining in their allegiance to his sway. [A.D. 662.] The ships, how- ever, which were destined to convey his plunder to Constantinople, were taken by the Arabs, on their pas- sage ; and the proudest remains of the ancient arts were carried to Alexandria, where they perished, by means which are unknown. Constans remained, six years, in Sicily, where he was at length assassinated. [A. D. 668.] A youth, whom the army forced to seat himself on the throne, and whose chief recommendation was the beauty of his person, was easily overcome by Constan- tine the Fourth, son of the late Emperor. In his reign, Africa was lost to the empire ; and, without the aid of the Grecian fire, a composition of which naphtha was the basis, Constantinople itself would have fallen before the standard of Islam. It was this Constantino who held that council, in which it was established, that the Mono- thelites were heretics, and unworthy of Christian com- munion. [A. D. 685.] Under his son, Justinian the Second, an occurrence took place, at Ravenna, on the occasion of a military parade, held on a Sunday, which may serve to give us some idea of the manners that prevail- ed in the Roman exarchate. [A. D. 691.] The exer- cises were performed according to tribes, and it hap- pened that one body found itself aggrieved. On the following Sunday, after the celebration of Divine ser- vice, they invited the soldiers of the other tribe, as guests, to their houses, on the pretext of promoting a reconcil- iation. Each guest was murdered by his respective host, and the bodies of all were thrust into the sewers 178 CONSTANTINOPLE AND JIOME. or concealed in the stables. The city remained, three days, in public lamentation ; the baths were shut up , the theatres abandoned ; every citizen sought his father or his friend ; processions were ordained ; and the Arch- bishop commanded a fast, which was to be observed even by sucking infants. When the secret was discovered, the guilty tribe suffered the same violence which they had inflicted. Their houses were destroyed, and the part of the town which belonged to them still bears the name of the Quarter of the Robbers. Soon after this catastrophe, the Emperor, who was a prince of ferocious character, and devoted to violent passions, was dethroned, and deprived of his nose. [A. D. 695 — 705.] Having regained his power, he caused Leontius and Apsimarus, who had governed in the interval, to be put to death, publicly, and ordered the eyes of the Patriarch to be put out. The nobles were executed at their own doors, or they were drowned in sacks, or melted lead was poured down their throats. A similar fate befell the chief citizens of the distant Ravenna. Johannicius, a man distinguished by rare endowments of genius, was permitted to write his last will with his own blood. He wrote, '^ O God ! deliver us from the tyrant !" and immediately dashed out his brains against a wall. {A. D. 711.] Philippicus Bardanes took vengeance on Justinian, for the sufferings of humanity ; but he neglected his own interest and the empire. He was surprised, his eyes put out, and Anastasius Artemius, a general of considerable talents, succeeded him on the throne. The army, instead of carrying on wars against the Arabs, forced a private citizen of Adramyttium, whose name was Theodosius, to assume the purple. [A. D. 713.] He laid it aside, as soon as he was per- mitted. [A. D. 716.] Leo, who was an Isaurian, and a general of no mean parts, succeeded him on the throne, [A. D. 717,] and defended Constantinople, more than two years, against the Arabs. In the mean time, pes- tilence and famine are said to have destroyed three RECAPITULATION. 179 hundred thousand men. It was this Emperor who pub- lished the ordinances, decreed prematurely, and with greater purity of intention than knowledge of human nature, against the use of images in the churches ; of which we shall hereafter trace the consequences. CHAPTER XIII. RECAPITULATION. In the period which we have been contemplating, two powers predominated on the political stage: in the South, the Commander of the Faithful, with a large, well-disciplined, and victorious, army ; in the North, the Mayor of the Palace of the Franks, clothed with the authority which his merits acquired, and pre- siding over the resources and strength of the French, the Burgundian, the Thuringian, Bavarian, and Alle- mannic, states. The King of the Lombards was rather great by himself than by any extent of power that could be compared to the sway of two such rivals. England, a world in itself, was destitute of any political influence on the Continent; and the North was scarcely known. UNIVERSAL HISTORY. BOOK XIII. THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE HAROUN AL RASCHID. II. 16 «7. H. BOOK XIII. THE AGE OF CHARLEMAGNE AND HAROUN AL RASCHID. A. D. 732—841. CHAPTER I. STATE OF ROME AND ITALY. The people of Rome had long been unwilling to receive commands from Ravenna, to be the subjects of a foreign court, and to be governed by Greeks, who were accustomed to despise all foreigners as barbari- ans. When peace and tranquillity had recruited their strength, the desire of throwing off the yoke was awak- ened among them. Under the Emperor Philippicus, who was not accurately orthodox, in distinguishing the two natures in the second person in the Trinity, the assembly of the Roman people resolved " no longer to obey the commands of the imperial heretic, or to circu- late his coinage," [A. D. 712;] and they refused per- mission that his statue should be erected in the church of St. John de Lateran, and ordered that his name should no longer be mentioned in the public prayers. A sedition was excited against those who were attached to the imperial party ; and scarcely could the spiritual power, by means of processions, bearing crosses, Gos- pels, and tapers, in the via sacra, moderate the inflamed passions of the multitude. The caus^ they had under- taken excited no hostility on the part of the ecclesiasti- cal authorities. The attempt was renewed, with greater energy, when Leo took away from the people the visible objects of their religious worship. Images were the ancient orna- 184 STATE OF ROME AND ITALY. • merits of the churches. It was not towards the dead wood or stone that the adorations of the more enhght- ened were directed ; but the form served to lead the thoughts towards the ideal object which it typified ; while, to the rude and unlettered, it had ever been impossible to elevate the mind to the conception of an abstract and spiritual nature. Leo, not contented with removing abuses which had been sanctioned by an- tiquity and were connected with the weakness of human nature, caused the images to be broken in pieces, with contempt and abhorrence, and imposed his own method of representation on the consciences of all. Gregory the Second, a native of Rome, who was then Pope, uttered warnings to the Christian people of the West. [A. D. 726.] The cities and the armies of Italy loudly exclaimed against the imperial ordinance ; the officers of the Emperor were expelled ; and inde- pendent men were elected in their places, and bound, by oath, to protect the party of the Apostolic chair. Some provinces were desirous of choosing another em- peror ; but Gregory, with that presence of mind which is the trait of a great man, represented to them, that, as it was yet possible that the Divine grace might find its way to the heart of Leo, precipitancy in their counsels would be culpable and intrusiva. It thus came to pass, that Italy recognised the authority of no emperor ; but the Pope, as long as he lived, remained at the head of a powerful confederacy. At this epoch. King Luitbrand was waging war against the exarchate, and endeavoring to unite Italy under one monarchy, sufficient for the maintenance of its own security, and over which no foreign power would have been able in future to prevail. Although some of the Lombard dukes were too independent, yet the kingdom had augmented its power. The nobles trembled in the presence of Luitbrand, who was so gracious to the inferior ranks, that he may be excused for his severity towards the great. Two of his nobles had formed a conspiracy against this Monarch. He STATE OF ROME AND ITALY. 185 led them to the chase, and, in a secluded place, in a forest where he was alone with them, he upbraided them with their design, and, throwing away his arms, exclaimed, " Here is Luitbrand, your King ! do to- wards him as you will." They threw themselves at his feet. He gave them presents, as the pledges of forgiveness. " The King of the Lombards," says Paul Warnefried, " was no scholar ; but he was wiser than the philosophers." Against the power of this valiant leader, Gregory the Third defended Rome and Ravenna, by means of menaces and exhortations. In the dominions of a king, the Papal chair could never have attained so exalted a degree of veneration. It was fortunately filled, in suc- cession, by a number of enlightened statesmen, who united eloquence and the lofty virtues of the Roman character with the dignity derived from their own of- fice. The two Gregories were succeeded by Zachari- as, a courageous man, who possessed a share of knowl- edge, which was in those times rare. The latter was followed by the enterprising Stephen, who sought the assistance of the Franks, against the arms of the Lom- bards. Paul, though brother of Stephen, held, with wonderful dexterity, a balance of power between the two opposing interests ; and Adrian the Second, in the most calamitous times, was distinguished by all those imposing qualities which enable a ruler to hold an ascendency over the minds of men, and to use them as his instruments. Charlemagne collected the corres- pondence between these Popes and his father and him- self. It shows us what a preponderance they were enabled to acquire by their ability,, their knowledge of mankind, and by an eloquence which was worthy of 16* 186 THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY, CHAPTER II. THE CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. After the death of Charles Martel, his house be- came weakened by divisions ; and Slavonians, Bavari- ans, Allemanni, and Saxons, took arms in the cause of his son Gripho against the brothers of the latter. Pe- pin and Carloman conquered their enemy, and they availed themselves of this occasion for abolishing the ducal dignity in Germany. The house of Duke Luit- fried lost itself in the crowd of the nobility ; and royal administrators held the office, as the counts of Burgun- dy succeeded to the dukes and patricians. The house of the Mayor of the Palace could not endure the new dignities which began to rival it. The influence of the bishops was lessened by their love of arms, of wine, and of the chase ; for a grave demeanor is the secret support of a power which is grounded on opinion. [A. D. 752.] In this state of the French empire, in the two hundred and sixty-sixth year from the time when Clovis, the Merovingian, laid the foundations of it, the Franks assembled themselves at Soissons, and obliged Childeric the Third, the last of the Merovingian house, to lay down the insignia of royalty. Pepin, Mayor of the Palace, son of Charles Martel and grand- son of the old Pepin d'Heristhal, was elected King of the Franks. Pope Stephen the Third confirmed, by the apostolical authority, the newly-acquired power in the house of the Carlovingians. The new King, after he had acquired the sole sov- ereignty, by the humiliation of the nobles and the ruin of his brothers, strengthened his power, by an intimate alliance with the popes, and rendered the latter great and illustrious by his victories over the Lombards. In the seventeenth year of his reign, [A. D. 768,] he assem- bled all his dukes, counts, bishops, and abbots, and, FALL OF THE KINGDOM OF THE LOMBARDS. IST with their consent, divided the French empire between his sons, Charles and Carloman ; the latter of whom died, in the course of a few years, not without suspic- ion of having received poison by order of his brother. [A.D. 771.] CHAPTER III. PALL OF THE KINGDOM OF THE LOMBARDS. In the kingdom of the Lombards, after the death of Luitbrand, and the short administration of his successor, Hildebrand, the staff of sovereignty was surrendered to Duke Rachis, of Friul. [A. D. 744.] The latter, to- gether with his Q.ueen Tasia and her daughter, having given themselves up to a life of devotion, in the clois- ters of the Benedictines on Monte Cassino, his brother Aistulf was chosen in his place. [A. D. 749.] Ais- tulf conquered the exarchate ; against him, Pope Ste- phen, finding him less submissive than his predecessors, had called in the aid of Pepin, who forced the King to yield a part of his conquests, [A. D. 752,] and confided them, on account of their remoteness, to the adminis- tration of the Pope. When Aistulf was dead, and Ra- chis, satiated with the life of pious seclusion, came forth from his cloister and again sought his throne, Desideri- us, Duke of Tuscany, obtained the sceptre, through the influence of the Romish See. [A. D. 756.] The latter, after the demise of the popes, who had promoted his fortunes, fell into a dispute with Adrian the Second, concerning certain territories of the exarch- ate, that were on their mutual boundaries ; and, at the same time, afforded an asylum to the family of Carlo- man, who fled from the power of Charles, King of the Franks. On this account, Charles was the more easily stirred up by the Pope to renew the war against the Lombards. Charles held, at Geneva, the Diet, in which the Lom- 188 FALL OF THE KINGDOM OF THE LOMBARDS. bard war was resolved upon. With a part of his army, he marched through Savoy, while Bernhard, his uncle, led the other division over the Mont Bernhard. The King of the Lombards sought an interview with the Pope : Adrian returned answer, that he could not en- ter into any negotiation, until Desiderius had punctual- ly fulfilled all his demands. Spoleto, Rieti, and other places, immediately declared themselves for the strong- est party. It was found impossible to resist the enemy in the passes of Suse and Novalese, where the paths had been betrayed to them. The Lombards could not sup- port the onset of powerful bodies moving in firm array. Pavia was the central point of their defence. When the other cities had been reduced, and Pavia cut off, Charles, on Easter-day, paid a visit to the Pope in Rome, accompanied by some of his dukes and counts. The nobility of Rome, with the standard of the imperi- al city, and the youth, with branches of olive and palm, marched out, together with the whole clergy, to receive the King. The Pope, surrounded by the great prelates and the Roman people, awaited him at the vestibule of the church of Saint Peter. The King, after returning thanks for the good fortune of his arms, entered into the sepulchre where the bones of the Apostles lie. The Pope did not neglect to obtain from him a confirmation of the gifts which the Church had received from his father, and entered into a personal friendship with Charles, which they maintained through life. The valiant Adalgis, son of the Lombard King, had abandoned Pavia and retired to Constantinople, where a brave and victorious emperor, inopportunely for his designs, died soon after his arrival. [A. D. 774.] Pa- via, according to some, by the treachery of a princess, who had conceived a violent passion for the great Charles, according to others, by the hand of a meaner traitor, was betrayed to the French King. The king-^ dom of Lombardy was united with that of France, and his " Excellency Charles, the illustrious King of the Franks, and Patrician of Rome," a title bestowed FALL. OF THE KINGDOM OF THE LOMBARDS. 189 upon him by the Romans, was also declared sovereign of the Lombards. Paul Warnefried, the chancellor of Desiderius, and the historian of his nation, three times conspired for the restoration of its independence ; and proved that the vicissitudes of fortune were incapable of altering the resolutions of his mind. His judges had condemned him to lose his eyes and hands ; but Charles, in this instance, imitating Caesar, exclaimed, " Where shall we find hands that shall be able to write history as these have done ?" Charles was sovereign of the country, as far as the Garigliano, while the extensive and beautiful territory of Naples, as far as Brindisi, was maintained by Arichis, Duke of the Lombards, at Benevento. This Prince ruled from sea to sea, and his successors conquered the territories of the Greek Emperor in Lower Italy. Arichis had fortified Salerno. His magnificence, his wisdom, and justice, obtained for him the admiration of Eu- rope. Adalberge, his Duchess, caused an abstract of Roman history, which was no despicable work, to be prepared.* Charles was well contented that Arichis manifested towards him the outward signs of submis- sion. [A. D. 787.] In Salerno, the Duke received the royal commissaries ; his army surrounded the palace ; the young nobles, with falcons on their hands, formed rows for them, through the public places ; the hall was filled with the magistrates of the city, and the counsel- lors, in their robes of state : the Duke, who was seated on a golden throne, rose up and swore to be faithful to the King, to maintain peace, and to fight under his ban- ners, a league beyond the boundaries of the Beneventan territory. In all these affairs, the city of Venice, which was forming itself in the islands of the Lagunes, took scarce- ly any part. It possessed no territory on the continent ; and, while favoring, sometimes, the Lombards, at oth- * Historia Miscella. 19Q RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE OF THE WEST. ers, the Greeks or the French, remained free and unob- served. The Venetians seemed wiUing rather to favor Charles, whose greatness depended on the soul which he alone knew how to infuse into his empire, and who did not oppress them, as the old Lombard kings had done, by their continual presence. The Liburnian coasts also acknowledged Charles. He protected Corsica against the Arabs ; while, in Sar- dinia and Sicily, the latter people contended for domin- ion with the Greeks. CHAPTER IV. RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE OF THE WEST. Charles was already master of the peopled districts of Lower Germany : the Frisians had learnt to obey his father and grandfather ; the Saxons, in Westphalia, and in lower Saxony as far up as Hesse, under Wittekind, had often renewed their warfare, with the same ruinous event, against his arms and laws, the faith of Christen- dom, and the manners of the French ; the Sorbians had in vain attempted to aid their allies ; and Gottfried, King of the Danes, had opened to them free asylums, where they might recruit their strength. The Obo- trites, or Mecklenburghers, favored the arms of the French : but it was Charles himself, who imparted to them their chief energy. While he was conquering Italy, and dissipating the conspiracies of the Lombard chiefs ; humbling the restless Vasci in Gascony, trav- ersing the Pyrenees, taking Pamplona, and infusing terror into the Arab troops, as far as Zaragoza ; driving them out of the south of France, and establishing a count to the southward of the Pyrenees, at Barcelona ; he never lost sight of the rude Pagans of Saxony, but flew with his troop of Franks* from Spain to Paderborn, * Scara Francisca ; Frankenschaar. RESTORATION OF THE EMPIRE OF THE WEST. 191 and, having received there the obeisance of " Ibn al Ara- bi," put out the fire of rebelUon in the west of Germany. Saxony was obhged to yield to the unceasing exercise of all the resources of military art. Charles conquered the most cultivated and the wild- est parts of Western Europe. He had, at the same period, to contend against the spirit of freedom, which yet survived in Brittany ; with Duke Thassilo, of Bava- ria, who, not without impatience, acknowledged him as a superior; and with conspiracies in his own house. [A. D. 788.] The treachery of Thassilo gave him an opportunity of uniting, under his immediate sway, the territory of Bavaria, from the Lech to the Ens, and from the extensive plains of the Nordgau to the feet of the Tyrolian Alps, where the confines of his own Lombar- dy began. He spared the life of the chieftain, who, in the tranquillity of a cloister, forgot the laborious pur- suits of ambition and his ill-directed patriotism. Charles drove the restless Avari beyond the Raab, and laid waste their boundaries. He pursued, still further, the Wiltzes, Limones, and other Slavonian tribes inhabiting the territory of Brandenburg, in order that the unwilling Saxons might wear the yoke in the midst of subdued nations. He afterwards drew every third man from Saxony, and transplanted them into the interior of his kingdom; gave to French, subjects the farms that were left vacant ; and appointed bishops in the marks of Brandenburg. He was desirous of civilizing the people whom he had subdued by arms, and in future to build his government on civil order and the sacred influence of the spiritual authority. [A. D. 800.] Charles, King of the French, con- queror of the Saxons, Bavarians, and Lombards ; in Spain, the hope of Christendom ; the protector of the islands ; the terror of the Avari ; as patrician of Rome, the patron of the Church, — hastened, on the Christmas of the last year of the eighth century, from Paderborn to Rome, in order to quell a tumult which had been excited against Pope Leo the Third, by the nephews of 192 CONSTITUTION OF ITALY. his predecessor. Men from all the subject-nations, or from all the nations that frequented the capital of the Western Church of Christendom, were present with him at the solemnization of Divine worship on the day of the birth of Christ, when Leo, suddenly appearing, offered him the imperial crown. The people exclaimed, " Long Hfe and victory to Charles Augustus, crowned by God, our great and peace-restoring Emperor 1" and the Pope knelt at his feet. In the three hundred and twenty- fourth year from the abdication of Romulus Momyllus, the imperial dignity was restored by Charlemagne. His dominion extended over Italy, France, Catalonia, the Balearic islands, and Friesland ; to the Elbe, to the Bohemian forest, to the Raab, and to the mountains of Croatia. CHAPTER V. CONSTITUTION OF ITALY. The great cities of Italy were governed by dukes, who sat in the courts of justice together with the bish- ops, abbots, counts, knights, and land-owners, and be- fore whom the people were assembled. The law of the nation to which the accused belonged decided, in crim- inal causes ; and, in local causes, the law of the prov- ince where the estates of the parties were situated. We find that the Abbot of Farsa, ^n a dispute relating to the warm baths in the Sabine country, refused the de- cision of the Roman laws, because the possession, under litigation, lay within the jurisdiction of the laws of Lom- bardy. He gave testimony to that effect, and was tried according to the latter code, though only one person in the tribunal was acquainted with it. The Pope possessed no estate ; but he was free, and exempted from civil offices. He was elected by the clergy and the people, and confirmed by the Emperor, who invested him with the administration of his territo- CONSTITUTION OF THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. 193 rial fief. [A. D. 816.] "By this our deed of con- firmation," says the act of investment, '' we bestow upon thee, holy Peter, and on thee, Paschahs, steward of the Apostle, and universal bishop, and on all thy successors in office, the city and the dukedom of Rome, and their domain in hills and plains, as you have here- tofore possessed them, with the reservation of our su- preme sovereignty, without prejudice or invasion, on our part, of the spiritual and temporal constitution ; as we desire to withdraw none of your people who fly to us from the judgement of the law of your land." The Pope possessed, at Rome, the same power as the dukes in other cities ; but he became more easily, and at an earlier period, independent of the sovereign. CHAPTER VI. CONSTITUTION OF THE KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. Among the Franks, there was no distinction between the army and the people ; and hence the military art was perfected at a later period, and the people remain- ed so much the longer free. For the defence of the kingdom, the nation was called to arms ; sudden exi- gencies were provided foi% by troops which traversed the country ; and there was a v/atch, or wardship, in each district, for the local poHce. The land-owners were under an obligation to the defence of the coun- try ; and whoever possessed three or four allotments of land, went, in person, to the service of the king, while his slaves cultivated the soil. The poor, who possessed only one allotment, or none, paid for the maintenance of a warrior. Thus was formed a kind of armed rep- resentation of the people. The military ordinances required, that each man should provide himself with arms and clothes, for half a year, and with provisions, for a quarter of a year. II. 17 U. H. 194 CONSTITUTION OF THE The cavalry bore a shield, a lance, a sword, dagger, bow, and arrows. He who was absent from the levy was punished for his neglect, by a fine of sixty shillings. The count of the district led the men of his own terri- tory. The war paid its own expenses. The king and the lowest of the Franks lived on the revenue of their own estates. Clothed in vestments which his own wife had spun for him, Charles gave laws to the nations, and issued directions to his bailiffs for the sale of his eggs. Slaves were attached to the land, and paid a toll, or land-tax, for the farms that were leased out to them; and the conquered nations paid a tribute for the support of the state. These equal contributions were levied by the chamber-com- missary. Bridge-tolls and road -money were paid by the Franks ; but, in other respects, they were free from all imposts. They were indebted for their land to their own valor, and maintained it with their blood. The king was as much under obligation to them, for their bravery, as the nation was to the king, for his protecting care. Presents were voted to him in the popular as- sembly, according to the circumstances and abilities of the givers. The king had no legislative power : he discussed with his ministers in council what laws were necessary ; and the referendary sent the drafts of them to the arch- bishops, dukes, and counts ; and these to the bishops, abbots, hundred-men, and bailiffs of the cities, by whom they were laid before the popular assembly ; and the latter either confirmed them, by raising their hands, or rejected them, with murmurs. If approved of by the majority, they were afterwards ratified by the king. The hundred-men held courts in their hundreds, and the district counts, country-courts, in which, twelve persons, chosen by the people, or the distinguished men or notables, sat together with the bailiff of the dio- cese. Here, all high crimes were tried, such as mur- der, burning, robbery, and kidnapping ; and here, the causes of slaves against cruel masters, and all appeals, SLINGDOM OF THE PRANKS. 195 in lesser instances. Towards the middle of May, the royal commissioner came, in whose presence, the bish- ops, abbots, counts, viscounts, hundred-men, bailiffs, and deputies from the convents, together with the kingsmen, assembled. Hither, all complaints were brought concerning the administration, and all causes, the decisions of which had not been satisfactory ; and here, unjust judges were deposed from their dignities. On this occasion, the youth, who grew to man's estate, gave their allegiance. Asylums protected against vio- lence, but not against the laws. Bondmen were allowed to leave their master, in four cases, — when he had attempted their lives, robbed them, given them a blow with a stick, or debauched their daughters. Charles the Great sometimes permitted the sons of counts, who had deserved well of the state, to succeed their fathers, in the enjoyment of their dignities and fiefs. His successors soon found themselves unable to refuse to any, 8l privilege which some had obtained by_ particular favor. In the mean time, the multitude of separate dominations, which at length became inde- pendent, contributed, more than any other form of government could have, done, to the improvement of the country, where they afforded so many centres of opulence and expenditure, and enabled every individu- al, of the meanest rank, to find protection in his own neighborhood. The necessity of such a system, which arose from the circumstances of the times, gave it an earlier establishment. The vassals of the royal do- mains committed their property to the protection of the holy men in some celebrated monastery.* With this view, Valtellin, in the Alps, was intrusted to the abbey of St. Denys, the Abbot of St. Denys being a powerful protector at the court. The monasteries were designed, not only for the propagation of Christianity, the basis on which the new * [Law of Charlemagne, 768.] 196 CONSTITUTION OF THE system of manners was erected, but for the purposes of hospitality, in an age when houses of entertainment were rarely found ; and, as they served for the relief of the indigent and of lepers, they obtained the favor of the king. The people sought their protection the more anxiously, as the holy men of God were observed to impose as much reverence on the court itself, as on the lowest country gentleman. Charlemagne renewed the ancient, but too often vio- lated, ordinance, that the bishops should not be ap- pointed by royal authority, but elected by the people and the ecclesiastics. The servants of the Church had already been exempted, by his father, from the juris- diction of the counts. It was supposed that the bish- ops might safely be relied upon to watch over the nobles, and restrain them from evil pursuits. Their people bore arms, in time of war ; and their decisions, in judicial matters, were revised by the royal commis- sary. The bishops appeared at the head of their servants and vassals, in the royal army, until Charles, on the representation of many of his liege subjects, chiefly of their own class, declared, that it could no longer be allowed that the particular servants of God should bear arms for the destruction of his own image ; that the clergy should only appoint certain prelates to give their benediction to the arms of the nation, to preach the Christian doctrine, and to mediate peace ; and that the king should nominate a commander to lead the vassals of the bishops. When the Church became rich, the essential gave way to the accidental, and the principles of the ruling governments were adopted. The monks endeavored to emancipate themselves from episcopal jurisdiction, being desirous, as well as other classes of freemen, to be dependent immediately on the king. Like the Lacedaemonians, they were so much the more greedy of power, as they passed their lives in the practice of strict obedience. Pepin and Charles, as they set the counts free from the authority KINGDOM OF THE FRANKS. 197 of the dukes, with a similar view favored the exemp- tions of monasteries, knowing that power, divided among a multitude of heads, would make a less formi- dable opposition to the royal authority. The whole of the North was cleared of its forests, and colonized, as soon as the views of ordinary men became sufficiently enlightened to enable them to un- derstand the interests of their own petty dominions. Nothing is to be despised, which happens in its proper season ; but, after the erection of the palace, the scaf- fold falls, by its own weight. We have elsewhere remarked, that it was a distin- guished merit in Charles the Great, or a signal proof of his good understanding, that, although wielding a power so extensive and arms so victorious, he yet did not disdain to govern according to the laws of the land, and according to the counsel of his liege subjects. His empire consisted of a vast number of petty courts, each of which comprised a republic within itself. In each of these, all the necessities of the inhabitants of the district were provided for. Pasturage and agricul- ture were the chief objects of care. The same Franks, who conquered Wittekind, subdued, in the North, the sterility of Nature, and waged war, for their herds, against uruses and wolves. In such a state of manners, every man was indepen-' dent and self-sufficient. Nothing was performed in the perfection which our arts of life have attained, but each individual, among the Franks, could do more for himself than each of us. The present age has called forth a greater variety of ideas ; the men of those times had individually abilities for more multiplied pursuits. They may be said to have possessed the es- sentials of personal freedom, the foundations of which rest upon two points, — on wanting but little, and pos- sessing ability for many occupations. 17* 198 THE COMMANDERS OP THE FAITHFUL CHAPTER VII. THE COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL OF THE HOUSE OP ABBAS. Two years before that period, when the father of Charlemagne forced the last of the Merovingian princes to lay down the sceptre of his ancestors, Merwan the Second, of the house of Ommia, lost, for himself and his family, the chair of the Arabian Prophet. [A.D. 754.] Abu Abbas Abdallah al SafFah, descended from an uncle of Mohammed, formed, with the aid of Abu Moslem, a party, which deprived Merwan of his sove- reignty and his life. Among the Franks, the family of Clovis descended into a private station ; and it is believ- ed, that, in the house of Montesquieu, the posterity of the founders of the French monarchy may still be rec- ognised. Among the Arabs, the house of Ommia was extirpated ; even children were put to death ; and the bones of glorious conquerors. Commanders of the Faith- ful, were violated in their graves. One Prince of this family, had not, like Childeric, lost the spirit of his forefathers. Abderachman Da- cheH, son of Moawiah, son of theKhalif Hesham, sought refuge in the remote countries of the West. His name procured him adherents. He passed the Straits into Spain; [A.D. 755;] defeated the lieutenant, Jussuf; and, assuming the title of Emir-el-Mumenin, severed this great province from the empire of the Abbassida?. The opulence and prosperity of Spain were hereby in- creased, and the Arabs maintained so much the longer their dominion over it. The misfortunes and the weak- ness of the grea,ter empires arise chiefly from the male- administration of provincial governors. During two hundred and eighty-three years, the house of the Orh- miadse reigned at Cordova, over the eight provinces into which Spain was divided. OF THE HOUSE OF ABBAS. 199 After the premature death of Saffah, his brother and successor, Abu Jayafar Al Mansur, in a fruitful and beautiful plain, on both sides of the river Tigris, built Bagdad, the future residence of the khalifs. [A. D. 762.] His troops carried their victorious arms into the re- gion, to the east and northeast of the Caspian sea, which was called Turkestan, or the country of the Turks. [A.D. 763.] The Turkish name, which is first known to us in the works of Mela and Pliny, is common to a number of wandering tribes in the south- ern provinces of the Russian empire, whose increasing population or internal dissensions have given rise, from the earliest times, to incursions, formidable or ruinous to the more civilized countries of the South. At this period, as among the Massagetse, when Cyrus inva- ded the same region, a queen reigned over this coun- try, which was rich in gold and in precious stones. The gifts of the Greek emperors, and the commerce of Bucharia, and of the countries further towards the northwest, were the sources of her opulence. While the Arabian armies extended their sway to- wards Bucharia, on the other side they subdued Arme- nia, and made incursions, through Asia Minor, to the shores of the Bosphorus. In the time of Abderachman-el-Muzzafer, who reign- ed in Spain, the Moslems of that country conquered the island of Crete, and made themselves masters of Can- dia, its new capital. [A. D. 825.] When the soul, which infused energy through the French monarchy, had ceased to exist with Charle- magne, Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic isles, were rendered tributary, and forced to submit to the sway of Arabian chiefs. In the reign of the Greek Emperor, Michael the Stammerer, who was scarcely able to uphold, even in Constantinople, the power which he had acquired by the murder of his more virtuous predecessor, the Lieu- tenant who governed Sicily, in his name, excited the revenge of a powerful youth, from whom he had taken, 200 SURVEY OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE. by violence, the object of his affection, in order to be- stow her upon a rich man, who had given him a sum of gold. Other writers give a different relation of this affair, but all agree respecting the consequences. The injured youth swore, that, ''if he lost his Homoniza, those who inflicted his misery should have to lament many similar misfortunes." His wrath was the source of more direful woes to the Greeks than that of Achilles for the loss of the fair Briseis. He invited the Arab Governor of Tunis to pass into Sicily. Zindat Allah, of the Aglabite tribe, supported by the Moslem of Spain, invaded that island. The cities which were situated in the plains were unable to resist his arms ; but the governors of the fortresses, and of Palermo, Syracuse, and Chasuan, held out longer than whole kingdoms ; and fifty-three years passed, before the final subjuga- tion of Sicily. CHAPTER VIH. SURVEY OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE. [A. D. 786.] The times of Haroun Al Raschid the Just, who was twenty-three years Commander of the Faithful, gradually developed, among the Arabs, a love for the sciences, which had already begun to display itself under Almansur, the grandfather of this Prince, and became still more conspicuous in the reign of his son, Almamun. The Moslem soon became as distin- guished for their thirst of knowledge as for their love of military glory. During the period of their splendor, the East, Africa, and Spain, assumed a new aspect. Magnificent palaces, gardens, waterworks, schools, man- ufactories, arose in every country, and the population became greatly increased. Spain never contained a greater number of flourishing cities. A characteristic circumstance, in the conquests of the Arabs, was, that whoever embraced the faith of Islam SURVEY OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE. 201 was henceforward reckoned among the victorious na- tion, and became as free as the conquerors themselves. The nation stood less in awe of the unlimited power of the khalifs than of God and the Prophet, whom the khalifs themselves feared. That fiery zeal, which in- spired them to conquer all the South, incited them to the most difficult and splendid enterprises. There was a loftiness of character, in the whole nation, which be- came the source of magnanimous and beneficent under- takings. It is to these times, that most of our proverbs and romances must be referred ; and ' The Thousand and One Nights'* have rendered Haroun Al Raschid more celebrated than his victorious march through Asia, when he displayed his terrific arms before Con- stantinople. The proverbial sayings of wise men have produced such an impression, that, in the Egyptian battle of Louis the Ninth, the courage of a warrior was daunted by the remembrance of one of them. The laws of this people were founded, for the most part, on the common principles of the understanding; and, on this account, maintained their influence. The study of the sciences, properly so called, began among the Arabs, with the translations which John of Damascus, or Mesne, made from the writings of the Greek physicians. The Commanders of the Faithful had appointed him to this task, and they afterwards or- dered translations to be made of the works of the as- tronomers and philosophers of Greece. In Bagdad, in Bassora, Cufa, Kesh, Nishabur, schools of learning were established. The Arabs brought to perfection the art of clock-making, which was introduced from Constan- tinople ; and, in the pursuit of knowledge, entered into a noble contest with the Greeks, by which the court of Bagdad was the most adorned, while the literature of Byzantium lay buried in unfrequented libraries. Among the Western nations, the comprehensive mind of Charlemagne alone possessed the taste for sim- *[Commonly called, ' The Arabian Nights' Entertainments.'] 202 SURVEY OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE. ilar pursuits. • This Prince caused a school and a hos- pital to be erected near his palace ; and he was as dis- tinguished for his ardent thirst of knowledge as for his munificence towards those whom he considered as men of learning, and with whom he lived in habits of friend- ly intercourse. His plans fell, however, together with his power. We may, in general, remark, with respect to the lit- erature of the Arabians, that the Greek authors, who were translated into their language, were too far ele- vated above the previous knowledge of this people, to be wholly intelligible to them. Accordingly, they ad- mired and imitated these authors, without advancing further, in the more important matters. These defects were encouraged, by the prejudice, that anatomy was an impious violation of dead bodies ; that surgery was merely the work of the hand ; and by their devotion to the wonderful and to antiquated notions ; in conse- quence of which, astrology, the interpretation of dreams, fortunetelling by the lines of the hand, and many other superstitious follies, were developed among them, and from-^them have descended to our times. From the influence of a similar taste, they were less delighted with Hippocrates, who always treads on the path of ex- perience, than with the more subtile Galen, who has a more learned and refined exterior. Razi, Ebn Sina, and Averrhoes, who were celebrated among the Arabs, have not left us so valuable a treasure as they would have done, if they had confined themselves to the study of Nature. We are more indebted to the Arabs for what they have preserved for our use, than for what they have discovered. In philosophy, they greatly admired the profound Aristotle, with his categories, distributions, and syllo- gistic forms ; and they learnt to distinguish words, where he distinguishes things. Such is the origin of a number of controversies which took place in Europe, in the tenth century, when the Arabs introduced the writings of this philosopher, whom the present age SURVEY OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE. 203 only has learnt really to understand, and rightly to esti- mate. They translated Ptolemy's description of the earth, and combined it with a better knowledge of the globe, and with an acquaintance with the starry heavens, which, among themselves, was an ancient acquisition. On these branches of science they have left us impor- tant observations, the sum of which, as far as relates to geography, is contained in the work of Prince Ismael Abulfeda. Without the assistance of this author, we cannot obtain an adequate knowledge either of the East or of the South ; and his writings deserve a more complete and elaborate edition than has yet appeared. The measurement of a degree of latitude was under- taken by the command of Haroun Al Raschid. Our literature pays homage to that of the Arabs, by the use of many words which have passed from their language into ours ; but their influence on the revival of European knowledge was, on the whole, disadvan- tageous to us. The Arabs brought among our fore- fathers, authors, whom neither party understood ; and learning became a mere display of words. The admi- ration of Aristotle prepared a new yoke for the mind already tortured by a false interpretation of the Scrip- tures ; and many great and celebrated authors were read, without producing any effect on the mental char- acter of the nations who admired them. Such was the state of things, from the time when the Emperor Fred- erick the Second exerted himself, with the best inten- tions, to furnish us with the whole Arabian philosophy of Aristotle, until Luther, Descartes, Locke, and Bayle, rendered the sciences popular, brought them down from the Olympian heights of the universities, among the multitude, and tore the veil, with which a barbarous Latinity had concealed the Muses. The Arabs were the authors of many improvements in arts and manufactures. Before the time of Charle- magne, they had instructed the French in the art of weaving ; and they introduced into Europe many East- 204 SURVEY OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE. ern vegetables. The fair of Bagdad was the chief market for silk. The mulberry-tree was first planted in Lombardy, in the sixteenth century ; and Hertzburg now justly exults in its manufactory of robes, from the silk of Brandenburg. In architecture, the Arabs were the founders of that style which we term Gothic, because our ancestors be- came acquainted with it in Visigothic Spain. It gives that expression of boldness and extravagance which seems peculiar to the Oriental people. Nature is nev- er vast enough for them. The Grecian beauty is too tame for their imagination, which demands something gigantic, mysterious, and emblematical. As the Arabs dwelt originally under tents, so their alcassar was not a palace, according to the ancient style. It contained long suites of rooms, and many single pa- vilions. They had fountains and water-jets, even in their sleeping apartments, since their religion command- ed frequent ablutions, and because, in the wilderness, water and shady places were regarded as the greatest of luxuries. The Romans had also gardens before their vestibules ; but the Arabs were not contented without long and straight avenues of trees. They cop- ied, in the decollation of their gardens, the paradise which surrounds Damascus. The Chrysorrhoas, the Abana, and the Pharpar, pour their waters from Leba- non into the same receptacle : the stream divides itself into three branches, from which a thousand winding channels flow, under the shade of the finest fruit-bear- ing trees, through a verdant plain. Many of these riv- ulets unite in the neighborhood of the city, traverse its streets, and form, beyond it, a clear and unruflüed lake.* The court of the Commander of the Faithful, in mag- nificence, in the abundance of gold, of pearls, and of precious stones, exceeded the splendor of the Byzan- tine palace. The sacred alcassar was reflected, in the form of a vast half-moon, by the Tigris, which flowed under its walls. The cities of the Arabs scarcely bore * [Rather a marsh, called Bahr el Marje, or Lake of the Meadow.] SURVEY OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE. 205 any resemblance to our towns. Their walls enclosed large districts of beautifully-cultivated ground ; many of them were surrounded by the desert ; they were the markets, the places of deposit, and the asylums, of the wandering tribes. Such was Shiraz and such Bassora, where festive games were celebrated. Bassora con-s- tained twenty-four districts, whose innumerable multi- tudes were supported by the expenditure which all the nations of the Moslem made in the neighboring Bag- dad, before the court of their high-priest and prince. The mountains of Yemen were crowned with citadels, whence the people descended on terraces, covered by gardens, and supported on massive walls. Abulfeda reckons a thousand cities in a single province of Arabia. Communication was maintained, through all parts of the empire, by means of posts, which Moawiah, the first of the Ommiade khalifs, introduced, about seven hundred years before they were established in France. The same Prince established a maritime force, which served to connect the remotest provinces. The Arabs became victorious, not so much through any remarka- ble skill in military tactics, as by the weakness of the Christians, to which they opposed their own enthusiasm. The invention of tournaments is ascribed to them, from whom they were introduced into Italy and France, and from these countries into Germany. A bold fanaticism was the foundation of the Arabian empire ; paternal authority was its form ; its character, and that of its people, rendered it great and prosperous. Should I attempt to compare the simple manners of Charles the Great with the splendor of the sultan of a ' thousand and one nights ;' the stedfastness of the Frank- ish warrior with the fire of the Arab ; the tedious prog- ress by which we emerged from barbarism with the sud- den apparition of a new faith, a universal empire, a re- fined civilization, among the hordes of the desert ; it would be to draw a parallel between the understanding and the imagination. We behold, on one side, the lofty flight of souls, which are elevated by a phantom, above II. 18 u. H. 206 ENGLAND. the apparent bounds of possibility ; we see the fire, which animated them, gradually diminish, from time to time break forth again, but finally lose itself in its primitive obscurity. On the other side, we observe the slower developement of reason, stedfast in its exertions, assailed by a thousand errors and passions, strengthen- ing itself, by imperceptible degrees, and at length evolv- ing a blaze of light, which imparts, at the same time, the power of effecting greater things, and of calculating the utmost possible attainments of the human faculties. CHAPTER IX. ENGLAND. Soon after the time of Charlemagne, Egbert, King of Wessex, educated in the school of adversity, and in- structed at the court of the French Emperor, united the kingdoms of the Anglo-Saxons, which had hitherto ex- isted separately. [A. D. 827.] He conquered Kent, and rendered tributary Mercia, in the limits of which name West Anglia was already included. His prede- cessors had already subdued Sussex ; he added Essex to his territory ; and afterwards received the submission of the double court of Northumberland, hitherto di- vided between the kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia. England and Ireland still maintained a precedence, in learning, over France ; but the understanding of Charles the Great was of far greater worth than the lessons which he received from Alcuin. Already, the pirates and adventurers of Denmark and Norway ventured into the Mediterranean Sea. Charles, not without uneasiness, observed their increas- ing boldness, which portended future calamities to his country. CONSTANTINOPLE. 