GERMANE and GERMANE 
 
 
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Glass I 3/ ^^J. 
 
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 COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 
 
Silent Reading 
 
 A Handbook for Teachers 
 
 CHARLES E. GERMANE, Ph. D. 
 
 Dean of the College of EDucATioisr 
 
 Des Moines University 
 
 EDITH GAYTON GERMANE, M. A. 
 
 Teacher of Reading 
 
 Des Moines Public Schools 
 
 CHICAGO NEW YORK 
 
 EOW, PETEESON AND COMPANY 
 
 r- C 
 

 COPYRIGHT 1922 
 ROW, PETERSON 
 AND COMPANY 
 
 Of C -9 \222 
 
 ©C1A690529 
 
TO 
 
 ERNEST HORN 
 
 IN GRATEFUL ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
 OF OUR INDEBTEDNESS TO HIM 
 
PEEFACE 
 
 Much experience in high-school, normal-college, and 
 university classrooms has convinced the authors that 
 the following statements may be verified in any school: 
 
 1. The chief cause of failure among first and sec- 
 ond-year students is their inability to employ ef- 
 fective methods of study. 
 
 2. By using proper methods of training it is pos- 
 sible to improve the study habits of many such 
 students within a short time. 
 
 During the last few" years there has been much in- 
 vestigation designed to discover the best method of read- 
 ing effectively, because the ability to do that lies at 
 the bottom of how to study. Such investigations have 
 been concerned with the physiological and psychological 
 aspects of the problem, as well as with the pedagogical 
 principles. As a result of this increased interest in 
 the subject, administrative officers in city school sys- 
 tems are more closely supervising the methods employed 
 to teach reading, and they are also more closely scru- 
 tinizing the results obtained. Reading circle boards are 
 also interesting themselves in literature that treats of 
 the teaching of reading. 
 
 Because the reports of experiments in this field of 
 education are usuall}^ only to be found in widely scat- 
 
 5 
 
6 PREFACE 
 
 tered sources, and when found prove to be of a highly 
 technical nature, largely statistical, it is difficult for 
 the average teacher to obtain or to use the conclusions 
 of investigators. To remedy this situation by summa- 
 rizing all that is best and most practical in the many 
 modern investigations, and to make the findings avail- 
 able to teachers everywhere, has prompted the authors 
 to undertake this work. 
 
 The authors are especially indebted to Dr. Ernest 
 Horn, Professor of Education and Director of the Ele- 
 mentary Experimental School at the State University 
 of Iowa for the classification of silent-reading prob- 
 lems under four headings: Speed, Comprehension, Or- 
 ganization, and Eetention. It was his vision of the 
 scope of the field of reading, and his enthusiasm and 
 encouragement that made this book a possibility. 
 
 They are also indebted to Dr. Gerald A. Yoakam, 
 Director of Teacher Training in the State Normal 
 School at Kearney, Nebraska, for the use of some of 
 his data, and to Miss Kate Kelly, Primary Supervisor 
 of the Des Moines Public Schools, for reading the 
 manuscript and offering constructive criticisms. To 
 many heads of school systems in Iowa who permitted 
 the carrying out of experiments the authors are grate- 
 ful, and especially so to Misses Post, Swemm, and 
 Starr, principals of schools in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. 
 
 Des Moines University ^' ^- ^• 
 
 Des Moines, Iowa E. G. G. 
 
 October 22, 1922 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 PART ONE 
 
 CHAPTER PAGE 
 
 I. Silent or Oral Reading 11 
 
 II. Speed in Reading 27 
 
 III. Developing the Ability to Comprehend 45 
 
 IV. Developing the Ability to Organize 68 
 
 V. Retention 86 
 
 VI. Questionable Methods of Teaching Reading 100 
 
 VII. Remedial Work in Reading 115 
 
 VIII. Remedial Work in Reading (Continued) 143 
 
 IX. Measuring Comprehension and Retention 165 
 
 X. Material for Silent-Reading Purposes 186 
 
 PART TWO 
 
 XI. Silent Reading in Grades I and II 205 
 
 XII. Supplementary Exercises for Grades I and II.... 234 
 
 XIII. Silent Reading in Grades III and IV 259 
 
 XIV. Silent Reading in Grades V and VI 280 
 
 XV. Silent Reading in Grades VII and VIII 297 
 
 XVI. Motivation of Drill Work in Reading 333 
 
 Appendix 
 
 A. Pamphlets Suitable for Use as Reading 
 
 Material 357 
 
 B. Books Suggested for Use in Grades I, II, 
 
 AND III 858 
 
 C. Books Suggested for Use in Grades IV and 
 
 V 363 
 
 D. Supplementary Reading Material for Grades 
 
 IV TO VIII 369 
 
 E. Literary Selections: For Boys and Girls 
 
 FROM 10 TO 15 Years of Age 373 
 
 F. List of Publishers 376 
 
 Index 379 
 
PART ONE 
 
CHAPTER I 
 SILENT OR ORAL READING 
 
 Importance of silent reading. The importance of 
 teaching pupils to read effectively can scarcely be over- 
 estimated, since reading is the key to all subject-mat- 
 ter. The pupil's progress in school depends largely 
 upon the speed and accuracy with which he can get 
 the thought from the printed page. We say that he 
 is good in geography, history, science, or mathematics 
 if he can quickly grasp the important ideas from a 
 mass of details, and if he can organize and retain those 
 essentials. 
 
 Judging from the time allotment accorded reading 
 in the grades, it is evident that the importance of this 
 subject has been recognized. In fact, an examination 
 of courses of study shows that in the primary grades 
 approximately 70 per cent of the time has been devoted 
 to the teaching of reading. 
 
 However, very little training in silent reading has 
 been given even in the intermediate and grammar 
 grades, notwithstanding the fact that the subject-mat- 
 ter is becoming more informational and definitely or- 
 ganized, and that success in its mastery demands speci- 
 fic training in how to study. Until recently the work 
 
 11 
 
12 SILENT READING 
 
 of the teacher has "Qsually focused on oral rather than 
 on silent reading; on expression rather than on get- 
 ting, organizing, and retaining ideas. The question 
 naturally arises, can this emphasis on oral reading be 
 justified ? 
 
 Drawbacks of the oral-reading method. Speed in 
 reading necessitates wide perception-units, that is, 
 seeing groups of words instead of single words. Much 
 oral reading for beginners tends to make the child 
 word conscious and consequently develops motor 
 habits of narrow eye-span. Dr. Schmidt says "the 
 rate of oral reading, although subject to considerable 
 variation, is confined within relatively narrow limxits 
 because of its dependence upon the physiological 
 mechanism involved in vocalization."^ 
 
 A pupil's ability to read may well be measured by 
 the number of thought units which he is able to recog- 
 nize in a given time. Hence, flash-card exercises and 
 other silent-reading devices which emphasize getting 
 the idea are really of intrinsic value. They tend to 
 develop good motor habits as well as attentive, pur- 
 poseful reading habits. We have too long been read- 
 ing ''from the nose down" rather than ''from the 
 nose up." 
 
 Those who maintain that oral reading is the natural 
 method for beginners believe that the lip-movements 
 and inner speech of silent reading are reflex actions, 
 
 'Schmidt, W. A. "An experimental study in the psychology 
 of reading-." Supplementary Educational Monograph, Vol. 1, No. 
 2, University of Chicag-o Press, Chicago, 1917. 
 
SILENT OR ORAL READING 13 
 
 the physiological tendency to which is inherited. 
 Qnantz believes that inner speech or articulation is an 
 inherited tendency. He says ''it is not second nature, 
 but inherently first nature ; not something to be 
 unlearned, but to be outgrown."^ Other investigators 
 maintain that the lip-movements and articulation of 
 silent reading are acquired. In O'Brien's judgment, 
 the explanation of the tendenc}^ to articulate when 
 reading is to be found ''not in the list of inherited 
 tendencies or connate reflexes, but in the acquired habits 
 of the individual."^ According to him, the tendency 
 to lip-movement and vocalization is built up by the 
 methods of teaching reading. 
 
 Pintner does not believe that articulation is neces- 
 sary, even though it may be a universal habit. As a 
 result of one of his experiments he concludes "that 
 articulation during the reading process is a habit which 
 is not necessary for that purpose, that reading with- 
 out articulation sacrifices nothing in the process of 
 thought-getting," and "that practice in reading with- 
 out articulation tends to reduce the time involved in 
 the process."^ Schmidt further confirms the opinion 
 of Pintner when he says : 
 
 It is quite possible, too, that if training in oral read- 
 ing were discontinued at an early stage, and training 
 
 ^Quantz, J. O. "ProT^lems in the psychology of reading." Psy- 
 chological Revieio: Monograph Sum^leonent, Vol. 2, No. 1, (Decem- 
 ber) 1897. 
 
 ^O'Brien, John A. SUent Reading. The Macmillan Company, 
 New York City, 1921. ' 
 
 ^Pintner, Rudolph. "Inner speech during silent reading." -Psi/- 
 chological Revieio, Vol. 20, (January) 1915. 
 
14 SILENT READING 
 
 in rapid silent reading were stressed, the tendencies 
 toward inner speech might be greatly reduced and vis- 
 ualization cultivated, at least in part. As a matter of 
 fact, we appear to have the ability to take in all kinds 
 of situations visually without speech accompaniments/ 
 
 The problem for the learner. Thus it seems that 
 the vital problem for the learner is to recognize the 
 symbol and immediately to associate it with that for 
 which it stands. For example, the teacher writes the 
 word *'run" on the blackboard. Her chief concern 
 is that the child may associate the symbol **run** with 
 the activity; the word need not be spoken. "Why 
 should it be, since speaking it requires time and is 
 an unnecessary step? The child is capable of recog- 
 nizing many situations both in and out of school to 
 which he makes no vocal response. 
 
 But why should 90 per cent of the teacher's time 
 in the reading period be spent in teaching children to 
 read orally, when 90 per cent of their reading must 
 necessarily be silent both in school and out? Is it 
 fair to have the child acquire attitudes toward a sub- 
 ject and to form habits and develop skill for which 
 he will have little use either in school or out of it? 
 The habits formed in oral reading may be a positive 
 hindrance to the acquirement of speed and compre- 
 hension in silent reading. This contention is con- 
 firmed by Dearborn, who says that ^*the effect of 
 articulating is to decrease ordinarily the span of 
 
 ^Schmidt, W. A. "An experimental study in the psycholog-y 
 of reading." Supplementary Educational Monograph, Vol. 1, No. 
 2, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1917. 
 
SILENT OR ORAL READING 15 
 
 attention,"^ and consequently retard the rate of read- 
 ing. In general we have eliminated oral spelling from 
 the school program, not only for psychological reasons 
 but also for sociological ones. We say it does not 
 function in life's activities. "Why then should we dis- 
 criminate in favor of oral reading and retain it, unless 
 there is a need for it as such. 
 
 Values of oral reading. One should not infer, 
 however, that oral reading has no place on the school 
 program. It is certainly of importance. Few arts are 
 more prized than that of being able to read and to 
 speak with clear enunciation, distinct articulation, 
 correct pronunciation, and pleasing cadence. But 
 would not courses in literature, oral English, public 
 speaking and dramatics offer ideal opportunities for 
 training in this art? And why should we not stress 
 training in pronunciation, enunciation, articulation, 
 and the other factors of good speech, in all schoolroom 
 activities? It is not enough to drill on these things 
 for twenty minutes a day in one class, and neglect 
 them in all others. 
 
 Oral rendition of literature. Good oral rendition 
 greatly enhances the charm of certain poems and 
 prose passages and also gives them greater depth of 
 meaning. Indeed, one does not recognize the aesthetic 
 appeal and the emotional significance of much choice 
 literature until one reads it aloud. Such values as 
 
 ^Dearborn, W. F. "The psychology of reading-." Columhia 
 University Contributions to Philosophy and Bsychology, Vol. 14, 
 No. 1, 1906. 
 
IQ SILENT READING 
 
 are inherent in word imagery, euphony, meter, and 
 tone cannot have the fullest significance nor be fully 
 appreciated unless the selections are read well orally, 
 as the following selections^ show. 
 
 He clasps the crag with hooked hands; 
 Close to the sun in lonely lands, 
 King'd with the azure world, he stands. 
 
 The wrinkled sea beneath him crawls; 
 He watches from his mountain walls. 
 And like a thunderbolt he falls. 
 
 Tennyson: The Eagle. 
 
 For the moon never beams without bringing me dreams 
 
 Of the beautiful Annabel Lee; 
 And the stars never rise but I see the bright eyes 
 
 Of the beautiful Annabel Lee; 
 And so, all the night-tide, I lie down by the side 
 Of my darling, my darling, my life and my bride, 
 
 In her sepulchre there by the sea — 
 
 In her tomb by the side of the sea. 
 
 PoE: Annabel Lee. 
 
 On Linden, when the sun was low. 
 All bloodless lay the untrodden snow, 
 And dark as winter was the flow 
 Of Iser, rolling rapidly. 
 
 But Linden saw another sight, 
 "When the drum beat, at dead of night, 
 Commanding fires of death to light 
 The darkness of her scenery. 
 
SILENT OR ORAL READING I7 
 
 By torch and trumpet fast array 'd, 
 Each horseman drew his battle blade, 
 And furious every charger neigh 'd 
 To join the dreadful revelry. 
 
 Then shook the hills, with thunder riven, 
 Then rushed the steed to battle driven, 
 And louder than the bolts of heaven 
 Far flashed the red artillery. 
 
 Campbell : Hohenlinden. 
 
 I impeach Warren Hastings of high crimes and 
 misdemeanors. I impeach him in the name of the 
 Commons of Great Britain in Parliament assembled, 
 whose parliamentary trust he has betrayed. I impeach 
 him in the name of all the Commons of Great Britain, 
 whose national character he has dishonored. I im- 
 peach him in the name of the people of India, whose 
 laws, rights, and liberties he has subverted, whose 
 properties he has destroyed, whose country he has laid 
 waste and desolate, I impeach him in the name and 
 by virtue of those eternal law^s of justice which he 
 has violated. I impeach him in the name of human 
 nature itself, which he has cruelly outraged, injured, 
 and oppressed in both sexes, in every age, rank, situ- 
 ation, and condition of life. 
 
 Burke : Impeachment of Warren Hastings. 
 
 It is evident that the ability to read well orally has 
 an important value that should be made available to 
 every child. Any plan or method which gives train- 
 ing in correct pronunciation, distinct articulation, 
 clear enunciation, and the pleasing, effective use of 
 one's language certainly performs a valuable service. 
 
18 SILENT READING 
 
 To be appreciated, the best literature must be read 
 well orally. Rhythm and word imagery demand it, 
 as the above selections show. The famous passages 
 of literature must be rendered orally if one is to feel 
 the passion of the author or appreciate the grandeur 
 of his ideas. The oral reading of such selections gives 
 the child a keen sense of enjoyment, it enables him 
 to express his aesthetic emotions. Training the voice 
 to express man's finer feelings is an important aim 
 of work in oral reading. Although most of the 
 reading period is devoted to oral reading, the great 
 majority of pupils who graduate from the elementary 
 and high schools cannot read well orally because they 
 have not learned to think and feel with the author. 
 
 Methods of teaching oral reading". The chief cause 
 of this unsatisfactory condition is undoubtedly the 
 method of presenting the reading material. At pres- 
 ent there are two outstanding methods of teaching 
 oral reading, the principles of which are diametrically 
 opposed. Adherents of the old school believe that an 
 appreciation of poetry is best developed by the 
 detailed analysis of a few choice poems. They argue 
 that such treatment gives the student a working 
 method and thus develops an interpretative and 
 appreciative attitude toward good literature. Adhe- 
 rents of the new school strongly condemn such pro- 
 cedure. They argue that the appreciation of poetry 
 comes from extensive reading carried on as a leisure 
 activity for the mere joy to be found in it. 
 
SILENT OR ORAL READING 19 
 
 In the first instance, we find that in order to insure 
 comprehension a poem is studied line by line, ana- 
 lyzed, and dissected until its unity is destroyed and 
 the selection is robbed of all its beauty. As a conse- 
 quence pupils often come to dislike poetry and seldom 
 read it either orally or silently except as a required 
 task. In the second instance, the radical opponents of 
 the former method claim that appreciation comes not 
 from the intensive study of a few poems, but from 
 reading much poetry. They take for granted that 
 pupils are capable of comprehending a poem and in- 
 terpreting it without other study than that furnished 
 by a leisurely oral reading. 
 
 A combination method. Possibly these methods 
 are extreme. Critics agree that the first requires 
 overanalysis, that the second does not require suf- 
 ficient study to insure apprehension, comprehension, 
 and appreciation. It is therefore likely that the best 
 results might be obtained by combining the commend- 
 able features of both. The teacher should use her 
 judgment in selecting suitable methods. 
 
 Although it would not be desirable to impose an 
 extreme form of the first method upon the pupils, yet 
 poetry must be understood to be enjoyed, and conse- 
 quently some analysis is necessary. It is surely pos- 
 sible to ask such questions about a poem as will aid 
 in understanding it, and at the same time enhance its 
 beauty for the reader. Take, for example, the little 
 stanza : 
 
20 SILENT READING 
 
 Oh, the sunshine told the bluebird, 
 And the bluebird told the brook, 
 That the dandelions were peeping 
 In the woodland's sheltered nook. 
 
 Have the pupils read this stanza and try to answer 
 the question: *'What season of the year is implied 
 by these lines?" The answers will indicate whether 
 or not the pupils understand what they have read. 
 Surely such a question does not rob the poem of its 
 beauty ! 
 
 Would the beauty of the following stanza be at all 
 marred by asking the pupils to read it silently and 
 then try to answer the question, **What is the name 
 of the prettiest bridge^" 
 
 There are bridges on the rivers, 
 
 As pretty as you please; 
 But the bow that bridges heaven. 
 
 And overtops the trees, 
 And builds a road from earth to sky. 
 
 Is prettier far than these. 
 
 Have the pupils silently read the following poem, 
 *^The Secret," then try to answer these questions. 
 What was the secret? How do you suppose the tree 
 told it? 
 
 We have a secret, just we three, 
 The robin and I and the sweet cherry tree; 
 The bird told the tree, and the tree told me. 
 And nobody knows it but just we three. 
 
SILENT OR ORAL READING 21 
 
 But of course the robin knows it best, 
 Because lie built, — ^I shan't tell the rest; 
 And laid the four little — ^somethings — in it. 
 I'm afraid I shall tell it every minute. 
 
 The teacher's aim should be to test the children's 
 comprehension of a poem, not by having them give a 
 detailed analysis of it, but by requiring answers to 
 carefully worded questions that demand an under- 
 standing and appreciation of the chief thoughts and 
 sentiments expressed in the selection. 
 
 Other reasons for teaching oral reading. Other 
 arguments for emphasizing oral reading have been 
 advanced, but they are hardly justified by recent 
 scientific investigations. For example, some teachers 
 claim that since so many pupils are of the auditory- 
 image type it is absolutely necessary that they read 
 aloud in order to insure a high degree of comprehen- 
 sion. However, recent and thoroughgoing scientific 
 experiments make such assertions untenable. Bryan^ 
 subjected more than 600 school children to forty-one 
 different tests in an effort to determine the type of 
 imagery most dominant. After carefully interpreting 
 his results, he decided that only five or ten of the 
 pupils tested showed extreme eye-mindedness or ear- 
 mindedness. Even such extreme cases are not handi- 
 capped by the kind of presentation, whether it be to 
 the eye or to the ear, because each pupil quickly 
 shifts to his particular image type. 
 
 iBryan, W. L. "Eye and ear-mindedness." Proceedings of 
 the National Education Associationj 1893. 
 
22 SILENT READING 
 
 Betts, who has made one of the most thorough in- 
 vestigations of both voluntary and spontaneous use of 
 imagery in thinking, concludes : 
 
 We shall have to insist that imagery, apart from 
 inner speech, not only does not constitute the major 
 part of the thought stream, but also that the thought 
 stream may and does go on efficiently at times without 
 any imagery whatever in it. And this absence of imag- 
 ery does not mean mental poverty, but only mental selec- 
 tion. At this point, as at all others, the mind is but 
 following the fundamental law of economy, and using 
 the elements which will most efficiently do its work 
 with the least effort/ 
 
 Many teachers insist that one of the best means of 
 testing a pupil's comprehension of a paragraph is to 
 have him read it orally. They contend that the child's 
 oral expression is a reliable index of his ability to 
 interpret the thought. However, such statements can- 
 not go unchallenged. As a matter of fact, some pupils 
 read with considerable fluency and nearly perfect 
 expression, but fail decidedly when tested for inter- 
 pretation. This is shown not only in the grades, but 
 even in colleges where students often fluently read 
 passages in some foreign language, the content of 
 which they are unable to to translate. 
 
 Criticism of reading methods. At present there 
 are several outstanding criticisms of the methods of 
 teaching reading now most generally used. There has 
 been no clear-cut idea of what should be included in 
 
 ^Betts, Georgre H. "The distribution and function of mental 
 imag-ery." Columbia University Contributions to Education, No. 
 26. 1909. 
 
SILENT OR ORAL READING 23 
 
 the subject; consequently, definition of aim lias not 
 been possible. We have too long suffered overlapping 
 and confusion of subject-matter. An analysis of 
 courses of study shows that the following subjects are 
 included under the heading ** reading": Literature, 
 oral English, speech defects, elocution, dramatization, 
 pageantry, oral reading, and silent reading. We can- 
 not expect large returns to reward our efforts in 
 teaching reading until we realize that each of the 
 above subjects has its own definite objectives and 
 methods upon which we must focus attention. We 
 have failed distinctly to recognize the fields of oral 
 and silent reading, and we have been unaware that 
 training for efficiency in oral reading may not develop 
 efficiency in silent reading. 
 
 A sugg'ested improvement. The authors maintain 
 that silent reading is not a new study to be added to 
 the curriculum, necessarily requiring the reading of 
 some particular type of material. Bather, they believe 
 it is a means by which pupils may be taught how to 
 study. Correct methods should be applied to every 
 lesson which the pupil is required to read silently. 
 The possibilities of silent reading are important 
 enough to warrant its being given an emphasis equal 
 to that laid upon oral reading. A pupil who can give 
 the main ideas of a selection in a well-organized form, 
 after a single reading of it, is a good reader; the 
 silent-reading period should aim to develop exactly 
 this power in studying. However, if this skill is to 
 
24 SILENT READING 
 
 be acquired, the teacher must keep in mind the four 
 fundamental aims of silent reading — speed, compre- 
 hension, organization, and retention. 
 
 Chief aims of silent reading". The slow reader is 
 continually handicapped. Every year increases the 
 reading demands made on school children and adults. 
 If the rate of silent reading can be increased, while 
 the degree of comprehension remains the same, what 
 a tremendous advantage will be gained! 
 
 The ability to comprehend what one reads is more, 
 important, however, than the ability to read rapidly. 
 The ability to cover many pages or to see many words 
 in a short time profits the reader but little unless he 
 understands the content. Comprehension is funda- 
 mental to all study; to the degree a pupil compre- 
 hends, to that degree he makes progress. All work, 
 whether in oral or silent reading, should stress ' com- 
 prehension. 
 
 The ability to organize what one reads is the third 
 aim in developing a method of teaching silent reading. 
 It is of great importance. A pupil who can dis- 
 tinguish between points of major and minor im- 
 portance, who has acquired the ability to organize 
 the material he reads, who can outline and sum- 
 marize efficiently, has mastered one of the essential 
 qualifications demanded of a good reader. 
 
 Helping pupils acquire the ability to retain what 
 they read is also of the utmost importance, because 
 much of the knowledge acquired today in school is 
 
SILENT OR ORAL READING 25 
 
 of value only in the future. In fact, the ability to 
 think soundly and to reason depends on how well 
 one can retain certain fundamental ideas. During 
 the silent-reading exercises teachers should stress or- 
 ganization, association, routine reviews, and all other 
 factors that aid in developing a good memory. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. Efficient training in silent reading is of the utmost 
 importance because most of the reading done in daily 
 life is silent. 
 
 2. Oral reading is important because it can be used to 
 teach pronunciation, articulation, and enunciation, as 
 well as the effective rendition of the finer thoughts 
 and feelings of the race as expressed in literature. It 
 also aids in the appreciation of poetry and prose mas- 
 terpieces. 
 
 3. The methods used for teaching oral reading have gen- 
 erally failed to obtain the desired results. Compre- 
 hension should be tested by carefully worded questions, 
 the answers to which require an understanding and 
 appreciation of the thought and feeling which the selec- 
 tion conveys. 
 
 4. Teachers have overlooked the importance of silent read- 
 ing as a means of training pupils how to study. 
 
 5. If a method of study is to be developed by silent read- 
 ing, the fundamental factors — speed, comprehension, or- 
 ganization, and retention, — must be emphasized daily. 
 
 6. Teachers have failed to get the greatest results from 
 their teaching of reading because their energy has been 
 dissipated by the inclusion of oral English, dramatiza- 
 tion, literature, and other subjects under the heading 
 reading. They have failed to recognize the two dis- 
 tinct fields of reading, oral and silent. They have as- 
 sumed that training pupils to read orally is equivalent 
 
26 SILENT READING 
 
 to training them to read silently, althougli in many 
 respects the two methods of instruction and the respec- 
 tive aims are distinctly opposed to each other. 
 
 7. Silent reading is not a new subject to be added to the 
 curriculum, rather a means of teaching a method of 
 study. 
 
 8. Silent reading should receive at least as much emphasis 
 as oral reading. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Bassett, Lee Emerson. A Hand'book in Oral Reading. 
 Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1917. 
 
 Briggs, T. H. and Coffman, L. D. Reading in PuMic Bcliools. 
 Row, Peterson and Company, Chicago, 1911. 
 
 Gray, W. S. "Principles of method in teaching reading, 
 derived from scientific investigations." The Eighteenth 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa- 
 tion: Part II. Public School Publishing Company, Bloom- 
 ington, Illinois, 1919. 
 
 Huey, Edmund B. The History and Pedagogy of Reading. 
 The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1915. 
 
 Judd, Charles H. Reading: Its Nature and Development. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, Vol. 2, No. 4, 
 (July) 1918. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 
 
 Klapper, Paul. Teaching Children to Read. D. Appleton and 
 Company, New York City, 1914. 
 
 O'Brien, John A. Silent Reading. The Macmillan Company, 
 New York City, 1921. 
 
 Pintner, Rudolf and Gilliland, A. R. "Oral and silent read- 
 ing." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 7, (April) 
 1915. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 SPEED IN READING 
 
 The importance of speed. Training for speed in 
 reading is directly related to teaching pupils how to 
 study effectively. The ability to read an assignment 
 rapidly, and at the same time get the main points, 
 is an essential factor in developing the habit of 
 economical study. 
 
 The slow reader, in school and out, is handicapped. 
 Courses of study are continually being made richer 
 and broader; this demands more reading and greater 
 discrimination. In life outside of school the demands 
 made on the average person as a citizen and social 
 being are increasing each year. In fact, success and 
 happiness in life may depend largely upon the kind 
 and scope of one's reading. 
 
 Inability of pupils to read rapidly. Students in 
 normal schools and colleges are also working under 
 a handicap because the length of the assignments is 
 increasing, although little is done to increase their 
 rate of reading. The authors vividly recall an ex- 
 perience which illustrates this variation in reading 
 rates. The students in three elementary psychology 
 classes in a certain normal school felt that an assign- 
 
 27 
 
28 SILENT READING 
 
 ment of from thirty to thirty-five pages was far too 
 long. These mature men and women, former teachers, 
 who were spending an average of three hours on each 
 assignment, brought the matter to our notice in a 
 friendly way. We thought it best to inquire into 
 their habits of study. Since the three classes were 
 in a study auditorium for the first two hours each 
 morning, the instructor and three or four assistants 
 undertook to measure the approximate reading rates 
 of the students in an unobtrusive manner. The 
 investigators found that although a few students 
 read at the rate of a page per* minute, some spent 
 as much as eight and three-fourths minutes on each 
 page, and the majority of the class read at the rate 
 of a page every four and one-fourth minutes. The 
 reading rate of these adults was twelve to fourteen 
 pages an hour, although it should have been at least 
 forty pages an hour, considering the simplicity of 
 the subject-matter. 
 
 The discouraging feature of the outcome of this 
 investigation was that even when those students did 
 try to increase their rate of reading, they succeeded 
 in doing so materially only when they were timing 
 themselves. As soon as they failed to observe the 
 time element of the experiment they relapsed into 
 their usual rate, to which they had been accustomed 
 since childhood. 
 
 Wide variation in reading" rates. The wide varia- 
 tion in the reading rates of pupils makes the task 
 
SPEED IN READING 29 
 
 of increasing speed a very complex problem. Any 
 teacher in any grade who will ask her pupils to read 
 a given selection for a period of even three to five 
 minutes can obtain sufficient data to demonstrate the 
 wide variation in their reading rates. She will find 
 that when measured for speed alone, pupils tend to 
 fall into three groups, the noticeably slow readers, 
 the medium-rate readers, and the very rapid readers. 
 The following figures, which designate the number 
 of words read per minute by a group of sixth-grade 
 pupils, strikingly illustrate the sort of condition that 
 one generally finds when making such an investiga- 
 tion: 374, 374, 362, 238, 197, 188, 181, 174, 170, 152, 
 145, 125, 121, 113, 98. 
 
 In many cases this variation in reading rate ac- 
 counts for the assignment being too easy for some, 
 too difficult for others, but nearly right for one-third 
 to one-half of the class. Drill exercises, instead of 
 placing the pupils on a more nearly even footing by 
 decreasing the amount of difference between the rates 
 of various groups, tends to increase it. Suggestions 
 for economically handling a class which contains 
 these three types of readers may be found in 
 Chapter XV. 
 
 Monroe's experiments. Monroe gives the following 
 statement of his conclusions regarding the probability 
 of increasing the rate of silent reading: 
 
 The average silent-reading rate of eighth-grade pupils 
 is approximately 240 words per minute for continuous 
 
30 SILENT READING 
 
 material. Scientific investigation is revealing that this 
 rate may be greatly increased by the application of 
 appropriate methods. On the basis of data already se- 
 cured, it is conservative to say that this rate could be 
 increased 25 per cent. As a matter of fact, it is even 
 conservative to say that it could be increased 50 per 
 cent. 
 
 Silent reading is used as a tool in practically all 
 subjects studied in the high school or in college. The 
 pupil who is equipped to read at the rate of 300 words 
 per minute has a decided advantage over the pupil 
 who is equipped to read only 240 words per minute. 
 It means that the pupil who reads more slowly either 
 must spend more hours upon his work or do less work. 
 
 Of two pupils who spend an equal number of hours 
 upon their work in high school, the one who reads at 
 the rate of 300 words per minute will accomplish one- 
 fourth more than the pupil who reads at the rate of 
 240 words per minute. This will mean that in the 
 course of four years this pupil will do 25 per cent 
 more work, which approximates the equivalent of an 
 extra year of schooling. 
 
 The data which we have at hand not only show that 
 the rate may be increased, but also that the degree 
 of comprehension can be materially increased, perhaps 
 to an equal extent. Therefore, not only may pupils 
 be trained to read more rapidly, but at the same time 
 they may be trained to read with increased understand- 
 ing. Thus, the pupil who has been trained to read at 
 the rate of 300 words per minute not only will gain 
 an extra year's schooling during his high-school course, 
 but if his training has been of the right sort, he will 
 actually do a better quality of work.^ 
 
 Danger in speed drills. One of the fundamental 
 aims of silent reading is that of training each child 
 
 ^Monroe, W. S. "Value of standardized silent-reading tests." 
 Journal of Educational Research, Vol, 1, (February) 1920. 
 
SPEED IN READING 31 
 
 to attain his highest level of achievement in speed 
 without lowering his rate of comprehension. Al- 
 though rapid reading, even ''skimming," is of great 
 importance, yet one would hesitate to increase the 
 speed of reading if training in thought-getting would 
 be sacrificed in doing so. Many teachers have the idea 
 that the one great value of silent reading is that it 
 trains for speed. 
 
 The authors have visited several of the leading 
 city school systems and noted the great effort that 
 teachers are making to help pupils acquire speed in 
 reading. Some of them conduct reading classes in 
 which the only direction given to the children is, 
 ''Read this lesson through once as rapidly as pos- 
 sible.'' The teacher keeps a careful time check on 
 each pupil. These time records are daily charted on 
 the blackboard as an incentive to greater speed, not 
 only for the individual but for the class as a whole. 
 
 Many teachers have a three to five-minute time limit 
 in their speed drills. They then count the number of 
 lines or words read. These results are then placed 
 on the blackboard as a means of motivating pupils 
 to increase their speed. There are many other devices 
 used to secure speed in reading, but the two men- 
 tioned are typical of all. 
 
 The methods described are pernicious, as are all 
 schemes that have as their sole objective an increase 
 of speed in reading. These devices develop slovenly, 
 careless readers. The inborn desire to outdo others 
 
32 SILENT READING 
 
 seizes the child, and since the teacher takes no ac- 
 count of what the pupil comprehends or the amount 
 of content which he retains, the result is reckless 
 ^'skimming," seeing words, and for many pupils, see- 
 ing only lines. 
 
 Value of effective speed drills. It is entirely pos- 
 sible, however, to train the pupils of every grade 
 to a high degree of efficiency in speed, and at the 
 same time to increase their ability to get the main 
 points or thoughts in the lesson. The methods for 
 securing speed discussed above were condemned be- 
 cause comprehension or thought-getting was entirely 
 neglected. Had the teacher who used these devices 
 for the purpose of training in getting speed also 
 given the pupils a test to d^ermine how well they 
 had got the thought of the lesson, then carefully 
 charted those results, the ideal and habit of reading 
 for thought would have been equally developed. 
 
 Teachers who give daily drills for speed and com- 
 prehension find that many students tend to read at 
 great speed but with little comprehension. A cor- 
 rective device for this evil consists in determining 
 each pupil's class standing by the sum of his ranks 
 in both speed and comprehension. An example of 
 the conditions which that plan often reveals is shown 
 in the case of a boy who usually ranked first in 
 speed in a class of twenty-four, but twenty-second in 
 comprehension. This speedy but careless reader had a 
 total score of twenty-three which ranked him much 
 
SPEED IN READING 33 
 
 lower than one of his classmates who was third in 
 speed bnt first in thought-getting. It is an axiom that 
 every speed drill in reading should be followed by a 
 test of thought-getting. The results of Miss Green's 
 experiment, presented in Chapter III, substantiate 
 the claim that both speed and comprehension in silent 
 reading may be greatly improved in a relatively short 
 time. 
 
 Gilliland's expenmem;.^ This investigation was an 
 attempt to answer the questions: Can a reader speed 
 up his reading rate without lowering his capacity to 
 reproduce what he has read? What is the effect 
 of different speeds of silent reading upon ability to 
 recall what has been read? 
 
 Two sets of six paragraphs each were chosen for 
 the experiment. One set was for use with high-school 
 and college students, the other for use with pupils of 
 the fourth and seventh grades. The paragraphs in a 
 set were relatively equal in difficulty but differed 
 widely in content. Each paragraph included ten 
 distinct ideas and contained fifty words. A paragraph 
 chosen from each of the two sets is given below. 
 Each paragraph was printed on a separate card. 
 
 The Amazon is the longest river in the world. 
 It drains most of the northern half of South 
 America. Its mouth is along the equator. The 
 rubber tree grows in this valley and the few 
 
 iQilliland, A. R. "The effect of rate of silent reading on abil- 
 ity to recall." Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 11, (No- 
 vember) 1920. 
 
34 
 
 SILENT READING 
 
 people that live there spend most of their time 
 
 making gum. 
 
 {Selected from the material for grade pupils.) 
 
 In person, William of Orange was above 
 middle height. His eyes and complexion were 
 brown. His head was small, portraying the 
 alertness of a soldier. He was more than any- 
 thing else religious. He went through life bear- 
 ing the people's sorrows upon his shoulders 
 with a smiling face. 
 
 (Selected from the material for MgTirSChool and 
 college students.) 
 
 Each subject read at three different rates of speed, 
 his normal rate, his maximum speed as controlled by 
 the knowledge that he would be called upon to re- 
 produce what he had read, and a rate of about 
 half normal speed. As a rule this last speed was 
 actually not nearly so slow as the subject was di- 
 rected to read, but it was definitely slower than his 
 normal rate. 
 
 TABLE I 
 Comprehension Scores 
 
 
 Fourth - 
 
 GRADE 
 
 Pupils 
 
 Seatbnth- 
 
 GRADE 
 
 Pupils 
 
 High- 
 school 
 Students 
 
 College 
 Students 
 
 Slow 
 
 Normal 
 
 Fast 
 
 8.3 
 
 8.25 
 
 9.57 
 
 11.1 
 10.3 
 11.04 
 
 10.5 
 8.56 
 8.54 
 
 10.6 
 10.7 
 9.75 
 
 The above table indicates that fourth-grade pupils 
 scored 8.3 ideas on the two paragraphs when read- 
 
SPEED IN READING 
 
 35 
 
 ing slowly, 8.25 ideas when reading at normal rate, 
 and 9.57 ideas when reading rapidly. Thus it is 
 evident that changing the rate of reading did not 
 materially affect the comprehension. The table is to 
 be interpreted in the same manner for the other 
 groups. 
 
 Generally the readers seemed to get about the same 
 number of ideas whether they read rapidly, slowly, or 
 at the normal rate. If there was an advantage, it 
 seemed to be in favor of rapid reading for the chil- 
 dren and slow reading for the older students. 
 
 When v/e consider the time required to read the 
 paragraphs, in relation to the amount of material 
 gained from the reading, we see the great advantage 
 of rapid reading as compared with slow or normal 
 reading. There were 20 per cent fewer ideas gained 
 per second in slow reading than in reading at the 
 normal rate, and 26 per cent more ideas gained per 
 second in rapid reading than in reading at the normal 
 rate. This superiority of rapid reading is shown by 
 each of the four groups of subjects tested. 
 
 TABLE II 
 Ideas Gained Per Second 
 
 
 Fourth - 
 
 GRADE 
 
 Pupils 
 
 Seventh - 
 
 GRADE 
 
 Pupils 
 
 High- 
 school 
 Students 
 
 College 
 Students 
 
 Slow 
 
 Normal 
 
 Fast 
 
 .134 
 .183 
 .256 
 
 .234 
 .266 
 .293 
 
 .195 
 .251 
 .329 
 
 .242 
 .416 
 .566 
 
36 SILENT READING 
 
 The figures given in Table II clearly set forth 
 the value of rapid reading. For instance, .134 ideas 
 were gained per second when these fourth-grade 
 pupils read slowly, and .256 ideas, nearly twice as 
 many, were gained when the pupils read rapidly. 
 Since the pupils obtained practically the same num- 
 ber of ideas from each of the two paragraphs (as 
 shown by Table I), whether they read at a slow, 
 normal, or fast rate, the advantage and importance 
 of reading these paragraphs rapidly (or in almost 
 half the time required when the pupils read slowly) 
 is significant. For example, fourth-grade pupils 
 when reading slowly required 61.6 seconds to read 
 the two paragraphs; they scored only 8.3 ideas. 
 Dividing the comprehension score by the time gives 
 .134 ideas per second. Pupils of this same grade, 
 when requested to read rapidly, used only 37 seconds 
 in reading the two paragraphs; they then obtained 
 9.57 ideas. Using the method of computation sug- 
 gested above gives .256 ideas per second. It is of 
 course understood that pupils should not be urged to 
 read so speedily that they exceed the rate at which 
 one may expect them to comprehend the material 
 read. 
 
 , While there are unquestionably speed limits be- 
 yond which we should not go, there seems little doubt 
 that almost any one can materially increase his read- 
 ing rate without perceptibly reducing the percentage 
 of ideas which he can reproduce. If this is true, the 
 
SPEED IN READING 37 
 
 teacher of reading who insists upon accurate, rapid, 
 silent reading would be able to reduce not only the 
 time required by pupils for preparing their lessons, 
 but also greatly increase their efficiency in life, which 
 is a matter of still greater importance. 
 
 Physiological factors affecting speed. Perhaps no 
 other institution has done as much research in an 
 attempt to determine the physiological factors af- 
 fecting reading as has the University of Chicago. By 
 
 -z 3 
 
 G 
 
 [when Denny had regained consciousness, anp 
 prything possible for his corifort and for me ai- 
 
 Figure 1^ 
 
 means of very delicate and extensive laboratory equip- 
 ment and a group of trained experimenters it has 
 been possible to gather many scientific data on the 
 eye-movements of children and adults of various 
 mental capacities when using different types of read- 
 ing material. 
 
 By means of photographic registrations Dearborn 
 found that movements of the eye when reading are 
 interrupted by distinct pauses or fixations. The sis 
 pauses in the first line and the five in the second line 
 of Figure 1 were made by an adult when reading. 
 
 ^After Charles H. Judd's "Reading: Its Nature and Development 
 (p. 18). Supplementary Educational Monograph, Vol. 2, No. 4, 
 (July) 1918. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 
 
38 
 
 SILENT READING 
 
 /o 
 
 I % 
 
 There was 
 
 X 9 
 
 ^ s 
 
 '3 IS /Q 
 
 ancth9r bird in i\w room, 
 
 6 
 
 /3 
 
 a // 
 
 ho\revep. 
 
 % I 3 4- 
 
 wLo 
 
 kne 
 
 /8 
 
 w \^hat gi'asshoppers v^ere good for. He 
 
 8 
 
 /8 1% IS 
 to 
 
 /o 
 
 /? 
 
 "F'lK. 2. Silent reading- by a poor reader in the fifth grade. 
 X indicates that it was impossible to determine with precision 
 the leng'th of the pause. 
 
 X5 
 
 snatched a citlass from i\ 
 
 2o 
 
 e pile, and someone, 
 
 ♦I 
 
 at th(! same time s: latching another, gave me a cut 
 
 %o 
 
 /o 
 
 // 
 
 iS 
 
 Fig. 3. Silent reading by a rapid reader in the seventh grade. 
 Each vertical line indicates one pause. The top number indi- 
 cates the number .of the pause, the bottom number its duration 
 in fiftieths of a second. 
 
 After Samuel Chester Parker's figure in the Elementary 
 School Journal, December, 1921. 
 
SPEED IN READING 39 
 
 The number of pauses per line varies with different 
 readers as shown by Figures 2 and 3 on page 38. 
 
 From a physiological point of view, the main char- 
 acteristics of slow reading are, many pauses or fixation- 
 points, a considerable duration of time at each point, 
 and a number of regressive movements or backward 
 sweeps. 
 
 As one should expect, the characteristics of rapid 
 reading are, fewer pauses, a very short time duration 
 at each pause, and a decrease in the number of regres- 
 sive movements. 
 
 Dearborn's conclusions. After much experimenting, 
 Dearborn declares that each person has formed 
 '''motor habits" in reading which are evidenced by 
 a rhythmical series of the same number of pauses per 
 line, and by a uniform time distribution at each fixa- 
 tion-point. He also declares that the amount read 
 in a sweep is seldom equal to the extent of the field 
 of perception. In other words, at one ''eyeful'* 
 pupils do not take in all the syllables and words that 
 they are really able to see. Hence, speed in reading 
 can be materially increased by enlarging the percep- 
 tion-span. Exercises in which phrase cards are flashed 
 are an effective^ means of lengthening the child's per- 
 ception-unit. 
 
 From such data any wide-awake teacher of reading 
 may properly deduce the following conclusions : All 
 methods or devices should tax the eye-span to the 
 limit; that is, each child should be trained to see 
 
40 SILENT READING 
 
 as many words as possible at each of his pauses or fixa- 
 tion-points. All methods or devices used in the grades 
 should aim to reduce the frequency of pauses or 
 fixations. Since most of the reading time per line 
 is consumed at the fixation-points, the teacher should 
 use only those devices which lessen the time spent at 
 each pause. Since one's rate of reading becomes a 
 fixed motor habit, as difficult to change as is any 
 other habit, great stress should be laid throughout 
 the grades on forming motor habits of speed, ac- 
 curacy, and stability because it is likely that by the 
 time the pupils reach the seventh grade it will be 
 difficult to change their motor habits in reading. 
 
 The old ABC method, our present overemphasis 
 of word and phonic methods, and the undue emphasis 
 placed on oral reading in the lower grades, are some 
 of the outstanding causes of the present slow rate of 
 reading. The evil effects of these methods are fully 
 treated in later chapters. The particular methods 
 and devices one should use to insure the functioning 
 of the above principles are fully discussed and demon- 
 strated by sample lessons for each grade in Part II. 
 Any method which does not to a marked degree tax 
 the child's ability in speed and comprehension should 
 be discarded. 
 
 Hygienic factors affecting speed. The print of the 
 page is of great importance because the length of line 
 afi^ects the motor habits, and because the length of 
 line and size of type may produce eyestrain and 
 
SPEED IN READING 41 
 
 fatigue. Experiments have proven that the lines in 
 our textbooks are usually too long. Dearborn favors 
 'a line about one-third longer than that usually used 
 in a newspaper. That length enables the reader to 
 get concurrent impressions from the lines immediately 
 above and below the one being read, with which they 
 are often closely related in thought. Long lines of 
 reading matter distract because the concurrent im- 
 pressions received from the lines immediately above 
 and below the one being read are unrelated to the 
 object of immediate attention. When the lines are 
 too long, they give no opportunity for a wide span 
 of attention; the peripheral perceptions from the 
 ends of a line arc too different and confused to aid 
 the reader in inferring the general nature of the linens 
 content. 
 
 Since the number of pauses per line and the time 
 spent at each pause affect the speed of reading, 
 short lines make it possible for the reader to gather 
 a general notion of the thought in the w^hole line 
 at the initial fixation. This in turn makes the fol- 
 lowing pauses in the line few in number, and the dura- 
 tion of each pause much less. In short, we guess 
 much in our reading, or read *'out of the tail of the 
 eye,'* so to speak. It is well to remark that reading 
 familiar subject-matter helps pupils to establish wider 
 perception-units. 
 
 Size of type is often regarded as an important 
 factor affecting the speed of reading. Judd states, 
 
42 SILENT READING 
 
 however, that there is only a slight change in the 
 number of words recognized at each fixation when 
 the size of the type is doubled. When the size 
 is reduced by half, the character of the eye-move- 
 ments undergoes only a slight change. 
 
 The effect of irregular indentation or of breaks 
 in a line, such as often occur around illustrations, 
 is detrimental to speed Avhen reading and often causes 
 early fatigue. The occasional change of muscular 
 motor adjustment and angular displacement slows up 
 the rate of reading by causing longer pauses at 
 fixations and by causing many cases of refixation, 
 that is, coming back over the word. This muscular 
 readjustment soon causes fatigue which may result 
 in serious eyestrain, if reading is long continued. 
 For that reason those primers with the open-page 
 appearance, large type, good spacing, and words 
 grouped in natural phrases are to be highly recom- 
 mended, because such an arrangement of material 
 promotes word grouping. 
 
 Other factors affecting speed. The psychological 
 and environmental factors that affect speed and com- 
 prehension properly belong to the next chapter. The 
 child's rate of reading depends largely on his ability 
 quickly to comprehend new situations, and this in 
 turn may be influenced by the range of his experi- 
 ences. Quick word recognition depends upon the 
 physiological and mechanical factors discussed, and 
 upon the psychological as well. 
 
SPEED IN READING 43 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. Silent reading is a means of training pupils in effec- 
 tive methods of study; hence, the silent-reading period 
 should be used to develop that skill. 
 
 2. Speed in reading is one of the requisites which an 
 economical method of study demands. 
 
 3. Experiments indicate that pupils and adults are far 
 below their possible achievements in rate of reading, 
 and that the speed, and comprehension abilities of pupils 
 may be increased at the same time. 
 
 4. Physiological factors, viz., eye-span and duration at the 
 fixation-points, are important factors that must be seri- 
 ously considered and taken into account in all methods 
 of teaching reading. 
 
 5. Mechanical factors, viz., length of line and size of type, 
 help to determine the rate of speed and fatigue. 
 
 6. Teachers should discard all methods of teaching silent 
 reading which do not encourage a pupil to read as 
 rapidly as possible without detriment to thought-getting. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Abell, Adelaide. "Rapid reading: Advantages and method." 
 Educational Revieto, Vol. 8 (October) 1894. 
 
 Bowden, Josephine. "Learning to read." (An unpublished 
 master's dissertation offered to the University of Chicago 
 in 1911.) 
 
 Dearborn, Walter F. "The psychology of reading." Colunv- 
 Ma University Contributions to PMlosophy and Psy- 
 chology, Vol. 14, No. 1, 1906. 
 
 Gray, Clarence T. Types of Reading AHlity as ExMMted 
 Through Tests and Laboratory Experiments. Supplemen- 
 tary Educational Monographs, Vol. 1, No. 5, (August) 1917. 
 University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 
 
 Judd, Charles H. Reading: Its Nature and Development. 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, Vol. 2, No. 4, 
 (July) 1918. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 
 
44 
 
 SILENT READING 
 
 O'Brien, John A. Silent Reading. The Macmillan Com- 
 pany, New York City, 1921. 
 
 Peters, Charles C. "The influence of speed drills upon the 
 rate and effectiveness of silent reading." Journal of 
 Educational Psychology, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1907. 
 
 Quantz, J. O. "Problems in the psychology of reading." 
 Psychological Review: Monograph Supplement, Vol. 2, 
 No. 1, (December) 1897. 
 
 Ruediger, William C. "The field of distinct vision." Co- 
 lumMa University Contributions to Philosophy and Psy- 
 chology, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1907. 
 
 Schmidt, William A. An Experimental Study in the Psy- 
 chology of Reading. Supplementary Educational Mono- 
 graphs, Vol. 1, No. 2, (April) 1917. University of Chi- 
 cago Press, Chicago. 
 
 Whipple, G. M. and Curtis, Josephine. "Preliminary in- 
 vestigation of 'skimming' in reading," Journal of Educa- 
 tional Psychology, Vol. 8, (June) 1917. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 DEVELOPING THE ABILITY TO COMPREHEND 
 
 The importance of comprehension. On the pre- 
 ceding pages we have repeatedly emphasized the fact 
 that the silent-reading period should nearly all be 
 devoted to teaching pupils right methods of study. 
 The good student is one who rapidly reads his lesson 
 through once, and at the same time is able to com- 
 prehend the content of what he reads. Developing 
 skill in thought-getting, as well as training in increas- 
 ing speed, is absolutely essential in teaching pupils how 
 to study. 
 
 Training in quick apprehension and in comprehen- 
 sion is the important task, because it is the basis of 
 the pupil's possible progress in all subjects. Failure 
 to solve arithmetic problems is often due to inability 
 accurately to read the conditions set forth. Whether 
 the subject-matter is geography, history, grammar, or 
 hygiene, the pupil's success depends largely upon 
 his ability to get the meaning from the printed page. 
 This ability is almost entirely a product of training ; 
 the logical and ideal time to give specific drill in de- 
 veloping it is during the silent-reading period. 
 
 Comprehension neg-lected. Training children to 
 
 45 
 
46 niLENT READING 
 
 comprehend has been and is now the most neglected 
 factor in teaching reading. Horace Mann, in his 
 Second Annual Report as the Secretary of the Massa- 
 chusetts Board of Education, in 1838 wrote as follows: 
 
 I have devoted especial pains to learn, with some de- 
 gree of numerical accuracy, how far the reading in 
 our schools is an exercise of the mind in thinking and 
 feeling, and how far it is a barren action of the organs 
 of speech upon the atmosphere. My information is de- 
 rived, principally, from the written statements of the 
 school committees of the respective towns — gentlemen 
 who are certainly exempt from all temptation to dis- 
 parage the schools they superintend. The result is, that 
 more than eleven-twelfths of all the children in read- 
 ing classes, in our schools, do not understand the mean- 
 ing of the words they read; that they do not master 
 the sense of the reading lessons, and that the ideas 
 and feelings intended by the author to be conveyed to, 
 and excited in, the reader's mind, still rest in the au- 
 thor's intention, never having yet reached the place 
 of their destination. And by this it is not meant that 
 the scholars do not obtain such a full comprehension 
 of the reading lessons in its various relations and bear- 
 ings, as a scientific or erudite reader would do, but 
 that they do nX)t acquire a reasonable and practicable 
 understanding of them. It would hardly seem that 
 the combined efforts of all persons engaged could have 
 accomplished more in defeating the true objects of read- 
 ing. 
 
 We have made great progress in teaching reading, 
 especially in the primary grades, since the time of 
 Horace Mann, but we have scarcely begun to do the 
 work right. Thousands of teachers continue the 
 traditional method of hearing the children read 
 
COMPREHENSION 47 
 
 throughout the whole recitation period. They ask 
 very few, if any, questions about the content. Most 
 of the questions pertain to enunciation, inflection, 
 and the omission, insertion, or mispronunciation of 
 words. The pupils sit listlessly in their seats, waiting 
 only for their turn to drawl through, or possibly to 
 declaim, a paragraph or two. The idea of testing 
 the pupil's comprehension of what he reads and his 
 ability to retain the main points of each paragraph 
 seems foreign to teachers of reading in many schools. 
 A typical lesson. The following is part of the 
 stenographic report of a sixth-grade reading lesson 
 observed in a city school. The report records verbatim 
 every question asked and every suggestion that re- 
 sembled a question, except in two instances when a 
 few pupils talked among themselves so inaudibly that 
 _one could not hear distinctly. The title of the lesson 
 was *' Henry Hudson." 
 
 Teacher: Open your books to the lesson. What is 
 the title of the lesson? Who was Henry 
 Hudson? 
 Then folloAved a dispute as to whether Hudson was 
 
 an Englishman or a Dutchman. 
 
 Teacher: Let us proceed with our reading now. 
 Had you read this lesson carefully you 
 would have known Hudson was no Dutch- 
 man. Metha, you may begin. 
 The pupil read the first paragraph. While she was 
 
 reading, eleven of the twenty-three pupils were looking 
 
 about the room apparently wool gathering. 
 
48 SILENT READING 
 
 The name of this bold sailor will be learned by every 
 boy or girl who studies geography. Most of us know 
 of the beautiful Hudson River, the finest stream of water 
 in the great Empire State, New York. A noted strait 
 and bay are named also for this hardy captain of the 
 sea. 
 
 Teacher: Did any of you see any mistakes? 
 
 Pupil: Please, teacher, she did not say ''geo- 
 graphy" right. 
 
 Teacher: How should it be pronounced? (The pupil 
 then articulated the word.) Any other sug- 
 gestions ? 
 
 Pupil: She didn't stop or even raise her voice be- 
 tween "Empire State" and "New York." 
 