207 CHAPTER X. CONSTANTINOPLE. [A.D. 741.] The wise and victorious Emperor Constantine the Fifth continued to wage, against im- ages, the war which had been begun, and thus far car- ried on, by his predecessors. It was hoped, that it would be the means of depriving the Arabs of one great censure which they cast upon Christianity, and of removing a principal cause of their alienation. In comparison with such an advantage as this, the loss of Ravenna would have been altogether insignificant. But, after Leo the Fourth had unexpectedly terminated his short reign, [A. D. 775,] not without suspicion of poison, his widow, Irene, an Athenian lady, during the minority of Constantine the Sixth, [A.D. 780,] in- duced, either by womanly superstition or by the desire of founding her usurped dominion more securely on the good-will of the monks and their partisans, gave up the undertaking of purifying Christendom from the pol- lution of idolatry. [A. D. 787.] The attempt seemed the more likely finally to succeed, because Charlemagne was favorably inclined towards it. [A. D. 797.] After Irene had stained herself with the innocent blood of her son, and, with an address which became her sex, had shown, for some years, the first example of a female government directing the des- tinies of the empire, she at length fell, unexpectedly, -by a bold attempt of Nicephorus, and died of vexation for the loss of a throne, which had incited her to more than one crime. [A. D. 802.] Her successor, like Constantine the Fifth, whose con- duct he imitated, was accused of the most flagitious vices, by the worshippers of images, whom he treated with contempt. Although he displayed great penetra- tion and energy of character, he seems to have merited 208 CONSTANTINOPLE. censure, by opposing himself, without prudence and caution, to the idolatrous party, which had now attained strength and influence. All his enterprises were con- sequently impeded, and particularly his last expedition against the Bulgarians. [A. D. 810.] Neither his son Stauratius, nor his daughter Procopia, who possessed more manly energy than her husband, Michael Ran- gabe, maintained themselves on the throne ; [A. D. 811;] and fate bestowed it upon Leo Bardanes, a warrior, whose character resembled that of Constantine, though he possessed greater talents. [A. D. 813. J The fac- tions of monks and the revolutions of the court pre- vented the progress of the policy he adopted ; and Leo himself fell a victim to these evils. [A. D. 821.] The same causes also enfeebled the unfortunate reign of Michael of Amorium, surnamed the Stammerer. Nicephorus had preserved the dignity of his throne by sending an embassy to Charlemagne, while at Selz ; by which he bestowed upon that Monarch the title of Roman Caesar, and intrusted to his government the Western empire. The remains of literature were neglected amid the pursuits of fanaticism ; and, after the profound igno- rance of which the council of Irene gave indications, George, the compiler of history, Syncellus to the Pa- triarch Tarasius, appears a prodigy of learning ; though he was as deficient in correct judgement, as the pious Theophanes in impartiality. UNIVERSAL HISTORY. BOOK XIV. DIVISION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES SMALL STATES. 18* BOOK XIV. DIVISION OF THE GREAT EMPIRES INTO SMALL STATES. A. D. 814 — 1073. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. After the Arabs had erected their dominion in the South, and the Franks in the North, the people of both empires employed themselves in securing the bounda- ries and restoring the cultivation of their respective countries., Armed multitudes every where held the place of civil societies, and the whole power, under .enterprising kings, was concentrated in the monarch. Under weak sovereigns, it fell into the hands of the nobles, or of some powerful individual among them ; or the nation, like an ill-governed army, became the sport or the prey of for- eigners. During the long peace, which domestic order and external power afforded to the great empires, the nobles, who were the landholders, increased their influ- ence, by the growth of arts and manufactures in Spain, and of agriculture among the Saxons. Weak administra- tions succeeded the reigns of Charlemagne and Haroun ; and the nobles, especially in the French empire, remem- bering their original freedom, and strong enough, as they believed, to subsist by themselves, withdrew from their dependence on the court, and, dwelling separately on their own domains, sought to augment their power, by arms, by prudence, by their virtues and daring ex- ploits, and by conciliating the favor of the surrounding populace, who stood in need of a protector near at hand. 212 DISMEMBERMENT OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE, These divisions altered the nature of the constitu- tions. The people became separated into unconnected tribes, without general assemblies, laws, or any means of protecting their rights against the great. The pub- lic liberty was thus undermined ; its main support, the necessity of a general unanimity in the councils of the nation, ceased to exist. The councils themselves were not abolished ; but the court no longer afforded protec- tion to the people against powerful lords, who were al- ways present, and whom it became necessary to obey. From this separation of the people into distinct com- munities, arose great variations in their manners and dialects. The lands became better cultivated, the greatness of the lord depending on the multitude of his vassals and the revenues derived from his domains ; but they were more disturbed by feuds. The nobles, however, were accustomed to decide the contest, for the most part, among themselves ; and the cavaliers thus acquired a decided superiority in military skill. These times excite a lively interest, by the continual struggle they display, between freedom and aristocrati- cal power, and by containing the origin of a number of new states ; but, in the history of them, it is difficult to avoid the confusion, which arises from the nature of the subject. CHAPTER II. DISMEMBERMENT OF THE ARABIAN EMPIRE, AND ESTABLISH- MENT OF THE EDRISIDES AND AGLABITES. Under the khalifs of the house of Ommia, a diminu- tion of pay, attempted by Yezid the Third, had excited discontents in the army, which would have been imme- diately followed by the dismemberment of the monar- chy, if any contingency had occurred to show the pos- sibility of success, in such an attempt. After the for- tunate result of Abderachman's enterprise in Spain, and AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE EDRISTDES, ETC. 213 after the thirst of power and of riches had ceased to find their gratification in new conquests, the governors of provinces began to aim at their own exaltation. At first, the power of the Commander of the Faithful decayed, insensibly, in the remote provinces of the em- pire. The evil continually approached the centre ; and at length the khalif, in his own palace, became the slave of a foreign yoke. Edris, descended from Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet, fled from Arabia into the furthest regions of the West. It seemed disgraceful to the Moslem, that the posterity of Mohammed should revere a foreign house upon the throne of the Faithful, and Edris dis- dained longer to submit to the indignity. His son, who bore the same name, founded the city of Fez, in the fertile plains of Mauritania, and made it the capital of a flourishing state. It soon became the seat of a vast population. Its founder maintained his dominion, which he extended and transmitted to his posterity. [A.D. 805.] Edris the Second yet reigned, when Ibrahim, the son of Aglab, Governor of Kairwan, re- fused the tribute due to the Commander of the Faithful ; and in that city, and in the territory of Carthage, erect- ed a new dominion, of which Tunis afterwards became the capital. Both these events happened during the reign of Haroun Al Raschid. [A. D. 809.] This Prince was the last Emir-el-Mu- menin, who performed, in person, the pilgrimage to the holy cities, where Islam took its rise. His successors, for the most part shut up and inacessible in their pal- aces, were ignorant and indifferent, with respect to the affairs of their empire, which fell under the power of court-favorites. [A. D. 833.] Already, in the reign of Almamun, the governors of the Indian and Persian provinces had begun to refuse obedience ; and the weakness of a throne, founded on opinion, when it is not filled by a man of great talents, became continually more mani- fest. This secret was soon discovered, by the Turkish 214 OF THE TULUNIDES. slaves who composed the guard of the Commander of the Faithful, and whose personal beauty had obtained the favor of some of the khalifs, and their knowledge was speedily turned to advantage. [A. D. 822.] Thaher, to whom Almamun was in- debted for the throne, under his reign acquired pos- session of Chorasan. Jacob, an enterprising black- smith, son of Leit, a chief of the Soffarides, and Nasr, son of Achmed, a descendant of Saman, soon divided the empire of Persia with the house of his sovereign, and tarnished the splendor of the khalifat. CHAPTER III. OP. THE TULUNIDES. [A.D. 861.] Achmed, son of Tulun, Governor of Egypt, of the Turkish race, established for himself an independent sovereignty over that country : a treasure, which he had discovered, was the instrument of his am- bitious enterprise. Not far from the ancient Memphis he founded the city of Catay, which he adorned with the mosque of the Tulunides, and chose for the place of his residence. Achmed was the father of the poor, but the object of terror to all who resisted his power. In the sixteen years of his reign, eighteen thousand persons suffered capital punishment, by his order ; and even the spiritual authorities found safety only in sub- mission. The daughter of his son, Chamarujah, was espoused by Motabed, Commander of the Faithful. On her journey from Catay to Bagdad, she found, every night, ready to receive her, a costly tent, decorated like the pavilions in her father's palace. [A.D. 884.] Ach- med left thirty-three sons and daughters, seven thous- and horses, and at least as many slaves, and a million of dinars, in gold. But his grandson, Haroun, fell, in the defence of his kingdom ; and Egypt, under Moktadi Billah, was again joined to the khalifat. [A. D. 905.] THE TURKS BECOME MASTERS OF BAGDAD. 215 CHAPTER IV. THE TURKS BECOME MASTERS OP BAGDAD. The khalif himself was dependent on the Turks, who were already the real masters of the empire. The physical force and the military habits of the guard, which was continually renewed by enrolling the finest and strongest youths of Turkestan, rendered their will irresistible to the effeminate court and the unwarlike multitude. Hence it happened, that the Khalif Mos- tanser was enabled, by their assistance, to mount the throne, which he had rendered vacant, by the murder of his father. [A.D. 861.] Mostanser himself was their slave ; [A. D. 86*2 ;] and his uncle and successor Mostayin, found himself under the necessity of conced- ing to them, not merely the nomination of the captain of his guard, 'but also of the Emir-el-Omrah, or emir of emirs, his chief minister of state. Against this yoke, which was more intolerable than the power of the mayor of the palace in the French monarchy, Moktadi, Commander of the Faithful, had the boldness to exert his utmost efforts. He made cap- tive, Munes, the captain of the Turkish guard, who was one of the best generals of his empire, and ordered his head to be thrown among the troops, as they were storming the outworks of the palace. This act cost him his life ; and his brother and successor, Moktader, [A. D. 907,] in order at least to obtain personal free- dom, was obliged to divide the guard, and station them as the best garrisons (for such was the commendation he bestowed upon them) on the boundaries of his em- pire. But this measure enabled them sooner to become independent. Mohammed Yezid set them the exam- ple, who, twenty-nine years after the ruin of the house of Tulun, a second time separated Egypt from the kha- lifat. [A. D. 934.] 216 THE BUIYIDES MASTERS OF BAGDAD, ETC. CHAPTER V. THE BUIYIDES RENDER THEMSELVES MASTERS OF BAGDAD. [A. D. 945.] About the same period, the Emir-el- Omrah incurred the displeasure of Rhadi, the Com- mander of the Faithful-; but the Khalif soon found how little wealth and pomp can effect against real strength. The exiled Minister fled to Dilem, a coun- try in Media, and sought refuge in the camp of the Buiyides. The latter were three valiant youths, sons of one father. Buiyah had bred them up in poverty, on the produce of his fishing-net, but in the remem- brance that they were the descendants of the ancient Sassanidse, the progeny of Sapor and Khosru. Each had his comrades in arms, with whom they served Mar- dawij and Washmekir, chieftains of the Dilemites, and soon founded an empire of their own, in Isfahan. Mo- az-ed-daula, son of Buiyah, marched to Bagdad, con- quered the city, and forced the Khalif Moti, whom he set upon the throne, not only to bestow on one of his family the office of chief emir, but to declare that it should be hereditary in his house ; to give up all power into his hands ; and to content himself with the exte- rior forms of the royal dignity, and with a moderate stipend. CHAPTER VI. OF THE FATIMITE SULTANS AT ALKAHIRA. [A. D. 908.] While the supreme sovereignty un- derwent these humiliations, Mahadi Obeidollah, a de- scendant, as he maintained, of Fatima, the daughter of the great Prophet, raised his standard on the African coast, and carried on war against the Princes of the OF THE FATIMITE SULTANS AT ALKAHIRA. 217 house of Aglab, who reigned at Tunis. On a tongue of land, which advanced into the sea, he founded the city of Mahadiah. The town covered the hill, which rose in the background, and the summit of which form- ed the citadel ; magnificent palaces of white marble, in which, opulence and every species of luxury abounded, were bestowed by Mahadi on the companions of his fortune ; and a spacious suburb afforded habitation for the populace. His reign was mild and just, and dif- ferent, in all respects, from the faith and customs of the Arabs. " The world," as he thought, " has existed from eternity ; now, in one state, and then, in another; per- petual movements impel it forward and change^ its con- dition. Such vicissitudes will always continue ; but it behooves man to enjoy life, and to make his powers of enjoyment the only limits of his indulgence." He car- ried his arms, and propagated his principles, into the^ Western country, defeated the Aglabites, conquered the house of Edris, and subdued Fez. [A. D. 969.] Moezz-ladin-Allah, a descendant of Mahadi, dug wells in the desert, to the west of Egypt, and his army availed themselves of these for the con- quest of that country, which, since the death of the eunuch Kafur, a wise statesman, and governor of that province, had no longer obeyed the house of Achmed. The Sultan and Khalif Moezz, with fifteen hundred carnels, which bore the bones of his fathers, and a vast treasure, marched to Egypt, and founded one of the greatest cities in the world,which he called AlKahira.* [A. D. 972.] The Monarch, learned and wise, gentle and animated, founded his empire on the love and ad- miration of his people. Victorious captains were de- spatched by him, to conquer Syria, Damascus, Jerusa- lem, and Sinai ; and for two hundred years the Fati- mites, or the house of Mahadi, reigned over all the country, from the Euphrates to the sandy wastes of Kairwan. * Cairo. II. 19 U. H. 218 THE ZEIRIDES AT TUNIS.— THE MORABETHS, ETC, CHAPTER VII. THE ZEIRIDES AT TUNIS. [A. D. 971.] In one particular, Moezz displayed greater wisdom than other conquerors. He perceived that the desire of maintaining all may become the oc- casion of total overthrow ; and that a monarch, who resides in a distant capital, cannot hold under his alle- giance, provinces, which Nature, by assigning them an insulated situation, in the midst of vast deserts, seems to have formed for independent states. He consigned the western conquests of his great-grandfather to Yussuf Belkin, son of Zeiri. Zeiri, son of Manad, sprang from an ancient Arabian house. A hermit had discovered splendid qualities in his mind, and, from that time, he carried on war, at the head of a troop of adventurers, who were devoted to him. Moezz gave to Yussuf, son of this chief, all that he possessed on the northern coast of Africa ; and the house of the Zeirides reigned, one hundred and seventy-seven years. CHAPTER VIII. THR MORABETHS IN MOROCCO. [A. D. 1056.] The Prophet Abdallah arose among the tribes on the western coast of Africa, and taught the law of Islam, in its purity. His numeroug^ followers, with that spirit which the love of military adventures unites, in those countries, wdth rehgious enthusiasm, took arms under the Lamtune, Abu-bekr, son of Omar, in order to obtain converts to his doctrines. The Morabeths, or " men united in faith," invaded and gained easy victo- ries over the princes of Fez, of Segelmessa, of Saleh, THE SELJITKIAN TURKS. 219 Tangier, and Ceuta. After Abu-bekr, Yussuf, son of his kinsman, Teshfin, reigned, [A. D. 1069,] who, in the vicinity of fountains, which he had discovered in the desert, founded the city of Morocco, the scarcely- accessible seat of his future empire. To this town he conducted as plentiful a supply of water as could be obtained. He surrounded it, and filled the streets with palm-trees, for the double purpose of food and of pro- tection against the solar rays. Morocco eclipsed the fame of the ancient Fez ; and became, during the reign of its founder, the capital of an empire which extended to the Straits. The Morabeths fed their flocks peacea- bly in the pastures of Atlas ; and the son and posterity of Yussuf succeeded to a secure and powerful throne. CHAPTER IX. THE SELJUKIAN TURKS. Shortly before the foundation of Morocco, Cayem Bramrillah, Commander of the Faithful, invited Togrul Beg, [A. D. 1055,] the son of Michael, son of Seljuk, to assist him against the Buiyide princes, who were alike severe towards him and destitute of power against their enemies. Togrul, educated in Turkestan, like the rest of his nation, among herds and arms, had, by the latter, in the course of twenty years, acquired great celebrity. He conquered Bagdad, and gained possession of the dominion, which the Buiyides had maintained during one hundred and twenty years ; and, for two centuries, Togrul and his heroic house preserved a greater or more limited sway in Western Asia. 220 SULTANS OF GASNA AND CHORESMIA. SPAIN. CHAPTER X. THE SULTANS OF GASNA AND CHORESMIA. [A. D. 976.] The interior of Asia was divided be- tween two empires. Nasir-ed-din Sobochtekin had as- sembled in Chorasan a numerous band, who, inspired by fanaticism and the hope of a plentiful booty, conquered Hindostan as far as Visapur. This Prince was the an- cestor of the sultans of Gasna. Mohammed, son of Anastekin, of a Turkish tribe, Governor of Choresmia, a warlike and upright Prince, and a lover of virtue and philosophy, took advantage of a favorable opportunity, which the internal dissensions of the Seljuke Turks afforded him, and estabhshed for himself, in Choresmia, an independent and flourishing dominion. [A. D. 1097.] The dominion of the Arabs now contained six prin- cipal states. A great part of Hindostan obeyed the Sultan of Gasna, while the Choresmian Sultan extended his power over the neighboring countries of Persia, and beyond the Gihan in Mawaralnahra. The Command- ers of the Faithful were revered by all the Moslem ex- cept the Fatimite sultans, as the heads of their religion ; but, in temporal affairs, the Turks of the house of Seljuk possessed, even in Bagdad, the supreme authority. The Fatimite sultans at Alkahira ruled from the Euphrates to Kairwan ; the Zeirides reigned at Tunis ; and the Morabeths at Morocco. CHAPTER XI. SPAIN. The revolt of the lieutenants subverted the dominion which Abderachman's bold and fortunate enterprise SPAIN. 221 had acquired at Cordova, for the last of the Ommia- dae. Factions in the royal house contributed to this misfortune. We saw Ordunyo restore, in Leon, a Christian throne, and reestablish in his realm the laws of the Visigoths. The love of glory, religious enthusiasm, and the hope of acquiring dominion, developed military and political virtues among the Christians. The heroic age of Spain began, in which Christian knights and barons distin- guished themselves in more splendid achievements, as they had become less softened by the arts of peace, and as the ancient faith of the Visigoths had less abated from its original fire. [A. D. 933.] Thus the earldom which had arisen at Burgos, after the failure of the posterity of Ferrando Gonzalez, its founder, [A. D. 1033,] was erected into the kingdom of Castile, in favor of Ferrando, son of Sanchez, King of Navarre. The descendants of the brave Gascon, Count Asnar, who had crossed the Pyre- nees, to gain a territory from the Infidels, [A. D. 831,] fiad reigned as kings, from the time of Garcia Ximenez, [A. D. 837,] over the mountainous country at Navarre, and had thence extended the dominion of their house over the fruitful plains of Catalonia. It fortunately happened, that the Christian power in Spain became almost united in the person of the great Sanchez, [A. D. 1000,] at the time when the Arabian monarchy hasten- ed to the hour of its dismemberment. That Prince, pa- triotic or provident, fearing the evils which might arise, if his posterity attained too early to extensive power, without first becoming great by their virtues, bequeath- ed only Navarre to his firstborn. [A. D. 1035.] He gave Castile to Ferrando, who inherited Leon, by mar- riage ; and of the baronies which lay on the river of Aragon and in the neighboring mountains, formed, for his illegitimate son, Ramirez, a new kingdom of Aragon, which, under a succession of great and fortunate princes, attained to the rank of the first state in Spain, and uni- ted all the rest under its dominion. 19* 222 SPAIN. Bernhard, the Count whom Charles the Great had estabhshed at Barcelona, descended from the house of the Earls of Aquitaine, a gallant and accomplished knight, became independent, according to the spirit of the succeeding times, [A. D. 864,] and under Wini- fred, one of his descendants, the league of fealty to France was broken off. The Catalonians were distin- guished by commerce and warlike adventures through the whole Mediterranean Sea. Their Count, Ray- mond Berengar, obtained, by marriage, the throne of Aragon. [A.D. 1137.] At Leon and Burgos, at Pamplona, Zaragoza, and Barcelona, the kings and counts of the Christians en- croached upon the divided emirs. Heroism and enthu- siasm animated both parties ; but the want of union seems to have been greatest on the side of the Arabs. The latter became sensible of their weakness, and re- solved to invite Yussuf the Morabeth, founder of Mo- rocco, to their assistance. [A.D. 1091.] He came to their camps on his thickly-mailed camel, and the Mora- beths, animated by the fiery zeal of a new form of faith, disappointed, for a time, the Christians of their victory, and united Mohammedan Spain under the banner of Yussuf. They carried Motamed, son of Mohammed, the great Emir of Seville, prisoner, across the Straits. Poetry was his solace, during many long years of cap- tivity ; and his daughter, by her skill in the art of em- broidery, procured for him the means of softening the remainder of his life. In Spain, the contest became more violent. The enemy, against whom the Christian Kings had now to contend, was lord of all the countries from Atlas to the mountains of Castile. His power was new, and not yet enervated or weakened, by the effect of time and ttegligence. SICILY. 223 CHAPTER XII. SICILY. While the empire of the Arabs was falling into a number of small states, they completed the conquest of Sicily, in which they had been engaged, for fifty years, by taking the city of Syracuse. Of this capture we have the following account, from the pen of an eye- witness. [A. D. 880.] " Theodosius, the monk, sends his salutation to Leo, the archdeacon. We have held out, ten months, during which time we have fought often, by day, and many times, by night, by water, by land, and under the ground. We have left nothing unattempted, against the enemy and against his works. The grass which grows upon the roofs was our food, and we caused the bones of animals to be powdered, in order to use them for meat. At length, children were eaten, and terrible diseases were the consequences of famine. Confiding in the security of our towers, we hoped to hold out until we received succor : the strong- est of our towers was overthrown, and we still resisted, for three weeks. In an instant, when, exhausted by heat, our soldiers took respite, a general storm was made, on a sudden, and the town was taken. We fled into the church of St. Salvator. The enemy followed us, and bathed his sword in the blood of our magis- trates, priests, monks, old men, women, and children. Afterwards, the most noble of our people, a thousand in number, were put to death before the town, with, stones, whips, and clubs ; the Governor, Nicetas of Tar- sus, half flayed alive, with his entrails torn out, was beaten to pieces against a stone ; all the great houses were burnt, and the capitol pulled down. On the day when they celebrate Abraham's sacrifice, (namely, the Bairam,) many of them wished to burn us with the Archbishop ; but an old man, who possessed great au- 224 DISMEMBERMENT OF THE thority among them, protected us. This is written at Palermo, fourteen feet under the ground, among innu- merable captives, Jews, Africans, Lombards, Christian and unchristian people. Whites and Moors." Even before this time, the Arabs had molested the coasts of Italy ; but they afterwards carried on their enterprises with greater effect. They levied contribu- tions on most of the towns, and several times threaten- ed Rome. From Fresne, not far from Aries, where they had fortified themselves, they became the terror of Piedmont and of Provence ; and they carried their predatory incursions as far as Upper Burgundy and the Pays de Vaud. We have thus rapidly surveyed the empire of the Arabs, which extended from Gasna, where the sultans persecuted the worshippers of Brahma, to the moun- tains on which the Moslem fought against the Spanish knights of Christendom ; and from the deserts of Mo- rocco, to the heretofore peaceful lake of Geneva, which was now no longer protected by the Alpine barrier. CHAPTER XIII. ' DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE OF THE FRENCH. Charlemagne left to his son, Louis the Good, the empire of the Franks, under the same constitution with which he had received it from his father, Pepin. [A. D. 843.] The spiritual and temporal lords and freemen, assembled in Diet, elected the king, who swore to " ob- serve towards his liege subjects all that a king, who is true to his duty, ought ;" and it appears that the bish- ops considered it as their office, to observe that his actions corresponded with his oath. Charles and Louis were desirous of bequeathing a kingdom to each of their sons. It was intended that neither should inherit any thing in the realm of the EMPIRE OF THE FRENCH. 225 Other, and that no vassal should serve tvi^o kings. How could they hope that the genius and plan of such a sys- tem could be maintained ? It w^as ordained, that the younger brother should never make war or peace, with- out the consent of the elder ; that he should constantly pay him respect ; and that the latter should never abuse his prerogative. Neither of his brethren was allowed to marry without his approbation ; and they were or- dered to present to him annual gifts. The understand- ing of Charles, perhaps, comprehended the unnatural condition of great monarchies ; but why, then, did he not suffer Adalgis to retain his dominion at Pavia? and why was he not contented with civilizing- the Saxons ? The system of partition was so little in unison with human nature, that the good Louis caused the eyes of his nephew, Bernhard, King of Italy, who could never become formidable to him, to be put out, in order to reduce the kingdom of the latter under his own sceptre. [A.D. 818.] A year before this act, Louis had divided his king- doms between his sons, without considering that the number of his offspring might increase. [A.D. 817.] His second wife, Judith, to whom he was much attach- ed, afterwards bore him a son, [A. D. 823,] and he appointed the latter a portion between the dominions of his brothers, comprising the countries of Rhsetia and of the Allemanni on both sides of the Rhine. [A. D. 827.] The brothers, unwilling to surrender any part of their possessions, and greedy of absolute power^ rebelled, [A. D. 831,] accused their stepmother of a criminal connexion with Bernhard, Count of Barcelona, and deposed their father from the throne. [A. D. 833.] But the jealousies which inevitably sprang up among them, occasioned his restoration. [A. D. 834.] It would be a tedious and useless task to relate all the consequences of the partition. The Emperor died, consumed with vexation, and grieving for the misfor- tunes of his house. [A. D. 840.] 226 DISMEMBERMENT OF THE, ETC. His three sons and the descendant of the fourth were in arms against each other. A sanguinary battle, near Fontenay, [A. D. 841,] in the territory of Auxerre, in- duced them to give way to the pressing instances of the French lords, who were desirous of a final parti- tion ; and, at Verdun, the empire of the Franks was finally dismembered. [A. D. 843.] Lothaire, the eldest son of Louis, on whom the im- perial crown devolved, obtained Italy, from the posses- sion of which that crown appeared inseparable, together with a long row of baronies between Germany and France, by which, according to the ordinance of his father and grandfather, he was placed in the vicinity of both his brothers, but was, in reality, the weakest of the three. The kingdom of Lotharingia extended from Italy, and, advancing through the countries of Valais, the Pays de Vaud, Varaschken, Scodingen, on the Jura, and Rhaetia, became narrower on the Rhine, and, followingv the Moselle and the Maese, lost itself in the Low Countries. It was exposed to the enterprises of the Arabs of Sicily and Spain, of the Greeks, in Lower Italy, of the kings of Germany and France, of the restless Saxons, and the piratical Normans. In Germany, Bavaria was the chief seat of the do- minion of Louis, whose kingdom comprehended the Allemanni and the Saxons, and bordered on the brave Avari, the Moravians, and the Tchechi, in Bohemia, the Sorbes, Linones, and Vandals, who concealed in marshy forests, or behind lofty chains of mountains, their restless independence, and often unexpected en- terprises. Hence the King was obliged to observe per- petual vigilance, and to maintain a military spirit among his people ; and he was forced to leave to the dukes and margraves, on the menaced confines, a sufficient power for adopting measures of defence, in sudden emergencies. The same methods, indeed, were nec- essary, for preserving authority in the interior ; for the Saxons and Allemanni bore, unwillingly, a yoke which held them in subjection by severe laws. THE KINGDOM OF LOTHARINGIA. 227 Charles the Bald was King of Carlingia ; for so the kingdom was termed, to which the greater name of France was now limited. Pepin, nephew of the King, still inherited Aquitaine, the territory of his early de- ceased father; but he was soon despoiled of it, by Charles. The treaty of Verdun is the key to a great part of the history of these and the succeeding times. The kingdom of Lotharingia, which, on this side of the Alps having no natural boundaries, was subject to fre- quent changes, gave rise to a series of wars and preten- sions, which are not yet decided between the Germans and French, whose institutions, manners, and languages, seem accidentally to pass into each other on these con- fines. The power, which the King of Germany was obliged to leave in the hands of his nobles, was the source of their independence and unlimited authority over the people. France might have formed its mon- archy with greater consistence and stability ; but it was degraded by a series of weak kings from the time of Charlemagne, without any new mayor of the palace to maintain the unity of the nation. CHAPTER XIV. THE KINGDOM OF LOTHARINGIA. The kingdom of Lotharingia came to an end, in the course of the first generation. The Emperor Lothaire, as if pursued by the shade of his father, against whom he had been the first to raise a rebellious hand, found no peace, until he had given up all his possessions, and had taken refuge in a cloister, where he died, before he had reached his sixtieth year. [A. D. 855.] Wars were carried on among his sons, until, by the convention of Orbe, in the Pays de Vaud, Louis ob- tained for his share the imperial crown, [A. D. 859,] 228 THE CAÄIiOVINGIANa BEGIN TO together with Italy, and its bulwark, Rhsetia ; Lothaire the Second, Burgundy on this side the Jura, Alsace, and Lorraine ; and Charles, the old Gallic Provence, and the country reaching to the confluence of the Saone and the Rhone. Neither of these Princes transmitted his dominion to his posterity. Lothaire the Second, the victim of criminal love, a perjured and unfortunate Prince, died, without any lawful heir ; [A. D. 868 ;] and his uncles, Louis and Charles, to the exclusion of his brother, the Emperor, entered into a treaty for the partition of his dominions, which, in the course of a few years terminated, as it often happens with such proceedings, to the advantage of the most powerful party ; namely, the King of Ger- many. [A. D. 879.] The dominion of Charles of Provence had been pre- viously divided, after the demise of that Prince without heirs, between Lothaire the Second and the Emperor Louis the Second. [A. D. 863.] On the death of the latter, the elder branch of the Carlovingian house be- came extinct, and the King of Germany possessed him- self of the Rhgetian territory ; [A. D. 875 ;] but Italy and the imperial crown, which lawfully devolved on him, were snatched from him, by the craft and violence of his younger brother, the French King Charles. This Prince was in all other respects his inferior, but had the advantage over him, in power, and in the capa- bility of adopting any measures that might lead him to the ends of his ambition. CHAPTER XV. THE CARLOVINGIANS BEGIN TO LOSE THE EMPIRE. When both the brothers were dead, and the German princes were preparing themselves for the invasion of Italy, [A. D. 876,] Louis the Stammerer, son of Charles LOSE THE EMPIRE. 229 of France, by his great generosity, in bestowing earl- doms and abbeys, obtained the inheritance of his father. [A. D. 877.] He held it half a year, and died, not without a suspicion cast on those lords whom he had neglected to conciliate ; [A. D. 878 ;] or who were dis- contented with possessing thßir long-exercised power in any other name than their own. The empire of the Carlovingians, from that time, fell into departments, which, as they before belonged to brothers, now came into the possession of foreigners. Louis the Stammerer died in April ; and, in Octo- ber, twenty-three Burgundian bishops and archbishops assembled at Mautaille, in the territory of Vienne. Doubts were entertained concerning the legitimacy, and, on more secure grounds, concerning the capacity, of the son of the late Monarch. Pope John the Eighth, who, four years before, by his own arbitrary counsel, had presumed to crown King Charles Emperor, who had no claim, by birthright, began now to decide the election of a bishop, at Geneva, without consulting the Archbishop of the same church, who resided at Vienne.. Apprehensions were also expressed, respecting the rest- less Bernhard, Count of the Goths, or of Languedoc, as well as the power of Count Conrad, of Upper Burgundy, and of the Arabs and Normans. In this conjuncture, after the usual council of the nobles had met, the pre-^ lates invited Boson, Count of Vienne, a cousin of kings, and brother of Duke Richard of Burgundy, a generous and popular nobleman, and a friend of the Church, and introduced him with the title of king, as their " upright 'patrician and protector ; their accessible, beneficent, and prudent lo7'dJ' It is said, indeed, that Irmengard, daughter of the Emperor Louis the Second, whom Bo- son had carried off, had prevailed upon him to elevate her to the throne ; and that he had in part forced, and in part won over, the bishops to further his project. He assumed, like an able master, the appearance of irresolution ; but, after being entreated for three days, and after every important member of the assembly had II. 20 u. H. 230 THE CARLOVINGIANS BEGIN TO been induced to declare his opinion, he assented to be- come, " by the grace of God, and for the advantage of his Church, King of the Burgundians ;" in which quah- ty, he was afterwards crowned by the Bishop of Lyons. [A. D. 879.] Nine hundred years have since elapsed, and a part of the Burgundian kingdom, which has been united to France three hundred and forty-five years, has never, from the time of Boson, been incorporated into the body of the French monarchy. Italy, or the Lombard kingdom, vacillated between the German and French Carlovingians, and fell into long-continued disorder. The imperial authority had so fallen, that a Duke of Benevento dared to take Louis the Second, prisoner ; and the Romans refused to ask any ratification for their newly-elected popes. [A. D. 880.] Charles the Fat, son of Louis the Ger- man, succeeded, indeed, in uniting the imperial crown and the Lombard kingdom with the dominion, which, after his brother's death, he had inherited from his father ; and the same Prince, after the demise of the eldest son of Louis the Stammerer, [A. D. 884,] became King of the French, during the minority of his infant brother, Charles the Simple. It was from him, that Boson received his kingdom as a fief. [A. D. 885.] But, without the aid of Eudes, Count of Paris, and Gosselin, its Bishop, that capital would have fallen a prey to the piratical Normans, against whom Charles was as little able to protect the Low Countries, as he was to prevent the Arabs from disturbing Italy. The slave of factions, in his court, Charles gave unequivocal signs of periodical insanity, and was deprived of his faculties by violent headaches. From the throne of Charlemagne, on which he was the last prince who sat, he was deposed, by the powerful individuals of his empire ; [A. D. 887 ;] and was maintained by the char- ity of a monastery and the indulgence of his successor. With him was lost, entirely and irrecoverably, the unity of the empire of the Franks. [A. D. 888.] LOSE THE EMPIHE. 231 Arnolf, the illegitimate son of Carlomann, the broth- er of Charles, ascended the throne of Germany. En- des of Paris, sprung from a house which some deduce from the Saxon, Wittekind, but more certainly the son of Robert, for whom a heroic defence of his country, against the Normans, had obtained the surname of the Strong, was declared king, by a great part of France. After Boson's death, two kings arose in Burgundy : Louis, the son of Boson, and Rudolph, son of the pow- erful Count Conrad, who had assumed the crown at St. Maurice, among the mountains, and was acknowl- edged on both sides of the Jura and in Savoy. As Boson had severed Burgundy from France, so it now became divided, internally ; and the nation was never again united, under one head. In Italy, Duke Guy of Spoleto, who had even turned his ambitious projects towards France, contended with Duke Berengar of Friul, for the restoration of the throne of Lombardy. That country became incapable of freedom and subordination. The Pope, too weak to unite it, could only hinder its union under another head ; and Italy was divided into a number of baronies, the more powerful of which took the weaker under their protection. A heroic age, like that described by Homer, the same popular manners, a similar authority in the priesthood, the same prevalence of passions and rude simplicity, again displayed themselves. The throne fell gradually into ruins ; a new move- ment among nations shook the political fabric, which had scarcely been raised on the recent foundations of civil order. Such, it would seem, was the destination of Provi- dence. Neither Guy of Spoleto was wanting in cour- age, nor his son, the excellent Lambert, in virtue ; nor did Berengar fail in any qualification that was likely to unite under his sway the best and greatest of his na- tion ; and on Arnolf, rested the heroic spirit of the first Carlo vingians. But a premature death carried off the princes of Spoleto ; the Duke of Friul contended fruit- 232 ' THE HUNGARIANS. lessly against factions ; Arnolf left to a child, seven years old, a doubtful sovereignty over the restless no- bles of Germany ; while, after the crown of France had descended from Eudes to its legitimate and incompe- tent heir, Charles the Simple, that country also became the prey of anarchy and all its evils. CHAPTER XVI. THE HUNGARIANS. While the Arabs were laying waste the southern coasts, and the Normans infesting all the western shores, a nomadic nation, from the mountain plains be- tween the Volga and the Don, strangers to the civiliza- tion of Europe, forced its way into the interior. The Utzes, in Southern Siberia, had forced the Petchene- gers to abandon their ancient abodes, on the Ouralian chain ; and the Petchenegers had expelled their neigh- bors, the Madjares, and driven them across the great rivers of the East. These hordes wandered from the banks of the Don as far as Kiow, and, turning to the southwest, (their progress in the former direction being opposed by the Russians,) passed, at length, over the Carpathian chain, and, descending in the vicinity of the mining towns, arrived in the plains of Pannonia, which were inhabited by the remnants of many nations. Some tribes of the Avari went over to them, and others abandoned the country. These new inmates in Eu- rope were called Ugres, Ungres, or Hungarians ; a term which means foreigners. They still maintained among themselves the name of Madjares. Scarcely had their princes of the house of Arpad di- vided among them the newly-conquered land, [A. D, 897,] when Arnolf, Monarch of the Germans, demand- ed their aid against the King of the Moravians, who was master of Western Hungary, and molested the THE HUNGARIANS. 233 eastern quarters of Germany. Their friendship was courted by many nations. They were the object of dread among all civilized communities, and they forced the Germans, under Louis the Fourth, the child of Ar- nolf, to pay them tribute. [A.D. 912.] The Carlovingians lost sight of Italy and were deprived of the crown of Germany. At the demise of their infant King, the German princes aban- doned the house of Charlemagne, in order to elect a monarch who might protect the growing civilization of their country against the inroads of barbarous hordes. With this view, they united, as far as the times permit- ted, an adherence to the old custom of confining their choice to the relatives of the royal house. Accordingly, not only Conrad, who was elected at this conjuncture, but almost all the German monarchs, down to the mid- dle of the thirteenth century, have been in some man- ner related, on the female side, to the family of Charles the Great. In the mean time, Otho, Duke of Saxony, a warrior of rare talents and address, reduced Thüringen under his administration, and extended his power on the Elbe, where his son Henry founded Meissen. Conrad found it difficult to maintain the royal authority over the last- named Prince, and over Arnulf, the Duke of Bavaria. At the same time. Upper Germany was infested by the Hungarians, who plundered the country, to the borders of Lorraine, and advanced almost far enough to meet the Normans. The latter ravaged the sea- coasts, while Saxony was threatened by Slavonian hordes, w^ho advanced from the northeast, under the name of Vandals. 20* 234 THE AGE OF HENRY THE FIRST, ETC. CHAPTER XVII. THE AGE OF HENRY THE FIRST, KING OF THE GERMANS. [A.D. 919 — 936.] Conrad, before his death, per- ceived that the skill and valor of an able prince were required to protect his country against the hordes of barbarians who threatened it ; and patriotism overcame his attachment to his own family. Instead of his own brother, the Duke of Saxony was elected, by his advice, to the throne of Germany. King Henry delivered the empire from its Hungarian and Slavonian invaders ; and was the author of regula- tions, by means of which the country obtained security for the future, and became animated, in all its parts, with a new principle of life. At the same period, the North of Italy was subject, as far as the spirit of faction permitted, to King Beren- gar. The nobles, unable to endure the restraints which the great talents of this Prince opposed to their author- ity, called in the aid of Rudolph the Second, King of Burgundy. The latter was defeated on the Larda ; but he renewed the stratagem, practised eleven centu- ries before, by Hannibal, in the same countries. [A. D. 923.] While the victorious army was on the pur- suit, it was surprised, by Boniface of Spoleto, nephew of Rudolph, who fell upon it from an ambuscade. At the same time, the King of Burgundy, returning to the encounter, defeated Berengar ; and the latter was soon after assassinated, by a traitor, who owed him the great- est obligations. [A. D. 924.] His allies, the Hunga- rians, took revenge on Burgundy ; they passed the Jura, and spread themselves as far as the Gothic districts near Toulouse. The Romans disposed of the pontifical chair accord- ing to the will of the powerful Counts of Toscanella and Spoleto. Political intrigues, and the passions of THE NORMANS AND RUSSIA. 235 women, placed each fortunate competitor on the sacred throne. Youths, and even boys, ascended it ; the sons of popes became their successors ; while others suffered death, by the most atrocious violence. All respect for civil order seemed totally lost; yet licentiousness did not occasion so many discontents, as the political errors of some of the popes. In the mean time, the pious zeal of ecclesiastics scattered the seeds of religious faith among the barbarians who were devastating Europe, to the furthest limits of the North. The flourishing dukedom of Benevento suffered in- ternal disturbances, in consequence of a partition, and was reduced to a state of great weakness ; of which, ' however, no advantage was taken, the adjoining Gre- cian province being still more exhausted ; and the com- motions, in other countries, producing calamities not less depressing to their power. In France, the name of Charles the Simple yet ap- peared, for a time, at the head of all decrees. His kingdom was diminished by the new royalties of Boson and Rudolph; and his throne, shaken, at the same time that it was upheld, by Richard of Burgundy, Alain the Great, Duke or King of Britanny, the bold and crafty Count Fulco of Anjou, and Count Baldwin of Flanders, who wholly disregarded the temper of the times in which he lived ; it was brought into the most imminent peril by the conquests of the Normans. CHAPTER XVIII. THE NORMANS AND RUSSIA. Harold Haarfager had become sole chieftain on the Norwegian coast. While the Finns obtained permis- sion, by paying a tribute of hides, feathers, and cordage, to pursue the chase, and to fish in the furthest regions of the North, the inhabitants of the morasses collected 236 THE NORMANS AND RUSSIA. their strength at the feet of the Norwegian mountains, to defend their freedom and their herds against the peo- ple of Ewenaland.* The chieftains of the coast, weary of wretchedness and servitude, migrated, to seek hberty and opulence, by adventurous exploits in distant lands. One of these adventurers founded the Russian em- pire. The Russians had proceeded from the countries bordering on the Black Sea, and had lost themselves in the Scythian forests. They had driven out or subdued the Finnish tribes, and founded the great and flourish- ing cities of KyowandNovogorod. To the southward, they waged war with the Chazares, a Turkish tribe on the Black Sea ; and, on the coasts of the Baltic, against the Waraegers, a Norman nation. In the interior qf their country, factions prevailed; and the government of the laws was too refined for their manners. Ac- cordingly, Gostomysl, the Governor of the town of No- vogorod, counselled them to seek men from abroad, who might be capable of maintaining order in their state. They sent to a tribe of Waraegers, and invited Rurick, Sinaus, and Truvor, three heroic brothers ; to whom Kiow, already pressed by the Chazares, soon submitted itself. [A. D. 862.] Scarcely had the warlike hordes of Russians become united among themselves, when they gave laws to the Esthonians and Livonians. To the south, they were not contented with defeating the Chazares, but, by their powerful fleets, inspired terror into the Byzantine Emperor. These were the exploits of Rurick, Igor, and his house. In the mean time, his countryman. Ingulf, founded, in the distant Iceland, a republic which con- tinued to be governed by twelve lagmans, or judges, and to enjoy liberty regulated by laws. Mean-while, the King of all England, now united un- der one head, was unable to defend his coasts against these pirates. They often burnt the rising town of Hamburg, and carried devastation up the Rhine, the * The northern district of Sweden. KING HENRY THE FIRST, AND HIS SON OTHO. 237 Seine, and the Loire, into the heart of France. Italy was in doubt, whether she had more to fear from the enterprises of the Normans or of the Arabs. One of their leaders, Rollo, son of Rainwold, Count of Söndmör, marched into the interior, and conquered the fertile territory of Neustria. [A.D. 912.] Charles the Simple thought himself fortunate, that this chieftain was contented with such an acquisition, and deigned, under the title of duke, to receive Normandy as a fief from the French crown. CHAPTER XIX. KING HENRY THE FIRST, AND HIS SON OTHO. The nations of Europe were in this situation, when Henry, Duke of Saxony, ascended the throne of Ger- many. He paid the tribute to the Hungarians ; but he surrounded the hamlets of the Germans with walls and ditches, and enacted that the tenth man of every village should remove into the neighboring town ; that a third part of the produce of the vicinity should be protected in these positions ; that the royal courts should be held there ; that certain trades should be appropriated to the burgesses ; and that honors and fiefs should be attain- able by them. Asylums were thus established for the protection of the useful arts ; and the work of European civilization, which Charles the Great had begun, by the influence of religion, was completed, by assembling the people into towns. Greece would have reckoned the Saxon Henry among her gods. Henry did not abandon the plan of Charles, which was singularly adapted for promoting the civilization of barbarous nations. He founded bishoprics on the borders of the Slavonians. Corporations, and the au- thority of priests, were a useful bulwark for the growing civilization of the people ; and no intelligent prince 238 KING HENRY THE FIRST, AND HIS SON OTHO. makes regulations, with the intention that they shall last longer than the existing circumstances. To the same Monarch, as good institutions of un- known origin are often connected with celebrated names, the margravates at Pechlarn, in Austria, and those in Stiria, in Lausitz, at Meissen, and Branden- burg, are commonly attributed. Names and families became henceforward better known. Henry is said to have given to the equestrian games of the Arabs the form of the celebrated tournament. The virtues of this Prince confirmed his power ; and excited emulation, as the only way to obtain his favor. Being fully prepared in his plans, he waited till the Hungarians, after the expiration of the truce, demand- ed their tribute with arms, and he defeated them. His son and successor, Otho, obtained a still more important victory. The invaders were reduced to the necessity of conquering from Nature, what the wise provisions of Henry had withheld from their arms. Some years of peace followed, and agriculture began to appear among them. [A. D. 936.] At the death of Henry, the lords and the freemen of Germany assembled at Aix-la-Chapelle, a favorite residence of Charles the Great, which that Prince had rendered one of the chief cities of the North. Here, the chiefs elected Otho, the son of the late King ; the people held up their hands and testified their con- sent. After Otho had defeated his rivals among the nobili- ty, the authority of a powerful monarch was felt through all Germany. He gave Saxony, the land of his fathers, which required the presence of a chief, to the brave warrior, Herman, of the house of Billungen ; and be- stowed on his own relations, several provinces of the interior. His son William became Archbishop of Mentz ; Bruno, his brother. Archbishop of Cologne ; his brother Henry, and a son of the latter, who bore the same name, were Dukes of Bavaria ; Ludolf, the eldest son of the Emperor, was Duke of Suabia ; Conrad, THE IMPERIAL CROWN DEVOLVES, ETC. 239 son-in-law of the same Monarch, became Duke of Fran- conia and Lorraine ; and it is said that the government of Thüringen was also confided to the above-mentioned William, of Mentz. Thus the principal archbishoprics, and the four great duchies, were partly in the house of Otho, and partly in the possession of men on whose fidelity he could more securely confide than in that of his nearest relations : for the latter often gave him trouble, by their plans of independent government. The whole activity of the King, and the counsels of his second consort, Adelaide of Burgundy, were scarcely sufficient, to maintain good order in this monarchy, — by far the most powerful of Christendom. CHAPTER XX. THE IMPERIAL CROWN DEVOLVES ON THE KINGS OP GERMANY. Otho obtained the imperial crown, which, from his time, has remained constantly in the possession of the Germans. Even when circumstances have rendered the pilgrimage to Italy and Rome impracticable to the German monarch, the empire has never been bestowed on any foreign prince. Rudolph, King of Burgundy and Italy, had acquired, by faction, and soon lost, the crown of the latter king- dom. Count Hugo, of Provence, had completely driven the descendant of Boson from the kingdom of Aries. [A. D. 916.] This nobleman was a crafty, enterprising man, who treated the priesthood with respect, and gave himself up, without reserve, to the pursuits of pleasure and ambition. He had made himself master of Italy. [A. D. 927.] The nobles, who had assisted him, sur- rounded with spies, and speedily and severely punished for every act of disobedience, soon felt how much their condition was altered for the worse. Rudolph, satisfied with the surrender of the remains of the Arelatensian 240 THE IMPERIAL CROWN DEVOLVES sovereignty, which Hugo had agreed to yield to him, gave himself no further concern for the crown of Italy ; [A.D. 931;] and the latter chief reigned over that country, sixteen years, against the will of the nation. After his death, Berengar the Second, sprung from the house of the counts of Ivrea, obtained possession of the empire, and exercised a still more tyrannical govern- ment. [A. D. 945.] Sudh were the circumstances, which induced Adelaide, widow of Lothaire, the son of Hugo, supported by the house of Este, to invite Otho to her assistance. [A. D. 952.] The King of Ger- many married her, and received the crown of Italy. The Pope found himself exposed to dangers, which rendered the aid of the German Monarch not less nec- essary to him. Romanus Lacopenus, a man of great talents, who had by fraud and perjury ascended the imperial throne of Constantinople, had wholly abandon- ed the remains of the Greek dominion in Lower Italy, to the Arabs, who extended their incursions to the sub- urbs of Rome itself. Count Albert, of Toscanella, with the assistance of the people, was scarcely able to de- fend the city against their enterprises. At this conjunc- ture, the remembrance of ancient liberty surviving still among the Roman people, they established, under the protection of the Count, a consulate, which was intrust- ed to the patricians, while the prsetorship was admin- istered by plebeians, and twelve noblemen possessed of riches and authority were named senators. Yet the spirit of faction was too powerful, and Berengar enter- ed Rome. John the Twelfth, or Octavian, the son of Alberich, now invited the King of Germany, the most powerful sovereign whom the Church could choose äs her protector. This Monarch already held the chief sway in Burgundy, under the weak administration of Conrad, son of Rudolph; he gave princes to the Tchechi in Bohemia, and dukes to Poland ; he maintained the tottering throne of Louis the Fourth, in France ; and received the homage of the King of Denmark. Otho marched into Italy ; the Lombards placed updii ON THE KINGS OF GERMANY. 241 his head their crown : [A. D. 961:] how, indeed, could they have withheld it? The eyes of Berengar were put out, and he was led across the Alps. Albert, his son, fled to Fresne, and sought protection among the Arabs. The Germans marched down through Italy, and the people, as in the time of the Cimbri, admired their high stature, their strength, and intrepidity ; even the harsh tones of their language inspired terror. [A. D. 962.] Otho was received at Rome, as Charlemagne had been, and accepted the imperial crown. When John perceived the great power of this Mon- arch, he regretted that he had delivered his country in- to the hands of the Germans. He accordingly applied to Albert, and sent an embassy to the Greek Emperor, the young and effeminate Romanus ; he appointed one of his friends bishop, and sent him, with the pretence of preaching religion to the Hungarians ; but, in reahty, to excite a renewal of the war against Germany. John had no reluctance to engage in the war, himself; but he was too much devoted to the beautiful Raynera. The solemn visits to the graves of the Apostles were an odious ceremony to jealous husbands. When Otho was informed of these proceedings, he sent the bishops of Naumburg and Cremona to Rome ; and, while these ecclesiastics upbraided the Romans with their want of fidelity, many German knights declared themselves ready to maintain, by fair combat, that the Emperor Otho had never given any just reason for such a defection. John, who saw that his schemes were de- tected, received Albert into Rome ; but a strong fac- tion declared itself in favor of the most powerful party. The city was besieged, and the Pope, together with Albert, sought safety in flight ; but the people bound themselves to the Emperor, by an oath, never to receive any pope, without the knowledge and consent of him- self and his successors in the German empire. [A. D. 963.] After three days, the Emperor summoned the bishops and lords, and heard the accusations against John, " that he had sold bishoprics, performed the inau- II. 21 u. H. 242 THE IMPERIAL CROWN DEVOLVES guration of a priest in a stable, castrated a bishop, ap- peared with cuirass, helm, and sword, drunk to the health of the devil, invoked Venus, and lain with the concubine of his father." On these weighty charges, the Emperor confirmed the deposition of John, and the election of a successor, who was named Leo the Eighth. The deposed Pontiff made it known that the treas- ures of the Church were in his hands, and that he was ready to reward those who now showed themselves faithful to his cause. [A. D. 964.] A strong party declared in favor of John ; and the Germans, outnum- bered, sought security in the ruins of the ancient city. The women, who felt an attachment to the dignity and freedom of Rome, persuaded the nobles to drive out Leo ; and many of his partisans lost their fingers, noses, or tongues. But Otho marched a second time towards the city ; and an injured husband freed him from his troublesome rival. The defence was vain : and hun- ger soon forced the people to surrender. " So long as I or my successors," said Otho, to the Romans, " shall wield this sword, so long must you reverence your Pope Leo." Such was the beginning of the protection exercised by the German Emperors over the Church at Rome. From that time, Otho, and his son, of the same name, attempted to unite Italy under their sway. The Greek Emperor, Nicephorus Phocas, an excellent warrior, gave to Otho the Second, who espoused Theophano, his step- daughter, all the rights and claims of the empire in Lower Italy. The negotiation on this subject furnished Bishop Luitbrand, of Pavia, with some anecdotes, which are interesting, as relating to the history of manners. " In July," he writes, " we arrived at Constantinople. They immediately surrounded us with an honorary guard, so that we could not make a single step, without their knowledge. We could not drink the wine mixed with gypsum and pitch, (an old African custom, which is still preserved in Spain.) On the second day after our ON THE KINGS OF GERMANf. 243 arrival, we rode to the audience. The Emperor is a short, fat man, so brown, that any person would be frightened, who met him in a forest. He said, ' he was sorry our master had been so audacious, as to take pos- session of Rome, and put to death Berengar and Albert, who were worthy men ; after which, he had carried fire and sword even into the Grecian countries. He knew well that we had advised our master to these proceed- ings.' We replied, that ' our sovereign, the Emperor, had freed Rome from tyrants and whores, and had come for that purpose to Italy, from the ends of the earth ; seeing that other princes, sleeping on their thrones, had not deigned to think such disorders wor- thy of their notice ; that there were knights among us, who would at any time maintain the right and virtue of our lord, in a fair single combat ; but that we came with friendly views, and to demand the Princess The- ophano.' The Emperor said, ' It is now time to go to the parade.' His soldiers were the towns-people : no halberds were to be seen. The Emperor passed slowly, clothed in a long mantle, between two rows of soldiers, amidst incessant acclamations. At the table, he chose to blame our manner of fighting. He said our arms were too heavy, and thought the Germans were brave only after they had drunk wine, and that the true Ro- mans were at Constantinople. Hereupon, he made a sign, with his hand, that I should hold my peace ; and then began to talk of matters relating to the Church. I said, ' We Germans know nothing of sects ; the wars of the pen are not our affairs.' He is surrounded by flatterers, and the whole city is filled with voluptuous- ness. Even on holydays, there are public spectacles. Their dominion does not depend upon their own strength, but on hired soldiers, from Amalfi and Venice ; and on Russian seamen." Notwithstanding this degeneracy of manners, Theo- phano became the consort of Otho the Second, and in- troduced innovations into her simple German court. She or her suite contributed, on the other hand, to kin- 244 THE FRENCH CROWN DEVOLVES die the love of learning, in which, at the same time, missionaries and instructers from Scotland performed their share. The attempt to unite Italy became abortive ; the southern people have ever maintained themselves, by craft, or the influence of their climate, against the arms of the North. When, through deficiency in the power of resistance, or by turning to advantage factious dis- sensions, conquests have been obtained, generations have passed away before the vengeance of the usurped coun- try has ceased from displaying its effects. Otho the Second, in an unfortunate seafight, narrowly escaped falling into the hands of the Arabs. Before he had prepared for a new campaign, he died ; after putting to death several of the chief citizens of Rome, of whose independent principles he was afraid. [A. D. 983.] From the time of the grandfather and father of Otho the Second, until ninety years after his death, the Ger- man kings remained the chief sovereigns of the Chris- tian world. The princes of the empire had not yet ren- dered their offices and feudal possessions hereditary, but continued to be great and powerful vassals, while the royal house enjoyed the preponderating power. The Othos and their successors, who were" men of en- ergy and good talents, protected Germany from the an- archy which laid waste the other parts of Europe. CHAPTER XXI. THE FRENCH CROWN DEVOLVES ON THE FAMILY OF CAPET. France was reduced to such a state of anarchy, that neither the innocent administration of Charles the Sim- ple, nor the nobler qualities of Louis the Fourth and Lothaire, were sufficient to maintain the public tran- quilHty. Scarcely any thing beyond the county of Laon remained to the Carlovingian princes. Hugh, Duke of ON THE FAMILY OF CAPET. 245 France, Orleans, and Burgundy, grandson of Robert the Strong, held the kings in such humiliation, that even the ceremony of the Field of May, in which the Merovingians had in past times received the homage of the nation, was no longer celebrated to their honor. [A. D. 987.] When Louis the Fifth, a weak young man, had attained his twenty-first year, and had termi- nated a life, imbittered by his political insignificance and by domestic animosities, his uncle, Charles, Duke of Lorraine, attempted to succeed him on the throne. The nation had sworn in the election of kings to con- fine themselves to the house of Pepin. But Hugh Ca- pet, son of the great Hugh, and brother of Henry, Duke of Burgundy, a nobleman in the vigor of life, opulent, and possessed of distinguished talents, obtained the ad- vantage. He was elected king, and Charles was defeat- ed and made prisoner. The house of Charles the Great, without a revolution, sunk unobserved into obscurity, as the family of Clovis had sunk before, not in conse- quence of tyrannical government, but through the weak- ness of its last representatives. Hugh secretly prepared the way for a more import- ant revolution, namely, for converting the elective into an hereditary monarchy. In order to effect his object, he caused his son Robert to be crowned, during his own life, and thus contrived to make his own authority come in aid of the feeble pretensions which the young Prince could offer to the throne. The succeeding kings imitated this example ; until, in the time of Philip Au- gustus, the royal power seemed so securely estabhshed, in the 'hands of the reigning dynasty, that the precau- tion was henceforth superfluous. Where the laws gov- ern, elective monarchy is not necessary; and where they want influence, it is a dangerous and ruinous insti- tution. The sovereigns of Germany sought to follow the plan of the first kings of the house of Capet, but with very unequal success. / When the royal authority in France had become a mere shadow, the kings sought to increase their resour- 21* 246 NORMANDY. ces by territorial inheritances ; and, instead of reestab- lishing the old Prankish form of government, they re- tained the possession of their acquisitions, like other lords. Accordingly, the steps which they made towards the restoration of their power were not accomplished by bringing back the original constitution, in which the king had been the president of the nation, and the ex- ecutor of the national decrees ; but by uniting many subordinate dominions under one head, who governed with all the rights of which the territorial lords had con- trived to possess themselves. The old national govern- ment was wholly lost sight of. The French kings would sooner have accomplished their design, if they had not, like the emperors, bestowed many domains, which had fallen into their possession, on younger branches of the royal house, instead of uniting them to the crown. Their desire' of increasing their power was, indeed, more allied to vulgar ambition than to any predetermined scheme of policy or enlight- ened care for the good of the monarchy. The most favorable opportunities that befell them had neither been prepared by their foresight, nor were they turned to the greatest possible advantage ; but were, for the most part, the contingent effect of circumstances. So humiliating is history to the pride of the politician ! CHAPTER XXII. NORMANDY. Among the nobles of France, the Duke of Normandy was the first. He was even more powerful than the king himself; and, for a long time, opposed the great- est obstacles to the progress of the royal sway. The chief sources of his greatness were the excellent nature of the country of Normandy ; that chivalrous spirit of his nobles, which was favored by the Norman law ; and OF THE KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY, ETC. 247 the genuine character of the northern people, which, among his subjects, was long preserved unaltered. [A. D. 1066.] The conquest of England, by William, was ad- vantageous to the throne of France ; for, when the Duke became a foreign potentate, the French nobles adhered more closely to their own king, from whom they had less to fear ; while the Norman princes, since the ac- quisition of their new kingdom, were unable to main- tain so careful an interest in their affairs. CHAPTER XXIII. OF THE KINGDOM OP BURGUNDY AND THE HOUSE OF SAVOY. What the Normans had effected in the northwest was accomplished by the Burgundian houses in the southeast. The descendants of Rudolph adhered to the German monarchs. At Dijon, Robert, son of the King of the same name, erected the seat of a dukedom, which was powerful during three hundred years. The courts of Vienne extended their authority over AUobrogia; and in the interior of this country, at the feet of the mountains covered with perpetual Winter, we discover the obscure origin of the house of Savoy. It happened, that the kingdom of Aries, united to Burgundy by Rudolph the Second, became, together with the other states of that Prince, separated from France. For Rudolph the Third having despoiled a land-owner of estates, which, according to the law, or the opinion of the nobles, belonged to him, of right, the latter took arms against a king who had attempted to raise himself above the fews. Thenceforward, Rudolph adhered to Henry the Second and Conrad the Second, the successors of Otho, and brought over to them the crown of Burgundy. [A. D. 1032.] He concluded a long and odious reign, without leaving any legitimate heir J and Conrad, having gained a victory, was ac- 248 OF THE KINGDOM OF BURGUNDY, ETC. knowledged as king at Petterling, in the Pays de Vaud, and crowned at Geneva. It is not clear, whether he grounded his right chiefly on relationship, or on the claims of the Carlovingian monarchs, which had de- volved on the German emperors ; for we observed, above, that Boson had received the kingdom of Aries as a fief, from Charles the Fat. Certain it is, that the Transjurane territory and Savoy became, from that time, completely alienated from the French monarchy. The new Sovereign of Burgundy intrusted Count Humbert, the White-handed, with the government of some districts of the Arelatensian kingdom, as Rudolph had confided it to Berald, the father of that nobleman. These counts were the ancestors of the house of Savoy. Their oldest possessions were on the lakes of Annecy, Bourget, and Geneva, in the circuit of the Roman col- ony of Nion, and in the lower Valais, from St. Maurice to the fortress of Chillon, situate on the lake. After- wards, Count Odo married Adelaide, heiress of Ivrea, the Italian countess, who, in the gate of Turin, admin- istered the affairs of a number of scattered tribes. From these parents, Amadeus inherited, together with Savoy, the valley of Aosta, the country of the Pied- montese, and a number of fortresses reaching to the Mediterranean Sea. As, in the dawn of the morning, we distinguish, from a lofty summit of the Alps, first, the inferior mountains, then, the lakes, fortresses, towns, hills, and plains ; so, in the eleventh century, we first gain sight of the great reigning dynasties of Europe ; soon afterwards, we dis- cern particular nobles and illustrious families ; and, at length, the associations of burgesses, which gradually elevate themselves from among the enslaved multitude. From Otho, William, also of Ivrea, Landgrave (for so he called himself) of the Jura, in Waraschken and in Franche Comte, is deduced a series of lords of Up- per Burgundy, who were powerful protectors of their people and of their own independence. [A. D. 1027.] They defended the former against arbitrary exactions, HOUSES OF HABSBURG AND OF LORRAINE. 249 and the latter against the usurpations of the neighbor- ing monarchs. From a younger branch of the house of Upper Burgundy, are descended the lords of Chalons, afterwards heirs of the Prince of Orange, not less opu- lent than the landgrave, and ancestors of the illustrious heiress who brought all the estates of the Chalons- Orange family into the house of Nassau. Hence, these names become important, in the history of the human race. CHAPTER XXIV. HOUSES OF HABSBURG AND OF LORRAINE. The Emperor Henry the Third, son of Conrad the Second, gave to Albert, Count of Alsace, and Gerhard, his brother, the dukedom on the Moselle, termed the Upper Lorraine. [A. D. 1044.] The lineage of these Counts is deduced from the dukes of the old AUeman- ni, [A.D. 1047,] and from Ethico, royal commissary in this nation in the time of the Merovingians. Ethico had two sons, from one of whom, the house of Lorraine, and from the other, the counts of Habsburg, are de- scended. Their estates lay in the country of Alsace, extending widely to the feet of the Alps, and in the neighboring districts of the Allemanni, on the Aare, and in Suabia. Great misfortunes befell this house, when Luitfried, Duke of the Allemanni, waged an unsuccessful war against the father of Charlemagne, by which he lost the ducal dignity, and when Count Guntram assisted the rebellious son of Otho the First, then Duke of Suabia, against his father. [A. D. 955.] In consequence of these imprudent measures, that branch of the house, that gives origin to the princes of Habsburg, lost their feudal domains, and preserved, with difficulty, their hereditary estates. [A. D. 1020.] Habsburg was founded soon after 250 THE NETHERLANDS. this misfortune. The heirs of that house, which Prov- idence destined to rule over the countries on the Aluta, the Danube, the Po, to inherit Burgundy and Spain, and to be successors of the Peruvian Incas, first occur to our notice, in the deeds of monasteries and among the nu- merous attendants of the campaigns of the emperors. The house of Lorraine arose more splendidly ; for, at the same time, Gerhard became Duke of Lorraine, and Bruno his kinsman, under the name of Leo the Ninth, was one of the most powerful Roman pontiffs. CHAPTER XXV. THE NETHERLANDS. The counts of the Flemings, in Flanders, and the lords of the Netherlands, are distinguished from the nobles and people of all other countries. These dis- tricts were more difficult to defend against the waves of the Northern Sea and against pirates, than in a con- test with the arms of the neighboring people : whence the nobles of the Low Countries were obliged, by im- munities which rendered the abode desirable, to entice settlers, who might clear away the forests, drain the morasses, secure the unstable coasts with dams, and gain conquests over the sea. Thus, an uncommonly numerous population was soon formed ; and industry brought the arts of peace to a far earlier maturity than elsewhere. As the dukes of Normandy bestowed honors on val- iant knights, who fought with renown under their ban- ners, so the counts of Flanders and Holland conferred distinction on useful burgesses and husbandmen. ENGLAND. 251 CHAPTER XXVI. ENGLAND. In this manner, the English kings, especially Alfred and Athelstan, had set the counts remarkable examples. After the former Prince had delivered his country from the Danish adventurers, [A. D. 871,] who every year plundered the coast, or levied contributions on its in- habitants, civil order, industry, commerce, and maritime power, became the chief objects of his attention, and of that of his son and grandson, Edward and Athelstan. These were the first princes in the middle ages, who discovered that more than one road to fame is open to peaceful men. Alfred possessed a combination of quali- ties, which are to be desired in all the magistrates of free nations, and were scarcely to be expected from the phi- losophers of his age. He and his successors, with more comprehensive minds than any of the conquerors pos- sessed, gave to commerce such a degree of activity, such consistency of power to the maritime forces, such a spirit to legislation, and afforded such splendid en- couragement to science ; Other and Wulfstan, under the direction of Alfred, made such successful voyages of discovery, in the unknown northern seas, that we observe, with surprise, how early the English nation displayed its natural bent, and prepared itself for the part which it was destined to act, in later ages. [A. D. 978.] A hundred years after Alfred, under the weak Kings Ethelred and Edmund, the crimes of an ambitious woman having stained the throne with the innocent blood of Edward the Second, the fortune and the authority of the royal house abandoned it. Sweno, King of the Danes, availed himself of the dissensions and weakness of the English state ; and he and his son, Canute the Great, ascended the Anglo-Saxon throne. [A. D. 1014.] 252 SCANDINAVIA. In no other age, was the Norman name so illustrious. Denmark and England obeyed Canute : on the north- western coast of France, Richard the Good and Rich- ard the Proud, a father and son, reigned as Dukes of Normandy. They possessed the greater ascendency, as they preserved their connexion with Norway and Sweden. In the same age, twelve sons of a Norman nobleman. Lord Tancred of Hauteville, founded the kingdom of Naples and Sicily. In Britain, the laws and customs of the English were preserved. They were the same as those of Denmark, but had attained to a more complete form. CHAPTER XXVII. SCANDINAVIA. Since Charlemagne had introduced Christianity among the Saxons, and since Anschar, a monk of Cor- vey, had promulgated this faith among the Danes and Swedes, the old worship of Woden, and the barbarous simplicity of the North, had contended in Denmark against the religion and the manners of the South. The Danes and Normans were the most powerful of the Scandinavian nations, for they were the first who con- sented to revere the supreme power concentrated in a single chief. The Goths and Swedes remained longer separate, and were scarcely able, with divided power, to maintain themselves in independence. Finland and Ewenaland were also distinct principalities. The best kings of the Goths and Swedes were those who brought agriculture into use, and derived from the fisheries in the four great seas, and from the produce of the ancient mines, resources, which enabled them to promote the civilization of their people. ICELAND. 253 CHAPTER XXVIIL ICELAND. Iceland was distinguished from the countries above- mentioned, in this respect, that a scarcely cultivated island, in a cold climate, and widely separated from the rest of Europe, required the greater exertion, in order to overcome its natural disadvantages. Twelve lag- mans administered the laws of this people, brought by their ancestors from the continent ; in the beginning of the eleventh century, Christianity was introduced ; and, after the legal code of the great Canute, there is no more ancient monument of northern legislation than the ecclesiastical law by which the Icelandic bishops, Thorlak, Runolf, and Ketill Thorstan, united them- selves with the spiritual and temporal land-owners. [A. D. 1123.] Soon after this, Are Polyhistor and Sae- mund Sigfusson, wrote the history of the country. A century later, Snorre Sturleson, a judge in Iceland, col- lected, in the Edda, the materials of Northern poetry, — the traditions of the former time. [A. D. 1241.] Already, Erich, son of Thorwald, setting out from Iceland, had planted a colony in the remote Greenland ; from Permia, a regular commerce was carried on by these people on the White Sea of the North ; and young Icelanders passed, by sea and land, through a hundred nations, to seek gain, knowledge, and adven- tures, in Greece and the Holy Land ; whence they had returned, in their old age, to amuse the long nights of the Iceland Winters with the relation of the wonders they had seen, and the sagas of the gods or heroes. The Edda is a compilation of such tales, intended to perpetuate the remembrance of them, and encourage a spirit of enterprise, in succeeding generations. II. 22 u. H. 254 RUSSIA. CHAPTER XXIX. RUSSIA. But it was the Christian rehgion, that point of union among nations whose history is as ancient as the world, as well as among the more civilized people of Europe, that, like the electric spark, roused the nations of the North from their long sleep of ignorance. When Olga, the female sovereign of Russia, and Vla- dimir the Great, had adopted the faith of the more en- lightened nations, an acquaintance with the necessities and the advantages of civil order was introduced among the tribes of their empire. [A. D. 955.] Olga estab- lished roads, erected bridges, promoted communication among different hordes, and facilitated the progress of merchants. After Vladimir had received the rite of baptism, he married Anna of Constantinople, sister of Theophano, Empress of Germany. [A. D. 980.] From his court, ambassadors were sent to the Western and to the Greek Emperor, and to the Moslem Command- ers of the Faithful, at Bagdad. He established schools_, and opened a path for commercial enterprise, by means of the Volga, which pours itself into the Caspian Sea ; and his powerful hand protected the market of Permia. This warrior, who slept under the open heaven, who knew not the use of any but wooden instruments, and had taken to his bed eight hundred and five wives, was a Peter the Great of the tenth century. Nature al- ready revealed, that she had placed in Russia a mass of strength, which only required to be awakened ; and that the vast and comprehensive was to be the chara,c- ter of this empire. The Greeks and Germans worked together in promoting its culture, and its relations be- came immediately interesting to all large states. Yaroslaf, the son of Vladimir, became the legislator of Novogorod. [A.D. 1015.] He subdued the Livo- RUSSIA. 255 nian coast, and founded the town of Dorpt, in the con- quered country. His ordinances, as all regulations ought to be, were consonant with the character of the nation. Thus, whoever pulled a hair out of the beard of any man, underwent a punishment four times more severe than if he had cut off one of his fingers. Yaros- laf omitted nothing, in order to render his people, so superior to others in power, equal to them in knowl- edge. He encouraged translations of Greek books ; he brought the Russians into relations with all the civ- ilized nations ; he gave Anna, his daughter, to King Henry the First, of France ; and from her are descend- ed all the French kings. With the German Emperors, he concluded alliances against the wild Hungarians, as against common enemies. The Pope already sought occasion to become known to, and revered by, the Rus- sians. Alexius Comnenus, one of the most illustrious empe- rors of Constantinople, bestowed upon Vladimir Mono- machus, son of Usevolod and grandson of Yaroslaf, the insignia of the imperial dignity ; and Kyow, the Russian capital, swore, in the election of the czar, to confine their choice to the house of Vladimir. In his time lived, in Peczera, one of the most vener- able monasteries of Kyow, Nestor, the first historian of the Russian empire, who is distinguished by a simple and instructive style, and by many proofs of sound judgement and uncommon learning. One circumstance retarded the progress of Russia, in commerce, knowledge, and political influence ; this was, the division which Vladimir made of his empire between his twelve sons, which, by the disquiet and the feuds it occasioned, brought back the rudeness of uncivilized manners, which were scarcely beginning to be softened* 256 CONSTANTINOPLE. CHAPTER XXX. CONSTANTINOPLE. The empire of the Greeks afforded, during this in- terval, an asylum to the remains of literature and cul- ture, preserved from the ages of antiquity. The Emperor Theophilus, son of Michael the Stam- merer, who incurred the vehement hatred of the wor- shippers of images, [A. D. 829,] was an upright Prince, a friend to his people, and a patron of the arts. It is true, that, during the minority of Michael the Third, the Empress Theodora, as Irene had formerly done, induced by superstition or policy, restored the images, [A. D. 842,] and the attempt to abolish their use was for ever abandoned. - It is true, that Michael himself was occu- pied, exclusively, with satisfying his own impure lusts, and was always surrounded with favorites, who had no other pretension than their beauty ; but the Caesar Bar- das kept the state in order, and, feeling that learning alone could distinguish and give weight to his authori- ty, sought to support the neglected cause of literature. He raised the learned Photius to the patriarchate of Constantinople ; a man, who, in the tumult of intrigues, of which he became the victim, and in the possession of the highest spiritual dignity, consecrated to literature, hours which another would have wasted in attendance on the court, and expended in its pursuit, sums which, by any of his contemporaries, would have been differ- ently bestowed. [A. D. 867.] Basilius, the murderer of Michael and of his uncle, ascended a throne which he adorned with talents that were worthy of a more legitimate claim ; and such a title he earned by a meritorious administra- tion. It was he who instituted the code of the imperial law. He had equity enough to cause justice to be done, during his administration, to Photius, who had owed his dignity to Bardas. CONSTANTINOPLE. 257 \ [A. D. 886.] After an active and prudent reign, he left the empire to his son Leo, the disciple and the per- secutor of Photius, a learned Prince, but the victim of violent passions. After Leo had amplified the legal code of his father, the tutelage of the infant Constantine Porphyrogennetes devolved, first, on his uncle Alex- ander, [A. D. 911,] a slave of pleasure, and afterwards, on the Empress Zoe. [A. D. 912.] A female arm was found too feeble to restrain the efforts of ambition ; and, in this conjuncture, Romanus Lacopenus acquired, by perjury, the sovereign power, [A. D. 919,] which he exercised with dignity and prudence. Constantine devoted himself to the works of the ancients, and to the study of the constitution and political relations of the empire ; on which subjects, he has left valuable writings. He appeared to be entirely given up to books and wine ; yet contrived to destroy the crafty statesman who had usurped the chief power, by means of his own sons, for whose fortune Romanus had still further aban- doned the maxims of morality. The sons soon became the victims of their folly ; and Constantine, at length, gained possession of his empire. [A. D. 959.] After him, Romanus the Second, with difficulty and without glory, obtained the throne, and devoted his power to the gratification of sensual pas- sions. Nicephorus Phocas, singular as he and his court appeared to the Bishop of Pavia, was the restorer of the Roman power, by his own exploits in Crete, [A. D. 964,] and by victories obtained by his generals against the Saracens and the Buiyides in Lesser Asia and Syria. The empire was maintained, in a more se- vere contest, by John Tzimisces, against the armies of the Russian Swaroslaf, son of Olga, and father of Vladi- mir. [A. D. 969.] This Prince, as well as Nicephorus, had held the sovereignty, without incurring the cen- sure of usurpation, during the minority of the sons of Romanus ; as the talents of the best generals were re- quired by the exigencies of the times. Basilius the Sec- ond and Constantine the Eighth ascended the throne 22* 258 CONSTANTINOPLE. together ; [A. D. 975 ;] and so shared it between them, that all the labors of government fell to the lot of the first, and all its enjoyments to his associate. Under these Princes, the empire obtained a period of good fortune, not less glorious than the two former reigns. Basilius broke the power of the Bulgarians, which had long been formide^ble, in several great bat- tles and sieges, and subdued them, from the mouths of the Danube to the borders of the old Epirus. After a reign of fifty years, distinguished by every imperial vir- tue, Basilius left the sole possession of the throne to his brother. [A.D. 1025.] The latter governed without capacity, and with a Se- verity which was the effect of fear. He bequeathed ihe empire, with his daughter Zoe, to the patrician Ro- manus Argyrus ; a virtuous Prince, who suffered from the Saracens a defeat, near Aleppo, [A. D. 1028,] which was only to be ascribed to his want of local knowledge. Zoe was attracted by the beauty of a more youthful lover ; and her passion cost her husband his life and ruined her own fortunes : for scarcely had the adulterer obtained the crown, under the name of Michael the Fourth, [A.D. 1034,] when his mind, not wholly abandoned by virtue, became agitated by re- morse, which destroyed the vigor of his nerves, and rendered him a prey to disease. Incapable of conso- lation, so long as the fruit of his crime remained in his possession, he finally abandoned his palace, and sought to appease the stings of conscience, by immuring him- self in a cloister. The Empress raised his cousin, Mi- chael Calaphates, to the throne. [A.D. 1041.] She wished to be regarded as his mother ; but he was un- grateful to all those to whom he owed his elevation, and soon merited dethronement. Zoe would have spared him the loss of his eyes, which he suffered from the vengeance of her sister. [A. D. 1042.] The Em- press was glad to espouse Constantino Monomachus, a nobleman who had suffered from her former attach- ment to him ; and she consented that Sclerana, who CONSTANTINOPLE. 259 had, by self-devotion, merited his affection, should re- side in the imperial palace. She afterwards enjoyed a tranquil old age ; and the empire an administration, which had the appearance of good order and decorum. After Constantine had concluded a reign devoted to pleasure, [A. D. 1054,] Theodora, the ambitious sister of Zoe who was already dead, succeeded to the throne, and governed, for a short time, with wisdom and cour- age. [A. D. 1056.] With her, the imperial family, de- scended from the first Basilius, became extinct. Her ministers of state raised to the throne, Michael the Sixth, a warrior, by whose military talents they hoped to acquire for the empire respect, abroad, while they retained the power, at home, in their own hands. Michael soon showed how difficult it is for a man, who has spent a long course of years in a subordinate rank, so to administer the royal authority, that sovereignty shall not appear to be unnaturally disposed of in his hands. The great, whom he had offended, destroyed him by the aid of Isaac Comnenus, [A. D. 1057,] who reigned after him, for a short time, with prudence and other praiseworthy qualities, and laid down the sceptre when sickness had rendered him less capable of wield- ing it. [A. D. 1059.] Constantine Ducas ruled equi- tably, but he wanted military talents ; and it was for- tunate, that the barbarous Utzes, who penetrated from Northern Asia across the Danube, were destroyed by contingent misfortunes, and by their own fault. [A. D. 1068.] Romanus Diogenes, whom the widow of Du- cas elevated to the throne and to her bed, possessed magnanimity and military virtues, which would have enabled him better to resist the rising power of the Sel- jukian Turks, if the jealousy of his nobles had not pre- vented. He fell, through their treachery, into the power of the Sultan Alp Arslan. [A. D. 1071.] Hap- py would he have been, had fate cast his lot among these generous barbarians ! He was liberated ; and found in his empire treason, defection, and a cruel as- 260 CONCLUSION. sassination. The weak son of Ducas, Michael the Sev- enth, who devoted himself to the frivolous study of grammatical subtilties, and was the slave of a bad min- ister, found, at length, an asylum and honors in the Church. [A. D. 1078.] Nicephorus Botoniates, who, as a soldier, was worthy of the empire, but deficient in the virtues of a sovereign, yielded to the fortunes of the Comneni, with whose accession a new era opens. [A.D. 1081.] We may observe, in a survey of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh centuries, that several of the emperors, either by their own virtues, or by the choice of good minis- ters, appeared to be worthy successors of the best of the old Caesars. To maintain the luxurious empire against the Bulgarians, Russians, and the nations of the East, to the latter of whom, every new revolution at Bagdad communicated a new impulse, was a most ar- duous task. In Constantinople, a fund of literature was preserved, during these times, which was destined to employ the labor of later ages. CHAPTER XXXI. CONCLUSION. From the whole delineation of the two hundred and sixty years which followed the reign of Charlemagne, it appears evident by what means, after the dismemberment of his empire, Henry, King of the Germans, contrived to build his throne on the firmest foundations, and ac- quire, for this nation, the preponderance among all the states which rose from the ruins of that monarchy. Spain was divided ; short was the duration of Alfred's wise policy among the English ; scarcely is the shad- ow of royal power to be discerned in the kingdom of the Capets ; Burgundy and Italy were subjected to the Germans ; Denmark, Poland, and Hungary, were be- CONCLUSION. 261 ginning, by the influence of Christianity, to attain to civihzation ; the adventures of the Normans were des- titute of plan ; and in Russia, unwise czars abandoned the principles of Vladimir, and ruined their empire by intestine broils. The Othos, indeed, and their successors, followed salutary maxims of government ; they encouraged the progress of a humanizing religion, and the arts of civil- ized life : they only wanted power, in their vast em- pire, from the Eida to Capua, to hold in peace and good order the multitude of nobles. To the latter, they were under the necessity of confiding too much authority, in their domains, by which the chieftains were enabled to form for themselves parties, an^ lay the foundations of independent rule. [A. D. 1002.] When, after Otho the Third, Henry the Second had assumed the imperial crown, he was obliged, although descended from the first Henry, to contend against factions. He conquered ; and pre- pared the acquisition of Burgundy for his excellent suc- cessor, Conrad, sprung from a family related to the im- perial house. [A. D. 1032.] Conrad caused his son to be elected during his own life ; and Henry the Third followed, in this respect, the example of his father. [A.D. 1039.] The times of Conrad and Henry were the most flourishing period of the German monarchy ; [A. D. 1056 ;] the minority of Henry the Fourth, and the feminine government of his mother, Agnes of Gui- enne, were but too favorable to the wishes of the great. A contingent misfortune might have brought the im- perial throne into a dependent state ; and such a mis- fortune at length befell it, in the increase of the Papal power. UNIVERSAL HISTORY. BOOK XV. AGE IN WHICH THE POLITICAL INFLUENCE PAPACY WAS ESTABLISHED BOOK XV. THE AGE IN WHICH THE POLITICAL INFLUENCE OF THE PAPACY WAS ESTABLISHED.