 Teacher: That's right. Remember, children, these 
 commas and periods mean something. Next, 
 Sarah, you read. 
 
 The pupil read the second paragraph very well. One 
 boy was quietly sharpening his pencil, two others were 
 whispering, another was whirling his knife, and a girl 
 was adjusting a ribbon. 
 
 Hudson was English born and English bred. He sailed 
 on the great Atlantic Ocean first in an English ship, 
 to find a passage to far-away China. He sailed to the 
 northwest in the hope that he would find a way open 
 to the Pacific across the North Pole, or not far below 
 it. The brave captain saw mountains of ice, and he 
 went nearer the North Pole than any one had ever done 
 before, but he could not find the passage he was looking 
 for. 
 
 Teacher: Any corrections? 
 
 Pupil: No, but which way and about how far is 
 China from here? 
 The teacher gave a fair answer. Two pupils then 
 asked questions relative to the meaning of "English 
 
COMPREHENSION 49 
 
 bred" and ''ice mountains," which seemed to be an- 
 swered by two others near the questioner. 
 Teacher: Robert we'll have you read. Maybe you 
 will forget playing with your knife awhile. 
 The pupil read very plainly and rather flippantly, 
 much to the disgust of some and to the joy of others 
 in the class. 
 
 The Dutch people in Holland heard of Hudson's voy- 
 age, and a company of merchants of that country hired 
 . Captain Hudson to see if he could find a. passage from 
 Amsterdam in a vessel called the Half Moon. He sailed 
 and sailed, a long distance, until at last the sailors 
 became so tired of seeing nothing but fog and ice, that 
 they refused to go any farther. 
 Teacher: What corrections have you to make? 
 Robert: (Ignoring her question.) I'd like to know 
 why they tried to get through the northeast 
 and northwest. Why didn't they go around 
 South America ? 
 Teacher: That is not my question. Pupils, have you 
 
 any suggestions about Robert's reading 1 
 Pupil: He read so fast, and didn't stop at periods, 
 
 and put in words. 
 Teacher: Anything else? 
 
 Another Pupil: Yes, he left out ''so" and "that." 
 
 Teacher: You are right. Now Catherine, you may 
 
 read the next two paragraphs. Robert, you 
 
 please see if there is any difference between 
 
 your reading and Catherine's. 
 
 The pupil read with ease and good expression. 
 
 Then he turned his ship toward the coast of North 
 America. He did this because his friend. Captain John 
 Smith, had sent him a letter, with a map, which made 
 him think that such a passage might be found. Hudson 
 reached Chesapeake Bay, but the weather was so stormy 
 
50 SILENT READING 
 
 that he did not think it safe to enter it. He sailed, 
 instead, northward along the coast. 
 
 In September, 1609, he came to a beautiful bay formed 
 by the spreading out of a noble river. At that point 
 the stream is more than a mile in width, and he called 
 it the "Great River," Not far from its mouth, and on 
 the eastern side, is a long narrow island. The Indians 
 called it "Manhattan Island." Hudson soon noticed that 
 the Great River had hardly any current, and that the 
 tide from the ocean moved with great force into the 
 river. This made him think it was a salt river. Perhaps 
 he had at last found the passage he was seeking, the 
 passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
 
 Teacher: Wouldn't you call that good reading 1 Have 
 
 yon any questions? 
 Pupil: What is meant by a '*tide"1 
 Teacher: It is the rise and fall of water every now 
 
 and then. 
 Pupil: I don't see how it could go up a river. 
 Teacher: We will take that up in our geography 
 
 lesson some day. Benjamin, you may read. 
 The pupil read fairly well. Not more than five of 
 the twenty-three pupils paid attention to the one read- 
 ing or to their books. 
 
 Hudson was greatly pleased with all he saw, and he 
 said, "This is as beautiful a land as one can tread upon." 
 He soon began to sail up the stream, wondering what 
 he should see, and v/hether he should find the Pacific 
 Ocean. First he passed the Palisades, a great natural 
 wall of rock, from four to six hundred feet high. This 
 extends for nearly twenty miles along the western shore 
 of the river. Then, higher up, where the stream breaks 
 through great forest-covered hills, he came to a place 
 "which we call the Highlands. 
 
 Teacher: Was that all risfht? 
 
COMPREHENSION 51 
 
 Pupil: Too slow. Do you suppose the Indians 
 
 built the Palisades? 
 Teacher: Why, no; they were always there. 
 Pupil: Is a ''natural wall" a stone wall? 
 
 As the teacher seemed not to appreciate the pupil's 
 difficulty, she shook her head and smiled. 
 
 Failure to utilize the pupil's interests. It has not 
 
 seemed worth while to report the remainder of the 
 lesson, because the teacher asked the same type of ques- 
 tions at the close of every paragraph. We may remark, 
 however, that this teacher heard almost the whole les- 
 son without asking a question that would test the 
 pupil's comprehension, arouse his interest, or stimulate 
 his appreciation. She missed an opportunity to in- 
 crease the children's geographical and historical knowl- 
 edge of the Hudson River, Hudson Bay, England, Hol- 
 land, China, the Atlantic Ocean, Chesapeake Bay, the 
 Highlands, and Amsterdam. It is evident that the 
 terms ''English bred," "natural wall," "mountains 
 of ice," "tide," and "salt water" were not understood. 
 But the teacher 's greatest error was in ignoring the 
 boy's question as to why Hudson was trying for a 
 northwest passage to Asia. Had this question been 
 thoroughly discussed and answered by the pupils, they 
 would have comprehended, as never before, the lack of 
 geographical knowledge during the seventeenth century, 
 and certainly they could have been led to a keen appre- 
 ciation of the progress made in that field of knowledge 
 since then. Besides, the answer to that question would 
 
52 SILENT READING 
 
 have made clear the motive force that drove Hudson 
 on and on, even to his tragic death. The teacher over- 
 looked all siach possibilities; she emphasized neither 
 speed nor comprehension in reading. The tragedy of 
 the whole situation is that such teaching is today not 
 the exception but the rule in many of the best school 
 systems. What may it be, then, in many of the villages 
 and rural districts? 
 
 The teacher's problem. The preceding report is 
 indicative of what happens daily during the reading 
 period in many of our schools. Time so spent is 
 worse than wasted, for the pupils are not only failing 
 to learn anything of value, but they are forming habits 
 of slothful, careless thinking which will accompany 
 them through life. Teachers who accept such lessons 
 fail to use an opportunity to stimulate and train the 
 minds of pupils; they fail to see the problem of how 
 best to train pupils to the highest possible level of 
 achievement in getting the substance of an article at 
 a single rapid reading. To do that should be the 
 aim of every teacher during the silent-reading period. 
 If teachers are to realize that aim they must create a 
 desire in the pupil for rapid and thoughtful reading, 
 and use only those methods and devices which will tend 
 to make speedy and purposeful reading a habit. 
 
 In conjunction with creating wholesome reading at- 
 titudes and habits in the child, methods and devices 
 must be used to increase his vocabulary, stimulate his 
 interests, and widen his experience so that he will 
 
COMPREHENSION ' 53 
 
 be able to apprehend new situations more accurately. 
 Methods of developing skill in thought-getting are dis- 
 cussed in Chapter IV, and many sample lessons demon- 
 strating how this may be secured economically appear 
 in Part II. In every lesson the child should be given 
 a thorough test as a means of discovering his difficulties 
 and noting his progress. 
 
 Yoakam's experiment.^ Professor Gerald A. Yoakam 
 recently demonstrated by experiment that comprehen- 
 sion or thought-getting is badly neglected in some 
 schools. His problem was the determination of the 
 value of a single reading. 
 
 Yoakam used six selections: *'The Admiralty Is- 
 landers," ''Tuberculosis," "Medieval Castles," ''Pea- 
 nuts," "Chasing a Rainbow," and "The Government 
 of Switzerland," which included examples of narration, 
 description, and- exposition. He decided that this wide 
 range of subject-matter used with a large number of 
 cases would insure a reasonably accurate measure of the 
 value of a single reading and also indicate the type of 
 material that pupils most readily comprehend. The 
 experiment was conducted in the sixth, seventh, and 
 eighth grades; the results represent the scores made by 
 more than 500 pupils. An initial test was given in 
 order to determine how much the pupils already knew 
 about the subject-matter, so that the value of a single 
 
 iToakam, Gerald A. "The effect of a single reading-." (An 
 excerpt from an unpublished doctor's dissertation offered to the 
 State University of Iowa in 1920.) Tioentieth Yearbook of the 
 National Society for the Study of Education: Part II. Public 
 School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1921, 
 
54 
 
 SILENT READING 
 
 reading might be isolated. The pupils were asked to 
 read the article through once, and were then subjected 
 to a thorough written test. 
 
 The results of a single reading of *'The Admiralty 
 Islanders" by pupils in each of the grades is given 
 here in terms of the average scores of each grade. 
 
 Grade VIII VII VI V IV 
 
 20.9% 19% 16.6% 14.6% 7.5% 
 
 The results obtained when the pupils read the other 
 five articles once and were immediatel}^ given a written 
 test are further evidence of their inability to grasp the 
 main points of a lesson at a single reading. The fol- 
 lowing figures are the average scores made by pupils 
 of the sixth-grade class after reading the articles in- 
 dicated. The results were obtained by subtracting the 
 score made on the initial test from that made on the 
 immediate-recall test. It may be observed that the 
 average score made by pupils who read the simplest 
 narrative material, "Chasing a Rainbow," was only 
 one-third of the possible score. 
 
 Article 
 Tuberculosis 
 
 Medieval Castles 
 
 Peanuts 
 
 Government of Switzerland 
 
 Chasing a Rainbow 
 
 Average 
 Score 
 16.8% 
 
 21.1% 
 
 25.6%, 
 23.9%, 
 33.2% 
 
 Grermane's experiments.^ Additional data which 
 corroborate the trustworthiness of Yoakam's findings 
 
 ■^Germane, Edith G. "Relationship between speed and compre- 
 hension in silent reading." (An unpublished master's dissertation 
 offered to the State University of Iowa in 1920.) 
 
COMPREHENSION 55 
 
 are contained in a study by Edith G. Germane, in 
 which she determined the valne of a single reading, 
 plus what the pupils might have already known about 
 the subject. She conducted her experiment in the sixth, 
 seventh, and eighth grades of two schools in a repre- 
 sentative Iowa city. The 286 pupils who took part 
 in the study were asked to read carefully a nine-page 
 article on "Peanuts." After a single reading they 
 were given a test on the material read. The results 
 of this experiment are summarized below. 
 
 TABLE III 
 (Possible score 58 points.) 
 
 Grade VI VII VIII 
 
 Range 0-30 3-38 6-38 
 
 Average in points 11.2 15.4 19.8 
 
 Average in per cent 18.3 26.5 34.1 
 
 The table shows that the number of correct answers 
 made by the pupils in the sixth grade ranged from 
 to 30. Some pupils were unable to answer a single 
 question at the end of a single reading; the highest 
 score was 30 points out of a possible 58. The average 
 score of the pupils in this grade was 11.2 points or 
 18.3 per cent of the possible score. A careful analysis 
 of these data shoAvs that there are wide individual 
 differences among pupils of the sixth, seventh, and 
 eighth grades and that the result of a single reading 
 by those pupils is on an average comparatively low. 
 
 Germane 's stud^^ shows a higher score of percentage 
 value for the pupils who read the article through once 
 
56 SILENT READING 
 
 than does Yoakam's study. It must be borne in mind, 
 however, that these percentages include not only the 
 gain made b}^ a single reading, but they also represent 
 the value of a single reading plus whatever knowledge 
 of the subject the pupil may have had before reading. 
 Both studies show conclusively that when one considers 
 the present reading ability of children, it is apparent 
 that a single reading does not by any means furnish 
 sufficient preparation for a lesson. Nevertheless, the 
 ideal for which we should strive is to have pupils show 
 a relatively high degree of ability to comprehend and 
 retain what they read, even after a single reading. 
 We believe that ideal can be attained by systema^tic 
 training in methods of study. 
 
 Some, teachers may say that the use of'^a single read- 
 ing to measure children's ability to comprehend is 
 unfair and impractical. They maintain that if the 
 pupils had been given an opportunity to read the les- 
 son at least three times, the scores would have shown 
 that they have much thought-getting ability. That 
 contention is refuted by data obtained in an experi- 
 ment performed by the authors. It consisted of three 
 tests given 450 pupils. The tests were based on the 
 articles ^'Immigration," "Peanuts," and "Tubercu- 
 losis." In each experiment the pupils were asked to 
 read one of the articles through as many times as 
 possible in a thirty-minute period. They were informed 
 that at the conclusion of the period they w^ould be 
 given a thorough written test on the article read. The 
 
COMPREHENSION 57 
 
 findings indicated below have been accepted as trust- 
 wortby. 
 
 TABLE IV 
 
 Results Based ox Reading the Article "Peanuts" 
 
 (Possible score 58 points.) 
 
 Grade 
 VI 
 
 Average 
 Readings 
 3 
 
 Average Score 
 
 IN Points 
 
 18 
 
 Average Score 
 
 in Per Cent 
 
 31% 
 
 VII 
 
 4 
 
 20 
 
 34% 
 
 VIII 
 
 4 
 
 26 
 
 45% - 
 
 Results 
 
 Based on Reading 
 
 the Article 
 
 "Immigration" 
 
 
 (Possible score 65 points.) 
 
 
 Grade 
 VI 
 
 Average 
 Readings 
 2 
 
 Average Score 
 
 IN Points 
 
 14 
 
 Average Score 
 
 IN Per Cent 
 
 21% 
 
 VII 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 26% 
 
 VIII 
 
 3 
 
 25 
 
 38% 
 
 The low scores reported are conclusive proof that 
 pupils have little ability to comprehend. Some people 
 maintain that a single reading of an assignment is not 
 sufficient preparation. The fact that sixth-grade pupils 
 answered only 25.6 per cent of the questions after 
 reading the article ''Peanuts" once confirms such a 
 contention. But does frequent re-reading materially 
 increase the number of thought units which a pupil is 
 likely to gain? The data given above indicate a 
 negative answer. For example, sixth-grade pupils who 
 read the lesson an average of three times answered only 
 31 per cent of the questions, although pupils of an- 
 other sixth grade who were of the same educational 
 status, as determined by tests, answered 25.6 per cent 
 of the questions after only a single reading. 
 
58 SILENT READING 
 
 Although these comparisons are crude, they suggest 
 that it is not the number of readings which insures 
 comprehension and retention, but rather the ability 
 of pupils to concentrate and understand. The in- 
 ability of pupils to understand the questions asked is 
 shown by their ludicrous answers, some of which we 
 have reproduced in following paragraphs. Since good 
 reading is measured largely by the number of thought 
 units or ideas which one is able to comprehend in a 
 given time, instead of by the number of lines read, 
 the problem of the teacher is to develop skill in thought- 
 getting. Exercises in oral and silent reading should 
 meet this important need. In fact, the teacher should 
 emphasize comprehension during both the study hour 
 and the recitation period. 
 
 A comparison of these scores with those made by 
 pupils of like grades in another city school system 
 who read the article only once, shows that the results 
 that accrue from a re-reading are not commensurate 
 with the extra expenditure of time. The results ob- 
 tained by testing those who read the article on "Tu- 
 berculosis" were correspondingly low. Thus there is 
 evidence to show that the average pupil does not read 
 efficiently, or, in other words, that he does not know 
 how to study. 
 
 In order to acquaint the reader with the kind of 
 questions used in the experiment just described, and 
 to show what kind of answers some pupils gave to 
 those questions, we give the following excerpts from 
 
COMPREHENSION 59 
 
 the material used. It should be borne in mind that 
 the answer to each question was to be found in the 
 assignment, and that usually an entire paragraph was 
 devoted to it. 
 
 QUESTIONS BASED ON THE ARTICLE '' PEANUTS " 
 
 1. How long are peanut vines left on the ground 
 
 before stacking? 
 Correct answer': 3 or 4 hours. 
 Among the answers given by 6.4 per cent of the 
 
 pupils Avere the following : 3 or 4 feet ; 18 
 
 inches ; 2 feet ; 3 or 4 weeks. 
 
 2. When should peanuts be planted"] 
 
 Correct answer: In the spring, a trifle later than 
 
 beans and corn. 
 Among the answers given by 5.1 per cent of the 
 
 pupils were the following: In the fall; before 
 
 the late frosts; in July. 
 
 3. What should be the distance between the rows? 
 Correct ansicer: 36 inches. 
 
 Among the answers given by 6.2 per cent of the 
 pupils were the following: 36 feet; 6 inches; 
 18 inches. 
 
 4. What effect does the peanut have on the soil? 
 Correct answer: It restores nitrogen. 
 
 Among the answers given by 9.3 per cent of the 
 pupils were the following : Hard on the soil ; 
 takes nitrogen out of the soil; runs do^vn the 
 soil. 
 
 5. What soil is best suited to raising peanuts? 
 Correct ansirer: A sandy loam, light in color. 
 Among the answers given by 8.1 per cent of the 
 
 pupils were the following: Clay; clay-loam, 
 
60 SILENT READING 
 
 black mulch; good soil; brownish clay; Iowa 
 soil. 
 
 QUESTIONS BASED ON THE ARTICLE '' IMMIGRATION " 
 
 1. Name five nationalities that came from northern 
 
 Europe by thousands immediately after the 
 Civil War and made use of the Homestead Act. 
 
 Correct ansiver: Norwegians, Danes, Swedes, Ger- 
 mans, and Irish. 
 
 Among the answers given by 7.7 per cent of 
 the pupils were the following: Italians, 
 Serbians, Chinese, Japanese, Hungarians, and 
 Turks. 
 
 2. To which of these nationalities does the author 
 
 give special praise? 
 Correct answer: To the Scandinavians, because 
 
 they became thrifty farmers and built churches 
 
 and schools. 
 The following answers were given by 11.3 per 
 
 cent of the pupils : To the Jews, because they 
 
 are good cloth makers ; to the Turks, because, 
 
 they peddled stuif cheaply; to the Hungarians 
 
 and Serbians, because they worked on railroads; 
 
 to the Irish, because they engaged in politics; 
 
 to the Chinese, because they cheapened laundry; 
 
 to the Italians, because they have fruit stores. 
 
 QUESTIONS BASED ON THE ARTICLE '' TUBERCULOSIS " 
 
 1. What effect has a healthy body on the growth of 
 
 the tuberculosis germ? 
 Correct answer: Because of the resistance which 
 
 it offers, it is an unfavorable place for their 
 
 development. 
 The following answers were given by 13.3 per cent 
 
COMPREHENSION 61 
 
 of the pupils: Eich food for the germ; body 
 is good food when healthy. 
 2. What is the effect of sunlight on the tubercle 
 bacillus "I 
 Correct ansiver: Kills the germ. 
 The following answers were given by 10.6 per 
 cent of the pupils : Makes them grow ; a fine 
 thing for germs; all germs need heat and sun- 
 light; causes them to multiply rapidly. 
 
 The above answers would serve for amusement did 
 they not indicate the reading comprehension ability of 
 a large number of pupils. If the data in this chapter 
 do not convince one that school children have little 
 ability to comprehend what they read, one should make 
 an assignment of factual reading material, then sub- 
 ject the pupils to a reasonable test. The results may 
 surprise both teacher and pupils. No one factor in 
 reading so handicaps a pupil in life as his inability to 
 comprehend what he reads. 
 
 Comprehension may be improved. The responsi- 
 bility for promoting improvement in the ability to 
 comprehend rests almost entirely with the teacher, 
 since efficiency in speed and comprehension is largely 
 the result of training. Miss Mabel Green, third-grade 
 teacher in the experimental school of the State Uni- 
 versity of Iowa, conducted an experiment^ in one of 
 her classes which shows that teachers can increase the 
 pupils' ability to read rapidly and to comprehend. 
 
 ^Green, Mabel. "The effect of specific drill exercises in silent 
 reading-." (An unpublished study prepared at the State Uni- 
 versity of Iowa in 1918.) 
 
62 SILENT READING 
 
 At the beginning of the month the teacher gave the 
 pupils a storj^ to read. From that she determined their 
 reading rate; she measured their comprehension ability 
 by means of a written test. During the rest of the 
 month the teacher daily gave special drill exercises 
 emphasizing speed and comprehension, and used mod- 
 ern devices and lessons to keep the pupils working at 
 their highest level of achievement. At the end of the 
 month she again tested the pupils for speed and com- 
 prehension. 
 
 The result of a month's specialized drill was indeed 
 encouraging. At the beginning of the month the aver- 
 age rate of reading was 180 words 'per minute. On 
 the second test, at the end of the month, the rate was 
 240 words per minute, an average gain of 33 per cent. 
 The gain in comprehension was even more striking. 
 At the beginning of the month the average score was 
 .18, at the end 29, a gain of 61 per cent. 
 
 The most astonishing fact which the experiment re- 
 vealed is that the gain in comprehension was much 
 greater than the gain in speed. In fact, it was almost 
 twice as great. One should expect a gain in both, 
 but to have so great an increase in comprehension is 
 certainly encouraging to teachers. However, it is not 
 to be assumed that such progress can be made monthly 
 in this grade or any other. Miss Green is a teacher 
 of rare ability w^ho worked under ideal conditions. 
 
 Stone and Colvin's experiment.^ This investigation 
 
 ^Stone, C. W., and Colvin. Carl. "How to study as a source 
 of motive in educational psycholog-y." Journal of Educational 
 Psychology, Vol. 11, (September) 1920. 
 
COMPREHENSION" 63 
 
 showed that when one employs a correct method and 
 uses the factor of interest, speed and comprehension in 
 silent reading may be greatly increased in a relatively 
 short time. The studj^ extended over a period of 
 eighteen weeks and was made on forty-five subjects, 
 undergraduate students of educational psychology in 
 the University of Illinois. The motive and chief topic 
 of interest in the course was the subject ''How to 
 Study." Having been asked to list the factors which 
 they thought most affect the efficiency of study, the 
 students unanimously agreed that increasing the ability 
 to read silently affords most help in improving study 
 habits. Two plans were used to obtain the desired 
 help: (1) Controlled practice, i. e., reading for a 
 specific purpose when under time pressure, (2) a study 
 of the psychology of the silent-reading process. The 
 chief topics of study were : 
 
 Reading as a tool of study. 
 The relation of rate to comprehension. 
 The importance of adequate motivation. 
 ■ The relation of reading to language instinct. 
 The element of habit in reading. 
 The perception of meaning. 
 Eye-movements. 
 The effect of articulation. 
 The neurone-sjraapse-bond hypothesis. 
 The work curve. 
 
 The controlled practice consisted of reading (1) 
 works on educational psychology for thirty fifty-minute 
 periods, (2) such material as usually appears on the 
 
64 SILENT READING 
 
 first page of ''The Outlook" for an additional five 
 periods. Abont twenty units of the time used for read- 
 ing works on educational psychology were spent on 
 comparatively easy books such as Kirkpatrick's Indi- 
 viduals in the Making, Strayer and Norsworthy's How 
 to Study, and Seashore's Psychology in Daily Life. 
 The remaining ten units of practice in reading educa- 
 tional psychology were spent on Thorndike's Briefer 
 Course in Psychology. 
 
 Results of the experiment. As measured by a test 
 on the reading of educational psychology, the mem- 
 bers of the class increased their capabilities by more 
 than one-half. As measured by Monroe's Standardized 
 Silent-reading Test with Stone's Extensions, the aver- 
 age score in rate of reading after practice and study 
 was 74 per cent greater than the score made before. 
 The score in comprehension after practice and study 
 was 84 per cent greater than that made before. 
 These students gained almost three times as much in 
 rate of speed, and fully three and one-half times as 
 much in rate of comprehension, as those members of 
 a check class who did not receive the special practice 
 and training in silent reading. At the conclusion of 
 the experiment, the average student who did the 
 practice and study had 180 per cent of the rate 
 ability of a group of 405 students who did not re- 
 ceive the special training. 
 
 Some students made gains of more than 190 per 
 cent in comprehension and 160 per cent in speed. 
 
COMPREHENSION ^5 
 
 Contrary to the usual experience, the students with 
 the lowest initial scores made the greatest gains, a 
 phenomenon that the authors are unable to account 
 for. 
 
 The reports of students who took part in this 
 experiment show that some benefited from one fea- 
 ture of it, others benefited from other features. This 
 was to be expected because of the different features 
 included in the experiment. The adage, ''Nothing 
 succeeds like success," found a counterpart in the 
 new one, *' Nothing aids reading like reading." One 
 factor responsible for the successful outcome of the 
 undertaking was the reguirement that each student 
 read a certain piece of material for a definite length 
 of time. Under the stimulus of this exercise the 
 students did more reading in educational psychology 
 than they ordinarily would have done. That helped 
 to increase reading ability. Following a definite 
 program and exerting an effort to concentrate while 
 reading seemed to be the causes chiefly responsible 
 for the increased rate of speed and the increasd ability 
 to comprehend what was read. 
 
 The experiment in the high school. A similar ex- 
 ercise conducted with a class of high-school boys 
 seems to prove the same fact. Apparently unable 
 to concentrate, the boys were reading their lessons 
 several times in an effort to master the content, but 
 nevertheless they continued unable to get satisfactory 
 results. After a few weeks of directed practice these 
 
66 SILENT READING 
 
 high-school students were able to get the thought 
 
 from the text in much less time than formerly, and 
 
 their rate of speed also increased noticeably. The 
 
 students themselves, at first believing that the slower 
 
 readers got more from the text than did the faster 
 
 ones, changed their opinions at the conclusion of the 
 
 experiment. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. It is of the utmost importance to train pupils to read 
 purposefully and with a high degree of comprehension. 
 
 2. Developing the ability to get thought, and skill in doing 
 so, have been neglected. This is shown by Horace 
 Mann's Reijort as well as by scientific data. 
 
 3. Some of the present methods of teaching reading are 
 responsible for the inability of pupils to comprehend, 
 since many reading periods are devoted only to hearing 
 pupils read without any attempt to test comprehension. 
 
 4. The teachers' problem is twofold: The development 
 of an attitude or desire for purposeful, thoughtful read- 
 ing. The discovery of methods and devices that will 
 most efficiently develop the ability to comprehend. 
 
 5. The value of a single reading as an aid to comprehen- 
 sion and memory is low. On one occasion even the 
 reading of the assignment three times did not yield 
 results commensurate wath the time and effort spent. 
 
 6. The ridiculous answers given by many pupils clearly 
 demonstrate their low comprehension power. 
 
 7. Rate of reading and the ability to comprehend can be 
 greatly increased in a short time. 
 
 8. The chief function of silent reading is to teach pupils 
 how to study effectively. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 Fordyce, Charles. "Testing efficiency in reading." Addresses 
 and Proceedings of the National Education Association, 
 Vol. 55, pp. 818-21, (July) 1917. 
 
COMPREHENSION" 07 
 
 Gray, Clarence T. Types of Reading AtiUty as Exhibited 
 Through Tests and Laboratory Experiments. Supplemen- 
 tary Educational Monographs, Vol. 1, No. 5, (August) 
 1917. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 
 
 Gray, William S. "Principles of method in teaching read- 
 ing, derived from scientific investigations." The Eighteenth 
 Year'book of the "National Society for the Study of Edu- 
 cation: Part II. Public School Publishing Company, 
 Bloomington, Illinois, 1919. 
 
 Huey, Edmund B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. 
 The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1916. 
 
 Judd, Charles H. Measuring the Work of the Public 
 Schools. Publication of the Survey Committee of the 
 Cleveland Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, 1916. 
 
 Oberholtzer, E. E. "Testing the efficiency of reading in the 
 grades." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 15, (February) 
 1915. 
 
 Peters, Charles C. "The influence of speed drills upon the 
 rate and effectiveness of silent reading." Journal of Edu- 
 cational Psychology, Vol. 8, (June) 1917. 
 
 Thorndike, Edward L. "Reading as reasoning: A study 
 of mistakes in paragraph reading." Journal of Educa- 
 tional Psychology, Vol. 8, (June) 1917. 
 
, >' 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 DEVELOPING THE ABILITY TO ORGANIZE 
 
 The importance of organization. It has been pointed 
 out in the preceding chapters that the silent-reading 
 period should be used to develop speed and thought- 
 getting^ if pupils are to learn how to study effectively. 
 The superior student is one who has acquired a third 
 important skill, namely, the ability quickly and effec- 
 tively to organize the subject-matter read. The term 
 organization, as here used, includes making outlines 
 and summaries and having pupils prepare lists of 
 questions which they consider leading ones. 
 
 The importance of developing the ability of pupils 
 to organize can scarcely be overemphasized. McMur- 
 ry's Hoiv to Biiidy devotes forty-nine pages to the 
 discussion of organization. Psychologists have done 
 much, valuable research in the field of the higher men- 
 tal processes. The results of their investigations include 
 the establishment of many basic principles in the science 
 and art of organization. 
 
 The psychological point of view. From a psycho- 
 logical point of view, training in the organization of 
 subject-matter is urged because it requires the pupil 
 to analyze, select, and synthesize. It requires much 
 
 68 
 
ORGANIZATION 69 
 
 concentration, judgment, evaluation, and association and 
 is considered one good test of general intelligence. 
 Organization is a great aid to memory or retention. 
 To the degree that a lesson or discussion is well 
 organized, to that degree each minor point is seen in 
 its proper relation to the major idea, and each major 
 thought in its relation to the whole. The love of 
 rhythm is said to be instinctive, and for that reason 
 applied psj^chology urges the organization of a lecture 
 or lesson in the most logical manner so that the pre- 
 ferred paths may function. 
 
 The sociological point of view. Nor is the ability 
 to organize of secondary importance when considered 
 from the sociological point of view. How many men 
 and women are failing in their several vocations every 
 day, not so much because of some defect in person- 
 ality, but because organization is sadly lacking in every 
 proposition which they set forth ^ The fundamental 
 principle in public speaking is organization. Because 
 organization is of great consequence in life, both in 
 and out of school, one feels justified in testing pupils 
 to see how much organizing ability they have, and 
 how that ability may be developed. 
 
 Present lack of ability to organize. The inability 
 of many grade pupils to organize the main points of 
 a lesson under headings and subheadings is very notice- 
 able in many schools. Teachers do not seem to realize 
 that training pupils and developing in them an appre- 
 ciation of the worth of orc^anization is one effective 
 
70 SILENT READING 
 
 method of building up good study habits. Too often 
 pupils are not made to feel that they are expected 
 to organize, weigh, and discriminate in their reading. 
 The usual assignment, ''Take the next four pages of 
 the chapter," does not even suggest the possibility that 
 many of the statements may be of minor importance 
 and a few of major importance. Making a problem 
 assignment stimulates the child to see for himself what 
 sentences in the lesson are most worth while. 
 
 Some teachers make a specific assignment of three 
 or four questions. These questions act as guides to the 
 pupil's reading; they form the topics for discussion 
 in the next recitation period. Pupils thus learn to 
 discriminate between points having little or much bear- 
 ing on the question before them. After a few weeks 
 of such training, summaries can be made at the close 
 of a recitation period. The teacher and pupils to- 
 gether sum up the main points in the lesson that were 
 brought out or that should be discussed. Having one 
 section of a class prepare the questions for another 
 section to evaluate is an effective device. Organization 
 can best be taught in connection with some class prob- 
 lem or project in which each pupil gathers a definite 
 amount of data and sifts much reading material for 
 points bearing specifically on his phase of the problem. 
 
 Although this chapter makes the point that the 
 ability to discriminate and to organize the material 
 read is of prime importance, we have reserved the 
 discussion of teaching lesson organization until later. 
 
ORGANIZATION 71 
 
 Often, neither assignment nor recitation period is util- 
 ized to help the pupil acquire this important skill. 
 
 Germane 's experiment.^ Data obtained by means of 
 two quite elaborate experiments seem to prove con- 
 clusively that grade pupils deplorably lack the ability 
 to organize what they read. One of these was con- 
 ducted in grades five to nine, inclusive, of the elemen- 
 tary and junior-high schools of the State University 
 of Iowa, with this problem in mind: What is the 
 value of making a summary-outline of an article as 
 compared with the results to be obtained by re-reading, 
 the article. The pupils in the grades mentioned were 
 divided into two groups on the basis of their intelli- 
 gence quotients. Each section was given a nine-page 
 article on hygiene to study for thirty minutes. One 
 section was asked to read the article through once, 
 then to make a summary-outline of the main points. 
 The pupils were allowed to refer to the article as often 
 as necessary when making their outlines. The other 
 section was asked to re-read the article as many times 
 as possible during the thirty-minute period. At the 
 conclusion of the period both sections were given the 
 same quiz for fifteen minutes. 
 
 Because this experiment was conducted in only one 
 school and with only one kind of subject-matter, too 
 much emphasis should not be placed on the results. 
 It is interesting to note that the group which re-read 
 
 ^Germane, Charles E. "The value of summarizing' as a method 
 of study." (An unpublished doctor's dissertation offered to the 
 State University of Iowa in 1920.) 
 
72 SILENT READING 
 
 the article showed a superiority of from 4.4 per cent 
 to 20.4 per cent over the other pnpils. Papers of the 
 pupils who wrote summary-outlines revealed a failure 
 to discriminate between points of major and minor 
 importance, and a waste of time in writing verbose 
 statements where a word or phrase would have sufficed. 
 
 Another experiment in which practically the same 
 method was used gave similar results. During this 
 experiment 784 pupils were tested on three types of 
 material. The data obtained by this experiment also 
 indicate that making written summary-outlines as a 
 preparation for the lesson is not an economical method 
 of study for pupils who have not been trained in 
 organization. However, as shown by reliable data 
 reported elsewhere in this chapter, organization can be 
 taught even to fourth-grade pupils; when that is done 
 summarizing becomes a valuable aid to study after the 
 child acquires the method. 
 
 Finch's experiment/ This was conducted in a 
 junior high school in Rochester, New York. It orig- 
 inated in an attempt to aid the pupils in making "the 
 most effective use of the time for study provided by 
 the longer periods and the lengthened school day." 
 Four tests were given, each based on a regular text- 
 book, thus providing for future tests of similar char- 
 acter by means of which the progress of each pupil may 
 be traced. The reasons for giving these tests to pupils 
 entering the junior high school were (a) to make them 
 
 ^Finch, Charles E. "Junior hig-h-school study tests." School 
 Review, Vol. 28, (March) 1920. 
 
ORGANIZATION 73 
 
 aware of certain tilings that they onght to know about 
 studying, (Z>) to create a desire for instruction in the' 
 best way of studying, (c) to suggest to teachers the 
 needs of the class and of individuals as a basis for 
 possible and desirable kinds of instruction. Because 
 only one of the four tests dealt specifically with the 
 problem of organization, only that part of the experi- 
 ment is reported here. 
 
 The fourth test was planned to bring out the fol- 
 lowing points: (a) Ability to select the important 
 things told in a paragraph; (&) ability to write intelli- 
 gent questions about a paragraph; (c) ability to collect 
 the information suggested by a simple outline. In 
 order to show the nature of the test and the method 
 of using it, the following specimen is taken verbatim 
 from the material used for the experiment. 
 
 Textbook used: Woodburn and Moran's Introduction 
 to American History. 
 
 Directions 
 I. Open your book and follow the directions given. 
 II. 1. State in your own words three important 
 things told in the paragraph on the Phoeni- 
 cians, found on page 11. 3 credits 
 
 2. Write three questions that you would ask a 
 pupil if you wanted to find out whether he 
 knew the important facts in the first para- 
 graph on the Egyptians, on page 4. 3 credits 
 
 3. On pages 8 and 9 find the information called 
 for in the following outline, and state it in 
 your own words: 
 
74 SILENT READING 
 
 Chaldeans 
 
 a) Location of their eo-nntry 1 credit 
 
 h) Occupations of the people 1 credit 
 
 c) The ruler and his gardens 1 credit 
 
 d) Some things the Chaldeans did 1 credit 
 
 The following summary gives an idea of how the 
 ability to follow these simple directions for organizing 
 varied among seventh-grade pupils. It is evident that 
 the pupils were lacking in the ability to discriminate 
 between points of major and minor importance, and 
 to make a summary-outline of them. Eight classes 
 which included 256 pupils took part in the experi- 
 ment. The average score of lowest achievement for 
 any one class was 20 per cent. The average score of 
 highest achievement for any one class was 80 per cent. 
 The average score made by the eight classes was 60 
 per cent. Following an examination of the papers and 
 a study of the results obtained, the experimenter 
 reached the following conclusions : Pupils must be con- 
 vinced that getting the author's meaning from a printed 
 page is quite different from repeating expressions found 
 there. They must be taught to eliminate material of 
 minor importance from their consideration, and to 
 give important matter proper attention. The ability 
 to formulate intelligent questions is an indication that 
 the student has some knowledge of the related and 
 essential facts in the material under consideration. 
 Making a simple outline after having discovered the 
 essential facts is a great help in memorizing desirable 
 
ORGANIZATION 75 
 
 information. Much valuable time can be saved if 
 pupils have an adequate knowledge of how to use 
 textbooks. Keal progress is the result of wisely directed 
 individual effort. Pupils must be convinced that it 
 pays to give careful attention to all directions given 
 by the teacher. Teachers should help pupils realize 
 that studying effectively is quite different from study- 
 ing anxiously. It is easy to think through a lesson 
 if a carefully prepared outline is followed. Making 
 satisfactory notes helps to summarize, to select essen- 
 tial material, and to gain the ability to reproduce it. 
 After the results of the tests had been carefully 
 studied by the teachers, they suggested the following 
 remedial measures which have proved effective in rais- 
 ing the efficiency of the study habits of these pupils: 
 (1) Pupils' questions should be discussed by the class 
 and those of minor importance rejected. (2) Drill 
 should be given in the use of chapter, section, and 
 paragraph headings. (3) Frequent use should be made 
 of co-operative outlines to enable pupils to summarize 
 their thoughts and select important facts. (4) Pupils 
 should be given definite references to paragraphs and 
 sections that they are asked to read, and they should 
 be asked to list the important facts that furnished the 
 desired information. (5) Much more attention should 
 be given to determining whether or not pupils under- 
 stand adult expressions used in textbooks. (6) Pupils 
 should be required to prove their statements by refer- 
 ence to the textbook. This helps secure accuracy of 
 
76 SILENT READING 
 
 statement, and forces children to acknowledge their 
 mistakes when made. (7) Practice should be given in 
 using the textbook to find definite information sug- 
 gested by a carefullj^ prepared outline. 
 
 One teacher indicates that the tests helped her to 
 remember that the assignment should serve to state 
 the requirements of the new lesson, and to suggest 
 the best ways of studying it. They also help her to 
 keep in mind points that ought to be emphasized in 
 silent study, to modify the content of lesson plans, to 
 supervise silent study more successfully because of 
 having more clearly in mind some of the things that 
 ought to be observed while a class is studying, and to 
 analyze the oral responses of the pupils more effectively 
 because they seem to reflect study habits. 
 
 College students cannot org^anize their lessons. A 
 cursory examination of high-school and college stu- 
 dents ' notebooks reveals the lack of ability to organize 
 a lesson to an extent commensurate with one's expec- 
 tations. 
 
 The authors have conducted classes in education and 
 psj^chology in which they required many individual 
 reports. Each student was told that he should sum- 
 marize his assignment under two or three leading 
 headings. Often, however, much to the disappoint- 
 ment of all, the student used most of the next recita- 
 tion period to give a long report, in which he em- 
 phasized a dozen or more main points, as he thought. 
 Such experiences are not uncommon, even in the best 
 
ORGANIZATION 77 
 
 colleges. The most encouraging; feature of the whole 
 matter is that the power to organize can be taught; 
 it is largely a product of training. It is surprising 
 what large dividends will accrue from spending a few 
 minutes daily for a few weeks helping pupils to 
 organize their lessons. Many teachers who have gone 
 into schools of good scholastic standards have felt that 
 the emphasis on organization for the first three or 
 four weeks was time well s^ent, because the pupils 
 rapidly acquire the method, and the acquirement of 
 the method helps to master the lesson. 
 
 Teaching how to organize. That organization can 
 be taught c[uickly, and that such teaching aaqU yield 
 fruitful results, is shown by an experiment conducted 
 in the elementary school of the State University of 
 Iowa in which sixteen seventh and eighth-grade pupils 
 participated. By means of three preliminary tests 
 the sixteen pupils were divided into two groups nearly 
 equal in ability to organize the reading lesson and to 
 comprehend it. Three thirty-minute periods were used 
 weekly for three weeks to teach one group organiza- 
 tion and the method of summarizing. The other group 
 did not receive such special training. At the end of 
 that time three new assignments were used to test the 
 pupils' ability to organize and comprehend. It was 
 found that the pupils who had been drilled in organi- 
 zation not only made much neater and more condensed 
 summaries, but also answered an average of 21.3 
 per cent more questions on the written tests. Organi- 
 
78 SILENT READING 
 
 zation is a third necessary skill, which, combined with 
 speed and comprehension, aids in making the finished 
 product in study. 
 
 Earhart's experiment.^ The problem of this experi- 
 ment was to find out if pupils in the fourth grade, i. e., 
 in the fourth school year, can be trained to study a 
 lesson independently. The class selected consisted of 
 twenty pupils of average ability. Sixteen lessons were 
 given, each lasting from twenty-five to thirty minutes. 
 There was no separate period for the study of the 
 lesson. The problem raised the following questions: 
 Can pupils state aims for themselves in reading? Can 
 they find the relatively important parts of the subject- 
 matter read? Can they question the validity of state- 
 ments and form independent judgments? 
 
 For three weeks previous to this experiment the 
 class had been reading Lida B. McMurry's Story oj 
 Vlysses. The use of the text was continued during 
 this experiment because it seemed suitable for the 
 purpose in mind. The first lesson was based on the 
 story of Ulysses and the Phseacians. After some pre- 
 liminary conversation about the needs of Ulysses and 
 the experiences he had previously had among strange 
 peoples, the teacher stated the aim thus: ''We shall 
 find out in this book how the Ph^acians treated 
 Ulysses. ' ' The children read silently for a few min- 
 utes. They used a marked list of words in their books 
 to determine the correct pronunciation of proper names. 
 
 ^Earhart, Lida B. "An experiment in teaching children to 
 study." Education. Vol. 30 (pp. 236-42). 1909-10. 
 
ORGANIZATION 79 
 
 Other proper names, and words which the pupils could 
 not pronounce without assistance, were written on the 
 blackboard and divided into syllables by the teacher. 
 
 The teacher then asked the children which part of 
 the story they would tell first, if they were asked to 
 relate it. Several pupils attempted to answer but could 
 not do so satisfactorily. One child said, "Ulysses 
 made a bed of leaves." Another suggested as the topic 
 to be told first, "What Ulysses did in the Phseacian 
 land." 
 
 In response to the teacher's query as to what should 
 be told next, some pupils tried to tell the story in- 
 stead of giving a topic. Finally, one child gave for 
 the second point, "Ulysses awakes." The fourth topic 
 suggested was, "What the king's daughter did for 
 Ulysses. ' ' 
 
 The pupils then read the selection aloud. At inter- 
 vals they were allowed to ask questions about the 
 story. These are the questions asked: "Why did 
 Nausicaa take her maids to wash clothes?" "Why did 
 she not go alone?" "Why did the king's daughter 
 go at all?" "Why did the maidens walk?" "There 
 was no room for the maidens, but why did Nausicaa 
 work and drive mules?" 
 
 The spontaneity of the responses to the questions in 
 the first lesson indicated clearly that the pupils were 
 intensely interested in the subject-matter, but were 
 unable to organize the other parts of the lesson in 
 sequence. It was evident that training in evaluating 
 
go SILENT READING 
 
 and organizing were necessary. The following lessons 
 emphasized this factor. 
 
 After the pupils had read the eight-page booklet, 
 entitled Penelope and Telemachus During Ulysses' 
 Absence, they were asked to name, in order, the things 
 they would talk about if they were telling the story 
 to some one at home. They gave the following outline 
 very promptly: 
 
 The princes wish to marry Penelope. 
 
 Penelope deceives the princes. 
 
 Telemachus holds a council. 
 
 Telemachus goes to inquire about Ulysses. 
 
 Telemachus visits Nestor. 
 
 Telemachus visits Menelaus. ^ 
 
 The suitors make ready to kill Telemachus. 
 
 Penelope hears of Telemachus' absence. 
 
 This exercise occurred toward the close of the series 
 of lessons. Both the nature of the topics and the 
 readiness with which they were given were evidence 
 of the pupils' gain in ability to discover and express 
 the important thoughts of the subject-matter. It will 
 be recalled that when the first lesson was given, the 
 teacher stated the aim for the class. 
 
 When the last booklet of the story was taken up 
 there was time for but one lesson with the class, so 
 the lesson had to be somewhat hurried. The pupils 
 had already stated the questions to be answered, and 
 these constituted the aims in' reading this section. 
 They w^ere told to read the entire eight-page booklet 
 
ORGANIZATION gl 
 
 silently, tlien to make a list of important subjects in 
 it, to write any questions which they wanted answered, 
 and any w^ords in place of which they would like to 
 have other words used. These papers were written 
 by the pupils with no help whatever, except in regard 
 to spelling, the use of capital letters, and punctuation. 
 The following exercise, given just as it was prepared, 
 shows the progress made from the time the first lesson 
 was taught: 
 
 Ulysses awakes. 
 
 Ulysses and the swineherd. 
 
 Ulysses meets Telemachus again. 
 
 Penelope and Telemachus. 
 
 Penelope and the beggar. 
 
 The nurse recognizes Ulysses. 
 
 Penelope gives a contest. 
 
 Ulj^sses tries the bow. 
 
 The death of the suitors. 
 
 Ulysses rules over Ithaca again. 
 
 Why did Ulysses go to the swineherd? 
 
 Why did Ulysses beg for his bread? 
 
 Why didn't Ulysses tell Penelope that he was her 
 
 husband? 
 Why did Telemachus go to the house of Laertes? 
 
 This series of lessons showed plainly that pupils in 
 the fourth grade are capable of finding problems for 
 themselves, of organizing the lesson, of asking intelli- 
 gent questions, of forming sensible hypotheses, of ex- 
 ercising judgment as to the statements made by the 
 author, of mastering formal difficulties for themselves, 
 
S2 SILENT READING 
 
 and of exercising initiative wisely and profitably. It 
 showed, too, that when pupils work in such a way 
 they work with zeal, and accomplish much more than 
 when they spend time upon useless details and mechan- 
 ical methods of working. 
 
 As to their using the factors of proper study habit- 
 ually, the time was too short to permit one to reach 
 final conclusions. To test the matter thoroughly, the 
 class should be trained to study geography, history, and 
 other textbook lessons in this way from day to day 
 throughout a number of months. By so doing, syste- 
 matic study of the different subjects would be intro- 
 duced gradually, and the work in each class would 
 be strengthened by what is done in the others. 
 
 Teaching pupils to organize. In the third and 
 fourth grades, stories and short expositions may be 
 used as drill in making outlines. Pupils in those 
 grades enjoy being called upon to state the main 
 points made by the teacher in her talk on some phase 
 of nature study, hygiene, or home geography. In 
 fact, class summaries made with the teacher's guid- 
 ance are economical ways to clinch the main points 
 made during recitation periods. 
 
 By the time the pupils are well advanced in the 
 fifth and sixth grades they should show considerable 
 skill in outlining and summarizing lessons in nearly 
 all their studies. The authors have often promoted a 
 keen interest in the organization of lessons by dividing 
 the class into two sections and having one section pre- 
 
ORGANIZATION 83 
 
 pare a summary-outline for the other to criticize. 
 Pupils at this age enjoy thinking of any lesson or 
 lecture as having just one central idea, comparable to 
 the hub of a wheel, and considering all the points 
 grouped under this central idea as so many spokes 
 in the wheel. This clever device has been used suc- 
 cessfully in high-school classes, in which the teacher 
 of English, history or science requested the students 
 to state what they considered the hub and spokes of 
 the assignment. A diagram on the blackboard lends 
 interest to such a plan. 
 
 Having the pupils use the last five minutes of a 
 recitation period to sum up the main points brought 
 out in the recitation is another very valuable practice. 
 Notes taken in this way for a few weeks, known as a 
 class summary, greatly aid the majority of pupils. 
 Calling for an oral summary of the previous day's 
 assignment is another means of teaching organization 
 and providing a comprehensive review for all. 
 
 The preparation of summaries. One of the funda- 
 mental aims of teachers in charge of seventh and eighth 
 grades, and even of high-school classes, should be to 
 train pupils in making outlines and in writing concise 
 summaries of lessons and lectures. A knowledge of 
 many facts without the ability to classify, organize, 
 and use them makes such knowledge practically worth- 
 less. The school work of the pupils in the upper 
 grades is so varied and so informational that no 
 teacher should find it difficult to formulate a method 
 
84 SILENT READING 
 
 for teaching organization and summarizing, or to create 
 a favorable attitude toward such work among her 
 pupils. Some of the devices described in Chapter XIV 
 for use with pupils in the fifth and sixth grades may 
 be used very successfully in the higher grades. 
 
 Another very interesting method is to take a part 
 of each class period for finding what may be called 
 the ''signpost paragraph," that is, the paragraph 
 which states the problem or trend of discussion which 
 the author has in mind. Pupils soon learn how to 
 find the signpost or key to the lesson. The next point 
 of interest is to discover a way to determine most 
 quickly the author's conclusions and his answers to 
 the problem discussed. Students will soon learn that 
 reading the first sentence or two of a paragraph, 
 possibly also the last one, is sufficient. It is not within 
 the province of this chapter to elaborate on methods 
 of teaching organization, since that will be done by 
 presenting specimen lessons in Part II. The aim here 
 is only to point out the possibility of teaching organi- 
 zation. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. The importance of organization and summarizing, the 
 third essential factor in teaching silent reading, has not 
 received sufficient consideration by teachers. 
 
 2. This valuable skill is lacking among college students 
 and grade pupils. 
 
 3. The results of the experiments show that the prepara- 
 tion of a lesson by means of a summary-outline is not 
 economical unless the pupil has been trained to organize. 
 
ORGANIZATION 85 
 
 4. Several devices useful for teaching pupils to organize 
 lesson material have been suggested. The authors have 
 found those very useful in actual trial. 
 
 5. The results of a study made on sixteen pupils in the 
 experimental school of the State University of Iowa and 
 of studies made by Earhart and by Finch suggest that 
 one can effectively teach pupils to organize their lessons. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Dearborn, G. V. N. Hoio to Learn Easily: A Book for 
 Students, Teachers and Parents. Little, Brown and Com- 
 pany, Boston, 1916. 
 
 Dewey, John. How We Think, D. C. Heath and Company, 
 Boston, 1910. 
 
 Earhart, Lida B. Teaching Children to Study. Houghton 
 Mifflin Company, Boston, 1909. 
 
 Foster, William T. Should Students Study? Harper and 
 Brothers, New York City, 1917. 
 
 Hall-Quest, A. L, Supervised Study. The Macmillan Com- 
 pany, New York City, 1920. 
 
 Holley, Charles E. The Teacher's Technique. The Century 
 Company, New York City, 1922. 
 
 Huey, Edmund B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Read- 
 ing. The Macmillan Company, 1916. 
 
 Klapper, Paul. Teaching Children to Read. D. Appleton 
 and Company, New York City, 1914. 
 
 McMurry, Frank M. How to Study and Teaching How to 
 Study. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1909. 
 
 Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Ginn 
 and Company, Chicago, 1915. 
 
 Ruediger, W. C. "Teaching pupils to study." Education, 
 Vol. 29, 1909. 
 
 Sandwick, R. L. How to Study and What to Study. D. C. 
 Heath and Company, Boston, 1915. 
 
 Whipple, G. M. How to Study Effectively. Public School 
 Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1916. 
 
CHAPTER V 
 RETENTION 
 
 The importance of retention. The value of speed, 
 comprehension, and organization as fundamental fac- 
 tors of a method of study has been treated in the three 
 previous chapters. There is still another factor, namely, 
 retention, which is of equal importance. In fact, it 
 is the ability to retain and recall the main points of 
 the material read which makes the acquisition and 
 application of knowledge possible. Time and effort 
 spent in developing skill in rapid reading and in 
 organization are wasted unless the essential ideas are 
 retained. 
 
 Experimental studies in retention. Ebbinghaus has 
 done much experimenting to determine the ability to 
 retain nonsense syllables, and his rate of forgetting 
 for this type of material has been many times verified. 
 He found that when a series of those syllables, such 
 as ^'taz," *^nmt," and others were learned to the 
 threshold of immediate recall, 50 per cent were for- 
 gotten within twenty-four hours, 66% per cent within 
 eight days, and 80 per cent within one month. But 
 the application of this law to logical, factual mate- 
 rial is unscientific, because nonsense material does not 
 
 86 
 
RETENTION 87 
 
 lend itself readily to the laws of interest and associa- 
 tion. 
 
 Peterson's experiment.^ This attempt to determine 
 the effect of attitude on immediate and delayed recall 
 is significant in any discussion of retention. In brief, 
 the problem was, "What difference will it make in 
 later reproduction whether a person knows or does 
 not know, while reading a list of words, that he will 
 be asked to reproduce the words.'' 
 
 Peterson's method of conducting this experiment was 
 in the main as follows : The students in his psychology 
 class were asked to copy twenty words as he read 
 them. No other directions were given. After a few 
 minutes those students were asked to copy another 
 list of twenty words, equally as difficult as the previous 
 list. This time the class was informed that each would 
 be ranked according to the number of words he was 
 able to recall. 
 
 The result of the experiment showed that in the 
 second case the students recalled an average of 50 
 per cent more words than in the first. Peterson attri- 
 butes this gain to the '^mental set" of his students 
 who knew they would be called upon to remember 
 as many words as possible. 
 
 Ebert and Meumann also found that the attitude 
 of the learner, his "will to learn," exercises an im- 
 portant influence over his whole memory result. 
 
 iPeterson, Joseph. "The effect of attitude on immediate and 
 delayed reproduction: A class experiment." Journal of Edu- 
 cational Psychology, Vol. 7, (October) 1916. 
 
88 SILENT READING 
 
 These studies reveal one outstanding pedagogical 
 principle which every teacher should apply : The 
 pupil reads most effectively when he realizes that he 
 is expected to recall the main points of the material 
 read. This necessitates testing on the assignments 
 by means of either short, brisk, oral reviews or written 
 quizzes. If the subject-matter read is of sufficient 
 importance to be studied, the recall of its fundamental 
 facts should be assured. 
 
 Yoakam's experiment. Probably the most elaborate 
 recent experiment that can be cited in this discussion 
 * of retention is Yoakam's stud}^, "The Effect of a 
 Single Reading."^ Yoakam has attempted to deter- 
 mine scientifically the relative values of certain fac- 
 tors of study on recall or memory. This experiment 
 was conducted in grades four to eight inclusive, and 
 represents the results of more than 500 cases. 
 
 Reading tests were used to classify the pupils of 
 each grade into groups of equal comprehension ability 
 in silent reading. One group read the assignment 
 through once rapidly, but very carefully, and then 
 w^as immediately subjected to a test on the content. 
 The other group read the same article through once, 
 rapidly and very carefully, but no test was given 
 until twenty days later, when this group took the 
 test that had been taken by the other section. Neither 
 
 iToakam, Gerald A. "The effect of a single reading-." (An 
 excerpt from an unpublished doctor's dissertation offered to the 
 State University of Iowa in 1920.) Tiventieth Yearbook of the 
 National Society for the Study of Education: Part II. Public 
 School Publishing Company, Bloomington. Illinois. 1921. 
 
RETENTION 89 
 
 group knew that a test would be given. The scores 
 made by these two groups ought to be an approximate 
 measure, at least, of the value of a single reading on 
 an immediate recall, and on a recall delayed twenty 
 days. 
 
 Immediate recall. The amount the several grades 
 were able to recall immediately, after the single read- 
 ing of an article entitled '*The Admiralty Islanders," 
 is as follows: 
 
 Grade VIII VII VI V IV 
 
 20.9% 19% 16.6% 14.6% 7.5% 
 
 If these figures are to be accepted at their face 
 value, then at least two conclusions may be drawn: 
 (1) A single reading is not sufficient preparation for 
 a lesson. (2) Pupils lack the ability to recall any 
 considerable portion of the material read. It is the 
 opinion of the authors, however, that a single reading 
 would suffice if pupils were trained in methods and 
 devices which insure retention. 
 
 Delayed recall. One should keep in mind that the 
 other group of pupils also read the article ''The Ad- 
 miralty Islanders" through once, but that the children 
 were not tested until twenty days later. It was thought 
 that this procedure would give an approximate measure 
 of the amount of an assignment that pupils usually 
 remember when it has been read once, and on which 
 no oral or written test has been given. The follow- 
 ing is a summary of the scores made by pupils of the 
 five grades after a lapse of twenty days: 
 
90 SILENT READING 
 
 Grade VIII VII VI V IV 
 
 1.3% 0.7% 2.7% 3.8% 5.1% 
 
 Just why the pupils of the fourth, fifth, and sixth 
 grades were able to recall more than those of the 
 seventh and eighth grades is a matter of conjecture. 
 It has been suggested that the material had a com- 
 pelling interest for pupils of the lower grades which 
 it did not have for those of the seventh and eighth 
 grades. 
 
 One thing, at least, is certain: The ability of the 
 pupils in these grades to recall and to remember any 
 considerable portion of the material read is deplor- 
 ably small. This inability to study a lesson with an 
 attitude and method that insures remembering the 
 main points may account to some extent for the poor 
 showing made by pupils on almost any unexpected 
 quiz or test to which they are subjected. Since it is 
 possible to develop skill in retention, teachers are 
 urged to emphasize this fourth factor not only in 
 the silent-reading periods, but in all classroom work. 
 
 Testing before reading". Professor Yoakam also at- 
 tempted to determine the effect on immediate recall 
 if pupils are tested on a lesson before they read it. 
 In this same experiment a third group of children was 
 given a written quiz on the lesson before reading it. 
 Then the assignment was read through once carefully, 
 and again they were subjected to the same questions. 
 The scores made by this group on the second test 
 were much higher than the scores made by the other 
 
RETENTION 91 
 
 two groups of pupils who liad read the same article 
 and taken the same test. Hence, one is justified in 
 believing that some important factor operated to cause 
 the difference. Yoakam's conclusion is that the pupils 
 of the third group, who took the test before reading, 
 were motivated in their reading; that is, they read 
 purposefully and with the idea of finding the answers 
 to the questions submitted to them in the initial test. 
 That such an inference is entirely justifiable is ap- 
 parent when we observe that the grades in this group 
 excelled each of the grades in the other two groups 
 by the following scores : 
 
 Grade VIII VII VI V IV 
 
 14.6% 13.6% 9.5% 5.8% 4.7% 
 
 The above scores represent the amounts by which 
 the pupils in the third group excelled the pupils in 
 the other two groups when all were asked to take a 
 test after a single reading. For example, the eighth- 
 grade pupils in the third group were tested before 
 reading the article and also immediately afterwards. 
 After subtracting whatever knowledge they showed on 
 the first test, it was found that the third group ex- 
 celled by 14.6 per cent. This difference in the amount 
 recalled was probably due to the fact that the third 
 group concentrated on the questions missed in the first 
 test. The following outstanding suggestions derived 
 from Yoakam^s experiment may be applied to school- 
 room procedure with the best results. Teachers 
 should make use of them. 
 
92 SILENT READING 
 
 1. Give pupils a test before they read the lesson. 
 That makes them read purposefully and with 
 concentration and discrimination. 
 
 2. An initial test tends to increase their retention, 
 as shown by both Yoakam's and Peterson's ex- 
 periment. 
 
 3. After pupils read the lesson over once carefully, 
 give them the initial test a second time. Pupils 
 can then see how much they gain from a single 
 
 reading. This is pupil-motivation. They will be 
 
 interested in seeing themselves grow from week 
 
 to week. Many teachers who are now using the 
 
 initial test as a means of stimulating purposeful 
 
 reading believe it increases the amount recalled. 
 
 The combined effects of giving tests before reading 
 
 and immediately after reading, and the value of a 
 
 single reading upon the amount recalled in tv/enty 
 
 days, were tentatively worked out by Professor Yoakam. 
 
 His comments are: 
 
 The use of the above figures in this way is at the 
 most rather speculative, but the general significance of 
 the results was that the effect of a single reading as 
 a means of insuring delayed recall of the type of mate- 
 rial here represented, is apparently almost negligible. 
 The motivations caused by the initial test and the effect 
 of the repetition of the tests apparently far outweigh 
 in importance the single brief contact with the material 
 as a means of insuring retention of the ideas. Or, to 
 put it more clearly, if the motivation caused by the 
 testing and practice due to the repetition of the test 
 had not taken place, the result of the single reading. 
 
RETENTION 93 
 
 as shown by the scores of the third group, womld prob- 
 ably have been very, very small. 
 
 We may draw four conclusions from Yoakam's 
 study: (1) The amount of material retained after 
 one reading without testing or motivation is almost 
 nothing. (2) Submitting the test questions before 
 reading motivates the reader by helping him focus 
 his attention on the main points; it is also a power- 
 ful aid to permanent retention. (3) Giving a test 
 immediately after reading the material is another 
 equally potent factor in aiding retention. (4) Fre- 
 quent tests are absolutely necessary if retention of 
 even the most important facts of school work is to 
 be secured. The small amount of material retained 
 by pupils in the grades may thus be explained, if the 
 figures and conclusions of Yoakam's study are ac- 
 cepted. In conclusion we may say that daily, weekly, 
 and monthly testing on all assignments is the surest 
 guarantee that a high degree of comprehension and 
 retention will be secured. 
 
 Crermane's experiment. Further to substantiate the 
 data given in Yoakam's table, another experiment was 
 conducted by four other teachers in another city school 
 system. Four hundred pupils in the sixth, seventh, 
 and eighth grades took part in this experiment. Two 
 different types of reading material were used, a nine- 
 page article on '* Peanuts'* and another on *^ Immi- 
 gration." The pupils were asked to read each article 
 through carefully as often as they could in thirty 
 
94 SILENT READING 
 
 minutes. They were then subjected to a fifteen-minute 
 test on the material they had read. Fifty-eight days 
 later a recall test, based on the set of questions used 
 in the immediate-recall test, was given. A summary 
 of the results is presented in the table below. 
 
 Test Based on the Article "Peanuts" 
 (Possible score 58 points.) 
 
 Grade 
 VI 
 
 Average 
 
 Times Read 
 
 3 
 
 Immediate 
 Recall 
 30.1% 
 
 Recall After 
 
 58 DATS 
 
 9.8% 
 
 VII 
 
 3.5 
 
 34.6% 
 
 12.7% 
 
 VIII 
 
 4 
 
 45.1% 
 
 21.3% 
 
 The table is read thus: Pupils in the sixth grade 
 read the article on "Peanuts" an average of three 
 times, answered 30.1 per cent of the questions on 
 immediate testing and 9.8 per cent of the questions 
 fifty-eight days later. 
 
 Test Based on the Article "Immigration" 
 (Possible score 65 points.) 
 
 Grade 
 VI 
 
 aveirage 
 
 Times Read 
 
 3 
 
 Immediate 
 Recall 
 18.5% 
 
 Delated 
 Recall After 
 
 58 DATS 
 
 4.9% 
 
 VII 
 
 3.5 
 
 23.1% 
 
 7.8% 
 
 VIII 
 
 4 
 
 41.2% 
 
 16.7% 
 
 The table is read thus : Pupils in the fourth grade 
 read the article on ''Immigration" an average of three 
 times, answered 18.5 per cent of the questions on 
 immediate testing, and 4.9 per cent of the questions 
 fifty-eight days later. 
 
 The reader's attention is called to the following 
 
RETENTION 95 
 
 facts relative to the above study: (1) The two arti- 
 cles read were well adapted to the grades in which 
 they were used. (2) The pupils read for thirty min- 
 utes with greater zest than they probably would have 
 had under normal conditions, because they knew a 
 test would be given. (3) The fifteen-minute written 
 test was a severe one which held all to their tasks. 
 Forty-five minutes was spent on each article. In 
 view of these facts the scores show that the amount 
 retained after a lapse of fifty-eight days varied from 
 4.9 per cent to 16.7 per cent of the total possible 
 score. 
 
 Bird's experiment.^ One hundred normal-school 
 students in educational psychology were asked to read 
 a chapter entitled ''The Nervous System as the Organ 
 of Behavior." Although the assignment contained 
 many facts of psychology and physiology with which 
 these students had little if any acquaintance, no ex- 
 planation or directions were given concerning the 
 material set for study. The students were told merely 
 to study the assigned lesson in preparation for a 
 written test. 
 
 The following semester the same lesson was assigned 
 to another group of a hundred students having the 
 same general ability and preparation. This time the 
 assignment was preceded by careful explanations of 
 all different parts of the chapter; the explanations 
 were supplemented by demonstrations with the model 
 
 ^Bird, Grace E. "An experiment in 'focalization.' " School arid 
 Society, Vol. 8, (November) 1918. 
 
9G SILENT READING 
 
 of a brain and a preserved human brain. The super- 
 vised study period of half an hour was designed to 
 arouse interest in the topic. At the next recitation 
 period the students were given a test similar to that 
 previously used for the first group. It consisted of 
 twenty questions each of which could be answered in 
 a few words. The correctness of the answer depended 
 on the student's knowledge of facts, rather than upon 
 his ability to apply and use those facts. Two ques-' 
 tions were : ' ' The point of contact between neurones 
 
 is called a . " The name of neurones which 
 
 convey stimulation to the muscles is . " 
 
 It is scarcely necessary to remark that the general 
 results of the second test were of a higher grade than 
 those of the first one. The measured differences show 
 that the half hour of preparation focalized and moti- 
 vated the w^ork to the extent of raising the average 
 grade from 54.15 per cent to 74.1 per cent, and the 
 median grade from 51.1 per cent to 73.95 per cent. 
 The range of the extremes resulting from the un- 
 focalized assignment was 5 to 90, of the other from 
 49 to 100. The absurdity of the assignment made to 
 the first hundred students is obvious. Nevertheless, 
 that type of assignment is still used in many class- 
 rooms. 
 
 The results of this experiment indicate the import- 
 ance of a careful specific assignment as an aid to 
 retention, the possibility of catching the attention and 
 arousing genuine interest in a lesson by carefully ex- 
 
RETENTION 97 
 
 plaining its difficult parts, the probability of increasing 
 the achievements of the students in the quantity and 
 quality of work accomplished, and the advantage of 
 minimizing the initiation of incorrect habits and ob- 
 viating the waste of unlearning them. 
 
 How to increase retentioii. The following methods 
 and devices may be used to develop skill in immediate 
 recall, as well as permanency of retention. (1) Let 
 the pupils know that they are to be tested on the 
 material read. Do not fail to test them. (2) Give 
 a test over the assignment before reading. As has been 
 shown, that greatly increases the amount immediately 
 recalled and permanently retained. (3) Give a second 
 test after the pupils have taken the preliminary test and 
 read the lesson through once. That appeals to most 
 pupils since it gives them an opportunity to see the 
 gain made in a single reading. (4) Have short, brisk, 
 daily reviews of the outstanding features of the pre- 
 vious day's discussion or lesson. (5) Provide weekly 
 and monthly reviews of the work covered. (6) Have 
 pupils prepare a list of questions, the answers to which 
 cover the main points in the work of the week or the 
 month. (7) Let the test consist chiefly of these ques- 
 tions. Have the papers graded in class by pupils and 
 teacher, who are also to decide what constitutes a 
 complete answer. (8) See that the papers are at once 
 returned to the pupils, thus giving each a chance to 
 review his own and to protest if he thinks it has been 
 improperly valued. 
 
98 SILENT READING 
 
 Tests conducted according to the suggestions offered 
 insure four reviews of the main points: {a) When 
 the pupils prepare the test; (h) when they write it; 
 (c) when each corrects another's paper; (d) when 
 each looks over his own paper for possible errors in 
 valuing. Outlining and summarizing also help one to 
 retain. To remember well one must establish logical 
 associations. Hence, organization of the main points 
 in a lesson under the proper headings and subheadings 
 is a powerful aid to logical association. Organization 
 also appeals to one's innate love of rhythm. Thorn- 
 dike urges the importance of interest, attention, and 
 play as dynamic factors affecting ready recall. It is 
 surely the common experience of every teacher that 
 to the degree to which the pupils attend, are inter- 
 ested, and enjoy certain .situations in their school work, 
 to that degree do those situations remain fixed and 
 tend to recur. It is a basic law of human psychology 
 that one responds to situations of interest and pleasure 
 more frequently than to their opposites. Thorndike's 
 laws of readiness, exercise, and effect, together with 
 the more specific law^s of recency, frequency, intensity, 
 and duration, should be understood and the principles 
 applied, if permanency of recall is to function. The 
 importance of focalizing the pupil's attention upon 
 the main points in the next assignment should not be 
 overlooked. That practice is of particular value in 
 classes of immature pupils who cannot readily dis- 
 tinguish among major and minor topics. 
 
RETENTION 99 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. Retention is an important factor of effective study. 
 
 2. Experiments have proven the inability of the average 
 pupil to recall immediately any considerable portion of 
 what he reads. 
 
 8. Experiments show that of 450 pupils who read an article 
 two or more times, not one could answer 50 per cent 
 of the questions submitted immediately after the read- 
 ing. 
 
 4. The amount which pupils are able to retain after inter- 
 vals of twenty and fifty-eight days is almost negligible. 
 
 5. Teachers are urged to use methods and devices which 
 help to insure retention. 
 
 6. The teacher of silent reading and of other subjects 
 should make adequate provision for daily, weekly, and 
 monthly reviews of the minimal essentials. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 Colvin, Stephen S. An Introduction to High-School Teaching. 
 
 The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1921. 
 Dearborn, G. V. N. Hoiv to Learn Easily. Little, Brown 
 
 and Company, Boston, 1916. 
 Gray, William S. Studies of Elementary School Reading 
 
 Through Standardized Tests. Supplementary Educational 
 
 Monographs, Vol. 1, No. 1, 1917. University of Chicago 
 
 Press, Chicago. 
 Heck, W. H. Mental Discipline and Educational Value. 
 
 The John Lane Company, Boston, 1911. 
 Lukens, H. T. Thought and Memory. D. C. Heath and 
 
 Company, Boston, 1896. 
 Seashore, Carl E. Psychology in Daily Life, D. Appleton 
 
 and Company, New York City, 1913. 
 Thorndike, Edward L. Educational Psychology: Briefer 
 
 Course. (Chapters 6, 10, 11, 16, 17, 19.) Columbia Uni- 
 versity Press, New York City, 1914. 
 Thorndike, Edward L. Elements of Psychology. (Chapters 
 
 13 to 18.) 2nd ed., A. G. Seller, New York City, 1913. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 QUESTIONABLE METHODS OF TEACHING 
 
 READING 
 
 A consideration of reading methods. The four pre- 
 ceding' chapters were devoted to an intensive discus- 
 sion of the larger problems of silent reading, viz., 
 speed, comprehension, organization, and retention. In 
 each chapter an attempt was made to set forth the im- 
 portance of the problem under discussion, in its rela- 
 tion to teaching pupils how to study. The results of 
 several investigations of methods of study reveal the 
 deplorable status of reading common to our schools. 
 In view of these facts, this chapter deals with two 
 problems: (1) Some reading methods and their out- 
 standing defects. (2) Some suggested remedies. Since 
 the most effective time to discuss a remedy is in con- 
 junction with the defect itself, these two themes will 
 be treated throughout the chapter in conjunction with 
 each other. 
 
 The ABC method. One of the most glaring defects 
 in teaching reading is the use of the old ABC method 
 still in vogue in many of the backward sections of 
 our country. Human ingenuity could scarcely have 
 devised a scheme more unnatural and bewildering to 
 
 100 
 
QUESTIONABLE METHODS OF TEACHING IQI 
 
 the child. Reading is at best an artificial process which 
 involves the use of symbols. The child comes to school 
 thinking in terms of thought units; therefore, the 
 psychological and natural approach is by means of 
 the sentence method, or possibly through a modification 
 of the word method. 
 
 The first five or six years of the child's life have 
 been crowded full of experience of all kinds. Thou- 
 sands of questions and the memory of thousands of 
 experiences are in his mind waiting to be expressed. 
 And yet, since the days of the Greeks, we have im- 
 posed upon the immature minds of children twenty- 
 six letters usually presented in three forms. The con- 
 fusion arising in the mind of an eighth-grade pupil if 
 a complex formula in trigonometry were presented, 
 could scarcely equal the mental disturbance caused 
 children by beginning reading with the ABC method. 
 
 Defects of the ABO method. But aside from this 
 evil, the most outstanding objection to the ABC 
 method is that it retards the development of speed 
 and comprehension in reading. The movements of the 
 eye in reading a line are interrupted by a succession 
 of distinct pauses or fixations. Speed in reading con- 
 sists in forming motor habits with few pauses or 
 fixation-points to the line, and with a minimum time 
 at each fixation period. 
 
 Pupils whose first years in school are spent in fix- 
 ing their attention daily upon a letter or syllable, form 
 habits of narrow eye-span, that is, small perception- 
 
102 SILENT READING 
 
 units. It is believed by many that the concentration 
 of attention in noting the peculiarities of certain let- 
 ters, or the phonetic group to which syllables belong, 
 forms a motor habit of taking in narrow perception- 
 units and making fixations of long duration at each 
 pause. In all probability the child never can become 
 a fast reader because he has formed these motor habits. 
 
 The reading exercises of the primary grades should 
 be such as to enlarge the pupil's perceptual span. Con- 
 sequently, phrase-flashing exercises, which necessitate 
 the pupil's recognizing a group of words in a very 
 short time-exposure should be frequent in order to. 
 offset the danger of the pupil's seeing and reading only 
 one word at a glance instead of taking in an "eyeful." 
 
 A photographic registration of all slow readers' eye- 
 movements would probably show eight or nine fixa- 
 tions to the line, instead of only the necessary three 
 or four, as well as many regressive movements or re- 
 fixations. Moreover, the duration of attention at each 
 fixation would be from one-half to three times as 
 long as that of a rapid reader. 
 
 Increasing the comprehension of pupils is hindered 
 by the use of the ABC method, because in compre- 
 hension the attention must be focused on the thought, 
 not on the letter or sound. Slow readers do not 
 develop a wide attention-span. Their peripheral im- 
 pressions are so limited that no general impression of 
 the line can come from a single fixation. 
 
 The phonetic method. The phonetic method is open 
 
QUESTIONABLE METHODS OF TEACHING 103 
 
 to the same criticism as the ABC method, although 
 its evil effects may not be as bad. AVhen reading is 
 tanght by this method, the attention of the pupil is 
 focused not upon the thought or sentence unit, but 
 upon the letters and syllables of a word. Hence, the 
 pupil forms motor habits in reading which result in 
 very short ej^e-span and fixations of long duration. 
 The chief value of the phonetic method is that the 
 pupil is no longer dependent on the teacher for learn- 
 ing new words. It should be used in the word-drill 
 study period, never in the silent-reading period. All 
 the special phonetic methods greatly overemphasize the 
 value of that training, give it too large a place in the 
 early work in reading, and pursue it long after its 
 essential values have been obtained. 
 
 The word method. The w^ord method, if abused, is 
 also detrimental to speed and comprehension. In fact, 
 many of the evils that are inherent in the ABC 
 and the phonetic methods are present in the word 
 method, although to a less degree. 
 
 Many teachers begin with the word method and 
 never get awaj^ from it. They begin to teach read- 
 ing from a chart on which a half dozen words appear. 
 Then the pupils are asked to read short sentences, 
 either individually or in concert, while the teacher 
 slowly times or isolates each word with a pointer or 
 ruler. 
 
 If the primer is used, each child is asked to read 
 a line or so, and to point to each word. The highest 
 
104 SILENT READING 
 
 ambition of some teachers seems to be to have the 
 pupil "keep his finger on the place," whether he is 
 reading or following the reading of some one else. A 
 none too gentle rap on a delinquent's finger tends 
 to enforce the rule until he forms the habit of pointing 
 to each word as it is read. Thus the child's attention 
 is focused on words instead of phrases or whole sen- 
 tences. While reading, pupils should not be allowed 
 to point to single words. When the teacher points to 
 work on the blackboard she should indicate phrases 
 or sentences with a sweep of the pointer. 
 
 Criticisms of the word method. Is it any wonder 
 that pupils taught by such methods form motor habits 
 of narrow perception-units and exceedingly long time 
 distribution at each pause? Boiler charts are now to 
 be had on which appear phrases and short sentences 
 for beginners. These are flashed before the pupil 
 one line at a time for one or more seconds. He thus 
 forms a habit of seeing and comprehending a whole 
 thought unit at one or two fixations. Some teachers 
 make use of the blackboard, flash cards, and games for 
 the first half year until habits conducive to speed and 
 comprehension are formed. For example, the teacher 
 writes the entire reading lesson on the blackboard be- 
 fore the recitation period. It is then covered. When 
 the time comes to read, only one sentence is exposed 
 at a time. The exposure is brief lest the pupils form 
 slow 'motor habits of reading syllables and words in- 
 stead of phrases and sentences at a glance. 
 
QUESTIONABLE METHODS OF TEACHING 105 
 
 Until recently educators have accepted tlie theory 
 that the word-unit method is the natural and most 
 economical waj^ of teaching reading to beginners. They 
 declared that because the child comes to school with 
 a word vocabulary he consequently thinks in words, 
 and they insisted that his field of perception is very 
 limited. Regarding the latter claim, Dearborn states 
 that the amount read per fixation is seldom equal to 
 the field of perception. For digits or nonsense syllables 
 the attention-span may be rather limited, because such 
 material offers scant opportunity for the alws of asso- 
 ciation to function. However, when the letters form 
 words, sixteen or twenty can be caught in one sweep, 
 and in reading ordinary prose four to six words are 
 often so included. Note the width of the perception- 
 unit of a high-school student as reported by Schmidt 
 in the following sentence : 
 
 The stranger who wjould form a coijrect opinion 
 of the English charaoter must not confine 
 
 his observations to the metropolis. 
 
 The vertical lines indicate the fixation-points, show- 
 ing that the perception-unit may be wider than three 
 or four letters, as many advocates of the word method 
 would have us believe. If we accept the above state- 
 ments of scientific investigators as being trustworthy, 
 
106 - SILENT READING 
 
 it is evident that the word method does not tax the 
 field of perception to the limit. This defect, together 
 with the extended time distribution on each word, 
 makes the method very questionable. Successful teach- 
 ers of reading, who claim to use the word method, suc- 
 ceed with it because they use flash cards, blackboard 
 work, and other devices in which phrases and short 
 sentences really become the perception-units. 
 
 Oral reading. Overemphasis of oral reading was 
 another factor which contributed to the deplorable 
 status of reading set forth in the preceding chapters. 
 The public has a right to ask its teachers, "Why 
 should 90 per cent of the classroom reading be oral, 
 if 99 per cent of the reading in adult life is silent? 
 Why build up a set of motor habits in childhood that 
 handicap one in adult life?" 
 
 Oral reading has been emphasized in the lower grades 
 because it is said to be the most natural, being an 
 expression of irrepressible, psychic tendencies. Those 
 who advocate oral reading in those grades do so be- 
 cause certain psj^chological factors are involved. Unless 
 one is of the extreme visual-image type, the problem 
 of inner speech in reading is ever present. There is 
 usually an inseparable association between a word and 
 its sound so that when the visual image of a word 
 is recognized the auditory image of ^the word arises. 
 That results in the verbal-motor expression of the 
 word. In reading, the auditory and motor centers are 
 active; purely visual reading is not normal. Lip- 
 
QUESTIONABLE METHODS OF TEACHING 107 
 
 reading in children is a perfectly natural tendency, 
 especially if their minds are of the motor or auditory 
 
 type. 
 
 The fact that oral reading is natural to the child 
 does not at all justify encouraging the practice. Many 
 babies naturally want to suck their thumbs, but no 
 mother is justified in encouraging that. The truth 
 is that oral reading greatly hinders both speed and 
 comprehension because it depends on the physiological 
 mechanism of vocalization. 
 
 Dr. Schmidt's table^ shows that the average number 
 of pauses per line made by the forty-five subjects of 
 his experiment when reading silently was 6.5, and the 
 average number of pauses made when they read orally 
 was 8.2. The average duration of pauses in silent 
 reading was .3882 seconds; the average duration in 
 oral reading was .3808. Oral reading required 28 per 
 cent more pauses to the line, and 24 per cent more 
 time at each pause, than did silent reading. This dif- 
 ference is explained by the fact that oral reading is 
 controlled by speech units rather than divided into 
 units of visual perception. 
 
 Method of training* primary pupils. Since oral 
 reading retards speed at least 25 per cent, according 
 to Schmidt's data, and since it is almost impossible to 
 modify those motor habits after they are formed, one 
 is justified in making the greatest possible use of 
 
 ^Schmidt, "VV. A. "An experimental study in the psycholog-y 
 of reading-." SuppJementary Educational Monograph, Vol, 1, No. 
 2, University of Chicag-o Press, Chicag-o, 1917. (Consult Tables 
 VII and VIII. p. 43.) 
 
108 SILENT READING 
 
 silent reading even in the first grade. One experi- 
 menter has pointed out that if the training in oral 
 reading were discontinued at a very early stage, and 
 training in rapid silent reading stressed, the tendency 
 toward inner speech might be greatly reduced and 
 visualization cultivated. 
 
 The fact is that children do have the ability to 
 take in all kinds of situations visually without speech 
 accompaniment, and that it is unnecessary for them to 
 articulate, even inaudibly, when they read symbols. 
 This may be demonstrated in any primary-grade read- 
 ing class by having the pupils do the thing the symbol 
 suggests. For example, the teacher writes on the black- 
 board, "Who will bring me the bean bag?" "Let the 
 boys play the girls today, ' ' etc. The responses to these 
 written symbols are acted out by the children. The 
 whole game is played, the score recorded, and the 
 material put away by the children without a word 
 being spoken by either teacher or pupils. 
 
 Judd reports^ in one of his monographs that the 
 tendency to inner speech which oral reading encourages 
 may be almost overcome by great effort even in adult 
 life. He cites the case of a man who was a lip-reader 
 and also an excellent oral reader. His average rate 
 of silent reading was very slow, only 2.3 words per 
 second. Realizing his handicap, he practiced daily for 
 four weeks on easy and familiar material. A conscious 
 
 iJudd, Charles H. "Reading- : Its nature and development." 
 Supplementary Educational Monograph, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 159, 
 160, University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 
 
QUESTIONABLE METHODS OP TEACHING 109 
 
 effort to suppress articulation, to increase eye-span, and 
 to see phrases instead of words was a part of the daily 
 exercise. His reward was an ability to read 4.7 words 
 and in some cases 6.2 words per second. Further 
 training has made him a rapid silent reader. 
 
 Lip-reading". We naturally ask, Why should we 
 any longer stress oral reading and thus retard our 
 speed and comprehension for life? It has been pointed 
 out that lip-reading is natural, being evidence of inner 
 speech. Many are of the opinion that it is encouraged 
 by emphasizing oral reading in the early grades. Re- 
 gardless of what may be the causes, the evils of lip- 
 reading are so outstanding that some mention of them 
 should be made at this time. 
 
 Quantz^ found that among the subjects of his ex- 
 periment the ten pronounced lip-readers were those who 
 read 4.1 words per second. Ten who showed least move- 
 ment of the lips read 5.6 words per second. In terms 
 of percentage, the non-lipreaders read 36 per cent more 
 rapidly than the lip-readers did. In percentage of 
 thought reproduced, the lip-readers made a score of 
 14.9, the non-lipreaders 24.4. In quality, the lip-read- 
 ers made a score of 48, the non-lipreaders, 73.3. 
 
 G-ermane's experiment. Further to substantiate the 
 findings of Quantz, attention is called to a more recent 
 study^ of lip-reading made by Edith Gr. Germane. This 
 
 ^Quantz, J. O. "Problems in the psychology of reading." Psy- 
 chological Reviem: Monograph Sup%>lem&nt, Vol. 2, No. 1, (De- 
 cember) 1897. 
 
 ^Germane, Edith G. "Relationship betv/een speed and compre- 
 hension in silent reading-." (An unpublished master's disserta- 
 tion offered to the State University of Iowa in 1920.) 
 
110 SILENT READING 
 
 experiment was performed on 450 pupils of the sixth, 
 seventh, and eighth grades. The articles used were 
 •those on '' Peanuts" and on "Tuberculosis," already 
 mentioned. The pupils were asked to read the article 
 through once as they ordinarily do a story. The time 
 was marked on the blackboard at five-second intervals; 
 as soon as a pupil finished reading he looked up, then 
 noted and recorded his time. Then he took up the 
 list of questions and immediately answered as many 
 as possible. While the pupils were reading, three 
 teachers recorded the names of those who read with 
 decided lip-movement. The rate of speed and the per- 
 centage of comprehension of both types of pupils were 
 tabulated separately and compared. The lip-readers 
 who read the article "Peanuts" were handicapped in 
 both speed and comprehension. Sixth-grade lip-readers 
 read an average of 161 words per minute. Pupils of 
 that grade who were not lip-readers read an average 
 of 169 words. In the comprehension test, the average 
 score for lip-readers was nine points, eleven points for 
 those who were not lip-readers. Seventh-grade lip- 
 readers averaged only 156 words per minute and made 
 a comprehension score of fifteen points. Those who 
 were not lip-readers read 180 words per minute and 
 made a comprehension score of fifteen points. Eighth- 
 grade lip-readers read an average of 174 words per 
 minute and made an average comprehension score of 
 sixteen points. Members of that grade who were not 
 lip-readers averaged reading 205 words per minute 
 
QUESTIONABLE METHODS OF TEACHING m 
 
 and made an average comprehension score of eighteen 
 points. The results obtained by having the pupils read 
 the article "Tuberculosis" showed similar relationships. 
 Pupils of the three grades who read that article were 
 handicapped in both speed and comprehension. 
 
 The figures here presented probably do not ade- 
 quately indicate the seriousness of the handicap. Let 
 us look at them from another point of view. In the 
 eighth grade the average rate for non-lipreaders who 
 read the article "Peanuts" was 205 per minute, and 
 for lip-readers it was 174 words per minute, an aver- 
 age difference of 31 words per minute or 1,860 words 
 per hour. The pamphlet read had about 340 words 
 to a page. Hence, the non-lipreaders in the eighth 
 grade read an average of five pages more per hour 
 than did the lip-readers. If the comprehension of the 
 lip-readers had been superior, this handicap in rate 
 would not be so serious, but as a matter of fact the 
 non-lipreaders made an average score of eighteen points 
 in comprehension as compared with the sixteen points 
 made by the lip-readers. They excelled the lip-readers 
 by practically 13 per cent. 
 
 Suggested treatment for lip-reading". The data pre- 
 sented in these two studies convince one of the evils 
 inherent in lip-reading. It is difficult to suggest 
 a remedy, especially for a child of pronounced motor 
 type. It would seem advisable, however, to minimize 
 oral reading and stress silent reading with pupils 
 who have formed this habit. The tendency toward 
 
112 SILENT READING 
 
 motor response could be taken care of in primary- 
 grades by having the pupil do what the word, phrase, 
 or sentence says. Many teachers get excellent re- 
 sults by drawing the attention of the pupils to adult 
 lip-readers, pointing out how foolish it looks, and 
 explaining just how it handicaps the reader. Then 
 by some artificial means, such as an honor roll, the 
 teacher encourages the pupils to inhibit this tendency. 
 Placing the finger on the lips often aids in inhibiting 
 lip-movement. 
 
 It seems that lip-reading may be partially checked 
 by presenting all drill exercises very rapidly. For 
 instance, in a phrase-flashing exercise, make the ex- 
 posure of such a group of words as *^ under the 
 table" so short that the pupils have not time to 
 whisper it word by word. It is well to separate 
 pupils into at least tw^o groups (three is better) ac- 
 cording to their rate of reading. Lip-readers should 
 also receive special drill designed to break the habit. 
 Much patience on the part of teacher and pupils is 
 necessary if this habit is to be overcome. With 
 training, the phrase rather than the word will even- 
 tually become the unit. 
 
 Need of speed and comprehension drills. Perhaps 
 the greatest cause of poor reading is the teacher's 
 failure to make provision for daily training in speed 
 and comprehension. No pride in rapid and thoughtful 
 reading is developed, and no provision is made in the 
 daily schedule which insures practice in speed and 
 
QUESTIONABLE METHODS OF TEACHING II3 
 
 comprehension. We seem to be concerned with the 
 child's getting knowledge rather than with develop- 
 ing his ability to acquire knowledge. Part II of this 
 book will attempt to show how speed and comprehen- 
 sion drills may be made a part of the daily lesson. 
 
 Teaching pupils to organize. Emphasis should also 
 be placed on organization. It is surprising how soon 
 pupils can be taught to tell when a new paragraph 
 begins and ends. Their oral and written outlines 
 would often put much older pupils to shame. 
 
 Teaching pupils to retain. The value of daily re- 
 views and drills, and of a schedule for general re- 
 views, can not be overemphasized. The vital point is 
 not how much a child learns, but the method he em- 
 ploys to learn. 
 
 Choice of subject-matter. If pupils are to become 
 efficient readers, they must have access to an abun- 
 dance of material. The contents of the readers most 
 widely used are good. Story-books, too, are of value, 
 but for purposes of training in getting and organizing 
 information, the training must be applied in reading 
 such subjects as history, geography, and science. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. The use of the old ABC method in teaching beginning 
 reading does not facilitate the formation of good reading 
 habits. 
 
 2. Overemphasis of the phonetic or word methods is un- 
 favorable to the development of speed and comprehen- 
 sion. 
 
 3. About 90 per cent of the reading period has been de- 
 
114 SILENT READING 
 
 voted to oral reading; training in the best methods 
 of silent reading has been neglected. 
 
 4. Experiments seem to prove that lip-reading is a handi- 
 cap that affects both speed and comprehension. 
 
 5. Drill exercises that emphasize speed, comprehension, 
 organization, and retention are necessary. 
 
 6. Various kinds of subject-matter should be used. 
 
 7., All defects should be met with proper remedial meas- 
 ures. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Anderson, C. F.- and Merton, Elda. "Remedial work in 
 
 silent reading." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 21, 
 
 (January) 1921. 
 Dearborn, W. F. "The psychology of reading." Columbia 
 
 University Contrihutions to Philosophy and Psychology, 
 
 Vol. 14, No. 1, 1906. 
 Gray, William S. "The diagnostic study of an individual 
 
 case in reading," Elementary School Journal, Vol. 21, 
 
 (April) 1921. 
 Judd, Charles H. Reading: Its Nature and Development. 
 
 Supplementary Educational Monographs, Vol. 2, No. 4, 
 
 <July) 1918. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 
 Parker, S. C. "How to teach beginning reading: Part IV." 
 
 Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, (December) 1921. 
 Report of the Society's Committee on Silent Reading: Part 
 
 II. The Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society for 
 
 the Study of Education, Public School Publishing Com- 
 pany, Bloomington, Illinois, 1921. 
 Schmidt, W. A. An Experimental Study in the Psychology 
 
 of Reading. Supplementary Educational Monographs, Vol. 
 
 1, No. 2, (April) 1917. University of Chicago Press, 
 
 Chicago. 
 Waldman, Bessie. "Definite improvement of reading in a 
 
 fourth-grade class." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 21, 
 
 (December) 1920. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 REMEDIAL WORK IN READING 
 
 The importance of remedial work. There are doubt- 
 less thousands of boys and girls who fail each year 
 and are unable to continue with their classmates be- 
 cause of defects which can readily be remedied. For 
 such children the results are discouragement, retarda- 
 tion, and elimination from school in far too many 
 cases. The condition has occasioned much scientific 
 research in remedial w^ork in reading. Data gathered 
 from these investigations suggest methods for diag- 
 nosing reading defects, and devices for remedying 
 them. 
 
 Gray cites^ a case that furnishes a good example 
 of the value of diagnosis and remedial work. A boy 
 slightly above the general intelligence of his age- 
 group had been in school four years and Avas still 
 unable to read. Careful investigation revealed that 
 he had never formed the habit of moving his eyes 
 regularly from left to right along a line. At times 
 the first pause would be near the end of the line, at 
 
 iGray, William S. "The value of informal tests of reading 
 accomplishments." Journal of Educational Research^ Vol. 1, (Feb- 
 ruary) 1920. 
 
 115 
 
IIQ SILENT READING 
 
 other times near the middle of it. The pauses were 
 irregular and followed no definite order. 
 
 In order to help this pupil the teacher prepared 
 drill exercises consisting of typewritten words placed 
 half an inch apart. She then required the boy to 
 read a series of such words for five minutes each day 
 in order to cultivate habits of regular eye-movement. 
 It was soon possible to group words in thought units 
 spaced one-half inch apart for his reading exercises. 
 Following those exercises he read simple reading ma- 
 terial. The ease and accuracy with which he soon 
 became able to read indicated that one of the major 
 difficulties which hindered the boy's reading had 
 been discovered and corrected. 
 
 One of the outstanding weaknesses common to 
 many methods of teaching reading is the use of the 
 same drill or exercise for a whole class, -in the hope 
 that it will cure all reading ills. As a matter of fact, 
 there may be as many reading difficulties as there are 
 members of the class. For that reason teachers are 
 urged to make diagnoses of the pupils' defects. 
 "When, such remedial work is attempted, two diffi- 
 cult problems arise: What are the particular causes 
 of the pupil's oral and silent-reading defects? What 
 types of drill will most thoroughly and economically 
 remedy the defects? This chapter and the following 
 are devoted to a consideration of methods for use in 
 discovering reading difficulties, and to suggestions for 
 eliminating them. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK II7 
 
 Means and Methods of Diagnosing Heading 
 
 Difficulties 
 
 Standardized tests. To discover and diagnose oral 
 and silent-reading defects is the first task of the 
 teacher who attempts to increase either the speed or 
 comprehension of her pupils by scientific means. 
 What are some of the means and methods that may 
 be used to discover reading defects? Teachers in 
 many schools are using standardized tests for this 
 purpose. If the study habits of the pupils are care- 
 fully observed and noted while they are taking the 
 tests, and if the test papers are carefully analyzed, 
 the teacher can usually discover many reading defects. 
 Superintendent C. J. Anderson and Elda Merton^ 
 of the public schools of Stoughton, Wisconsin, used 
 Gray's Oral-reading Test to determine the errors most 
 commonly made by third-grade children in oral- 
 reading classes. The classification of errors made and 
 the percentage of each kind are shown by the following 
 table. 
 
 Classification of errors made by third-grade pupils while 
 reading Gray's Oral-reading Test 
 
 Kind of Error Percentage 
 
 Repetition 15 
 
 Insertion (letter or word) 14 
 
 Omission (letter or word) 8 
 
 Substitution 24' 
 
 Mispronunciation 3 
 
 Accent 4 
 
 ^Anderson, C. J., and Merton, Elda. "Remedial work in read- 
 ing: Parts I and II." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 20, (May, 
 June) 1920. 
 
118 SILENT READING 
 
 Portion omitted 7 
 
 Portion inserted 10 
 
 Omission not changing meaning 4 
 
 Addition not changing meaning 2 
 
 Vowel sounds 2 
 
 Confusing letters not governed by rule 1 
 
 Wrong syllable 3 
 
 Repetition to correct an error 3 
 
 Not attempted 1 
 
 The typical errors made in silent reading were 
 discovered by means of two silent-reading tests, 
 Monroe's and Thorndike's. The percentages of errors 
 of each kind are shown below. 
 
 Kind of Error Frequency Percentage 
 
 Meager meaning vocabulary ' 741 33 
 
 Inability to find the essential idea 423 19 
 
 Omission of part of idea due to short 
 
 unit of visual recognition 306 14 
 
 Giving general thought instead of spe- 
 cific answer, or particular instances 
 instead of general thought; i. e., in- 
 ability to get definite information 
 
 from material read 293 13 
 
 Inaccuracy due to carelessness or haste 90 4 
 
 Failure to differentiate between words 
 
 somewhat similar in spelling 76 3 
 
 Failure to note carefully small words 
 
 and key words 95 4 
 
 Substitution of pupil's own thought for 
 
 that in paragraph 97 4 
 
 Inability to think logically in response 
 
 to question 91 4 
 
 Tn addition to the errors listed above, the follow- 
 ing were recorded by teachers who observed the 
 
REMEDIAL WORK . 119 
 
 pupils' silent reading. (1) Reading word by word 
 instead of by thought groups. (2) Vocalization and 
 lip-movement. (3) Using the finger to follow the 
 line. (4) Short span of attention which results in 
 loss of place, and the omission and repetition of 
 words. (5) Slow rate of silent reading. Although 
 these five headings include the types of errors that 
 most frequently occur, there is much overlapping 
 in the classification. For example, a slow rate of 
 reading may be caused by vocalization and lip-move- 
 ment, by using the finger to follow the lines, or 
 by a meager number of words understood. 
 
 Teacher-made tests. As shown by the results ob- 
 tained from the experiment cited, standardized read- 
 ing tests may be used to determine oral and silent- 
 reading errors. But what is the teacher to do who is 
 not familiar with administering standardized tests 
 and interpreting the results obtained? What can 
 she do to determine reading errors and defects when 
 she has none of the standardized measurements avail- 
 able? A reasonable answer to the latter question is 
 to suggest that each teacher make her own reading 
 tests. 
 
 When measuring the rate and quality of oral 
 reading by means of a teacher-made test, the follow- 
 ing suggestions should be kept in mind: Select read- 
 ing material adapted to the child's grade. The 
 pupil's reader or any of his other textbooks may 
 be used. Note the exact second at which he reads 
 
120 SILENT READING 
 
 the first word of the selection and mark the word.^ 
 When sixty seconds have elapsed, mark the word 
 which he was reading when the minute was up. 
 However, let him finish the paragraph. Count and 
 record only the words read in one minute. The pupils 
 themselves can often do this accurately. In order to 
 test comprehension ask such questions about the 
 selection as you usually ask. Chart both the speed 
 and comprehension record and file for future use. 
 Note and record such errors as repetitions, substitu- 
 tions, etc. As these data give a basis for remedial 
 work, it is well to have the pupil read two or three 
 minutes in order to get a definite idea of his needs. 
 Follow the same procedure with each member of 
 the class. If comparisons are to be made between 
 the achievements of the pupils on this first test and 
 on other tests given two weeks or a month later, 
 the same type of reading material should be used and 
 conditions should be as nearly the same as possible 
 when the second test is given. 
 
 Devising class standards. If the teacher desires to 
 benefit by the wholesome influence that usually 
 comes from standardization, she may do so by devising 
 standards for the class from the pupils' own records. 
 To do this, find the average rate of the three most 
 rapid readers in a class of twelve pupils, and the 
 average comprehension score of the three who rank 
 
 ^Some teachers think they can get a more accurate measure 
 of the pupil's actual reading rate if they allow him to read 
 three or four lines before they begrin to mark time. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 121 
 
 highest in thought-getting. Let these two scores be 
 the standards or goals. Generally speaking, the aver- 
 age score made by the best fourth of the class affords 
 a good stimulus for study. If such a method of 
 standardization is adopted throughout the grades, 
 the pupils in the upper fourth, who are already up 
 to or above the standard of their own grade, may 
 take as their goal the standard set for the grade 
 immediately above them. The practice of determin- 
 ing the standard for the class from the pupils' 
 achievements often awakens a genuine interest in 
 reading. The personal element involved often causes 
 the teacher to raise the question, ^*How well should 
 a pupil read in this grade!" 
 
 If the teacher uses the above method of standardiz- 
 ing instead of those standards based on scientific 
 measurements, she should begin a study of the read- 
 ing defects of the 75 per cent who are below the 
 class standard. Of the fourteen typical errors in 
 oral reading revealed by Gray's Oral-reading Test, 
 substitutions, repetitions, and insertions occur most 
 often. The teacher can discover any of these by 
 having the pupils read three or four paragraphs 
 which she selects. Much of this diagnostic work can 
 be done in class. A certain study reports that the 
 teacher did a large amount of remedial work in one 
 grade, although she used little time other than the 
 usual recitation period. This is an advisable plan to 
 follow, especially when the teacher has many duties. 
 
122 SILENT READING 
 
 Planning" remedial work. Some teachers do not 
 plan their remedial work advantageously. Instead 
 of working with one pupil at a time, while the other 
 members of the class await their turns, the teacher 
 should classify the pupils into several small groups 
 on the basis of their reading defects, then unite 
 similar groups for certain lessons. During such exer- 
 cises good readers who need but little help should 
 spend their time improving the quality of their silent 
 reading. *'A definite diagnosis of individual traits in 
 reading should form the basis of grouping. Every 
 trait which influences reading habits can in turn 
 be influenced by definite training and special prac- 
 tice. "^ 
 
 Anderson and Merton's data record nine reading 
 errors discovered when pupils were diagnosed by 
 the two silent-reading tests. The teachers who gave 
 the tests also noted five other reading defects. The 
 last five were determined by carefully observing the 
 pupils' study habits when they took the tests. Even 
 had standardized tests of silent reading not been 
 available, it would have been possible for any of 
 those teachers to discover many of the fourteen errors 
 by using silent-reading material which they selected, 
 as was done when the oral-reading errors were found. 
 
 How to make silent-reading tests. If the teacher 
 devises her own silent-reading tests, she should keep 
 the folloA\dng facts in mind. Select three or four 
 
 ^Zirbes, Taura. "Diag'nostic measurement as a basis for pro- 
 cedure." Elementary School Journal,, Vol. 18, (March) 1918. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 123 
 
 pages of reading material adapted to the grade. 
 Use material found in the pupil's textbooks and sup- 
 plementary readers. See that all pupils begin read- 
 ing at the same time. Measure the rate of reading 
 by calling time at the end of one or two minutes 
 and having the pupils find the average number of 
 words read per minute. The teacher can expedite 
 this work by counting the words in each line and 
 writing at the end of the line the total number of 
 words on the page up to that point. When the 
 pupil shows the teacher the last word he read, she 
 adds the last preceding number indicating a total 
 to the number of words read in the line with which 
 the pupil finished, and thus instantly obtains the 
 total number of words read. The teacher can 
 measure the pupils' ability to comprehend and to 
 retain by having them answer definite questions 
 based on what they read. Factual and well-organized 
 material lends itself readily to this treatment. The 
 questions should be worded so as to demand much 
 thinking and little writing. File or chart both speed 
 and comprehension scores for future use. Observe 
 the pupils' study habits while taking the test, and 
 note carefully the kind of errors made. "When subse- 
 quent tests are given for purposes of comparison, 
 select material as nearly as possible like that first 
 used. 
 
 The teacher can arouse much interest by letting 
 each pupil compute his own reading rate and figure 
 
124 SILENT READING 
 
 his own comprehension score. The latter should be 
 based on the number of correct answers. The records 
 of each pupil may be placed on the blackboard or 
 filed for future reference. The teacher can stand- 
 ardize these class scores by taking as a standard 
 the record made by the upper fourth. As has been 
 said, the teacher-made tests and class-made standards 
 often excite greater interest than do standardized 
 tests and their accompanying standards. The in- 
 trinsic value of informal tests as a means of diagnosis 
 and standardization has been set forth by Gray/ 
 Waldo,^ and Smith.^ 
 
 Eeading scales and tests. The teacher should use 
 scales to discover reading difficulties whenever con- 
 ditions allow. These scales not only show with what 
 speed and accuracy pupils should read, but they also 
 furnish a chart of each child's weaknesses. For 
 example when the Picture Supplement Scales for 
 Measuring Ability in Silent Reading^ was used, it was 
 found that some pupils in the third grade read as 
 many paragraphs and attempted as many answers as 
 are expected of a child two or three grades more ad- 
 vanced. A careful check on the accuracy of the 
 answers showed that often only a few were correct. 
 
 ^Gray, W. S. "Value of informal tests of reading- accomplish- 
 ments." Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 1, (February) 1920. 
 
 ^Waldo, Carl D. "Tests in reading- in the Sycamore schools." 
 Elementary School Journal, Vol. 15, (January) 1915. 
 
 ^Smith, Bertha M. "Efficiency in assimilating- reading." School 
 Review, Vol. 25, (November) 1917. 
 
 ^Burg-ess, May Ayres. Picture Supplement Scales for Measuring 
 Ahility in Silent Reading. Russell Sage Foundation, New York 
 City, 1920, 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 
 
 125 
 
 Some pupils were found who read very slowly and 
 attempted only a few answers, most of which were 
 correct. Some were discovered who could read neither 
 rapidly nor accurately. 
 
 In a recent article/ the author of the scale men- 
 tioned above outlines a method of classifying pupils 
 
 TABLE V2 
 
 Group Assignments for Silent-Reading Drill, Turner School, Grade III, 
 
 February, 192 i 
 
 
 At- 
 tempts 
 
 Much Drill in Care 
 
 SOiCE 
 
 Drill in 
 Carz 
 
 No Drill in Ca£e 
 
 
 6 or More 
 Wrong 
 
 5 Wrong 
 
 4 Wrong 
 
 3 Wrong 
 
 •2 Wrong 
 
 I Wrong 
 
 Wrong 
 
 
 20 
 
 19 
 18 
 
 17 
 16 
 
 15 
 14 
 13 
 12 
 II 
 10 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 7 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 No 
 
 
 
 David 
 
 
 
 
 
 drill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 in 
 speed 
 
 
 Theodore 
 
 
 Peter 
 
 
 John 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Henry 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Barbara 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Marjory 
 
 
 
 
 Francis 
 
 
 
 
 /Elizabeth 
 \Charles 
 
 Janet 
 
 
 
 
 
 LuciUe 
 
 Tim 
 
 
 
 
 Some 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 Fred 
 
 
 Helena 
 
 speed drill 
 
 
 
 
 
 Winthrop 
 
 Bancroft 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 3 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Much 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 drill 
 
 
 
 
 
 /Douglas 
 \Ruth 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 speed 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iBursess, May Ayres. "Classroom grouping- for silent-readinff 
 drill." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, (December) 1921. 
 
 ^Taken from an article by May Ayres Burgess which appeared 
 in the Elementary School Journal^ December, 1921. 
 
126 SILENT READING 
 
 whose reading defects have been determined. Teacher 
 and pupils thns have these difficulties to guide them 
 in selecting the kind of drill needed. The table on 
 the opposite page illustrates the method. 
 
 This table shows that one of the pupils — Theodore 
 — is a very rapid reader but a rather careless one; 
 he attempted thirteen paragraphs and had five 
 wrong. Two pupils, Janet and Tim, read eight para- 
 graphs and did each exercise .correctly. Douglas and 
 Ruth, who represent the third type of pupils, read 
 only two paragraphs and failed to answer either 
 question correctly. 
 
 If the results of teacher-made tests and the needs 
 of pupils as revealed by them are charted on the 
 blackboard or made available to teacher and pupils 
 by means of a diagram like that in Table V, it will 
 perhaps, tend to create a genuine interest in reading. 
 Each child will then know what difficulty he has to 
 overcome. Teachers are urged to use standardized 
 scales and to supplement them with others which 
 they make and standardize. 
 
 Pressey's experiment. Luella C. Pressey reports^ 
 a reading test which she devised for the second, third, 
 and fourth grades. In general her test is based on 
 the assumption that two factors — ^ meager vocabulary 
 and the persistence of oral-reading habits — affect the 
 progress of reading in the early grades. One part 
 
 ^Pressey, L. C. "A first report on two diagnostic tests in 
 silent reading for grades ii to iv." Elementary School Journal, 
 Vol. 21, (November) 1921. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 127 
 
 of her test attempts to determine the extent of the 
 pupil's vocabulary, the other seeks to discover the 
 presence of detrimental oral-reading habits. 
 
 Experimenters who used this test found children 
 with the following reading defects: (a) • An extensive 
 vocabulary, but a very, slow rate, due perhaps to the 
 persistence of detrimental oral-reading habits. {h) 
 A rapid rate but a limited vocabulary with consequent 
 low standard of comprehension ability. (c) Limited 
 vocabulary and slow rate, (d) A persistence of bad 
 reading habits formed in the first grade, namely, 
 pointing to words, lip-reading, and reading one word 
 at a time. Although this test is designed neither to 
 point out the words which the child does not know, 
 nor to reveal the habits which retard speed, it en- 
 ables the teacher to get at the root of the difficulty 
 in each case. 
 
 Intelligence tests. The child's mental endowment 
 is a factor which greatly affects his reading achieve- 
 ment. One should scarcely expect a pupil of low 
 mentality to make as much progress as the pupil of 
 superior intelligence makes. Theisen has found a 
 marked relationship between progress in reading and 
 the ability of the bright pupil. However, the teacher 
 must not be too ready to ascribe slow progress to 
 lack of mental ability. An investigation which has 
 been reported shows that slow progress is often at- 
 tributed to lack of intelligence when the cause is 
 really something else. 
 