— A. D. 1073— 1177. CHAPTER I. THE NORMANS IN ITALY. Landulf, the old Duke of Benevento, and the neigh- boring Catapan, or Viceroy, of the Greek Emperor, had entered into a treaty with adventurers from Normandy, that the latter should give them assistance, in overturn- ing the growing power of the Arabs, in the south of It- aly, and should receive pay and estates in the conquered land, as a recompense. The foreigners accomplished their undertaking, and soon experienced the ingratitude of the Greeks. The Normans, conscious of their own superiority, resolved, few as they were, to take ven- geance on the disorderly multitudes of their treacher- ous allies. The beauty of the country attracted them ; they brought over reenforcements of their valiant coun- trymen, from Normandy ; and every where obtained the advantage over the Greeks, and over the princes of Benevento and Salerno, who were weakened by fac- tions and effeminate manners. From Amalfi, their earliest conquest of importance, they sent out armies and subdued the Liborian and Beneventan territory, and most of the cities of the Catapan. The Papal chair, which became more and more agitated by disputes with the Greek Church, and by disquietude on account of the increasing power of the Germans, was guided by wise counsels, when it fa- vored the* party of the Normans. They consented to II. 23 u. H. 266 OF THE PAPACY. receive their conquests as fiefs, from the head of the Christian Church, to whose dignity they testified their veneration, by falhng at the feet of Leo the Ninth, after they had taken him prisoner in a battle. [A. D. 1057.] This compact was confirmed, in the time of Robert Guiscard, of Hauteville, who combined, with the warUke valor of his brethren, the more artful character of a politician, and was endowed with all the qualities which are requisite in the founder of a state. [A. D. 1058.] Pope Nicholas the Second, a Burgun- dian, (who endeavored, by his regulations concerning the Papal elections, to secure the future independence of the Holy See ; and by the acquisition of various es- tates, in the vicinity of Rome, to found its temporal principality,) was the Pontiff who more especially con- tributed to establish this alliance between the pontifical chair and Robert Guiscard. CHAPTER IL OF THE PAPACY. After the schism, which was healed by the Emperor Henry the Third, the Papal chair had been filled by Leo and Stephen, two natives of Lorraine, each the ninth pope of his name. They were both men of noble birth and experience in the conduct of public affairs ; and had adorned their office with more than its former dignity. Accordingly, after the death of Nicholas, [A.D. 1061,] Alexander the Second, the Bishop of Lucca, a Milanese, was elected to the Papacy without the influence of the imperial court, and was able to maintain his station. The bishops, abbots, priests, and deacons, the clergy of the churches in the vicinity of Rome, who were named cardinals, resolved in the sy- nod, held in the church of St. John of Lateran, " that, since the sacred chair had been put to sale by laymen, OF THE PAPACY. 267 in a most opprobrious manner, and many sacred privi- leges had been suppressed by lay influence, the cardi- nals should always assemble, after the demise of a pope, and, with the assistance of the chancellor of Lombardy, and preserving inviolate all the privileges of Henry, King of Germany, or of any other monarch who might have been crowned emperor by a pope in Rome, should proceed immediately to the election." The people was asked. Is our choice agreeable to you ? and answered, It is agreeable to us. — Will you receive him ? We will receive him. — Do you approve him? We do approve him, [A. D. 1073.] In this manner, after the decease of Alexander, Cardinal Hildebrand, a Tuscan, who, in the preceding reigns, had possessed a leading influence, was elected to the Papacy, under the title of Pope Greg- ory the Seventh. Either through aflfected moderation, or because the reality of power was more agreeable to him than its exterior, he opposed many objections to his nomination, and entreated King Henry to refuse his assent. The King, who knew him to be a man of learning and great intelligence, and skilful in the man- agement of affairs, immediately despatched George, Bishop of Vercelli, to the Chancellor of Lombardy, to confirm the nomination. Gregory had been acquainted, during many years, with the court of the German King, and had spent a consid- erable time in the respectable monastery of Clugny, in France. The people reverenced him as a great spiritual orator. He was animated by the zeal of a prophet, and united the pliability of a party leader with the steadfast- ness of the old Roman patriot. He was the great man of his age. The most discerning prelates, the monks, from whose rank he had raised himself, felt the dignity which such a pope would reflect on each of them. The princes of the German empire were determinately bent on the degradation of the royal authority ; and to many of them it was not unwelcome, that the dogma should be spread abroad, " that the Christian world looked only *S68 OF THE PAPACY. to Christ ; and, since the Lord had departed from be- fore the eyes of men, to the right-hand of the throne of God, it regarded the successor of the first of his wit- nesses, on whom and on whose testimony, as on a rock, the Church was founded, as its only paternal and sa- cred head ; that the laws of nations, the dictates of Eter- nal Wisdom, derived in an especial manner their force, their interpretation, and their application, from the Vice- gerent of Christ, who authorized emperors and kings ; and that, since Jesus named Peter, as the fundamental rock of his Church, the Apostle and his successors, alone, possessed substantial power, eternal as the power of the Father, and the might of Jesus Christ, the Judge of all the earth." Gregory perceived the impression, produced by such representations, and discerned the advantage which would arise from setting the spiritual servants of the Church free from all dependence on temporal princes. He accordingly took occasion, in a controversy which had lately been renewed, concerning spiritual perfec- tion, to forbid marriage to the clergy. It could not es- cape his knowledge of mankind, that, in the war which was to be declared against Nature, the passions would seek and would find more than one mode of compensa- tion ; and he had to apprehend many degrading scan- dals : yet experience has taught us, that Gregory did not erroneously estimate the influence of habit and of pious restraint, over some ; the resources of prudence and circumspection, with others ; and the impression of an exalted precept, which more than counterbalances the defective exercise. This institution has been re- tained seven hundred years, in Roman Catholic Chris- tendom ; and in the Protestant countries it has fallen only with the power of that priesthood. ' Gregory likewise forbade the reception of the invest- iture of spiritual benefices from temporal hands ; and exalted the importance, not without specious reasons on his side, of that authority which a Christian teacher re- ceives for the exercise of his function from those who are OF THE PAPACY. 269 best acquainted with the extent of his duties. With this authority, was connected the participation in those tem- poral advantages which pious or pohtical munificence had united with its possession. Henry the Fourth, King of the Germans, was en- gaged in a war against the Saxons ; whose Duke, Mag- nus, of the house of Billungen, followed the national opinion, when he maintained, that the Monarcli had violated the constitution. At the same time, Rudolph of Rheinfeld, Duke of Suabia, and Bertold of Zaerin- gen, Duke of Carinthia, had united their arms against him. The Pope having in vain demanded of him, that he should publish and observe the ordinances of the Church, throughout the German empire, some of which, especially those relating to celibacy, experienced much opposition, a dispute took place between the Emperor and the Pontiff. The people, influenced by monks who were animated by the zeal of new institutions, and who, by castration, fasting, silence, and strict obedi- ence to their orders, had attained a high degree of pop- ular veneration, were for the most part determined in favor of the Pope. In vain, the great prelates declared themselves on the side of the Prince, and sought to induce the Pontiff to submission. [A. D. 1076.] The King, at a Diet at Worms, ven- tured on the deposition of the Pope. When the bish,- ops made this known, in Rome, the knights and the people of that city, always ready to embrace the side of those who exalted the cause of Rome, took arms, under the Prsefect of the town ; but the Pope represented to them that spiritual arms alone must gain the victory, in this contest. He assembled a hundred and ten bish- ops, and put under the ban, Siegfried, Archbishop of Mentz, the disturber of the German empire, together with all the bishops and abbots who had been present at the Diet at Worms ; lastly, he extended the same penalty to the King, declaring, that he who had viola- ted the honors of the Church had more than deserved to lose his own. In vain the bishops, fearing for the 23* 270 OF THE PAPACY. consequences, in vain the more equitable of the pre- lates, made remonstrances, observing that Henry had only acted conformably with established custom. " I will give him peace," said Gregory, " when he shall seek peace with God," — meaning, with himself. "I cannot find, that, when the Lord confided to the Apostle the keys of heaven and hell, he made any exception in favor of kings." Gregory knew that on the south he was protected by the power of the Normans, and in the neighborhood of Rome, and as far as the Alps, by Matilda, the great Countess of Este, who was devoted to his cause. The rumors of calumny have less probability, in accounting for this attachment, than the remembrance of the inju- ries which her house, in the time of her youth, had suf- fered from the father of the Emperor, and the convic- tion that her dependence on the Pope would be the most secure guaranty for the maintenance of her power. In Germany, Guelph, Duke of Bavaria, Bertold, and Rudolph, consulted together, and gave occasion to the summoning of a Diet, in which they urged the King, since those, who for a year and a day remained under the ban, forfeited their honors and estates, to oblige the Pope to come to Germany. The Emperor, apprehen- sive of the consequences that might ensue, if the Pope should make his appearance on this side the Alps, pre- ferred to go and seek absolution in Italy. He ap- proached the Alps, through the Transjurane Burgundy. The Bishop of Lausanne, Burcard of Ottigen, a married man, brave, and versed in policy, an enemy of Duke Rudolph, brought the King to Vevay ; the Chancellor of Burgundy, Hermanfred, Bishop of Sitten, waited for him, with Adelaide, Countess of Savoy. Thus was the passage of the Alps facilitated to the Monarch, and to the few nobles who accompanied him. [A. D. 1077,] He found Gregory at Canossa, a igtrong fortress, belonging to Matilda, which had been formed by Nature and art, as a secure asylum. After the King had, for tliree days and nights, entreated par- OF THE PAPACY. 271 don, with lamentation, in penitential garments, and with naked feet, Gregory gave him absolution, under an engagement, that he should, within a limited time, and according to the good pleasure of the Pope, recon- cile himself with the German princes and their party. While the majesty of the imperial crown was thus humiliated, the Lombards went over to the most pow- erful party ; and when the King, observing the impres- sion which these proceedings had made, was incited to attempt new measures, his enemies in the empire de- clared Duke Rudolph King of the Germans. [A. D. 1080.] The fortune of arms was on the side of Henry ; the rival King was slain ; and Herman of Luxemburg, his successor, fell, through his own pusil- lanimity. The Pope was expelled from Rome, yet the pubhc sentiment destroyed the effect of the Emperor's victories. The altar afforded an asylum against the exertion of the royal power, and the privileges of par- ticular ranks began to display an influence which in the sequel became, in an unforeseen manner, benefi- cial to the interests of humanity. The King's enemies were in his own house. His eldest born, who had revolted, was scarcely dead, when his second son, Henry, imitating the former, raised a rebellious hand against the declining strength of his father who had al- ready fought sixty-five battles. The sons of the Mon- arch were ever ready to enter into litigation against the privileges of the crown, so long as they had it not in their possession. [A. D. 1106.] In the fiftieth year of his reign, King Henry the Fourth was reduced to the necessity of yield- ing the insignia of monarchy into the hands of his son. Grief and vexation shortened his days ; and, after his death, his body remained five years above ground, in a little chapel, in the cathedral at Spires, until, released from the ban, it at length obtained rest in a consecrated grave. Henry the Fifth renewed the war against the preten- sions of the Papal chair, in which his father had fallen 272 OF THE PAPACY. a victim to the ambition of the Pope. [A. D. 1111.] Paschahs the Second, in the midst of a solemn assem- bly, in the metropolitan church of the Christian world, was seized and made captive, by this Emperor. But, so powerful was the voice of public opinion, and so certain it is, that the knowledge of this is the founda- tion of true policy, that no victory, no rival pope, no calumnious or even just reproaches, were sufficiently powerful to secure to the Emperor a decisive advan- tage. Guy, of the house of Upper Burgundy, Arch- bishop of Vienne, having ascended the Papal throne, under the name of Callistus the Second, the only pope since the time of Alexander, that had not been a monk, compromised the dispute concerning investitures with Henry the Fifth, on just principles, but not on those which had hitherto been in vogue: [A.D. 1122:] " That the election should be left to the capitularies ; the spiritual investiture should be performed by the Pope, with a ring and staff, and that of the temporali- ties by the Emperor, with the sceptre ; that a privilege should also be reserved to the Emperor, to be present, either in person or by his commissaries, at the election and consecration ; and, in the case of any difference of opinion, to support the pretensions of the better party." At the time when the popes, in their difficult con- test against Henry the Fourth and Fifth, [A. D. 1096,] sought protection, at one time, from the Normans, and, at another, from the French, and scarcely held out, in Italy, against the arms and pretensions of their power- ful rivals, the Christian people of the West were induc- ed by Pope Urban the Second, to suspend their feuds and the cultivation of their land ; to abandon their na- tive countries, where each baron ruled as a king ; and to go to the East, in order to free Palestine and Jeru- salem from the yoke of the Egyptian sultans. While Urban, by the Crusade, to which he seems to have given the impulse, without any deep political de- signs, removed from their countries the great land-own- ers, and occasioned their ruin, he laid the foundation, THE HOHENSTAUFENS AND THE GUELPHS. 273 contrary to his intention, of an increase of the authori- ty of the kings, who were enabled to give laws to his successors. He expected to extend his power over Zion, and made use of means which brought about its degradation, even in Rome. CHAPTER HI. THE HOHENSTAUFENS AND THE GUELPHS. About the same period, the two great families of the Hohenstaufens and the Guelphs raised themselves to political importance ; the former, by the influence of Frederick, a son-in-law of Henry the Fourth, who, af- ter Rudolph's rebellion, confided to him the dukedom of Suabia ; the latter, in consequence of the marriage of Kunigonda of Guelph, [A.D. 1081,] heiress of an ancient Upper Suabian family, with the Marquis Azzo d'Este, in Italy, to whom she bore that Guelph, who, in the time of Henry the Fourth, was one of the most powerful princes of the empire, and became the ances- tor of the illustrious house which now governs Bruns- wick, the sea, the British isles, and the remote posses- sions of Britain, in all quarters of the world. For, when the house of Billungen had become extinct, by the death of Duke Magnus, [A. D. 1106,] Henry the Black, second son of Guelph, inherited the allodial es- tates of their family, one of which was Lüneburg, a territory conquered from the Vandals. His son, Henry the Proud, married Gertrude, only daughter of the Count of Supplingenburg, who was not only heiress, by her mother's side, of the margraves of Saxony, and particularly of the domains of Brunswick, but was also daughter of Lothaire, who succeeded Henry the Fifth on the throne of Germany. [A. D. 1125.] This Prince confirmed the power of his son-in-law, as well in Sax- ony, the dukedom of which had been confided to his 274 CONSTITUTION OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. father, as in Bavaria, which the latter had obtained af- ter the demise of his elder brother, and in the heredi- tary lands of Brunswick. Brunswick was a very ancient Saxon town, consisting of five villages, which, since the tenth century, had become a city. Henry the Proud, and his valiant son, Henry the Lion, extended their conquests between the Weser and the Elbe, and be- yond the latter to the Baltic, over Slavonian tribes, to whom they communicated the benefits of a regular gov- ernment and the rudiments of civilization. CHAPTER ly. CONSTITUTION OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. The last-mentioned Emperor of the house of Sup- plingenburg, a wise and equitable Prince, felt himself not so secure in his authority, that he might venture on the attempt to exchange the name for the reality of power. [A.D. 1138.] This Prince, and Conrad of Hohenstaufen, who was maternal grandson of Henry the Fourth, were afraid to oppose the prevailing opinion with respect to the authority of the Roman See, from the influence of which their own consciences were not free. Talents and courage, only, could give to the sovereign, in these times, the personal weight which circumstan- ces refused to the title of his rank. The kings, indeed, could neither bestow vacated fiefs, without the consent of the states, nor reward their friends, nor increase the domains of their families, without gaining the consent of the great, by similar largesses, and thereby maintain- ing the equipoise of power. Without the good will of the states, they could neither alienate any part of their domanial property, nor give back seigniories which had been forfeited to their old possessors ; for they might thus have been enabled to form arrangements danger- ous to the constitution. CONSTITUTION OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 275 The domanial estates of the emperors were situated chiefly on the Rhine, and were the territories conquered, of old, by the Romans from the Germans, of which, in later times, the Romans had been dispossessed by the Al- lemanni, and the latter by the Franks. The Count Pal- atine of the Rhine, who administered these demesnes, acquired, at length, the secure possession of them. The emperors received an irregular income from Lombardy and Italy, and a still more uncertain tribute from the Bohemian, Polish, and other Slavonian, tribes. Hence they found themselves interested in extending the boundaries of the empire. Imposts and coinage, as matters which were of importance to the common- wealth, and required regularity and unity of plan, were naturally referred to the common sovereign of the em- pire. The princes appointed extraordinary taxes, ac- cording to the determination of the nobles, and partic- ular circumstances. The princes and nobles were too nearly on an equal- ity in power, to be willing instruments in subjecting each other to a yoke. The fief, even when united, was not an indivisible dominion ; its separation was possi- ble ; and the right of primogeniture was little in prac- tice, while the division of property was a common usage. The German empire was a great confederacy against the rise of arbitrary power ; and a certain com- mon spirit governed the whole body. As the princes sought to maintain themselves in their great fiefs, against the king or emperor, so the lords and knights defended their domains against the oppression of the princes. The progressive culture of estates, and the growth of arts, enriched the husbandmen and artificers ; and a new interest was thus formed, in opposition to the powerful nobility. This third estate adhered to the monarch and the great lords, from whom it obtained liberties which gave it security. The people of this class gradually flocked to cities, which aflforded them the safety founded upon union ; and several cities often formed alliances with each other. Already, under the 276 FREDERICK BARBAROSSA. house of Henry the First and Conrad the Second, the rights of the cities of Soest, Cologne, Magdeburg, and Lübeck, became examples to other places, and the towns* founded by the dukes of Zaeringen soon showed that freemen can do nothing better to secure their in- dependence, than to assemble in communities. CHAPTER V. FREDERICK BARBAROSSA. The affairs of the empire were in this situation, when, at the death of Conrad the Third, his nephew, Frederick, surnamed Barbarossa, from his red beard, in the flower of his age, and already illustrious by mili- tary exploits, became Emperor of Germany. [A. D. 1152.] The beginning of his administration had been dis- tinguished by praiseworthy enterprises and fortunate events ; and Rome had already experienced what Frederick was capable of effecting, against or in favor of the Papacy, when, at the demise of Adrian the Fourth, [A. D. 1159,] the cardinals found themselves unable to agree in the choice of a successor. The Emperor then wrote to them, declaring that he would summon a general assembly of all Christendom. The cardinals maintained, that such an undertaking belong- ed only to the spiritual head of the Church ; and they, for the most part, united their endeavors in favor of Alexander the Third, a prelate of distinguished courage and experience, to whom others opposed the more gen- tle Octavius, who assumed the name of Victor the Fourth. A synod, held by the Emperor in Pavia, de- clared in favor of the latter. Alexander pronounced the ban of the Church against his opponent ; declared the * Namely, Friburg, in the Brisgau, and Friburg and Bern, in Sfyitzerland. rREDERICK BARBAROSSA. 277 Emperor to have forfeited the Crown ; and endeavored to rouse, in his own cause, all the Christian courts. But the army of the Emperor, at the head of which fought Christian and Reinhold, Archbishops of Mentz and of Cologne, marched towards Rome, and Alexan- der fled to Montpellier. Louis the Seventh, King of France, mediated an in- terview at Dijon. With Frederick, appeared Walde- mar. King of Denmark, and Vladislaf, King of Bohemia, both of whom had to thank the Emperor for their crowns, together with the princes of the empire and a multitude of knights and lords. The King of France absented himself, and, together with Henry of Eng- land, declared in favor of Alexander, while Stephen the Third, in Hungary, took arms in his cause, and fell on the neighboring provinces of the empire. The Empe- ror confirmed the deposition of Alexander, and main- tained, that, in affairs relating to the Papal chair, the decision depended exclusively on the bishops of the empire. In the mean time, the greatest and strongest towns of Lombardy had formed a combination for establishing a free republic, and a similar spirit began anew to dis- play itself in Rome. The cities embraced the cause of Alexander, from apprehension of the imperial pow- er ; and the two great factions of the Guelphs, who favored the papacy, and the Ghibellines, in opposition to it, were now formed. [A. D. 1162.] The Emper- or entered Italy, burnt Crema, the strongly-fortified Tortona, and particularly Milan, the greatest and finest town of Lombardy, adorned with splendid remains of the magnificence of the Caesars. He ordered salt to be spread over the place where Milan had stood, and commanded that fields and meadows should be formed on the site of its ancient palaces. The neighboring towns had been faithful to him, till they saw this rival of their greatness completely destroyed ; and, from that time, they began to walk in her footsteps. The Emper- or then gave the fortresses into the hands of Ghibelline II. 24 u. H. 278 FREDERICK BARBAROSSA. lords, and sought to subdue the courage of the citizens by means of German soldiery. Verona, at this time, became the capital of the Lombard confederacy. At that period, those mystical representations of re- ligion were known, which, from remote times, had been preserved in the valleys of the Alps, and spread themselves from Switzerland, from the Pays de Vaud, from the Waldensic villages, and the Cevennes. They were formed in the same spirit as the simple and inde- pendent congregations of the primitive Christians, but Gnostic prejudices, against the corporeal organization, had led the communities to an overstrained rigidity of morals. It might have been conjectured, that the Em- peror would have availed himself of the aid of these people against the influence of Home ; but he joined his eflforts with those of the Church, in opposition to them. Their notions of liberty were not compatible with his system of government, which coincided with the plans of the old Caesars. He ordered Arnold of Brescia, an enterprising teacher of these doctrines, to be burnt, because he had favored the attempt of the nobles, with the assistance of the people, to restore the freedom of Rome. The spirit of Arnold survived, and fanned the flame of civil liberty, which was now kind- ling, on all sides. The Emperor sought to possess himself of the priest- ly power by the less stormy way, which the scholastic philosophy, and a more accurate acquaintance with the primitive records of the Christian faith, opened to him ; but Latin literature was without influence, on the mass of the people, and the German language was but now beginning to receive its earliest culture. Long and severe was the struggle of the Emperor against Alexander and the Lombard towns. The wars of the Roman people, at this period, were carried on in the same spirit as those ancient conflicts which had fol- lowed the reign of Romulus ; but military tactics and discipline were wanting. [A. D. 1167.] From this defect arose the unfortunate events of their campaigns FREDERICK BARBAROSSA. 279 against Tusculum and Alba. The German forces obliged the ill-commanded multitude to take flight, in which scarcely a third part of them escaped the sword. After these victories, the Emperor appeared, with the aid of his partisans, before the fortress of St. Angelo. The townsmen, formed into a militia, exerted themselves valiantly, in its defence ; but the battering-ram shook the halls of St. Peter's, and the metropolitan church of Christendom was taken by storm. Already the flames had melted the iron portal of our Lady of the Tower. The Pope, with his cardinals, fled to the fortified houses of the noble Frangepani, in the neighborhood of the Colosseum. At this moment, the Emperor offered peace, on the condition that both the Popes should re- sign their pretensions, and that a free election should unite the Christian Church. When Alexander observ- ed the impression which this proposal produced, he dis- appeared ; on the third day after, he was seen by the side of a fountain near Circello. The Pope had fled ; and the Emperor made his entry into Rome. [A. D. 1167.] But the intemperance of the conquerors, and the influence of a climate to which they were unused, destroyed, in a short time, the Dukes of Suabia and Bavaria, the Archbishop of Cologne, the Lords of Nas- sau and of Lippe, and almost all the Princes of the army ; so that the victory most desired was to escape the pestilence, and to obtain refuge in the Apennines, from the troops of the Lombard towns. [A.D. 1168.] The latter restored Milan, and built Alexandria, as a bulwark to that city. In a fertile dis- trict, surrounded by three rivers and by deep morasses, Milan became, in the space of a year, the abode of fif- teen thousand warriors. In vain the Emperor now despatched the Bishop of Bamberg to treat with Alexander, alone, in order to render him suspected by the cities, and to excite divis- ions. The Pope, v/arned of the design, declared, in the conference at Veroli, that " he would enter into no discussion, except in the presence of the cardinals and 280 FREDERICK BAR,BAROSSA. all the deputies of the Lombard towns." In the mean time, while Alexander was carrying on this contest with one of the most powerful of the emperors, he forced one of the greatest of the English monarchs to submit to receive stripes on the tomb of an archbishop of Can- terbury, whose well-merited death had been ascribed to the hatred of the king. Frederick had again recourse to arms, in which he was accustomed to victory. He marched over Mount Cenis, burnt Suze, conquered Asti, and laid siege to Alexandria. [A.D. 1174.] Rainy weather had ren- dered the marshy soil unfit to support machines, and mining was impossible. During four months, the Em- peror lay before this town. His army had even pene- trated it, by a subterranean way, when suddenly, a powerful multitude of armed townsmen, from all the Lombard cities, well provided with implements, appear- ed before his encampment. At the same time, the cit- izens drove out the soldiers who had entered the town, and rushed upon the camp of the besiegers ; and the Emperor was obliged to make his escape, after setting it on fire. After this calamity, a convention was ap- pointed at Pavia, to negotiate a treaty. The Cardinal of Ostia appeared, in the name of Al- exander. [A. D. 1175.] On account of the ban, he omitted to salute the Emperor, but declared his concern thereat, while he testified his admiration of that Mon- arch's great qualities. The Emperor, who expected an army from Rhaetia, beyond Como, sought to protract the negotiations for peace, and the Pavians prepared for taking revenge on their enemies ; but, as the prudence of the latter, and the dignity of Alexander, were wor- thy of the ancient Romans, their vigilance, also, was not inferior. [A. D. 1176.] When these proceedings came to their knowledge, they offered, near Lignano, a decisive battle to the Emperor, under the banners of St. Am- brose of Milan. Frederick disting^oished himself wher- ever valor or wise counsel was reauired. The Milan- FREDERICK BARBAROSSA. 281 ese, under the Guelphs, fought furiously, to revenge their country. Frederick was at length wounded. All the citizens of Como, irritated against the Milanese, by the remembrance of long feuds, remained dead on the field of battle ; and the Germans were at length com- pelled to take flight. The Emperor afterwards sued for peace, and Alexan- der declared, that nothing was more desirable to him, than to obtain peace from the greatest warrior of the Christian world : he only entreated one thing, namely, that the Emperor would impart it also to the Lombards, into whose country he would retire. The journey of the Pope from Vieste to Venice was a triumphal march. [A. D. 1177.] The Doge Sebastiano Ziani, and the nobles of Venice, in splendid gondolas, conducted him into the town. As he performed high mass in the church of St. Mark, he is said to have bestowed upon the Venetians the empire over their sea, by presenting them with a consecrated rose. They were indeed al- ready in possession of it, and the times of their great- ness had begun. The Emperor was not so much humiliated by the power of his enemies as by the defection of his friend, Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria. Henry was a brave warrior and an able statesman, and by far the most powerful prince of the empire ; he owed every thing to Frederick, — the predecessor of this Duke hav- ing forfeited his domains to the former Emperor. Hen- ry seized a decisive moment, when the Monarch was suffering the pressure of calamity, in order to desert him, neglecting all the personal remonstrances of his Sovereign. In the eighteenth year of the schism, Frederick was reconciled with Pope Alexander, in the great portal of the metropolitan church at Venice. The former kissed the feet of the Pontiff, who hastened to embrace him, and conduct him to the altar. His engaging modesty and gentleness secured the respect which the Emperor entertained towards him. The cities were confirmed, 24* 282 FREDERICK BARBAROSSA. for a certain period, in the rights of which they had possessed themselves ; a hmitation which was, in reali- ty, a mere reservation in favor of the imperial authority. Alexander made a triumphal entry into Rome, which the old consuls might have envied him. This Tuscan Prelate (for Alexander, as well as Gregory the Seventh, was a native of Tuscany) was the father of the Italian republics ; he employed his power in moderating or aboUshing personal servitude, under which a great part of their population groaned. Frederick was the great- est monarch of the Germans, since the time of Henry the First ; his great qualities gave him a personal au- thority, before which all forms are lost sight of. He respected them, however, and testified a constitutional regard for the states ; while he restrained their dissen- sions, and supported the burgesses against the nobility. By his second marriage, Frederick united the free*" country of Upper Burgundy with his hereditary domains. He spared the enemies of his house, the Dukes of Zae- ringen, whose territory was important to him, on account of the pass into Italy ; but he protected, against the ag- gressions of those chieftains, Arducius, the Bishop of Geneva, and enabled him to maintain possession of his city, which was valuable, on account of its situation. When Frederick, in the commencement of his reign, had reinstated Henry the Lion in the estates of his fath- er, he separated the margravate of Austria, which had formerly been under a subordinate alliance with Bava- ria, and formed of it a separate dukedom, the possessor of which he raised above all the princes of the empire who had not been, from remote times, of the rank of electors. He renewed the privileges of this chief, or bestowed new powers on his duchy, of which Austria stood in greater need than the other provinces of the empire, on account of its situation on dangerous boun- daries. It was thus enabled to acquire a degree of pow- er capable of supporting itself, and advantageous even * Now Franche Comte. ABBOT SUGERj AND THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. 283 to the Other states, to which it served as a bulwark against the barbarians. In the following Book, it will be related, how the punishment of Henry the Lion became, in the sequel, the source whence the power of other great houses was derived. Frederick expected many advantageous effects for his own interest, in the dissemination of the old Roman ju- risprudence, which, in the time of his youth, was intro- duced anew to the knowledge of the Western people. The Lombards opposed to it the feudal law, which Obert of Orto, a Milanese senator, had compiled. The Emperor sought to found his authority on a secure foot- ing, by a law, which he enacted on the plains of Ron- cale, in conjunction with the nobles and the cities ; and was well pleased to observe that the teachers, in the newly-erected university of Bologna, applied maxims, deduced from the situation of affairs under the first Caesars, to his own empire and his imperial rights. He retained, notwithstanding his calamity at Ligna- no, such an ascendency, and his son, Henry the Sixth, who, during his father's life, was elected King of the Romans, became afterwards so much more powerful, that the ideas of the Bolognese professors appeared to be something more important, than mere dreams or words of adulation. CHAPTER VL OF THE ABBOT SUGER, AND THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. A MONK of humble station and of unattractive exte- rior, the Abbot Suger, of St. Denys, who was minister of the French Kings, Louis the Fat and Louis the Younger, during the first years of Frederick Barbaros- sa, laid, by his wise counsels and unobserved measures, a firm foundation for the subsequent developement of 284 ABBOT SUGER, AND THE KINGDOM OF FRANCE. the French nation, and the aggrandizement of their kings. Louis the Sixth had not that character which alarms the jealousy of the great, but he possessed enough pen- etration, to understand the designs of Suger. The na- tion had perceived, in the wars against the English and against the Emperor Henry .the Fifth, that a greater power in the hands of the kings was desirable for the public welfare. But this idea penetrated more deeply into their, minds, when the Monarch had undertaken, in earnest, the protection of justice in his courts, the ad- ministration of which had often suffered from the igno- rance or the passions of rude and impetuous barons. The best preparation, for introducing alterations into the government of a country, is to direct the attention to those institutions which are defective in it, or which are most tardy in their performance. The King oiTered himself as the protector of the helpless, of freedmen, and of those who wished to become free ; of the bur- gesses assembled in towns, who sought only security for their persons and estates, and did not, like the no- bles, aim at placing themselves on an equality with the king. [A. D. 1137.] Louis the Seventh had been so con- scientious as to restore Guienne, the hereditary estate of his wife, Eleanor of Guienne, [A.D. 1152,] when he repudiated her on account of an intrigue with a young Turk, in which she had been detected, while she ac- companied the King in his crusade. After a few weeks, she married Henry Plantagenet, of Anjou, who soon afterwards became King of England. From that time, the French nobles were more jealous of Henry than of their own Monarch, who was, in reality, less powerful ; so that the latter might venture upon any measures, in opposition to the English ; and his plans for the increase of his own power appeared necessary for the good of the nation. The plan adopted by the King, of collecting the free- men in towns, became advantageous, also, to the sub- ENGLAND LOSES HER CONSTITUTION. 285 jects of the nobility ; for the latter found themselves under the necessity of imitating the example. The establishment of towns -occasioned an increase of trades, by which the commonalty became rich, and were enabled to contribute to the support of the king ; and they received so much the greater share of the royal favor. Hence arose the states-general of the nation, which were not the old national assemblies of the Franks, but were substituted in the place of them. But these political alterations took place at a later period : Louis the Sixth only administered the affairs of his own dukedom, in which he was often interrupted by the no- bles of France. CHAPTER VII. ENGLAND LOSES HER CONSTITUTION. [A. D. 1042.] The English availed themselves of the anarchy which ensued after the sons of Canute had died without issue, in order to restore the Anglo-Saxon dynasty ; and they had the good fortune to obtain, through the care of Edward the Third, a compilation of their national laws. [A. D. 1066.] But, after his decease, disturbances arose, which inflicted wounds on the liberty and constitution of England, that were not healed for several centuries. [A.D. 1067.] William, Duke of Normandy, con- quered England, after defeating King Harold, who had been elected by the last Anglo-Saxon Wittenagemote, or national assembly. The Conqueror exacted feudal service, even for allodial estates, which the English had obtained, not from the crown, but by the arms of their forefathers. Hence they were degraded from the rank of comrades of the king, into that of subjects. William took care that they should be sensibly reminded of this dependence. At their marriages, he became the pro- 286 ENGLAND LOSES HER CONSTITUTION. tector of their children ; and received, during the mi- nority of the latter, the revenues of their estates, of vi^hich he prevented the free alienation by the feudal laws. His legal code contained a mixture of feudal observances, which he had chosen to adopt, with the reasons of state in which a conqueror finds motives or excuses for his actions. From that time forward, wars were no longer carried on by the resolutions of the Wittenagemote. English- men were under an obligation to serve in every war of the king, at least during forty days ; and the mode of reckoning to be adopted depended on the will of the monarch. The whole of England, with relation to its military constitution, was divided into sixty thousand fiefs, each appropriated to the support of a knight. The whole aspect of society was new ; a foreign and unknown law governed the country. Wood and water were regal possessions ; and these assumed rights were used by the first kings, without moderation, and in a manner too obtrusive. After the powerful tyranny of the Conqueror, and the formidable caprices of his son William, had ceased, [A. D. 1100,] Henry the First, who ascended the throne in the place of his elder brother, found himself under the necessity of seeking to gain the affection of the na- tion ; and thus the yoke, which would otherwise have depressed its character, was at length rendered more easy. [A. D. 1135.] Equally advantageous, in its ef- fects, was the contest for the succession, which ensued between Stephen of Boulogne, the nephew of the last King, and his grandson, Henry of Anjou ; as well as the humiliating misfortunes to which the latter, a Prince of uncommon talents, was reduced. [A. D. 1154.] Hen- ry the Second had to contend, now against the contu- macy, now against the vehement avengers, of the inso- lent Archbishop Thomas ä Becket ; and afterwards to sustain the more afflicting dissensions which his con- sort, the heiress of Guienne, had fomented among his sons. ENGLAND LOSES HER CONSTITUTION. 287 Henry adopted one measure, which was likely to re- strain the barons from restoring the freedom of the An- glo-Saxon government : he damped their military ardor, by permitting them to purchase exemption from person- al service in warfare. In the time of Stephen, the levy- ing of mercenary soldiers had been attempted by Wil- liam of Ypres. The hired troops were termed Rottieri, and Brabanzons from the country by whose superabun- dant population they were furnished. Hence, with the aid of the sums paid by the nobles for exemption, armies were formed, which served the Monarch unconditional- ly, and enabled him to acquire greater power over the nation. The English were restrained from attempting to re- cover their liberty, by the Normans, to whom the Con- queror had granted extensive fiefs. The latter, who were accustomed to be treated as vassals and as war- riors, according to military principles, felt that their fortunes depended on maintaining the power of the throne. They stood in the same relation to the former, and adhered to it, as the soldiers of Sylla to the party of the true republicans. The Parliament was for a long time a body without a soul, until the contests for the succession to the throne gave weight to the voices of the vassals. " Friends and liege subjects," said Henry the First, " it is known to you, that God had called my brother to become King of Jerusalem, and that he has not accounted himself to be worthy of that honor." (Robert was present at the first Crusade, and probably received this oflfer after the taking of Jerusalem.) " Cruelty," he continued, " is his delight ; and you (addressing the barons) he despises, as a company of idle profligates. I, whom you know to be just, and fond of peace, and of approved fidelity, in all my proceedings, pledge myself to you, both my foreign and homeborn subjects, if you will stand by me, to respect your liberties, and patiently listen to your prudent counsels. Whenever you desire it, I swear to observe the laws which King Edward, of pious memory, 288 ENGLAND LOSES HER CONSTITUTION. not without the help of God, has estabhshed in these realms. Lend your aid, brethren, and English courage shall put the boasting foreigners to shame."* This Prince indeed suppressed the burdensome feudal im- posts, and the law of the curfew, which obliged every householder to extinguish his fires and lights, at the toll- ing of a bell, — ordinances which were found intolerable to the English. [A. D. 1 154.] Henry the Second, after the example of the French kings, and with greater eifect, sought to gain respect for the crown, by an equitable administra- tion of justice. He divided England into six districts, over which he appointed as many judges, who were or- dered to traverse them, at fixed times, and take cogni- zance of all complaints, which had arisen from ignorance or partiality in the inferior courts. He favored the towns, and encouraged trade and the productive arts. The market of London was already the resort of many foreign merchants. Sixty thousand men formed the infantry, and twenty thousand cavalry completed the military force of the country. Montgomery and other frontier towns re- strained the ancient Britons, in Wales, from sudden incursions into England. At Chester, Pembroke, Dur- ham, and Huxham, counts palatine were stationed, armed with full powers for suppressing sudden disturb- ances. [A.D. 117L] Ireland, the theatre of factious dis- putes between numerous chieftains, afforded an easy conquest to the arms of Henry the Second. At the council of Lismore, he abolished the old country law, according to which, the Brehones had judged the Irish, and which might be reckoned an institution for barbar- ism and disorder. But the people conceived such a hatred against the laws of a foreign ruler, that they be- came estranged from all the regulations of civil order, and remained the longer in a state of wild and unsocial mdependence. * See Matthew Paris. Edition, Watts, p. 62. THE NORTHERN NATIONS. 289 Richard the First, son of Henry, during his abode in the island of Oleron, promulgated the first maritime law. With respect to the history of the Scots, who had visited Caledonia, in early times, but, according to some writers, first made a final settlement there in the ninth century, we have only to remark, that their kings were constantly employed in maintaining their indepen- dence against the Normans and English. What infor- mation the old sagas of this people have preserved, con- cerning their internal history, has not as yet been suffi- ciently investigated. Many memorials of the old time were destroyed by the English King, Edward the First, when that Prince attempted to rob the Scottish natioa of its independence. CHAPTER VHI. THE NORTHERN NATIONS. The Norman people became more illustrious in the countries they had conquered, than the kings of Nor- way among the sovereign potentates of Europe. The Swedes and Goths united themselves, under one monarchy, in which a Goth of Swercher's house, and a Swede of the family of Erich, alternately held the throne. These Princes would have attained a high- er degree of power, if the impatient desire of reigning had not brought most of them to an untimely death ; [A. D. 1153 ;] in consequence of which the cultivation of social habits was impeded, while all authority depend- ed on physical strength, and enterprising princes were^ restrained by no law. The violence of faction was so great, that, after all the house of Woden, the Heraclidse of Sweden, had become extinct, foreigners were invited to assume the crown. The Danes harassed the northern coasts of Germany.. It was not to them that this rude country could look II. 25 u. h. 290 THE NORTHERN NATIONS* for the benefit of religion and civil order. Otho, Bish- op of Bamberg, sprung from the house of the counts of Andechs, and in his earlier years known to the Duke of Poland, undertook the conversion of the Pomeranians. His learning, his zeal, and the influence of the Christian states, which pressed hard, on every side of Pomerania, overcame the worship of Swandewid, the all-seeing, and gave an easy entrance to the religion of the Chris- tians, against which the Pomeranian town of Julin in vain opposed its arms. The victorious banners of Hen- ry the Lion completed this work, and brought the prin- ces of the Vandals, at Mecklenburg, into the faith of Christendom and the league of the German empire. From that time, their Duke Pribislaf reigned peaceably, with the assistance of his four counts. Long before the period at which the history of these countries opens itself to our view, Wineta had been a centre of communication, where the productions of a pastoral country, and of the few and imperfect arts which then existed, were bartered for the wares of merchants who visited these seas. On a sudden, the soil gave way, and the city sunk into the sea ; the great Wineta vanished, and its ruins are hidden shoals, where marble and alabaster, at the bottom of the sea, bear testimony to its splendor, in former times. Julin afterwards became the seat of the opulence and trade of Pomerania. This town was not so magnificent, though it was more extensive than Wineta. Julin re- jected the doctrine of Christianity. Lightning set fire to the wooden houses, in its narrow streets, and the whole city fell a prey to the flames. Thenceforward, the plain of Pomerania was divided among smaller towns : Lubec, Stettin, and Dantzic, attained to the highest rank on the whole south coast of the Baltic sea. Poland was divided among hereditary princes, who, by intestine wars, maintained, indeed, the love of arms among their subjects, but could not uphold the inde- pendence of the nation against the united power of the Germans. The influence of the latter with that of the THE NORTHERN NATIONS. 