128 SILENT READING 
 
 A number of highly recommended intelligence tests 
 are available. Teachers who are acquainted with 
 those scientific measurements and the method of 
 using them should employ them for diagnostic pur- 
 poses. If that is not possible, the teacher can get 
 some idea of a pupil's general intelligence by using 
 some of the following suggestions, provided the 
 child is otherwise normal. (1) Have him read a few 
 paragraphs and then coherently reproduce the lead- 
 ing thoughts. (2) Have him read a few paragraphs 
 of well-organized factual material, then outline them 
 briefly. (3) Have him read and interpret a short 
 poem or story. (4) Select thirty words wholly 
 within the vocabulary of a normal child of his age. 
 Allow him sixty seconds to name — not write — the 
 opposites of them. (5) Observe his achievements in 
 other activities besides reading. 
 
 Some Reading Defects 
 Causes and Suggested Remedies 
 
 Physical defects. Almost every survey of pupils' 
 achievements in school shows that thousands of chil- 
 dren are handicapped in their reading because of 
 physical defects which may easily be remedied. 
 
 Recently a study^ was made in an attempt to show 
 the relationship between mental power, as determined 
 by an intelligence test, and comparative freedom from 
 physical defects. This study, based on an examination 
 
 ^Sandwick, R. L. "Correlation of physical health and mental 
 efficiency." Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 1, (March) 
 1920. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 129 
 
 of 423 high-school students, produced significant re- 
 sults. Practically 53 per cent of the pupils in the 
 group having high intelligence scores had no physical 
 defects; every pupil in the group having low intelli- 
 gence scores had one physical defect or more. *'It 
 was noticeable that the defects among the ablest 
 group were not only fewer in number, but also less 
 serious in character. Some of them, indeed, were only 
 temporary. Most of the defects among both groups 
 are entirely remediable. This study supports the 
 growing conviction that good abilities may be and 
 often are masked by the presence of physical defects, 
 and it points to the unmistakable duty of the school 
 to provide for every child early and frequent physical 
 inspection with a systematic follow-up in applying 
 remedies." But since physical inspection of children 
 comes neither early nor frequently in many schools, 
 the responsibility for discovering and helping to rem- 
 edy the more common physical defects of pupils rests, 
 upon the teacher. The pupil's physical condition and 
 his progress in school are so closely related that a 
 physical diagnosis should be made at once whenever 
 he fails to do average work. 
 
 Defective eyesight ranks first among physical dis- 
 abilities which affect reading. Some of the more com- 
 mon symptoms of defective vision are, holding the 
 book at a distance greater or less than normal, com- 
 plaining of blurred lines or letters running together, 
 irregular eye-movements in following lines, and fre- 
 
130 SILENT READING 
 
 quent headaches. Such conditions demand a physi- 
 cian's immediate attention. Instances are not un- 
 common in which eyeglasses made it possible for 
 pupils who were markedly dull and retarded to do 
 good work within a short time. 
 
 Malnutrition due to living conditions may also 
 cause some nervous disorders. It is not difficult to 
 detect this disability. Often a little patient and tact- 
 ful inquiry will locate the cause and give the teacher 
 an opportunity to suggest a remedy. Proper diet, 
 plenty of fresh air, exercise, regular hours of sleep, 
 and companionship with children who live under bet- 
 ter conditions generally solve the problem. 
 
 Defective hearing often causes a pupil to be ranked 
 as stupid. In time he may become retarded because 
 he misses much that his teacher and classmates say. 
 It is not difficult to detect this defect, but in most 
 cases the remedy is beyond the teacher's means. 
 
 Adenoids and defective teeth frequently cause dull- 
 ness. In the latter case, the teacher can do much 
 preventive work. Decayed teeth should be discovered 
 and remedied as soon as possible by either treatment 
 or removal, because the poison produced by decompo- 
 sition is continually absorbed and may seriously af- 
 fect the general health. 
 
 Meaner vocabulary. Gray cites^ the case of a 
 seventh-grade boy that illustrates the handicap due 
 
 ^Gray, W. S. "Individual difficulties in silent reading- in the 
 fourth, fifth, and sixth grades." Twentieth Yearbook of the 
 National Societjj for the Study of Education: Part II. Public 
 School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1921. 
 
EEMEDIAL WORK 131 
 
 to a meager vocabulary. This boy was fourteen years 
 and ten months old when the remedial work began. 
 His teacher reported him as a poor student, one who 
 lacked the ability to get ideas from the text. ''When 
 asked to tell what he had read, he reproduced a few 
 ideas in short, scrappy sentences." He was tested in 
 both oral and silent reading. In the former he read 
 rapidly, pronouncing the words mechanically and 
 enunciating poorly. He paid no attention to punctua- 
 tion. The test for comprehension in silent reading 
 showed that he ranked below the poorest pupils in 
 the two preceding grades. . 
 
 It was evident from these tests that he had learned 
 to pronounce words whose meanings he did not know. 
 The remedy at once suggested itself, namely, the 
 provision of situations that would focus his attention 
 upon the ideas which the words conveyed. Since he 
 was interested in camp and pioneer life, such books 
 as The Boy Scout's Manual, Roosevelt's Winning of 
 the West, Custer's Boots and Saddles were given him 
 to read silently. He was asked to reproduce either 
 orally or in writing parts of the selections read. 
 These reproductions were so meager and inadequate 
 that it was often necessary for him to re-read and 
 work over his assignment four or five times. 
 
 It soon became evident that word study would 
 have to be given. The teacher stressed word analysis 
 and word building and pointed out the significance of 
 the stem of a word, and the effects of prefixes and 
 
132 SILENT READING 
 
 suffixes on its meaning. The pupil soon came to 
 realize the significance of such words as '^recall," 
 ''reclaim," "rebound," "regain," etc. Synonyms 
 were also studied. In so far as possible this work 
 was confined to having the pupil discover as many 
 synonyms as he could for some word in his favorite 
 reading. For example, the expression "indomitable 
 hero" occurred in the pioneer stories. Some of the 
 words which the boy gave as m^eaning practically the 
 same as "indomitable" were "brave," "courageous," 
 "resolute," "manly," "bold," "plucky," and "de- 
 fiant." 
 
 The pupil's progress w^as measured by comparing 
 his achievements at the end of eighteen weeks with 
 that of another poor reader in the same grade who 
 was not given this training, but who spent the same 
 amount of time in preparing and reciting his lesson 
 in the usual manner and under ordinary schoolroom 
 conditions. The former developed a higher rate in 
 silent reading than in oral. The latter made no im- 
 provement in rate. In comprehension the former 
 made far greater progress than did the latter. 
 
 Reading to enlarge the vocabulary. The methods 
 used to strengthen the "meaning vocabulary" of the 
 boy mentioned are effective and typical. Doubtless 
 the vocabulary of |)upils in any grade can best be 
 enlarged by having them read much interesting ma- 
 terial suitable to their ability. The types of material 
 should not be limited. The child has a right to the 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 133 
 
 spiritual possessions of the race as contained in the 
 best children's literature, in history, stories of travel 
 and of plant and animal life. The reading list given 
 in the Appendix contains many titles bearing on the 
 above subjects. In every classroom there should be 
 a little library of at least ten good books for each 
 of the grades that recite there. These books should 
 be available to pupils who have done the assigned 
 work for the day. If these books are not in the 
 school library, encourage the children to bring their 
 story-books and other interesting reading material 
 from home. By means of a system of exchange each 
 pupil thus has a chance to read broadly. Teachers 
 are often surprised at the wealth of material which 
 may be obtained in this way. If approached tactfully, 
 boards of education and parents can be led to see 
 the wholesome educational value of much supplemen- 
 tary reading. A school social or entertainment will 
 often yield enough funds to start a library. 
 
 The language period offers another opportunity to 
 enlarge the child's vocabulary. Class projects, in- 
 dustrial and social, school excursions, school gardens, 
 children's pets, childhood experiences, and stories 
 found in supplementary readers may be advantage- 
 ously utilized to develop a wide and meaningful 
 vocabulary. Word drills may also be used. They 
 not only aid the child to recognize words quickly, 
 but they enable the teacher to emphasize different 
 uses of the same word in so far as the pupil's ex- 
 
134 SILENT READING 
 
 perience allows. Much more can be done for a child's 
 vocabulary through wide reading, however, than by 
 any form of drill. 
 
 The subnormal child. Poor reading is too often 
 attributed to low mentality. Hawley reports^ that 
 out of 109 sixth-grade pupils, twenty-one were classed 
 as poor readers. Only ten of the twenty-one were 
 rated as pupils above average intelligence by mental 
 tests, and only six were rated below. Two of those 
 below the average made substantial progress in the 
 interval between tests. **If their rather low mentality 
 were taken as a full explanation of their poor scores 
 in the first test, it would be difficult to explain how 
 they could make such progress after the tests." An 
 experiment conducted in Dr. Horn's elementary school 
 at the State University of Iowa confirms the above 
 findings. Such data should impress all teachers who 
 are disposed to classify every poor reader as dull. 
 
 The kind of remedial measures to be employed in 
 cases of low mentality depends largely on the amount 
 of the teacher's time and the pupil's degree of mental 
 inferiority. If a child is feeble-minded, the regular 
 teacher has neither the time nor special training to 
 do him justice. Nor can she afford to lower the 
 standard of the grade for this particular child. If 
 segregation and instruction by a special teacher are 
 not possible, it is best to let the child go as *'un- 
 
 iHawley, W. E. "Effect of clear objectives on the teaching- 
 of reading." Journal of Educational Research. Vol. 3, (April) 
 1921. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 135 
 
 graded." If he is in the second grade in reading 
 and in the fourth grade in handwork, advance him in 
 each subject as rapidly as his capacities allow. One 
 must let him fit in here and there as best he can. 
 
 The general intelligence of the majority of sub- 
 normal pupils is considerably greater than that of 
 those classed as feeble-minded. If special training 
 could be given such pupils, many of them would be- 
 come able to do much regular classwork. The diffi- 
 culties common to the average pupil are very promi- 
 nent among subnormal children. In the lower grades, 
 the outstanding defects are inability to recognize 
 word groups, meager vocabulary, and irregular eye- 
 movements. Subnormal children more readily develop 
 habits of word naming and pointing. In the upper 
 grades, these unfortunate children seem to lack the 
 ability to get the central thought in a paragraph, to 
 organize the essential points of the lesson into out- 
 line or summary form, and to do assimilative read- 
 ing, that is, collateral thinking of related experiences. 
 The teacher can advantageously apply some of the 
 remedial work suggested on the following pages when 
 teaching the subnormal child. 
 
 Word recognition. The ability of pupils to recog- 
 nize words readily can be quickly and accurately de- 
 termined by oral-reading or flash-card tests. Hesita- 
 tion, mispronunciation, substitution, omission, and in- 
 sertion are the chief evidences of failure to recognize 
 words. 
 
136 SILENT READING 
 
 In the lower grades, flash-card exercises and other 
 forms of word drills may be used to develop quick 
 word recognition. So far as possible the words and 
 phrases used in these drills should be those found in 
 the pupil's reading material. Poor word recognition 
 in the second and third grade may be due to lack 
 of training in the use of phonics. Anderson and 
 Merton report^ the effect of ten lessons in phonics 
 upon the word-recognition ability of a certain boy. 
 Before receiving the special training he was tested 
 on a list of words common to his grade. The table 
 below shows the results of the special training. 
 
 Date 
 February 18 
 
 Number of Words 
 Attempted 
 
 55 
 
 Number of 
 Errors 
 
 17 
 
 Percentage 
 Correct 
 
 61 
 
 March 13 
 
 368 
 
 17 
 
 95 
 
 The table should be interpreted thus : Before 
 remedial work in phonics was given, the pupil at- 
 tempted to name 55 words in a given list, and failed 
 on 17; after ten drill lessons, 368 words were at- 
 tempted, and only 17 were wrong. 
 
 One of the most effective means of improving word 
 recognition is to supplement the devices suggested 
 above by supplying the pupils with much easy and 
 interesting reading material. This insures a review of 
 many words in new settings. The ease and rapidity 
 with which the child reads such stories are affected 
 by his command of phonics and his ability to recog- 
 nize words. 
 
 ^Anderson, C. J., and Merton, Elda. "Remedial work in read- 
 ins: Part I." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 20, (May) 1920. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK I37 
 
 Even for upper-grade pnpils, the flash-card exer- 
 cise is one of the most desirable types of drill work 
 on quick word and phrase recognition. Such drill 
 has proved beneficial even to college freshmen. 
 Special drills on word building and synonyms sug- 
 gested by the report of Gray's study mentioned 
 earlier in this chapter are beneficial. Laura Zirbes 
 suggests^ ten types of lessons for remedial work in 
 reading. A part of the fifth lesson appears below. 
 She has found that pupils need special drill on words 
 that begin or end alike. The following words are 
 suitable for such drill. 
 
 when 
 
 who 
 
 every 
 
 even 
 
 what 
 
 there 
 
 never 
 
 ever 
 
 then 
 
 their 
 
 than 
 
 certain 
 
 that 
 
 women 
 
 man 
 
 curtain 
 
 how 
 
 woman 
 
 
 
 Too little emphasis on phonics. In the intermediate 
 and upper grades, many children are retarded in read- 
 ing by too little emphasis on phonics as well as by 
 too much emphasis on that phase of instruction. We 
 shall first consider a case where the pupil was handi- 
 capped because of no phonic training. 
 
 Anderson and Merton cite^ the case of a girl who 
 was struggling along in the fourth grade, although she 
 was unable to read primer material. They determined 
 that lack of a knowledge of phonics prevented her 
 
 ^Zirbes, Laura. "Diagnostic measurement as a basis for pro- 
 cedure." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 18. (March) 1918. 
 
 -Anderson, C. J., and Merton, Elda. "Remedial work in read- 
 ing": Part II." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 20, (June) 1920. 
 
138 SILENT READING 
 
 from reading even primer material independently. 
 They then gave the child eleven lesson in phonics and 
 word recognition, teaching six phonic rules in the first 
 six lessons. Eighty-seven words were studied and learned 
 according to those rules. The last five lessons were 
 devoted to a study of phonograms, from five of which 
 157 words were developed. When the eleventh lesson 
 was finished, 244 words involving six phonic rules and 
 five phonograms had been built up. On March 13 
 a word test was given containing 225 of these words. 
 A comparison of the results of this test with those 
 obtained from the one given February 18 is shown 
 below. 
 
 
 Number of Woros 
 
 Number of 
 
 Percentage 
 
 Date 
 
 Attempted 
 
 Errors 
 
 Correct 
 
 February 18 
 
 24 
 
 7 
 
 70 
 
 March 13 
 
 225 
 
 13 
 
 94 
 
 The efficacy of phonic drill as an auxiliary to word 
 recognition becomes significant when one recalls that 
 only eleven lessons were given to this pupil. Gray's 
 Oral and Silent-reading Tests were then administered 
 again, and the results compared with the scores made 
 before taking phonic drill and word drill. The errors 
 for the first three paragraphs totaled nine on the 
 last test, as against twenty-nine on the first test. The 
 pupil's scores in quality and rate were higher on the 
 last test than on the first. 
 
 It was thought best to follow up these phonic-drill 
 lessons with other lessons which emphasized word 
 
REMEDIAL WORK I39 
 
 analysis, oral reading for quality and content", and 
 silent reading for rate and quality. The Free and 
 Treadwell Primer^ was chosen for the beginning work 
 in oral reading because of its rich content so simply 
 told. Twenty-seven lessons of this type were given. 
 Standardized silent-reading tests were again adminis- 
 tered at the conclusion of these lessons. The following 
 changes were noted: The rate was more than doubled 
 for both selections in the last test. Quality score 
 changed from in the first test to 35 and 17 respec- 
 tively in the last test. Lip-movement, which was very 
 noticeable in the first test, occurred now only when 
 the pupil encountered difficult words. 
 
 Overemphasis of phonics. Gray reports^ the case 
 of a fourth-grade girl who was a fluent oral reader 
 but who comprehended very little of what she read. 
 She was asked to read a passage from her fourth reader 
 silently, for the purpose of getting the thought well 
 enough to reproduce it later. She reproduced more 
 or less inaccurately only a very small amount of what 
 she read. Of the questions asked, she answered only 
 one, that incorrectly. After a careful analysis of all 
 available data, the examiner concluded that the child's 
 rudimentary knowledge of the mechanics of reading 
 enabled her to recognize words and to read material far 
 
 ^This is the first book of the Free and Treadwell Reading- 
 Literature Series published by Row, Peterson and Company, Chi- 
 cago. 
 
 sQray, W. S. "Individual difficulties in silent reading in the 
 fourth, fifth, and sixth grades." Twentieth Yearbook of the Na- 
 tional Society for the Study of Education: Part II. Public School 
 Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois. 1921, 
 
l^Q SILENT READING 
 
 beyond her comprehension. She read words as names 
 and not as symbols of ideas. The problem was plainly 
 that of training her to read for content. 
 
 The remedial exercises consisted of passages taken 
 from second and third-grade readers. The first passage 
 was very short and contained few ideas. Each suc- 
 ceeding passage was somewhat longer and made in- 
 creasing demands on the reader. "When exercises were 
 assigned, the pupil's attention was directed to mean- 
 ings rather than to pronunciations. ''After she had 
 given a reproduction of the story and had answered 
 a number of specific questions about it, she was asked 
 to re-read the selection in search of any thoughts she 
 had overlooked during the first reading. She then 
 gave a second reproduction. This last reproduction was, 
 no doubt, largely a result of the questioning. Never- 
 theless, it was valuable in training the pupil to see 
 the richness of content in the selection." 
 
 The training period lasted for six weeks. One 
 thirty-five minute lesson was given each week; in one 
 week two lessons were given. From five to seven 
 paragraphs were assigned at each lesson according to 
 the plan described. "When the silent-reading records 
 of December and May were compared, they showed 
 a decided increase in the rate and quality of the 
 pupil's silent reading. In December she was unable 
 to reproduce a single thought cr to answer a single 
 question. In May she was fairly efficient in her ability 
 to reproduce. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK . 141 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. The problem of remedial measures is one of the most 
 important phases of reading instruction and probably 
 the least understood. 
 
 2. Valuable means and methods of diagnosing reading 
 difficulties are: Standardized tests, informal or teacher- 
 made tests, diagnostic reading scales, and mental tests. 
 
 3. The results of an experiment show that 78 per cent 
 of the oral-reading defects in a particular group of 
 children were distributed as follows : Repetitions, 15 
 per cent; insertions, 24 per cent; omissions, 15 per 
 cent; substitutions, 24 per cent. 
 
 4. After using silent-reading tests as a means of diag- 
 nosing silent-reading difficulties, the results showed that 
 79 per cent of the errors can be grouped under the 
 following headings: Meager vocabulary, 33 per cent; 
 inability to find the main idea, 19 per cent; omission 
 of part of the idea due to short span of perception, 
 14 per cent; inability to concentrate and get specific 
 data, 13 per cent. 
 
 5. The factors which prove detrimental to good oral and 
 silent reading should receive the teacher's attention. 
 
 6. Among the causes of poor reading are (1) physical de- 
 fects such as eye and ear trouble, enlarged adenoids, 
 enlarged and diseased tonsils, malnutrition, and de- 
 cayed teeth, (2) meager vocabulary, (3) subnormality, 
 (4) lack of ability to recognize words. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Brooks, S. S. "Conditions revealed by the use of stand- 
 ardized tests in rural schools." ' Journal of Educational 
 Research, Vol. 3, (January) 1921. 
 
 Burgess, May Ayres. "Classroom grouping for silent-reading 
 drill." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, (December) 
 1921. 
 
 Gray, W. S. "The value of informal tests of reading ac- 
 complishment." Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 1, 
 (February) 1920. 
 
142 SILENT READING 
 
 Gray, W. S. "The use of tests in improving instruction." 
 
 Elementary School Journal, Vol. 19, (October) 1918. 
 O'Hern, J. P. "Development of a chart for attainment in 
 
 reading." Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 3, (May) 
 
 1921. 
 Smith, Bertha M. "Efficiency in assimilating reading." 
 
 School Revietv, Vol. 25, (November) 1917. 
 Uhl, W. L. "The interest of junior high-school pupils in 
 
 informational reading selections." Elementary School 
 
 Journal, Vol. 22, (January) 1922. 
 Uhl, W. L. "The use of the results of reading tests as a 
 
 basis for planning remedial wcrk." Elementary School 
 
 Journal, Vol. 17, (December) 1916. 
 Wilson, Estaline. "Specific teaching of silent reading." 
 
 Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, (October) 1921. 
 Wyman, J. B. and Wendle, Miriam. "What is reading 
 
 ability?" Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 12, 
 
 (December) 1921. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 EEMEDIAL WORK IN READING (Continued) 
 
 Persisting Primaey-Grade Reading Habits 
 Pointing" to words. Many teachers allow primary 
 
 pupils to point to words when reading, and to point 
 and read silently while a classmate reads orally. Some 
 teachers even require primary pupils to do that. To 
 devise a more effective method for training pupils to 
 read slowly and listlessly would tax the effort of a 
 genius. In the sample lessons of Part II we have 
 explained the use of a marker which renders the forma- 
 tion of the pointing habit unlikely if used in beginning 
 reading work. However, if the pupils form the habit of 
 pointing when they read, the teacher must take steps to 
 correct it. She should make clear that reading consists 
 in getting ideas from print, and that ideas are more 
 often conveyed by groups of words than by single 
 words. This fact should be illustrated by examples. 
 She should explain that because the eye can see a 
 group of words more quickly than the finger can point 
 to a single word, the good reader is one who reads 
 phrases, or other groups of words, not one who points 
 to single words as he reads. Those who point to each 
 word as they read it can only read in a slow and 
 
 143 
 
244 SILENT READING 
 
 drawling manner; good and pleasing expression is for 
 them impossible. The bad habit of pointing when 
 reading can be overcome by having the pupils read 
 interesting and familiar material under time pressure. 
 
 Word focus. Making the word instead of the 
 thought unit the focus of attention may be due to 
 overemphasis of phonics, pointing to words, meager 
 vocabulary, overemphasis of oral reading, or an un- 
 usually narrow perception-span. Remedial measures 
 for each of these defects are suggested in this and the 
 preceding chapter. 
 
 Oral reading. As w^e have said, overemphasis of 
 oral reading tends to develop the habit of reading 
 slowly because the mechanism of vocalization makes it 
 impossible for a child to read orally as rapidly as he 
 can see words. Buswell's investigation^ of Avhat occurs 
 when one reads orally has some practical suggestions 
 for teachers. He observed that in oral reading the 
 eye moves along the line of print in advance of the 
 voice, at times keeping very far ahead and at other 
 times very little in advance. Immature and poor 
 readers keep eye and voice very close together; their 
 eye-voice span is narrow. An eye-voice span of con- 
 siderable length is necessary in order that the reader 
 may get an intelligent grasp of the material ahead, 
 and so read with good expression. Without a long 
 eye-voice span reading is only a series of spoken words. 
 
 ^Buswell, G. T. "The relationship iDetween eye-perception and 
 voice-response in reading." Journal of Educational Psychology, 
 Vol. 12, (April) 1921. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK I45 
 
 A positive correlation exists between wide eye-voice 
 span and mature reading habits. The eye-voice span 
 of good readers in the elementary grades averages 58 
 per cent more than that of poor readers; among high- 
 school students the good readers have an eye-voice 
 span 36 per cent wider than that of the poor readers. 
 A good reader's eye- voice span is relatively wide at 
 the beginning of a line and relatively narrow at the 
 close. Such readers inhibit voice action until the eye 
 has gained a considerable lead, that is, until they 
 comprehend the first few words. They owe their good 
 expression to looking ahead until they apprehend com- 
 plete ideas. Poor readers begin voicing words as soon 
 as their eyes see the first word in a line. They should 
 be taught to pause until they get the first complete 
 idea. It is evident that if these principles are applied 
 by those who read orally, there will be little if any 
 poor oral reading. 
 
 The perception-unit. A recent article/ which em- 
 phasizes the importance of developing habits of wide 
 perception-span, declares that it is almost impossible 
 to overestimate the value of developing a broad eye- 
 span in reading. Both Dearborn and Schmidt have 
 shown that the perception-span of the average reader 
 is by no means taxed to its limit. A narrow percep- 
 tion-unit results in word naming, poor comprehension, 
 and monotonous oral expression. Such a condition 
 
 ^O'Brien, John A. "Training- in perception as a means of 
 accelerating- the silent-reading rates." Journal of Edxicational 
 Psychology, Vol. 11, (October) 1920. 
 
146 SILENT READING 
 
 may be remedied by using flash-card exercises for 
 word and phrase drill, by giving pupils definite 
 assignments and exercises which cause them to read 
 for thought, by training them from the beginning 
 to see groups of words and to think in terms of 
 phrases and sentences, by giving them much easy and 
 interesting material to read, and by not emphasizing 
 phonics until the pupils have formed the habit of 
 reading for thought. An early presentation of phonics 
 tends to focus the attention on parts of words and so 
 causes pupils to read single words instead of word 
 groups. 
 
 Lack of a knowledge of English. It is not unusual 
 to find pupils who come from homes where English 
 is not spoken or even seen in print except, perhaps, 
 in advertisements. Such children often do poor 
 work and easily become discouraged because they 
 fail to comprehend much of the subject-matter on 
 account of a limited English vocabulary, and because 
 the realization that they speak ''broken English'' 
 makes them self-conscious and timid. On account of 
 their shyness they are often classed as dull. 
 
 The first lessons used in teaching the non-English- 
 speaking child must be directed toward giving him 
 an understanding of the spoken language and an 
 ability to speak it. Reading should be introduced 
 only as it stimulates him and aids him to increase 
 his vocabulary. Conversational lessons based on 
 topics within the range of his interests and experi- 
 
REMEDIAL WORK I47 
 
 ences, telling and dramatizing stories, sand-table 
 projects, school gardens, and games are excellent 
 means of stimulating expression. The child should 
 be encouraged to participate in the activities of the 
 recreation periods; he will learn much by observing 
 and listening. 
 
 After the pupil has acquired a speaking vocabulary 
 which enables him to get along with the group, con- 
 versational lessons on topics of interest should form 
 the basis of his reading lessons. The teacher should 
 stress this work, especially when the child is over age 
 and too mature for the simple material found in 
 the primers. Many simple stories and books should 
 be made available. If the pupil experiences unusual 
 difficulty, he should be given special phonic drills. 
 
 Inability to use reference books. As early as pos- 
 sible, teachers should help pupils to form the habit of 
 using the dictionary. That is sometimes done even 
 in the third grade. Very often the teacher begins 
 the work in the fourth grade by giving a series of 
 talks on the use of the dictionary. The plan has 
 proved helpful to children because it acquaints them 
 with an auxiliary for use in preparing their reading 
 lessons. From the dictionary they learn the prin- 
 ciples of syllabication, accent, correct pronunciation, 
 and how to discriminate among the various meanings 
 of a word. 
 
 In order to do satisfactory remedial work in read- 
 ing, it is often necessary for pupils to have a working 
 
148 SILENT READING 
 
 knowledge of the dictionary. This was shown in 
 the discussion of word building, word analysis, and 
 the study of synonyms, as possible remedies for cer- 
 tain reading defects. Other uses for the dictionary 
 arise daily in the reading or language work. The 
 pronunciation, derivation, and uses of a few words 
 should often be made a part of the next day's assign- 
 ment. 
 
 In speaking of the misuse of the dictionary Klapper 
 says : 
 
 Practice in the use of the dictionary should be re- 
 served exclusively for home work and seat work; it 
 should never be given during an oral recitation. It 
 is a common practice for teachers to stop a reading 
 lesson while a word is being looked up in the dictionary 
 by a member of the class. The nervousness which re- 
 sults from a consciousness that the class is watching 
 makes the child who is thus victimized take much longer 
 than usual, and in his excitement he reads off the wrong 
 definition. The spirit and the forward movement of 
 the whole lesson are killed for the petty interest in a 
 word. Despite the pedagogical dictum, *^ Never tell what 
 the child can find out for itself,-" the teacher should 
 give the meaning of the word and make no more ado.^ 
 
 The ease with which a large amount of accurate 
 data can be collected by using the alphabetical in- 
 dexes, tables of contents, and cross references of 
 books, should be demonstrated to all upper-grade 
 pupils. Many teachers now demand that pupils be 
 given special training in finding and collecting in- 
 
 ^Klapper, Paul. Teaching Children to Read. D. Appleton & 
 Company, New York City, 1914. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 149 
 
 formation in an economical way. Snch training 
 should by all means be given and in the most prac- 
 tical manner possible. 
 
 The following is a brief summary of the achieve- 
 ments of 256 seventh-grade pupils who were given a 
 test designed to find out whether they knew how to 
 use a book :^ . 
 
 58.9 per cent did not make use of the table of contents. 
 
 49.5 per cent failed to use the index. 
 
 29.6 per cent failed to discover a list of maps. 
 21.4 per cent could not locate the appendix. 
 
 27.3 per cent had no idea of the purpose of a footnote. 
 23.0 per cent conld not find the paragraph headings. 
 
 65.7 per cent ^Yere unable to discover that the author had 
 provided lists of references for the reader's help 
 and guidance. 
 
 A knowledge of the economical use of books is of 
 the utmost importance to pupils when assignments are 
 made by topics, projects, or problems, because such 
 assignments usually require much reading in Avorks 
 of reference. The ease and accuracy with which data 
 bearing on a particular problem may be found in 
 such work appeals to the pupils. The teacher can 
 motivate training in collecting information hy asking 
 for special written reports on various phases of 
 some class problem. In a junior high-school class at 
 the State University of Iowa, the teacher assigned 
 each pupil one phase of a certain problem. She then 
 asked each to prepare a carefully written theme and 
 furnish it with a bibliography. Later, each pupil 
 
 iFinch, Charles E. "Jimior high-school study tests." School 
 Review, Vol. 28. (March) 1920. 
 
150 SILENT READING 
 
 read his paper to the group, the members of which 
 then discussed it and reached certain conclusions. 
 Such work develops good study habits. 
 
 Carelessness and carefulness. Teachers have ob- 
 served that many pupils read very rapidly but care- 
 lessly. Burgess^ reports that some pupils rapidly 
 read the first half of a paragraph, then jump to the 
 next one. Some read paragraph after paragraph at 
 a rate much beyond the standard of the grade, but 
 neglect to follow a single direction or suggestion 
 stated. Many pupils read so rapidly and inaccurately 
 that they fail to note meaningful key words such as 
 ''had,'' ''in,'' ^^on," ''out," "not," "run," etc. 
 Sometimes the meaning of a whole sentence is changed 
 by mistaking "kind" for "king," "man" for "mat," 
 etc. On the other hand, some pupils who read slowly 
 and laboriously are overcareful. They seem not to 
 know when they have finished with a paragraph, but 
 continue to re-read it lest some puzzling statement 
 may be overlooked. Some do not know how to start 
 quickly on an assignment. 
 
 The remedial drills and methods of training which 
 one should use for those two types of readers are, of 
 course, diametrically opposed in nature. The teacher 
 should require the careless reader to explain words, 
 phrases, and sentences accurately, and to follow di- 
 rections carefully. The pupil must use reading ma- 
 terial which permits of accurate interpretation. The 
 
 iBurgess, May Ayres. "Classroom grouping- for silent-reading 
 drill." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, (December) 1921. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 151 
 
 teacher must provide the slow and overcareful pupil 
 with exercises which require him to read and think 
 rapidly. She must require him to get the main 
 points of a paragraph from a single reading, and she 
 must help him to develop an aggressive attitude. 
 
 Errors made in oral reading*. In Chapter VII 
 (page 117) we presented a table which shows the 
 percentage of frequency of the four chief errors made 
 by a group of third-grade pupils. Twenty-four per 
 cent of the errors were substitutions, 15 per cent 
 repetitions, 24 per cent insertions, and 15 per cent 
 omissions of words or parts of words. Since these 
 four kinds of errors comprise 78 per cent of the total 
 of all made, there is an evident need for tested 
 remedial measures in such cases. 
 
 Before we can suggest effective remedial measures, 
 we must understand the causes of the errors. Trust- 
 worthy investigations reveal that the chief sources 
 of trouble are meager vocabulary, irregular eye-move- 
 ments, lack of a knowledge of phonics, narrow eye- 
 voice span, narrow perception-units, and inability to 
 phrase or group Avords in thought units. As these 
 defects also cause difficulty in silent reading, the 
 same types of remedial work may well be given to 
 pupils in both kinds of classes. 
 
 Anderson and Merton's experiment. Anderson and 
 Merton report^ the striking case of a fourth-grade 
 pupil who was a very poor reader. In oral reading, 
 
 ^Anderson, C. J., and Merton, Elda. "Remedial work in read- 
 ing-: Part II." Elementary/ School Journal. Vol. 20, (June) 1920. 
 
152 SILENT READING 
 
 repetition and substitution were frequent and he 
 seemed not to apprehend the meanings of the words 
 he read. His greatest difficulty was an inability to 
 phrase, that is, to group the words in idea units. In 
 reading any sentence, words must be grouped in a 
 certain way in order to give the thought the author 
 wishes to convey. This boy did not recognize this 
 fact but divided his words into groups by mere 
 chance. Failing to understand a sentence, he re-read 
 it; he substituted words, then read it again, until he 
 found himself utterly confused. 
 
 Remedial instruction in this case consisted entirely 
 of practice in phrasing. It began with sentences 
 written on the blackboard. The boy used vertical 
 lines to mark the phrasing that he considered correct. 
 His first attempt resulted in this division: 
 
 One morning 
 
 when he went out very early he saw 
 
 tracks on the snow. 
 
 After being questioned he decided to change the 
 phrasing to the f oUoAving : 
 
 One morning when he went out very early 
 
 tracks on the snow. 
 
 he saw 
 
 After he had become accustomed to this nev/ way 
 of reading, he began to use a third-grade reader. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK I53 
 
 In the first lesson the boy read the selection 
 through once without help of any kind. As he 
 read, the teacher kept a record of all errors. He 
 was then given a small card which he was to use 
 for dividing the lines into word groups. He then re- 
 read the selection. He placed the card at the end 
 of the first phrase, read it, then placed the card at 
 the end of the next phrase, read it, and continued in 
 that manner until he ha4 finished the selection. At 
 first this was slow and difficult work. He often 
 placed the card after the wrong word, and skillful 
 questioning was necessary to lead him to see his error. 
 After reading the selection two or three times in 
 this way, he was asked to read it without the card. 
 The result showed a remarkable change in this boy's 
 reading. Errors were practically eliminated, phrasing 
 was almost perfect, and expression was greatly im- 
 proved. The teacher also kept a record of the errors 
 made during the last reading. 
 
 Beginning with the third lesson the boy was re- 
 quired to prepare each lesson according to the fol- 
 lowing plan. He first reviewed the material studied 
 during the previous lesson. The teacher kept a record 
 of all errors, and used it as a check on the last pre- 
 ceding record in order to determine the extent to 
 which memory had helped the pupil. Following 
 that he read the new selection the first time without 
 help. The record of errors made during this reading 
 was kept very accurately in order to determine the 
 
154 SILENT READING 
 
 pupil's rate of improvement, since Ms ability to read 
 at sight was to be the true test of the success or 
 failure of the training. With the aid of the card 
 he then read the selection carefully two or three 
 times. The teacher kept no record of the errors 
 made during this reading. She devoted all her time 
 to helping the pupil with the phrasing. The pupil 
 read the selection the last time without using the 
 card. The teacher kept a record of the errors made 
 during this reading, in order to demonstrate to the 
 pupil the effect of his practice. 
 
 In May this boy averaged only 1 error in every 32 
 words of fourth-grade material read at sight. That 
 was a decided improvement over the February record 
 which showed an average of 1 error in every 7 words 
 of third-grade material. In all, this pupil had only 
 thirty such lessons. During the first ten, based on 
 third-grade material, he read 1,892 words and aver- 
 aged 1 repetition in every 59 words. During the last 
 ten lessons, based on fourth-grade material, he read 
 3,045 words with no repetitions. This improvement 
 in the ability to read is the more noteworthy when 
 one considers that during the later lessons the boy 
 read more difficult material, although the recitation 
 period was not lengthened. 
 
 Gray's experiment. Gray cites^ the case of a fifth- 
 grade boy who read slowly because he recognized 
 
 ^Gray, W, S. "Individual difficulties in silent reading in the 
 fourth, fifth, and sixth grades." TtventietJi Yearbook of the 
 National Societij for the Study of Education: Part II. Public 
 School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1921. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 155 
 
 only a very small unit at each fixation of the eyes. 
 An investigation of his difficulty showed clearly that 
 he did not recognize words in groups or thought units. 
 In order to provide training in the rapid recognition 
 of word groups, eight phrase books were prepared, in 
 each of which a phrase was pasted on each page. 
 The first book contained ten very simple phrases 
 taken from a primer. Each succeeding book in the 
 series contained the same number of longer and more 
 difficult phrases. The eighth book contained phrases 
 from a sixth reader. In conducting drill exercises, 
 the teacher flashed each page so quickly that the 
 pupil had time for only one fixation of the eyes. As 
 soon as a phrase was exposed, the pupil told what 
 he had seen. Each entirely correct response was 
 graded ten points. This drill was continued for four- 
 teen days. 'Each day some thirty phrases were flashed. 
 No phrase book was discontinued until the pupil was 
 able to make a perfect score on two successive days. 
 During the fourteen days' drill, six books were used, 
 on five of which the pupil twice scored a hundred. 
 
 Flash cards bearing phrases are equally effective 
 for this sort of drill. 
 
 The effect of the phrase-book drill in increasing the 
 rate of reading, in the case cited, is shown by the data 
 below. 
 
 Lesson 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 
 
 Words read! gQ ^^ ^^ ^^ g^ gg gg ^^ g^^ g^ g^ gg jqq ^^^^ 
 per minute j 
 
156 SILENT READING 
 
 Reading" abilities and reading materials. The re- 
 sults of some recent studies discredit the belief in 
 one general reading ability. Rather, there are as 
 many reading abilities as there are types of material 
 and kinds of reading attitudes. The following para- 
 graphs treat of the effects of material and attitude on 
 reading. The Presseys found^ that pupils who rank 
 among the best when reading narrative material, are 
 often among the poorest when reading general scien- 
 tific material. The correlation between the scores 
 made in the two examinations is low. The pedagogical 
 inference is clear. Training pupils to read one type 
 of material well does not insure their reading all 
 types well. Each type of reading material calls for 
 a particular method of attack. 
 
 Reading attitudes. The type of material often 
 affects the attitude of the reader. Concerning this 
 Parker says : 
 
 For example, contrast the attitudes in reading poetry 
 and in rapidly scanning a newspaper column. In the 
 poetry reading your attitude is likely to include enjoy- 
 ing the lilt and swing of the rhythm, and your read- 
 ing, consequently, will include careful rhythmic phras- 
 ing. In the newspaper scanning your attitude is one 
 of selecting much of the material and actively * grabbing 
 off' a few ideas or statements. Another example of 
 contrasting attitudes in reading is found in reading 
 the 'funnies' in the newspaper and reading Lincoln's 
 Gettysburg address. The emotional 'set' of our mind 
 
 iPressey, L. C. and S. L. *"A critical study of the concept 
 of silent-reading ability." Journal of Educational Psychology, 
 Vol. 12, (January) 1921. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 157 
 
 in the case of reading the 'funnies' is such that it 
 shocks us to think of approaching Lincoln's address 
 with the same attitude.^ 
 
 The kinds of exercises used in reading classes 
 should be as varied as the demands made on the 
 reader in connection with his later reading, both in 
 and out of school. The average individual is called 
 upon to utilize reading ability in a variety of ways. 
 He reads for the purpose of giving a coherent repro- 
 duction later, or for enjoyment and appreciation. 
 Some scan an article rapidly in search of the answer 
 to some question or problem, others to get the author's 
 point of view or philosophy. Some readers wish to 
 weigh and evaluate the ideas or conclusions in an 
 article, some to discover new problems or new aspects 
 of the topic under consideration. Sometimes one 
 reads in order to organize the main points of an 
 article in the form of a summary. 
 
 In addition to having a definite purpose for the 
 guidance of our reading, we need to do much collateral 
 thinking when we read. Lyman calls that *^ assimila- 
 tive reading.'* The idea is illustrated by an inter- 
 pretation of the following lines from Kipling's 
 *' Recessional." 
 
 God of our fathers, known of old. 
 Lord of our far-flung battle-line. 
 
 Beneath whose awful hands we hold 
 Dominion over palm and pine — 
 
 iParker, Samuel Chester, "How to teach beginning reading-," 
 Elementary School Journal, Vol, 22, (October) 1921. 
 
158 SILENT READING 
 
 In reading the last line, how many pupils will 
 image the luxuriant palms of tropical India and con- 
 trast them with the tall rugged pines of the northern 
 Canadian forests? Unless the reader does such col- 
 lateral thinking, he can appreciate neither the extent 
 of the British Empire nor the responsibilities of the 
 British people. Unless pupils are trained to reflect 
 when they read, the words of a poem may be mis- 
 taken for the poem itself, although the words are 
 ''only instructions as to what to do with our mem- 
 ories and our imaginations, our reason, and our 
 understanding, in order to create within ourselves 
 the story of the poem. "^ 
 
 One may ask why some pupils are able to read 
 and reproduce narrative prose and poetry reasonably 
 well, but are confused by highly factual, well-organ- 
 ized material such as is found in textbooks of geo- 
 graphy, physiology, nature study, general science, and 
 arithmetic. This is partially explained when one con- 
 siders that specific training and instruction in reading 
 is generally confined to the reading period, and that 
 narrative prose and poetry are the materials usually 
 read and discussed. It is also likely that pupils read 
 narrative prose and poetry with the *' mental set" 
 of enjoyment and leisure, while other kinds of ma- 
 terial demand keen analysis, differentiation, evalua- 
 tion, and organization. The teacher should endeavor 
 to create a proper *' mental set" for factual material. 
 
 ^Kerfoot, J. B. How to Read, Houg-hton Mifflin Company, 
 Boston, 1916. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 159 
 
 Study habits. Many pupils read all material in 
 the same way. In their textbook reading they devote 
 as much time to trivial matters as to important ones. 
 Even college and high-school students often lack the 
 ability to read with discrimination. The following para- 
 graph is suggestive of what one can do to prevent 
 pupils from forming the habit of indiscriminate read- 
 ing, and to correct the habit if it is already formed. 
 
 If, during a recitation, a teacher never remarks that 
 one thing is more important or less important than 
 another, if she never asks questions that require pupils 
 to judge of relative values, and if she never indicates 
 emphasis when making assignments, or never points out 
 that certain parts of the material should be read rap- 
 idly, other parts carefully — how then can she expect 
 pupils to form the habit of varying their rate of read- 
 ing or to become able to judge when they may profit- 
 ably do so? Many college students admit that their 
 teachers gave them the impression that any study which 
 was less than a complete mastery of material was not 
 academically respectable. 
 
 The important task of the teacher is to get pupils 
 to ask more significant questions, not only during the 
 recitation but also when they are reading and prepar- 
 ing their lessons. The methods which should be em- 
 ployed by the teacher who wishes to stimulate her pupils 
 to do assimilative reading can not be scientifically de- 
 termined until we discover the characteristics of a skilled 
 silent reader. According to Lyman the skillful reader 
 
IQQ SILENT READING 
 
 is one who reads with a definite purpose, having some 
 problem in mind; one who grasps the author's point 
 of view and central theme, and lays hold on the order 
 and arrangement of his ideas; one who pauses occa- 
 sionally in order to summarize and repeat, and con- 
 stantly questions what he reads ; one who continually 
 supplements from his own mental stock, judges the value 
 of what he reads, varies the rate of his progress through 
 the reading, and ties up what he reads with problems 
 of his own. The efficient reader does all these things, 
 whether or not he is aware of it. 
 
 Whether the teacher accepts Lyman's characteristics 
 of the skillful silent reader, or those given on previous 
 pages, is of little consequence. The important thing 
 is to provide devices, methods, and exercises which will 
 enable pupils to attain those objectives. In other words, 
 teachers must make a direct effort to increase the child's 
 comprehension, and then must help him to formulate 
 a plan for doing those things which enable him to 
 comprehend well. When teacher and pupils realize the 
 definite standards they must attain, and the particular 
 mental habits which must be formed, their work becomes 
 constructive. 
 
 Methods for developing assimilative reading habits 
 are discussed and illustrated in Part II. The sugges- 
 tions advise teachers to give pupils study questions on 
 the following day's assignment, to call for those answers 
 and have them discussed on the following day, to en- 
 
 iLyman, R. L. "The teaching of assimilative reading in the 
 junior high school." School Eevieiv, Vol. 28, (October) 1920. 
 
REMEDIAL WORK Igj 
 
 courage pupils to ask questions in class, to encourage 
 wholesome, thoughtful class discussion and constructive 
 criticism, to teach pupils how to find the central thought 
 in each paragraph and how to outline or summarize 
 the whole lesson, to encourage them to select leading 
 questions for discussion on the following day, and to 
 create in the pupils a critical attitude toward the au- 
 thor's data, point of view, and conclusions. 
 
 Thomdike's experiment. Thorndike's study of 
 **The Understanding of Sentences"^ attempts to deter- 
 mine the fundamental causes of certain types of loose 
 reading. He checked the mistakes made by elementary 
 and high-school pupils who read certain paragraphs, 
 each of which was accompanied by five or more ques- 
 tions which the pupils were to answer. They were in- 
 structed to read each paragraph as many times as nec- 
 essary in order to enable them to answer the questions 
 correctly. The following specimen shows the nature 
 of the material, questions, and instructions used in the 
 experiment. 
 
 Nearly fifteen thousand of the city's workers joined 
 in the parade on September seventh, and passed before 
 two hundred thousand cheering spectators. There were 
 workers of both sexes in the parade, though the men 
 far outnumbered the women. 
 
 1. What is said about the number of persons who 
 marched in the parade? 
 
 2. Which sex was in the majority? 
 
 ^Thorndike, E. L. "The understanding- of sentences." Elementary 
 School Journal, Vol. 18, (October) 1917. 
 
162 SILENT READING 
 
 3. What did the people who looked at the parade 
 do when it passed by? 
 
 4. How many people saw the parade? 
 
 5. On what date did the event described in the 
 paragraph occur? 
 
 A careful study of the answers to the first four ques- 
 tions showed clearly that the term "fifteen thousand" 
 so obsessed pupils that they could think of little else. 
 
 "Over -potent" 
 
 Element Question Response 
 
 1 "passed before 20,000 and 15,000" 
 
 2 "the fifteen thousand" 
 
 "fifteen thousand" 3 "fifteen thousand of the parade" 
 
 4 "fifteen thousand" 
 
 *' Fifteen thousand" is a good example of a word 
 being "over-potent" in reading. This same study re- 
 ports many interesting illustrations of the under-potency 
 of words, and shows that under-potency is unquestion- 
 ably the complement of over-potency. 
 
 The significance of this study is best shown by the 
 following paragraph taken from the account of it. 
 
 There seems to be a strong tendency in human nature 
 to accept as satisfactory whatever ideas arise quickly 
 — to trust any course of thought that runs along flu- 
 ently. If the question makes the pupil think of anything, 
 or if he finds anything in the paragraph that seems to 
 belong to the question, he accepts it without criticism. 
 . . . This fishing around in the text for something to 
 use, and its use without reorganization, is perhaps the 
 most debased form of selective thinking which school 
 work shows. . . . The extent to which it prevails 
 amongst pupils in even the higher grades shows the 
 need for practice in reading and study. I am inclined 
 
REMEDIAL WORK 163 
 
 to think, however, that the cure for it is not to repress 
 the verbatim nse of wrong, irrelevant, or roughly appro- 
 priated quotations, but to permit it plus careful exami- 
 nation of the quotations to see if they really do meet 
 the need. . . . The comprehension of textbooks 
 . . . (is) far above the level of merely '' passive" or 
 "receptive" work. When the reading of textbooks 
 . . . is really passive or receptive, comprehension will 
 rarely result. . . . "To read" means "to think" as 
 truly as does "to evaluate," or "to invent," or "to 
 demonstrate," or "to verify." 
 
 It is likely that some of the remedial measures sug- 
 gested on preceding pages would not be considered such 
 (technically speaking) in some research laboratories. 
 We believe, however, that from a pedagogical point of 
 view, any disability that hinders the pupil's reading 
 achievement should be diagnosed, and that remedial 
 measures should then be used. 
 
 We have cited several studies which discuss cases 
 typical of classroom conditions, and we have quoted 
 verbatim from some of them. That plan was used so 
 as to help the busy teacher find the kind of diffi- 
 culty discussed, and to give her a definite idea of the 
 methods to be used for remedial work. The regular 
 classroom teacher's limited time makes the use of an 
 elaborate method impossible. She can, however, group 
 pupils who experience similar difficulties and so obtain 
 more time for drill than when she tries to train pupils 
 individually. Suggestions for the handling of such 
 groups and plans of various sorts for use in instruc- 
 tion will be found in Part 11. 
 
164 SILENT READING 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. Experiments indicate that there is no general reading 
 ability. 
 
 2. We must train children to read different kinds of ma- 
 terial. 
 
 3. An experiment on more than 256 children shows that 
 pupils are unable to use the dictionary, a table of 
 contents, an alphabetical index, or cross references. 
 
 4. The overemphasis of oral reading, phonics, pointing 
 to words, and word focus all tend to narrow the child's 
 perception-unit. 
 
 5. It is advisable to group pupils of like reading difH- 
 culties for specific remedial exercises. 
 
 6. Assimilative reading involves the higher mental proc- 
 esses of imagining, evaluating, reasoning, and judging. 
 
 7. Specific training to develop a mental attitude for re- 
 flective reading should be given. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Brooks, S. S. Improving ScJwols ly Standardized Tests. 
 Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1922. 
 
 Carter, R. E. "Teaching a study habit." School Review, 
 Vol. 29, (November and December) 1920. 
 
 Gray, W. S. "The use of tests in improving instruction." 
 Elementary School Journal, Vol. 19, (October) 1918. 
 
 Martin, Frederick. "Foreign accent." Supplement to the 
 Sylladus in English for the Elementary Schools of New 
 York City. Department of Education, New York City. 
 
 Schmitt, Clara. "Developmental alexia: Congenital word- 
 blindness or inability to learn to read." Elementary 
 School Journal, Vol. 18, (May) 1918. 
 
 Sutherland, A. H. "Correcting school disabilities."" Ele- 
 mentary School Journal, Vol. 23, (September) 1922. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L. "Reading as reasoning: A study of 
 mistakes in paragraph reading." Journal of Educational 
 Psychology, Vol. 8, (June) 1917. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 MEASURING COMPREHENSION AND 
 RETENTION 
 
 The importance of these measurements. The in- 
 ability of many pupils to comprehend and retain any 
 considerable portion of the material they read is shown 
 by the data given in Chapters III and IV, The chief 
 causes of the low scores „ reported there are the care- 
 less, indifferent, and purposeless reading habits of the 
 pupils themselves. 
 
 Thorndike says, ''There seems to be a strong tend- 
 ency in human nature to accept as satisfactory what- 
 ever ideas arise quickly, to trust any course of thought 
 that runs along fluently." When reading a paragraph 
 in order to find the answer to a question, the pupil 
 is often willing to accept without criticism the first 
 idea that seems to bear upon the question. This often 
 leads to the formation of a habit of superficial reading. 
 
 Breaking bad habits. From a psychological point 
 of view, the most economical way to break up a habit 
 is to present situations which will produce effects that 
 are the direct opposite of it. This being true, an effec- 
 tive method of overcoming slothful, careless reading 
 habits is by frequently testing the pupil's ability to 
 
 165 
 
IQQ SILENT READING 
 
 comprehend and recall what he reads. Definite, brief, 
 written tests are valuable aids to this work because 
 they measure the efficiency of teaching by determining 
 the amount of change which education has produced. 
 Testing is always good teaching because a child learns 
 when he is being tested. The test requires recall, or- 
 ganization, and evaluation of facts and experiences. 
 It shows how much the pupil has accomplished and 
 how well he has achieved, things that he should know. 
 That information may be used to increase the pupil's 
 efforts and his interest in reading; it may suggest cer- 
 tain remedial measures to the teacher. The test helps 
 to develop the ability to read closely, an ability which 
 is important for pupils in the primary grades, who are 
 usually mature enough to comprehend and remember 
 the outstanding points in the factual and expository 
 material which they read. 
 
 Principles to be observed. The busy classroom 
 teacher must be brief and definite when she attempts 
 to measure comprehension and retention. Her ques- 
 tions must be concise, and they should require definite 
 data for answers. The tests should require a maximum 
 of thinking and a minimum of writing. The method 
 of measuring comprehension employed in some of the 
 standardized reading tests should either be adapted or 
 adopted outright by teachers who wish to get accurate 
 measures quickly. The following examples taken from 
 Monroe's Standardized Silent-reading Tests show the 
 correct method of handling such work. 
 
MEASURING COMPREHENSION IQJ . 
 
 A silly young cricket, accustomed to sing 
 
 Through the warm sunny months of gay summer and spring, 
 
 Began to complain, when he found that at home 
 
 His cupboard was empty, and winter had come. 
 
 Draw a line under the word which best describes 
 
 the cricket. 
 
 wise faithful foolish proud prudent 
 
 , "Blow, blow, thou winter wind, 
 Thou art not so unkind 
 As man's ingratitude; 
 Thy tooth is not so keen. 
 Because thou art not seen 
 Although thy breath be rude." 
 
 In the above paragraph with what is the wind com- 
 pared? 
 
 "We have come to dedicate a portion of that field 
 as a final resting place for those who here gave their 
 lives that the nation might live. But in a larger sense, 
 we cannot dedicate this ground. It is for us, the liv- 
 ing, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished 
 work, to the great task remaining before us." 
 
 The above paragraph is taken from Lincoln's Gettys- 
 burg Address. What was it he thought we should 
 dedicate? Home, land, lives, money, monument? 
 
 Measuring" comprehension. The demand most fre- 
 quently made upon one's reading ability is to read a 
 selection with sufficient care to be able to reproduce 
 the leading incidents or mention main points from mem- 
 ory. That requires an understanding of what one reads, 
 and the retention of a considerable portion of it. Most 
 tests are combined measurements of the pupil's memory 
 and comprehension. 
 
 It is often desirable, however, to isolate and meas- 
 
leg SILENT READING 
 
 ure only the comprehension ability of pupils, in order 
 to ascertain the scope of their ability to comprehend 
 rather than remember, to determine the extent to which 
 comprehension affects scores made in tests and quizzes, 
 to stimulate careful, thoughtful reading and to make 
 it a habit, and to learn something about pupils' study 
 habits so as to determine the necessary remedial meas- 
 ures. The -following lessons are suggestive of methods 
 one may use to measure comprehension alone. 
 