291 Christian missionaries, to whom Mstislaw at length gave ear, brought the barbarians of Sarmatia nearer to the culture of social life. Lithuania still maintained its gods and unpolished manners. This country was at that time disjoined from Poland, while Silesia was in- cluded in it. [A-. D. 1158.] The country of the Samoiedes, Cur- land and Livonia, became more accurately known to the western Europeans, by means of some merchants from Bremen, who were thrown by a storm upon the inhospitable coast. The shipwrecked persons were at- tacked by the people of the country ; but the latter were softened by the sight of the merchandise in the hands of the foreigners. The Bremeners, in order to explore the country, went up the Dwina. They built a wooden warehouse, where Herkuil now stands, and introduced missionaries into the country, in order to civilize the Livonians. [A.D. 1147.] In the Russian empire, Novogorod was extensive, flourishing, and attached to freedom more than all the other cities. By slow degrees, there arose, on the banks of the Moskwa in which the Czar George Dolgorukoi delighted, a city that was destined one day to eclipse the fame of Novogorod. A wooden dwelling, where the Czar devoted his secret hours to an unlawful attachment, gave the first occasion to the building of Moscow. His son, Andreas Bogolubskoi, Czar at Susdal and Rostow, (the empire being now divided,) conquered, on the shores of the Volga, the countries of the barbarous Tcheremisses, Tschuvasches, and Merdwines, three tribes of Tartars. The Merdwines still worship the gods of their ancestors, and next to them, St. Nicholas ; their prayer is a short invocation, " Give food, O God, to every country 1" Among the Tschuvasches, Tor has yet his worshippers ; and that people still dread the evil spirit that dwells in the waters. Witches are much reverenced among them ; and horse-flesh is their favorite food. 292 CONSTANTINOPLE. The same Czar, Andreas Bogolubskoi, conquered the old seats of the Bulgarians ; whence, in the seventh century, innumerable hordes had emigrated to ancient Mysia and to Lower Italy. They now ruled, with great power, on the banks of the Kuma, and were in- riched by commerce. CHAPTER IX. CONSTANTINOPLE. [A. D. 1081.] Alexius Comnenus, a Prince of great experience and uncommon endowments, gave, during a reign of thirty-seven years, to the imperial throne of the Greeks a degree of stability, which the external circumstances of the empire had never more urgently required. For, on one side, the power of the Seljukian Turks was advancing with the rapid fortune peculiar to a newly-founded dynasty ; on the other, Robert Guiscard pushed his enterprises against Durazzo, and ventured even to Larissa. While all the provinces of the empire were convulsed by the Crusade, and the Russians pressed on its northern frontiers, Alexius, with the art of a statesman and with successful exertions, withstood every foe. He found a historian, who raised herself above the character of her age, in his daughter, Anna Comnena, who possessed a genius worthy of her father, and employed hours, which, against her inclina- tion, she was obliged to spend in retirement, in compos- ing a history of his life. At the same period, the old book of Indian philoso- phy, termed Bidpai, was translated at Constantinople : some distinguished persons of the house of Seth hav- ing, at this time, endeavored to penetrate into the hid- den treasures of Oriental learning. Knowledge was sought by many, as the path to dignity and fame. John the Fair, son of Alexius, and Manuel, son of CONSTANTINOPLE. 293 John, found in Cinnamus, who hved in intimacy with these Emperors, a biographer whose work is very in- teresting, though too full of panegyric. The courtier Zonaras, who was driven into a life of seclusion by a mind broken by misfortunes, composed, in his retire- ment, a historical book, in which he has handed down many facts, which would have been otherwise un- known. Shortly before the fall of the Comnene dy- nasty, Nicetas of Chone enjoyed the highest honors of the court. His very instructive history is equally valuable, for its honest veracity, and attractive, by the warm attachment of the author to his sinking country. In the West, the office of the historian fell, for the most part, to the lot of monks and abbots ; among whom, Otho, Bishop of Freysing, sprung from the princely house of Austria, was less honorably distin- guished by his illustrious rank than by enlightened learning, a sound judgement, and an impartiality which exceeds expectation. The new modes of representa- tion in theology and philosophy flourished more than all other sciences. Although the way of observation and experience, although the discrimination of self-evi- dent truth and moral rectitude, by their accordance with unsophisticated common sense, belongs as little to the style of philosophy practised in that age as the pursuit of public utility, yet we cannot fail to discover, in the works of Anselm of Canterbury and Peter Abe- lard, the marks of profound reflection and comprehen- sive genius. The latter of these writers is distinguished by the eloquence of the heart, as the Abbot Bernhard of Clairvaux, by the richness of his imagination. The influence of Bernhard, on the character of his age, renders the study of his manner important for those who would discriminate the genius of nations. [A. D. 1118.] The Emperor John, son of Alexius, maintained, with heroic valor and consummate prudence, the boundaries of the empire, which were threatened on every side. [A. D. 1143.] Manuel, his son, fought like a brave warrior rather than a cautious general : yet 25* 294 OF THE COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL. his politic administration enabled him to transmit the empire, with undiminished glory and extent, to his posterity. CHAPTER X. OF THE COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL. The pristine strength of the Seljukian Turks, who had ruled, with a powerful sway, in the empire of the Arabs, had declined, from the effect of internal divis- ions and relaxation of manners. Between the sultans of this dynasty, who held their residence at Iconium,, and the emperors of the Comnene house, wars were carried on, with alternations of fortune. In Bagdad, the Commander of the Faithful, Moktafi Ebn Mostad- her, emancipated himself from the power of the Sultan, [A. D. 1153,] and deemed himself happy to be the sovereign of his own palace. Benjamin, a Jew of Tu- dela, in Spain, visited Bagdad, at this era, [A. D. 1171,] and has left us a valuable narrative, which is only in a few places deformed or completely spoiled, by the ex- cessive partiality of the author for his own people. [A. D. 1153.] In Eastern Asia, the dynasty, which ruled at Gasna and over Hindostan, fell before the ;arms of Alaeddin Hossain, Sultan of Ghaur. This Prince conquered Multan, and made himself master of Delhi, In the treasury of the Gasnevide Sultan, he found three thousand pounds weight of diamonds. Soon, however, his generals rendered themselves in- dependent of the sovereigns of his house ; [A.D. 1206 ;] and the weakened empire fell a prey to the Sultans of Choresmia, who were lords of a great part of Persia. From the confines of their country to Iconium, the Turks ruled under the posterity of Kutlumish, son of Arslaw Yapgu, the son of Seljuk. Syria and Egypt acknowledged the sway of the Fa- timite sultans of Cairo. THE FIRST CRUSADE. 295 CHAPTER XI. THE FIRST CRUSADE. In the wars which the Fatimite princes carried on with the Seljukian Turks, the Vizier of the Egyptian Sultan, Abul Kasem Mostah, had recently defended the sovereignty of his master over Jerusalem, when the nations of Europe suddenly spread themselves over Asia. [A.D. 1096.] Pope Urban, at the synod of Clermont, stirred up the people of Christendom, al- ready prepared by the preaching of Peter the Hermit, to deliver the holy sepulchre from the possession of In» fidels. This enthusiasm seized upon old men, women, and children. The promise of pardon for sins, holy reverence, and the influence of curiosity ; the spirit of adventures, the hope of gaining thrones and dominions, and the certain expectation of sitting in the next world as judges over the Infidels ; were the moving causes which incited mortals of all descriptions, without distinction of rank or age, to rush, by hundreds of thousands, to this achievement. In the mean time, the wars of the Europeans among themselves were laid aside. Three brothers, named Godfrey, Eustace, and Bald- win, the eldest of whom was Duke of Lower Lorraine and Brabant, and, on his mother's side, heir of Bouil- lon ; Robert, Duke of Normandy, son of William the Conqueror ; Hugh of France, brother of Philip the First ; Raymond of St. Giles, Count of Toulouse, with a vast multitude of lords and knights ; the noble Wal- ter, of the town of Limoges, accompanied by his lion, which he had saved from the fangs of a serpent, and which never deserted his deliverer ; and a thousand high-born chieftains, from all the countries of Western Christendom, followed by their vassals, bondmen, and comrades, rushed forth, in the ten hundred and ninety^ sixth year of the Christian era, without a king or any 296 THE FIRST CRUSADE. acknowledged leader of their hosts, and hastened, by sea and land, from the furthest shores of the ocean, to Jerusalem, to fight and to pray on those sacred spots which the Son of God had honored by his presence and sufferings. After having, by their want of order and temper- ance, exposed the Emperor Alexius to imminent perils, from which his own presence of mind could alone ex- tricate him, the Crusaders possessed themselves of the city of Nicaea, which, not many years before, had fallen into the hands of Sultan Suleyman, son of Kutlu- mish, the Seljuk Prince. They conquered also Laodi- cea : but, incapable of giving effect to the exploits of valor by prudent measures, they left their conquests ex- posed to the aggravated vengeance of the Turks, who sacrificed to their fury ten thousand of the inhabitants of Smyrna. During the siege of Antioch, many of the Crusaders separated themselves, to return home or go in quest of new adventures. Boemond, the son of Robert Guiscard, equal to his father in good and evil actions, a valiant but base man, became Prince of An- tioch ; and Baldwin of Edessa, and Bertrand, son of Raymond of St. Giles, Count of Tripoli. While the fruitful fields of Cilicia and Syria sup- ported the Crusaders with provisions, the Archbishop Adimbert, of Pisa, arrived, with a reenforcement of a hundred and twenty ships. Pisa was the mistress of the Tuscan Sea, of Sardinia, and the Balearic islands ; and often ventured to oppose its power to the Neapoli- tan Normans. [A. D. 1099.] The coasts of Syria were conquered ; and, at Tyre, the forces were united, which had separ- ated from the siege of Antioch. The Crusaders ap- proached Jerusalem. Thirty-nine days, they lay before the walls. On the seventh of June, they mounted them ; but the height, on which the temple had stood, still held out. Every thing, however, yielded to rage and fanaticism ; and seventy thousand persons were sacri- ficed, by the victorious Crusaders, who burnt all the THE FIRST CRUSADE. 297 Jews in their own synagogue. After the city had been purified, Duke Godfrey was elected by the troops to be King of Palestine. He governed, however, with the concurrence of a council of the chieftains, and gave to his new kingdom assizes^ according to the customs and constitution of the French. In vain the Fatimide Mostali drew out his forces to oppose the Crusaders, in the field of Ascalon ; and in vain the General of the Seljuke Turks withstood them, at Antioch. Rehgious enthusiasm incited them to al- most supernatural exploits. Three orders of religious knighthood had their origin at Jerusalem, two of which still flourish. Already, be- fore the Crusade, many persons had associated them- selves in a fraternity, for the care of the infirm pilgrims in the hospital of St. John. They were formed into an order of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John, by Baldwin, brother and successor of Godfrey, King of Jerusalem ; and Raymond du Puy, or de Podio, was the first Grand Master. [A. D. 1120.] Hugh des Payens, of the house of the Counts of Champagne, Godfrey of St. Adhemar, and seven other brothers, formed the Knights Templars, [A.D. 1122,] who vow- ed to the Patriarch of Jerusalem to protect pilgrims against robbers, to live in celibacy, in obedience to their superiors, and without private possessions. The King, the chiefs, and barons of France, solicited Bern- hard of Clairvaux to prescribe them a formal rule. It was a part of their vow to be the first in battle and the last in the retreat. The Teutonic Order was estab- lished at a later period. The power of the Franks extended from the moun- tains of Armenia to the Egyptian confines ; [A. D. 1144 ;] but, upwards of forty years after the conquest of Jerusalem, Edessa was retaken by Atabek of Mausel. The fear of the progress of the Infidels roused the zeal of the pious Abbot of Clairvaux, who persuaded the princes to undertake a second crusade. [A. D. 1147.] The Emperor Conrad, eager for warhke fame. King 298 THE MOWAHEBDINS. Louis the Seventh, and many nobles from both king- doms, and from the Netherlands and England, took the cross. Many of those who went by sea completed, in their way, the laudable exploit of liberating Lisbon, the capital of Portugal, from the Moslem yoke. The Emperor came by land, by way of Constantinople, whence he made his entry, after many disasters, into Asia Minor. The siege of the Seljuke capital, Iconi- um, the Sultan of which had entered into a league with the Greek Emperor against the invaders, reduced the German army to a complete dispersion. The French King was not more fortunate ; against whose troops Mogireddin Abek defended Damascus, with the secret connivance of the Franks of Palestine. Nation- al jealousies, irregularities of all kinds, famine, and diseases, destroyed the multitude. The knights of Palestine feared the arrogance of their countrymen ; the enterprise was frustrated ; and the kingdom of Jeru- salem began to decline. CHAPTER Xn. THE MOWAHEDDINS. About the same time, the dominion of the Zeiridse, in the countries around Tunis, came to its conclusion. [A. D. 1 148.] These monarchs had lost Sicily, through the valor and ability of two Norman Princes, who bore the name of Roger, the elder of whom was a warrior of the house of Hauteville, and founded a domain in Sicily. The latter, his son, united the whole island under his sceptre and wise legislation. [A.D. 1154.] As the Morabeths, who, from the time of Yussuf, had ruled Morocco and Arabian Spain, had been in- debted for the rapid progress of their confederation to the zeal of newly-kindled fanaticism ; so their great- est calamities were inflicted upon them by the enthusi- SPAIN. 299 asm of a Prophet. [A. D. 1119.] Mahdi Mohammed, son of Abdallah, son of Ibn Tumrot, a preacher of the purest Islam, having been exiled from Morocco, found- ed, with the aid of Abd-el-Mumen, a powerful man of Telemsan, the confederation of the Mowaheddins, or " worshippers of the only true God." This party un- dertook to avenge his cause ; they jointly erected a city on the coast, and gained victories over the subjects of the Morabeth princes. They were invited, by the Zeiridse of Tunis, to as- sist them against the power of Roger, King of Sicily, and they gave effectual succor. Flushed with this suc- cess, Abd-el-Mumen ventured to lay siege to Morocco. The Morabeths defended their capital with that zeal to which they had been indebted for all their victories ; and the siege cost Abd-el-Mumen a hundred thousand men. His perseverance at length triumphed, after the strength of the besieged was exhausted. After reduc- ing Morocco, the Mowaheddins extended their sway along the northern coast of Africa, from Egypt to the Straits, [A. Ü. 1147,] which they passed, and afterward conquered Algarva, Seville, Granada, and Murcia. They maintained their acquisitions against the humbled Mo- rabeths, and against the arms of the Normans and the Spaniards, who were in the full career of victory. CHAPTER XIII. SPAIN. In Spain, the siege of Toledo was an enterprise high- ly interesting to all the nations of Southern Europe. Alphonso, King of Leon, had been driven from his coun- try, by his brother Sancho, King of Castile. The Ara- bian Prince of Toledo had given him such a reception as the laws and customs of the Arabs enjoined them to afford strangers, especially when in want of succor. 300 PORTUGAL. When, after the death of his brother, Alphonso returned home, to assume the crowns of Castile and Leon, he vowed to the Arabs an inviolable friendship. But Al- mamun and his son at length died ; his grandson, Ya- hia-el-Kabir Billah, had rendered himself the object of hatred and contempt ; and Alphonso then conducted the most illustrious knights of Christendom to assault Toledo. The Tagus, on three sides, surrounds the city, which is situated on rocks. The access to it was excellently fortified ; the defence was heroical ; but vic- tory was the reward of Castilian perseverance. Thus, the old capital of the Visigoths fell again into the power of the Christians. [A. D. 1080.] CHAPTER XIV. PORTUGAL., A REMARKABLE fate attended Henry, a knight, who sprung from the house of the counts of Upper Burgun- dy and distinguished himself before Toledo. Alphon- so, in order to conciliate this valiant youth to his service, gave him the command over the conquests which the kings of Leon had made, in the mountains on the west- ern coast, towards the mouths of the Tagus and the Duero. Henry married Theresa Guzman, the daugh- ter of the King, born, as it is said, out of lawful wed- lock. Urraca, the heiress of the King, espoused Ray- mond, the kinsman of Henry. From that time forward. Count Henry held his abode at Guimaraens, in the country between the Duero and the Minho. He took the city of Porto, which gave its name to a district ; and continued, during his life, to wage wars with the unbelievers. When the King, his father-in-law, died, [A. D. 1109,] the domain over which he ruled became his own, with the royal dignity which he inherited by his consort. [A. D. 1112.] PORTUGAL. 301 When his son, Count Alphonso, arrived at adult age, he continued the warhke career of his father, and conquered the beautiful plains of Alentejo. The lead- ers of the Arabs united their strength, and fought against him, near Ourique, with superior forces. [A. D. 1139.] The Count sought encouragement, in remembering the wonderful things which the Lord had done by Gideon, with far inferior numbers^ for the deliverance of Israel. Wearied with exertion, he fell asleep, and beheld, in a dream, a venerable old man. In the morning, a her- mit, like the form he had seen in the night, came to the camp, and entreated the Count to visit him, on the fol- lowing evening, in his cell. The Count repaired thither. He beheld a shining figure, which appeared in the East, approached, and eclipsed the splendor of the starry heavens. " I am the Lord Jesus," said the apparition ; " thy arms, Alphonso, are blessed. I set thee as a king over thy people. For sixteen generations, my favor shall not depart from thy house ; and even further than this it shall descend." Alphonso, inflamed by the power of his imagination, or instructed by the crafty hermit, infused his own confidence among his warriors, and gained the victory. On the field of battle, he was saluted by his army as King of Portugal. [A. D. 1112 — 1185.] He merited the surname of the Con- queror ; he reigned victoriously and with honor, to an old age ; and transmitted his kingdom, with peculiar laws of descent, to his posterity. The succession to the throne was thus settled at the council of the king- dom at Lamego : '^ That every king should be succeed- ed by his son ; by his daughter, if he had no son ; or by his brother, if his daughter was married into foreign lands." II. 26 u. H. 302 CONCLUSION. CHAPTER XV. CONCLUSION. Thus, during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the civilized w^orld became divided into a number of states, of small or moderate extent, v^^hile the progress of agri- culture and of trade began to elevate the class of citi- zens. Civilized nations acknovi^ledged either the Pope, or the Patriarch of Constantinople, or the Emir-el-Mu- menin at Bagdad, or the Fatimite Khalif at Cairo, as their spiritual chief. But the antiquated povi^er of the Khalifs was approaching its dissolution, and the Patri- arch was under the power of the Emperor ; while the Papacy, alone, was yet in the full vigor of newly-estab- lished power. UNIVERSAL HISTORY. BOOK XVI. THE AGE IN WHICH THE PAPAL ASCENDENCY ATTAINED ITS HIGHEST PITCH. BOOK XVI. THE AGE IN WHICH THE PAPAL ASCENDENCY ATTAINED ITS HIGHEST PITCH.— A. D. 1177—1269. CHAPTER I. THE EMPIRE OF GERMANY. BAVARIA. The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa was, with the exception of the Pope whose dominion was of a pecu- liar nature, the most powerful of the princes of Chris- tendom. [A.D. 1180.] He took ample revenge on Duke Henry the Lion, by degrading him from his hon- ors, and declaring him an outlaw. The German prin- ces of the neighboring states enriched themselves, at the expense of Henry ; who, in the end, retained noth- ing but his allodial possessions of Brunswick and Lü- neburg. At this conjuncture, the house of Wittelsbach rose to distinction in Bavaria. This family derived its origin from the old Agilulfian princes of the Bavarians ; and, in later times, had possessed, under the title of counts palatine, at Scheyer, a territorial dominion, which could not be compared with that of the Guelphs. Otho be- came, on this occasion, Duke of Bavaria, of which Mu- nich, the capital, had recently been built by the unfor- tunate Duke Henry. The Emperor Frederick the Second afterwards gave to Duke Louis, heir of Otho, the palatinate of the Rhine^[A. D. 1215,] which had been intrusted to Hen- ry, son of Henry the Lion. Here, as in a royal domain, the counts palatine, in the capacity of representatives of the monarch, exercised civil and judicial prerogatives, 26* 306 AUSTRIA. such as belonged to no other chief. Hence their pow- er, in these scattered territories, is not hmited, as among the Bavarian people, by the rights of the provincial states. Their particular patronage of the Order of the Knights of St. John ; their privilege of seizing vaga- bonds ; their participation with the principal dukes, in the election of the monarch ; their administration of his powers, during a vacation of the throne ; all these and other prerogatives emanated from the particular rela- tion which the counts palatine bore to the monarch. It may, however, also be observed, that, as the kings, from ancient times, disposed arbitrarily of territories, and especially conferred many grants on the Church, the county palatine of the Rhine is broken by a number of domains, which are chiefly ecclesiastical possessions. The present state of these governments has derived its origin from the ancient tenure and constitution of the office of count palatine. Under the succeeding dukes, Bavaria was separated from the palatinate by one of those divisions of territory and dominion which were so fashionable in those times, and five centuries elapsed, before they became reunited. Further divisions, misfortunes, and political errors, de- prived the dukes of their participation in the imperial elections, and the house of Wittelsbach was prevented, by its own faults, from attaining to that degree of pow- er which the excellence of its territory seemed to prom- ise it. CHAPTER II. AUSTRIA. [A.D. 1186.] About the same time, the dukes of Austria, descendants of Leopold, Count of Babensberg, a line of valiant princes, gained possession of the mark of Stiria, by the bequest of Ottocar, who governed it with the ducal title ; and, while the King of Bohemia, BRANDENBURG. 307 after the house of Babensberg, held the dominion of Austria, with the wilhng or forced consent of the states, the duchy of Carinthia, in the old Slavonian territory, came to be united with the above-mentioned inherit- ance. [A.D. 1269.] Military talents had laid the foundation of the Aus- trian power. The wise and gentle conduct of the Mar- grave Leopold, who, after the death of his first con- sort, married the daughter of the Emperor Henry the Fourth, the mother of the Hohenstaufens, bestowed on his house a degree of splendid distinction which ac- quired the ducal crown for his son, the Margrave Henry Jasomirgott, [A.D. 1156,] and obtained for himself an alliance with the imperial house of the Comneni. [A. D. 1190.] This high distinction was maintained by Leo- pold, who performed the crusade, by his personal ex- ploits ; and by his son who bore the same name, by the milder glory of a beneficent and wise administration. [A. D. 1231.] With Frederick, a Prince who had the virtues and faults of a warrior, the house became ex- tinct; [A.D. 1246;] whereupon, after a long interval of anarchy, Ottocar, King of Bohemia, as we have above mentioned, gained possession of Austria and Stiria, and governed them with vigor, and with highly meritorious services. CHAPTER III. BRANDENBURG. On the ruins of the power of Henry the Lion, the house of Anhalt laid the foundation of its future great- ness. When Henry's father had been outlawed, and Bavaria given up to Austria, [A.D. 1139,] Conrad the Third had intrusted the duchy of Saxony to Albert the Bear ; and when, on the restoration of the son, Aus- tria was declared independent of Bavaria, Albert, on surrendering Saxony, had stipulated that his heredita- 308 SAXONY. ry domains in that country should be erected into a margravate, independent of the duchy, and invested with sovereign power. [A.D. 1142.] Albert was a son of Otho of Ballenstett and Aschers- leben, to whom his consort, Eilico, daughter of the last Billungian Duke of Saxony, had brought Soltwedel and Brandenburg, allodial possessions of the Billungen. This mark was the germ of that power which is now under the sway of a royal dynasty. Brandenburg was an ancient town on the Havel, and the surrounding territory, an extensive sandy waste ; and at Soltwede, the court was held. But Albert conquered the middle mark, as well as that which lies on the lake of Uker, together with Prigniss, in the war in which he assisted Henry the Lion against Nicolas of Mecklenburg, Prince of the Vandals. He availed himself of the numerous population of Flanders, in order to supply his mark with industrious husbandmen and artificers. About the same period, when the first Duke of Aus- tria laid the foundation of Vienna, on the site of the ancient Vindobona, the first independent Margrave of Brandenburg gave a beginning to Berlin. [A. D. 1 162.] CHAPTER IV. SAXONY. While Otho, the first-born son of Albert, governed the margravate, the duchy of Saxony was given by Frederick, after the misfortunes of Henry the Lion, to Bernard, the second son. [A.D. 1180.] That duchy retained now only the shadow of its former greatness ; for it comprehended little more than the electoral circle around Wittenberg, and the plains around Lauenburg, upon the Elbe, beyond the domains of Brunswick Lu- neberg. Afterwards, the sons of Bernard divided their pos- BRUNSWICK. 309 sessions ; so that Albert, the eldest, became lord of the Saxon territories, and the younger, Henry, of the old territory of Anhalt. [A. D. 1212.] [A.D. 1260.] On the demise of Albert, the duke- dom in the vicinity of Wittenberg devolved on his son of the same name, and Lauenburg to Duke Hauns ; for the appellation of duke was, in this house, a family title. In this manner, every possession was particular- ized ; and, if the connecting authority of the supreme head of the empire had remained unimpaired, these approaches to the original relations of families could not fail to have recommended themselves, by their man- ifest advantages. CHAPTER V. BRUNSWICK. The allodial domains of Brunswick and Lüneburg remained to the heirs of Henry the Lion ; comprising a territory at that time but little cultivated, and in many places scarcely susceptible of much improvement, which was condemned to revere, in the possession of stran-^ gers, the forfeited honors of its native dukes. Otho, son of William, son of Henry the Lion, emancipated himself from this dependence. [A. D. 1235.] At a Diet held at Mentz, he surrendered to the Emperor Freder- ick his allodial possessions, and received them, with th^ title of duke, as a princely fief, which was hereditary, even on the daughter's side. His ancestor, Henry the Proud, had been ruined by the disfavor of the Emperor, Conrad the Third ; his grandfather, Henry the Lion, by the revenge of Fred- erick the First ; his uncle, Otho, who bore the imperial crown, suffered by the enmity of Frederick the Second, which also destroyed Henry, his other uncle, the Count Palatine of the Rhine. Otho remained faithful to the Emperor, and obtained the above-mentioned and other 310 THÜRINGEN, MEISSEN, AND HESSE. important benefits ; and transmitted his domains to his posterity, of whose possessions, in all parts of the world, they now form only an insignificant part. CHAPTER VI. THÜRINGEN, MEISSEN, AND HESSE. The Landgraves of Thüringen, an ancient and il- lustrious family, had flourished, since the time of that Henry who was raised to the imperial dignity by the enemies of the Emperor Frederick the Second. On his demise, his domains were divided among his neph- ews. [A. D. 1247.] Henry of Brabant, son of Sophia, daughter of his elder brother, became Lord of Lower Hesse ; and Henry, Margrave of Meissen, son of his sister. Landgrave of Thüringen. The Margrave of Meissen had sprung from a house, which seems to have deduced its origin from the old leaders of the Saxons. This family was greatly en- riched by the discovery of the mines in the Erzgebürge. From that time forwards, they availed themselves of the advantage of ruling over the confines of civilized and barbarous nations, and of the natural faculties of their subjects, who were for the most part Slavonians, in order to encourage the growth of industry and com- merce. They endowed the market of Leipzig with privileges, which enticed citizens and foreign merchants. [A.D. 1157.] Thither Bohemia sent her arms and iron wares ; the wines of France were transported, through Leipzig, to the northern countries, and thither the barbarians resorted to purchase cloth. Under the same Margrave, who obtained possession of Thüringen, the mines were so productive, that that nobleman was commonly supposed to be rich enough to purchase the kingdom of Bohemia. At the splendid tournament which he held at Nordhausen, [A. D. 1236,] a massive THE SULTAN SALAHEDDIN. 311 tree of silver was seen with golden apples. Henry be- sides understood so well the interests of commerce, that the merchants, even of hostile countries, obtained safe conduct and protection, when they resorted to the market of Leipzig. With so many pretensions to fame, he combined a poetic genius, which he possessed in an eminent degree. We have thus shown in what situation the disgrace of Henry the Lion placed Bavaria and Saxony, and what illustrious houses arose in those districts. A few years after this event, the Emperor Frederick the First, on the following occasion, undertook the third Cru- sade. CHAPTER VIL THE SULTAN SALAHEDDIN. The power of the Fatimite sultans of Cairo, which had suffered much from the loss of Palestine and Syria, sustained the last blow from Nureddin Mohammed, Atabek of Mausel, whom a weak Vizier had invited to the support of the Fatimites, and whom the Command- er of the Faithful, after he had already gained posses- sion of Syria, invested with the sovereignty of Egypt. In vain the kings of Jerusalem, as the house of David had formerly done, sought to preserve a balance of power ; the strength of their kingdom fell with the he- roic King Amauri. [A.D. 1171.] The Turks, under Shirakah, the son of Sadi, conquered Egypt. Salahed- din Joseph, whom we name Saladin, son of Nadjwed- din Eyub, the son of Sadi, was saluted by the army and confirmed by the Sultan, (who loved him, but at length sacrificed him to jealousy,) as governor of that country, over which he finally ruled as sultan, with the name of Malek-en-Nasr. This warrior of Kurdistan restored the religious authority of the Commanders of the Faith- ful, and seated himself on the throne of Aded-ledin- 31^ THE SULTAN SALAHEDDIN. Allah, the last Fatimite, who died in this conjuncture. Marching out from Egypt, he conquered Syria, from the house of Nureddin ; he took Arabia Felix out of the hands of its weak governors ; and Tripoli and Tu- nis from the Mowaheddins. He claimed for himself the honorable patronage of the prophetic city, and in the following manner subverted the kingdom of Jeru- salem. So weakened was this state, in consequence of the disastrous event of the last Crusade, and since the time of King Amauri, or Almerich, that its overthrow might have happened at an earlier period, had it not been de- layed by the internal feuds between the Atabeks, the Fatimites, and the Eyubites. The sceptre was now held by Guy of Lusignan, who had obtained it by poi- soning his step-son, Baldwin the Fifth. The Sultan Saladin having invaded the country, and laid siege to Tiberias, on the Sea of Galilee, Guy march- ed against him, with the Templars and all the nobles. The Christians were still consulting, when the Sultan fell upon them, by surprise. He had chosen for the battle the heat of the day, and a situation in which the sun shone, with full splendor, in the faces of his enemies. Then, nearly all the Templars and Hospitallers were slain ; Guy fell into the hands of the Infidels ; and those who had counselled him to break the truce with Sala- din were put to death. Most of the towns surrenderedj and the favor of the conqueror was the reward of sub- mission. All the inhabitants were permitted either to remain or to leave the country. Processions and fasts were held in Jerusalem ; but, after the Sultan had taken Ascalon, he turned his arms against the capital. He lay, nine days, on the Mount of Olives ; after which, he shook the walls on the northern side ; and, on the four- teenth day, conquered Jerusalem. [A. D. 1 188.] Sal- adin made his entry with paternal clemency. He left in the possession of the Christians the sepulchre of Christ ; no person suffered violence ; but all had the choice of a safe retreat. THE SULTAN SALAtlEDDIN. 313 The Patriarch Heraclius, the ecclesiastics, and miUta- ry orders, either departed into the West, or sought ref- uge in the few cities on the coast, which yet remained faithful to them. William, Bishop of Tyre, the histo- rian of these times, bore the sad tidings to Rome, where Pope Urban the Third died of terror and chagrin. Thence, letters, full of lamentation, were sent to sum- mon the princes of the West, to recover the holy sep- ulchre. Accordingly, all the Knights Templars and Hospitallers,* who were scattered through Europe, im- mediately embarked. The Italians assembled under the Archbishops of Ravenna and Pisa ; the flower of the Norman warriors took arms ; fifty ships sailed from Denmark and Friesland, and thirty-seven, from Flan- ders ; Richard, the lion-hearted King of England ; Phihp Augustus of France ; and, greater than all, Fred- erick Barbarossa, whom his age compared to Charle- magne,! s^^ ^^^5 accompanied by the princes of the German Empire. The Emperor marched through Hungary, spread ter- ror among the Greeks, defeated the army of the Sel- jukes, and arrived at the frpntier of Syria. Not far from the place where Alexander the Great incurred the risk of death, from a similar accident, the Emperor per- ished, by bathing in the cold stream of the Saleph. [A.D. 1190.] His second son, of the same name, conducted the army to the Holy Land. The French, under the greatest monarch who had reigned over them, for ages ; the English, under the bravest knight of Europe ; Henry, Count of Champagne ; Thibaut of Blois, Stephen of Sancerre, Philip of Flan- ders, with many zealous prelates, and the flower of the European nobility ; conducted their splendid arma- ments, by sea. They sought, in Calabria, to confirm. * " Ingens motio per mare et terras." [Great commotion by sea and land.] t Post Carolum Magnum gestorum magnificentia vix habuit pa- rem. [His magnificent exploits have been scarcely equalled, since Charles the Great.] II. 27 u. H. 314 THE SULTAN SALAÖEÜÖIN'. their hopes, by the predictions of the soothsaying Abbot Joachim. But he testified to them that the hour of dehverance was not yet come. The King of England conquered the isle of Cyprus; which Isaac, of the house of the Comneni, had held under his usurped and tyrannical government. This island was sold to Guy, the exiled King of Jerusalem ; and the house of Lu- signan, and their heirs of Poictiers, reigned there, three hundred years. In the Holy Land, Acre, or Ptolemais, was taken, after a difficult and memorable siege ; but all further progress was prevented, by divisions among the chiefs. The King of France hastened home, and fell upon Richard's possessions in Normandy, and the latter, on his return, was taken prisoner, and confined at Erdberg, near Vienna, by the Duke of Austriji. Fro;n this third Crusade, is derived the order of Teu- tonic Knights. Merchants of Lubec and Bremen had founded a German house for sick pilgrims, at Jerusa- lem. The institution was brought into celebrity by knights and ecclesiastics; [A. D. ll&l ;] and when Frederick, the son of the Emperor, lay before Acre, he obtained from his brother, Henry the Sixth, that the Pope Celestin the Third should be induced to grant to this fraternity the care of hospitals, as it had been given to the Order of St. John, and the honor of knight- hood which the Templars had obtained. Henry Wal- pode, of a distinguished family in the neighborhood of Mentz, was, accordingly, named the first Grand Master. [A.D. 1193.] The great Sultan Saladin, the terror of his foes, but to all other men, and even to his ene- mies when they were subdued, kind and openhearted, beneficent, modest, and dignified, died, in the fifty- seventh year of his age, in the citadel of Damascus. His sons, his kinsmen, and his brother, shared his do- mains among them. NäJ'LES and SICILY. 315 CHAPTER VIII, NAPLES AND SlCILY. The Emperor Henry the Sixth became more pow- erful in Italy than any of his predecessors. The acqui- sitions of the Normans, founded on the valor of the Hautevilles and the wisdom of King Roger, and more recently confirmed by the prudent administration of William the Good, devolved on the imperial house* [A. D. 1166.] When, on the death of William, Tan- cred, an illegitimate Prince, and, after him, his infant son, William the Third, [A.D. 1189,] had been placed on the throne by the nobles who feared the power and the character of Henry, the Emperor passed into Sicily, [A.D. 1194,] and, aided by the skilful tactics of Mar- shal Markward, of Anwyler, defeated all his enemies, and led the young King, with his family, prisoner, into Germany. Another Tancred being opposed to him, he caused the latter and all his accomplices to lose their eyes. [A.D. 1195.] He ordered some tobe seated on stools of red-hot iron, and crowns of the same mate- rial to be placed upon their heads. By these severi- ties, he infused such a terror into his enemies, that they yielded obsequiously, not only to his own govern- ment, but, after his death, to that of his newly-born son. [A.D. 1197.] The Emperor Henry founded his power on arms. His armies were supported by money ; and, in order to fill his treasury, he spared no means. He obliged the Duke of Austria to deliver King Richard into his hands, and would not release that Prince, until after he had purchased his ransom with seventy thousand marks of silver. He laid claim to the mines of Saxony, which were now becoming celebrated, as belonging to the crown, and forced the possessors to give up at least one third part of the revenue. The Cyprian King of the 316 INNOCENT THE THIRD. house of Lusignan, and Leo, King of the neighboring Armenia, or properly CiUcia, acknowledged his power, which was greater than any other prince in Christendom possessed. He had persuaded a great proportion of the princes of the empire to agree that the throne of Ger- many should be declared hereditary ; but was prevented from carrying this important plan into execution, by death, when he had only attained his thirty-second year. [A. D. 1198.] The princes now made choice, not of his son Frederick who was but three years old, but of his brother Philip, to whom others, from disaffection or apprehensions for their liberties, opposed Otho the Fourth, the son of Henry the Lion. CHAPTER IX. INNOCENT THE THIRD. While these rivals threw the empire into disorder, Naples and Sicily acknowledged the young Frederick, who was not yet baptized. He was supported by Inno- cent the Third, of the house of the counts of Segni, who in the thirty-seventh year of his age had obtained the Papacy, with general approbation; [A. D. 1198;] a person with great attainments in practical knowledge, eloquent in the Latin and Italian tongues, kind and en- gaging in his manners, of great constancy, simple and fru- gal in his own person, and generous even to profusion in acts of beneficence. He discharged his office of pro- tector to Frederick with the ability of a great prince, and with the honor of a knight ; and he decided the dispute between the rival claimants of the German and Imperial crown. He had the good fortune to be ac- knowledged, even at Constantinople, as supreme head of the Christian Church ; and it was under his com- mand, that the great council of St. John de Later- CONSTANTINOPLE TAKEN BY THE CRUSADERS. 317 an* was held. In his time and under his patronage, Francis of Assisi and Dominick of Osma, founders of the orders of Franciscans and Dominicans, renovated the decaying piety of Christendom, by their voluntary poverty and popular preachings ; and the same Domin- ick laid the foundation of the Roman Catholic Inquisi- tion. Innocent lived to place the imperial crown on the head of his pupil Frederick, and died in the nine- teenth year of a glorious pontificate. CHAPTER X. CONSTANTINOPLE TAKEN BY THE CRUSADERS. After the Comneni had reigned at Constantinople more than a hundred years, with greater glory than any preceding dynasty, they gave occasion for their own ruin, and the subversion of the state. Andronicus, sprung from a brancji nearly allied to the imperial stem, a Prince of great talents, but turbulent, and impelled al- ternately by lust and ambition to the most criminal pur- suits, put to death the young Alexius, [A. D. 1183,] son of the Emperor Manuel, and enjoyed a reign of two years, which was productive of the wisest arrangements and the basest deeds, and was as inconsistent with it- self as the whole character of this Prince. After he had become the object of general fear, he was dethron- ed by Isaac Angelus who consigned him to a most cruel death. [A. D. 1185.] Isaac, a Prince, who, in other particulars, showed gentle dispositions and effeminate manners, was depriv- ed of his empire and of his eyes by his own brother, Alexius the Third. [A. D. 1194.] His son Alexius fled to Venice, and sought for aid. [A. D. 1203.] The * [The Fourth General Lateran Council, called great, from the vast number of prelates who assisted at it.] 21* 318 CONSTANTINOPLE TAKEN BY THE CRUSADERS. West was at that time preparing a crusade, and Ven- ice had undertaken to convey the armies into Asia. Arrigo Dandolo, an old man upwards of ninety years of age, who had ahnost entirely lost his sight, but whose mental eyes penetrated the more deeply into political intrigues, was Doge of Venice and the soul of the en- terprise. He persuaded the Crusaders to conquer Zara, a Dalmatian city, for the Venetians. The events which followed, at Constantinople, appear from the following narrative which was transmitted to the Pope : '' As we could not but apprehend that we should, by fOUT great multitude, be burdensome to the Holy Land, and as we learnt that the citizens of Constantinople wished to return under the dominion of their lawful Emperor, we thought it expedient to settle the disqui- ets that existed there, in order to secure for ourselves the necessary supplies and assistance for our future proceedings. We found the city of Constantinople uncommonly strong, the citizens in arms, sixty thous- and cavalry, and all the implements necessary for de- fence. The unlawful Emperor had told the people that we designed to subdue them, and reduce their Church in obedience to your Holiness. Being only stocked with provisions for fourteen days, we were obliged to repeat our attacks, without intermission. On the eighth day, we broke into the city. The Emperor flying, with a few of his people, we seated Alexius the Fourth on the throne of his father, after setting free the latter from his dungeon. The new Emperor promised us two hundred thousand marks of silver, provisions for a year, and his assistance in recov- ing the holy sepulchre. He only desired us, on ac- count of the Greeks, to remain in our camp without the city. Soon after this, he suffered himself to be persuaded by his father to fall upon us, by surprise, and set fire to our fleet. The project was discovered. The people, afraid of our vengeance, cried out for a sov- ereign. The Emperor, in order to appease us and them sent to the discontented his kinsman, Murtzulph, CONSTANTINOPLE TAKEN BY THE CRUSADERS. 319 (Alexius the Fifth.) [A. D. 1204.] The latter betrayed and murdered the Emperor and his father, and closed the gates of the city against us. There is, Holy Father, in the whole West, no city like Constantinople. The walls are lofty and wide, consisting of squared stones ; at every interval of five hundred paces is a stone tow- er, supporting another of wood, si]L stories high ; be- tween the towers are bridges, full of arms and bowmen ; double and very wide fosses allowed no play to our machines. Often, during the night, they sent fireships out against us. Our land-forces alarmed Murtzulph ; but he preferred to die rather than surrender. He had killed the young Emperor with a club ; and he gave out that Alexius had died from other causes. He ob- tained advantages over us ; but at length the ships Paradise and Pilgrim, under the command of the Bish- ops of Troyes and Soissons, effected a landing. When the Greeks saw that the whole forces of the Franks were pressing into the haven and into the streets, their courage forsook them. Not far from us, the Emperor took flight, with all the nobles, and sought refuge in the palace. We put the people to the sword, in the streets, until night came on. At length, our foot soldiers, with- out orders, rushed, with irresistible force, to storm the imperial residence, and made themselves masters of it ; whereupon all Constantinople submitted. , Most Holy Father, the quantity of gold, silver, precious stones, and other costly things which we have found, far exceeds all that could be collected in the city of Rome, and in all our Christendom. Six Venetian noblemen, with the Bishops of Troyes, Soissons, Halberstadt, and Ptolemais, assembled with the legates of your Holi- ness ; and, after celebrating high mass and pubHc pray- ers, with the counsel and assistance of the high and mighty lord, Henry Dandolo, Doge of Venice, elected Baldwin, Count of Flanders, to be Emperor of Constan- tinople. The fourth part of the empire was left to him ; the remainder, we divided among ourselves. We will endeavor to maintain possession of this fine land, full of 320 CONSTANTINOPLE TAKEN BY THE, CRUSADERS. corn, wine, oil, wood, and pasturage, and share it out in fiefs to the noble knights who will join their arms to ours. As we have read in histories and understood from learned men, that, in old times, the predecessors of your Hohness came even to Constantinople, we en- treat your Holiness to do the same, and here to hold a council." Pope Innocent knew too well what became his character, not to publish the ban against Crusaders, who, instead of conquering the Infidels, deposed Chris- tian emperors from their thrones : yet, on considering the circumstances, as he said, he again absolved them. For the rest, he knew them too well, to predict any long duration of their power ; and he declined visiting Constantinople. Venice took possession of the islands of the Grecian sea ; French noblemen divided ancient Greece among them ; Ville-hardouin, the historian of these events, became Lord of Achaia ; and Otho de la Roche, a Bur- gundian, Duke of Athens. Three principalities were founded by the Greeks ; one by Theodorus Lascaris, son-in-law of the Emper- or Alexius the Third, a man of enterprising genius, at Nicsea, in Rithynia. This sovereignty governed Asia Minor, under the imperial name. Two other states were founded by princes of the Comnene house ; one of them was Lacia, on the eastern shore of the Black Sea, where politeness and barbarism were in a won- derful manner combined, in a short space. Trapezus, or Trebisond, was the capital of this state, and its prin- ces subsequently assumed the title of emperors. The second dominion was founded by a Prince of the house of Angelo, in Acarnania and QEtolia, which extended over the Chimsera and Albania, as far as Prilap. The latter was termed the Despotate. [A. D. 1205.] Raldwin of Flanders became, in the first year of his reign, a sacrifice to the greatness he had acquired : he was insidiously slain by Johann icius, King of the Rulgarians, who, about twenty years be- THE EMPEROR FREDERICK THE SECOND. 