 Lesson I 
 The Sandpiper 
 
 Across the narrow beach w^e flit, 
 
 One little sandpiper and I ; 
 And fast I gather, bit by bit, 
 
 The scattered driftwood, bleached and dry. 
 
 The wild waves reach their hands for it. 
 The wild wind raves, the tide runs high, 
 
 As up and down the beach we flit, — 
 One little sandpiper and I. 
 
 Above our heads the sullen clouds 
 Scud black and swift across the sky; 
 
 Like silent ghosts in misty shrouds 
 Stand out the white lighthouses high. 
 
 Almost as far as eye can reach 
 
 I see the close-reefed vessels fly, 
 As fast we flit along the beach, — 
 
 One little sandpiper and I. 
 
MEASURING COMPREHENSION 169 
 
 I watch him as he skims along;, 
 
 Uttering his sweet and mournful cry; 
 
 He starts not at my fitful song, 
 Or flash of fluttering drapery. 
 
 He has no thought of any wrong ; 
 
 He scans me with a fearless eye; 
 Stanch friends are we, well tried and strong. 
 
 The little sandpiper and I. 
 
 Comrade, where wilt thou be tonight 
 
 When the loosed storm breaks furiously? 
 
 My driftwood fire will burn so bright! 
 To what warm shelter canst thou fly? 
 
 I do not fear for thee, though Avroth 
 The tempest rushes through the sky; 
 
 For are we not God's children both, 
 Thou, little sandpiper, and I? 
 
 This poem describes an incident in the life of the 
 author, Celia Thaxter. As is the case with many other 
 selections, pupils will appreciate it more if the teach- 
 er's assignment gives the setting and includes an ac- 
 count of the incidents which occasioned its production. 
 There is evident need of a preliminary discussion, if 
 only to clarify the child's conception of life in a light- 
 house on a barren island. 
 
 Immediately after the pupils have read the poem 
 through once, either during the study period or in class, 
 the teacher should present the questions given below. 
 Pupils should quietly and quickly write their answers 
 
170 SILENT READING 
 
 to the questions; they should refer to the selection as 
 often as necessary. The pupils should grade the papers 
 under the teacher 's supervision. When all have finished, 
 one pupil should read the first question and the answer 
 as those appear on his own paper or the one he is grad- 
 ing. In case of disagreement as to the correctness of 
 the answer, refer the pupils to the textbook. This 
 method shows children that reading must be an active, 
 observing, thinking process. 
 
 Questions hased on ^'Tlie Sandpiper'^ 
 
 1. Two words tell the kind of wood the girl gath- 
 ered and the place where she found it. Write 
 the words. 
 
 2. What were the ghosts? 
 
 3. What else might have gathered the wood? 
 
 4. Why were the vessels close-reefed? 
 
 5. What line tells whether the bird was flying 
 high or low? 
 
 6. Check the two stanzas w^hich you think indi- 
 cate the kind of night it will be. 
 
 7. What two words show best the depth of friend- 
 ship between the girl and bird? 
 
 8. What was the '' fluttering drapery?" 
 
 9. What stanza tells that the girl is worried about 
 the sandpiper's welfare? 
 
 10. What consoled her? 
 
 Lesson II 
 This lesson should be based on Robin Hood, th& 
 Archer Hero} In using it the teacher should follow 
 
 ^See the footnote on page 282. 
 
MEASURING COMPREHENSION 171 
 
 a procedure similar to that suggested for use with 
 Lesson I. 
 
 Questions based on ^^Rohm HoocV^ 
 
 1. "Was Eobin Hood or the foresters most to blame 
 in the deer-killing incident which led Eobin 
 to become an outlaw? 
 
 2. Why was Little John so named? 
 
 3. Why did the sheriff hold a shooting match? 
 
 4. In what three ways did Robin Hood disguise 
 himself so that the sheriff might not know 
 him? 
 
 5. What is the point of highest excitement in the 
 chapter ? 
 
 6. Select the most witty line in the chapter. 
 
 The teacher may use the two sets of questions given 
 for definitely measuring the pupils' ability to compre- 
 hend the selections on which they are based. She may 
 also use them to direct the pupils' reading during the 
 study period. Since they require brief, definite ansvv^ers 
 they are easily graded. 
 
 How TO Measure Comprehension and Retention 
 Reproduction. The reproduction method consists 
 in having the pupils reproduce as much of a selection 
 as they can after reading one or two minutes. For- 
 merly this method was very popular as a means of 
 measuring comprehension and retention. Recently it has 
 become less so. A recent criticism of the method is as 
 follows. 
 
 The scoring of the reproduction is based on the num- 
 
172 SILENT READING 
 
 ber of ideas reproduced. In correcting the material 
 it is very difficult at times to determine whether the 
 idea had been reproduced by the pupil or not. In 
 many other instances, it is perfectly clear that instead 
 of reproducing the paragraph which he has just read, 
 the pupil brings into the reproduction many ideas based 
 upon his experience. 
 Gist says of this test : 
 
 Many pupils can give from memory what they have 
 read without being able to answer questions based upon 
 the thought. Questions directed so as to bring out the 
 thought seem to secure better results than asking the 
 pupils to tell what they have read.^ 
 
 It is generally conceded that the use of the repro- 
 duction method tends to cause one to mistake fluency 
 of expression for detailed knowledge. Many teachers 
 believe that it tests memory rather than comprehen- 
 sion. Moreover, the task of correcting the results is 
 such a heavy one that that feature alone deters many 
 from using it. 
 
 Completion tests. Some form of completion test 
 is held in high favor by several experimenters. The 
 following examples are taken from Starch's Geography 
 Test: Series A. 
 
 1. The tropics are degrees on each side of 
 
 the equator. 
 
 2. About of the earth's surface is land, 
 
 and is water. 
 
 3. is melted rock coming from a volcano. 
 
 ^Gist, Arthur S. "Silent reading." Elementary School Journal, 
 Vol. 18, (September) 1917. 
 
MEASURING COMPREHENSION 173 
 
 Teachers who use the completion test usually place 
 the statements on the blackboard and require the pupils 
 to write only the words needed to fill the blanks. Such 
 tests can be given quickly, and the scores can be read- 
 ily determined. If the test is skillfully constructed, 
 the teacher has a fairly accurate measure of the pupils' 
 ability to comprehend and retain the ideas read. This 
 test practically eliminates the verbosity which pupils 
 sometimes indulge in. 
 
 Recognition tests. This test is based on the assump- 
 tion that one often comprehends what he reads but 
 is unable to recall much of it when tested by the ordi- 
 nary oral or written quiz. One may, however, be able 
 to recognize the truths or facts included in the matter 
 read when those appear in conjunction with other data. 
 The following is an example of the recognition test. 
 
 1. Boston is the capital of Maine, Massachusetts, 
 Rhode Island, New York. 
 
 2. The most southern state in the United States 
 is New Mexico, Texas, Oregon, Florida. 
 
 3. The corn belt is in the Western States, the 
 New England States, the Southern States, the 
 Central States. 
 
 Whether this test is given orally or written on the 
 blackboard, the pupil is to write down only the cor- 
 rect words. This test forms a part of several standard 
 measurements of general intelligence. Little time is 
 necessary to give the test and to score the results. The 
 error which might come from the operation of the law 
 
174 SILENT READING 
 
 of chance is largely cared for in that there are four 
 possible answers to each question. 
 
 The question method. The type of test which most 
 teachers use and will likely continue to use is some form 
 of direct question. However, the other tests described 
 Ought to be employed to supplement this direct-ques- 
 tion method, because a more accurate measure of the 
 pupil's reading ability is assured when several tests 
 are used. A variety of tests also relieves both pupils 
 and teachers of the monotony of testing. Brevity and 
 definiteness should be the criteria of every direct-ques- 
 tion test. The studies reported on the following pages 
 suggest types of questions that may be used as meas- 
 ures of comprehension and recall. 
 
 Miss Waldman reports^ an experiment in which she 
 succeeded in increasing the reading comprehension abil- 
 ity of a fourth-grade class. The following questions 
 and answers are typical of the means she used to de- 
 termine comprehension. She selected the material from 
 the story^ of ''Davy and the Goblins." The pupils 
 read the selection expecting to be tested for a knowl- 
 edge of its content. 
 
 Questions hased on ^'Davy and the Gohlins'' 
 
 1. Who said, "Oh, if you please, I can't go"? 
 
 2. Who said, ''Eubbish! Ask the colonel"? 
 
 ^Waldman, Bessie." "Definite improvement of reading ability 
 in a fourth-grade class." El&nientary School Jonrnah Vol. 21, 
 (December) 1920. 
 
 ^This selection appears in the Riverside Fourth Reader pub- 
 lished by Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 
 
MEASURING COMPREHENSION 175 
 
 3. Who was a silly looking little man made of 
 lead? 
 
 4. Where did he stand? 
 
 5. What did he hold in his arms? 
 
 6. Who felt quite safe in looking np at him and 
 asking permission to go on the Believing 
 Voyage ? 
 
 7. Who nodded his head and cried out in a little 
 cracked voice, ''Why certainly"? 
 
 8. Who jumped down off the knab of the andiron ? 
 
 9. AVhat fell over on its face upon the floor, as 
 softly as if it had been a feather bed? 
 
 10. What was really a sort of boat? 
 
 Correct Answers 
 
 1. Davy 6. Davy 
 
 2. Gobiin 7. Colonel 
 
 3. Colonel 8. Goblin 
 
 4. Mantelshelf 9. Clock 
 
 5. Clock 10. Clock 
 
 Many teachers have little faith in the so-called ''mem- 
 ory" or "information" question. They believe that 
 the teacher's questions and the textbooks should stimu- 
 late inference, deduction, and judgment. The popu- 
 larity of the problem-project method of teaching and 
 of the modern textbooks which are based on that method 
 indicate that the attitude is at present common among 
 educators. This is the sign of a wholesome educational 
 tendency. 
 
 But can there be constructive thinking without some- 
 thing to think about? Are not the facts of the case 
 
176 SILENT READING 
 
 as necessary outside the court as within it, if justice 
 is to prevail? Is it not possible that we may have 
 overworked the case against memorizing and memory 
 work, rote memory excepted? 
 
 Buckingham^ tested 159 eighth-grade pupils with two 
 types of history questions, the memory or information 
 type, and the reasoning or judgment type. His con- 
 clusions stated in the following paragraph, based on 
 data derived from the experiment, should challenge all 
 contrary and merely opinionated statements. 
 
 The steps we have taken may, therefore, be sum- 
 marized as follows: 159 eighth-grade children have been 
 tested in a series of information (memory) questions, 
 and likewise in a series of thought questions, and the 
 relationship between their achievements in these two 
 series of questions permits us to conclude that a test 
 of the memory ability of school children in history 
 affords a reasonably accurate index not only of mem- 
 ory ability itself, but also of ability to think. Wher- 
 ever it is practicable to do so, however, children should 
 be tested directly on thought questions, that is, on ques- 
 tions of inference and questions requiring reasoning 
 and a juderment of values. Ordinarily, however, test- 
 ing is carried out with larger numbers of children, and 
 the answers have to be handled quickly. In such a 
 case, the ease with which an information (memory) 
 test may be administered and rated is a decided advan- 
 tage ; and it is some satisfaction to know that, from 
 the results, reasonably accurate inferences may be drawn 
 regarding types of ability other than those directly 
 tested. 
 
 ^Buckingham, R, B. "Correlation between ability to think and 
 ability to remember, with special reference to United States 
 history." School and Society^ Vol. 5, (April) 1917. 
 
MEASURING COMPREHENSION 177 
 
 The following questions are taken from Buckingham's 
 study. 
 
 History: Thought Questions: Series A 
 
 Eead each quotation and then answer the ques- 
 tion below it. 
 
 "We, the people of the United States, in order to 
 form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure 
 domestic tranquillity ..." 
 
 Explain what is meant by the words *'in order 
 to form a more perfect union." 
 
 "In 1790, ninety per cent of the people of the United 
 States lived on farms. At the present time only thirty 
 per cent of the people live in the country." 
 
 How can you account for the change suggested 
 by these facts? 
 
 History: Information (Memory): Series A 
 
 1. Who were the Copperheads? 
 
 2. Who discovered the Mississippi River? 
 
 3. What event started the colonization of Colo- 
 rado? 
 
 4. Give the principal reason advanced by the 
 French for claiming the Mississippi Valley 
 in 1754. 
 
 Acting upon a suggestion in Buckingham's investiga- 
 tion, MendenhalP made a study in which he attempted 
 to find the relationship that exists between knowing 
 something about a subject when a minimum time is 
 allowed for preparing the report, and knowing much 
 more about the same subject when a maximum time is 
 
 ^Mendenhall, W. "L. "Relative values of short and long- tests." 
 (An unpublished study prepared at Des Moines University in 1922.) 
 
l^jQ SILENT READING 
 
 allowed. He assigned two chapters dealing with the 
 problem of discipline to seventy-one freshmen and soph- 
 omore students in a normal-training class. The follow- 
 ing day he gave the two following questions as sub- 
 jects for a written quiz. 
 
 1. Name five causes of bad discipline. 
 
 2. Name five remedies for bad discipline. 
 
 He allowed only three minutes for answering both 
 questions. Following that the students were told to 
 use fifty minutes for preparing a written discussion of 
 the causes and remedies which they had named during 
 the three-minute test. Every student but one could 
 discuss the causes he had named. The discussions 
 ranged from fair to excellent. Those who could name 
 the most causes in the shorter period could explain 
 the most in the longer period. The data obtained by 
 Mendenhall lead one to conclude that the short mem- 
 ory test based on factual material is a fairly reliable 
 measure of a pupil's ability. 
 
 The true-false test. This test is now coming into 
 favor among teachers. The method used in some of 
 the standardized measurements is applied to the teacher- 
 made or informal test. The following account of one 
 of these tests shows its nature. 
 
 The teacher asked a sixth-grade geography class to 
 read an assignment on New England. She then ex- 
 plained that she would read a list of twenty statements 
 based on the assignment, and that of those statements 
 some were true, others false. If the pupil considered 
 
MEASURING COMPREHENSION ^79 
 
 a statement true he was to make a plus sign, if he 
 thought it false he was to make a minus sign. The 
 teacher read the statements at the rate of one every 
 thirty seconds. 
 
 1. The New England States comprise an area 
 greater than that of the Southern States. 
 
 2. Montpelier is the capital of Maine. 
 
 3. Most of the rivers flow north and east. 
 
 4. Fishing is an important industry. 
 
 5. The largest state is Massachusetts. 
 
 6. New England has many thriving cities. 
 
 7. The surface is for the most part rough and 
 broken. 
 
 8. Harvard University is located in New Haven. 
 
 9. The people of New England are noted for 
 their intelligence, enterprise, and industry. 
 
 10. Champlain is the largest river. 
 
 11. The chief exports are cotton, wool, iron, coal, 
 and articles of food. 
 
 12. Boston, the metropolis, has an excellent 
 harbor. 
 
 13. Little attention is paid to lumbering and ship- 
 building. 
 
 14. Cotton, woolen goods, and machinery are 
 among the chief manufactured articles. 
 
 15. The "White Mountains are in Vermont. 
 
 16. Lowell, Lawrence, and Fall River are noted 
 for cotton manufacturing. 
 
 17. Newport, on the Connecticut River, has a 
 United States arsenal where rifles and other 
 arms are made, 
 
 18. There are six states in the New England 
 
 group. 
 
280 SILENT READING 
 
 19. The leading exports are lumber, ice, granite, 
 marble, and all kinds of manufactured goods. 
 
 20. New England is well fitted for manufacturing, 
 on account of the great abundance of water 
 power afforded by its rapid streams. 
 
 This test was given, scored, and the results recorded 
 in approximately fifteen minutes. Each pupil's final 
 score consisted of the number of correct answers minus 
 the number of wrong ones. A pupil who answered 
 eighteen questions correctly and two incorrectly scored 
 16 points or 80 per cent. 
 
 The method of scoring'. The following explanation 
 should make clear why a pupil's score is expressed in 
 terms of the number of correct answers minus the num- 
 ber of incorrect. Let us imagine a pupil with no knowl- 
 edge of New England whatever. "Were he to take the 
 test outlined above, answering every question in some 
 way, he would, according to the theory of chance, an- 
 swer ten questions correctly, ten incorrectly. The 
 chances of his guessing right and wrong answers are 
 equal. According to the method of computation used, 
 such a pupil's score on this test would be 10 — 10 = 0. 
 Such a score properly represents that pupil's complete 
 lack of knowledge. Suppose, now, that the pupil knows 
 the correct answers to ten of the questions, but that 
 he guesses the answers to the other ten. Of the latter, 
 according to the theory of chance, he would answer 
 five correctly and five incorrectly. Even though his 
 actual knowledge enables him to answer only ten ques- 
 
MEASURING COMPREHENSION Igl 
 
 tions correctly, lie will have fifteen correct answers and 
 five incorrect. The method of computing his score 
 reveals his actual knowledge : 15 — 5 = 10. The pupil 
 who answers every question correctly has a score of 
 20 because according to this method of computation 
 20 — = 20. 
 
 It is difficult for some to believe that such a test 
 does other than give the highest score to the luckiest 
 guesser. They look suspiciously upon this thing called 
 "chance." Regarding this McCall says: 
 
 Being in a position which offered excellent oppor- 
 tunity, namely, treasurer of a Sunday school, we once 
 tossed pennies for heads or tails fifty thousand times. 
 The results came out 25,000 heads and 24,999 tails. 
 Had there not been a miscount somewhere, the two 
 would doubtless have come out exactly even. We had 
 occasion to watch two summer-school teachers engage 
 in that soul-absorbing, nerve-racking game of chance 
 called "matching pennies." Each began the summer 
 with a special bag of one hundred pennies. They 
 matched for several minutes daily. The last we heard 
 they were still matching pennies and chance had pre- 
 vented either from getting complete possession of the 
 other's one hundred pennies. Chance is fatally exact 
 when the pennies or the statements in the test are 
 numerous. The opportunities for injustice in scores 
 multiply in proportion as the number of statements is 
 reduced. Hence there should be as many ^ statements 
 in the test as practical limitations will permit,^ 
 
 Teacher-made true-false tests. The following sug- 
 gestions may help teachers who wish to use the true- 
 
 iMcCall. W. A. "A new kind of school examination." Journal 
 of Educational Research, Vol. 1, (January) 1920. 
 
3^32 SILENT READING 
 
 false test either as a check upon the reading ability 
 of the pupils over some definite assignment or for a 
 formal examination on a certain piece of work. Con- 
 struct the test so that it will contain approximately 
 the same number of true and false statements. Vary 
 from this occasionally lest some clever pupil count back 
 to see how many more true statements have been marked 
 than false. Let chance (the tossing of a penny) deter- 
 mine how many statements shall be true and how many 
 false, and in what order the true and the false shall 
 come. Unless one resorts to some such device, one's 
 arrangement each time is likely to be practically the 
 same. See that the statements are free from ambiguity. 
 Do not ordinarily make leading statements which will 
 suggest wrong answers. The true-false test may not 
 be as diagnostic as the conventional long essay type. 
 As it does not show how the^ pupil 's thinking process 
 went astray on a problem, it is well to supplement it 
 with a more detailed test. 
 
 Gates' experiment.^ Gates has recently determined 
 the reliability of the true-false tests by extensive experi- 
 menting. He compared the scores made by students 
 who took these tests with those made by the same stu- 
 dents when they took three other types of test, (1) a 
 one-hour and two-hour mid-term and final written ex- 
 amination, (2) written home work consisting of essays 
 on special topics, (3) the Army Alplia Test or the 
 Thorndike Intelligence Test. He made comparisons not 
 
 ^Gates, Arthur I. "Reliability of the true-false test." Journal 
 of Educational Psychology, Vol. 12, (June) 1921. 
 
MEASURING- COMPREHENSION 183 
 
 once but often. He found that when a number of 
 true-false tests were given the student's rank re- 
 mained practically the same throughout the series. 
 This was not true of the ranks determined by the 
 ATritten examinations. He also found that scores made 
 by students who took a series of true-false tests 
 showed less variation than y/hen they took a series of 
 any other kind of tests. 
 
 Advantages of th© true-false test. Those who have 
 given these tests, and those who have taken them, agree 
 that their use saves teachers much time. They dispense 
 with the task of correction, because each pupil scores 
 his own paper. This self-correction feature also makes 
 the test a valuable instructional device. True-false tests 
 enable teachers to develop standards of achievement 
 by means of which the work of one class may be com- 
 pared with that of another. They also enable one to 
 test over a field of material wider than one can 
 cover when the conventional examinations are used. 
 They furnish more refined units of measurement than 
 the usual type of examination gives, because the distri- 
 bution is wider. Students report that these tests re- 
 quire them to use more effective methods of study, to 
 understand and apply facts, not merely to commit to 
 memory for purposes of later reproduction. It has been 
 determined by actual count that at least 90 per cent 
 of students prefer this type of test, because it gives 
 them the results of their examination as soon as the 
 test is concluded and so relieves them of the suspense 
 
134 SILENT READING 
 
 caused by waiting for papers to be marked. Students 
 say that after the initial adjustment they usually feel 
 less nervous during the examination, and that the true- 
 false test is less exhausting because it causes little if 
 any eyestrain and no worry about one's ability to com- 
 plete the examination within the prescribed time limit. 
 In addition to its value as a test, the true-false exam- 
 ination is an excellent teaching instrument. The im- 
 mediate correction of answers clears up haziness, mis- 
 understanding, and ignorance of facts, and at the same 
 time clearly shows principles. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. Careful testing to determine pupils' ability to compre- 
 hend, should be a part of educational practice. 
 
 2. By means of tests, pupils and teachers are enabled to 
 determine with what thoroughness the reading is done. 
 
 3. Tests aid in the formation of purposeful reading 
 habits. 
 
 4. Well-organized, informational material such as is found 
 in textbooks of geography, history, hygiene, nature 
 study, and arithmetic is suitable for testing purposes. 
 
 5. Poetry and other literature adapted for appreciative 
 reading should not be used as a basis for thorough 
 comprehension tests. 
 
 6. Brevity and directness should characterize the teacher- 
 made test. The methods employed in the making of 
 the standardized tests may be profitably followed. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Brooks, S. S. Improving Schools hy Standardized Tests. 
 Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1922. 
 
 Gray, W. S. "Value of informal tests of reading accom- 
 plishment." Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 1, 
 (February) 1920. 
 
MEASURING COMPREHENSION 185 
 
 Kallom, A. W. "Reproduction as a measure of reading 
 ability." Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 1, (May) 
 1920. 
 
 Knight, P. B. "Data on the true-false tests as a device 
 for college examination." Journal of Educational Psy- 
 cTiologii, Vol. 13, (February) 1922. 
 
 Lyman, R. L. "The teaching of assimilative reading in the 
 junior high school." School Review, Vol. 27, (October) 
 1921. 
 
 Monroe, W. S. Measuring the Results of Teaching. (Chap- 
 ters 2 and 3.) Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1918. 
 
 Pressey, L. C. and S. L. "A critical study of the concept 
 of silent-reading ability." Journal of Educational Psy- 
 chology, Vol. 12, (January) 1921. 
 
 Terman, Dixon, Sutherland, Franzen, Tupper, and Fernald. 
 Intelligence Tests and ScJiool Reorganization. World 
 Book Company, Yonkers, New York, 1922. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 MATEEIAL FOR SILENT-READINa PURPOSES 
 
 Various kinds of material necessary. If we are to 
 
 develop the children's silent-reading ability to the ut- 
 most , we must give them much practice in reading vari- 
 ous kinds of material. We must no longer believe that 
 one book contains all that a child should read in a 
 year. We must give him access to an abundance of 
 material which is within the range of his interests and 
 comprehension. In this chapter we shall discuss the 
 essentials of satisfactory reading material and suggest 
 where the teacher may obtain it. 
 
 Investigations have proven that children need differ- 
 ent kinds of reading material if they are to obtain 
 the best results from their work in reading, because 
 the ability to assimilate what one reads depends to a 
 large extent on the nature of the subject-matter. There 
 are as many different silent-reading abilities as there 
 are different kinds of reading material. 
 
 Presseys' experiment.^ The Presseys have shown 
 by experiment that there is no general silent-reading 
 ability, that one who reads one kind of material well 
 
 iPressey, L. C. and S. L. "A critical study of the concept 
 of silent-reading ability." Journal of Educational Psychology, 
 Vol. 12, (January) 1921. 
 
 186 
 
SILENT-READING MATERIAL 187 
 
 may read another kind poorly, and that the ability 
 to read well silently depends very largely upon the 
 nature of the passage read. The material which they 
 used in an experiment conducted with 112 seventh-grade 
 pupils consisted of four reading scales, each composed 
 of a particular kind of reading material. For the most 
 part the exercises were taken from the Monroe Beading 
 Scale and from the Illinois Examination.. One scale 
 consisted entirely of poetry, another of passages of scien- 
 tific subject-matter, and the other two were composed 
 of selections taken from stories and general reading 
 matter. The latter are known in this experiment as 
 ''General I" and ''General II." The coefficients of 
 correlation^ of all possible combinations based on the 
 four scales were as follows : 
 
 Coefficient 
 
 OF 
 
 Scales - Correlation 
 
 Poetry with General 1 38 
 
 General I with General II 85 
 
 General II with Poetry 31 
 
 General I with Scientific 35 
 
 General II with Scientific 49 
 
 Scientific with Poetry .56 
 
 The following specimens show the kind of material 
 included in each of the four scales used in this experi- 
 ment. 
 
 ^A perfect correlation (relationship) between the scores made 
 when reading any two types of reading- material is indicated 
 by a score of 1.00. If, when reading one of the selections in- 
 cluded in this experiment, for example, "Scientific," the rank 
 of the pupils had been 1, 2. 3, etc., and if the rank had been 
 the same when they read another selection, for example, "Poetry," 
 then the correlation between the two types would have been 
 perfect, and consequently represented by a score of 1.00, 
 
1S8 SILENT READING 
 
 Poetry 
 
 Oh suns, and skies, and clouds of June, 
 And flowers of June together, 
 You cannot rival for one hour 
 October's bright blue weather. 
 
 Which month does the stanza say is the most 
 pleasant ? 
 April September May June October 
 
 General I 
 
 The caravan, stretched out upon the desert, was very- 
 picturesque; in motion, however, it was like a lazy 
 serpent. By and by, its stubborn dragging became 
 intolerably irksome to Balthasar, patient as he w^as. 
 
 Place a line under the word which tells in what 
 respect the caravan resembled a serpent. 
 
 temper color length motion size 
 
 General II 
 
 It was the garden-land of Antioch. Even the hedges, 
 besides the lure of the shade, offered passers-by sweet 
 promises of wine and clusters of purple grapes. Over 
 melon patches and through apricot and fig groves and 
 groves of oranges and limes, the whitewashed houses 
 of the farmers were seen. 
 
 What kind of land was this ? Draw a line under 
 the correct answer. 
 
 barren hilly productive infertile desert 
 
 Scientific 
 
 The tighter the wire is stretched, the higher will 
 be the tone produced when the wire is struck. Five 
 wires were stretched with weights on the ends of 
 them. One weight is 100 pounds, one is 75 pounds, 
 one is 25 pounds, one is 20 pounds, and one is 15 
 pounds. 
 
SILENT-READING MATERIAL 189 
 
 Underline the number of pounds in the weight 
 which will cause the highest tone. 
 
 100 75 25 20 15 
 
 Zirbes' report. This investigator says: ''There are 
 many silent-reading abilities ; training to be economical 
 must be special. Psychological analyses of the abilities 
 involved in the reading curriculum must be made to 
 the end that the technique employed, and practice upon 
 desirable content, may be placed upon a scientific basis.^ 
 
 Wilson's experiment.^ Shortly after the above quo- 
 tation appeared, Estaline Wilson reported an elaborate 
 experiment which confirms Zirbes' contention. In a 
 later study, mentioned in Chapter XV, she has defi- 
 nitely pointed out the particular method to be employed 
 in teaching pupils to read arithmetic problems more 
 effectively. 
 
 The experiment reported below included pupils from 
 grades five to eleven. Six different types of material 
 were used — arithmetic, civics, grammar, geography, 
 poetry, and narrative. The method employed, the data 
 gathered, and the conclusions drawn in this experiment 
 are suggestive enough to warrant the following rather 
 detailed report. 
 
 Teachers find that pupils who read selections from 
 their readers very well do not show the same ability 
 when they try to read their textbooks of geography 
 
 iZirbes, Laura. "What are the situations in which reading 
 functions?" Journal of Educational Psychology, Vol. 12, (March) 
 1921. 
 
 ^Wilson, Estaline. "Specific teaching- of silent reading-." Ele- 
 mentary School Journal, Vol. 22, (October) 1921. 
 
190 SILENT READING 
 
 and arithmetic. The variation appears in the scores 
 made by pupils measured by different standard read- 
 ing tests. The explanation which suggests itself for 
 these facts is that reading abilities vary according to 
 the types of material with which the pupil deals. Abil- 
 ity to read literary selections seems to differ from ability 
 understandingly to read problems in arithmetic; ability 
 to read geography differs from ability to read poetry. 
 
 In order to test the validity of the explanation sug- 
 gested, a number of Cincinnati teachers gave their pupils 
 a series of tests which included different kinds of ma- 
 terial — arithmetic, geography, civics, grammar, narra- 
 tion, and poetry. In so far as possible this material 
 was selected from books designed for use in the same 
 grade. No test contained vocabulary difficulties. The 
 material, followed by questions, was printed on single 
 sheets with questions below. The questions were such 
 as the average teacher would ask to test the compre- 
 hension of similar reading material in an ordinary class 
 assignment. The answers to some merely required the 
 selection of facts; other answers required judgment. 
 Instructions were printed at the top of each test. The 
 pupils were told what the material contained. ** These 
 paragraphs tell you how hair nets are made.'' ''These 
 problems tell the story of a family who took an auto- 
 mobile trip." ''You may read as often as necessary 
 to answer the questions. Work as rapidly as you can." 
 
 The teacher -made no attempt to control the time, 
 as the only element to be measured was the pupils' 
 
SILENT-READING MATERIAL 191 
 
 ability to comprehend various kinds of subject-matter* 
 The tests were given at the same period on successive 
 days; in both instances conditions were as nearly uni- 
 form as possible. The following specimens show the 
 types of material used. 
 
 TSST IX READING ARITHMETIC MATERIAL 
 
 The following problems tell the story of a family 
 that took an automobile trip. You are to read the 
 problems and answer the questions printed below, but 
 you are not to work any of the problems. You may 
 read them as often as is necessary to answer the 
 questions. Work as rapidly as you can, and number 
 your answers just as the questions are numbered. 
 
 1. The Brown family took a two week's trip in their 
 automobile. They went 975.6 miles in all. They 
 did not ride on Sundays. How far did they go 
 per day on the days that they did ride? 
 
 2. It cost $21.32 for gasoline, $2.80 for oil, and $4.75 
 for repairs. Mr. Brown estimates the wear and 
 tear on automobile and tires at 3i/4 cents per mile. 
 Using this estimate, what was the total cost of 
 running the car on the trip? 
 
 3. They spent twelve nights and had twelve break- 
 fasts at farm houses or small hotels. Twice they 
 paid $1.75 for lodging and breakfast for the fam- 
 ily. Five times they paid $2.00. Four times 
 they paid $2.50. Once they paid $3.50. What 
 was the total cost for lodging and breakfast? 
 
 4. They bought food at stores and bakeries for their 
 noon and evening. meals, s-pending $17.57 in all for 
 the fourteen days. (a) How much did their 
 noon and evening meals cost per day? (6) They 
 expected to spend $1.40 per day. How much less 
 did they spend per day than they expected? 
 
 Questions 
 
 1. How many days were the Brown family using their 
 automobile while on their trip? 
 
192 SILENT READING 
 
 2. What different things did Mr. Brown consider in 
 
 figuring the cost of running the car? 
 
 3. In what different places did they get something to 
 
 eat? 
 
 4. For how many days did they need to buy food? 
 
 5. How many different prices are given as costs of 
 
 breakfast and lodging? 
 
 6. Why could yon not find what the cost was for each 
 
 member of the Brown family? 
 
 TEST IlSr READING NARRATIVE MATERIAL 
 
 The following story tells you about an automobile 
 accident. You may read it as often as is necessary 
 to answer the questions. Work as rapidly as possible 
 and number your answers as the questions are num- 
 bered. 
 
 Not long ago some of the people in our neighborhood 
 had a picnic over on Deer Creek. Soon after we ar- 
 rived at the picnic grounds it was discovered that some- 
 one had forgotten the watermelons, and Nick Lathrop 
 at once volunteered to go back to town after them; 
 he is a good fellow and no one can help liking him. 
 So away he went, and the last we saw of him he 
 was going so fast everybody thought he would be back 
 in ten minutes. 
 
 The women began getting supper ready, and when 
 Nick didn't come back in half an hour we all began 
 worrying, particularly his wife, who was always ex- 
 pecting something to happen. Eddie Batty and Walt 
 Bell went out to see what the trouble was. 
 
 This is what had happened: Nick was rushing along 
 after the watermelons, and hurrying, as supper was 
 late anyway. Suddenly, ahead of him, in the dark, 
 loomed up a red light. Nothing makes Nick Lathrop 
 so impatient as a car ahead of him, and when he saw 
 the red light he thought it was the tail light of a 
 car, and made a dash to go around it. The red light 
 turned out to be a lantern to give warning that a 
 bridge was out. Nick went into the creek at sixty 
 miles an hour, and when Eddie Batty and Walt Bell 
 brought him back he was a sight. 
 
SILENT-READING MATERIAL 
 
 193 
 
 Questions 
 
 1. Where were these people when this story happened? 
 
 2. What was Nick going after? 
 
 3. How long did the crowd think it would take Nick 
 
 to go to town and back? 
 
 4. Why was his wife worried? 
 
 5. What bad automobile habit did Nick Lathrop have? 
 
 6. What fooled him? 
 
 7. Do you think he was lucky or unlucky? 
 
 8. Give the reason for your answer to the last question. 
 
 Results of Wilson's test. The scores shown below 
 were made by the pupils of two schools. They are 
 representative of the results obtained on five types of 
 reading material. 
 
 Arithmetic Grammar Gbographt Poetry Narrativb 
 
 WiNTOisr Place 
 
 
 
 Grade V 
 
 
 
 Number tested 43 
 
 43 
 
 43 
 
 Class median 66i 
 
 100 
 
 80 
 
 Range 0-100 
 
 661-100 
 
 30-100 
 
 North Fairmount 
 
 
 
 Grade VII 
 
 
 
 Number tested 28 
 
 28 
 
 28 
 
 Class median 75 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 Range 41-91 
 
 331-100 
 
 50-100 
 
 43 
 
 
 43 
 
 661 
 
 
 871 
 
 00 
 
 381- 
 
 -100 
 
 28 
 
 
 28 
 
 83 
 
 
 871 
 
 331-100 50-100 
 
 The above figures show in general the variation in 
 the ability to comprehend, due to the change in sub- 
 ject-matter. The scores uniformly indicate that the 
 reading of arithmetic was poor and that the reading 
 of the informational and narrative material was bet- 
 ter. The greatest range of ability appears in the scores 
 based on the grammar and arithmetic material, but there 
 
194 SILENT READING 
 
 were striking cases of variation in the scores made by 
 certain pupils when reading other material. 
 
 Causes of variation in scores. The variation in 
 scores is doubtless due to lack of definite training which 
 makes the reading of arithmetic as easy as the read- 
 ing of narrative material. Failure to answer the ques- 
 tions based on the arithmetic material was not due to 
 a demand for calculation or arithmetical reasoning, be- 
 cause the questions in this test were merely factual. 
 The sixth question was the only one that required a 
 knowledge of an arithmetical principle. As individuals, 
 pupils answered this question more often than they an- 
 swered others. 
 
 Practice in reading informational and narrative ma- 
 terial may account for the scores made on those tests. 
 Pupils generally are trained to read material of this 
 kind and to answer questions based on it. Even poetry, 
 with its obscure sentence structure and less familiar 
 vocabulary, presents fewer difficulties than arithmetic, 
 because modem textbooks and teachers have developed 
 a method of getting at its meaning. 
 
 The relative difficulty of different kinds of subject- 
 matter at once becomes a question. Obviously the vari- 
 ous selections are not equally difficult, but this is prob- 
 ably because of the lack of definite training in the for- 
 mation of reading habits It remains to develop meth- 
 ods of teaching reading suitable to various kinds of 
 material, before any conclusive weighting of sentences 
 can be made. 
 
SILENT-READING MATERIAL 195 
 
 Types of material. Since the aim of silent reading 
 is not merely to make the pupils proficient in word 
 recognition, but also to develop the ability to get the 
 gist of an article quickly and efficiently, the exercises 
 and material must be of such character as to call forth 
 efforts that will produce the desired results. The les- 
 son must be attractively written in choice English, and 
 the subject-matter must be within the range of chil- 
 dren's interests and comprehension. 
 
 The aim of any exercise largely determines the type 
 of material that should be used. For example, the story 
 can be used effectively for speed drills, provided it is 
 long enough to tax the speediest reader to his utmost 
 within the time limit. The merit of the story as read- 
 ing material lies in the fact that the child is anxious 
 to see how it ends, and consequently reads rapidly; 
 interest in the tale insures comprehension. 
 
 Highly factual, well-organized subject-matter is ex- 
 cellent for drill in comprehension and organization. Ex- 
 position and detailed description are also satisfactory. 
 Directions for class projects are very valuable, because 
 the pupil must read purposefully and understandingly 
 in order to participate in the project. Reading material 
 for drill purposes should seldom be presented in sum- 
 mary form, because it deprives the pupils of excellent 
 practice in organizing and summarizing material. 
 
 Sources of material. As has been said, no one type 
 of material is adequate for teaching silent reading. The 
 greater the supply of kinds of subject-matter, the bet- 
 
296 SILENT READING 
 
 ter it is for both teacher and pupil. There are at least 
 four reliable sources of reading material which are avail- 
 able to every teacher : The various school readers, text- 
 books, library books, pamphlets or bulletins. The re- 
 spective merits of these are discussed on the following 
 pages. 
 
 The school reader. Unfortunately too many teach- 
 ers use only one book — the regular school reader. Much 
 of the content of the readers is good, but no one book 
 contains sufficient material for a year's work. The class 
 reader is not made for silent-reading purposes alone, 
 but for oral reading as well. The subject-matter of 
 readers is chiefly of value in developing a love for read- 
 ing and for purposes of speed exercises. If pupils are 
 given a time limit in which to read^ an interesting 
 story, their desire to finish it will cause rapid reading. 
 Much practice of this sort will habituate long, rhyth- 
 mical eye-sweeps, few regressive movements, and fixa- 
 tion-points of short duration, thus aiding in rapid read- 
 ing. Stories should be read again and again, because 
 wider perception-units are possible when familiar ma- 
 terial is used. Knowing the content, the pupils are 
 able to guess ahead or read *'out of the tail of the 
 eye." 
 
 One danger of using the reader for silent reading is 
 that overzealous teachers tend to believe that they must 
 thoroughly test the pupils' comprehension of every 
 story and poem. Teachers must remember that the ma- 
 terial in the ordinary reader is largely narrative prose 
 
SILENT-READING MATERIAL 197 
 
 and poetry, which was selected primarily to cultivate 
 appreciation. Generally, it needs no detailed analysis. 
 The fact that children read it and enjoy it is assurance 
 that they comprehend it. 
 
 For example, the pupils may be asked to read the 
 story, ^'The Boy Who Cried 'Wolf'," so that they can 
 dramatize it for another group. This stimulates the 
 reading and necessitates their knowing that the boy 
 was herding sheep in a lonely spot near the home of 
 wild animals, that he became tired and thought he would 
 have some fun, and so played a trick on the men work- 
 ing in the field. It is little short of criminal, however, 
 to test the pupil's understanding of it by asking such 
 questions as: What did the boy do? Where did he 
 tend the sheep? What is a forest? Was it a dark 
 forest? How many men worked in the field? Where 
 was the field? 
 
 The teacher should, however, ask some questions even 
 about this story. They need not be detailed as to time, 
 place, manner, etc., but they should be such as will test 
 the pupil's interpretation of the entire selection. The 
 aim is to help pupils acquire the habit of judging and 
 evaluating when they read. Questions that require in- 
 terpretation and furnish a basis for discussion help 
 children to do that. A teacher is justified in asking 
 the following question about the above-mentioned story : 
 ''Do you feel sorry for the boy? Why?" Whether 
 the children's answer is negative or positive, there is 
 still room for much argument. Out of the discussion 
 
19S SILENT READING 
 
 will come a true interpretation of the story. Stories 
 should be read in order to give children something to 
 appreciate. To subject a child to a detailed question- 
 ing, either before or after he has read the story, robs 
 him of much of the joy of it and defeats the aim of 
 reading. 
 
 Who of us cannot recall an overconscientious teacher 
 who practically destroyed the charm of a fascinating 
 tale by attempting to discover whether or not we under- 
 stood the meaning of every word, and whether we were 
 getting the full connotation from each sentence? Such 
 interesting material is of great value, but it should not 
 be misused. 
 
 Library books. The library is a valuable source 
 of supply for material for silent reading; students 
 should be urged to use it freely. Story-books, fairy 
 tales, and myths contain material that always appeals 
 to pupils. Allowing students to read stories to drama- 
 tize or act in pantomime before the rest of the class 
 assures comprehension ; their desire to find out how the 
 story ends conduces to rapid reading. Lists of books 
 suitable for such work are given in the Appendix (pages 
 357-381). 
 
 Textbooks. A special series of readers to be used 
 for silent reading is unnecessary. Silent reading can 
 be based on any good readers; the subject-matter in 
 the regular textbooks of geography, history, and hygiene 
 furnishes excellent material, which is suitable for com- 
 prehension exercises because it is factual, detailed, and 
 
SILENT-READING MATERIAL 199 
 
 usually well org-anized. Various specimen lessons show- 
 ing how to use such material are presented in the fol- 
 lowing chapters. 
 
 The use of geography and history texts for silent 
 reading answers the objection of the teacher who claims 
 that her already overcrowded schedule allows no time 
 for silent reading as such. Naturally, she feels that with 
 so many classes it is impossible to allow each grade even 
 ten minutes per day for drill in silent reading or meth- 
 ods of study. However, since silent-reading exercises 
 may be conducted in conjunction with the lesson in geog- 
 raphy, history, or hygiene, the time difficulty is removed. 
 
 Very effective drill in speed and comprehension is 
 obtained by using the last five or ten minutes of the 
 recitation period to have pupils read the text assign- 
 ment under time pressure, then subjecting them to a 
 test on the leading points. The few minutes thus spent 
 help to form habits of rapid and purposeful reading. 
 The test also gives pupils a start on the mastery of 
 the next day's assignment, because it indicates what 
 important point they failed to grasp during their first 
 rapid reading. 
 
 Pamphlets. Unfortunately, many libraries contain 
 but few books, and those poor ones. This compels the 
 teacher to look elsewhere for material to use in silent- 
 reading classes. Her problem is to obtain vital, well- 
 written reading matter that is suitable for the various 
 grades, at minimum cost and in quantities that will 
 enable her to supply an entire class. 
 
200 SILENT READING 
 
 The situation is not so discouraging, however, as it 
 at first seems. It is generaly known that pupils are 
 intensely interested in all questions which are really 
 problems of the home, school, community, or state. An 
 abundance of material dealing with all sorts of ques- 
 tions pertaining to home-making, health, civics, agri- 
 culture, entomology, etc., is available in pamphlet form. 
 Those can generally be obtained free of cost or for a 
 small charge. Subjects which should be discussed in 
 all grades are treated in these pamphlets. One may 
 obtain articles from various sources on the fly menace, 
 the treatment of contagious diseases, the care of the 
 teeth, the value of fresh air, the care of milk, the dis- 
 posal of garbage, the method of growing various crops, 
 their value, soils, gardens, pests, and on many other 
 subjects. Generally the content is presented in the form 
 of problems. It abounds in detail and contains many 
 descriptive passages which make it splendid material 
 for training in comprehension and organization. 
 
 Few of these pamphlets can be used in the begin- 
 ning grades, but they afford factual material for the 
 teacher who cares to write selections suitable for pri- 
 mary pupils. An article on the house fly, well written 
 in a popular style, but which could not be profitably 
 used in grades below the third nevertheless contains in- 
 formation about the fly as a carrier of disease and as 
 a factor in infant mortality which is readily understood 
 by a six-year-old pupil. By adapting the content to 
 the class, and printing these exercises on the blackboard 
 
SILENT-READING MATERIAL 201 
 
 or on tag board, the teacher obtains source material 
 for twenty or more live and worth-while reading lessons. 
 The Appendix (pages 357-381) contains lists of 
 pamphlets, some of which may well be studied in the 
 classroom. Practically all are supplied free of ^ cost. 
 If the company or government department which pub- 
 lishes the material listed is unwilling to supply dupli- 
 cate copies, the teacher may have each pupil send for 
 his own. However, if the teacher explains the use that 
 she expects to make of the material, her request for 
 duplicate copies will usually be granted. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. If pupils are to become efRcient readers, they must 
 have access to much easy reading material. 
 
 2. Experiments indicate that there is no general silent- 
 reading ability, but that efficiency in reading varies 
 with the type of subject-matter. 
 
 3. Since there are apparently as many reading abilities 
 as there are types of material, pupils should receive 
 specific training in reading various kinds of subject- 
 matter. 
 
 4. The aim of an exercise in silent reading largely de- 
 termines the type of subject-matter that should be 
 used. 
 
 5. Available sources which enable the teacher to present 
 to the pupils the various types of subject-matter are 
 the basic reader and supplementary readers, textbooks 
 of history, geography, hygiene, and civics, and pamph- 
 lets pertaining to subjects of general interest. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 Bobbitt, Franklin. "Reading in the elementary schools of 
 Indianapolis: The reading materials." Elementary School 
 Journal, Vol. 19 (May) 1919. 
 
202 SILENT READING 
 
 Courtis, S. A. "Analysis of reading ability." Journal of 
 Educational Research, Vol. 4, (November) 1921. 
 
 Greene, Harry A. "Measuring comprehension of content 
 material." The Twentieth Yearbook of the National So- 
 ciety for the Study of Education: Part TI. Public School 
 Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1921. 
 
 Horn, Ernest. "A constructive program in silent reading." 
 Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 3, (May) 1921. 
 
 Horn, Ernest. "Selection of silent-reading textbooks/' 
 Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 2 (October) 1920. 
 
 Shepherd, Edith. "Some silent-reading lessons in junior 
 high-school English." School Review, Vol. 29, (March) 
 1921. 
 
 Stone, C. R. Silent and Oral Reading. Houghton Mifflin 
 Company, Boston, 1922. 
 
 Sutherland, A. H. "Correcting school disabilities in read- 
 ing." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 23, (September) 
 1922. 
 
 Wilson, Estaline. "Specific teaching of silent reading." 
 Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, (October) 1921. 
 
PART TWO 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 SILENT EEADING IN GRADES I AND II 
 
 The primary teacher's duty. The effective teaching 
 of silent reading to first-grade pupils taxes the ingen- 
 uity of the best teachers. On the first day the little 
 folks come to school eager to learn, but with no knowl- 
 edge of the symbols which are so full of meaning to 
 their older brothers and sisters. It is the primary teach- 
 er's duty and privilege to aid these children in their 
 earliest attempts to solve the mysteries of reading. 
 
 Oral or silent reading" in grade I. Regardless of 
 the method used to teach beginning reading, silent read- 
 ing should have a place beside oral reading. Authori- 
 ties do not agree as to the relative emphasis which 
 should be placed on oral and silent reading in the work 
 of the beginning grades. Advocates of oral reading 
 claim that it is natural for pupils in these grades to 
 give oral expression to the symbols of reading, and 
 that only in this way can pupils be taught to read. 
 Others contend that overemphasis of oral reading in 
 beginning grades largely accounts for the slow read- 
 ing rate of many pupils in the more advanced grades. 
 It is believed that the inherited tendency to inner speech 
 and lip-movement is also accentuated by much oral read- 
 
 205 
 
206 SILENT READING 
 
 ing". Many teachers would practically eliminate oral 
 reading in lower grades, except for reading poetry or 
 stories to a class audience. We believe there is a legi- 
 timate place for both kinds of reading even in the 
 first grade. Pnpils should read silently more than they 
 read aloud, even from the begining of their school work. 
 
 Material for use in silent reading. The progressive 
 teacher is not content to have her pupils use only one 
 primer or reader. She may adopt one as the basis 
 for her classwork in reading, and undoubtedly should 
 do so, but at least three or four other books should be 
 read. She should stress blackboard work, especially 
 during the early weeks of the first year. 
 
 The content of the most widely used primers, first 
 readers, and second readers is rich in stories and nurs- 
 ery rhymes. Although these are excellent for reading 
 purposes, they should be supplemented by material se- 
 lected from the library and by blackboard lessons based 
 upon classroom projects and excursions. 
 
 Pupils should be encouraged to read widely both in 
 and out of school. It is a proven maxim that *'we 
 learn to read by reading." This is emphasized by the 
 following statements which recently appeared in the 
 Twentieth Yearhooh of the National Society for the 
 Study of Education: 
 
 Schools in which a large number of books are read, 
 in primary grades, as a rule produce strong readers. 
 In the St. Louis survey a large proportion of the pupils 
 were found to be reading many books silently during 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 207 
 
 the second and third grades. In some classes the chil- 
 dren read as many as one book a day. The tests showed 
 that these children were markedly superior to those 
 who did not have such opportunity. The extensive 
 reader acquires a wide field of experience, secures much 
 practice in silent reading for the thought, the thread 
 of the story, or the points of interest. He becomes 
 practiced in phrasing. His vocabulary is increased 
 through the acquisition of words whose meaning is 
 gathered from the context. 
 
 Subject-matter for beginners. Unfortunately, the 
 old-fashioned method of teaching beginning reading still 
 prevails in many schools. Teachers select primers whose 
 content has no intrinsic value as literature or story 
 material, books which are without interest for the child. 
 Their sole merit lies in the ingenious repetition of cer- 
 tain words merely for the sake of the repetition. From 
 the beginning, the use of such books requires one to 
 emphasize the recognition of words, with the result that 
 children form the habit of reading this meaningless 
 material hesitatingly, one word at a time, as shown 
 by the following sentences. 
 
 ''See"— ''my"— ''doll." 
 
 " See ' '— ' ' my ' '— ' ' little ' '— ' ' doll. ' ' 
 
 ' ' See ' '— ' ' my ' '— ' ' pretty ' '— ' ' doll. ' ' 
 
 Such work causes the child to change his attitude 
 towards reading. He loses his eager desire to know 
 w^hat is in books because the first ones are uninteresting, 
 and he comes to look upon reading as a task instead of 
 a means of obtaining delightful experiences. This is 
 
208 SILENT READING 
 
 not alone wrong, it is deplorable. At the very begin- 
 ning of their school work children should get the idea 
 that reading consists of getting the meaning from the 
 printed page. That idea should be constantly rein- 
 forced by the use of meaningful material which is within 
 the range of their interests and understanding. 
 
 Material of the proper kind is to be found in many 
 beautifully illustrated primers and first readers whose 
 subject-matter has always fascinated children. The vo- 
 cabularies of those readers have been simplified, but 
 content has not been sacrificed to simplicity. Eepe- 
 tition appears in them not as a mechanical drill device, 
 but as an integral part of the story. Such reading 
 books, supplemented by blackboard lessons based on 
 classroom activities, make the teaching of reading a joy 
 to both teacher and pupils. 
 
 Methods for use with beginners. Even when using 
 the proper kind of subject-matter the teaching of read- 
 ing may be ineffective because of faulty presentation. 
 Teachers should avoid using methods which tend to de- 
 velop habits that will handicap pupils in their subse- 
 quent work. The basic primer which contains trite, 
 uninteresting subject-matter too often leads teachers to 
 overemphasize the mechanics of reading. Reading les- 
 sons become word and phonic drills, and pupils read 
 in a parrotlike fashion. "Word and phrase drills do 
 have their proper place in a method of primary read- 
 ing instruction, but that place is after the reading of 
 the story not before it. Then pupils realize the need 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 209 
 
 of knowing the meaning of particular word groups; 
 then the isolated phrases have content meaning. 
 
 There are several good methods of teaching reading 
 to beginners. These differ in the content on which they 
 are based rather than in procedure, because all empha- 
 size thought-getting. It is unlikely that any one method 
 is best for all teachers. Usually, the better plan is to 
 use one method as a basis for the beginning work and 
 to supplement it with others. Three popular methods 
 used extensively and successfully are here described 
 and appraised. 
 
 The action method. Briefly stated, this method is 
 based upon the use of words which express action. 
 Teachers who use it usually have the pupils begin read- 
 ing in a primer during the sixth week of school. The 
 choice of words that form the content of the early les- 
 sons is to some extent governed by the vocabulary of 
 the first primer lessons. 
 
 During the first few days of school the children's at- 
 tention is focused on several simple action words such 
 as "run," ''jump," "hop," "skip," etc. The teacher 
 begins by printing one of those words — "hop" — on 
 the blackboard, and telling the pupils that they are to 
 observe what she is going to do, because she will do what 
 the word says. As soon as the pupils discover what 
 the teacher does, they tell her what word she has writ- 
 ten. Following that, several children point to the word 
 and do what it says. As the lessons progress, all old 
 words are constantly reviewed. 
 
210 SILENT READING 
 
 As soon as pupils are able to recognize several words, 
 the teacher prints short sentences either on the black- 
 board or on strips of cardboard. The children are 
 then asked to obey the commands stated in those sen- 
 tences. Sentences such as "Run to me," "Hop to your 
 seat," "Skip to me," can be introduced after two or 
 three days' work. 
 
 Games may be made a part of the review work. One 
 child, playing "teacher," should be allowed to point 
 to words and sentences, then to call on other pupils 
 to respond by performing the action indicated by the 
 designated word or phrase. The printed directions may 
 be shown either on the blackboard or on the cardboard 
 strips. 
 
 Appraisal of the action method. The action method 
 is valuable for teaching beginning reading, because chil- 
 dren like to do things and consequently preserve a 
 lively interest in this work, which is little else than a 
 sort of game. This method minimizes oral reading, and 
 furnishes the teacher with a simple but reliable measure 
 of apprehension and comprehension. 
 