321 fore, had recovered their lost freedom. Baldwin appears to have suffered a cruel death ; w^hereupon the king- dom devolved on his able and hitherto successful broth- er, Henry. From the latter, it passed to his brother-in- law, Peter of Courtenay, grandson of Louis the Sixth, from whom it descended to his sons. It was ever on the decrease. The customs of the Latins were not in harmony with the manners of the native people, and their power obtained no internal consolidation. CHAPTER XL THE EMPEROR FREDERICK THE SECOND. Philip was scarcely acknowledged sovereign of the Western empire, when he fell, by the hand of an assas- sin ; and his successor, Otho the Fourth, immediately after his election, rushed precipitately into the same measures which had involved his predecessors in so many conflicts with the Roman See. Innocent was enraged, and the princes of the empire abandoned him for Frederick, son of Henry the Sixth. [A. D. 1212.] Frederick was animated by an heroic spirit ; he was equal to the bravest of the ancient Caesars ; and in in- telligence superior to most of them. He conceived the same partiality for the poetry of the Provencals which his father and his son Conrad, with many other princes and lords of those times, had entertained for that of the Germans. Tenderness, animation, and euphony, per- vade the works of this Prince and his noble relatives. Love and virtue were not their only themes. The cor- ruptions of the age were reprehended in their verses, and the exploits of Richard and Saladin celebrated. Their muse often took a lofty flight, and availed itself of all the resources of language ; the lyre resounded with the praises of God, the beauties of the firmament and of all Nature, and with the imaginary scenes of 322 THE EMPEROR FREDERICK THE SECOND* romance. The Emperor excelled all his competitors, in that powerful glance with which he surveyed the follies of his age, and penetrated the most important truths. With all his sublimity, he was full of grace and gentleness. In his exterior, he was engaging ; be- cause, in every individual, of whatever rank, nation, or faith, he might be, the Emperor only saw human nature in different garbs. The love of pleasure con- tributed to render him popular. He possessed immov- able firmness, and a greatness of individual character, the impression of which long survived his death. The popes, in order to keep Frederick employed in distant countries, compelled him to enter into a vow to deliver the holy sepulchre. In vain he endeavored to defer the enterprise, which often seemed to be merely a pretext for raising tributes. When he could not lon- ger delay, he marched to Syria, and concluded a treaty with Malek-el-Kamel, or Meledin, Sultan of Egypt, [A. D. 1229,] according to which, the latter gave up to him the sovereignty of Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, and other holy places, without resorting to arms. His enemies excited disorders in Italy; but he re- turned and defeated them. Gregory the Ninth had ascended the Papal chair in the eighty-fifth year of his age, and held it, fourteen years, in perpetual contention with the Emperor. He and his successor. Innocent the Fourth, of the house of the Genoese Fieschi, counts of Lavagna, frustrated all the projects which Frederick was anxious to complete, and imbittered his reign. Innocent, in order to lessen the impression which the introduction of the Roman law produced in favor of the imperial power, opposed to it the decretals, a compilation oi Papal ordinances, which Raymond of Pennaforte, a Dominican friar, had prepared at his command : a worthy counterpart of the old compila- tion which was falsely ascribed to Bishop Isidore, of Seville, and in the beginning of the ninth century was promulgated among the Germans by Richulf, Arch- bishop of Mentz. Gratian's system of decrees was THE EMPEHOR FREDERICK THE SECOND. 323 from that time in the highest authority ; and the Pope ordered students and their instructers to abide by the new compilation. In the employment of spiritual arms, the use of oth- er weapons was not lost sight of; but the former were now wielded with more than usual energy, by both par- ties. The Emperor himself fought with arguments, and availed himself of his talent of ridicule, in opposi- tion to the solemn gravity of the priests ; and he spared no resource that might tend to bring contempt upon his enemies. But the hour for effecting a revolution was not yet come. He paid so little respect to immu- nities, that he suffered priests to be castrated, hanged, and burnt, and employed the church plate for common kitchen furniture. He built a city for the Moslem, and dwelt among them. Ezzelino di Romano, his adminis- trator in Lombardy, sought to subdue the spirit of op- position which displayed itself in the cities of that province, by severities which affright the imagination. The Emperor took possession of all the territories which belonged to the Papacy, and had a strong party, even in Rome. [A. D. 1244.] Innocent the Fourth retired to France, and summoned a council of the Church, at Lyons, which was attended by deputies from France, Spain, and England, and many German princes, counts, and other noblemen. The Emperor was accused of a de- sign to extirpate the Christian religion, of the most flagitious vices, and of many horrible crimes. Accord- ingly, after adducing former precedents, the Pope, at the head of the council, published the ban against him, and declared him to have forfeited his crown. Germany remained faithful to Frederick, until Henry, his eldest son, deserted him. Although this unfortu- nate youth fell a sacrifice to his levity, the allegiance of the Emperor's subjects from that time declined. In consequence of the sentence of the council, the Land- grave of Thüringen, and, after his speedy death, Wil- liam, Count of Holland, a noble and enterprising youth, 324 THE INTERREGNUM. were opposed to the condemned Frederick, with the imperial title. [A. D. 1247.] The latter resisted, with unshaken fortitude, until fortune was unfaithful to him, in every region of his empire. The public opinion, under the guidance of his bitterest enemies, was the occasion of his ruin ; and he died, a prey to chagrin and disappointment. [A. D. 1252.] CHAPTER XII. THE INTERREGNUM. [A. D. 1254.] Neither Conrad, the son of Freder- ick, who fell in the defence of his hereditary posses- sions ; nor William, who perished, prematurely, by a different fate ; [A. D. 1256 ;] nor the Duke of Corn- wall, brother of the English King, who was elected by some of the princes, [A. D. 1257,] and only knew how to sell privileges, in order to reimburse himself for the sums they had cost him ; nor Alphonso of Castile, to whom others confided the crown ; nor any other prince in Christendom ; found himself in a situation, or pos- sessed of the power requisite, for restoring the royal authority in Germany and the imperial dignity in Eu- rope, to that degree of eminence which they had main- tained during the three preceding centuries. The su- preme magistracy of the European commonwealth fell into such a state of impotency, that the three-and- twenty years which followed the death of Frederick are termed by many an interregnum, or a period of vacation of the throne ; and we may so consider them, without doing injustice to the character of this age. [A. D. 1255.] At this time, Walpode, a chief citi- zen of Mentz, united the cities of Upper Germany and the Rhine, from the Alps to the mouth of the Maine, in a league for the common defence of their manufactures and commerce against usury, unlawful imposts, and robbery by land and water. BOHEMIA. 325 [A. D. 1241.] Shortly before this combination, the example of Hamburg and Lubec had occasioned the confederation of all the lower German and northern commercial towns in the great Hanseatic league. The combinations of the towns, by which burgesses and traders rendered themselves of political impor- tance, displeased the great. Factious disputes between Guelphs and Ghibellines, nobles and citizens, prevailed in every community : trading corporations were form- ed, and gradually assumed the chief direction of affairs. [A.D. 1234. [ Vienna, Turin, Rome, and Paris, were dangerous places of residence. [A. D. 1246.] We saw the downfall of the house of Babenberg, in Austria, which happened shortly before the death of Frederick. Vienna had often contended for her hberty against the last duke, who fell, at length, in battle against the Hungarians, The occasion of his death remained in uncertainty. As the Emperor had now less leisure than ever to provide for the protection of this boundary, and the succession to the dukedom was disputed between Herrmann, Margrave of Baden, husband of the niece of Duke Frederick, and his two sisters, Constantia and Margaretha, the provincial states resolved, on the death of Herrmann, to confide the government of their country to the Margrave Henry of Meissen, husband of Constantia. [A. D. 1250.] This resolution was prevented from taking effect by the fair promises and weighty arguments which Wenceslaf, King of Bohemia, addressed to the deputies of the states. CHAPTER XIII. BOHEMIA. The kingdom of Bohemia is a fertile valley, enclosed between Saxony, Thüringen, Franconia, Bavaria, Aus- tria, Moravia, and Silesia, and surrounded by chains of II. 28 ~ u. H. 326 BOHEMIA. mountains, which have in some parts a great elevation. The surface is computed at nine hundred square miles.* There are passes between the hills, which the nature of their situation renders very important. We shall not stay to detail, from Dalemil and Cosmus, what those authors relate concerning Prince Tchech, the enchant- ress Libassa, the wars of damsels at Dewin, and the dukes and duchesses whom the evil spirit has carried away or the earth swallowed up. The Tchechi, for such is the national appellation, taking possession of Bohemia, or the home of the Boil, after the latter peo- ple had abandoned it, were governed by Tchechish princes, in the series of whom, Przemysl was the found- er of a dynasty which long held the sovereign power. The Tchechi suffered many evils, inflicted upon them by the German kings, and were often obliged to pay them tribute. It was also prejudicial to their independ- ence, that they attained the knowledge of Christianity by the preaching of Greek and Roman missionaries, the latter of whom brought them under the influence of the Pope ; and that many Germans, either of their own accord, or invited by the Bohemian princes, sought set- tlements in their country. To the latter, the Tchechi were indebted for the blessings of civilization, which would scarcely have displayed itself, or have attained perfection in a Slavonian horde, without the aid of for- eign influence. The states hoped to preclude all the evil effects that were to be apprehended from these cir- cumstances, by the ordinances which they established under Sobieslaf, after the death of the Emperor Henry the Fifth. It was enacted, that no stranger should govern in Bohemia, or hold any office in the adminis- tration ; that, on the death of a duke, the burgomasters of Prague should assemble the country deputies, in the space of three days, to elect a successor, with the coun- sel and assistance of the magistracy of that town ; that the latter should immediately bind himself, by oath, * Equal to eighteen thousand English square miles. BOHEMIA. 327 to observe the liberties of his people, for the mainte- nance of which the nobles were directed continually to watch. Yet Bohemia continued to be dependent on the Suabian emperors, until Duke Przemysl Ot'tocar, during the divisions which arose after the reign of Hen- ry the Sixth, [A. D. 1200,] had the good fortune to se- cure the royal dignity, not only for himself, but for all his successors. This King Przemysl was the father of that Wenceslaf who detained the deputies of the Aus- trians. He held under his sway, not only Bohemia, but Moravia, also. This ancient seat of the Marcomanni had become, in later times, the centre of an extensive sovereignty, which terminated on the conquest of Pan- nonia by the Madjares, or Hungarians. For, after the death of King Swadbog, or Swatopulk, there was no chief capable of holding under his sway the tribes, who were for the most part barbarous, or of maintaining the sceptre of Moravia ; and, from that time forwards, the Moravian people adhered sometimes to the Polish but more often to the Bohemian dukes, who at length ob- tained a permanent sway over their country. Wenceslaf persuaded the Austrian deputies to recom- mend his son Przemysl Ottocar, a warlike and enter- prising youth, to the Austrians, as their duke, and to Margaret, sister of Constantia, as her husband. The barons of Kuenring, a house which had formerly mi- grated from the Rhine to Austria, supported his preten- sions the more willingly, as they hoped to derive advan- tages from the favor of the Prince, who was enamored of their sister. Bohemia, Moravia, Austria, Stiria, and Carniola, the acquisition of the last duke, now became united. [A. D. 1253.] We have mentioned, above, that the new Prince added also Carinthia to his posses- sions. The wise Margrave of Meissen, content with the acquisition of Thüringen, laid aside his further preten- sions ; and Frederick, the Prince of Baden, son of Herr- mann, was as yet a minor. 328 EXTINCTION OF THE HOHENSTAUFENS. CHAPTER XIV. EXTINCTION OF THE HOHENSTAUFENS. The last-mentioned Prince allied himself closely to Conrad, called Conradin, on account of his tender years, Duke of Suabia, grandson of the Emperor Frederick, by his son, Conrad the Fourth. These Princes were of the same age, and experienced similar fortunes. Conradin was at length invited by the Italians, to take possession of his hereditary dominions, the Norman kingdom. [A. D. 1268.] Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, King of France, had made himself master of this terri- tory by the aid of the Pope ; but his administration was unpopular. When Conradin, accompanied by Freder- ick, the friend of his youth, arrived in Italy, he was wel- comed by the allies of his house, and by many who pit- ied his unworthy fate. At Rome, he was met by the senator. Prince Henry of Castile, brother of King Al- phonso, and by many of the nobles. Sicily declared for him, and many Neapolitan barons reenforced his army. A battle was fought, near Tagliacozzo, which was for some time doubtful, until Fortune declared herself in- imical to the young Princes, who were both taken pris- oners. Charles of Anjou, in his whole conduct brutal and unjust, hesitated not to order Conradin of Hohen- staufen, the descendant of three illustrious emperors, who had come to take possession of his paternal inher- itance, to be publicly beheaded, in the city of Naples, with his friend Frederick ; and the Pope justified the act. It seemed as if the shades of the Norman barons, whom his ancestor, Henry the Sixth, had cruelly put to death, demanded retribution, in the innocent blood of his descendant. His calamity secured the dominion of Przemysl Otto- car, which, in a contrary turn of affairs, might have been disturbed by Frederick. These events seem to have OF THE HUNGARIANS. 329 prepared the way for the vigorous defence, by which this boundary of the empire was maintained, against the disturbances that had arisen shortly before, in Hungary, and seemed hkely to be renewed. CHAPTER XV. OF THE HUNGARIANS. After the Hungarians had possessed themselves of their country, under a prince of the house of Arpad, and had continued, for a century, to be the terror of Western Europe, they began, under Geysa, to acquire a taste for agriculture and civilized life. The power of the German kings, the hereditary margravate in Aus- tria, and the warlike spirit of other adjoining nations, had forced them to desist from their predatory enter- prises. Stephen, the son of Geysa, introduced, at the same time, Christianity and the royal dignity. [A. D. 1000.] Although the former was secured by the establish- ment of a hierarchy, and the latter, by a constitution, yet the popular preference for heathenish manners, and the circumstance that Stephen left no successor, occa- sioned great disturbances, after his death. [A. D. 1037.] The variety of nations who had settled in Hungary, to- gether with and before the Madjares, and who were, for the most part, barbarous in their habits, rendered a common legislation and the encouragement of uniform manners, a very difficult undertaking. Hence ensued a period of weakness in the government, of which the Emperor, Henry the Third, and other German mon- archs, availed themselves, in order to deprive Hungary of her independence. The greater the decline which now presented itself in the circumstances of the nation, when compared with the glory of former ages, the more odious the recently-adopted habits became to the peo- 28* 330 or THE TARTARS, OR MONGOLES. pie, who now lived in slavery, and remembered, with regret, those ancient times, when they were not bound to the labors of agriculture, or to the irksome service of their oppressors. To these impediments the wisest of their kings opposed, with various degrees of success, the influence of social ordinances and the power of relig- ion ; but they could not maintain civilization among. the Hungarians, until almost all the neighboring nations had already attained it, and it became absolutely necessary. [A. D. 11 96.] Bela the Third possessed himself of Ha- licz and Vladimir, cities which, sometimes, had belonged to the Poles, at others, to the Russians, and extended his sway over Dalmatia. This Prince allied himself, by marriage, to the Comneni, and gave the Hungarians a code of laws ; [A. D. 1236 ;] and his son Andrew set- tled more completely the constitution. Thus, the King of Hungary established his power over a people, whose predilection was for arms, but who began to accommo- date themselves to civil order ; while Croatia, Slavonia, and, from the time of Vladislaf the First, who married the sister of Saromir, Dalmatia, also, were, in conse- quence of internal disquiets and the influence of the Krals, or petty kings of Servia, alternately in the pos- session of the Greek Emperor and the Venetians : but more frequently subject to the former, to which Erdeel, or Transylvania, was more closely connected. CHAPTER XVI. OP THE TARTARS, OR MONGOLES. In the thirteenth century, revolutions occurred in the ancient country of the Hiongnu, which unexpectedly and fearfully disturbed the order of affairs, in this and other kingdoms of the V^est and North. A great Khan, who ruled over thirty thousand fami- lies on the banks of the Selinga, died, before his son, OF THE TARTARS, OR MONGOLES. 331 Temiidsin, had attained to man's estate. The horde was consequently divided under different heads, and only thirteen families persevered in their allegiance ; while many, who had beheld, with invidious eyes, the splendor and opulence of the father, now attempted to seize upon the possessions of the son. The latter, as soon as he grew up, displayed a penetrating and aspir- ing genius. He defeated his enemies, and acquired renown. He divided the booty among his comrades, whose attachment he valued more than riches. He treated them with fraternal kindness, and filled the whole country with the love and veneration of his name. The nation held a convention on the banks of the Selinga. A khodsha, or sage, revered for his age and virtues, rose up in the assembly, and said, " Brethren, I have seen a vision. The great God of heaven, on his flaming throne, surrounded by the spirits on high, sat in judgement on the nations of the earth : sentence was pronounced, and he gave the dominion of the world to our chief, Temudsin, whom he appointed Gengis Khan, or Universal Sovereign." The Mongoles then held up their hands, and swore to follow Temudsin, the Gengis Khan, in all his enterprises. [A. D. 1206.] The latter, resolved to traverse the whole earth, and only to give peace to the conquered, broke forth from the cold and savage wilderness, invaded China, over- came the dynasty of Sum, conquered the capital. Yen- king, overran the peninsula of Corea, marched west- ward through the mountains, subdued Tibet, proceeded to Cashmire, and appeared on the confines of the mighty Sultan of Chowaresmia, who had overcome the dynasty of Ghaur, and ruled over a great part of Hin- dostan and nearly the whole of Persia. With four hundred thousand warriors, Ala-ed-din Mohammed, the son of Takas, marched against Gengis Khan : he was defeated and his kingdom conquered. His heroic son, Gelaleddin Mankbarn, in a long and adventurous course, was driven from India to the Tigris, and termi- 332 OF THE TARTARS OR MONGOLES. nated (it is uncertain when) his unmerited sufferings, in a violent death. The banks of the Caspian were as soon subdued as discovered by the conqueror. The Czar of the neighboring Russia set out on the Kalca, with great forces ; he fought, and was forced to seek a hasty flight. Gengis Khan died, in the sixty-fourth year of his age, [A. D. 1227,] after he had filled Asia with his renown and the terror of his name, and had given laws and military ordinances to the Mongoles. Oktay, Dushi, Tuli, and Jagatay, his sons, and Guy- uch, Batu, Hulaku, and Koblay, his grandsons, contin- ued his enterprises. In vain the Sum attempted to resist; in vain the Russian Grand-Prince, Alexander Newski, the conqueror of Livonia, tried the chance of war ; and in vain the Commander of the Faithful Mos- lem. [A.D. 1241.] From the Eastern ocean, which washes the coasts of China and Japan, to the Silesian Oder, the world was in commotion, in anxious expec- tation of the Mongolian arms. The successor of the Czar Alexander Newski fled through the forests of Lithuania to the King of Poland. The throne of Rurik, which, for more than three hun- dred and eighty years, had been the greatest in these northern regions, fell into such a state of dependence on the Mongoles, that the khan of the Golden Horde re- ceived tribute from the Czar during two hundred and twenty years, and was arbiter of his honor, life, and fortune. Batu, son of Dushi, having completed this conquest, marched, at the head of a countless multitude, to the confines of Western Christendom, at the time when the Emperor Frederick the Second was involved in his most vehement quarrels with the Pope. In France, Louis the Ninth sat on a neglected throne ; the Papal chair was vacant ; in the North, Erich, King of Den- mark, governed a state which was weakened by the misfortunes of his father ; Erich of Sweden ruled a na- tion which was consuming its powers by internal strife ; and in Poland, Poleslaf could scarcely maintain his FALL OF THE KHALIFAT OF BAGDAD. 333 kingdom against his uncle, the Duke of Masovia. Batu accordingly burnt Cracow, without resistance ; Bela the Fourth, King of Hungary, son of Andrew, a wise and courageous Prince, impeded, in his useful pursuits, by the seditions of his country, had received the Romani- ans from the neighborhood of the Moldau, to people the scarcely-inhabited plains on the river Theiss. This Prince was defeated, in a decisive battle against the in- vading Mongoles who in Europe were termed Tartars ; after which, he fled to the islands of Liburnia, and the enemy laid waste his country with fire and sword. Their hordes marched out of Poland, burnt Breslau, and were expected at Berlin and Meissen. On this sudden emergency, the Emperor and the cardinals entreated the nations to lend their aid to the Silesian princes. Many barons and knights, with their vassals, came to the assistance of Duke Henry, who, de- scended from Pohsh Piasts-, was Governor of Lower Silesia. A battle was fought near WoUstadt, not far from Ligness, [A. D. 1242,] which was one of the most destructive that was ever lost in the contests with East- ern barbarians. The people of all the neighboring countries sought refuge in their mountains. The enemy made no further progress. He was un- skilled in besieging towns ; and he found no treasures in the West, which repaid him for his hard contests with many valiant princes. Koblai, son of Tuli, the Mogul, found the conquest of China an easier enterprise ; and Japan was only protected by the sea. CHAPTER XVn. FALL OF THE KHALIFAT OF BAGDAD. At this era, Mostasem, son of Mostauser, sat on the venerable throne of the Commanders of the Faithful, of the house of Abbas. He was destitute of those 334 FALL OF THE KHALIFAT OF BAGDAD. qualities which excite the reverence of the people. The power of Bagdad was lost, but its splendor was great ; for this city was still the point of union among all the Moslem of the Sunnite sect. The science of the Arabs also maintained its celebrity, and boasted of the astronomer and geographer, Nasir-Eddin, who af- terwards became president of the academies under the Moguls. He lived at Maraga, in the land of Aderbei- jaw, observed the stars, and wrote on the duties of men. Self-denial was not, in his system, the first of virtues. This man dedicated a book to the ignorant Mostasem. The Khalif, prejudiced against the author, because he was a native of Chorasan, treated with contempt the learned labor of the philosopher ; and, from that time, Nasir-Eddin sought an opportunity of effecting his ruin. He prevailed upon Ibn Ab Alkami, the confidential minister of the Khalif, to weaken the state, by internal factions ; and, in the mean time, persuaded Hulaku, grandson of Gengis Khan, that the destruction of the khalifat would be an enterprise worthy of his arms, and would repay the toil of his barbarians. Hulaku accordingly sought a quarrel with the Khalif, and, since a pretext is never difficult to find, for the powerful, he soon besieged and conquered Bagdad. In the six hundred and fifty-sixth year of the Mohamme- dan Hegira, the fifty-sixth successor of the great Prophet was trodden to pieces by horses, amid the tumult of the sacking of his capital. Forty days, the Moguls plundered the ancient seat of Arabian splendor ; and their swords deprived two hundred thousand of its in- habitants of their lives. The Moguls then proceeded, with increased forces, to the Mediterranean Sea, and the Italian cities appre- hended the destruction of their commerce on the Ara- bian gulf. Haleb quickly fell before their arms ; they took Damascus, and entered the Holy Land. But Malek-el-Modaffar Seif-ed-din Kothuz, Sultan of the Mamelukes in Egypt, defeated their troops, near the well of Goliah ; [A. D. 1260 ;] and his successor, Ma- THE MAMELUKES. 335 lek-ed-Daher Abulfath Bibars Bondoktari, deprived them of their Syrian conquests. To this Prince, Hakem Beamrillah Achmed Mostaser, of the house of the khaUfs, fled, in the garb of mourn- ing. [A. D. 1262.] The Sultan reverently granted him an asylum at Cairo, and a competent income ; and the refugee gave him, in return, the sanction of the Prophet's name. During two centuries and a half, the titular emperors of the world continued to live on the charity of the Mamelukes. CHAPTER XVIII. THE MAMELUKES. Saladin the Great had divided his empire among his sons, and had given a sultan to each of the capital cities, Haleb, Hamath, Damascus, Bassora, and Cairo. His successors were weakened by mutual jealousies. In seven years, two sons and a grandson of Saladin had reigned in Egypt. His brother, Malek-el-Adel Seif-ed-din Abu Bekr, with his posterity, reigned, fifty years. The succession was settled by no certain law ; it was acquired by genius and courage ; and could only be maintained by severe vigilance. About the middle of the thirteenth century, Louis the Ninth, King of France, according to the genius of his age, undertook a crusade against the Mohammedans in Egypt, similar to that which his father had carried on, with still greater injustice, against the unfortunate Albigenses. The spirit of the times seduced him ; even boys were so possessed by it, that, in the beginning of this century, nearly ninety thousand youths, from differ- ent countries, left their parents and schoolmasters, in order to betake themselves to the Holy Land. [A. D. 1210.] They came, in great troops, to Marseilles and Brindisi, and fell a prey, for the most part, to cold, hun- 336 THE MAMELUKES. ger, and distempers. The good King, perhaps well pleased to employ his turbulent nobles in a foreign en- terprise, believed, with that simplicity of heart, which, in his character, was singularly connected with sound wisdom, that he was performing a work meritorious in the sight of God, and exemplary to the whole world. [A. D. 1219.] He began, as Andrew, King of Hun- gary, Duke Leopold of Austria, and other prudent Cru- saders, had done, some years before, by conquering Da- mietta, which commanded the frontier of Egypt, in order to secure an adequate supply of provisions, from the fruitful stores of that country, and to prevent the sending of succors to Jerusalem. Damietta was also an important city, for the commerce carried on with India. His brother Robert, Count of Artois, misled by the Templars, proceeded further into the interior, and took the newly-fortified city of Mansura. For the for- mer of these conquests the Crusaders were indebted to the absence, for the latter, to the mortal sickness, of the Sultan Malek-el-Saleh Eyub. Soon after, the French having given themselves up to plunder and debauchery, their enemy conducted the waters of the Nile into their camp, and cut off their retreat, at a time when they were already weakened by diseases. In this emergen- cy, the King, fighting with heroic valor, was taken pris- oner ; his brother was never again found. Louis was forced to give a prodigious sum, for his ransom, and to restore to his enemy the conquered towns. [A. D. 1 249.] The capitulation which the Sultan Malek-el-Moattam Turan-Sha granted to the French King, excited the rage of the Bahrite Mamelukes. This soldiery, levied in the Caucasus, and introduced into Egypt by Saleh, were so conscious of their preponderance over the effem- inate Egyptians, that it seemed an insult to their com- manders, to transact any important affair, without con- sulting them. [A.D. 1250.] They slew the Sultan, possessed themselves of the sovereignty, under their courageous leader, Malek-el-Moezz A zed-din Ibek THE MAMELUKES. 337 Gashnekir, and gave him the beautiful Shagred-dorr, stepmother of the last Sultan, for his consort. The country whence the Mamelukes came, abound- ing in men of the greatest strength and beauty, renew- ed their number, annually, by new reenforcements. Un- der the modern empire of the Ottomans, this species of soldiery holds the chief power in Egypt. At that time, after having imposed upon the country a sufficient trib- ute to support them luxuriously, at its expense, they arranged the government, and ordained that the Sul- tan and his Vizier should consult their captains, in all affairs of importance ; that a great cadi should admin- ister justice ; and that each of the four sects, who dif- fer in their interpretation of the Koran, should have their own cadi, but that all should be nominated by the Sultan. For more than two hundred and fifty years, the Mamelukes were governed through forty-eight revolu- tions by their sultans. The prince was seldom suc-^ ceeded by his son, but commonly by a favorite slave Or a valiant soldier. Their life was a military one; they were seldom involved in domestic relations. Al- ways renewed by reenforcements of vigorous youths from Caucasus, the Mamelukes maintained their strength, without becoming enervated by the influence of a warm climate. Louis, having purchased his liberty, betook himself to Ptolemais, or Acre, a fortified town in the Holy Landy which still belonged to the Crusaders. He redeemed many captive Christians, by his gold, and remained, four years, an inhabitant of Palestine. II. 29 u. H. 338 THE DRUSES, CHAPTER XIX. THE DRUSES. In these times, the power and the faith of the Druses, who still dwell under their emirs in Mount Lebanon, were extended beyond their former limits. A Persian, named Mohammed Ebn Ismael, who had lived more than two centuries before the age we are now survey- ing, was the founder of this sect, whose religious doc- trine affirmed ^'that God had revealed himself to man- kind, three times, in all ages : once, in the time of Jesus ; once, in that of Mohammed ; and, lastly, through Ha- kem, a Fatimite Prince, who had been Sultan of Egypt : that Hakem was the most faithful interpreter of his will ; for Jesus had been abandoned by God, and given up to an ignominious death, Mohammed had been pos- sessed by an evil spirit, but Hakem was God himself: that the Druses should ever serve him, always in secret places ; but that it was permitted to them to frequent, alternately, mosques and churches." For the rest, they kept themselves free from all rules which limit the en- joyment of pleasure. Every Friday, they read their religious books, and ate some bread with dried raisins ; and they are said to worship an idol made of iron. They recognise each other, by a single question ; and they keep their secret, so securely, that it is only two years since we first began to have some probable ground for conjecture on this subject. THE FRENCH MONARCHY. 339 CHAPTER XX. THE FRENCH MONARCHY. After an abode of six years in the East, Louis the Ninth returned to his kingdom, and reestabhshed there the authority of the laws. His grandfather, Phihp Augustus, had greatly aug- mented the power of the crown. We have seen that the dukes of Normandy, both before and since they acquired possession of the English throne, maintained, by their power and talents, an equal weight with the kings, in the affairs of France. Philip availed himself of the wild adventures of King Richard, in order to shake the preponderance of these formidable vassals ; and he carried on his attempt, with unexpected suc- cess, in the reign of John, the weak and unfortunate successor of that Prince. [A. D. 1203.] The latter hav- ing murdered his own nephew, Arthur, Philip declared the fief of Normandy, for the possession of which they had disputed, to be forfeited, and soon after made him- self master of it. [A. D. 1204.] The fruit of three centuries of war and political intrigue was lost to the house of Normandy. John was too base and too con- temptible, to obtain aid. The English rejoiced in his humiliation, which afforded them facilities for restoring their freedom ; and Philip was too wise to excite envy, by an ostentatious display of his power. From that time forward, the power of the monarchy increased in France, and the freedom of the people, in England. As Philip extended his dominions in the Northwest, Louis the Ninth was equally fortunate in the South, in uniting to the crown the territory of the counts of Tou- louse, which Philip and Louis the Eighth had in vain attempted to effect. He gave, indeed, the government of the province, together with the heiress, to his brother Alphonso ; but the latter dying without issue, it devol- 340 THE FRENCH MONARCHY. ved upon the crown. [A. D. 1271.] The kings had already acquired possession, by purchase, of the do- mains which Simon of Montfort had acquired, in the mountains of Languedoc, in the course of his crusade against the Albigenses, and which Montfort I'Amaury found himself unable to maintain. [A. D. 1238.] Louis the Ninth obtained by pur- chase the important county of Macon. While this King was yet a minor, his prudent mother had given assistance to the Count of Champagne, against his pow- erful enemies, [A. D. 1226,] on the condition that he should surrender to the crown the counties of Blois and Chartres. Thus the domains of the French King be- came every where extended, in the vicinity of the most powerful vassals ; so that it was henceforward as diffi- cult for them to make any effort against him, individu- ally, as to unite their forces in any common attempt to resist the royal authority. In order to confirm this authority, still further, he en- deavored to render it respectable, by a strict adminis- tration of justice. The royal protection was not only the most desirable to the subject, because it was the most powerful and because the king did not so often stand in need of oppressive exactions as the inferior lords ; but it was also connected with a better regula- ted judicial system. As early as the reign of Philip Augustus, four gTeat bailiffs, in Vermandois, at Sens, Macon, and St. Pierre le Moustier, receiyed the appeals from the courts of the nobles. The desire of a judica- ture accessible to the people, and of regular laws, was too general, for the nobles to venture upon any opposi- tion to it. The king was the acknowledged protector of public justice ; and every man who was refused his right was sure to obtain it from the royal bailiff. As supreme feudal lord, he took cognizance of all com- plaints which might have any relation to feudal servi- ces ; and the obscure, corrupted, and indefinite, expres- sion of the feudal grants was found to favor the inter- pretation of the most powerful party. When the Ro- TUNIS AND MOROCCO. 341 man jurisprudence came into vogue, the inferior judges were bewildered, in the multitude and contradictions of so many laws ; the appeals were multiplied ; and the judges were only acquainted with established usa- ges. Thus the authority of these courts was on the wane, from the time of Philip. Louis the Ninth endeared himself to his subjects by the simplicity of his manners. After hearing mass, he seated himself upon the sod, under an oak, in the forest of Vincennes, and gave hearing and redress to every Frenchman. This Monarch, so much revered for the sanctity of his life ; to whose upright judgement foreign princes confided, without suspicion, the arbitration of their disputes ; who, in his council, uttered maxims of wisdom ; who appeared as a father and a shepherd among his people ; established laws,* the violation of which seemed to be an act of impiety. The cases presented for the royal decisionf were multiplied ; for what Frenchman would not gladly receive judgement from St. Louis ? Formerly, the monarchy was founded on the force of arms ; but now, the royal authority was established on the virtues of the sovereign. CHAPTER XXL TUNIS AND MOROCCO. Sixteen years after his return from Palestine, Louis undertook a second crusade, against the Abuhafsidse, at Tunis. Fifty years had not elapsed since the death of Ab- del-mumen, the chief of the Mowaheddins, who con- quered the Morabeths, when the coast of Africa sub- mitted to new sovereigns. Before the supreme power had fallen, in this country, into the hands of a soldiery who continually renewed their own numbers, the main- * Etablissemens. t Cas Royaux. 29* 342 TUNIS AND MOROCCO. ^ tenance of authority depended always on the warhke and energetic talents of the founder of each dynasty, whose posterity soon slept, in luxurious repose, on their insecure thrones. At Tunis, the house of Abuhaf Omar held, now, a short-lived sway ; the Merinides ruled at Morocco, descendants of Abu Bekr, son of Abdul Hakk, son of Mahbu, son of Hamama. The former molested the navigators of the Mediterranean Sea. Louis de- feated them, and laid siege to their capital ; but his army was weakened by diseases, which brought the Monarch himself to his grave. As it seemed neither an easy matter to conquer Tunis, nor probable that the possession of it could be maintained, the French com- manders were contented with a treaty, by which it was agreed, that the expenses of the war should be paid, some monasteries erected, and a tribute secured to Charles, the King of Sicily, brother of St. Louis. The Abuhafsidse and Merinides received no further molestation from the Europeans. Literature was hon- ored in their country. Annually, at the birthday of the great Prophet, poets contended, at Fez, for the prize of the sublimest song, — a fleet horse, a beautiful slave, an embroidered robe, and the precedence before all the bards of the same year. The land was populous, well cultivated, and gayly ornamented with cities and mag- nificent palaces. Never had the Jews, in the time of their dispersion, boasted of so splendid a period of literature. Here, Averroes developed the genius of the most intelligent of their teachers. Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, who has illustrated their law with such luminous conception and such an authoritative judgement, that he holds the highest rank among those who have exerted their facul- ties on it, since the time of the first Moses. His prin- ciples have continued, to this day, to govern the opin- ions of a great part of his nation, and have excited the admiration of philosophers. The numberless heights and valleys of Daran, or Mount Atlas, became more and more occupied by pas- TUNIS AND MOROCCO. 343 toral tribes. The Negro kingdoms, beyond the sandy desert, became known by the journeys of caravans ; camels traversed the pathless solitude ; and, wherever springs issued forth from the arid surface, pastoral sta- tions were established. The courts of Africa were not only the granaries of Southern Europe, but were also enriched by the export of cattle, cotton manufactures, tapestry, works of glass, and various kinds of honey and resin. These productions were conveyed from the warehouses of Algiers, Tolometta, Biserte, and from the great market of Alexandria. Al-Gazayari, which we call Algiers, was founded in this age. The towns were surrounded by beautiful gardens and meadows, and necessity had instructed the people in the method of irrigating them. For the rest, the cities of Africa abounded in every pleasure, to which the climate incit- ed : and the law of Islam imposed few troublesome re- straints. Ceuta was fortified in the vicinity of the Strait. Further in the country, in the midst of villages and populous hamlets, on a river which gave movement to three thousand mills, arose Telemsan ; and, on the confines of the uninhabitable region, the Vandalic Ode- gast ; but Tunis was most splendidly decorated, from the ruins of old Carthage, with the remains of Roman sculpture, and the works of the Aglabites, and other illustrious sultans and emirs. Flourishing towns were scattered in the ample plains of the Date-country, or Belad-al-jerid, through which sheiks wandered in free- dom with their hordes who revered, in the Sultan of Tunis or Morocco, their protector and supreme judge. Such was Northern Africa. Its people were as brave as the ancient Carthaginians, and full of the inventive sagacity of Numidia. Every youth was instructed, from his cradle, in the use of arms ; rocks, deserts, and ramparts, secured their towns ; and the use of gunpow- der was known to them, long before Europe became acquainted with it. The chiefs lived on the produce of their lands ; and public expenditures were provided for, by tributes from the herds and other property. 344 SPAIN. CHAPTER XXII. SPAIN. On the sixteenth of July, in the twelve hundred and tenth year of our era, the superiority of the Christians over the Arabs or Moors in Spain was finally decided. On that day, Alphonso the Eighth, King of Castile, assisted by the princes of his own faith, fought, on the field of Las Navas de Tolosa, near Ubeda, in the king- dom of Jaen, against the countless hosts of Malek-en- Nasr Mohammed, the Mowaheddish Sultan of Moroc- co. The Christian Monarch obtained a complete vic- tory. [A. D. 1230.] The only son of Alphonso died without heirs ; and Ferdinand, the son of his daughter, united Castile and Leon. [A.D. 1236.] Having thus become more powerful than the former kings, he con- quered Baeza and Cordova ; and, after a difficult siege of eighteen months, made himself master of the mag- nificent Seville. [A. D. 1248.] Ferdinand fixed his residence in the Kasr, or palace of the Arabian princes, which is yet seen surrounded with labyrinths of myrtle and with finely-watered gardens. [A.D. 1250.] Set- ting out thence, he gained possession of Cadiz. In vain the mountains of Jaen opposed themselves to his career ; the coasts no longer allowed reenforcements to arrive from Africa to the Arabian Spaniards ; and Granada was henceforward their chief possession. While the power of Castile was established by Fer- dinand, who was nephew to the mother of St. Louis, himself a hero and a saint, the county of Catalonia, with Rousillon in the Pyrenees, was united to the king- dom of Alphonso the Second, of Aragon, by the more peaceful way of inheritance. [A. D. 1162.] The crowns of Castile and Aragon soon shared between them the finest and strongest provinces, whose inhabi- PORTUGAL AND CASTILE. 345 tants were valiant warriors, by sea and land. [A. D. 1178.] In the reign of King James the First, Valen- cia was conquered. [A. D. 1238.] This achievement was obtained by Rodrigo Diaz, the Cid of Vivar, in Old Castile, the noble champion of liberty and the faith. Already the same King had driven the last of the Zeirides, of the house which formerly held the sov- ereignty of Tunis, out of their ancient Pelver in the Balearic islands; [A.D. 1229;] and, in order that the power of the Infidels might be broken by a double war- fare, a school for the Arabian language was founded for Franciscan missionaries on the island Foradada. CHAPTER XXIII. PORTUGAL AND CASTILE. [A.D. 1185.] On the other side of the Spanish peninsula, Sancho el Poplador, King of Portugal, ad- vanced, with heroic steps, in the path marked out for him by his father, the first king. He had to contend with famine, war, and pestilence, yet secured prosperi- ty for his kingdom. Crusaders from England, Fries- land, and Holland, assisted him in conquering Sylves, the capital of Algarve. [A.D. 1189.] Although Abu Yussuf Yakub, and his son Malek-en-Nasr Mohammed, Chief of the Mowaheddins, forced Sancho to rehnquish this acquisition ; yet a part of Algarve remained to him, and its capital yielded to the good fortune of his grandson, Alphonso the Third, whose conquests would have been more extensive, if he had not been impeded by the jealousy of Castile. The enthusiasm of the Arabs of Spain had been, at first, irresistible ; but victory at length crowned their more persevering antagonists. Alphonso the Wise, King of Leon and Castile, whose fame had induced some of the electors of Germany to 346 PORTUGAL AND CASTILE. invite him to the imperial throne, [A. D. 1257,] gave his people written laws,* and was celebrated as a learn- ed astronomer. This Monarch forced Alphonso-el- Restaurador to swear to support him in his wars with fifty lances, for the privilege of retaining his Algarvian conquests. [A. D. 1279 — 1325.] Denis, however, Crown-Prince of Portugal, whose reign of almost fifty years was long named as the happiest era of that kiqg- dom, prevailed on the Castilian Monarch, in his old age, to withdraw this badge of the dependence of his house. For the rest, the kings were obliged, by their frequent wars, to solicit aids of their subjects, and always stood in need of the arms of the nobles. On these necessi- ties were founded the liberties of the states ; and the Spaniards fought with the greater energy, as they con- tended in the cause of freedom. The royal power was more or less predominant, according to the personal character of the sovereign. The voluptuous Sancho- el-Cupolo was deposed from his throne, by the Portu- guese, [A. D. 1245,] who were supported in this attempt by the spiritual Father of Christendom. [A. D. 1279.] His wiser nephew, the famous Denis, father of his coun- try, found no limits to his power. The King sought to render himself the most power- ful lord in the kingdom, and thus to become independ- ent of the will of the states ; but this design did not es- cape the notice of the great vassals. When Alphonso the Second enacted a law, that the princes who had received appanages should respect the sovereign power of the first-born, he wanted influence to carry it into effect. In other kingdoms of the peninsula, the nobles, in Portugal, the Church, made the most formidable oppo- sition to the crown. From the time when the first Al- phonso, wishing to secure in his favor the influence of the Pope over the Crusaders, consigned his kingdom to * Las Partidas. PORTUGAL AND CASTILE. 347 the Apostles Peter and Paul, and sent, annually, four ounces of gold to Rome, as an acknowledgement of feudal dependence, the Pope was accustomed to regard Portugal as his own possession. Innocent the Third once attempted to increase the tribute ; but the coun- try was neither sufficiently rich, nor Sancho-el-Poplador weak enough, for the success of this project. When Alphonso the Third sought the aid of Innocent the Fourth, in deposing his brother, the Pope availed him- self of this opportunity to establish on record the tribu- tary state of Portugal.