 Two outstanding defects of the action method render 
 it unsatisfactory if it is used exclusively. It promotes 
 children's tendency to see separate words instead of 
 word groups. The word, instead of the thought, be- 
 comes the unit. This word-reading produces readers 
 who are slow in rate and weak in ability to comprehend. 
 A second defect of the action method is that teachers 
 who use it are likely to prepare exercises which include 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 211 
 
 subject-matter of but little interest to pupils, and words 
 that are not in their vocabularies. 
 
 The project method. Many teachers believe that 
 they obtain the best results in beginning reading when 
 they base the lessons on schoolrom activities or projects. 
 When the teacher uses this method she does not have 
 the pupils begin reading on the first day of school but 
 postpones it for several days. During that time the 
 teacher tells stories which she helps the children to 
 dramatize in a small way, or she discusses some topic 
 of interest to the class. Sometimes the whole class un- 
 dertakes the execution of a project such as building a 
 playhouse or dressing a doll. Children are encouraged 
 to bring their toys and pets to school. Much free lan- 
 guage work then centers around these activities and 
 objects. The teacher then selects some subject of gen- 
 eral interest to the class, which is related to the class- 
 room activities. In her own informal talks about the 
 subject selected she uses words and groups of words 
 that are to appear in the first reading lessons. 
 
 A lesson of this type reported^ by H. A. Brown of 
 the Oshkosh State Normal School was based on the topic 
 *' Rabbits." For several days the interest of the class 
 had been centered on some rabbits which a pupil had 
 brought to school. One morning when the children 
 reached the classroom, they saw on the blackboard pic- 
 tures of a mother rabbit and her young one. These 
 sentences appeared beneath the respective pictures. 
 
 ^Brown, H. A. "Formulation of method in reading-." Journal 
 of Educational Research, "Vol. 2, (June) 1920. 
 
212 SILENT READING 
 
 Here is a big mother rabbit. 
 This is a little baby rabbit. 
 
 As the pupils had previously used these sentences in 
 the informal discussion of the words, the teacher now 
 directed attention to the printed forms, the sentences 
 were used again in various ways, and later various 
 pupils read them. 
 
 On the second day the two sentences were read many 
 times, and a third, familiar to the class from oral drill, 
 was added. This plan was continued for several days, 
 the old sentences being constantly reviewed in connec- 
 tion with the new until a complete story was built up. 
 The pupils soon had a vocabulary which enabled the 
 teacher to conduct new lessons by using familiar words. 
 The sentence was always the unit; children were never 
 allowed to read word by word. 
 
 A classroom project.^ A lesson of this same type, 
 presented to a class that had been reading a week or 
 so, was based on the topic ** Goldfish.'' As the pupils 
 had been talking about the goldfish they had at home, 
 the teacher suggested getting some for the schoolroom. 
 That suggestion immediately aroused intense interest. 
 
 In response to the teacher's questioning, the children 
 suggested the need of water, shells, and weeds, in addi- 
 tion to the goldfish and bowl. These words, printed 
 on the blackboard when first mentioned, were also 
 printed on slips of paper which the pupils used as 
 
 iGray, W. S. "Reading- in the elementary schools of India- 
 napolis : Part II." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 19, (March) 
 1919. 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 213 
 
 labels for the objects when the latter were obtained. 
 Following that, the teacher told the class that they 
 were ready ''to put the various articles together." The 
 sentences below were written on the blackboard, and 
 the child who first read each was assigned to carry 
 out the direction stated. 
 
 Get the bowl. 
 Put water in the bowl. 
 Put shells in the water. 
 Put weeds in the bowl. 
 Put fish in the water. 
 
 During the language period which followed this les- 
 son, the teacher asked the pupils to relate the experi- 
 ences of the reading recitation, and as they did so the 
 following sentences, given by the pupils, were written 
 on the blackboard. Later the story was hectographed 
 and handed to the pupils, who then read and discussed it. 
 
 Goldfish 
 
 We have four goldfish. 
 
 We put them in a dish. 
 
 We put water in the dish. 
 
 We put shells in the water. 
 
 We put weeds in the water. 
 
 Fish like to eat weeds. 
 
 We named the fish. 
 
 The father fish is Dick. 
 
 The mother fish is Lassie. 
 
 One little fish is We ewe e. 
 
 The other little fish is Weenee. 
 
 Appraisal of the project method. Although the 
 
214 SILENT READING 
 
 project method has much to commend it, teachers who 
 have an inadequate supply of primers or whose primer 
 contains only meaningless, uninteresting subject-mat- 
 ter should not attempt to use it, because every project- 
 method lesson should be supplemented by lessons that 
 appear in the reading text. An exclusive use of the 
 project method makes much extra work for the teacher, 
 because the lessons must be very carefully prepared in 
 order to be at all worth-while to the pupils. -An inade- 
 quate preparation of project-method lesson material is 
 worse, than the hackneyed subject-matter of the unsat- 
 isfactory primers. The preparation of these lessons re- 
 quires much time, more than is usually available to 
 teachers who have several grades in one room. How- 
 ever, teachers who have opportunity to prepare a back- 
 ground for this sort of lesson by presenting the pre- 
 liminary work, will find that this method of teaching 
 beginning reading gives large returns for the effort ex- 
 pended. Directing the children's interest to interesting 
 subject-matter encourages thoughtful, intelligent read- 
 ing, and quite properly makes the thought unit the 
 center around which the lesson turns. 
 
 The story method. If the teacher expects to use 
 this method to teach beginning reading, her pupils must 
 have a primer that contains subject-matter of vital in- 
 terest. Primers of that type are usually based on nurs- 
 ery rhymes or folk tales such as * * The Little Red Hen, ' ' 
 '* Three Billy Goats Gruff," or ''The Gingerbread 
 Boy." Some teachers have their pupils use such prim- 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 215 
 
 ers for the first recitation. Others develop the rhymes 
 and stories by means of blackboard lessons during the 
 first few weeks, then have the children read from the 
 books. If- a good primer of this type is used, there 
 is no reason why the children may not read the book 
 from the beginning. 
 
 The lessons described in the following paragraphs 
 show how the story method is used. The first, based 
 on nursery rhymes, was preceded by two weeks of pre- 
 primer work. The second, based on a folk tale, was 
 read directly from the primer. 
 
 Lessons based on nursery rhymes. The rhymes 
 used for this lesson introduced Bo-Peep, Little Miss 
 Muffet, Jack Horner, and Humpty Dumpty. On the 
 first day of school the children enjoyed themselves look- 
 ing at several illustrated editions of Mother Goose 
 rhymes. They commented on the illustrations, identi- 
 fied some of the characters, and recited such rhymes 
 as they knew. The teacher called attention to the pic- 
 ture of Little Bo-Peep, talked about her to the class, 
 had the pupils discuss her, and then had several chil- 
 dren recite the rhyme. A number of children who knew 
 the song sang it to the others, and during the period 
 devoted to art instruction the class drew pictures of 
 Little Bo-Peep. 
 
 The following morning all the children sang the song 
 *' Little Bo-Peep." Then the teacher said, ^^How would 
 you like to read the rhyme to me^ Let us print it on 
 the blackboard where we all can see it. Tell me what 
 
216 SILENT READING 
 
 to print first." Some child suggested, ''Little Bo-Peep 
 has lost her sheep.'' That was then printed as one line, 
 followed by the three remaining lines, printed as the 
 children dictated. The rhyme was then read one line 
 at a time, the teacher holding a strip of cardboard nnder 
 each line as the pnpils recited. Several children then 
 recited the rhyme line by line, as the teacher moved the 
 marker. Following that, the teacher asked the class to 
 read the lines she indicated. During that exercise she 
 did not follow the regular order of lines. 
 
 For the afternoon lesson the teacher again printed the 
 rhyme on the blackboard. She then displayed strips of 
 cardboard on which she had printed phrases such as 
 Little Bo-Peep, don't know where, Jim lost her sheep, 
 etc., and asked pupils to place the phrase cards under 
 the same phrases written on the blackboard. Pupils had 
 some difficulty to do this. They were familiar with the 
 verses because of their place in the rhyme, and not 
 because they recognized the phrases as such. During 
 this work some pupils volunteered to help others who 
 could not readily locate the phrases. 
 
 The teacher next showed the children a printed chart 
 which bore the rhyme. After the pupils had compared 
 this with the rhyme printed on the blackboard, in order 
 to see if the two were alike, the teacher cut each line 
 of the rhyme from the chart and then had the children 
 place the line in the proper order on an improvised rack. 
 "While doing this work the children were guided by the 
 rhyme printed on the blackboard. 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 217 
 
 The following day the teacher again printed the 
 rhyme on the blackboard as the children recited it, and 
 then had them arrange the strips on the rack as before. 
 This was followed by a short phrase drill. The children 
 then closed their eyes while the teacher removed one lin© 
 from the rack. She afterwards asked the pupils to tell 
 which line had been taken away. They did this by com- 
 paring the rhyme on the rack with the one on the black- 
 board. After this exercise the pupils were asked to use 
 their phrase cards for matching certain phrases on the 
 cards which were placed on the rack. 
 
 For the next lesson the teacher drew a blackboard 
 picture of Little Bo-Peep and her sheep, and wrote the 
 following sentences beneath it. 
 
 This is Little Bo-Peep. 
 She lost her sheep. 
 Her sheep came home. 
 
 The children were able to recognize some of the familiar 
 phrases immediately. By means of drill the teacher soon 
 acquainted them with all the words and phrases in these 
 sentences. 
 
 In a similar manner the teacher presented and devel- 
 oped the three nursery rhymes, "Little Miss Muffet, " 
 *'Jack Horner," and "Humpty Dumpty." The old 
 rhyme was always reviewed in connection with the new 
 by means of such exercises as these. 
 
 Little Bo-Peep lost her sheep. 
 
 She went to Little Miss Muffet. 
 
 Little Miss Muffet was sitting on a tuffet. 
 
218 SILENT READING 
 
 She was eating curds and whey. 
 She said, ''Leave them alone and they'll come 
 home.'* 
 
 The teacher then showed sentences like the following, 
 printed on cardboard strips. 
 
 Show me the black spider. 
 
 Show me Little Bo-Peep and her sheep. 
 
 She then displayed pictures of the incidents mentioned 
 in the rhymes, and upon showing one of the cardboard 
 strips containing a command, she asked various children 
 to do what the sentence directed. 
 
 Rapid drill on the words that frequently occurred was 
 given at separate periods. The teacher pointed to a 
 word on the chart or blackboard, then asked the class to 
 indicate some other word that resembled it. Much drill 
 was devoted to training in the recognition of phrases. 
 
 Towards the close of the second week the teacher intro- 
 duced short silent-reading exercises consisting of printed 
 questions based on the rhymes. Questions similar to the 
 following were readily answered by the pupils. 
 
 Who lost her sheep? 
 
 Did Bo-Peep go to Little Miss Muffet? 
 
 Who said, ** Please help me find my sheep?'* 
 
 At the beginning of the third week the children began 
 reading from their primers. They first spent some time 
 looking through their books, examining the illustrations, 
 and talking about the stories. They were able to identify 
 many of the rhymes by means of the illustrations. When 
 the pupils had looked through the primer they turned 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 219 
 
 to the first story. Some wanted to read it at once, but 
 the teacher suggested that they first read the selection 
 from the pictures to make sure that it was about the 
 people of whom they had been reading in the black- 
 board lessons. That finished, the pupils read the story 
 from the book. All read a sentence silently and then 
 some pupil was selected to tell the class what the line 
 said. If a sentence consisted of two lines, the teacher 
 explained that the two were to be read together. Thus 
 the entire story was read. 
 
 As the second primer story also consisted of a nursery 
 rhyme, it was handled in the same way. Drill on diffi- 
 cult words and phrases was conducted at a separate 
 period after reading the story. When pupils failed to 
 recognize a phrase, the teacher helped by asking some 
 question which indicated the setting of the phrase in 
 the story. By substituting the children's names for 
 those of the story characters, as the foUomng sentences 
 show, the pupils received practice in recognizing phrases 
 in new settings. 
 
 Let us play we are Mother Goose children. 
 
 Jack and Billy sat on a wall. 
 
 Mary sat on a tuffet in the corner. 
 
 Phillip blew his horn. 
 
 Jack, Billy, and Mary were frightened. 
 
 Mary ran away. 
 
 Billy had a great fall. 
 
 He bumped his head. 
 
 He told Jack he broke his crown. 
 
220 SILENT READING 
 
 Appraisal of the nursery-rhyme method. This 
 method of teaching beginning reading by basing the 
 first reading lessons on nursery rhymes has proved very 
 satisfactory to many teachers. The familiar, meaning- 
 ful content fascinates pupils. By placing the emphasis 
 on thought-getting the reading does not degenerate into 
 mere word calling. 
 
 The main objection to the method is that its use early 
 introduces into the child's vocabulary such unusual 
 expressions as ''sat on a tuffet," "broke his crown," 
 etc. However, as those few unfamiliar phrases add to 
 the jingle of the rhyme, that difficulty has aparently 
 been overestimated. When using nursery rhymes, teach- 
 ers must at all times make sure that pupils know the 
 same version before they begin to read. Unless they 
 have attended kindergarten such is not likely to be the 
 case, because versions of the nursery ryhmes taught in 
 different homes vary considerably. 
 
 Lessons based on folk tales. The treatment of these 
 lessons resembles that of those based on the nursery 
 rhymes, the need of pre-primer work depending on the 
 simplicity of the primer in hand. If pre-primer work 
 is used, the lessons should be based on the first few 
 stories of the chosen primer and should introduce the 
 important words and phrases of the book. In any case, 
 however, blackboard lessons should precede and supple- 
 ment reading from the books. 
 
 In presenting the lessons described here the primer 
 was used from the first, although blackboard or chart 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 221 
 
 would have been equally satisfactory. The primer was 
 used because each child had a book of his own and was 
 anxious to use it, the vocabulary of the textbook was 
 simple, and the illustrations were such that children 
 could almost obtain the content of the story from them 
 alone. 
 
 At the beginning of the first lesson the teacher gath- 
 ered the class about her, distributed the books, and told 
 the pupils to examine them. Each did so, remarked 
 about the illustrations, and suggested stories that he 
 would like to read. Pupils identified many stories by 
 means of the illustrations. When the class had spent 
 some time looking at the books, the teacher told the story 
 of *'The Little Red Hen,"^ using the exact words of 
 the book in so far as possible. When she finished, the 
 pupils commented at length on the characters and inci- 
 dents described. 
 
 The teacher then asked the pupils to ''read'* the 
 story from the pictures. During that exercise she so 
 worded her questions that the children were compelled 
 to answer by using the words and phrases of the book, 
 with which the teacher's oral rendition had acquainted 
 them. For example, the teacher asked: ''What does 
 the first picture tell about T' "What did the little red 
 hen find?" "What was the little red hen going to do 
 with the seed ! " " What did she say r ' " What did the 
 pig say?" "What did the cat say?" etc. The chil- 
 
 iThis story appears in the Primer of the Free and Treadwell 
 Reading -Literature Series published by Row, Peterson and Com- 
 pany, Chicago. 
 
222 SILENT READING 
 
 dren's answers, in complete sentences, were as follows: 
 ^'The first picture tells us about the little red hen." 
 ''The little red hen found a seed." ''The little red hen 
 was going to plant the seed." "She said, 'Who will 
 plant the seed r " "The pig said, 'Not I.' " "The cat 
 said, 'Not I,'" etc. 
 
 On the following day the teacher explained that the 
 pupils were to read the story of "The Little Red Hen" 
 again, but in a different way, not altogether from the 
 pictures. She again told the story, and as she used each 
 phrase she displayed a card on which it appeared. She 
 taught the phrases, "Who will plant the seed?", "Not 
 I, " "I will then, " " and she did, ' ' in this way. During 
 the next few minutes the pupils identified the phrases 
 by comparing the words of their books with the phrases 
 printed on the cards, the teacher giving needed assist- 
 ance. The drill was concluded when the pupils showed 
 signs of fatigue. Whenever a child located a phrase 
 which he could not read, the teacher asked some ques- 
 tion about the content so as to help him. The brighter 
 children readily recognized the phrases of the first les- 
 son which occur throughout the story. 
 
 On the afternoon following this lesson the children 
 actually read the text of the story. At that time the 
 teacher distributed markers and explained their use, 
 telling the children to place the marker under each 
 line as it was read.^ Whenever necessary the teacher 
 
 ^Many teachers find that children who use a marker during* 
 the begtinning- work are less likely to form the pernicious habit 
 of following the lines with the finger. 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 223 
 
 told the class to drop the marker two lines instead of 
 one. In reading, the teacher designated the line, asked 
 the class to read it silently, then asked some child to 
 read it aloud. If the pupil had difficulty in reading 
 a line, the teacher helped him by means of a question 
 that gave the phrase its setting. For example, when 
 the class could not read the line, ''The little red hen 
 said, 'Who will plant the seed^," the teacher explained 
 that the line told what the little red hen said when 
 she found the seed. She also displayed a phrase card 
 bearing the expression, ' ' The pig said, ' Not I. ' " When- 
 ever a pupil interpreted the content correctly but failed 
 to use the words of the book as he did so, the teacher 
 explained that the sentence in question meant what the 
 child said, but that he had used the wrong words. For 
 example, one pupil said, "The pig said, 'I won't.' " 
 The teacher then asked the other members of the class 
 to tell the pig's exact words. 
 
 Each exercise of the type just described was followed 
 by a word and phrase drill during the next period. 
 During such drills the children were allowed to help 
 each other. Similar phrase drills were used for review 
 exercises. 
 
 During such lesson presentations as have been de- 
 scribed the teacher must be alert every minute. She 
 must help the children to adjust their markers, she 
 must ask questions that will bring out the content of 
 each sentence, and she must see that all take an active 
 part in the recitation. Each story must be carefully 
 
224 SILENT READING 
 
 developed according to the following steps, whose order 
 must not be modified if the teacher expects to obtain 
 the best results. 
 
 1. Tell the story in an interesting manner, being 
 careful to preserve the proper sequence of inci- 
 dents and to use the important words and phrases 
 of the book as much as possible. 
 
 2. Have the pupils '*read" the story from the pic- 
 tures. Use skillful questioning that will encour- 
 age them to reproduce the exact words and phrases 
 of the text. 
 
 3. Re-tell the story to the class, making use of word 
 cards and phrase cards. 
 
 4. Have the children locate certain phrases, compare 
 the phrases on the cards with those in the book, 
 and read the sentences of the book which contain 
 the phrases being studied. 
 
 5. Have the pupils read the story from the book, 
 sentence by sentence, at first silently, then orally. 
 
 6. Grive blackboard and flash-card drill on words, 
 phrases, and sentences which are to be fixed in 
 the minds of the pupils. 
 
 7. Conclude the study of a story by having the chil- 
 dren dramatize it for presentation before some 
 other group. 
 
 Phonics in beginning" reading. The exact relation of 
 phonic instruction to the successful teaching of begin- 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 225 
 
 ning reading has not yet been determined scientifically, 
 and there is still a lack of data on the subject. 
 
 Currier and Duguid report^ an experiment conducted 
 in the first and second grades. The pupils of each 
 grade were classified into two groups, one being taught 
 by means of phonic drill, the other by means of the 
 sense-content method, supplemented by drill with word 
 and phrase cards. At the end of the year those chil- 
 dren who had received instruction in phonics pronounced 
 words accurately, but could with difficulty reproduce 
 what they read. Concentration on the sounds of let- 
 ters had diverted their attention from the sense of the 
 material to mere word pronunciation. The pupils who 
 had received no phonic training were less accurate in 
 pronunciation, but they could read more rapidly and 
 fluently and could more readily reproduce what they 
 read. The ability of the two groups to attack new 
 words was approximately equal. The authors state that 
 ''foreign children, those having impediments of speech, 
 and those who had previously formed bad habits of 
 pronunciation were greatly benefited by the phonic 
 drills.'' 
 
 Appraisal of the phonic method. Although the re- 
 sults of this experiment are not sufficiently extensive 
 to serve as the basis for final conclusions, nevertheless 
 they support the opinions formed by many who have 
 made a study of primary-reading methods. These con- 
 tend that an overemphasis of phonics is detrimental to 
 
 ^Currier, Lillian B., and Dusruid, Olive C. "Phonics or no 
 phonics?" Eleinentary School Journal, Vol. 17, (December) 1916. 
 
226 SILENT READING 
 
 the formation of good reading- habits, and that begin- 
 ning reading can be taught successfully by using little 
 phonic drill, if any. So far as pronunciation is con- 
 cerned, phonics gives the pupil a method of attacking 
 new words, and tends to make him an independent 
 reader very early in his school life. But it is likely 
 that other less desirable results which are not so readily 
 recognized come from the early introduction of phonics. 
 
 Phonic drill centers the child's attention on single 
 letters or on small groups of letters. This prevents the 
 development of the wide eye-span necessary to effective 
 silent reading. Phonics also divert the child's attention 
 from the meaning of a story to the mechanics of read- 
 ing, as is shown when he stops short in his reading of 
 a selection to *' sound" some unfamiliar word. That 
 practice causes him to lose the thread of the story; his 
 so-called reading is mere word-calling. 
 
 When should phonics be begun? There is little 
 agreement among teachers as to the time when phonic 
 drill should be introduced, or the emphasis it should 
 receive. Miss Watkins, who begins phonic instruction 
 during the first few weeks of school, says^ that after 
 the children are classified and arranged in their respec- 
 tive groups the daily work in phonics should begin. 
 Miss Hardy, teacher in the elementary school of the 
 University of Chicago, begins phonic work during the 
 sixth week of school." Brown seriously questions the 
 
 iWatkins, Emma. How to Teach Silent Reading to Beginners. 
 J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, 1922. 
 
 ^Parker, Samuel Chester. "How to teach beginning- reading: 
 Part III." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, (November) 1921. 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 227 
 
 use of phonic drill and word analysis during the early- 
 stages of reading. He says:^ 
 
 Certain considerations must be taken into account 
 in connection with the problems of phonetic drill. What 
 reading habits are most desirable t What procedure in 
 teaching is conducive to their development? These are 
 questions which must receive serious consideration. 
 Speed is a highly desirable factor in reading ability, 
 merely as a timesaver if for no other reason. All habits 
 which lead to slow and ponderous reading must be 
 avoided. Speed in reading depends in part upon the 
 size of the units of recognition, i. e., the amount which 
 can be seen by the reader during eye-pauses, and in 
 part upon the duration of eye-pauses. The individual 
 who sees only a small portion of the line during an 
 eye-pause must make many fixations. The longer the 
 eye-pauses, the slower will be the reading, other things 
 being equal. Will not a habit of attention to textual 
 details inevitably result in slowness in reading? Will 
 not a habit of recognition through dominant charac- 
 teristics of words and phrases, with their minute par- 
 ticulars marginal in attention, become a distinct aid in 
 interpreting thought? Is not the inevitable result of 
 two or three years of persistent drill on the isolated 
 elements of words bound to be a predominant habit 
 of attention to the minute particulars of words? Can 
 the eye be trained to take in large units by practice 
 on small ones? Will not prolonged attention to word 
 forms effectively prevent the development of a habit 
 of thinking meanings as one reads? 
 
 In view of the facts at hand, it seems to me to be 
 a radically wrong procedure to introduce such a large 
 amount of abstract phonetic drill in the earliest stages 
 of reading as is often found. It seems to me to be a 
 
 ^Brown, H. A. "Formulation of method in reading." Journal 
 of Educational Research^ Vol. 2, (June) 1920. 
 
228 SILENT READING 
 
 very obvious inference that the predominant emphasis 
 in method at the beginning must be upon the instantan- 
 eous recognition of words and word groups, the mental 
 process being concerned with meanings rather than with 
 word forms. 
 
 The children of the third grade in the training de- 
 partment of the State Normal School at Oshkosh spent 
 the first two years in extensive reading of simple stories 
 for pure enjoyment, with their attention entirely on 
 the content. During the reading period all words not 
 instantly recognized were told immediately. Word de- 
 velopment was taken up in separate periods, the words 
 being incorporated in phrases for drill, and no atten- 
 tion being called to the elements of words. Approxi- 
 mately fifty minutes per day were spent on all phases 
 of reading, including silent reading, word development 
 and study, and oral reading. Silent reading was begun 
 early in the first year. Before the end of the second 
 year the children began to pronounce new words with- 
 out help, applying independently the general knowledge 
 of phonic laws acquired unconsciously through much 
 reading. 
 
 Beginning with the third year, the children were en- 
 couraged to organize the phonic facts so gained, and 
 the four or five most common principles of phonics 
 were taught. A short period at the end of the day 
 was devoted to '^pronouncing long words," as the chil- 
 dren called it. This period became so popular that 
 only with difficulty were the children persuaded to omit 
 it on special occasions. Recently they were pronounc- 
 ing with ease and enjoyment such words as hj^drocar- 
 bon, hydrometer, tuberculosis, capitulate, centigrade, 
 epidote, actuate, and many others of equal difficulty, 
 without the aid of diacritical marks or context. 
 
 These children have developed insatiable appetites for 
 reading, and they read intelligently and accurately with 
 good expression and excellent speed. Of the two daily 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 229 
 
 reading lessons in the third grade, one is devoted to oral 
 and the other to silent reading. The children are cap- 
 able of reading any material suited to their age in 
 content, and they read great numbers of books during 
 spare periods and out of school hours. 
 
 Deferred phonic training. Although many teachers 
 believe that the first week of school is ^o early for 
 beginning instruction in phonics, they think that pupils 
 need phonic drill before the beginning of the third grade, 
 and that they can use phonics to advantage before that 
 time. Such teachers usually introduce phonic drill 
 toward the close of the first school year, about two 
 months or six weeks before the close of the final semes- 
 ter. By that time pupils -have usually read several 
 primers and first readers. The emphasis on content has 
 caused them to form the habit of reading for meaning 
 and recognizing new words by their setting in the con- 
 text. Although special training in word analysis is 
 not given by these teachers, they insist on clear enuncia- 
 tion during music exercises and during the recitation 
 of poems. Such work is good ear training. Many bright 
 children seem to devise a system of attacking new words. 
 For the benefit of the majority of the class, however, 
 certain periods should be devoted to special drill at 
 this time. The introduction of phonic instruction to- 
 ward the latter part of the first school year renders 
 less likely the development of a habit of word-calling. 
 Children at that time recognize the value of phonics 
 as a tool which will help them to read. The ability 
 
230 SILENT READING 
 
 they have acquired during their reading" for content 
 enables them to realize the need of some sort of assist- 
 ance. 
 
 Importance of practice in reading. Children learn 
 to read well by reading much. Practice makes perfect. 
 "Wide reading brings the child into contact with new 
 ideas, new phrases, and new words, and enables him 
 to review many old words and expressions. It is neces- 
 sary for pupils in the primary grades to have access 
 to much interesting reading material. A minimum of 
 three primers and three first readers should be read in 
 the first grade. In schools where there are well- 
 equipped libraries many more are often read. The chil- 
 dren should be given an opportunity to do much con- 
 trolled silent reading and much supplementary read- 
 ing. As we have already suggested, a supply of sup- 
 plementary reading books may be obtained by having 
 the pupils bring their story-books to the class to ex- 
 change with each other. These, and any other supple- 
 mentary reading material, should be kept on a table 
 or shelf where they will be accessible to all. Pupils 
 may be permitted to read in those books after they 
 have finished their assignments. Every effort should 
 be made, however, to obtain a supply of books for the 
 school library. A list of books that have proven highly 
 satisfactory for use in primary grades is given in the 
 Appendix (pages 357-381). 
 
 Controlled silent reading. Pupils of the first and 
 second grades should read silently during the regular 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 231 
 
 class period in order to have the pleasure that comes 
 from reading good stories. Many of the better first 
 and second readers present in simple and interesting 
 style fairy tales, myths, and nursery rhymes that have 
 long fascinated children. The teacher should let the 
 pupils read such material and then have them discuss 
 the stories when they have finished. That practice cul- 
 tivates the children's desire to read worthy material. 
 
 An example of the interest that may be aroused by 
 an exercise of this kind is shown by the experience of 
 a class which was very anxious to read from a new 
 set of readers that had arrived a few days previously. 
 Upon examining the books the class decided they would 
 like to read the story of '^The Fisherman and His 
 Wife." They judged from the illustrations that this 
 would prove interesting. One child, who had read the 
 story at home, assured the others that such was the 
 case. The teacher mentioned that she too knew the 
 story, and she told the pupils that she would be inter- 
 ested to learn whether or not they would feel sorry for 
 the fisherman and his wife. Spurred on by these in- 
 centives, the children read the story with keen interest 
 and discussed it thoroughly when they had finished. 
 The teacher took little part in the discussion; doubtful 
 points, or those on whicji pupils disagreed, were cleared 
 up by reference to the book. 
 
 Arousing children's interest. The practice of arous- 
 ing an interest in a lesson or task is commendable. 
 Teachers often accomplish this by relating some inter- 
 
232 SILENT READING 
 
 esting story at the opening of a reading period, then 
 asking the children to read the story from books with 
 which she provides them. The children's interest in the 
 story induces thoughtful, purposeful reading; the influ- 
 ence of the clock provides for a speedy rate. Such les- 
 sons are usually concluded by asking a pupil to tell 
 the story, or by using it as a topic for discussion dur- 
 ing the English lesson. The latter plan is advisable 
 as a test of comprehension. A large number of sup- 
 plementary readers is a valuable asset to any teacher 
 who wants to make the most of children's interest in 
 
 good reading material. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. Silent reading should be stressed as much as oral read- 
 ing, even in the first grade. 
 
 2. The teacher should encourage pupils in the primary 
 grades to read extensively, because much reading tends 
 to make good readers. 
 
 3. The reading material used should stimulate and foster 
 the children's desire to learn to read. 
 
 4. Pre-primer lessons should be based only on such mate- 
 rial as children will want to read outside of school. 
 
 5j In the first and second grades, phonic and word drills 
 \ are absolutely necessary. They must always be given 
 kt a period separate from the reading recitation. 
 
 6. The transition from the blackboard reading work to 
 reading directly from the books is more readily made 
 if the former is based on the first primer lessons. 
 
 7. If first and second-grade pupils are to develop good 
 reading habits, the teacher must emphasize controlled 
 silent reading, supplementary reading, and silent-reading 
 drill. 
 
 8. It is essential that pupils in the primary grades do 
 much reading for pleasure. 
 
GRADES ONE AND TWO 233 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Arnold, Sarah L. Learning to Read. Silver, Burdett and 
 Company, Chicago. 
 
 Boggs, Lucinda. "How children learn to read." Pedagogical 
 Seminary, Vol. 12, 1905. 
 
 Chubb, Percival. The Teaching of English. (Chapters 6 
 and 7.) The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1908. 
 
 Clark, S. H. Hoiv to Teach Reading in the Puhlic Schools. 
 Scott, Foresman and Company, Chicago, 1898. 
 
 Gray, W. S. "Principles of method in teaching reading 
 derived from scientific investigation." The Eighteenth 
 Yearbook of the "National Society for the Study of Edu- 
 cation: Part II. Public School Publishing Company, 
 Bloomington, Illinois, 1919. 
 
 Huey, Edmund B. The Psychology and Pedagogy of Read- 
 ing. The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1908. 
 
 Jenkins, Frances. Reading in the Primary Grades. Hough- 
 ton Mifflin and Company, Boston, 1915. 
 
 Klapper, Paul. Teaching Children to Read, D. Appleton 
 and Company, New York City, 1915. 
 
 McMurry, Lida B. Method for Teaching Primary Reading. 
 The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1914. 
 
 Rapeer, L. W. (and others). Teaching Elementary-school 
 Subjects. (Chapter 7.) Charles Scribner's Sons, New 
 York City, 1917. 
 
 Stone, C. R. Silent and Oral Reading. Houghton Mifflin 
 Company, Boston, 1922. 
 
 Theisen, W. W. "Factors affecting results in primary read- 
 ing." The Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society 
 for the Study of Education: Part II. Public School 
 Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1921. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES FOR GRADES 
 
 I AND II 
 
 The need of word and phrase drills. It is essential 
 that pupils in beginning reading classes frequently be 
 given effective word and phrase drills. These help chil- 
 dren learn to read by training them to recognize words 
 and phrases quickly, an ability upon which progress 
 in reading largely depends, especially when little phonic 
 instruction is given. Even though the begining read- 
 ing material does consist of simple, interesting subject- 
 matter, word drill and supplementary blackboard les- 
 sons are necessary. This is particularly the case when 
 pupils have only one or a few readers available. 
 
 A number of drill plans and devices suitable for use 
 with beginners are presented on the following pages. 
 The exercises are only suggestive; teachers should mod- 
 ify them whenever necessary, determining their changes 
 by the principle that an exercise must always be adapted 
 to the working vocabulary of the pupils. 
 
 How to conduct drills. As a rule, the teacher 
 should classify each large class into three groups con- 
 sisting respectively of the fast, medium-rate, and slow 
 readers. Pupils do better work when they are included 
 
 234 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 235 
 
 in a group whose members are of nearly equal ability. 
 There is but little incentive for a slow reader to try 
 to read rapidly, if 80 per cent of the class excel him 
 all the time. If such a pupil is placed in a group 
 whose reading rate is nearly the same as his own, he 
 realizes that he has a fighting chance to excel, and is 
 consequently more likely to do his best work all the 
 time. 
 
 "When conducting drill exercises the words, phrases, 
 and sentences should be presented so rapidly that the 
 pupil can read them only as wholes. The length of 
 the exposure should be less than the time which a fast 
 reader requires to pronounce the words. Words and 
 phrases can be presented by flashing cards on which 
 they are printed, more satisfactorily than by writing 
 them on the blackboard. If the teacher writes the 
 words on the blackboard as she conducts the drill, 
 pupils read them letter by letter as they are written, 
 and that destroys any value that the drill, as such, 
 might have. If the blackboard is used, it is well to 
 write the list of words before the exercise begins, cover 
 it with a map or window blind that rolls at the bottom, 
 then expose the words and phrases one at a time. 
 
 The following drills may be used to advantage in 
 the first and second grades. Each should contain those 
 words and phrases that most frequently occur in the 
 reading material which the class is studying. All work 
 should be motivated by presenting it in the form of 
 games, dramatizations, or competitive exercises. After 
 
236 SILENT READING 
 
 the pupils learn how to execute a number of these word 
 and phrase drills and other exercises^ the work may 
 be truly pupil-motivated by allowing the children to 
 choose the games they wish to play. 
 
 Exercise I : Action Words 
 All children like to play make-believe. The teacher 
 can make use of this tendency by presenting the fol- 
 lowing game based on action words. The exercise can 
 be varied by permitting the pupils who do the best 
 work to play ** teacher." 
 
 How many would like to play a game this morning ? 
 Would you like to play that we are deaf and dumb? 
 Very well, that's what we shall do. Under the curtain 
 is a long list of words, each of which tells us some- 
 thing to do. When I point to a word you must do 
 what it tells you. Remember, though, we are unable 
 to speak. Now let's see who can act first. 
 
 stand 
 
 rise 
 
 run 
 
 cry 
 
 smile 
 
 clap 
 
 hop 
 
 turn 
 
 bend 
 
 frown 
 
 laugh 
 
 reach 
 
 sit 
 
 jump 
 
 skip 
 
 walk 
 
 Exercise II: Drill on Prepositions 
 Children often fail to comprehend a sentence because 
 they can not distinguish among such words as ''behind," 
 ''beside," "beneath," etc. To remedy this defect the 
 teacher may use the following exercise which is similar 
 to the preceding one. She should select words and 
 phrases which most frequently occur in future reading 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 237 
 
 exercises. Pupils enjoy making a '*race" of this exer- 
 cise. 
 
 Print each of the phrases given below (or others if 
 more suitable) on a strip of cardboard. Write the 
 phrase "Place your hands'' on the blackboard. In- 
 struct the children to read the blackboard phrase in 
 connection with the cards as they are flashed, then fol- 
 low the command stated. 
 
 under the desk below the desk 
 
 on the desk over the desk 
 
 above the desk in front of the desk 
 
 beneath the desk behind the desk 
 
 in the desk upon the desk 
 
 beside the desk underneath the desk 
 
 Exercise III: Labeling Objects and Pictures 
 
 The teacher should print on cards the names of 
 objects and pictures of objects in the room. Flash 
 the cards rapidly before the class. The pupil who can 
 first name the word on a card should be allowed to 
 take the card and use it to label the object or picture 
 to which it refers. If the pupil who does the labeling 
 makes an error, it should be corrected by another. 
 
 Children who first successfully complete the exer- 
 cise should be given a supplementary set of cards to 
 use for labeling other objects, while the remainder of 
 the class continues the drill. This exercise may be 
 made competitive by dividing the class into two groups, 
 and allowing each group to keep score by reckoning 
 the number of objects and pictures which its members 
 label correctly. 
 
 Pictures for use In the exercise may be cut from 
 
238 SILENT READING 
 
 old books, magazines, newspapers, and catalogues, then 
 mounted on sheets of heavy paper or cardboard. 
 
 Exercise IV: Opposites 
 
 The following exercise, based on the list of words 
 
 given below (or on any others with which pupils are 
 
 likely to be acquainted) serves not only as a drill on 
 
 the recognition of word^, but also as a language drill 
 
 which emphasizes both speed and comprehension. 
 
 Prepare a number of flash cards about 6x9 inches in 
 size. On one side of a card print a word, for example, 
 **cold," and on the reverse print the opposite, in this 
 case, *'hot." Flash the cards before the class. The 
 pupil who answers is to call the word that appears, 
 then give the opposite. Whenever a child answers cor- 
 rectly, give him the card. The winner is the pupil who 
 holds the most cards at the close of the exercise. 
 
 black 
 
 up 
 
 long 
 
 young 
 
 dirty 
 
 day 
 
 heavy 
 
 winter 
 
 dry 
 
 out 
 
 old 
 
 clean 
 
 white 
 
 down 
 
 short 
 
 wet 
 
 in 
 
 night 
 
 light 
 
 summer 
 
 Exercise V: Signs 
 The use of flash cards on which familiar and well- 
 known signs are printed not only furnishes an excellent 
 drill in the rapid recognition of words and comprehen- 
 sion of phrases, but is also of practical value in that 
 it enables children better to look after their personal 
 welfare. Children very much enjoy this sort of drill 
 and eagerly report the new signs which they discover 
 so that those too may be made a part of the exercise. 
 The group of signs reproduced below is only sugges- 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 239 
 
 tive. The alert teacher will be able to supplement it 
 with many others. Many signs and slogans may be 
 found on posters issued in behalf of the Red Cross 
 Society, health crusades, fire prevention, etc. 
 
 Stop ! Look ! Listen ! 
 Railway Crossing. Look Out ! 
 School House. Go Slow ! 
 Danger ! Sound Klaxon ! 
 Slow down to 15 miles per hour. 
 Cars stop here. 
 Swat the fly! 
 Interurban Station. 
 
 Exercise YI : Drill on Familiar Combinations 
 The reading material used in the first and second 
 grades usually contains many words which frequently 
 appear in the same combinations. Drill on those com- 
 binations is very profitable. The phrases should be 
 printed on strips of cardboard which are flashed before 
 the class. As already suggested, these flash cards must 
 be exposed but a short time in order to give pupils 
 practice in reading groups of words as units. The rec- 
 ognition of phrases at a glance tends to develop speed. 
 The following list is only suggestive. In every case 
 the teacher must base her list on the subject-matter 
 of the textbook which the pupils have in hand. 
 
 by and by long, long ago 
 
 one day once there was 
 
 once upon a time one morning 
 
 once there lived the little girl 
 
 the old woman the next day 
 
240 SILENT READING 
 
 on the way thank you 
 
 good morning one bright day 
 
 bad boy one summer morning 
 
 Exercise VII: Speed-development Drill 
 The quick recognition of word groups which appear 
 in the reading material regularly used by the pupils 
 should be developed by means of phrase drills that 
 tend to habituate the formation of a wide eye-span and 
 to decrease regressive ej^e-movements. During such ex- 
 ercises the pupils should be required to work at top 
 speed. Large classes may be divided into groups and 
 those pitted against each other in order to introduce 
 a spirit of competition. The class should be asked to 
 refer to some familiar selection. The teacher then men- 
 tions groups of words such as "sing a song," "play 
 with me," "to see grandma," "into a room," etc., 
 and asks the pupils to "race" so that she may see who 
 can be the first to find the phrase that has been read. 
 Capable pupils should occasionally be allowed to take 
 the teacher's place in this exercise. 
 
 Exercise VIII : Action-phrase Drill 
 Children's ability to comprehend may be effectively 
 tested by presenting exercises which require the pupils 
 to carry out some command. This and the following 
 exercise are suggestive of the sort of drills which teach- 
 ers can prepare. 
 
 Write a "foundation sentence" on the blackboard. 
 This should consist of some general direction. Flash 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 241 
 
 cards bearing words or groups of words which com- 
 plete the sentence, having the pupils "race" to see 
 who can answer first. The exercise may be varied by 
 writing the ''foundation sentence" and all the supple- 
 mentary phrases on the blackboard, then uncovering 
 the latter one at a time. 
 
 Place your hands . . . 
 
 . .above your head 
 . . on your hips 
 . . on your shoulders 
 . .behind your head 
 . . in your pockets 
 . .by your sides 
 
 SlLENT-EEADi:fTG ExEECISES BaSED ON SCHOOLEOOM 
 
 Activities and Pkojects 
 
 Exercise IX : Action Sentences 
 An effective drill device, easily prepared, consists of 
 sentence cards that give instructions for performing 
 some schoolroom activity. The sentences may be either 
 written on the blackboard or printed on strips of card- 
 board. Pupils should be instructed to carry out the 
 command as soon as they read it. Such exercises as 
 these train the children to grasp a group of words at 
 a glance, and they enable the teacher to measure the 
 comprehension ability of the pupils. The following sen- 
 tences are typical of those that may be used for this 
 sort of exercise. 
 
 Run to the window and look out. 
 
 Tell us what you see. 
 
 Place the clock on the window sill. 
 
242 SILENT READING 
 
 Turn the clock so we cannot see the face. 
 
 See who can find a long string. 
 
 Jack and Fred may play horse. 
 
 Bring me the book of Mother Goose rhymes. 
 
 Who can find ''Little Boy Blue?" 
 
 Read it to us, Mary. 
 
 Exercise X: Games as Drills 
 
 The play instinct may be used as the basis for silent- 
 reading drills. The following instructions, written on 
 the blackboard or printed on cards which are flashed 
 before the class, are good examples of a valuable com- 
 bination of work and play. Children enjoy drills which 
 are motivated like this one. 
 
 How many would like to play a new kind of basket 
 
 ball? 
 George and Willie, you may place the chairs out of 
 
 the way. 
 Jennie, bring the wastebasket. 
 Place it in the center of the cleared space. 
 Mary, bring the basket ball and place it in the basket. 
 The boys will play against the girls. 
 Form a big ring around the basket. 
 First a boy, then a girl, then a boy, and so on. 
 Throw the ball into the basket. 
 Make one try, then pass the ball to the next pupil. 
 Hand the ball to the pupil on your right. 
 We will mark the score on the blackboard. 
 You may keep score for the boys, Joseph. 
 You may keep score for the girls, Florence. 
 Is everybody ready? 
 Francis, you may begin. 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 243 
 
 Exercise XI : Dramatization 
 Stories sucli as "The Boy and the Goat," "Chicken 
 Little," "Three Billy Goats Graff, "^ "The Three 
 Bears," "The Fox and the Grapes," "The Pig 
 Brother," "The Dog in the Manger," and "The Hare 
 and the Tortoise" may be dramatized by first and sec- 
 ond-grade pnpils. They enjoy such work because it 
 is a type of groijp activity which gives much pleasure, 
 especially when one class presents its dramatization be- 
 fore another. Dramatization is effective drill because 
 children must read carefully, organize, and make an 
 effort to retain if they are to do the work successfully. 
 The final result serves the teacher as a reliable measure 
 of children's ability to comprehend. 
 
 In conducting a dramatization the teacher should first 
 ask the pupils to read some familiar story silently. She 
 should then permit one child to select othets who will 
 help him act the story in pantomime. After the presen- 
 tation of the pantomime the pupils should be asked 
 to guess what story was dramatized. Directions for 
 presenting a selection may be printed on cards, or writ- 
 ten on the blackboard and used as a flash-card drill 
 in silent reading. The following questions based on 
 the story of "The Boy and the Goat" are suggestive. 
 
 How many children do we need to play this story? 
 Whom shall we chose for the little boy? 
 Whom shall we choose for the goat? 
 
 iThese three stories appear in the Primer of the Free and 
 Treadwell Reading -Literature Series published by Row, Peterson 
 and Company, Chicago, 
 
244 SILENT READING 
 
 Where did the goat run to? 
 What shall we call the woods? 
 Choose a rabbit, a squirrel, and a fox. 
 Who wants to be the little bee? 
 Where shall the home be? 
 
 Exercise XII: Excursions 
 
 Field excursions, visits to factories, dairies, pumping 
 stations, blacksmith shops, fire departments, and similar 
 places furnish excellent material upon which to base 
 silent-reading lessons. One exercise may be devoted to 
 planning the trip, another to relating what was learned 
 during the visit. The following specimen lesson was 
 planned for a second-grade class one spring day. 
 
 As the children were much interested in the change 
 of nature which indicated the coming of spring, the 
 teachers suggested that the class make a trip to the 
 woods to look for signs of spring. The sentences given 
 below were written on the blackboard, then exposed one 
 at a time for a few seconds, to serve as a silent-reading 
 drill. 
 
 Before the Trip 
 
 We shall go to the woods to look for signs of spring. 
 
 Shall we follow the road or the stream? 
 
 Do we need our caps and coats? 
 
 Let us go through the halls quietly. 
 
 Are we all ready? 
 
 Stand. 
 
 Jack, lead your group. 
 
 Mabel, lead your group. 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 245 
 
 After the Trip 
 
 Which group reached the wdods first? 
 
 What did Olive see just as we started? 
 
 What was the bird doing? 
 
 Would you call that a sign of spring? 
 
 What did we notice when we reached the brook?" 
 
 It has not rained this week. Where do you suppose 
 
 the water came from? 
 What happened to David's toy boat? 
 Why did he not wade in to get it? 
 Who first found the pussy willows? 
 Where were they growing? 
 What did we do with them? 
 What other signs of spring did we see? 
 
 Exercise XIII: Missing Word Drills 
 
 Classroom work may be correlated with reading les- 
 sons in many ways, one being indicated by the exercise 
 described below. Such drills may be used even in first- 
 grade classes. They furnish an accurate measure of 
 children's ability to comprehend. 
 
 Second-grade pupils who had been studying Indian 
 life made an Indian camp which they equipped with 
 ^as many objects as they could make. Cards similar 
 to the following were then flashed before the class. The 
 pupils answered by supplying the missing word. 
 
 Indians lived in . 
 
 They made their homes of 
 
 They hunted with . 
 
 The Indians made arrows of 
 
 The Indian hunters killed many 
 
246 SILENT READING 
 
 They used the meat for 
 The skins were used for 
 
 Exercise XIV: True-false Drill 
 Children's ability to comprehend may be qnicky de- 
 termined by flashing sentences, some of which are true, 
 others false, and requiring them to give their answers 
 to the statements. Such exercises should be based only 
 on material which is of value and interest to the pupils. 
 Lessons which deal vrith foods, clothing, the care of 
 the teeth and eyes, saving money, and similar topics 
 are not only of value for what they contain, but they 
 furnish excellent reviews of work already done in na- 
 ture study, hygiene, geography, and other subjects. 
 Such exercises as those described below have an addi- 
 tional value in that they enable the teacher to deter- 
 mine whether the child's thinking about a subject is 
 right or wrong. If wrong, the teacher has an oppor- 
 tunity to correct it. 
 
 The Morning Meal 
 We should eat pie for breakfast. 
 Porridge and milk is good for us. 
 We should always chew our food well. 
 We should drink at least two cups of coffee. 
 We should never eat oranges or other fruit. 
 Eggs make a very good breakfast dish. 
 Always eat breakfast quickly, then run to school. 
 
 Personal Hygiene 
 We should always sleep with windows tightly closed. 
 The living rooms should have plenty of sunshine. 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 247 
 
 We should clean our finger nails every morning. 
 
 It is good for us to have damp feet all day. 
 
 We should clean our teeth every morning. 
 
 We should not often take a bath. 
 
 We look better if our hair is not combed. 
 
 We should drink a glass of water before each meal. 
 
 We should all drink from the same cup at school. 
 
 Exercise XY: Current Topics 
 Valuable material on important topics of interest to 
 primary-grade pupils may "5e found in pamphlets of 
 various kinds. The questions given below, which formed 
 one of a series of lessons on the house fly, were based 
 on an article which the teacher adapted from the In- 
 ternational Harvester Company's bulletin, ''Trap the 
 Fly." The lessons were presented at a time when all 
 the pupils were much interested in devising methods 
 of combating the fly. 
 
 The teacher printed a story entitled "Flies and 
 Babies" on the blackboard, then asked the pupils to 
 read it. Following that she flashed cards bearing ques- 
 tions which pupils were to answer if they could. The 
 cards were exposed only a few seconds. 
 
 Flies and Babies 
 Do you know that flies .make babies sick ? 
 They often make the baby so sick that he dies. 
 The fly gets into all kinds of filth. 
 He eats all kinds of dirty things. 
 His legs and body are covered with hairs. 
 The dirt sticks to the hairs. 
 Then the fly goes into the house. 
 
248 SILENT READING 
 
 He gets into baby's milk. 
 
 He leaves disease germs there. 
 
 He walks on the nipple of baby's bottle. 
 
 He lights on baby's lips. 
 
 He crawls over baby's hands. 
 
 He leaves dirt every place he goes. 
 
 Often the dirt makes baby sick. 
 
 Let us swat the fly. 
 
 Questions 
 How do flies carry dirt and disease germs? 
 On what do flies live? 
 What does the fly leave on baby's bottle? 
 What would you do if you saw a fly in baby's milk? 
 
 Exercise XVI: Hygiene Lessons 
 The paragraph below was adapted for use in a class 
 of second-grade pupils. It is suggestive of the kind 
 of lesson that may be prepared on the following sub- 
 jects : The Value of Screens, How to Make a Fly Trap, 
 The Fly in Winter. 
 
 Flies 
 The fly is a very dangerous insect. It is born in 
 garbage piles. It loves dirty places. You may see it 
 getting its dinner from garbage pails and other dirty 
 places. Its hairy legs and body become covered with 
 dirt and filth. Then it flies to the house. It lights 
 on our food, gets into the milk, walks over baby's face, 
 or over the nipple of his bottle. The fly leaves filth 
 wherever he goes. You all know that many babies die 
 in hot weather. But do you know that it is often the 
 dirty fly that makes them sick. More babies die in 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 249 
 
 places that have flies. Swat, trap, or poison every fly 
 you see. 
 
 Questions 
 
 Where is the fly borni 
 
 Where does it like to eat? 
 
 How does it carry dirt and germs? 
 
 What does it do in the house? 
 
 Why are flies so dangerous? 
 
 How can we get rid of them? 
 
 Exercise XYII: Children's Diet 
 It is sometimes possible to use lessons of the type 
 described in Exercises XVI and XVII without adapt- 
 ing the material. In such cases the pamphlet is handed 
 to the children and they are instructed to read some 
 part of it carefully. When they finish, they write an- 
 swers to questions which the teacher has prepared and 
 written on the blackboard. In using this sort of exer- 
 cise, which requires written answers, it is well for the 
 teacher so to frame the questions that they may be 
 answered with but little writing. 
 
 The specimen lesson given below was based on the 
 pamphlet, "Diet for the School Child," issued by the 
 extension department of the State University of Iowa. 
 It was prepared by Miss Ethel Hale for use in a second- 
 grade class at the university elementary school. 
 
 Milk as Food 
 Milk is the best and most important food for grow- 
 ing children. No other food can take its place. Chil- 
 dren over five years of age should have at least three 
 
250 SILENT READING 
 
 cups- a day, and more when possible. Milk should not 
 be given very cold. Warm milk is more easily digested. 
 If children do not like milk alone, it may be given 
 in the form of cocoa, sonps, and custards. They often 
 can learn to like milk. Where it is impossible to get 
 fresh milk, evaporated milk may be nsed. If evapo- 
 rated skimmed milk is given, give the child plenty of 
 vegetables and some cream or bntter. Tea and coffee 
 should never be given to .growing children. 
 
 Questions' 
 
 What is the best food for children? 
 
 How much should be taken at each meal? 
 
 Which is better, cold or warm milk? 
 
 Do all children like milk? 
 
 How much coffee should children drink? 
 
 Exercise XVIII: Eiddles 
 Riddles and rhymes strongly appeal to children, and 
 may profitably be used as the basis for silent-reading 
 exercises. The child's answer is an accurate measure 
 of his ability to comprehend. In order to prevent the 
 brighter pupils from spoiling these riddle lessons with 
 their too rapid answers, it is well to ask the cla^s to 
 write the answer to a riddle, or to draw a picture of 
 the object which it suggests. Riddles and rhymes like 
 those below may be found in primers and magazines 
 edited for the use of primary-grade teachers. 
 
 (1) 
 
 As round as an apple, 
 Far deeper than a cup, 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 251 
 
 And all the king's horses 
 
 Can't pull me up. 
 
 "What am I? (A well) 
 
 (2) 
 It is golden, it is bright 
 And we love its pretty light; 
 When it smiles down from on high, 
 How the ice and snow do fly! 
 What am I? (The spring sun.) 
 
 (3) 
 I play out in the woodland 
 All summer merrily. 
 I swing from swaying branches, 
 I leap from tree to tree. 
 
 But when in early autumn, 
 The nuts are ripe and brown, 
 I go to work in earnest. 
 As they come tumbling down. 
 
 I never think of playiiig. 
 But work so steadily 
 To hide my w^inter store away 
 — In wall or hollow tree. 
 
 What am I? {A squirrel.) 
 
 Silent-reading Exercises Based on Seat Work 
 
 Some valuable silent-reading exercises may be based 
 
 on the children's seat work. This plan is especially 
 
 advised if the teacher has several grades in a single 
 
 room and is compelled to give each its share of atten- 
 
252 SILENT READING 
 
 tion, thus having but little time left for supervision of 
 classes not reciting. The following exercises are sug- 
 gestive of the sort of work that may be done in silent 
 reading under these circumstances. 
 