* There were, besides, not a few disputes between the kings and the bishops, con- cerning the pretensions urged by the latter to a com- plete immunity from all contributions to the mainte- nance of the armies, concerning the number of estates in mortmain, and the resort of the young clergymen to the university of Paris. In Spain, the Church favored' the regal power. She assisted, indeed, to deprive bold and enterprising kings of their thrones and their lives ; but the foundations of kingly authority were maintained. The princes of the Visigoths had distinguished themselves by the titles of ^Catholic, right-believing, most Christian kings, and friends of God:' so their successors appeared most wil- lingly as leaders in the holy war for the Church and the faith. The throne and the altar gave each other mutual support, in other designs, in which their union was not so salutary : Quo fonte derivata clades In patriam, populumque fluxit :t for, in consequence of this union, the national liberty was lost. After the time of Alphonso the Fifth, there is no trace of the right of election formerly exercised by the states of Leon. The Church assisted the kings in confounding their own authority, limited by the ancient customs of their nation, with the despotic power of the * Maxime cum regnum sit Romanse Ecclesise censuale. [It should be a possession of the Roman Church, subject to a heavy tribute.] t [From this source, flowed calamity upon the country and people.] 348 PKOGRESS OF THE FRENCH MONARCHY. old Caesars ; and several Spanish kings even assumed the title of Emperor. The Church labored, for centuries, in establishing the royal power. In return, it availed itself of this power, according to its pleasure ; and, in Spain, its designs have been carried into effect. Thus the Christian kingdoms obtained the prepon- derance in the Spanish peninsula. The kings of Cas- tile were the most powerful, on account of the situation of their states : Aragon was more opulent, while Por- tugal was as yet in its infancy. The Counts of Cham- pagne, heirs of the royal house of Vigorre, governed Navarre. The vicinity of Aragon, and the scattered situation of its territories, prevented the increase of the latter state. CHAPTER XXIV. PROGRESS OF THE FRENCH MONARCHY. In the time of Frederick the Second, the King of France was, next to the Emperor, the most powerful monarch in all Christendom. The state of affairs was greatly changed, since, in the reign of Louis the Sev- enth, imperial ministers wrote, on the part of " their most serene and august lord, to his excellency the King of France," as to a subordinate prince. The French kings aimed not at that universal power, by the pursuit of which the emperors had been led into great calami- ties. They established for themselves a more secure sway, by gradually connecting, under their sceptre, the provinces of their own fruitful country. Philip Augustus, who had won Normandy, brought into the possession of the crown the territory of Ar- tois, through his marriage with Isabella of Honnegau ; [A. D. 1180 ;] and, after the house of Vermandois be- came extinct, conquered the ancient county of that name, together with Amiens. [A.D. 1185.] FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH LIBERTY. 349 The great vassals long maintained that independ- ence, in consequence of which, Hugh, Duke of Bur- gundy, thought himself justified in concluding a treaty with the Emperor Henry the Sixth, stipulating, that, in the wars between the Emperor and the French King, Hugh should always oppose his arms to the aggressor, though it should be his own feudal sovereign. Thus the Count of Savoy, who possessed many estates in France, formed a close alliance with England. In the same interest, Hugh of Lusignan, Count of La Marche, bore arms against Louis the Ninth. The latter, however, understood, better than any other king, the true interests of his throne. He refus- ed the offer of the imperial crown, and sought no ac- quisition beyond the Pyrenees. He caused Beziers and Carcassone to be relinquished to him, subdued Count Roger de Foix, Peter Mauclerc, Duke of Brittany, the Count of La Marche and Angouleme, and confirmed the liberties of Toulouse, which restrained the power of the counts. He married the eldest daughter of Ray- mond, Count of Provence, and yet suffered that noble- man to make his fourth daughter his heiress, whose husband was Charles, the King's brother. By the mar- riage of Robert of Clermont with Beatrice of Bourbon, whose mother had brought to her consort, Prince John of Burgundy, the domain of Bourbon, that territory, and the name attached to it, devolved on the royal House. CHAPTER XXV. FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH LIBERTY. These aggrandizements of the French monarchy were facilitated by disturbances in England. The des- potic power of the kings ceased, in the reign of John, the same Prince who lost the possession of Normandy. The barons of England forced him to promulgate the II. 30 u. H. 350 FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH LIBERTY. Magna Charta, the fundamental charter of British free- dom. [A.D. 1214.] The Magna Charta contains the principles of the constitution, the application of which has been regulated by late ^enactments. The former declares the intention of the law ; the latter define the means, by which pow- erful individuals are to be held in obedience to its de- crees. The abuses of the feudal law are not abolished, in a very definite manner, by this charter. It was, however, the first of those ordinances, by which they have been finally suppressed. It ordains, that the judi- cial court shall be fixed in one place, and no longer be moved to and fro with the king, in order that it may appear that the law rules without external impulsion. It was now, that the important point was settled, that no Englishman can be deprived of his liberty, fortune, country, or life, without a trial according to the common law of the land, before sworn arbiters, selected from his own rank. The laws relating to property were defined in a most accurate manner. No man can be hindered, in the disposition of his fortune ; and their property is secured to foreign merchants, in the case of war hav- ing been declared against their nations. Already, the weights and measures were the same throughout the British empire. The rights of the ecclesiastics were confirmed, in order that every rank might be interested in maintaining the constitution and the freedom of elec- tions, as every other privilege became a national law. It was reserved, indeed, for the king to refuse his con- firmation to an election ; but he was obliged to assign his reasons. Provision was made that too many estates should not fall into mortmain, which would have been prejudicial to the interests of the country. But the source of all political freedom was the law, that no im- post could be levied by the king, without the consent of the archbishops, bishops, earls, and great barons of the empire, personally assembled, and of the inferior vassals who held immediately of the crown, summoned, according to districts, by the sheriff's or bailiffs. FOUNDATION OF ENGLISH LIBERTY. 351 These traces of a representative constitution, and of the participation of the states in the pubhc councils, are the first that occur in Enghsh history, since the time of the old Anglo-Saxon kings. Under the weak admin- istration of Henry the Third, they multiply ; and the British Parliament begins to rise out of obscurity and insignificance. In proportion as the kings alienated the crown lands, in consequence of their necessities or imbecility, and as the lower ranks enriched themselves, by industry and commerce, the third estate, or the com- moners, became more important in the country. They retained the spirit of freedom more constantly than eith- er of the other classes ; so that even powerful kings were obliged to court their favor. The name of the third estate first appears in the history of Henry the Third's reign. Their rights were more ancient, but had been suppressed by the first Norman kings. The city of London, fortified by high walls and nu- merous towers, was situated in a tract of country beau- tifully diversified by woods, meadows, and gardens. Adjoining to it, on the Thames, was the fortress of the kings. London was already a much-frequented com- mercial town, whither Arabs from Spain carried spices and purple from the East and South ; the Normans, iron and arms; and the Russians, peltry. The Sundays were devoted to martial exercises among the younger citizens, and holydays were often celebrated by the rep- resentation of a seafight. Combats of bears, falcons, and cocks, were the chief delight of the citizens ; and among the laws, which restored to them their lost free- dom, they were most pleased with that which permitted them to engage in the chase. The laws of foreign na- tions were the favorite objects of their study. London joined its arms to those of Simon de Montfort, Earl of Leicester, and the other barons, in the cause, as it supposed, of liberty, against Henry the Third and the royal house. The brave Prince Edward propped up, indeed, the tottering throne ; and Louis the Ninth, with the help of the Pope, mediated a pacification. But 352 THE NETHERLANDS. it was only the splendid qualities of the succeeding Monarch, that prevented the monarchy from falling into immediate ruin. The Kymri, descended from the ancient inhabitants of Britain, still maintained, in the mountains of Wales, their independence and their hereditary hatred against the English. The latter had not yet obtained that decisive superi- ority over the Scots, -which Edward, availing himself of the disputes concerning the succession to the Scottish throne, shortly afterwards acquired. [A. D. 1292.] CHAPTER XXVI. THE NETHERLANDS. On the Continent, the provinces of the Low Coun- tries and the cities of Lower Germany were alone wor- thy to be compared with England, in industry and the love of freedom. The towns in Brabant and Flanders obtained the municipal rights about the middle of the twelfth century, and those in Holland, in the beginning of the thirteenth. They were as yet too weak to en- tertain thoughts of freedom ; but the spirit of independ- ence existed in the governors of the country. The counts of Holland, the bishops and barons of Utrecht, acknowledged no proper superior ; and between the counts of Flanders and the kings of France, contests were carried on, with alternations of success, and with resources not very unequal. In Friesland, there existed such an attachment to freedom, that nations, who at the present day are scarcely named, supported their struggle against great armies, with a heroism that reminds us of the valor of the Swiss. With equal activity, they fought against the inroads of the sea and the aggressions of spiritual and temporal lords, when they interfered with their privi- THE POWER OF DENMARK. 353 leges. Friesland remained under elective magistrates. It required nothing less than a crusade, to subdue the people of Steding; and the greater number of them, after taking, beforehand, a severe revenge, fell, over- come by superior numbers. [A. D. 1234.] A longer resistance was made by Ditmarsch ; the natural strength of which assisted in maintaining its freedom, against the powder of Denmark and the counts of Nordalbing. As soon as the defeat of Bornhövede had broken the strength of King Waldemar, the people of Ditmarsch drove out the nobility, declared themselves against all the attempts of their neighbors, and against all innova- tions in their ancient customs, became powerful by land and sea, and were often appealed to, to settle the dis- putes of more powerful nations. CHAPTER XXVII. THE POWER OF DENMARK. All the courts of Northern Germany, in the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth century, dreaded the preponderance of the Danish power. Since the time of Canute, the conqueror of England, no count had governed the united domain of Nordalbing. The in- habitants, divided among petty lords, hved, like the Normans, on piracy ; and, at home, their pastures sup- ported numerous herds. The governing power was gradually accumulated in the hands of Adolphus, of the house of Schaumburg, whom the Duke of Saxony had appointed Count of Holstein, and in those of his de- scendants. At the dismemberment of the sovereignty of Henry the Lion, Adolphus the Third rendered him- self independent ; and that Prince and his posterity carried on many bloody wars, against Henry and the kings of Denmark. Mecklenburg was a fief of the Danish kings, and was 30* 354 CULTIVATION OF SWEDEN, ETC. even acknowledged as such by the Emperor. Pomera- nia, according to the fortunes and talents of its dukes, was sometimes subject to the Danes ; at others, the most powerful principality between the Elbe and the Vistula. It is well known that the Valdai Breslau was indebted to a Danish adventurer, lieutenant of a Polish duke, for its increase, and the beginning of its splendor. [A. D. 1253.] Peter Vlast, for such was the name of this Count, founded in that district seventy-seven churches. Thus, the Danes, who had supported the idolatry of the Saxons against Charlemagne, now communicated civili- zation and the Christian faith to the Slavonian hordes. CHAPTER XXVIII. CULTIVATION OF SWEDEN. In Sweden, also, culture was extending, notwith- standing the disturbances which shook the state ; and workmen from Germany completed the opening of the ancient mines of Dalecarlia. The Pope commanded a university* to be founded at Skenning, and schoolsf to be erected in all the great churches ; [A. D. 1219 ;] and the monastery of Wadstena attained the same rank in Sweden, which Bangor held among the Britons, and St. Gallen among the Germans. The monks of Wadstena had collected more than two thousand manuscripts. CHAPTER XXIX. LIVONIA AND PRUSSIA. About the same era. Christian missionaries prepared Livonia and Esthonia, by their simple exhortations, for the reception of the Gospel : whereupon, Albert, Bishop * Studiufo generale. f Trivialia. POLAND AND SILESIA. 355 of Riga, under the authority of Pope Innocent the Third, formed the soldiers of Christ, knights of the sword and cross, into the pastors, conquerors, and lawgivers, of this country. [A. D. 1201.] This institution seemed to the Polish Duke of Maso- via so available, for restraining the restless ferocity of his neighbors, the Prussians, that, as the Teutonic Knights were no longer employed with the wars of Syria, he invited to his court the Grand Master, Herr- mann of Salza, with his whole Order. [A. D. 1227.] In the course of fifty-six years, which elapsed before Burkard of Schwanden became Grand Master, the Knights had completed the conquest and conversion of Prussia, from Masovia to the borders of Courland and Livonia, and the Order formed a coalition with the champions who ruled the latter province. CHAPTER XXX. POLAND AND SILESIA. The civilization of the adjoining parts of Germany produced an effect on Poland itself : it gave new power to the dukedom, and enabled the Polish Piast, named Przemysl, to assume the royal dignity. Yet Poland was molested on one side by Russians or Tartars, on the other by other Slavonian tribes ; [A. D. 1295 ;] and the power of this kingdom was slowly established, until, in later times, the junction of Lithuania and favorable con- junctures gave it a great increase. A kindred branch of the house of the Piasts, descend- ants of Vladislaf, being banished from Poland, [A. D. 1158,] had acquired possession of Silesia, and founded principalities, which attained to a far higher degree of splendor and prosperity than their mother country. The house of Vladislaf governed this fortunate province more than five hundred years. 356 RUSSIA. CONSTANTINOPLE. CHAPTER XXXI. RUSSIA. We have before mentioned, how the Czar became tributary to the leaders of the Golden Horde. Of all the Russian cities, Novogorod was the most independent and powerful ; industry and opulence following as the natural consequences of freedom. The revolution of Livonia opened to Russia a communication with the northwest of Europe, and Lubec established commercial alliances with Novogorod and PleskofF. But, in the interior, these first-fruits of good policy and prosperous circumstances soon declined. Money became so scarce, that cities ransomed themselves from plunder with five rix dollars. Russia possessed no coinage of money before the fifteenth century ; and, in the seventeenth, mixed metals were first used. The skins of a species of squirrel were used for small currency ; and these animals were given in tribute to the Khan. Such, at least, is the interpretation assigned by some to a pas- sage in the old chronicles, from which others understand that a certain nutnber of Russian virgins were annually surrendered to the barbarians. CHAPTER XXXII. CONSTANTINOPLE. [A. D. 1261.] Constantinople, where the power of the Western conquerors never obtained any secure footing, was retaken, in one night, by a general of the Nicaean Emperor, Michael Palseologus, without the knowledge of his Sovereign, without any planned or regular siege, by a secret understanding with Kutrizak, LITERATURE. 357 a private citizen. Michael, through perjury, and by depriving the young Emperor, John Lascaris, of his eyes, had made for himself a way to the throne, which John Vatazes Lascaris, grandfather of his unfortunate victim, had established. His administration was dis- turbed ; and a pious patriarch refused him absolution from a crime, of which he continued to enjoy the fruits. Yet his great talents, notwithstanding numerous schisms, maintained tranquillity abroad, and some appearance of imperial authority. CHAPTER XXXni. LITERATURE. This period of the Grecian empire has been describ- ed by the pens of statesmen ; but the treasures of an- cient literature were now inaccessible to the Greeks, and the Western people made no use of them, as long as the libraries, together with the capital, continued in their possession. Yet, in George the Acropolite, and in George Pachymeres, some remaining tincture of eloquence is perceptible, when we compare their works with those of the Western statesmen. Among the scholars of the West, we discern the growing spirit of freedom, the source of elevated thoughts. The historian, Otho, Bishop of Freysingen, an Austrian Prince, Günther, Albert of Stade, Conrad of Lichtenau, Abbot of Ursperg, and others, deserve to be compared with the Greeks, and in some respects ex- cel them : yet we are willing to avow, that no stranger has painted, with such a pencil, the barbarism of man- ners, the crimes and ignorance of the clergy, as the learned and spirited John of Salisbury ; that, in veraci- ty and liberality, no Greek historian can be compared to the British Matthew Paris ; and that, in spite of a thousand impediments, the wonderful genius of Roger 358 LITERATURE. Bacon threw aside the shackles of prejudice, and, at the expense of external prosperity and personal liberty, opened to itself, in the thirteenth century, a new path, into which, in the seventeenth, the namesake of this philosopher found it difficult to recall the thoughts of mankind. He penetrated so deeply into the secrets of Nature, that the germ of the greatest discoveries is to be found in his works ; and it may be esteemed an in- stance of good fortune, that superstition, whose empire he alarmed, did not sacrifice him to her safety. We may remember, that he lived but shortly before that Parisian synod, which ordered the metaphysics of Aris- totle to be burnt, because it was foretold that Anti- christ would avail himself of them, at the end of time, in order to bring trouble upon simple-hearted Chris- tians. The Emperor Frederick the Second would have best appreciated the merits of Bacon. He caused Aristotle to be translated from the Arabic ; he recommended the study of Hippocrates, the teacher of the true art of healing ; he ordered that a public dissection should be performed, every five years ; and forbade any physician to profess the practice of his art, who was unskilled in anatomy. Yet Ebn Sina, or Avicenna, maintained his authority in the schools. His ingenious subtilty pleased better than the dry intellect of the profound Aristotle. False ideas, which were believed to be Aristotelian, but which originated from the translators of that philoso- pher, perplexed anew the minds of reflecting persons. The progress of the Western Europeans, in science, was the more tardy, as their genius was not developed by its own powers, but depended on foreign culture. Paris and Bologna were the chief universities. Phi- losophy struggled here, to raise her head. Here, the Roman law was interpreted, not learnedly, (for history and antiquity were but little known,) but with acute- ness and ingenuity. Salerno, celebrated for the rules of diet prescribed by John of Milan, was a seat of the sciences, under the dukes of the ninth century. Fred- RECAPITULATION. 359 erick now decreed, that no physician who had not pursued his studies there should be permitted to take a doctor's degree. At the same time, schools were founded at Naples, and in the Austrian Vienna ; and Prague, under Przemysl Ottocar, contained the first school of grammar, logic, and physics, for the instruc- tion of the Slavonian tribes. Toulouse and other French cities profited by a dis- turbance which broke out in Paris, soon after the reign of Philip Augustus, which put the students at that uni- versity under the necessity of dispersing. In general, the spirit of independence was the occasion of such tur- moils. The university-privileges endowed the profes- sors with a certain political authority, which was nec- essary for maintaining discipline, but excited in their disciples a love of freedom, which, in the age of the passions, easily degenerated into licentiousness. A war between Bologna and Forli gave occasion to the establishment of the high school of Padua, where phi- losophy and theology were soon taught with celebrity. Some wise admonitions on the method of study are found in the works of the Abbot Engelbert, of Admont, written during this interval, which in other respects, display much talent : " that the soul of labor is regu- larity ; that the best means of doing every thing well, is the principle of never attempting to advance, until we have made ourselves masters of the previous steps ; and that we must never look upon ourselves as com- plete scholars, but continue ever to learn." CHAPTER XXXIV. RECAPITULATION. We have thus surveyed the age of the powerful Em- peror Frederick the Second, and his struggle against the Papacy. We have seen the Eastern people remain ever like themselves: we have seen dynasties formed 360 RECAPITULATION. as rapidly as those of Nebuchadnezzar and Cyrus ; and as easily, like the empires of Sardanapalus, Xerxes, and the Ptolemies, become enervated by luxury, fall into con- fusion, and vanish. The South and the West of Asia were overwhelmed by Moguls, as irresistible as in the time of Cyaxares, who were as speedily swept away, the power of their hordes being lost in dispersion. In Europe, we have remarked, after the long movements of the stormy North had subsided, and after the transi- tory dominion with which his personal qualities had in- vested Charlemagne, had passed away, how one nation imposed restraints on the power of another, and how they mutually forced each other to seek, from agricul- ture and commerce, what their ancestors had acquired by the sword. Hence, not only civilization arose, but even among that class of men, who were kept by our ancestors in the bonds of slavery, a consciousness of their powers, and the love of freedom, sprang up. Some even elevated themselves to the study of Nature, the investiga,tiOn of religious doctrine, and the exposition of the rights of men. In the East, where the feelings of men are warmer and the imagination takes a nobler flight, all the forms of religion had their origin. These sensible represen- tations assumed, in the West, a speculative character. In the East, heroes and lawgivers availed themselves of them ; with us, they contribute to civilization and social order. In Europe, there was more of art and perseverance in plans ; in Asia, every thing yielded to an energy which instantly overwhelmed. Hence, the more lasting superiority remains with us ; and the more polished and enlightened each nation of Europe has become, the greater has been its power. GLOSSARY OF WORDS AND PHRASES NOT EASILY TO BE UNDERSTOOD BY THE YOUNG READER. [Many names of persons, places, &c., mentioned in this Volume, will be found explained in one of the places where they occur.] Abbasidee. The Greek termination ide, (plural idee, or ides,) adds, to the word to which it is joined, the sense of a descendant of. Thus we have Abbasidse, descendants of Abbas ; Fatimides, of Fatima ; Tulunides, of Tulun ; Buiyides, of Buiyah ; Heraclidse, of Hercules. Abbot, (from the Hebrew abbas, father,) the head of a monastery, who exercises a supervision over the monks, and manages the property of the convent. Abelard, (Peter,) one of the most distinguished scholars of his age. He was born in 1079, near Nantes, (France,) and died in 1142^. He early devoted himself to science, in which he made great at- tainments, and gained a wide reputation. He lectured at Paris on rhetoric, philosophy, and theology, and educated many eminent scholars. He excelled, also, as an orator, mathematician, poet, and musician. He has left nothing, however, to justify the high fame which he enjoyed in his own age, and he is more celebrated, now, as the unfortunate lover of Heloise, than as the profound di- vine. Heloise was a Parisian lady, of great beauty and genius, whom Abelard loved, and who returned all the fervency of his passion. They were secretly married ; but were separated, un- der circumstances of great cruelty, by the uncle of Heloise ; in consequence of which, Abelard became a monk, and Heloise took the veil as a nun, and became prioress of a convent. Their let- ters have been often published. The latter years of Abelard's life were imbittered by persecutions carried on against him, on account of his opinions and doctrines. Aborigines, the oldest inhabitants of a country ; those who occu- pied any region, at the earliest period of its known history. Abulfeda, (Ismael,) Prince of Hamah, in Syria, an Arabian geogra- pher and historian, born at Damascus, A. D. 1273. He is repre- sented as a prince of great talents, remarkable for courage, as a warrior, and for wisdom, as a ruler. He devoted himself earnest- ly to study, patronised the learned, and used his wealth and influ- ence for the advancement of science. He was well acquainted with history, law, medicine, botany, mathematics, and astronomy. The most famous of his works are, his history of the human race, and his geography, portions of which have been translated and published. He is a correct and trustworthy writer. Abulgasi, a khan of the Tartars, who, after a worthy reign of twenty II. 31 U. H. 362 GLOSSARY. years, resigned the sovereignty to his son, and devoted himself to literature. His history of the Tartars, in spite of some blemishes of style, is valuable, as the only Tartarian history known in Eu- rope, and has been translated into German and French. He died in 1663. Jibulpharagi, (Gregory,) the son of a Christian physician, and a na- tive of the country near the source of the Euphrates, (now com- prised in Asiatic Turkey.) Devoting himself to the study of the ilastern languages and of divinity, he was made a bishop in the twentieth year of his age, a station which he held at different places in his native country, and finally at Aleppo, in Syria. He wrote, in Arabic, an abridgement of Universal History, from the Creation to his own time ; a valuable work, which was published, with a Latin translation, in 1663, by Dr. Edward Pococke, a cele- brated Oriental scholar of England. Abulpharagi died A. D. 1286, in the sixtieth year of his age. Academics, philosophers of the Platonic school, or of the Academy, as the school of Plato is often called. The name is derived from the groves of Academus, in the vicinity of Athens, about one eighth of a mile from the city, where Plato resided, and gave his instruc- tions. For a notice of Plato and his system, see the first Volume of this History, page 122. n^schylus, the father of ancient Greek tragedy, who was born about the year B. C. 525, and died in the sixty-ninth year of his age. He is known to English readers by the spirited and faithful trans- lation of his works, by Robert Potter, (first published in England in 1777,) who also translated the works of Sophocles and Euripi- des. See the first Volume of this History, page 119. Agatharcides, a Greek historian and geographer, who was born at Cnidus, (a town on the southwesterly coast of Asia Minor,) and flourished in the second century before Christ. His numerous works are now known only by fragments. Agnellus, (Andrew,) an abbot of Ravenna, in the ninth century, who composed a history of the prelates . of that city ; a work written with little exactness, but valuable, as containing many facts not to be found elsewhere. Albigenses, a name common to several sects, (especially the Cathari and Waldenses,) who, in the twelfth century, disputed the authority of the Pope, and endeavored to restore the simplicity of primitive Christianity. They were called Albigenses, from the district Al- bigeois, (the territory of which the city of Alby was the capital,) in the south of France, where they were very numerous. A cru- el and exterminating war, or crusade, was waged against them, at the instigation of Pbpe Innocent the Third, by various princes, among whom was Louis the Eighth of France. This crusade com- menced A. D. 1209, and continued for more than twenty years. After the middle of the thirteenth century, the name of Albigenses disappeared. JLlcassar, in the Moorish language, (which is a dialect of the Arabic,) signifies a palace. Alcuin, (Flaccus Alcuinus, or Albinus,) an Englishman, renowned as the most learned and polished man of his time. He was born A. D. 732, and died in 804. He was Abbot of Canterbury, jn GLOSSARY. 363 England, but passed to the Continent in 782, on the invitation of Charlemagne, (or Charles the Great,) whose confidant,^ adviser, and instructer, he became. He established various schools, and la- bored to diffuse through Europe a knowledge of the sciences. He retired from the Emperor's court in 801, and devoted the rest of his life to study and the duties of religion. He left numerous works in theology and philosophy, which were published in 1617, and, in a more complete edition, in 1777. ^ The Academies of Pa- ris, Tours, and many others, were either founded, enlarged, en- riched, or instructed, by him, or through his interest with Charle- magne. Aldions, among the Lombards, were an intermediate class, between, slaves and freedmen, possessing certain privileges and rights of their own, but also, to a certain degree, subject to the authority of their masters. Both men and women were comprised under this name, the derivation of which is uncertain. Allegory, a figurative narrative, or discourse, in which is implied a meaning which is not literally expressed. Mlodium, land held by a man in his own right, without any feudal obligation. It is opposed to /ew^Zttw, (/ee, or ^le/",) which is prop- erty held by the grant of another, and for which some rent, ser- vice, or acknowledgement of superiority, is paid to a superior lord. Any property, for which such feudal service is paid, is called a feudal estate, and such fiefs are said to be held by a feudal tenure. But an allodial estate is one held without any such burden of rent or service, and on an allodial, or free, tenure. Aloe, a plant, of which there are many species, some of which are small ; others, upwards of thirty feet high. It is a native of tropi- cal climates. Some of the species are of great importance to the inhabitants of the countries where they grow, as the large and fibrous leaves of the plant can be used for many useful purposes, while its juices furnish wine, sugar, and vinegar, and some parts of it are eaten as food. The thickened juice of several species is also employed in medicine, as a powerful and useful drug, under the name of aloes. Alpini, (Prospero,) a native of Italy, who devoted himself to the study of medicine and botany, on which subjects he has left vari- ous works. He spent three years in learned researches in Egypt. During the latter part of his life, he was a professor at the Univer- sity of Padua. He' died in 1617, at the age of sixty-four years. Ammianus, (Marcellinus,) a Roman historian, who wrote, in thirty- one books, (of which twenty-four remain,) the history of the Ro- man Emperors, from Nerva to Valens ; (A. D. 96 to 364.) He died about A. D. 380. Anarchy, (from a Greek word, signifying, want of government,) a state in which men are under no control of government ; a state of lawless confusion. Anastasius, (the librarian,) a learned writer of the ninth century, abbot of a monastery at Rome, and librarian of the Vatican library ; (a large and valuable collection, in the Papal palace called the Vatican.) His most important work is a collection of the lives of the Popes, compiled from various documents in the archives of the Roman Church. 364 GLOSSARY. Ansehn, Archbishop of Canterbury, in England, and a native of Italy. He came to England in the year 1092, (having previously been abbot of a French monastery,) and held his archbishopric till his death, in 1109, at the age of seventy-six. His writings on theo- logical philosophy are marked by great acuteness and energy, and display a spirit of deep and rational piety. Apollinaris, Bishop of Laodicea, in Syria, died betw^een A. D. 382 and A. D. 392. Of his works in imitation of the Greek clas- sics, (referred to on page 69,) we have no remains. They con- sisted of heroic poems and tragedies, from the historical matter of the Old Testament, and of dialogues, in imitation of those of Pla- to, from portions of the New. They are represented, by the old historians of the Church, as having been composed for the use of the Christians, after the Emperor Julian had forbidden them the use of schools and the study of the Greek classics. Appanage, an allowance, consisting of money, and the use of a res- idence and lands, received by the younger princes of a reigning house, from the revenues of the country, that they may be enabled to live in a manner becoming theip rank. Arch, a syllable prefixed to many words, to denote the highest de- gree of their kind, whether good or bad, as archangel, archbishop, archtraitor. It comes from the Greek a^/t, archi, which is pre- fixed in the same manner to Greek words, and which gives the sense of a^j^ö?, archos, a chief. Arena, in the ancient circusses and amphitheatres, was the central portion, which was surrounded by the ascending rows of seats, on which the spectators sat. On it, the fights and games were ex- hibited. It derived its name from the sand (Latin, arena) with which it was covered. The word arena is often applied to the circus or amphitheatre itself. The charioteers in the ancient Ro- man games were divided into parties, or factions, from their dif- ferent dress or livery ; and the spectators favored one or the other color, as humor or caprice inclined them. Hence the expression, (page 143,) " parties on the arena." In the reign of Justinian, these factions contended with great violence. Arians, adherents to the doctrines of Ar ius, a native of Africa, and a priest at Alexandria in Egypt, who maintained, in the early part of the fourth century, that Jesus, the Son of God, is the most no- ble of all things created, but inferior to God, and produced by his free will. This is the main tenet of the Arian creed, which was violently opposed- by those who maintained a perfect equality be- tween the Son and the Father, among the most prominent of whom was Athanasius. Arius died in 336. Little is known with cer- tainty respecting his personal character. The contest between the Arians and their opponents continued, with great violence; and the Roman Emperors, during the fourth and the first half of the fifth century, were sometimes adherents to one creed and sometimes to the other. Ark, (from the Latin area,) a chest. The chest in which Moses placed the two tablets of stone, on which the ten commandments of the Jewish law were engraved, was an object of great venera- tion among the Jews. It was made of beautiful and costly wood, with a lid and ornaments of gold. It was two and a half cubits in GLOSSARY. 365 length, one and a half cubit in breadth, and the same in height. (The cubit is equivalent to one foot and a half.) The ark is fully described in Exodus, chapter xxxvii. verses 1—9. Before the time of Solomon, it was kept in the tabernacle, or ' movable temple ;' but was placed by him in the sanctuary of the temple which he built at Jerusalem. Assizes, (in French, assises, sittings, sessions,) the name given in France, and in parts of Italy, to assemblies which were common in the middle ages, and to the courts for the administration of justice to vassals and freemen. The code of laws adopted, A. D. 1099, by Duke Godfrey, as King of Palestine, for his two courts of jus- tice, was drawn from the ordinances established in these assem- blies, and was hence called * the Assizes of Jerusalem.' The word is used in England to signify the sessiojis of the courts, held an- nually, in each county, by the judges. Astrology, an art which pretends to foretell future events, especially the fate of men, from the position of the stars. Atabek, a Turkish word, which properly signifies. Father of the Prince. It was the title borne by several of the governors, or di- rectors of the education, of the princes of the Seljukian house, (see page 219.) Either by the favor or by the weakness of their mas- ters, these Atabeks became so powerful, that they founded sever- al dynasties, or families of sovereigns, in Asia. Athanasius, (usually styled Saint Athanasius,) a renowned Father of the Church, and the Bishop, or Patriarch, of Alexandria. He was born in that city, about A. D. 296, and was engaged, for a great part of his life, in opposing, by his preaching and writings, the doctrines of Arius. {See Aria?is.) He was the most prominent de- fender of the orthodox catholic faith against the Arian doctrine, and underwent much severe persecution, on this account, being alter- nately banished from, and restored to, his bishopric, according as the Roman Emperor, for the time being, favored the one sect or the other. He died, A. D. 373. He possessed great genius and eloquence, and was remarkable for his courage, his benevolence, his humility, and his strictly virtuous life. Averrhoes, a celebrated Arabian philosopher, born at Cordova, in Spain, where his father was judge, under the Emperor of Morocco. After being professor in the University of Morocco, he succeeded his father in his office, and was afterwards made a judge in one of the African provinces of the Moorish King. His enemies, by ac- cusing him of rejecting the established religion, procured his ban- ishment to Spain, and continued their persecutions there. He was finally restored to his dignities, and died at Morocco, A. D. 1217, or 1225. He wrote many treatises in theology, philosophy, law, and medicine, with which subjects his acquaintance was extensive ; and his commentaries on Aristotle, for whose philosophy he enter- tained great respect, were held in much esteem by the Arabians. Avicenni, (or, more properly, Ebn Sina,) an Arabian philosopher and physician, was born A. D. 980, in one of the -provinces of Persia. He displayed a remarkable precocity ; learning, with great rapidity, all the branches cultivated in his time, and, at 31* 366 GLOSSARY. the age of eighteen years, was the rival of his masters in logic, metaphysics, and the natural sciences. Medicine was the chief object of his studies, and in this he gained a high reputation. He passed a life of great vicissitudes, being at one time the Grand Vizier of the Sultan of Persia, and afterwards reduced to a state of extreme adversity, and suffering from ill health, aggravated by his excesses. He was poisoned by a slave, A. D. 1037. He was one of the most extraordinary men of the East, possessing great application and a remarkable memory ; and, in spite of business, misfortunes, and excesses, accomplished an immense amount of labor in various departments of science. For six centuries, he ex- erted an absolute control in medicine, and his 'canons of medi- cine' were followed, in all the schools of Europe, till the Arabian medical writers were superseded by the Greek. Bacon, Roger, an English monk, distinguished for his discoveries in chemistry and natural philosophy. He was born in 1214, and died in 1294. His experiments and calculations were so far above the comprehension of his age, that he was accused of practising magic, was denounced by the monks of his fraternity to the Pope, and underwent an imprisonment of ten years' duration. He was a great philosopher, and a wonderful man. His 'namesake,' re- ferred to on page 358, is Sir (afterwards Lord) Francis Bacon, Lord High Chancellor of England, who was born A. D. 1561, and died A. D. 1626. The latter was also a profound scholar, and en- joys a reputation, as a reformer of philosophy, wider than almost any other man who can be named. He founded philosophy on the observation of Nature ; but it is perhaps unjustly claimed for him, that he was the first who gave it this direction. Bailiffs, in France, in the middle ages, were commanders of the militia, administrators of the royal domains, and judges of districts. (See page 240.) In England, at first, the bailiff was the principal executive judicial officer of a bailiwick or county : but the name is now given to subordinate officers of justice, who correspond very nearly to constables in the United States. Bdiram, a great festival of the Mohammedans, which follows imme- diately the Ramadan, (or month of fasting,) and lasts three days. Sixty days after this feast, follows a second Bairam, and these are the only two feasts, the observance of which is enjoined by the Mohammedan law. The former of these i^ usually called the great, and the latter the lesser, Bairam, by European writers, but the terms should properly be inverted. The Bairam is called by the Arabs the 'feast of sacrifice,' as being celebrated in memory or the sacrifice of Abraham, when a victim is represented as hav- ing been miraculously substituted for his son Isaac. Ban, a Teutonic word, signifying a proclamation. It is applied, in this Volume, to the sentence of excommunication, often passed by the Romish Church, and which deprived_the person on whom it was pronounced of all the privileges of the Church, such as hear- ing mass, partaking of the sacrament, &c., while living, and, when dead, of the right of Christianburial. As it was supposed, also, to affect the prospect of salvation in a future life, it was a sentence much dreaded by members of the Romish Church. JSayle, (Pierre,) a native of France, born in 1647. He gave ear- GLOSSARY. 367 ly proofs of an astonishing memory, and of great quickness of intellect. He filled, successively, professorships at Sedan, in France, and at Rotterdam, in Holland ; and his life was entirely devoted to literature. He died at the age of fifty-nine years. Of his different works, his ' Historical and Critical Dictionary' is the most celebrated. It is written in a loose and careless style, but evinces deep research and great erudition. The tendency of Bayle's writings is to lead the reader to doubts respecting re- vealed religion ; but he never attacks the principles of morality. Bedouins, a race inhabiting the deserts of Arabia, Egypt, and North- ern Africa. The name signifies, inhabitants of the desert. Bergeron^ (Pierre,) a writer of the eighteenth century. He was the author of ' a relation of the travels of Father Rubruquis in Tartary, with a treatise on the Tartars, and preceded by an introduction, relating to the travels and new discoveries of the principal trav- ellers,' published at Leyden, (Holland,) iu 1729, in 2 vols. 4to. Father Rubruquis (or William de Ruysbroeck) was a monk of the thirteenth century, a native of the Netherlands, sent by Louis the Ninth, of France, as a Christian missionary to Tartary. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, in France, who was born A. D. 1091, and died in 1153. He was regarded with great veneration throughout Christian Europe, and possessed an immense influence, acquired by the austerity, solitude, and studiousness, of his life, and by the boldness and vigor of his eloquence. Popes, princes, and bishops, listened with deference to his counsels, and he was regarded by the multitude as a prophet and a worker of miracles. He was canonized (declared to be a saint) by Pope Alexander the Third, in 1174, and is usually styled St. Bernard. Bidpdi, a collection of narratives and fables in Sanscrit, (the ancient language of the Hindoos,) which has been much admired, and translated into most modern languages. It has usually been re- garded as the work of Bidpai', or Pilpay, a writer supposed to have lived about B. C. 400 ; but it has been shown, that the word orig- inated from the Sanscrit word hitopadesa, (useful instruction,) which is the title of the work in the Sanscrit edition. Bitumen, the name of a class of mineral substances, originally formed by the decomposition of vegetable matters. There are several varieties of bitumen, some being fluid, as the mineral oils, called naphtha and petroleum ; some solid, as the mineral tars, called maltha and asphaltum. Bitumen is very combustible, and forms a large ingredient in those kinds of coal which emit a blaze while burning. Some kinds of it are dug from the earth, others rise upon the surface of lakes. Boethius, (Flavius Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus,) a cele- brated Roman author, who was born in Rome, about A. D. 470, and studied philosophy at Rome and Athens. He became a favor- ite with Theodoric, King of the Ostrogoths, and held, under him, some of the highest offices of state. But in the latter days of that Prince, when he had become irritable and suspicious, the enemies of Boethius, whom his strict justice and integrity had raised against him, succeeded in procuring his downfall. He was accused of treason, arretted, imprisoned in the tower of Pavia, and, on the twenty-third of October, 544, was beheaded. He united the 368 GLOSSARY. study of the sciences to the performance of his public duties, and composed, during his imprisonment, his treatise ' On the Consola- tions of Philosophy,' a work remarkable for its nobleness of thought and beauty of style. It was translated into English by Alfred the Great, and by Q,ueen Elizabeth, and also by the Poet Chaucer. Bologna, one of the oldest, largest, and richest, cities of Italy, re- nowned, during the middle ages, for its university, which once num- bered ten thousand students, but has now only about three hundred. The law school was especially famous, and its professors exerted a great influence. The institution was founded A.D. 425. Bonzes, the name given by Europeans to the priests of the Hindoo religion, in Eastern Asia. Boor, a peasant, a countryman. As used on page 124, it signifies a slave, a bondman, in which sense it is commonly applied to the peasants of Russia. Brabanzons, inhabitants of Brabant, a part of the Netherlands. Brahma, the first and greatest of the three forms or manifestations of the Supreme Being, to which religious worship is paid by the Hindoos. These three are Brahma, the creator ; Vishnu, the pre- server ; and Siva, the destroyer. Brahmans, or Bramins, the first of the four castes, or classes, of the Hindoos. They are the priests, and the depositaries and in- terpreters of the sacred books. A Brahman must pass through four states of preparation, before he attains to the perfection of mortal- ity, and partakes of the divine nature. These states are marked by different penances, and few reach further than the second of them. The Brahmans exert a most absolute and extensive author- ity over the other castes, and their persons are regarded as sacred and inviolable. Briseis, a woman of Lyrnessus, in Mysia, a province of Asia Minor, who had fallen to the share of Achilles, when her country was con- quered by the Grecian chiefs who besieged Troy. She was taken from him by Agamemnon, and Achilles vowed that he would not appear in the field till she was restored to him. The Greeks, thus deprived of their chief warrior, suffered those defeats and " direful woes," from the Trojans, which Homer has sung in the Iliad. Buddha, the founder of a very ancient religion, called, after him, Buddhism, which, after the Brahmans had put a stop to it in India, spread to Japan, Tibet, and China, where, as well as in Ceylon, it exists to the present day. His followers are called Samanseans. Buffon, (George Louis Leclerc,) Count of, one of the most celebrated naturalists of the eighteenth century. He was a native of France, and gave a remarkable impulse to the study of natural history, by his numerous and extensive works, written in a very animated and brilliant style. He was born in 1707, and died in 1788. Buiyides, see Abbasidce. Burgomaster, the name of the chief magistrates of large towns in the Netherlands and Germany. Caaba, a square stone edifice in the temple of Mecca, (Arabia,) of great antiquity, and which was held in high reverence by the Ara- bians, long before the birth of Mohammed. The black stone (re- ferred to on page 152) was set in silver, and fixed in the wall of this building. GLOSSARY. 369 CcBsar, the title of the earlier Roman emperors, derived from the founder of the Imperial family. It became, subsequently, the sec- ond, and finally the third, title of dignity under the emperors. Cadi, (in Arabic.) a judge or jurist. Caliph, see Khalif. Cano7i law. The ancient church called its rules or decrees canons ; (from the Greek y.avoiv, kanon, a rule.) The canonrlaw, there- fore, is the body of ecclesiastical laws, whether positively enacted by councils, popes, and bishops, or introduced by custom. Capitulary. This word denotes ' divided into chapters,' and was applied to the ordinances of the ancient kings of France, which were promulgated in small chapters, or heads. The authority of the capitularies was extensive, and prevailed in every kingdom tinder the dominion of the Franks. They related both to the spir- itual and temporal administration of the realm. Caravan, a Persian word, used to denote large companies which travel together in Arabia and Africa, for the sake of protection from robbers, having in view, principally, trade and pilgrimages. A caravan has sometimes more than one thousand camels, to carry its merchandise and baggage. Carpocrates, a native of Alexandria, in Egypt, who lived about A. D. 130. He was educated in the school of Platonic philosophers, but formed a sect of his own. His followers made the morality of ac- tions to depend on temperament and education, maintaining that, the Deity having implanted in the heart the germ' of all the pas- sions, man could abandon himself to them without criminality and without remorse. Thus their morals were usually very corrupt, many of them believing, that an abandonment of themselves to debauchery was essential to salvation. Caste, a class whose privileges and burdens are hereditary. The institution of castes is very ancient, and has prevailed among many nations, but especially in Egypt and India. The four castes in Hindustan are noticed on pages 163 and 164. They are wholly separate from each other, so that no person can pass, in any way, from one to another ; nor is any connexion by marriage, nor any in- terchange of occupations, permitted between the castes. The food of the different castes is pointed out by law ; the highest caste being the most restricted, and the lowest, the least so, in this particu- lar. The laws relating to caste are enforced with great severity. Castellio, or Castalio, (Sebastian,) a distinguished scholar and re- former, an intimate friend of Calvin, and Professor of Greek at Basle, (Switzerland.) He was born in 1515, and died in 1563. He wrote a Latin translation of the Bible, and other smaller works, some of which were for the use of schools. Catapan, (or, in Greek, arqaryjyoq, strategos, a general, a comman- der,) the governor of a province ; a title given to those who were sent, by the Byzantine emperors, into Italy, to take the govern- ment of provinces or cities. Category, a term used in logic, to signify a class or order of the ob- jects of human thought. Aristotle made ten categories, or, as they have been called, philosophical arrangements. The first com- prises all substances ; the other nine, their attributes ; namely, quantity, quality, relation, action, passion, time, place, situation, 370 GLOSSARY. and habit. This arrangement is now almost excluded, though the term categories is retained in some philosophical systems. Cavalier, a horseman ; one who does military service on horseback, as was the case with the nobles and knights of the middle ages, who despised the foot-service. Centurion, a captain of a century, or division of one hundred men. Chaldceans, inhabitants of Chaldaea, the ancient name of the country which now forms the northeastern part of Arabia. The Chaldseans founded the empire of Babylonia, and their name remained with the priesthood of the Babylonians, whose members were employed in religious ceremonies, the practice of medicine, magic, and as- trology. These Chaldaean priests kept their knowledge secret from the people. Chalif, Chalifate, see Khalif, and Khalifat. Champ de Mai, Field of May. The Franks, previous to the eighth century, held their public assemblies (which convened in the open air) in the month of March. The assembly was then called Gam- pus Martius, or Champ de Mars, (Field of March,) in allusion to the Campus Martius (Field of Mars) at Rome, where assemblies of the people were held, and military exercises performed, and which was named in honor of the god of war, the patron-deity of the city. King Pepin transferred the assembly to the month of May, calling it the Champ de Mai ; but the plain, where the an- nual review of the army was held, was appropriately styled the Champ de Mars, or Field of Mars. The ceremonies of the Field of May are described on page 166. Chancellor, an officer at the court of the Roman emperors, who pos- sessed certain judicial powers, and a superintendence over the other officers of the empire. The office and title passed to the other kingdoms of Europe. In different states, the chancellor had differ- ent powers and dignities, but in all, seems to have had the super- vision of all the most important public ordinances and instruments of the crown. The title is now held by a variety of officers, of dif- ferent degrees of authority, at the European courts, and also in this country. Chrestomathy, (from two Greek words, signifying the study of useful things,) a collection of elegant or useful passages from an author ; or an abridgement, containing the choicest matter of his work. Civil Law, the name usually given to the ancient Roman law, as collected and arranged under the Emperor Justinian, in the sixth century. The code of Justinian forms the basis of the modern codes of several European nations. Cleanthes, a Grecian philosopher, disciple of Zeno. He lived a life of great studiousness, abstinence, and labor, and is said to have starved himself to death, in the ninetieth year of his age, B. C. 240. Among the fragments of his writings, which are preserved, is a hymn to Jupiter. Colosseum, a magnificent amphitheatre in Rome, built in the first century after Christ, more than sixteen hundred feet in circumfe- rence, and capable of containing from ninety thousand to one hun- dred and ten thousand spectators. It was commenced by the Em- pexor Vespasian, and finished by his son, Titus ; and it remained, GLOSSARY. 371 almost uninjured, till the thirteenth century, when its stones began to be used in constructing new palaces. It is now a gigantic ruin. Colossus, a statue of enormous magnitude. The word is applied, figuratively, to an institution of great extent and power. Commander of the Faithful, see Khalif. Common law, the body of unwritten English law, containing those customs and usages, which have, by long prescription, acquired the force of laws. The acts of parliament form the English statute law. Both of these are sometimes included under the term com- mon law, when it is used in opposition to the civil, or Roman, law. Confucius, (or Con-fu-tse,) a Chinese philosopher and teacher of religion and morals, who lived about B. C. 550. He was of royal descent, and held an official station at court, which he resigned, because his wholesome advice to the King was without effect. He then became a teacher of morals. His life was temperate and quiet, and his system inculcated universal benevolence, justice, virtue, and honesty, and the restraint of the passions. It also con- tained excellent precepts for the guidance of life. His works have been translated into various European languages. Co?isulate, the office of consul, originally the chief magistracy of the Roman republic, but which, under the emperors, declined to a mere shadow of power, though still retaining the outward trappings of rank. It was abolished by .Justinian, (about A. D. 540,) though the title was occasionally revived at later periods. Cosmus of Prague, (in Bohemia,) is the most ancient historian of Bohemia whose works have come down to us. He was born in 1045, and died in 1126. Crater, (from the Greek jrqarijo, krater, a bowl or basin,) the cavity of a volcano, from which the vapor and burning masses of mineral matter are thrown forth. Crusade. The wars carried on for the conquest of Palestine, by the Christians, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were called cru- sades, because all the warriors (crusaders) who were engaged in them wore the sign of the cross. The word is from the French croisade, which is from croix, a cross. The wars carried on, un- der the sanction of the Church of Rome, against heretics in France, (see Albigenses,) were also called crusades. Cudwortk, (Ralph,) an-eminent English scholar and philosopher, who was born A. D. 1617, and died in 1688. His ' Intellectual Sys- tem of the Universe,' intended as a confutation of Atheism, is a work of immense learning. ' Cuirass, an article of defensive armor, protecting both the breast and back, made of metal or leather, or of a combination of the two. Curfew, (French, couvre-feu, from couvre, to cover or extinguish, and feu, fire.) The law requiring all householders in England to put out fires and lights, at about eight o'clock in the evening, at the ringing of the curfeiv-bell, was imposed by William the Con- queror, to prevent seditious evening meetings among the disaffected English. English writers have since applied the word curfew to any bell rung in the early evening. Cyaxares, a king of Media and Persia, iji the sixth century before Christ. He defended his kingdom bravely against the Scythians, who had invaded it. 372 GLOSSARY. Cycle, (from the Greek y.vxloq, kuklos, a circle,) a period of time, after which a uniform succession of the same events returns. Thus, a solar cycle is a period of twenty-eight years, after which, the years begin, successively, on the same days of the week as in the previous twenty-eight years. The lunar cycle is a period of nine- teen years, after which the new moon falls again on the same day of the month. Cycles are important in the astronomical computa- tion of chronology. Czar, a title of the Emperor of Russia. The word is of Slavonic ori- gin, derived, like the German kaiser, (emperor,) from the word Csesar, and is equivalent to emperor or king. Dalemil, the father of Bohemian poetry, and one of the most ancient authors who have written upon Bohemian history. He flourished in the early part of the fourteenth century, and wrote, in verse, the history of his country, derived from older chronicles. His work is valuable as an early monument of the language and litera- ture ofthat country. Little is known of his life. Deguignes, (Joseph,) a learned Orientalist, was born at Pontoise, (in France,) in 1721, and died in 1800. His life was devoted to literature and science. Of several works, on Asiatic history and literature, his most important one is the ' General History of the Huns, Turks, Moguls, and other Western Tartars, from the Chris- tian Era to the present Time.' \ The Delphic god, an epithet of Apollo, who had a temple, and a most celebrated oracle, at Delphi, a town of Phocis, in ancient ^ Greece, on the southerly side of Mount Parnassus. Demesnes, domains, or domanial estates ; estates belonging to a king in his own person and right ; his private and peculiar possessions. The word demesnes also signifies landed estates, generally. Descartes, (Rene,) an eminent reformer of philosophy, born at La Haye, (in France,) in 1596. After passing some years in the army, and a variety of travels, he resided in Holland, and there composed most of his works. His writings did much to give a new direction to inquiries relating to the philosophy of mind, and to advance mathematical and physical science. They display great originality of thought, and a spirit of patient and fearless inquiry. He died at the age of fifty-four. Devil's Bridge, a famous bridge over the river Reuss, in Switzer- land, built of stone, seventy-five feet in length, and of one arch, supported by two stupendous rocky peaks, which are nearly per- pendicular, and between which the river runs at the depth of some hundred feet. Diet, the general representative council of the states of Germany. The permanent seat of the Diet of the German empire, till its dissolution in 1806, was at Ratisbon ; the seat of the Diet of the present German confederacy is at Frankfort on the Maine. Dinar, an Arabic gold coin, worth about two dollars and a half. Diocese, a district ; a jurisdiction ; the ecclesiastical district over which a bishop presides. Domanial, see Demes7ies. Dufour, (Phillippe,) a drug-merchant at Marseilles, in France, who - was also engaged in an extensive literary and scientific correspond- ence. He was born A. D. 1622. His treatise on coffee, tea, and GLOSSARY. 373 chocolate, first appeared in 1671, but an improved edition was published at La Haye, (in France,) in 1685. Duke, (from the Latin dux, a leader, a commander,) an officer set over a province or district, to regulate military afiairs. Easter-day, the festival commemorating the resurrection of Christ, which is celebrated on the Sunday following the first full moon after the Vernal equinox. Ehn Sina, see Avicenna. Elector, a title given to those princes of the German Empire, who claimed and exercised the right of electing the Emperor. The number of electors in the thirteenth century was seven. Electoral, appertaining to an elector. Emir, (prince, noble, captain,) a title of honor among the Turks and Arabians. The plural is omrah ; thus emir el omrah, (see page 215,) signifies noble of nobles, captain of captains. Emir el Mumenin, see Khalif. Engelbert, the abbot of a monastery of the order of St. Benedict, in Austria. He died, A. D. 13-31, after having administered wisely the* affairs of his monastery for a period of thirty-four years. His works are very numerous. Ephesian council, see Eutyches. Epictetus, a celebrated Stoic philosopher, born A. D. 90. He was a native of Asia Minor, and was for some time a slave at Rome ; but was afterwards set at liberty, and, though banished for a time by the Emperor Domitian, was in great esteem with Adrian and Marcus Aurelius. The foundation of his morality was patience and abstinence. Besides the Enchiridion, (manual,) which is a col- lection of the sayings of Epictetus, made by one of his disciples, there are four books of philosophical maxims by him, all of which abound in excellent rules of morality. Epicurus, a Greek philosopher, who lived about B. G. 300. He taught that the chief good consists in a happiness springing from virtue. His own life was temperate and pure. But his doctrine became perverted, and the Epicureans, his followers, (see pp. 20, 21,) came to regard happiness as the result of sensual enjoyment. Epilepsy, (from a Greek word, signifying a seizure, an attack,) a nervous disease, occurring in single paroxysms, or fits, in which the patient falls down, and becomes wholly insensible, while va- rious convulsions and distortions of the body take place. After ten or twenty minutes, he awakes, as from a deep sleep, uncon- scious of what has passed. Essenes, a sect of Jews, (described on page 39,) the origin of which, and the derivation of their name, are unknown. They are first mentioned about B. C. 150. Estrangelo, a particular form or species of letter, in the Syriac lan- guage. Eutyches, the abbot of a monastery near Constantinople, who had' embraced a monastic life at a very early age, and had been distin- guished for his piety and virtue. He began, (at the age of seventy years,) about A. D. 448, to advance doctrines very obnoxious to the ruling church. He was summoned by Flavian, the Patriarch of Constantinople, before a council then in session in that city, was II. 32 u. H. 374 GLOSSARY. condemned, excommunicated, and deposed. He afterwards suc- ceeded in inducing the Emperor (Theodosius the Second) to hold a council at Ephesus, where the decision of the former council was reversed. After the death of Theodosius and accession of Mar- cian, the sentence passed by the Constantinopolitan council against Eutyches was confirmed, by a council convoked at Chalcedon ; an event which he did not long survive. Exarch, (a director,) the title of the governor of the Italian posses- sions of the Byzantine emperors, in part of the sixth and in the sev- enth century. The province, under the government of which Ra- venna was the capital, was called the exarchate. Faquirs, or fakirs, a kind of fanatics, in the East Indies, who retire from the world, give themselves up to contemplation, and endeavor to gain the veneration of the people by the most absurd and cruel penances, and by torture, distortion, and mutilation, of the body. Fates. The ancients ascribed a power over human life and death to three sisters, called the Fates, (' the triple Fates,') who had a share in the decisions of fate, and executed the decrees of un- changeable destiny. Fatimides, see Abbasidce. Feoffs, or fiefs, and feudal, see Allodium. Field of May, see Champ de Mai. Fire-ships, old vessels, filled with combustibles, and furnished with hooks and grappling irons, so that they become entangled with the enemies' ships, which it is designed to destroy. At the proper moment, fire is set to the contents of the vessel, which is then abandoned by the crew, in boats, and the flame soon envelopes both the fire-ship and the vessel attacked. Forensic. As the ancient forum was the theatre of judicial busi- ness, the phrase /orewsic arts is applied to the defence of a cause or an opinion, by argument or persuasion ; or to the adroit support of a doctrine, by wit or reasoning. Furies, deities in the Greek mythology, who were the avengers of crime. They werq represented under the form of women, three in number, and were objects of great veneration and dread. Galen, (Claudius,) a Greek physician of Pergamus, in Asia Minor, who practised with great success at Rome, where he acquired an extensive celebrity. He was a traveller in various countries, a close observer of Nature, and a voluminous writer. Many of his works are lost. He died A. D. 201, at the age of eighty. Gastald, a name given among the Lombards to stewards of estates, particularly to the royal stewards, who managed the estates of the King ; and also to governors of provinces or states, exercising a judicial, and in some measure a military, authority. Gate. Among the ancient Hebrews, the gate of a city, like the fo- rum or market-place among the Romans, was the place where assemblies were held, and justice administered. Thus, those who labored in the fields lost but little time, when called from their work to court or public meetings, and the country people were not obliged to enter the city. The existence of a similar custom in Europe, in the middle ages, seems to be implied on page 248, where the Countess Adelaide is spoken of as transacting public business in the gate of Turin. GLOSSARY. 375 Gebet, (Arabic,) a mountain. George, the Acropolite, was born at Constantinople, about the year 1220. He held some of the highest offices at the Imperial Court, and died in 1282. He wrote a chronicle, containing the history of the Byzantine empire, from the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins, in 1204, till the year 1261, when it was retaken by Michael Palaeologus. His official situation opened to him the best sources for his history, and thus his chronicle, otherwise obscure and immethodical, has a certain value. George, the Syncellus, a Greek chronologer of the eighth century. He held the office of Syncellus, or private and confidential secre- tary, to Tarasius, the Patriarch of Constantinople, a prelate of eminent talents, modesty, piety, simplicity, and devotion to duty. This office was regarded as the second ecclesiastical dignity in the state, and as a step to the patriarchate. The voluminous chroni- cle of this writer, beginning with the Creation, is brought down to A. D. 284, and is a heterogeneous mass of facts and dates, with many inaccuracies, and little system. Yet he was held in great repute, and followed in his chronology by many, of the middle ages. Gnostics. This sect, of whom an account is given on pages 47-50, assumed their name, (which, in Greek, is y'^'t-'^orixoi, gnosticoi, and signifies 'persons possessing profound knowledge,') because they claimed a deeper insight into truth, than the human understand- ing can acquire by the ordinary processes of reasoning. The sect sprung up in the first century of the Christian era. Gratian, a Benedictine monk of the twelfth century. His collection of the canons of the Church, in which he aimed to reconcile those decrees which appeared contradictory, was for a long time a work of high authority. Grecian fire, a composition invented in the seventh century, and employed with great effect by the Greeks, A. D. 668, when Con- stantinople was besieged by the Arabs, striking terror into the enemy, and forcing them to take to flight. It was sometimes wrapped in flax, attached to arrows and javelins, and thrown into the works of the enemy, which it set on fire, and sometimes was used in projecting stone balls against them. It continued in use till the thirteenth century. Gregory of JSTazianzus, a celebrated teacher of the Greek church, and bishop at Nazianzus, in Asia Minor. He was born about A. D. 328, and died about 390. His works are numerous. Gypsum, sulphate of lime ; usually called plaster of Paris. Halberd, a kind of spear, with an axe fixed to the shaft ; a usual weapon of the bodyguards of a prince. Hanseatic league, (from hansa, an old Teutonic word, signifying a league for mutual defence,) an association of towns in the North of Europe, for the protection and extension of commerce. It was formed in the twelfth century, and was at the height of its power in the fourteenth and fifteenth, (embracing, at one period, eighty- five towns ;) after which it declined, and was dissolved in 1630-. Hegira, an Arabic word, signifying flight. See pages 153, 154. Heraclidce, descendants of the hero Hercules. See Abbasidce, and also the first Volume of this History, page 72. Hieroglyphics, sacred engravings. The sculpture and inscriptions 376 GLOSSARY. on ancient Egyptian monuments were so called, because supposed to be intelligible to the priests alone. The word is also applied to any writing by pictures. Hillel, a celebrated doctor of the Jewish law, who lived about a hundred years before Christ. He is much praised by the later Jewish doctors, for his virtue and knowledge. Hippocrates, a celebrated Greek physician, often styled the father of medicine. He was born B. C. 456, and lived to the age of ninety years. Infidel, an unbeliever ; a term applied by Christians to all who re- ject Christianity ; by Mohammedans, to all who deny the divine inspiration of Mohammed. Insignia, ensigns, badges of office, such as the crown and sceptre of a king, the mitre of a bishop, &c. Investiture, the act of giving possession of an estate, by a feudal lord, to his vassal ; or of an ecclesiastical benefice, by the person holding the right of nomination to such benefice, to the person nominated. IrencEus, Bishop of Lyons, in France, towards the end of the second century ; a man of considerable learning and great zeal. He suf- fered martyrdom, and is honored as a saint. AH of his works but one are lost. Isidore of Seville, one of the brightest lights of the Church in Spain» who was born about the year 570, and died in 636. He devoted himself to study, and to the exercises of religion. He was Bishop of Seville, and had a great influence over all the Spanish clergy of his time. He was a man of immense erudition, and the author of various and extensive works, in history, theology, philosophy, and morals. Isis, the principal goddess of the ancient Egyptians, representing Nature, the mother of all things. From Egypt, her worship passed over to Greece and Rome. Islam, Mohammedanism ; the name given by Mohammedans to the true faith, or to the whole code of the religion of Mohammed. The word signifies ' entire resignation to the divine will.' Every pro- fessor of /sZar/i is a Moslem, (plural, Moslemuna, or, corrupted, Mussulmans,) a word, consequently, equivalent to Mohammedan. Jamblicus, an eminent philosopher, of the sect of the later Plato- nists. He was a native of Syria, and flourished in the beginning of the fourth century of the common era. He taught philosophy with great reputation, and had a numerous school of followers. John, of Damascus, (or John Mesne,) an Arabian physician, who lived, according to some biographers, in the ninth, according to others, in the eleventh century. Some obscurity rests upon the name, as well as upon the writings, of this individual. John, of Salisbury, the most learned man of the twelfth century, who was born at Salisbury, in England, and, according to the cus- tom of the scholars of his day, took the name of his native place. He pursued his studies, when quite young, at Paris. He was made Bishop of Chartres, in France, in 1176, and died in 1180. Salisbury possessed great shrewdness and wit, as well as erudition, but never rose above the prejudices of his contemporaries. Jemandes, (properly Jordanes,) a Gothic monk in the reign of JuS" GLOSSARY. 377 tmian, (sixth century,) the author of a work on the origin and his- tory of the Goths. Khalif, Caliph, or Chalif, an Arabic word, signifying a successor ; the title of the Arabian sovereigns, successors of Mohammed, who united in themselves both temporal and spiritual power. Omar, who reigned from A. D. 634 to 643, was the first Khalif who bore the title of Emir el Mumenin, (Commander of the Faithful,) which was inherited by all succeeding khalifs. Khalifat, the office or dignity of khalif. Khan, the title of chiefs or governors of the migratory tribes of Asia. jKbra?i, the sacred book of the Mohammedans. (Seep. 156.) The word signifies, in Arabic, the reading ; that which is to be read. Lagman, an Icelandic judge. Lamtune, a native or inhabitant of Lamtah, th,e old Arabic name of a country in the interior of Africa, near the great desert of Sahara. Landgrave, (from the German land, territory, and graf, count,) a German title of nobility ; the sovereign judge of a large district. Lateran, a palace in Rome, so called from an ancient Roman fami- ly of the same name. The church of St. John de Lateran, con- nected with this palace, was built by Constantino the Great, who also gave the palace to the Popes, for their residence. Lepers, persons aflected with the leprosy, a loathsome cutaneous disease. Leuctra, a village of Boeotia, in ancient Greece, where the Theban general Epaminondas gained an important victory over the Spar- tans, B. C. 371. Liege, bound by some feudal tenure ; subject : hence liegeman, a subject ; one who owes allegiance to his prince. Linnceus, (Charles,) a native of Sweden, and the most celebrated naturalist of his age. He was born in 1707, and died in 1778. His life was devoted to the study of natural history. The science of botany, in particular, is greatly indebted to his labors. His ' Amcenitates Academicce' (academical recreations) is a collection of the dissertations of his pupils, edited by himself; a work rich in matters relating to the history and habits of plants. Locke, (John,) one of the most distinguished men of England, and an illustrious philosopher, who was born in 1632, and died in 1704. Longinus, (Dionysius,) a native of Athens, celebrated as a philoso- pher and critic. He was tutor to the children of Zenobia, the Queen of Palmyra, and was put to death, by the cruel command of the Emperor Aurelian, after his victory over that Princess, A. D. 273. Luitbrand, an Italian bishop, and one of the most learned men of his age. He was born about the beginning of the tenth century, and lived to the age of about seventy years. He went as ambas- sador from the German Emperor, Otho the Second, to Constanti- nople, in 968, and his account of this embassy is included in his printed works. Luitbrand, King of the Lombards. See pages 174, 184. Mai, see Champ de Mai. Mamelukes, (from the Arabic memalik, a slave.) When Gengis 32* 378 GLOSSARY* Khan, In the thirteenth century, conquered the greater patt of Asia, and made vast numbers of the inhabitants slaves, the Sultan of Egypt, Malek-el-Saleh, bought twelve thousand of them, had them instructed in military exercises, and formed a regular corps of them. These were the Mamelukes. See pages 336-7. Manna, a substance of a sweetish taste, and of some importance in medicine, which is now principally obtained in Arabia, from a tree called the tamarisk. The food with which God miraculously supplied the Israelites, as mentioned in Exodus xvi.,was manna. Margrave, (from the German mark, a frontier, and graf, count, governor,) a title of German nobility, answering to the English marquis, and originally given to the governors of cities lying on the frontiers of a state. Margravate, the province or dignity of a margrave. Mark, (or marches,) a frontier ; a province on the frontiers or boundaries of a state. Mark, the name of a weight of eight ounces troy, used in Europe for weighing gold, silver, and other commodities. Also a coin of the value of two dollars and ninety-six cents. Mass, the usual religious service of the Roman Catholic Church. High mass is a service celebrated with special solemnities. Mayor of the Palace, the title of the highest office and dignity at the court of the kings of the Franks. Mela, (Pomponius,) a native of Spain, and the author of a Latin geographical treatise, who flourished during the first century of the common era. The Merovingian dynasty of Frankish kings derived its name from Meroveus, the grandfather of Clovis. Mesne, see John, of Damascus. Mining, in military language, is the forming of subterraneous pas- sages (or mines) under the wall or rampart of a fortification, or under any building, for the purpose of blowing it up with gun- powder. Mohammed, the founder of a system of religion which has spread over a great part of the East. He was born at Mecca, in Arabia, about A. D. 569, and died at the age of sixty-three. Claiming to be a divine messenger from God, he obtained an immense ascen- dency, which he increased by the power of the sword. He is reverenced by his followers, as the only true prophet of God. The believers in Mohammed are called Mohammedans, Mussulmans, or Moslems. Their number is estimated at about one hundred and twenty millions, being about half as great as the Christian population of the globe. Monotheistic, holding to a belief in one only God. See Polytheism. Monothelites, (from ^lovog monos, only, one, and -deXsiv, thelein, to will ;) a sect of Christians, in the seventh century, who held that Christ, though uniting in himself the Divine and human nature, had but one will. Montesquieu, (Baron de,) a celebrated French writer, who was born in 1689, and died in 1755. His great work is the ' Esprit des Lois,' (' Spirit of Laws,') a treatise on government and national law, distinguished by great depth of thought and solidity of judge- ment. GLOSSARY. 379 Mortmain. An estate is said to be held in mortmain, (in mortua manu, in a dead hand,) when it is possessed by a corporation, civil or ecclesiastical, in such a- manner, that it cannot be aliena- ated ; when it is in a hand incapable of transferring it. Mosaic work, an imitation of painting, by means of colored stones, pieces of glass, or marble, of different shades of color, cemented together, and polished upon the surface. Many floors, ornamented with Mosaic work, have been found among the Roman ruins in Italy. Moslem, see Islam. Muses. The nine goddesses of the Greek mythology, who were styled Muses, presided each over some province of literature, science, or art, and hence we find the term, ' the Muses,' figura- tively employed, to express these three departments of human culture. JVaphtha, an oily liquid, highly inflammable, found on the borders of the Caspian Sea, and in certain springs in Italy. See Bitumen. JVestorians, a sect of Christians, which arose in the fifth century ; so called from Nestorius, its founder, who became Bishop of Con- stantinople, A. D. 431. The opinions of this sect still prevail in the East. J^icene council, a council convoked by the Emperor Constantine, A. D. 325, at Nice, or Nicaea, (now Isnic,) a city of Bithynia, in Asia Minor, for the purpose of settling the Arian controversy. The doctrines of Arius (see Avians) were condemned by this council, and the JVicene creed adopted, which is still received by the larger part of the Christian world. It may be found, following the Apostles' Creed, in the order of Morning and Evening Prayer used in the Episcopal Church in the United States. JVomades, (or nomadic tribes,) wandering tribes, generally engaged in the raising of cattle. Olympus, a mountain in Thessaly, the summit of which the very ancient Greeks regarded as the dwelling of the gods. Afterwards, when they were supposed to dwell above the visible firmament, the name Olympus was still given to their abode. Oral, transmitted by word of mouth ; distinguished from written ; as, the ' oral and written law.' Ostrogoths. The great kingdom of the Goths, about the year 369, was divided into two parts, the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, (East- ern Goths,) and that of the Visigoths, (Western Goths.) Pachymenes, George, one of the most distinguished historians of the Byzantine empire, who was born about A. D. 1242, and died about A. D. 1310. He was in the confidence of the Emperor Michael Palseologus, who gave him various official employments. Palatiyie Count, {comes palatinus, count of the palace,) the judge and highest officer of the kings of the Franks and Germans. Ev- ery palace or regal castle had such an officer, who was invested with royal privileges and rights. The province of such an officer is called a palatinate, or county palatine. See pages 305, 306. Palisado, an enclosure, or defence, formed of pointed stakes, of large size, set close together, and pointed at the top. Pantheistic, relating to, or resting on, pantheism, which is the be- lief that the universe itself is God. The word is derived from the Greek to nav, to pan, the universe, or all, and ■dsbg, theos, God. 380 GLOSSARY. Papacy, the office or dignity of the Pope. Paradise, (from the Greek naqäSuaog, paradeisos,) a garden ; a for- est of trees ; a park. Paris, (Matthew,) an English historian ; a monk of the order of St. Benedict. He died in 1259. Paschalis, (or Paschal.) There were two Popes of this name, the former of whom ascended the papal throne A. D. 817, the latter, A. D. 1099. Patriarch, the head of a family or governor of a tribe among the early Eastern nations. The title given, from the beginning of the fifth century, to the Bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem, who exercised a supervision over the archbishops and bishops within their jurisdiction. The Patriarch of Rome afterwards took the title of Pope, while the others re- tained that of Patriarch. Patriarchate, the dignity or office of Patriarch. Patrician, in ancient Rome, one of the hereditary nobility, in op- position to plebeian, one of the common people. Constantine es- tablished a new order of patricians, whose title was obtained by merit, or by the Emperor's favor, and the patriciate, or dignity of patrician, became, in time, the highest in the empire. The title of patrician was frequently bestowed upon foreign kings or prin- ces, and conferred on them the imperial authority over districts relinquished to them by the emperors. See page 126. Peers, (from the Latin pares, equals,) persons of the same rank and station. The nobility of England, and the higher nobility of France, have the title of peers. Peter the Hermit, a French monk, who, about the close of the elev- enth century, roused Europe to the first Crusade. The difficulties which he had undergone, in a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, instigated him to arouse Christian Europe to recover Jerusalem from the Mo- hammedans ; and his bold and enthusiastic appeals met with sig- nal success. Platonic, of the school or sect of Plato. (See the first Volume of this History, page 122.) The sect of Platonic philosophers, after a period of decline, was revived in the third century of the common era, and this school is known by the name of the JVew, or Later, Platonists. Their chief seat was at first at Alexandria, in Egypt. Plebeian, see Patrician. Pliny, (the elder,) a celebrated Roman naturalist and scholar, who was born A. D. 23, and died A. D. 79, being suffocated by sul- phurous vapor, while observing an eruption of Vesuvius. His nephew, Pliny, the younger, (born A. D. 62, died A. D. 113,) was an elegant scholar, and the author of ai volume of epistles, which are well known. See Volume I., of this History, pp. 173, 177. Plotinus, a native of Egypt, and the most distinguished among the Later Platonists, (see Platonic,) who was born A. D. 205. He studied philosophy at Alexandria, and afterwards taught at Rome. He died in Italy, A. D. 270. Polar lights, northern lights ; the aurora borealis. Polytheism, (from ;ro;ii;g, polüs, many, and ■&iög, theos, a god ;) the GLOSSARY. 381 belief in a plurality of gods, opposed to mo7iot?ieismi the belief in one God. Pontifical, belonging to the Pope, or Roman Pontiff. The word pon- tiff is from the hatin pontif ex, a high priest. Porphyrogennetes, an appellation given to the children of the By- zantine emperors, signifying born in the purple ; implying either that the children were wrapped in purple, after birth ; or were born in a chamber hmig with purple ; or, perhaps, that they were born to inherit the purple, which is the insignia of royalty. Porphyry, (Malchus,) an eminent philosopher of the third century, of the sect of the Later or New Platonists. See Platonic. Potter, see ^schylus. Prcefect, a Roman governor of a province. The captain of a fleet had the title of naval prcefect. Preetorship, the office ofprcetor, the principal Roman magistrate after the consul, and on whom devolved the administration of justice. Pragmatic sanction, a phrase equivalent to decree of state ; a term of the Roman law, used to signify a decree of the sovereign, de- livered, by advice of his council, to some body of people, upon being consulted in some case directly concerning their community. It is generally applied to an ordinance of Charles the Seventh of France, made in 1438, for regulating ecclesiastical discipline, and checking the encroachments of the Papal court of Rome. Prelate, (from the Latin prcelatus, preferred, set before,) an eccle- siastic of the highest order and dignity. Procopius, a Greek historian, a native of Palestine, who flourished in the sixth century, and was highly regarded and officially em- ployed by several of the Byzantine emperors. Prosper Alpinus, see Mpini, Prospero. Ptolemy, (Claudius,) a celebrated geographer, astronomer, and mathematician, a native of Egypt, who was born A. D. 70. The Ptolemaic system, which places the earth in the centre, and sup- poses the sun and planets to revolve round it, derives its name from him. Pythagoreans, disciples and followers of Pythagoras, a Grecian philosopher, who flourished in the sixth century B. C. His system inculcated temperance, simplicity of manners, self-command, dis- interestedness, justice, &c. His followers formed themselves into communities, separating from the world, and living harmoniously together, with their wives and children, devoted to moral and men- tal culture, and leading tranquil and temperate lives. Ramadan, a fast, observed by the Mohammedans, each year, for the space of one month, from new moon to new moon ; during which time, they fast rigorously, during the day, and take food only during the night. Razi, a celebrated Arabian physician, who died about A. D. 923. He was preeminent among the learned men of his time and nation ; his writings enjoyed a high reputation, and his influence extended into Europe. Referendary , master of requests ; an officer who receives petitions made to the King, and returns the royal answer to them. Regency, the exercise of royal power by a regent, while the lawful 382 GLOSSARY. sovereign is either absent, or incapable of reigning by reason of youth or illness. Resin, a vegetable substance, which exudes from various trees, either naturally or from artificial wounds. Many of the resins are valuable in medicine. Rix dollar, a silver European coin, of different values in different states. The Hamburg rix dollar is equivalent to one dollar and seven cents, nearly. Roman law, see Civil law. Sabaism, that religion which worships the heavenly bodies and the powers of Nature. Sagas, heroic tales, historical, romantic, and fabulous, forming part of the ancient Scandinavian literature, which includes the litera- ture of Sweden, Norway, and Iceland, before their conversion to Christianity. Saint Jerome, a learned author, one of the fathers of the early Latin Church, who flourished in the fourth century. Saint John of Lateran, see Lateran. Sal ammoniac, or muriate of ammonia, a salt of ammonia, of some use in medicine, and extensively employed in the arts. Salic, derived from the Salii, a people anciently inhabiting the re- gion at the mouth of the Rhine, and to whom a part of the Franks owed their origin. Salvianus, a celebrated presbyter of Marseilles, in France, in the fifth century, who enjoyed a high reputation as a writer. In some of his works which remain, he inveighs, with much force and ele- gance, against the corrupt manners of his time. Samanceans, see Buddha. Sanction, Pragmatic, see Pragmatic sanction. Schism, (from the Greek oxio^ia, schisma, a division,) a division or separation in the Church. Seigniories, lordships ; territories subject to a feudal lord. Sensual, depending on the senses ; requiring to be addressed through the medium of the senses. To express which meaning, the word sensuous is now much used, sensual more commonly implying ' devoted to sense ; carnal ; luxurious.' Seraglio, from the Turkish word serai, signifying a house, denotes the palace of a prince or lord. Serapis, one of the Egyptian deities, whose worship was introduced at Rome by the Emperor Antoninus Pius, A. D. 146, but soon afterwards abolished. Sheik, (an Arabic word, signifying elder or eldest,) the chief of an Arabian horde or clan. Solatium, (Latin,) a word originally and properly signifying ' conso- lation, solace.' See page 172. Sophocles, one of the most illustrious of the Greek dramatic poets, born about B. C. 495. See Volume I., of this History, page 119. Stoics, a sect which derived its name from the aroa, stoa, (portico, or porch,) a gallery ornamented with pictures, at Athens, where the founder of the Stoic school, the philosopher Zeno, delivered his instructions, about B. C. 300. The prominent characteristic of this school was the inculcation of a stern, unbending, rigid, virtue, GLOSSARY. 383 of a complete mastery of the passions, and of a resolute contempt of pain and suffering. Strabo, a distinguished Greek geographer, who flourished in the first century of the Christian era. See Vol. I., of this History, p. 170. Strategos, see Catapan. Sycophant, a malicious talebearer, or calumniator ; a designing par- asite or flatterer. The name is derived from the Greek ovxov, sukon, a fig, and (pa'trsiv, phainein, to discover, and was applied, in Athens, as a term of contempt and reproach, to those informers who gave evidence against such persons as, contrary to law, ex- ported figs. Syllogism, a form of reasoning, consisting of three propositions or assertions, such, that if the first and second (or the two premises) be granted, the third (or conclusion) follows of course. The sen- tence "Washington deserves the gratitude of his country, because he was a patriot," would become, if expressed in a syllogistic form, " Every patriot deserves the gratitude of his country : Wash- ington was a patriot : therefore, Washington deserves the gratitude' of his country." Symbol, an emblem ; an expression of a truth or of an idea in a form addressed to the senses. Syncellus, see George, the Syncellus. Synod, an ecclesiastical assembly, convened to consult on church af- fairs. The Talmud, a voluminous collection of Jewish traditions, illustra- ting the laws and usages of the Jews, forming twelve folio vol- umes. Tarasius, see George, the Syncellus. Temporalities, landed possessions and revenues annexed to ecclesi- astical dignities. Tenths, or tithes, the tenth part of the yearly increase or produce of lands, allotted in England to the clergy, for their maintenance. Teutonic order, a religious order of knights, founded in 1190, for de- fending the Christian religion against the Infidels, and for taking care of the sick in Palestine. It was at first intended to consist only of Germans of noble rank ; whence its name, — the German nations being called by the term Teutonic, derived from the Teu- tones, a tribe inhabiting part of Germany in the second century before Christ. Theodosian code, a collection of Roman law made A. D. 438, by the Emperor Theodosius the Second. See page 142. Theogony , the doctrine of the generation and descent of the gods. The theogony of Hesiod (one of the oldest poets of Greece, who lived about B. C. 900) is a poetical collection of the oldest fables respecting the birth and achievements of the gods of Greece. Theophanes, (George,) a Greek monk of Constantinople, who died A. D. 818. His chronicle, which commences where that of George the Syncellus terminates, displays the credulity and weak judge- ment of a superstitious mind. Theseus, King of Athens, one of the most celebrated heroes of anti- quity. He is supposed to have lived about B. C. 1200. Theurgic art. Theurgy is that branch of magic, which consists in 384 GLOSSARY. working extraordinary things by invoking Divine aid, as that of the Deity, of saints, angels, &c. The word is formed from ^£05, theos, God, and tgyor, ergon, a work. Thor, the Jupiter of the ancient Germans ; the god of thunder. Thrasea, or Thrasea Partus, a Roman senator and Stoic philosopher, of the age of Nero. He was a native of Patavium, a city of Italy, and was distinguished for his integrity and patriotism, and for the highest nobleness and firmness of mind. He was one of the victims of the tyranny of Nero. Titular, nominal ; possessing title without power. Tournaments, mock encounters between parties of knights, celebra- ted with great splendor in the middle ages. The single combat, the general skirmish, the defence of a pass or castle, were re- hearsed in the presence of brilliant assemblages of spectators, as if in actual service. The prizes were delivered to the successful knights by the ' queen of beauty,' who had been chosen from among the noble ladies who witnessed the sports. Tulunides, see Abbasidce. Typify, to express by types, or emblematical images. Ulfilas, the Bishop, from A. D. 360 to A. D. 380, of the Christian Goths in Moesia and Dacia, (called the MoBso-Goths. ) He was also the translator of the Bible into their dialect. Urus, a species of wild bull. Vassal, one who holds property or office from a superior lord, for which he is bound to render him certain services, especially mili- tary service. In feudal times, the soldiers were vassals of the noble under whom they served, and the several nobles were vas- sals of their common sovereign. Veda. The sacred books of the Hindoos, written in the Sanscrit language, are called vedas. Via sacra, the sacred street ; the name of a street in Rome. Visigoths, see Ostrogoths. Warnefried, (Paul,) the historian of the Lombards, a native of the north of Italy, who flourished in the eighth century. (See page 189.) His history is generally regarded as impartial and correct. Waterglasses. Instruments for marking the lapse of time by the flow of water from one vessel into another, drop by drop, were in use among the ancients. Such an instrument was called a clepsy- dra, or waterglass. Some of them were of a very elaborate and complicated construction. Witienagemote, an Anglo-Saxon word, signifying ' meeting of the wise.' The Wittenagemote was the national legislative assembly of England during the reign of the Anglo-Saxon kings. Woden, one of the principal deities of the mythology of the nations of the North of Europe. Zendavesta, the name of the sacred books of the ancient Persians, containing the doctrines of Zerdusht, or Zoroaster, and forming the record of his religion. Zoroaster, a celebrated philosopher and reformer of religion, in an- cient Media and Persia, supposed to have lived about B. C. 500. ^