 Exercise XIX: Nursery Ehymes 
 
 The children's comprehension of poems and nursery 
 rhymes found in primers and first readers may be meas- 
 ured by having the class read the selection once rapidly, 
 then graphically represent what was read. For ex- 
 ample, first-grade pupils may be asked to read the fol- 
 lowing poem and then draw the picture which it calls 
 to mind. 
 
 When I was down beside the sea, 
 A wooden spade they gave to me 
 
 To dig the sandy shore. 
 My holes were empty like a cup, 
 In every hole the sea came up 
 
 Till it could come no more. 
 
 This sort of exercise may be made somewhat more 
 difficult by having the pupils read a poem, then use 
 colored pencils to represent graphically a number of 
 objects mentioned in it, according to instructions placed 
 on the blackboard. 
 
 Humpty Dumpty sat on a wall. 
 
 Humpty Dumpty had a great fall. 
 
 Not all the king's horses, 
 
 Not all the king's men. 
 
 Could put Humpt}'' Dumpty back again. 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 253 
 
 Directions 
 
 Draw a big Qgg. 
 
 Draw eyes, nose, and mouth on it. 
 
 Draw two legs on the egg and color them black. 
 
 Draw a hat on the top of the egg. 
 
 Color it blue. 
 
 Draw a wall for Humpty Dumpty to sit on. 
 
 The above exercise may be followed by others based 
 on the same selection. For example, the teacher may 
 write directions for drawing a picture of Humpty 
 Dumpty as he fell from the wall. 
 
 Exercise XX : Drill on Phrases and Sentences 
 
 From discarded primers or books of equal difficulty 
 cut phrases, clauses, and short sentences found in such 
 stories as *'The Three Bears," "Little Red Riding- 
 hood," **Jack and the Bean Stalk," the Mother Goose 
 rhymes, and others. Mount the passages on small 
 squares of manila paper, classify as to difficulty, place 
 from ten to twenty-five slips of equal difficulty in an 
 envelope, and file the sets of envelopes in a box. 
 
 Let the pupils use this material when they have fin- 
 ished 1:heir regular work. They should work in pairs, 
 one, playing "teacher," showing the cards to the other. 
 Each group must begin with the package of simplest 
 phrases, and the contents of each package must be thor- 
 oughly mastered before the next envelope is taken up. 
 The cards are to be flashed for only a short time and 
 each package completed must be constantly reviewed. 
 
254 SILENT READING 
 
 This exercise may be varied by placing all the words, 
 phrases, and sentences of a single story in one envelope, 
 then asking the pupils to place those together in such 
 order as to reproduce the story. Stories used for this 
 sort of exercise must, of course, be very short. 
 
 Exercise XXI : Pictures as Answers 
 
 The teacher may prepare a series of cards on which 
 she writes or prints simple questions based on some story 
 which children have read and with which they are thor- 
 oughly familiar, for example, the story of ''Little Red 
 Riding-hood." As a seat-work exercise, children are 
 asked to prepare written answers to the questions, or 
 to draw pictures that will answer them. The following 
 questions are suggestive of the kind that may be used. 
 
 Where was Little Red Riding-hood going? 
 
 Whom did she meet? 
 
 AVas the wolf her friend? 
 
 What did the wolf want? 
 
 Who first reached the grandmother's cottage? 
 
 Pupils will have no difficulty in answering such ques- 
 tions, as all needed words appear on the cards displayed 
 before the class. 
 
 A similar exercise consists in placing the following 
 rhyme on the blackboard and asking the children to 
 draw and color the picture which the lines call to mind. 
 
 Robin, he, 
 On a tree. 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 255 
 
 Saw ripe cherries, 
 One, two, three. 
 
 The project work done by second-grade pupils may 
 often be made the basis for interesting silent-reading 
 exercises and effective comprehension ^drills. Pupils 
 of a class that was studying Indian life were making 
 miniature wigwams out of sticks and brown paper. By 
 writing the following questions on the blackboard, and 
 giving no further directions, the teacher conducted a 
 profitable exercise in hand work and in silent reading 
 at the same time. 
 
 Tie three sticks together. 
 
 Make them stand on your desk. 
 
 Take your brown paper. Cut it to make a covering 
 
 for the wigwam. 
 Draw or paint some Indian pictures on the covering. 
 Fasten the covering around the sticks. 
 Be sure to leave a door. 
 Turn the flaps back. 
 
 Exercise XXII : Construction Work 
 Construction work in paper cutting and drawing may 
 be successfully related to the work in silent reading as 
 soon as the pupils pass the earlier stages in which they 
 learn to use their tools. When the experimental work 
 is completed and they begin to express their own ideas 
 in their own way, they usually come to the teacher for 
 ideas and suggestions that will help them to make their 
 work look better. Such suggestions may be given as 
 instructions written on the blackboard. The following 
 
256 SILENT READING 
 
 instructions were displayed before a first-grade class to 
 guide them in making candy boxes for a school enter- 
 prise. 
 
 Fold the paper to make sixteen squares. 
 
 Make two cuts on each end, like this. {TJie hlach- 
 
 hoard drawing showed the cuts.) 
 Fold the ends in so as to make a box. 
 Paste the ends. 
 
 Make a cover in the same way. 
 Put the cover on the box. 
 
 A second-grade class that had read the story of ' ' Little 
 Black Sambo" followed the directions given below to 
 cut a picture of Sambo from colored paper. Before the 
 instructions for cutting were shown to the pupils, they 
 answered the following questions which were written on 
 the blackboard. 
 
 Who was Little Black Sambo? 
 
 "What color was his coatT 
 
 What was the color of his trousers? 
 
 What did he have on his feet? 
 
 Did he wear a hat? 
 
 What did he carry in his hands? 
 
 After the pupils had answered those questions, each 
 was given scissors and sheets of colored paper, and the 
 following questions were displayed on the blackboard. 
 
 Cut out Little Black Sambo. Make him as tall as 
 
 your paper will let you. 
 Cut out the red coat. 
 Cut out the blue trousers. 
 Paste the coat and trousers on him. 
 
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 257 
 
 Cut out his purple shoes. Paste them on his feet. 
 Cut out the green umbrella. Make the handle long 
 
 enough. 
 Paste it where you think it should go. 
 
 Exercise XXIII : A Bulletin Board 
 Much incidental work in silent reading may be done 
 by using a bulletin board on which announcements of 
 interest to the whole class may be pasted daily. The 
 day of the week and the date should be conspicuously 
 displayed at the top of the board. The following are 
 typical of the kind of announcements that may be used. 
 
 Tomorrow is Fire Prevention Day. We are going 
 to visit the fire hall. 
 
 Today is Betty ^s birthday. 
 
 We are going to have visitors today. 
 
 We pack our Red Cross Christmas boxes next Friday. 
 
 Don't forget your gifts. 
 
 Thursday is Thanksgiving Day. We will have a holi- 
 day. 
 
 Results versus effort. The preparation of the ex- 
 ercises suggested in this chapter, and the arrangement 
 and collection of suitable materials, make a considerable 
 demand on the teacher's time. Such efforts are well 
 repaid, however, by the superior quality of the results 
 obtained. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. Practically all first and second-grade lessons in hygiene, 
 home geography, morals, games, social activities, cloth- 
 ing, foods, nature study, language, field trips, and hand- 
 
258 SILENT READING 
 
 work projects may be used as a basis for silent-reading 
 drills and exercises. 
 
 2. If materials chosen for tbis work are in written form, 
 they should be used as the basis of silent-reading study 
 lessons before the drill work is begun. 
 
 3. After pupils have read the material silently they should 
 discuss it in class. 
 
 4. Silent-reading drills should be based on the materials 
 read and on the class discussion that follows. 
 
 5. Directions for the execution of projects and seat-work 
 activities may be made the basis of silent-reading lessons 
 and drills. 
 
 6. The fact that silent reading is used for drills and re- 
 view further insures comprehension and retention. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Burke, A. "First-grade materials and stimuli." Teachers 
 College Record, Vol. 20, Columbia University Press, New 
 York City, 1919. 
 
 Finley, Ida E. BIackl)oard Work in Reading. Benj. H. 
 Sanborn and Company, Chicago, 1913. 
 
 Heller, Regina and Courtis, S. A. "Exercises developed at 
 Detroit for making reading function." The Twentieth 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu- 
 cation: Part 11. Public School Publishing Company, 
 Bloomington, Illinois, 1921, 
 
 Krackowizer, Alice M. Projects in the Primary Grades. 
 J. B. Lippincott and Company, Philadelphia, 1919. 
 
 Moore, A. E. "The use of children's initiative in beginning 
 reading." Teachers College Record, Vol. 17, Columbia 
 University Press, New York City, 1916. 
 
 "Silent-reading exercises developed at Denver, Cedar Rapids, 
 Racine, and Iowa City." The Ttventieth Yearbook of the 
 National Society for the Study of Education: Part II. 
 Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 
 1921. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 SILENT READING IN GRADES III AND IV 
 
 Training' pupils to read silently. Teachers who want 
 to obtain the best results from their teaching of reading 
 must determine what methods and devices will most 
 economically train pupils to concentrate on what they 
 read, and to read rapidly with a reasonable degree of 
 comprehension. They must encourage pupils to read all 
 their lessons according to the plan used during the read- 
 ing recitation. They should use many reading periods 
 for helping pupils discover the best way to develop good 
 reading habits. They must realize that the greatest 
 service they can render is so to teach reading that the 
 skills and attitudes which pupils develop in the reading 
 class will transfer to all their other work. 
 
 In so far as they can, teachers must inspire pupils to 
 want to beaome rapid and accurate readers. They must 
 help pupils by providing much interesting reading ma- 
 terial suitable for each grade, and by using material 
 found outside of textbooks as a basis for discussion dur- 
 ing the reading recitation and the oral-English period. 
 
 Aside from this definite training in silent reading, 
 there are other important factors which affect the estab- 
 lishment of economical study habits. The child's mental 
 
 259 
 
260 SILENT READING 
 
 endowment, health, experiences, and environment must 
 not be ignored. Although a pnpil's progress in reading 
 depends largely upon his mental capacity and the effort 
 that he puts forth, it may be greatly increased by train- 
 ing him in habits of concentration, organization, accur- 
 acy, and rapidity. Many teachers say that their pupils 
 can not concentrate. Perhaps they hold that opinion 
 because they have stressed neither the ideal nor ihe 
 training necessary to enable children to do those things 
 essential to concentration. 
 
 General principles to be observed. The general 
 principles to be observed in teaching reading to pupils 
 of the third and fourth grades are practically the same 
 as those used in the two lower grades. The outstanding 
 difference is that word drill and phonic drill may largely 
 be dispensed with, and that greater emphasis must be 
 placed upon the quantity and variety of material read. 
 Progress in silent reading will be assured if the teacher 
 establishes a correct attitude toward reading, if she 
 carefully uses devices and drills to train pupils in 
 effective methods of study, and if she requires much 
 reading outside the regular class work. 
 
 The pupil's attitude toward reading is very important. 
 If he thinks of the lesson as containing material with 
 which he should become familiar, he will accomplish 
 much more. Psychology has shown the influence of 
 the will when doing a thing. If the pupil desires to 
 become a proficient reader, the methods employed dur- 
 ing the class period will be much more effective. 
 
GRADES THREE AND FOUR 261 
 
 The teacher's problem is to make class training func- 
 tion as a general reading habit. She mnst provide pupils 
 with much outside reading material and encourage and 
 require them to use it. She must keep the -ideals of 
 speed and concentration constantly before the class, and 
 she must help pupils acquire those abilities. 
 
 Types of reading ability. The teacher of silent 
 reading usually finds three types of readers in each 
 class, — ■ rapid, medium-rate, and slow. By grouping the 
 pupils on the basis of speed she can expedite her work 
 and make it more effective. Whenever there is a wide 
 difference in the abilities of pupils, the teacher should 
 form at least two groups. 
 
 The difference in reading rate of members of the same 
 class makes it difficult to provide exercises which are of 
 benefit to all. Slow readers are likely not to try because 
 they realize the futility of competing against more gifted 
 classmates ; rapid readers, not being compelled to work 
 under pressure, tend to become lazy. Both groups are 
 injured. To prevent this condition, and to attain maxi- 
 mum results from pupils of each group, the teacher must 
 use plans specially designed to accomplish those ends. 
 Such plans are suggested on the following pages. 
 
 Need for individual treatment. Teachers often find 
 pupils whose difficulties need personal attention. Chil- 
 dren who have much difficulty in learning to read are 
 often advanced from grade to grade without having their 
 needs carefully studied. If such pupils are discovered, 
 the teacher should endeavor to determine the difficulty, 
 
262 SILENT READING 
 
 and having done so she should give the pupil such assist- 
 ance as will enable him to work with the group. She 
 should point out the handicaps entailed by bad reading 
 habits, and she should suggest remedial measures. 
 
 If pupils who pronounce audibly or whisper when they 
 read are allowed to persist in those habits, they will 
 probably never become rapid readers because they read 
 only one word at a time. The teacher can help such 
 children overcome those habits by having them place the 
 finger on the lips as a check, whenever they observe that 
 they are moving the lips. Repeated suggestions will also 
 help pupils to refrain from using the finger to indicate 
 the words being read, another pernicious habit. The 
 names of pupils who succeed in controlling such ten- 
 dencies may be placed on honor rolls as an incentive to 
 continued effort. 
 
 Types of silent-reading material. Pupils in third 
 and fourth-grade silent-reading classes may use the sub- 
 ject-matter contained in the ordinary school readers, 
 geographical primers, historical and biographical 
 sketches, simple accounts of civic and industrial activi- 
 ties, material relating to class projects such as making a 
 garden, sewing, etc., and such subject-matter as may be 
 found in pamphlets dealing with ''The Child's Food," 
 *' Fresh Air," ''Penny Savings," and like topics. Lists 
 of books and pamphlets suitable for this work may be 
 found in the Appendix (pages 357-381). 
 
 How to use silent-reading material. The kinds of 
 material listed above may be used either for purposes of 
 
GRADES THREE AND FOUR 263 
 
 class reading and discussion, or as the basis of drill exer- 
 cises. Not every reading period, however, should be 
 devoted to strenuous, intensive speed and comprehension 
 drills. Although such exercises are given prominence in 
 the specimen lessons which follow, teachers should not 
 conclude that that phase of instruction is most import- 
 ant. Such exercises have been suggested only because 
 they are usually badly needed. 
 
 Class discussion of silent reading. Reading and 
 discussing the good literature to be found in school read- 
 ers and choice children's books is not beyond the ability 
 of third and fourth-grade pupils. Such discussion is of 
 marked social value. Reading such literature inspires 
 children to be better and to do more, and gives them a 
 better conception of their relationship to one another. 
 In all such discussion, however, moralizing must be care- 
 fully avoided. Let the pupils themselves determine the 
 motives of the characters and call attention to the conse- 
 quences of various courses of action. Encourage pupils 
 to "compare and contrast the story's characters and epi- 
 sodes with others with which they are familiar. Encour- 
 age them to enliven the discussion with accounts of their 
 own experiences, in so far as those bear upon the topic. 
 The primary aim of all this work is to have pupils think, 
 estimate, judge, and infer. 
 
 The type study of ^' Queen Mab" presented below 
 gives an idea of the method that teachers may use to 
 make a silent-reading assignment the basis for a class 
 discussion. In this work the pupils should use about 
 
264 SILENT READING 
 
 half the recitation period for reading the selection 
 silently, merely to experience the joy of reading. The 
 remainder of the time may then be used for discussion. 
 Pupils should be led to talk about the characters and 
 leading episodes of the selection, to point out the climax 
 of the story, and to select the most beautiful or dramatic 
 parts. They should be asked to explain why they like 
 the story, and to tell which part most appeals to them. 
 Several children should orally read the paragraph that 
 answers the questions being discussed. That sort of oral 
 reading is pupil-motivated. It tends to be well done 
 because pupils try to read so as to convince the class 
 audience. During the last few minutes of the reading 
 period teacher and pupils may select the main points 
 of the lesson, then make an outline or summary of the 
 whole. At times pupils should indicate the chief thought 
 in the lesson and discuss it in its relation to all the other 
 ideas. 
 
 Type Study: A Poem 
 Queen Mab^ 
 
 A little fairy comes at night, 
 
 Her eyes are blue, her hair is brown, 
 
 With silver spots upon her wings, 
 And from the moon she flutters down. 
 
 She has a little silver wand. 
 And when a good child goes to bed, 
 
 iFrom the Story Hour Readers: BooJc Three published by the 
 American Book Company, Cincinnati. 
 
GRADES THREE AND FOUR 265 
 
 She waves her hand from right to left, 
 And makes a circle round its head. 
 
 And then it dreams of pleasant things - 
 'Of fountains filled with fairy fish, 
 
 And trees that bear delicious fruit, 
 And bow their branches at a wish. 
 
 Of arbors filled with dainty scents 
 From lovely flowers that never fade ; 
 
 Bright flies that glitter in the sun, 
 And glowworms shining in the shade. 
 
 And talking birds with gifted tongues. 
 For singing songs and telling tales. 
 
 And pretty dwarfs to show the way 
 Through fairy hills and fairy dales. 
 
 But when a bad child goes to bed. 
 
 From left to right she weaves her rings, 
 
 And then it dreams all through the night 
 Of ugly, horrid things ! 
 
 Then lions come with glaring eyes, 
 And tigers growl, a dreadful noise, 
 
 And ogres draw their cruel knives. 
 To shed the blood of girls and boys. 
 
 Then stormy waves rush on to drown, 
 Or raging flames come scorching round. 
 
 Fierce dragons hover in the air, 
 
 And serpents crawl along the ground. 
 
 Then wicked children wake and weep, 
 And wish the long black gloom away; 
 
266 SILENT READING 
 
 But good ones love the dark, and find 
 The night as pleasant as the day. 
 
 I. During the study period the children should 
 read the entire poem. If they wish, they should 
 read it more than once. Children are entitled 
 to some of the satisfaction that comes from self- 
 directed activity. They must have abundant 
 opportunity to practice, if they are ever to learn 
 to read on their own initiative or merely for 
 pleasure and profit. 
 
 II. Write the following questions on the blackboard 
 and ask the pupils to use the silent-reading work 
 as a preparation for answering them, 
 
 1. What do you know about the fairy? 
 
 2. Just what does the fairy do when she comes 
 
 to the bedside of a good child? 
 
 3. What good things does the child dream 
 
 about ? 
 
 4. How many stanzas tell of those good things ? 
 . 5. How does the fairy wave her wand over a 
 
 good child? How does she wave it over a 
 bad one? 
 
 6. Tell, in order, all the things that a bad child 
 
 dreams about. How many lines tell of the 
 bad things? 
 
 7. What difference does this make to children 
 
 when they are in the dark? 
 
 8. Into how many parts is this story divided? 
 
 HI. Have a different pupil read each of the parts 
 aloud. 
 
GRADES THREE AND FOUR 267 
 
 Type Study: A Prose Selection 
 Narcissus^ 
 
 On day Narcissus had been hunting in the forest till 
 he was tired and thirsty. He came to a fountain where 
 the water was as clear as crystal. The rocks sheltered 
 it from the sun, the grass grew fresh around it, and 
 not a leaf fell to disturb the surface. 
 
 (11) 
 
 The handsome youth stooped to drink and saw his 
 image in the water. He did not know it as himself, 
 but thought it was some beautiful water-nymph who 
 lived in the fountains. He gazed with pleasure at the 
 bright eyes and curly locks, the rounded cheeks and 
 parting lips. He forgot his hunt. He forgot everything. 
 He could only gaze at his own image. 
 
 (Ill) 
 
 All day long he begged the beautiful creature to 
 come out of the water. More than once he plunged 
 into the fountain to meet it, but the moment he touched 
 the water the image disappeared. Then he talked to it. 
 ''Beautiful nj^mph," he would say, ''why do you shun 
 me? You smile at me, and when I stretch forth my 
 arm, you do the same. Will you not come to me?'' 
 The lips parted, but no sound came forth. 
 
 (IV) 
 
 Day after day, and night after night, he sat on the 
 banks and gazed at the image. He saw the face in 
 the water grow pale, and his own face grew white, and 
 
 ^This selection appears in the Fourth Reader of the Free and 
 Treadwell Reading-Literature Series published by Row, Peter- 
 son and Company. Chicag"o. 
 
 ^These subdivisions. (I), (II), (III), and (IV), are merely 
 for convenience in referring to the questions based on this selec- 
 tion. They do not, of course, appear in the textbook. 
 
268 SILENT READING 
 
 his yellow hair fell over his hollow cheeks. At last 
 his breath floated awa}^ and there, instead of a beau- 
 tiful nj'^mph, stood a flower, gazing with bent head into 
 the crystal fountain. In his memory the flower bears 
 his name. 
 
 I. Let the pupils read this story for pleasure dur- 
 ing a study period. Do not question them or 
 give them any directions. 
 
 II. During the study period, or a continuation of 
 it, pupils should prepare to answer the follow- 
 ing questions : 
 
 1. How many parts does this story have? 
 
 2. What is told in the first part? (The an- 
 
 swers of the pupils should include all the 
 facts in proper sequence.) 
 
 3. Why does the story tell that the fountain 
 
 was clear? sheltered from the sun? sur- 
 rounded by grass? undisturbed? 
 
 4. What can you call this part of the story? 
 
 {Tlie introduction.) 
 
 5. Eelate the second part of the story. 
 
 6. Plad the youth ever used a mirror? 
 
 7. What expressions of the story help us to 
 
 picture this boy? 
 
 8. What was the effect of his image on him? 
 
 9. Te"'l the third part of the story in detail. 
 
 10. Why did the image disappear when the boy 
 
 touched the water? 
 
 11. How do you account for the boy's smile? 
 
 12. Explain: ''The lips parted, but no sound 
 
 came forth." 
 
 13. What can you call the fourth part of the 
 
 story? {The conclusion.) 
 
GRADES THREE AND FOUR 269 
 
 14. How do yon aecoimt for the boy's seeing 
 
 his image at night? 
 
 15. Why did the face in the water grow pale? 
 
 16. Explain: ''his breath floated away;" ''gazing 
 
 with bent head." 
 
 17. Which part of the story do yon consider 
 
 most interesting? At what point do yon 
 
 become less interested? 
 III. At the conclusion of the work ontlined above, 
 the story shonld be read by fonr pnpils, each 
 of whom reads one of the parts. One pnpil 
 may then tell the entire story. 
 
 Study lessons in geography. History and geography 
 assignments fnrnish a good opportnnity for teaching 
 pnpils how to stndy effectively. The factnal natnre of 
 the material makes it an easy matter to test children's 
 comprehension of what they have read. That shonld, of 
 course, be done. 
 
 Teachers too often make assignments merely by say- 
 ing, "Read from page so and so to page this or that." 
 The pnpils do as they are directed, but when they come 
 to class they either are nnable to tell what they have 
 read, or they cannot discriminate among the many facts 
 that they have acquired. This is a wrong state of affairs 
 which may be remedied even in the third grade. The 
 teacher can teach pnpils of that grade that studying is 
 really a process of selecting and evaluating. Such 
 instruction should be given by means of a proper assign- 
 ment. 
 
 The following type study is based on a selection 
 
270 SILENT READING 
 
 entitled ''Leather and Its Uses."^ Preceding the silent 
 reading of the lesson the teacher had the class discuss 
 the topic. The children were asked to enumerate the 
 articles made of leather which might be found in the 
 schoolroom, for example, shoes, coats, pencil cases, chair 
 seats, etc. They were asked to tell what they knew 
 about leather, to name the different kinds, to tell where 
 and how it is obtained, and how prepared for use. Fol- 
 lowing that, the teacher displayed a list of questions on 
 the blackboard, explained that the answers to them 
 might be found in the geography lesson, and asked the 
 children to read the questions and then the geography 
 aassignment. They were directed to answer as many 
 questions as possible when they had finished their read- 
 ing, and to refer to the textbook for the answers they 
 could not remember. ^ 
 
 Type Study : A Geography Lesson 
 
 Leather and Its Uses 
 
 The coats that are worn by cattle, sheep, and other 
 animals are called skins. After these skins have been 
 tanned, they are called leather. 
 
 Many articles of clothing are made of leather. Let 
 us name some of them. Boots, shoes, coats, caps, aprons, 
 belts, gloves, and mittens are the most important. Have 
 you ever seen anyone wearing an apron of leather? 
 
 Besides those of sheep and cattle, the skins of goats, 
 deer, horses, dogs, kangaroos, alligators, and of some 
 other animals are made into leather. Calfskin makes 
 
 ^This extract is taken from L. F. Chamberlain's Hoiv We Are 
 Clothed (pp. 99-103), published by The Macmillan Company, 
 New York City. 
 
GRADES THREE AND FOUR 271 
 
 the best shoes for men and boys. Only the skin from 
 the under side of an alligator's body can be used. Can 
 yon tell why? 
 
 A place where skins are tanned is called a tannery. 
 An acid obtained from the bark of the oak, hemlock, 
 and some other trees is much used in tanning. On 
 this account tanneries are often found where these 
 trees grow in abundance. There are other things 
 also that are used in tanning. 
 
 Let us visit a tannery and see hoAV the work is 
 done. Here are great quantities of skins or hides. 
 Some of them have come from the cities where large 
 numbers of animals are killed for food. Can you name 
 any of these cities? Some come from Mexico and 
 some from the plains of South America. 
 
 The hides are placed in large vats partly filled Avith 
 a liquid containing lime. This liquid loosens the hair, 
 which is afterward scraped off with a blunt instru- 
 ment. The lime is now washed off by throwing the 
 hides into the water. Here is another man scraping 
 the skins. He is removing bits of flesh that were left 
 clinging to them. 
 
 You have often noticed the pores in the skin on 
 the back of your hand. The perspiration comes 
 through the pores. There are pores in the skins of the 
 lower animals, too. In order to open the pores of 
 the skins, so that the tannic acid may enter and tan 
 them, the skins are soaked in a certain liquid. 
 
 If you have ever had a blister on your hand, you 
 have noticed that the skin consists of two layers. The 
 skin of the lower animals consists of two layers also. 
 The inner layer, or derma, is made up partly of a 
 jellylike substance. Tanning hardens this and makes 
 the leather wear Avell. If it were not for the tanning, 
 shoes made of leather would not be very valuable, 
 for they would soon wear out. After the skins have 
 been dried, they are pressed between great rollers 
 
272 SILENT READING 
 
 to make them smooth. A hundred years ago tanning 
 hides required many months. Now it is done much 
 more quickly. 
 
 Shoes and other things made of leather are of dif- 
 ferent colors. This is because the leather is colored. 
 It is not dyed as cloth is, but the color is put on with 
 a brush. 
 
 Kid gloves are made from the skins of young goats 
 and lambs. 
 
 Questions 
 
 1. What is the difference between skins and 
 
 leather 1 
 
 2. Who wears a leather apron? 
 
 3. What is the best skin to use for boys' slices^ 
 
 4. Why are tanneries often found near oak or hem- 
 
 lock groves? 
 
 5. Why are the hides placed in lime? 
 
 6. What acid is used to tan leather? 
 
 7. What is the inner layer of skin like? 
 
 8. What does tanning do to it? 
 
 9. How is the leather colored? 
 
 10. How is cloth colored? 
 
 11. What is made from the skin of young lambs? 
 
 Another effective way to encourage discriminating 
 reading is to allow pupils to read a selection in any way 
 they wish, first informing them that they will be expected 
 to answer a list of questions when they have finished. 
 The questions used should be such as may be answered 
 in few words. Pupils should write the answers as they 
 are read,^ then exchange papers for correction. This is 
 a rapid method of handling such work ; so done, it may 
 be finished in a few minutes. 
 
GRADES THREE AND FOUR 273 
 
 After pupils have had considerable practice in reading 
 for the purpose of finding answers to questions, they 
 may be allowed to read a selection with a view to making 
 their own list of questions. These questions should be 
 freely criticised by the class, so that all may be assured 
 that the main ideas have not been overlooked. 
 
 Continuous questioning. The continuous question 
 method may be used to develop purposeful reading 
 habits. Pupils should be instructed to open their books 
 at a given page, but to do no reading until the teacher 
 announces the signal. The latter should explain that 
 she will ask a question about every thirty seconds, and 
 that the pupils are to find the answers as they read. 
 Pupils should read as rapidly as possible, keeping as far 
 ahead of the teacher as they can. At the end of two 
 minutes the teacher calls time, each child marks the last 
 word he read, and the class discussion folloAvs. The 
 teacher's rate of questioning should correspond to the 
 reading rate of the pupils. In such drill exercises, pupils 
 of about the same reading ability should be grouped 
 together. ^ 
 
 Class-project lessons. Project work of almost any 
 kind may be used as a basis for silent-reading work in 
 the third and fourth grades. The teacher should care- 
 fully prepare her questions and directions so as to avoid 
 any misunderstanding by the pupils. The questions 
 should always be written on the blackboard before the 
 class period begins. They may be covered if it is in- 
 advisable for the pupils to see them in advance. 
 
274 
 
 SILENT READING 
 
 Charting' results of comprehension tests. Children 
 take great interest in making" charts that show the results 
 of comprehension tests, whether such charts indicate the 
 scores of an entire class or of a single pupil. Individual 
 charts showing weekly progress are very stimulating. 
 
 Figure 4 
 
GRADES THREE AND FOUR 275 
 
 The pupils should be allowed to ask questions, if they 
 do not understand the teacher's directions for prepar- 
 ing these charts, but since comprehension is tested by 
 the ability to interpret, it is well to encourage them to 
 be independent and self-reliant. After a little practice, 
 pupils learn to follow directions accurately and to make 
 very neat charts. (See the specimen chart on page 274.) 
 The following directions were given to a fourth-grade 
 class which was to chart the results of a comprehension 
 test in silent reading. The teacher had already con- 
 structed some charts on the blackboard and on large 
 sheets of charting paper, as an introduction to the work 
 that the pupils were to do independently. Each pupil 
 was supplied with a sheet of charting paper ruled in 
 half-inch squares, each of those containing tAventy-five 
 smaller squares. They used soft colored crayons to 
 mark their charts. When all was ill readiness to begin, 
 the folloAving questions written on the blackboard were 
 displayed, and the children were asked to follow them. 
 
 1. Yesterday we took a silent-reading test. Today 
 
 we shall chart the results. 
 
 2. A colored column will represent each pupil's 
 
 score. 
 
 3. Make each column three small squares wide. 
 
 Leave a space two small squares wide between 
 columns. 
 
 4. l\rark off one small square of height for every 
 
 point that a pupil made. 
 
 5. The height of a column will indicate the pupil's 
 
 score in points. 
 
276 SILENT READING 
 
 6. Print the pupil's initials below tlie column that 
 
 indicates his score. 
 
 7. If you had made a perfect score your grade 
 
 would have been 60. 
 
 8. The following- scores were made : 
 
 Earnest P. 
 
 22 
 
 Esther W. 
 
 26 
 
 Jack L. 
 
 31 
 
 Evelyn C. 
 
 34 
 
 Olive B. 
 
 38 
 
 Fred C. 
 
 45 
 
 Mabel F. 
 
 49 
 
 Bruce G. 
 
 49 
 
 Roy S. 
 
 52 
 
 Clara M. 
 
 54 
 
 9. At the left-hand side, start at the bottom and 
 go up along the margin, numbering the small 
 squares by 5's so that it will be easier to 
 count them off. 
 
 10. Draw a column 5 squares wide and 60 squares 
 
 high. That will show what a perfect score 
 looks like. Color the column bright red. 
 Print "Perfect Score" very neatly at the bot- 
 tom of the column. 
 
 11. Color all other columns blue. Leave a space 
 
 of five small squares, then draw a column to 
 represent Earnest's score. Be sure to make 
 it 22 squares high and 3 squares wide. Place 
 Earnest's initials, ''E. P.," at the bottom. 
 
 12. Now make the other nine columns, then let us 
 
 see whose chart looks best. 
 
 13. You must always make a chart so that anybody 
 
 can read it and interpret it. Let us label ours. 
 
GRADES THREE AND FOUR 277 
 
 At the top of your paper print "Comprehen- 
 sion Scores in Silent Reading: Grade IV." 
 
 Organizing the lesson. In addition to the lesson 
 plans that incidentally give training in organization, the 
 teacher should conduct special drills which will train 
 pupils to organize. Upper-grade and high-school teach- 
 ers realize that pupils lack the ability to organize, and 
 that they are handicapped in consequence. Often, how- 
 ever, they are not inclined to give pupils much help in 
 organization because it is claimed that such educational 
 spoon feeding makes children dependent on the teacher. 
 This is hardly the case, but if the teacher has any such 
 fear she may vary the exercises designed to teach lesson 
 organization so that considerable demand is sure to be 
 made on the pupils. 
 
 There are many devices which may be used to train 
 children in lesson organization. The teacher may require 
 pupils to relate a story which they have just read, the 
 class checking the accuracy of the oral reproduction. 
 Problem assignments are effective. In making a fourth- 
 grade assignment on some subject, for example, on "Cot- 
 ton," the teacher may explain in advance that the lesson 
 discusses certain main topics, among them, the source of 
 the cotton supply and the method of producing the crop. 
 In the following day's discussion the teacher should 
 insist that each child's organization of the lesson be 
 based on those two topics. A third plan for drill in 
 lesson organization is to ask pupils to read the entire 
 
278 SILENT READING 
 
 lesson, decide on two or three main points of the assign- 
 ment, then outline the whole as a class exercise. 
 
 Training pupils to retain. Helping pupils to retain 
 what they read presents serious difficulties even to the 
 best teachers. Every scientific study including a de- 
 layed-recall test has shown that even within a week's 
 time children forget much of what they read. Such 
 studies indicate that frequent reviews of essential topics 
 included in an assignment will aid children to retain. 
 
 Careful and thorough lesson organization helps pupils 
 to retain lesson content, because making a logical, well- 
 organized outline enables them to see parts in their 
 relation to the whole. A good lesson organization implies 
 the association of minor points under their proper head- 
 ings, and that in turn means that the pupil has had to 
 concentrate on what he read, and that he has had to 
 review the main points of the lesson in order to make a 
 proper evaluation. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. The subject-matter of silent reading in the third and 
 fourth grades should include the material contained in 
 the history, hygiene, and geography textbooks as well 
 as that in the readers ordinarily used. 
 
 2. The material selected may be used for silent-reading 
 and subsequent class discussion and as the basis for 
 drill exercises to promote speed and comprehension, 
 
 3. Satisfactory methods which will motivate purposeful and 
 rapid silent reading include having pupils (a) read 
 intensively for two minutes, then discuss the material 
 read; (6) "race" to answer questions asked by the 
 teacher; (c) read a story within a time limit, then 
 
GRADES THREE AND FOUR 279 
 
 undergo a comprehensive test; (d) read the entire story 
 with one or more objectives in mind. 
 4. Silent-reading lessons and drills should create a proper 
 attitude toward reading. They should lead the pupil 
 to see that the subject-matter contains interesting ma- 
 terial which he will enjoy. They should provide drill 
 exercises which will promote concentration and pur- 
 poseful reading, and they should encourage much read- 
 ing outside of class. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 r 
 
 Earhart, Lida B. "An experiment in teaching children to 
 study." Education, Vol. 30, 1909. 
 
 Greene, H. A. "Measuring comprehension of content ma- 
 terial." The Tive7iUetJi Yearljook of the National Society 
 for the Stiidij of Education: Part II. Public School Pub- 
 lishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1921. 
 
 Hoover, J. H. "Motivated drill work in third-grade silent 
 reading." The Twentieth Yearbook of the National Society 
 for the Study of Education: Part II. Public School Pub- 
 lishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1921. 
 
 "New materials for the primary grades." The Twentieth 
 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa- 
 tion: Part II. Public School Publishing Company, Bloom- 
 ington, Illinois, 1921. 
 
 Nessle, Fannie B. "A silent-reading project: Fourth grade." 
 Journal of Educational Method, Vol. 1, (December) 1921. 
 
 Scranton, Clara. "An exceptional group in reading: Grade 
 IV." Journal of Educational Method, Vol. 2 (October) 
 1922. 
 
 Stone, C. R. Silent and Oral Beading. Houghton Mifflin and 
 Company, Boston, 1922. 
 
 Sutherland, A. H. "Correcting school disabilities in read- 
 ing." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, (January) 1921. 
 
 Wilson, Estaline. "Specific teaching of silent reading." 
 Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, (October) 1921. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 SILENT READING IN GRADES V AND VI 
 
 Silent readings in intermediate grades. Although 
 educators do not agree on the time when silent reading 
 should be introduced into the primary grades, they are 
 almost unanimous in saying that it should be empha- 
 sized in the fourth grade and those above. The more 
 advanced the grade, the less difficult it is for the teacher 
 to select suitable material and devise effective exercises. 
 
 Subject-matter of silent reading*. Fifth and sixth- 
 grade teachers should readily be able to obtain an 
 abundance of material for use in silent-reading classes. 
 They may use the subject-matter of the ordinary read- 
 ers, of geography, history, hygiene, and nature-study 
 textbooks, and of pamphlets that treat of topics which 
 are important to the child. 
 
 How to use silent-reading material. The materials 
 suggested may be used either for silent-reading lessons 
 which are followed by class discussion, or as the basis 
 of effective silent-reading drill exercises. 
 
 Half a recitation period may profitably be used for 
 reading an assignment silently. Most pupils find much 
 pleasure in such silent reading. The remainder of the 
 period may be spent discussing those characters and 
 
 280 
 
GRADES FIVE AND SIX 281 
 
 incidents of the story whicli appeal most strongly to 
 the children. 
 
 Another effective plan, which may be "ased in classes 
 studying pnrely literary material, is to have pupils read 
 their lessons with a view to determining which parts are 
 most beautiful and expressive. When differences of 
 opinion arise, as they surely will, each should read his 
 paragraph aloud, then give the reasons for his choice. 
 Such oral reading is thereby pupil-motivated, because 
 the child feels that he must present his passage to the 
 class audience in such fashion that others will feel the 
 emotions which he feels, and visualize the scenes as he 
 visualizes them. 
 
 During the last few minutes of the silent-reading 
 period, teacher and pupils should analyze the material 
 read in order to select the chief incidents and to deter- 
 mine which statement contains the central thought of the 
 selection. That done, the pupils should make sum- 
 maries or outlines of the selection. Such exercises fur- 
 nish excellent practice in learning to discriminate among 
 points of major and minor importance, a valuable abil- 
 ity which pupils should acquire as early as possible. 
 The pupils should receive the teacher's help and 
 guidance throughout the work, however, because organ- 
 izing is a complex process. Not until later should they 
 be asked to work independently. 
 
 The style and content of the selections usually found 
 in readers prepared for the upper grades offer an oppor- 
 tunity to develop a wholesome taste for reading matter 
 
282 SILENT READING 
 
 of the better kind. Keading good literature and dis- 
 cussing it in the classroom gives many children their 
 first true conception of others, and often inspires to 
 deeds of altruism. Those who realize the power of sug- 
 gestion in child life well know the importance of good 
 reading matter. 
 
 Pupils should be allowed fully to discuss the motives 
 that may have prompted the characters of the story to 
 play their roles as they did. In so far as possible they 
 should think out the causes and effects of the incidents 
 related. The teacher should promote such discussion 
 by well-chosen questions, and she should encourage 
 pupils to relate their personal experiences which seem 
 to bear a relation to the material being discussed. 
 
 Specimen silent-reading lessons. On the following 
 pages we suggest methods for handling such represent- 
 ative selections, typical of the material found in the 
 best textbooks. The plans outlined are designed to 
 develop an appreciation of good literature and to help 
 pupils obtain more real pleasure from their reading and 
 re-reading of prose and poetry usually assigned. The 
 teacher should never lose sight of the chief aim of all 
 such work, namely, to help pupils get the greatest pos- 
 sible amount of pleasure from their reading. 
 
 In many instances, and especially when a story has a 
 historical setting, as has the tale of Kobin Hood,^ it is 
 
 ^This story of Robin Hood is taken from the Fifth Reader 
 of the Free and Treadwell Reading-Literature Series. The entire 
 story is not given. Only those paragraphs on which we based 
 the questions of the specirnen lesson have been presented here. 
 
GRADES FIVE AND SIX 283 
 
 well for the teacher to give a brief introduction before 
 pupils undertake to read the selection from their books. 
 In this case, the introduction should consist of some 
 account of the conditions that obtained in the days of 
 the legendary Kobin Hood, the inequality of the classes, 
 the attitude of the peasants towards the rich and of the 
 rich towards the peasants, the role of the ruler, and the 
 prevailing notions of justice and fair play. As a motive 
 for reading the story, the teacher may explain that it is 
 an account of a band of merry outlaws and the experi- 
 ences that they had. 
 
 Type Study: A Prose Selection 
 
 Robin Hood, the Archer Hero 
 
 Long years ago, when good King Harry ruled, there 
 lived a famous archer, Robin Hood by name. He 
 abode in the depths of the great Sherwood Forest, 
 on the border of Nottingham town. There roved 
 with him some seven score merry men. 
 
 And this is how Robin Hood fell afoul of the law 
 and had to live in the forest. 
 
 When Robin was about fifteen, strong of body and 
 brave of heart, a shooting match was set by the sheriff 
 of Nottingham, who offered a prize of forty marks 
 to him who w^ould shoot the best shaft in Notting- 
 hamshire. 
 
 *4& •92. ^ J& 4S. J& ^ 
 
 w -s? ^ ^ ^ t/p w 
 
 Then up spoke Robin right merrily, ''Our king hath 
 provided a shooting match at Nottingham, and I'm 
 ready with my bow.'* 
 
 ''What ho!" cried the forester in scorn, "how can 
 
284 SILENT READING 
 
 a boy so young bear a bow? Why, he is not able 
 to draw one string." 
 
 "I'll wager you twenty marks," cried Robin, "that 
 I'll hit a mark at a hundred rods." "Whereat all the 
 men in green garb roared with laughter. 
 
 *^ M. Mf ^ ^ M, ^^ 
 
 W W W ^ W ^f W 
 
 Then Robin gripped his bow and let fly a broad 
 arrow. On it sped to the border of the glade and 
 the noblest hart of the herd leaped high in the air 
 and fell dead. 
 
 ^t, M^ M, M» ^ ,iU M^ 4f^ 
 
 "Ha!" cried Robin, "What think ye of that shot? 
 The wager is mine even were it a thousand pounds." 
 
 All the foresters arose shouting with anger, "Get 
 thee gone, thou has killed the king's deer. By King 
 Harry, thou shouldst lose thy ears." 
 
 Questions 
 
 1. Why did the foresters encourage Robin Hood 
 
 to shoot at the deer? 
 
 2. Do you think Robin Hood was boastful? 
 
 3. What do you think of the vows of Robin Hood's 
 
 band? 
 
 4. Do you like Little John? Why? 
 
 5. Did you ever read or hear of beggars like these ? 
 
 Should we refuse to help beggars today? If 
 you were to help them, how would you do it? 
 
 Type Study: A Poem^ 
 
 The Bell of Atri 
 
 At Atri in Abruzzo, a small town 
 
 Of ancient Roman date, but scant renown, — . 
 
 One of those little places that have run 
 
 iThis study is based on Longfellow's "The Bell of Atri" which 
 appears in the Fifth Reader of the Free and Treadwell Reading- 
 Literature Series published by Row, Peterson and Company, Chi- 
 cago. The entire poem is not reproduced. Only those portions 
 on which we based the questions of the specimen lesson have 
 been given. 
 
GRADES FIVE AND SIX 285 
 
 Half up the hill, beneath a blazing sun, 
 
 And then sat down to rest, as if to say, 
 
 ^'I climb no further upward, come what may," — 
 
 The Ee Giovanni, now unknown to fame. 
 
 So many monarchs since have borne the name. 
 
 Had a great bell hung in the market place 
 
 Beneath a roof, projecting some small space. 
 
 By way of shelter from the sun and rain. 
 
 Then rode he through the streets with all his train, 
 
 And, with the blast of trumpets loud and long, 
 
 Made proclamation, that whenever wrong 
 
 Was done to any man, he should but ring 
 
 The great bell in the square, and he, the king, 
 
 Would cause the syndic to decide thereon. 
 
 Such was the proclamation of King John. 
 
 *jfe .^g. ^ .jg, .s^ .at, .88, 
 
 *«• "JS" Ti* 'Tr w w w 
 
 By chance it happened that in Atri dwelt 
 A knight, with spur on heel and sword in belt, 
 Who loved to hunt the wild boar in the woods. 
 Who loved his falcons with their crimson hoods. 
 Who loved his hounds and horses, and all sports 
 And prodigalities of camps and courts, — 
 Loved, or had loved them; for at last grown old, 
 His only passion was the love of gold. 
 
 Making the Assignment 
 
 I. Read the entire poem carefully, keeping in mind 
 
 the questions mentioned under heading III. 
 II. Find the meanings of all unfamiliar words. 
 III. Answer the following questions : 
 
 1. Do you like this story? Why? 
 
 2. In what ways does this poem remind you 
 
 of the story of '* Black Beauty"? 
 
 3. Do our dumb friends now need a bell of 
 
 justice like the Bell of Atri? 
 
286 SILENT READING 
 
 4. How can we help to secure more humane 
 treatment for dumb animals? 
 
 Directions for Class Study 
 
 I. Read the sentence included in the first eleven 
 lines. When you finish^ indicate by looking 
 toward the teacher. Wait quietly until all 
 are through. 
 
 1. What is a good title or subject for this 
 
 sentence ? 
 
 2. What part of the sentence is expressed in 
 
 the most pleasing way? 
 
 3. Why do you think so? 
 
 II. Read the second sentence silently. When you 
 finish, indicate as before. 
 
 1. What is the main idea of this sentence? 
 
 2. What was the proclamation? 
 
 3. Did it cost anything to claim justice in 
 
 this way? 
 
 4. Did a poor man have as much chance to 
 
 obtain justice in the court as the rich 
 man had? 
 
 5. Would a free court be good for the people 
 
 now? Explain fully. 
 III. Read the next paragraph silently, as before. 
 
 1. What title might we give this paragraph? 
 
 2. What kind of life had the knight lived? 
 
 3. How did his selfishness show itself in his 
 
 old age? 
 
 The remainder of the poem may be treated in a similar 
 manner. In order to vary the exercises, the teacher may 
 in some instances ask her questions before the children 
 read the paragraph silently. 
 
GRADES FIVE AND SIX 287 
 
 Directions for Oral Beading 
 
 This selection is good material for oral reading. Al- 
 though much of it is ordinary narrative presenting but 
 little diiScnlty, the speeches of the various characters 
 require careful attention if they are to be read correctly. 
 Questions like the following, which direct the pupil's 
 attention to the poem, help children to read with proper 
 expression. 
 
 1. In what tone of voice would the knight be likely 
 
 to speak the soliloquy at the bottom of page 
 46? 
 
 2. What is the feeling of the syndic when he sees 
 
 that a horse is ringing the bell? 
 
 3. In what tone of voice would the syndic pro- 
 
 nounce his judgment? 
 
 4. What feeling does the king express? 
 
 Organizing the Selection 
 
 After the selection has been thoroughly studied accord- 
 ing to the plan outlined, it may be used as material for 
 teaching pupils to organize. The following suggestions 
 to the class will help children to attack the problem of 
 organization in such a way that good results are almost 
 assured. 
 
 1. Write a summary of each of the parts of the 
 
 poem. The summary should consist of a single 
 sentence or phrase. 
 
 2. Group the summaries under three general head- 
 
 ings. 
 
 3. Follow the same plan to outline an account of 
 
 some personal experience. 
 
288 SILENT READING 
 
 4. Kelate the account of your personal experience 
 so that the class may decide whether your 
 story is told as clearly and in as orderly fash- 
 ion as Long'fellow tells his tale in verse. 
 
 Reading tests. Fifth and sixth-grade reading classes 
 should be tested from time to time in order that teacher 
 and pupils may learn how thoroughly the reading : 
 being done. The information obtained from such tests 
 enables the teacher to increase the interest and efforts 
 of the pupils and to devise and apply remedial measurep' 
 if necessary. The administration of written tests pro-' 
 motes habits of thoroughness, because such tests urge 
 pupils to read more attentively and to exert greate * 
 effort to retain the chief points in the matter which they^ 
 read. The maturity of the pupils and the highly factual 
 character of the subject-matter are favorable to a con- 
 siderable amount of such testing; however, it must not 
 be done at a sacrifice of time that should be devoted to 
 other school work, nor should it burden the teacher. 
 
 Because pupils tend to regard the many facts of a 
 lesson as equally important, the teacher should use the 
 study question and the problem assignment to develop 
 their powers of discrimination and evaluation. One need 
 not expect children to discriminate among major and 
 minor topics unless they have been trained to do so. 
 Too many teachers forget that the word ' ' assignment ' ' 
 literally means ''a pointing of the way," and that every 
 good assignment must do that by means of definite direc- 
 tions and the explanation of difficult parts of the lesson 
 
GRADES FIVE AND SIX 289 
 
 about to be attacked. Until pupils have learned how to 
 study, the teacher should suggest the central idea and 
 important points of every lesson that she assigns. She 
 can do that by asking well-directed questions, and by 
 having pupils read material that contains the facts which 
 enable them to solve a particular problem. 
 
 Adapting the test. The nature of the test that is 
 c.sed should in every case be in keeping with the char- 
 acter of the material which is being studied. The treat- 
 ment of literature, read either to develop or to present 
 ertain humanizing and socializing concepts, must differ 
 from that accorded scientific subject-matter. Tests based 
 ■^ purely literary material must be designed to discover 
 ,w well children are able to grasp ideals and to sense 
 emotions. Tests based on the subject-matter of historical 
 and scientific textbooks should aim to discover how 
 accurately pupils read and how well they comprehend. 
 The power to concentrate on what is being read, and the 
 ability to do rapid, purposeful reading may be developed 
 by using drill exercises based on lesson material. The 
 specimen lessons that follow give suggestions for doing 
 that sort of work. 
 
 Type Study: A History Lesson 
 Abraham Lincoln^ 
 
 Abraham Lincoln was the President during this dark 
 time in our nation's history — the Civil War. 
 
 He was not a handsome man, not a scholarly man, 
 
 ^This selection is taken from Mara L. Pratt's American History 
 Stories (Vol. 4, pp. 5-12) published by the Educational Pub- 
 lishing Company, Boston. 
 
290 SILENT READING 
 
 not a society -mannered man; but a more honest, more 
 loyal-hearted, more grand-souled man than Abraham 
 Lincoln never stood at the head of our government. 
 He was as honest as George Washington, as sturdy 
 as Andrew Jackson, as brave as the bravest general, 
 and, in the end, as noble as the noblest martyr. 
 
 He had had a hard life as a boy. He had been 
 brought up on a farm, first in Kentucky and later in 
 Indiana, where he had learned to hoe and to plant, 
 to drive oxen, to build a log house, to split rails, to 
 fell trees — everything that a farmer boy away out 
 in a new country would have to do, this boy had 
 done. Indeed, when he was named for President by 
 the Republican party, the opposing parties sneered at 
 him, calling him a ' ' vulgar rail-splitter, " ' ' an ignorant 
 boor, unfit for the society of gentlemen." 
 
 But for all his hoeing and his rail-splitting, for all 
 his poverty and his hard labor, for all his rough home 
 and his common companions, Abraham Lincoln soon 
 proved that he had a something in his head and in 
 his heart of which any gentleman might well have 
 been proud — a something that a world of fine houses 
 and fine clothes could not buy — something which, by 
 and by, prompted him to set all the poor black men 
 and women in the United States free. 
 
 Although Abraham Lincoln did live in the back- 
 woods, and did not go to school, nevertheless, he was 
 all this time in the best of society. Fortunately for 
 him, his mother was a real lady in heart, and tried 
 always to keep her boy from growing up a coarse, 
 ignorant '^ rail-splitter," as his party opponents calle^i 
 him. She taught him always to keep his eyes open, 
 and his mind awake to the beauties about him in na- 
 ture. She taught him that it was a noble heart that 
 could see Grod in the beautiful flowers, in the birds, 
 in the fields, in the forests, and in the waters ; that 
 it was the artist's soul that loved to watch the beau- 
 
GRADES FIVE AND SIX 291 
 
 tiful sunset lights and the deepening shadows ; she 
 taught him to read the few books she owned, and 
 helped him to earn a few more ; she encouraged his 
 love for reading, and was careful that his reading 
 was always of the best kind. 
 
 We have suggested five methods of handling this 
 material ; the teacher may use any or all of them as the 
 needs of the class or the character of the material war- 
 rant. Some of the methods may be applied to almost 
 any kind of subject-matter likely to be placed before 
 fifth and sixth-grade pupils. 
 
 (I) 
 
 The teacher should write on the blackboard a list of 
 questions similar to the following and read them with 
 the pupils before they undertake to read the assign- 
 ment. When that has been done, she should ask the 
 class to read the assignment carefully with a view to 
 answering the questions. When pupils have written as 
 many answers as possible, they should refer to the text- 
 book for answers to the questions on which they failed. 
 
 1. What three qualities helped to make Lincoln 
 
 great? 
 
 2. Why did his opponents call him a '^vulgar rail- 
 
 splitter"? 
 
 3. What was the *' something that a world of fine 
 
 houses and fine clothes could not buy"? 
 
 4. Who were Lincoln's teachers? 
 
 5. What three things did his mother teach him? 
 
 (11) 
 The following questions of the judgment type are 
 sometimes called *' interpretative questions." Although 
 
292 SILENT READING 
 
 developing habits of alertness and close and rapid read- 
 ing, they are valuable because they promote the habit 
 of thinking and evaluating without which speed in read- 
 ing is of slight value. 
 
 Pupils should silently read the assignment before see- 
 ing the questions, then answer as many as possible, 
 they may not be as effective as factual questions for 
 They may read the selection a second time, if necessary, 
 in order to find answers which they could not remem- 
 ber from the first reading. The following questions 
 are typical of the sort that should be used. 
 
 1. Do you think the hardships that Lincoln ex- 
 
 perienced were influential in making him a 
 great man? 
 
 2. Do you think it necessary for all aspiring boys 
 and girls to pass through hardships? 
 
 (Ill) 
 
 Discriminating reading may be encouraged by allow- 
 ing pupils to read a selection in any manner they choose, 
 knowing that they will be asked to write answers to a 
 series of questions which will be given to them during 
 the recitation period. 
 
 (IV) 
 
 Pupils may be allowed to take sides and ''race" to 
 see who can first answer the questions asked by the 
 teacher. The side answering the greatest number of 
 questions is regarded as the winner. The teacher should 
 make sure that the questions used in an exercise of 
 this kind have not been made familiar by inclusion in 
 previous tests. 
 
 (V) 
 Pupils should read a selection once, then prepare 
 questions for use in class discussion. The class may 
 
GRADES FIVE AND SIX 293 
 
 be divided into two groups, one of which originates 
 questions to be presented to the other. At the conclu- 
 sion of the exercise, teacher and pupils may profitably 
 discuss the merit of the questions that were presented. 
 An interesting variation of this exercise is to have one 
 group of pupils make an outline of the subject-matter 
 and present it to the other group for criticism. 
 
 The exercises based on the following geography lesson 
 (part of one day's assignment) are suggestive of plans 
 that help to increase pupils' speed and increase their 
 power to comprehend. Such methods develop purposeful 
 reading of assignments in historj^, hygiene, nature study, 
 language, and arithmetic. Some teachers use the last 
 half of each recitation period to direct the reading of the 
 new asignment, having the pupils read the new assign- 
 ment with a view to finding answers to study questions 
 prepared by the teacher. "When the use of this plan 
 has enabled pupils to read a new assignment carefully 
 and understandingly, they should undertake to outline 
 the subject-matter of the next day's lesson inde- 
 pendently. » 
 
 Type Study: A Geography Lesson 
 
 Philadelphia ranks third among the cities of the 
 United States in population. Lines of steamships run 
 from Philadelphia to the leading seaports of the United 
 States and foreign countries, carrying passengers and 
 a multitude of products. Because of its nearness to 
 the coal fields, Philadelr)hia has become a great ship- 
 ping point for coal. The coal and iron have made 
 possible the manufacture of cars, heavy machinery, 
 and ships. Philadelphia is a great textile manufac- 
 
294 SILENT READING 
 
 turing center, making especially woolen goods; there 
 is much manufacturing of clothing ; and in carpet manu- 
 facture. This is the most important city in the country.^ 
 
 (I) 
 
 Before the pupils read the paragraph tell them that 
 there are three reasons why Philadelphia is a large 
 manufacturing city. Have them read the paragraph 
 and then write the reasons without again referring to 
 the selection. 
 
 (11) 
 
 Have pupils read the paragraph silently, then outline 
 the topic discussed without again referring to the book. 
 This method should be used after pupils have had the 
 training suggested under heading I. 
 
 (HI) 
 
 Instruct the pupils to read the paragraph through 
 once, and afterwards test them to determine whether 
 they have grasped the main points of the material read. 
 Give two questions based on the chief topics discussed. 
 Questions for this paragraph may be: Give three rea- 
 sons why Philadelphia is a great manufacturing center. 
 Name three articles manufactured in Philadelphia. 
 "When the pupils have written the answers to the ques- 
 tions, they should exchange papers for correction and 
 report the results to the class. 
 
 (IV) 
 
 Ask pupils to write three reasons why Philadelphia 
 is a great manufacturing center, then have the class 
 read the paragraph in order to see how many reasons 
 given were right. 
 
 iThis selection is taken from the Tarr and McMurry Geography: 
 Second Book (p. 66) published by The Macmillan Company, 
 New York City. 
 
GRADES FIVE AND SIX 295 
 
 (V) 
 
 Write questions about the subject-matter of the as- 
 signment on 3 X 5 cards, placing one question on each 
 card. Distribute the cards, placing them face down 
 on the desks. Have the class read the assignment. 
 When all have finished, have each pupil in turn look at 
 his card, read the question aloud to the class, and give 
 the answer if possible. 
 
 Type Study: A Lesson in Hygiene 
 A silent-reading lesson in hygiene, suitable for use as 
 the basis of drill work, was based on a pamphlet which 
 the Red Cross Society asked sixth-grade pupils to take 
 to their homes during a recent health crusade. After 
 devoting two periods to a discussion of the topic **How 
 to Be Healthy, ' ' the pupils were told to suggest diseases 
 likely to be most prevalent in their community, and to 
 tell which of those should be most carefully guarded 
 against and cared for. 
 
 After the pupils had agreed that tuberculosis should 
 receive a large amount of attention, they were given a 
 pamphlet published by the New York State Department 
 of Health entitled, ^'What We Should Know About 
 Tuberculosis." That was used in conjunction with the 
 chapter on the same subject in the class textbook of 
 hygiene. Following the silent reading and the study of 
 the material, exercises similar to those already suggested 
 in this chapter were given as a means of testing the 
 pupils to determine how well they understood what they 
 read. 
 
296 SILENT READING 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. It is reasonably easy to teach silent reading to fiftli 
 and sixth-grade pupils because they have mastered the 
 mechanics of reading and can read extensively. 
 
 2. Because the subject-matter generally used in these grades 
 is well organized and rich in highly factual content, 
 testing and training pupils to comprehend and organize 
 is a relatively simple matter. 
 
 3. In teaching silent reading to pupils of these grades, 
 certain selections should be discussed in class in order 
 to develop appreciation. Much supplementary work 
 should be done, and the teacher should conduct inten- 
 sive drills designed to develop speed and the ability 
 to comprehend and organize. 
 
 4. Pupils should be encouraged to apply the methods of 
 study learned in the silent-reading class to the work 
 done in other subjects. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Dearborn, G. V. Hoio to Learn Easily. Little, Brown and 
 
 Company, Boston, 1916. 
 Gray, W. S. "Reading in the elementary schools of Indi- 
 anapolis: Part IV." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 19, 
 
 (April) 1919. 
 Horn, Ernest. "The relation of silent reading to efficiency 
 
 in study." Addresses and Proceedings of the National 
 
 Education Association, Vol. 58, 1920. 
 Judd, Charles H. "Analysis of learning processes and 
 
 specific teaching." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 21, 
 
 (May) 1921. 
 O'Hern, J. P. "The development of a chart of attainments 
 
 in reading." Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 3, 
 
 1921. 
 Stone, C. R. Silent and Oral Reading. Houghton Mifflin 
 
 Company, Boston, 1922. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 SILENT READING IN GRADES VII AND YIII 
 
 Teaching" pupils to study. Teaching pupils of the 
 advanced elementary grades and of the junior high 
 school how to study economically and effectively is quite 
 as important a matter as teaching them silent reading 
 as an end in itself. At this period of school life pupils 
 may be led to realize that the possession of skill in 
 acquiring knowledge, and an effective method of using 
 that skill, are really of more importance than the posses- 
 sion of the knowledge itself. It is comparatively easy to 
 arouse an interest in methods of study, by showing pupils 
 the advantage of economical plans and effective devices. 
 The teacher's first task, then, is to do that by helping 
 her pupils become rapid and purposeful readers. It is 
 advisable to use a part of each recitation period for 
 developing a method of effective study. The last five 
 minutes may often be used to advantage for making an 
 assignment in such a way that pupils have definite prob- 
 lems to work on. 
 
 Experiments in learning to study.^ Interest in the 
 problem of establishing effective study habits led the 
 
 ^'Germane, Charles E. "The value of the controlled mental 
 summary as a method of studying-." School and Society, Vol. 
 12, (December) 1920. 
 
 297 
 
298 SILENT READING 
 
 authors to conduct an experiment in an eighth-grade 
 class a few years ago. In order to ascertain the ability 
 of the pupils so as to determine what sort of training 
 they needed, it was necessary carefully to check the rate 
 at which they read one of their assignments, a history 
 lesson of about the usual length. The slowest reader 
 read 106 words per minute, the fastest 428 words. A 
 seven-minute test designed to measure comprehension 
 and retention, given immediately after the reading, 
 showed scores ranging from 10.4 per cent to a trifle less 
 than 50 per cent. These data convinced teacher and 
 pupils that it was necessary to increase the speed of 
 reading, and to acquire some method that would enable 
 the reader quickly to grasp the main points of what 
 he read. 
 
 Types of reading ability. As the test revealed three 
 types of readers — rapid, medium-rate, and slow — the 
 class was grouped into two divisions for the purpose 
 of drill. One group included the rapid readers and 
 the medium-rate readers who had made high scores on 
 the speed test, the other included the slow readers and 
 those pupils of the medium-rate group who had made 
 low scores. The intention of the authors was to develop 
 methods of effective study by means of drill exercises. 
 To that end they selected material from the textbooks 
 used in the eighth grade; the topics covered were ''The 
 'Sweating' System," "Tuberculosis," "The Conserva- 
 tion of Human Life," "Immigration," "Child Labor," 
 and "Unemployment." Four days per week for four 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 299 
 
 weeks the class spent twenty-five minutes daily, the last 
 half of the recitation period in social science, in a con- 
 sideration of some of the fundamental principles of 
 study and their application to the material being studied. 
 
 The two groups of pupils were united for the first 
 two lessons. During the first recitation period, which 
 was devoted to a consideration of the principles of 
 ^tudy and their application to one of the selections 
 chosen, class discussion brought out the necessity of pay- 
 ing close attention to the title of an article that one 
 reads, and to the importance of the mechanical features 
 of printed matter — paragraph headings, marginal 
 notes, italicized words, etc. The teacher explained that 
 the title of an article always merits careful considera- 
 tion, because it is usually an index to what is to be 
 found in the article itself. 
 
 The "key sentence." It was also made clear that 
 in every well-written paragraph the first or second sen- 
 tence is usually what one may call a ''key sentence," 
 which gives an idea of what is treated in the para- 
 graph. Pupils were advised to read the last sentence 
 of a paragraph carefully because it usually sum- 
 marizes what has preceded. The teacher explained 
 that the body of a paragraph — the middle portion — 
 is usually only an elaboration of the theme stated in 
 the opening sentences, and also that the summary, 
 which as a rule appears in the concluding sentence, 
 makes it unnecessary for one to read all parts of a 
 paragraph with the same degree of close attention. 
 
300 SILENT READING 
 
 It must be clearly borne in mind that although pupils 
 were strongly urged to give particular attention to the 
 key sentences, they were likewise told that if they care- 
 fully read the first sentences, in which the author states 
 his aim or point of view, they can then read the other 
 sentences more rapidly, more purposefully, and more 
 understandingly. In fact, if one catches the meaning 
 of the key sentence, it is often possible even to ''skim" 
 a paragraph without at all failing to comprehend it. 
 
 The following paragraphs, chosen from the lesson on 
 "The 'Sweating' System," illustrate the key sentence 
 and show its relation to the remainder of the paragraph. 
 
 The conditions which not only make possible, but 
 encourage, the sweating system are, first, a crowded 
 population in large cities ; second, high rent ; and third, 
 contract work. The crowded population in the large 
 cities offers a large available amount of labor which 
 can be secured at a very low price. A large foreign 
 population naturally industrious and thrifty, where 
 the women and children and often the men have no 
 regular work, is easily exploited by the sweaters, and 
 offers many victims to their grinding system. 
 
 The key sentence of the preceding paragraph is obvi- 
 ously the first one. It concisely sets forth the theme 
 which is expanded in the remainder. 
 
 The contractor, or sweater, is one who makes a 
 special business of employing immigrants. The man 
 best fitted to be contractor, or sweater, is said to be 
 the man who is well acquainted with his neighbors, 
 who is' able to speak the language of several classes 
 of immigrants, . . . etc. 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 30I 
 
 The main idea of the above paragraph is the defini- 
 tion of a ''sweater." The remainder of the paragraph 
 amplifies the definition. 
 
 The many reports of investigations that have "been 
 made in regard to the sweat shops have been unani- 
 mous in speaking of the unsanitary conditions within 
 these places. They are invariably found in the most 
 crowded quarters of the cities, in old tenement build- 
 ings utterly lacking in modern conveniences. Families 
 of from three to five or more are found living in two 
 or three-room apartments, in small rooms poorly 
 lighted and poorly ventilated, with walls and floors 
 often out of repair. For entire families to work, cook, 
 eatj and sleep amid such unsanitary conditions as 
 these, working long hours and often seven days of 
 the week, in close, unventilated rooms, means a con- 
 dition of labor that is not only a menace to health, 
 but to all home and social life. 
 
 The preceding paragraph well illustrates how the 
 main portion elaborates and expands the theme stated 
 in the key sentence. 
 
 The *'key paragraph.*' The second lesson was de- 
 voted to a discussion of the ''key paragraph." The 
 teacher explained that the key paragraph presents that 
 problem and its phases which the author undertakes 
 to treat as a whole in his article. The two following 
 excerpts, taken respectively from the articles on "The 
 * Sweating' System" and on "Immigration," illustrate 
 the character of this sort of paragraph. The second 
 is a particularly good example. 
 
 There are two principal causes for the growth of 
 the sweating system, which should be discussed at 
 
302 SILENT READING 
 
 some length. These causes are the kind or nature 
 of the work, and the kind of labor supply. 
 
 Some Americans early protested against the wide- 
 open door for immigrants. Some of the objections 
 which they advanced were foolish and some were wise ; 
 some were narrow and selfish ; others were based, not 
 on ill-will toward the foreigner, but on the desire to 
 make America a united nation, well governed and 
 prosperous. At the same time there were advocates 
 of the wide-open door who objected to interference 
 with immigration. 
 
 One may observe that the preceding paragraphs sug- 
 gest what is to be treated in those that follow. It is 
 a simple matter to get pupils to note this fact and to 
 make good use of it. As this experiment showed, pupils 
 who carefully read the key paragraph need to read 
 carefully only two or three sentences of each of the 
 succeeding paragraphs in order to grasp the thread 
 of the author's argument as he develops his theme. 
 
 For the third lesson, the class was divided into two 
 groups as originally planned. The group of slow read- 
 ers was drilled on rapid reading and thought-getting. 
 Some of the devices suggested for use in the third 
 and fourth grades were used for this work. Pupils were 
 asked to find answers to the teacher's questions, and 
 they were taught to ''skim" the page in search of par- 
 ticular phrases and words. The latter exercise was in- 
 tended to develop the habit of forming a wide eye- 
 span. At this time the group reviewed the principles 
 of economical study which had been discussed on the 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 393 
 
 two preceding days, and each pupil was required to 
 find at least two key sentences. 
 
 Questions based on topic heading's. During the 
 third recitation period the group of rapid readers com- 
 piled a list of seven questions based on ''The 'Sweating' 
 System" for use as a written test for the slow group 
 on the following day. That plan was adopted for use 
 with brighter pupils in the hope that it would cause 
 them more quickly to apprehend the relationship be- 
 tween the paragraph headings and the important divi- 
 sions of the article, and also that they might learn to 
 base questions on topics. 
 
 The two groups were again united for the fourth 
 lesson. The seven questions prepared by the rapid read- 
 ers were placed on the blackboard and discussed by 
 all, the teacher acting as referee. The aim of the dis- 
 cussion was to determine whether or not the questions 
 proposed really were based on the important topics in 
 the article. The net result of this exercise was that 
 many pupils, who previously had read their assignments 
 without thought of discriminating among major and 
 minor points, now learned from teacher and classmate 
 just how tl\ey should proceed in order to make such 
 a discrimination. 
 
 The "hub and spoke" device. The plan of outlin- 
 ing a lesson as the hub and spokes of a wheel (a device 
 we have already described) was effectively used for this 
 exercise. The whole problem, "The 'Sweating' Sys- 
 tem," was regarded as the hub, the main topics, which 
 
304 SILENT READING 
 
 pupils agreed on, became the spokes. This device, arti- 
 ficial as it was, aroused genuine interest in the discus- 
 sion. 
 
 At the conclusion of this lesson the teacher could ob- 
 serve that certain definite aims had been accomplished. 
 The pupils had become acquainted with some of the 
 fundamental principles of effective study; they had ac- 
 quired some skill in applying those principles to the 
 material under consideration; they had reviewed their 
 lesson a number of times, and so, to some extent at 
 least, insured the retention of the outstanding facts and 
 arguments. 
 
 The treatment of the other articles chosen for study 
 by this class differed somewhat from that which we 
 have just described in detail. The latter, however, sug- 
 gestive of the general scheme of all, indicates the kind 
 of training which pupils in the upper elementary grades 
 usually need. Although classes should as a rule be 
 divided into groups for the exercises in rapid reading 
 and thought-getting, so that those of more nearly equal 
 ability will be competing, nevertheless it is advisable 
 to combine the groups of fast and slow readers when- 
 ever practicable. The latter plan should always be 
 adopted when one group prepares questions or outlines 
 for the approval or use of the other. Joint discussion 
 of such material is one of the most valuable features 
 of this training. Many other plans and devices are 
 available, however, in the articles- on this phase of 
 instruction which have recently been published. 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 305 
 
 Other effective methods. The teacher can arouse 
 pupils to a realization of the importance of selecting 
 the main points in a lesson by having them consider 
 test questions based on the assignment before it is read. 
 That plan conduces to purposeful reading, reading in 
 order to get the thought, as the authors have shown 
 by an experiment. 
 
 A section consisting of 186 sixth, seventh, and 
 eighth-grade pupils was divided into two groups of equal 
 comprehnesion ability. A seven-page article on '* Tu- 
 berculosis" was given to one group, with instructions 
 to read it through as many times as possible in a thirty- 
 minute period. The same article was given to the sec- 
 ond group, with instructions to read it carefully and to 
 make a mental note of the answers to the following 
 questions. 
 
 Name ten causes of tuberculosis. 
 Describe seven symptoms of tuberculosis. 
 Name five preventives of tuberculosis. 
 
 At the conclusion of the thirty-minute period a test 
 based on the material was given to both groups. Pupils 
 who had had the questions in hand while they read 
 the article excelled those of the other group by an aver- 
 age of 50.3 per cent. In the judgment of the authors, 
 this experiment shows that rapid, thoughtful reading 
 can be achieved by making speed and thought-getting 
 the objectives of reading exercises. 
 
 An effective test for determining whether or not 
 pupils are acquiring the ability to read rapidly and well. 
 
306 SILENT READING 
 
 is to require them frequently to make summaries and 
 outlines of the subject-matter of their assignments. 
 
 Speed in reading and a high degree of comprehension 
 may be obtained by asking pupils to read a selection, 
 they being informed beforehand that their rate will be 
 charted, and that when they have completed the single 
 reading they will be given a written quiz, the results 
 of which will also be tabulated. Knowing that their 
 standing will be computed and charted usually causes- 
 pupils to exert an extra effort to read rapidly and un- 
 derstandingly. 
 
 Silent reading in the English class. As we have 
 already said, many high-school pupils have not learned 
 to reflect as they read or to assimilate what they read. 
 Such pupils have little if any idea of the mental proc- 
 ess involved in reading. They regard reading as a re- 
 ceptive process rather than a creative one; they regard 
 the words of a story as the story itself. As a matter 
 of fact, the words are only a means of kindling the 
 imagination ; words only cause us to look deeply into 
 the thought wells of past experience. Usually it is not 
 altogether the pupil's fault that he has this notion of 
 reading. His present ability to read has been deter- 
 mined by the Idnd of material he has read, and by 
 the way in which he has been permitted to read. 
 
 The English teacher's opportunity. The teacher of 
 upper-grade English has a great opportunity to develop 
 the pupil's ability to read well, and to train him in 
 the use of effective study habits that he may use in 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 307 
 
 all his work. The diversified reading material used in 
 English classes offers a wide range in the choice, of 
 snbject-matter. It is well within the English teacher's 
 province to give instruction in the use and significance 
 of titles, marginal notes, and headings. She should 
 also teach the meaning of the topical sentence and key 
 paragraph, and she should teach children how to orga- 
 nize what they read into summaries and outlines. Com- 
 prehension, discrimination, evaluation, and organization 
 may all be taught in the English class. 
 
 It is this oportunity of the teachers of English to 
 conduct such training economically and advantageously 
 that has prompted school authorities, who recognize the 
 need of developing a scientific method of teaching read- 
 ing to seventh, eighth, and ninth-grade pupils, to assign 
 the task to the English department. The diversified 
 subject-matter which that department is able to offer 
 its pupils, the opportunity for developing different men- 
 tal sets or attitudes as a consequence of that diversity 
 of subject-matter, and the intimate relationship that 
 many topics discussed in the English class have to the 
 formation of effective study habits, all point to the 
 English department as the proper agency for teaching 
 correct reading habits. 
 
 Lyman's plan of instruction.^ Lyman proposes that 
 one day of each week be set aside for conducting labora- 
 tory exercises in silent reading in each seventh and 
 eighth-grade English class. The remaining four-fifths 
 
 ^Lyman. R. L. "The teaching- of assimilative reading in the 
 junior hig-h school." School Review, Vol. 28, (October) 1920. 
 
308 SILENT READING 
 
 of the time allotted to English is to be devoted to the 
 subjects ordinarily taught — literature, oral reading, 
 composition, grammar, and spelling — as is the usual 
 practice. This program, outlined and discussed on the 
 following pages, is a valuable contribution to teachers 
 of English who do not have time to work out a course 
 of study that correlates English and silent reading. 
 The thirty-six lessons are suggestive of the type of ma- 
 terial and the sort of methods that any teacher may 
 use as a basis for her work. 
 
 Silent-reading Objectives for the Seventh Grade 
 
 First month 
 
 Speeding up the silent reading. 
 
 a) Tests to acquaint pupils with their rate of read- 
 ing. 
 
 h) Attacking new words boldly. (Individual diffi- 
 culties in word analysis, etc.) 
 
 c) Trying to see several words at one time. 
 
 (Grouping and phrasing for perception of 
 thought groups.) 
 
 d) Learning when to read rapidly and when to 
 
 read slowly. 
 
 Second month 
 
 Purpose in reading. (Purpose and problems, old and 
 new; goals.) 
 
 a) Does the reader bring a problem to his reading? 
 6) Does the reading itself suggest a problem? 
 
 c) Reading carefully to find one's problem. 
 
 d) Finding a new problem growing out of one's 
 
 reading. 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 309 
 
 Third month 
 
 Grasping the central thought in reading. (Unity and 
 forward movement of thought.) 
 a) Is the master idea in the title? 
 h) Finding the clue sentence and sign posts. 
 
 c) Is the master idea repeated in each paragraph? 
 
 d) Contribution of each paragraph to the master 
 
 idea. 
 
 Fourth month 
 
 Getting a bird's-eye view of the reading. (Compre- 
 hending the reach; recalling main headings.) 
 
 a) Noting the plan of the writer. 
 
 h) Selecting the outstanding ideas. 
 
 c) Details building up each main thought. 
 
 d) Stopping to recall the main points. 
 
 Fifth month 
 
 Helping the writer in reading. (The reader's active 
 participation.) 
 
 a) Two minds active in reading. 
 &) Reading between the lines. 
 
 c) What is the writer's message for the reader 
 
 personally ? 
 
 d) His different messages for other people. 
 
 Sixth month 
 
 Tying up what we know with our reading. (The mean- 
 ing of assimilation.) 
 
 a) Recalling similar experiences of one's own. 
 &) Recalling different experiences. 
 
 c) Asking questions of the writer. 
 
 d) Tying up one lesson with another. 
 
 Seventh month 
 
 Selection in our reading. (Personal preferences.) 
 a) Discovering personal likes in reading. 
 
310 SILENT READING 
 
 h) Following' the prompting of curiosity. 
 
 c) Determining the worth of a selection. 
 
 d) Passing by the unimportant. 
 
 Eighth month 
 
 Judging values in our reading. (Weighing the worth 
 of statements.) 
 
 a) Whose statement may one rely upon? 
 &) Having our own opinions when w^e read. 
 
 c) The difference between knowing and guessing. 
 
 d) Being perfectly sure, and fair, and honest. 
 
 Ninth month 
 
 Making use of our reading. (Active utilization of 
 results.) 
 
 a) Being alert to solve problems. 
 
 &) Storing away ideas for future use. 
 
 c) Putting information into action. 
 
 d) Various ways of using our reading. 
 
 The work of the first month is intended to arouse 
 the pupil's interest in reading. It centers his attention 
 on the speed and accuracy with which he reads, and 
 enables him to compare his own achievements with the 
 standard norms. Experiments conducted in the labora- 
 tory school of the University of Chicago have proved 
 that children become greatly interested in working out 
 exercises which develop class standards of speed and 
 comprehension. 
 
 The work of the second month discusses the purpose 
 of reading. The discussion leads directly to a consid- 
 eration of the way many pupils attack a lesson which 
 has been assigned by instructing the class to "take to 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 3IX 
 
 the bottom . of page so and so for tomorrow. ' ' This ' 
 month's work emphasizes the value of reading with a 
 problem in mind, and the need of the reader's having 
 a tendency to reflect and evaluate. 
 
 During the third and fourth months pupils learn the 
 most economical method of getting at the substance of 
 what they read. 
 
 Laboratory activities which are pleasing and profit- 
 able to pupils of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades 
 are presented during the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth 
 months. The children are taught to regard their read- 
 ing as an exercise to which they are privileged to con- 
 tribute. They come to regard reading as a game in 
 which they are partners with the author. Their minds 
 become actively engaged in the reading process, they 
 help, supplement, inquire, and direct, much as they do 
 in the work of the oral-composition class. The domi- 
 nant activities of the respective months are helping, 
 supplementing, selecting, and evaluating. 
 
 The ninth month of these exercises completes the cycle 
 by again directing attention to work much like that 
 of the first and second months. The one idea now up- 
 permost in the children '§ minds is to make the active 
 utilization of results the chief goal of all reading done 
 as study. 
 
 The following classroom devices may be used to teach 
 objective (&) of the fifth month's work. These exer- 
 cises are suggestive of the laboratory method of pro- 
 cedure. 
 
312 
 
 SILENT READING 
 
 Reading Between the Lines 
 
 (I) 
 
 Have you ever heard the expression ' ' reading between 
 
 the lines"? Let ns make our own explanation of that 
 
 saying. 
 
 Read: Perseverance is a great element of success. 
 
 Think : I remember when I worked very hard and 
 learned a difficult lesson. Another time I 
 gave up in disgust and made a failure. The 
 different workers in our grade are good pupils. 
 
 (11) 
 
 Read: ''If you only knock long enough and loud 
 enough at the gate ... " 
 
 Think: Of course, the poet can't be talking of a real 
 gate. Knocking long and loud means repeated 
 efforts to succeed. It means trying over and 
 over again. 
 
 Read: '' ... you are sure to wake up some- 
 body." 
 
 Think: Loud noise does wake up people. But the 
 sentence must mean more than waking a sleep- 
 ing man; it means attaining success. 
 
 (Ill) 
 
 Read: ''Count that day lost whose low descending 
 sun ... " 
 
 Think: Boy Scouts take an oath to do a kind deed 
 for some one every day. Kind deeds are not 
 the only worthy actions. I recall one piece 
 of hard work; I recall an unkind deed. 
 
 Read: "Views from thy hand no worthy action 
 done." 
 
 Think: (Pupils should develop this material.) 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 3^3 
 
 Filling in Bet^^en the Lines 
 
 (I) 
 
 Head: ''When freedom from her mountain height 
 
 Unfurled her standard to the air ... " 
 Fill IN: Pride in our country's flag. 
 
 Pride in what the flag stands for. 
 Read : ' ' She" tore the azure robe of night 
 And set the stars of glory there." 
 Do you not see that we do not read merely words — 
 not little black marks set together on paper? We do 
 not read merely sentences and paragraphs. We read 
 ideas and meanings which are often not found in the 
 cold words before us. ''And set the stars of glory 
 there. ' ' Only seven little words ! But when we read 
 them we think of forty-eight white stars on a blue 
 ground, each star standing for a state. We see the 
 sisterhood of the states. They are stars of glory. All 
 that our fathers have done, and all that their fathers 
 did, makes the United States what she is. There is no 
 end to the meaning we may read into the six words, 
 '' . . . set the stars of glory there." 
 
 (11) 
 
 Have the pupils select a paragraph similar to the 
 following from their geography or some other textbook, 
 check any two lines of the paragraph, and write those 
 two lines widely apart on a sheet of paper. Each pupil 
 should then fill in between the two lines with a rough 
 sketch, a diagram, or words of his own that will make 
 clear his interpretation of the line chosen. 
 
 In many coal mines there are rooms that have been 
 made by digging out the coal. There is always dan- 
 ger that the roof of such a room may cave in because 
 of the great weight of overlying rock and earth. To 
 
314 
 
 SILENT READING 
 
 prevent this, pillars of high-grade coal are left stand- 
 ing. Sometimes, too, a roof of coal is left. When 
 this '^ pillar and stall" method is used, much good 
 coal from the better layers is never tal^en from the 
 ground. There is another method, known as the ''long 
 wall method," in which the miner supports the roof 
 behind him as he works, by tilling in the rock and 
 shale. In this way, all the coal is taken out. 
 
 (HI) 
 
 ''The American flag has been the symbol of 
 
 liberty ... " 
 
 Fill in with examples from the years 1775, 
 
 1864, and 1918. 
 
 "Men rejoiced in the American flag . . . " 
 
 Fill in with the names of several nations that 
 
 have done so. 
 
 "When Arnold would have surrendered West 
 
 Point ..." 
 
 Fill in with a brief account of the incident 
 
 here referred to. If one of the pupils' can 
 
 relate the story, let him do so ; otherwise the 
 
 teacher should tell it to the class. 
 
 "If an author is worth anything, you will 
 
 not get the meaning of his statement all at 
 
 once." 
 
 Fill in by giving your opinion of the truth 
 
 of this statement. 
 
 (IV) 
 
 A variant of this type of exercise, equally as effective 
 as those suggestions offered, is to ask each pupil to 
 write a sentence about one of his lessons, then exchange 
 his paper with a classmate who reads between the lines 
 and writes out his interpretation of the sentence. Some 
 
 Read : 
 
 Think 
 
 Read : 
 Tpiink : 
 
 Read : 
 
 Think 
 
 Read : 
 Think 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 3^5 
 
 sentences used in this exercise should be written on the 
 blackboard. 
 
 Advanced silent-reading' material. The well-or- 
 ganized, highly factual material found in textbooks of 
 history, geography, physiology, and nature stud}^ is Yery 
 valuable for use as the basis of instruction in silent 
 reading. The abundance of it, and its similarity to 
 the reading matter which one meets in later life, are 
 also points in favor of using it extensively in seventh 
 and eighth-grade classes. Teachers should use the period 
 allotted to supervised study for training pupils to read 
 such material effectively. If no provision is made for 
 such work, then occasionally the last ten or fifteen min- 
 utes of the usual recitation period should be devoted 
 to training in the formation of correct habits of study 
 by means of drill in silent reading. The specimen les- 
 sons on the following pages are suggestive of some plans 
 that may be used. 
 
 Type Study: A History Lesson 
 
 Give the pupils a short written test covering the main 
 topics of the assignment before they read it. This is 
 to ascertain how much they knoAV about the subject to 
 be studied, so that the amount they gain from reading 
 the assignment may be more accurately determined. As 
 soon as the preliminary test has been given, pupils 
 should read the assignment through once and record 
 their time. Then give the questions suggested on page 
 317, score the papers, and chart the results. Interest 
 
316 SILENT READING 
 
 may be added to this work by having each pupil chart 
 his own results and compare his scores with the class 
 average. 
 
 The aim of this plan is to motivate reading through 
 the preliminary test, by showing pupils that the assign- 
 ment contains material about which they know very 
 little. When they learn that, they tend to read pur- 
 posefully because they have the main topics in mind. 
 
 Immigration^ 
 
 The first marked invasion, that of the Irish and Ger- 
 mans, opened between 1840 and 1850. Many of the 
 Irish stopped in the cities and sought employment 
 as manual laborers, or went out into the construction 
 camps where railways and canals were built. The 
 Germans, on the other hand, seemed from the first 
 to prefer farming. Perhaps a major portion of them 
 went west and bought land or entered government 
 ** domains" opened to settlers. 
 
 *^ ^ 4& ^ 4& 4f* ^ 
 
 w W W W W w W 
 
 A second era in the history of immigration opened 
 about 1890. The new period was marked, in the first 
 place, by a decided change in the nationality of the 
 immigrants. The number coming from Great Britain, 
 Ireland, and Germany fell off rapidly, and the pro- 
 portion from Scandinavian countries did not increase. 
 By 1896 the immigrants from Austria-Hungary, Italy, 
 and Eussia greatly outnumbered those from north and 
 west Europe, and in 1910 nine-tenths of all the immi- 
 grants arriving in the United States were from the 
 south and west of Europe. Jews who by the tens 
 of thousands were driven out of Russia and Roumania 
 
 ^This selection is taken from Beard and Barley's The History 
 of the American People (pp. 496-502) published by The Mac- 
 millan Company, New York City. 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 3I7 
 
 by cruel oppression, really had no choice but to flee 
 to the United States. 
 
 *jg, je. ^ .u> .aiv 45. .a. 
 
 W •?¥• "JP W TT W •fS' 
 
 The newcomers had to settle in cities. The Rus- 
 sian Jews entered the ready-made garment trade in 
 the great centers like New York, Rochester, and Chi- 
 cago. Hungarians, Italians, Slovaks, and Poles took 
 up heavy tasks like mining and iron working, which 
 called for more physical strength. Immigrants dur- 
 ing this period built the railroads, developed the 
 mines, manned the coke ovens and blast furnaces, made 
 clothing, and, in fact, furnished the labor for most 
 of the country. 
 
 Questions 
 
 1. What two nationalities composed the first marked 
 
 invasion of immigrants^ 
 
 2. Where did those immigrants settle? 
 
 3. What was the cause of the lull in immigration? 
 
 4. Why did the *' Homestead Act" induce foreign- 
 
 ers to come to this country? 
 
 5. Name five nationalities that came from northern 
 
 Europe immediately after the Civil War? 
 
 6. What change was there in the second era? 
 
 7. Where did these immigrants settle? 
 
 8. Name four evil effects which the low rates of 
 
 steamship companies and their false advertis- 
 ing in Europe have on the United States? 
 
 There are several other good plans for studying the 
 history assignment, each quite as effective as the one 
 we have outlined in detail. Pupils may be asked to 
 ''skim" the material so as to find answers to particular 
 questions. That exercise tends to form good motor 
 habits in reading, broad eye-span, and short duration 
 
318 SILENT READING 
 
 of fixation. They may be asked to prepare questions 
 for class discussion after reading this and similar sub- 
 ject-matter once, or they may read the assignment once, 
 guided by three or four questions written on the black- 
 board. 
 
 Forming good study habits. Many students fre- 
 quently reach the eighth grade with few desirable study 
 habits. They are unable to concentrate on what they 
 read, to read closely, or to comprehend rapidly and sat- 
 isfactorily. Such pupils believe they are "studying hard 
 when they are only marking time. A detailed test which 
 requires the recall of data contained in the assignment 
 often shocks these pupils out of their indifference by 
 showing them how loosely and undiscriminatingly they 
 really do read. The lesson plan outlined below was 
 successfully used in an eighth-grade class whose mem- 
 bers made an average score of only 50 per cent before 
 the plan was adopted. The test included in this method 
 caused pupils to realize how superficially they read and 
 made them want to use a part of each recitation period 
 for learning how to read. 
 
 Type Study: A Geography Lesson 
 Towards the close of a geography lesson suggest that 
 pupils spend the remainder of the period reading a 
 part of the next day's assignment. Determine how 
 many paragraphs shall be read, and instruct pupils to 
 close their books when they read the material once, as 
 a sign that they have finished. Note each pupil's time 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 319 
 
 and rank him as to rate. AYhen all have finished, test 
 the class with a list of questions which thoroughly cover 
 the assignment. 
 
 The following lesson assignment^ is typical of the 
 amount of material that should be used for this exer- 
 cise. The questions indicate the type that should be 
 used. 
 
 Chicago's Commercial Advantages 
 
 For a long time there was much rivalry between 
 St. Louis and Chicago to see which should outgrow 
 the other. Now Chicago is three and a half times 
 as large as St. Louis, and surpasses all other cities 
 in the North Central States much as New York sur- 
 passes those in the Northeastern States. What has 
 led to such remarkable grovnh"? 
 
 There are three facts about its location that give 
 Chicago a great advantage for trade in farm products. 
 
 First, it is much nearer the center of this remark- 
 ably productive region than is St. Louis. The lead- 
 ing wheat region lies to the northwest, the Corn Belt 
 is close at hand, and the dairy section is very near. 
 
 Second, the railroads connecting our northwestern 
 states with the northeastern group must pass around 
 the southern end of Lake Michigan. There is no route 
 farther north that they can easily take. Also, goods 
 bound for the East from districts west and south- 
 west of Chicago can most easily go by way of the 
 same city. Thus Chicago is a natural meeting place 
 for routes connecting the East and the "West and has 
 become the greatest railroad center in the world. 
 There are now more than thirty important railroads 
 
 ^The material on whicTi this assis:nment is based is taken 
 from MeMurry and Parkins' Advanced Geography (pp. 79, 80) 
 published by The Macmillan Company, New Tork City. 
 
320 SILENT READING 
 
 that have their terminals in that city. Yet no rail- 
 road passes through the city, though the Pennsylvania 
 Railroad trains pass directly through New York, a 
 much larger city, on their way from Washington and 
 Pittsburgh to Boston. How must this fact affect the 
 handling of freight in Chicago? 
 
 With these advantages, it is not strange that Chi- 
 cago has more trade in farm products than any of 
 the other cities of this section. While Minneapolis 
 is the greatest wheat market, Chicago is the greatest 
 grain market, its trade in corn, oats, and other grains 
 besides wheat being very extensive. It receives three 
 times as much live stock as St. Louis, and sends forth 
 more meat products than any other city in the world. 
 
 The Union Stockyards, where the cattle, sheep, and 
 hogs are received and where the meat is packed, sur- 
 pass anything else of the kind in the world. The 
 yards and factories are so complete an organization 
 that they resemble a city in themselves ; and that 
 section of Chicago has come to be known as Packing- 
 town. It is worth a day's visit. Over 60,000 men 
 are employed there, and the products have an annual 
 value of nearly a billion dollars. 
 
 Questions 
 
 1. How much larger is Chicago than St. Louis ^ 
 
 2. How may Chicago be compared to New York 
 
 City? 
 
 3. Give three reasons why Chicago is larger than 
 
 St. Louis. 
 
 4. How may you contrast Chicago with Minneapo- 
 
 lis? 
 
 5. Compare the amount of live stock sent to Chi- 
 
 cago with that sent to St. Louis. 
 
 6. What and where is Packingtown? 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 32I 
 
 7. How many thousand men are employed in Pack- 
 
 ingtown ? 
 
 8. What is the value of the annual output of the 
 
 packing" industries of Chicago? 
 
 Reading arithmetic problems. It is well known that 
 many pupils who can give a coherent reproduction of 
 the situations recounted and described in four or five 
 pages of narrative material are often unable to state 
 the conditions set forth in the four or five lines of an 
 arithmetic problem. Many teachers, believing that a 
 pupil's inability to solve arithmetic problems is due to 
 his failure to understand what he reads, try to over- 
 come the difficulty by asking pupils to ^'read the prob- 
 lem carefully. ' ' That usually results in reading a prob- 
 lem a second time or in reading it orally; neither prac- 
 tice remedies the difficulty. It seems likely that pupils 
 are unable to read problems accurately because they 
 have not been trained to ''get the story" of a problem. 
 This view is largely supported by the results of experi- 
 ments which seem to prove that the successful reading 
 of different kinds of material demands different read- 
 ing abilities, which, in turn, must be developed by dif- 
 ferent sorts of training. 
 
 A recent study^ describes the condition that exists 
 and suggests a method of devising means to remedy it. 
 
 Problems in books so often read: ''If a man . 
 . . , etc.," ''Find the cost when . . . , etc.," 
 or "At 6 cents for 25, what will 3 dozen articles cost?" 
 
 ^Wilson, Estaline. "Improving- the ability to read arithmetic 
 problems." Elementary School Journal, Vol. 22, (January) 1922. 
 
322 SILENT READING 
 
 This flat, impersonal form of expression has no doubt 
 grown out of providing enough problems in a book 
 to supply the needed drill; but it works disaster in 
 the training of pupils. Once we become aware of 
 the dull and meaningless character of arithmetic read- 
 ing, we realize that we are confronted with two im- 
 portant questions: (a) To what extent can we aid 
 pupils to comprehend the real situation which is in- 
 volved in the problem? (&) To what extent can fluent 
 and correct reading contribute to the actual solving 
 of the problem? 
 
 Making the problem real. The first step in teaching 
 pupils to read problem material is to make the story 
 in the problem so real and so vivid that they will realize 
 the situation set forth. Some methods of doing this, 
 successfully used by a group of Cincinnati teachers, 
 are described in the following paragraphs. 
 
 The teachers first of all had the pupils study the 
 problems assigned, just as they ordinarily studied other 
 reading lessons — in this instance, however, for the pur- 
 pose of getting the thought of the text without regard 
 to the data of the problem. To that end the teacher 
 placed such questions on the blackboard as would aid 
 pupils to ascertain the meaning of the problems. Some- 
 times the pupils suggested questions. An example of 
 this device is shown by the following problem and the 
 accompanying questions based on it. 
 
 James sold 36 copies of the Saturday Evening Post 
 at 5 cents each. He kept % of the money. With the 
 remainder he bought daily papers at % cents each. 
 How many papers did he buy? 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 323 
 
 1. How could yon find ont how mnch James wonld 
 
 have after he sold his copies of the Post? 
 
 2. What part of his money did he spend for daily 
 
 papers ? 
 
 3. What part did he keep ? Wliat did he probably 
 
 do with his money? 
 
 4. Why do yon think he did not spend it all for 
 
 daily papers? 
 
 5. How did the cost of a daily paper compare with 
 
 the cost of a Post ? 
 
 6. If yon know how mnch money he spent for daily 
 
 papers, and the cost of each one, how will 
 yon find ont how many he bonght? 
 
 Another plan was the nse of the facts of a problem 
 as the plot of a story. When doing this sort of work, 
 the pupils read between the lines and supplied details 
 that made the problems real. The dull facts of buying 
 and selling were made the basis of imaginary experi- 
 ences. 
 
 Such a problem as ''What was the cost of 6 pounds 
 of sugar at 8 cents a pound, 6 cans of milk at 5 cents 
 a can, and 2 dozen eggs at 30 cents a dozen?" becomes 
 for Louise a shopping situation. Her mother, surprised 
 by unexpected guests, wants to make a cake. Louise 
 has to make a hurried trip to the grocery to obtain the 
 three necessary articles — eggs, sugar, milk. She keeps 
 repeating the names of the articles so as not to forget 
 the items. The grocer quotes prices as she buys each 
 article: "Eggs are 30 cents today; sugar is down to 
 8 cents a pound, etc." She returns home, reports her 
 total expenditure to her mother, and the latter, in turn, 
 
324 SILENT READING 
 
 counts up the cost again to see if Louise has figured 
 correctly. 
 
 The same figures suggest quite a different situation 
 to another pupil. The Boy Scout troop plans a hike. 
 Fred's share of the necessary eats for the crowd con- 
 sists of sugar and milk for the cocoa, and eggs to fry 
 over the camp fire. Since each scout is to present his 
 bill in order that all may share equally in the total 
 expense, Fred carefully figures the cost of the sugar, 
 eggs, and milk, and presents his bill in a business-like 
 manner to the scout master. 
 
 In another class the teacher asked the pupils to devise 
 a plan for dramatizing the story of the problems. The 
 few minutes allowed for preparing work of this sort 
 usually resulted in a realistic portrayal of many strik- 
 ing situations. One scene depicted an automobile show. 
 An enthusiastic salesman greeted Farmer Jones and his 
 family, showed them various cars, quoted the discounts, 
 and rapidly computed the amounts to be saved by avail- 
 ing oneself of the various percentages of discount. An- 
 other effective scene depicted a millinery shop where 
 customers called to inquire the prices of hats they had 
 seen advertised. 
 
 The value of the method. The methods described 
 were used by teachers who sought to measure their effi- 
 cacy in terms of data showing improved ability to solve 
 problems. One teacher's report of the results obtained 
 in a sixth-grade class is substantially as follows. The 
 pupils were first tested with the Stone Standardized 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 325 
 
 Reasoning Test in Arithmetic. Three ten-minute periods 
 per week for five weeks were then devoted to reading 
 problems by using the question method already de- 
 scribed; following that, Stone's test was again given 
 and the two sets of results were compared. The teacher 
 reports that "the resulting improvement of a large per- 
 centage of the pupils and the raising of the class aver- 
 ages from below standard to above seem satisfactory 
 returns for the time spent in problem-reading work." 
 
 Another teacher, whose class had developed consider- 
 able ability to make stories from the problems, tried to 
 evaluate the time spent in this preliminary problem 
 reading in terms of increased ability to solve the prob- 
 lems. She first placed a series of problems on the 
 blackboard and asked the class to solve them without 
 doing the preliminary reading and story making. On 
 the following day the pupils were allowed to construct 
 stories based on the same problems. Following that, 
 they solved the problems. In comparing the results of 
 the two days ' work, the class medians showed an increase 
 of 14 per cent in rate and 30 per cent in accuracy. 
 
 Obviously the pupils were at an advantage when they 
 solved the problems the second time; they had profited 
 to some extent by the first reading, although no help 
 had been given at that time. It would seem, however, 
 that inasmuch as the class gained 30 per cent in ability 
 to read, although only one period was used for that 
 work, that the time was well spent. Further evidence 
 of the effectiveness of this method is shown by the high 
 
326 SILENT READING 
 
 score which the group made when tested by the Monroe 
 Standard Reasoning Test in Arithmetic after they had 
 been working on this plan for some time. Their score 
 on "correct principle" was 32, the standard being only 
 17 ; for ' ' correct answers ' ' the class scored 17, the stand- 
 ard being 9.7. 
 
 A third plan, which included storj^-telling and drama- 
 tization, was used in an "opportunity class" of twenty 
 children. Nineteen of this group had been given intelli- 
 gence tests. Of those, eight had I. Q.'s ranging from 
 90 to 80, six ranging from 80 to 70, five ranging from 
 70 to 60. Before giving any training in problem read- 
 ing the pupils were tested with Peet and Dearborn's 
 Progress Test in Arithmetic. After six weeks of train- 
 ing, during which the pupils spent approximately ninety 
 minutes weekly in solving problems after carefully read- 
 ing them, the group was again tested with the same 
 test, no mention being made of its previous use. The 
 second test showed a median score of 72, as compared 
 with a median score of 28 made on the first test. 
 
 Although the attempts to evaluate methods of teach- 
 ing pupils to read arithmetic problems have not yet 
 been made extensively enough to warrant the findings 
 as conclusive, nevertheless the efi'orts that we have de- 
 scribed include several pieces of splendid pioneer work 
 in this field. Experiments already made have served 
 their purpose well, if they have done nothing other than 
 prove the feasibility of such work to investigators who 
 may later make more extensive studies by using more 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 327 
 
 elaborate methods. But the experiments already eon- 
 ducted have actually accomplished another thing. They 
 have demonstrated that when pupils once catch the spirit 
 of reading interesting situations into the number facts 
 of their arithmetic problems, they undertake their work 
 with more enthusiasm and with increased chances of 
 success. Pupils show great interest in ''making up 
 stories, ' ' in dealing with problems in this fashion. That 
 such is true need not appear unreasonable; it is very 
 likely that pupils have long been doing this very thing 
 although teachers were not aware of it. The really 
 surprising fact is that there are some children who 
 cannot do the work at all — pupils to whom figures are 
 something quite apart from any imagined situation. 
 
 Dramatizations and school pageants. Pageants, 
 projects, and dramatizations are now generally recog- 
 nized as effective pedagogic devices, and as a consequence 
 they are rapidly coming into favor as teaching agencies. 
 This is in keeping with the trend of modern pedagogy, 
 which insists that good citizenship and morality can 
 not be taught to the child; he must live them. Knowl- 
 edge is not virtue or power except to the degree that 
 it functions in life. Thus, the teacher's problem is that 
 of establishing wholesome reactions, habits, and atti- 
 tudes in the minds of her pupils. Many now believe 
 that this problem can best be solved by making the 
 activities of daily life the subject-matter of instruction, 
 and focusing the child's interest and efforts upon a 
 solution of the difficulties which daily life presents. 
 
328 SILENT READING 
 
 This method of instruction gives the child opportunity 
 to think and to act independently, thus establishing 
 habits and attitudes conducive to successful living. 
 
 The advantage of making daily activities the basis 
 of class projects may readily be determined by plan- 
 ning a series of lessons on health, food, sleep, home 
 making, city planning, fire prevention, or similar topics. 
 A typical project of this kind, based on fire prevention, 
 was worked out by an eighth-grade class as described 
 below. 
 
 A lesson on *'fire prevention." For three weeks 
 teacher and pupils spent the daily twenty-five minute 
 period discussing fire loss and fire prevention, gathering 
 data, and reaching conclusions. They finally embodied 
 the results of their work in concrete form, evidence 
 of their own grasp of the subject and instructive to 
 others who had had no share in the work. 
 
 The first day was spent discussing how best to attack 
 the .problem of fire prevention. The pupils agreed upon 
 three objectives which should guide them in their read- 
 ing and search for information : ( 1 ) How serious is 
 the problem of fire prevention in the state and nation, 
 as indicated by the destruction of life and property 
 during the past year? (2) What are the chief causes 
 of fires? (3) What can be done to prevent fires? 
 
 With those topics in mind, the pupils began reading 
 material gathered from newspapers, magazines, and 
 pamphlets furnished by the fire insurance companies. 
 State and federal publications were also used. At the 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 329 
 
 conclusion of three weeks of study the pupils agreed 
 that although destructive fires are in general due to 
 carelessness, which seems to be an American trait, the 
 specific causes of most of them are the following: The 
 careless handling of kerosene, gasoline, gas, and matches ; 
 lack of attention to bonfires and burning rubbish; care- 
 less disposition of lighted cigars and cigarettes; de- 
 fective chimneys and electrical wiring; spontaneous 
 combustion ; lightning. 
 
 Presenting" the pageant. Having gathered the ma- 
 terial, evaluated and organized it, and reached certain 
 conclusions, the pupils desired to present their findings 
 in some way which would effectively inform the other 
 pupils and the public about the danger of fires and 
 ways to prevent them. Accordingly, the class decided 
 to present a pageant which should make the audience 
 realize that carelessness is the principal cause of the 
 unnecessary destruction of life and property by fire. 
 The pageant was arranged to represent a mock trial 
 portrayed by pupils who played the parts of judge, 
 jury, lawyers, and eleven culprits, each of whom im- 
 personated one of the chief causes of fires. Each of 
 the culprits was appropriately dressed and placarded; 
 for instance, Mr. Kerosene was clad in a large kerosene 
 can made of cardboard and properly labeled. Each 
 culprit was called before judge and jury, there to be 
 charged with his alleged crimes ; each, in turn, defended 
 himself in a three-minute speech. When all the culprits 
 had been heard, the lawyers summed up their state- 
 
330 SILENT READING 
 
 ments and finally the judge acquitted them. The sheriff 
 then brought ''Carelessness" before the court, where 
 he was tried, found guilty, and sentenced. 
 
 The value of the pageant. The four hundred par- 
 ents and pupils who saw this pageant were benefited 
 by the forceful presentation of facts, as were also the 
 pupils who worked out the material. The latter, of 
 course, received the greatest benefit because they had 
 actually lived the work. They learned the value of 
 magazines and pamphlets as sources of material bearing 
 on their projects. They learned to _xead rapidly and 
 well, because they had to collect a large amount of data 
 in a comparatively short time. They learned to com - 
 prehend, because each pupil had to read with a purpose 
 in order to make his contribution to the class project. 
 
 The value of the entire exercise as a means of teach- 
 ing pnpils to organize was noteworthy. Each child 
 had to evaluate what he read in order to sift out of 
 his material some sound arguments with which to sup- 
 port his plea of ''not guilty." The teacher's demand 
 for daily two-minute reports throughout the discussion 
 of the project gave constant practice in organization. 
 
 Eetention was secured not only because pupils were 
 required to read purposefully and to organize what they 
 read, but also because they had to prepare what they 
 read for use in the future. 
 
 Speed and comprehension drills conducted under time 
 pressure added to the value of all this work. It was 
 a simple matter to make use of those because of the 
 
GRADES SEVEN AND EIGHT 331 
 
 many questions raised in class, the answers to whicli 
 might be fonnd in the material being used. 
 
 The chief value of the entire project was that it taught 
 pupils how to read rapidly and effectively with a mini- 
 mum expenditure of time and effort, and moreover it 
 kept the entire class highly interested because all were 
 working toward a definite objective. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. The importance of developing good stnd;^ habits should 
 be emphasized in all seventh and eighth-grade classes. 
 
 2. Not only should reading be taught as such, but every 
 lesson in every subject should be used to develop the 
 pupils ability to read rapidly and to comprehend, or- 
 ganize, and retain what he reads. 
 
 3. The teacher can arouse the pupils' interest in acquiring 
 economical methods of study by testing and charting 
 the results of pupils' achievements from time to time, 
 and by using the last ten or fifteen minutes of certain 
 recitation periods for training in effective reading 
 habits. 
 
 4. Effective methods of economical study have been worked 
 out in experiments. 
 
 5. Correct study habits may be developed by means of 
 the material usually studied in arithmetic, history, 
 geography, and English classes. 
 
 6. Pamphlets are good sources of supplementary reading 
 material. 
 
 7. Pageants are a valuable means of presenting the facts 
 of civics. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Gray. W. S. "The relation between study and reading." 
 Addresses and Proceedings of the National Education 
 Association, Vol. 57, 1919. 
 
332 " SILENT READING 
 
 Horn, Ernest. "A constructive program in silent reading." 
 
 Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 3, (May) 1921. 
 Sandwick, R. L. Hoiv to Study and What to Study. 
 
 Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston, 1915. 
 Smith, Bertha M. "Efficiency in assimilating reading." 
 
 School Review, Vol. 25, (November) 1917. 
 Theisen, W. W. "Provision for individual differences in the 
 
 teaching of reading." Journal of Educational Research, 
 
 Vol. 2, (September) 1920. 
 Whipple, G. M. Hoiv to Study Effectively. Public School 
 
 Publishing Company, Bloomington, Illinois, 1916. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 MOTIVATION OF DRILL WORK IN READING 
 
 Why drill work is necessary. If the child is to ac- 
 quire effective study habits from his various reading 
 experiences, it will be necessary to provide situations 
 that enable him definitely to focus his attention upon 
 that aim. In general, wholesome study habits result 
 from a rich course of study, an ample and well-selected 
 library, definite lesson assignments, broad reading, and 
 good methods applied to the recitation. However, there 
 is yet another factor: Interesting drill work is abso- 
 lutely necessary if effective study habits are to be ac- 
 quired economically. 
 
 Can interest in drill work be maintained? Children 
 may be forced through a series of physical gymnastics 
 with little skill as a result. Likewise, uninteresting 
 reading exercises are practically useless. A mass of 
 evidence accumulated by experiment proves that accur- 
 acy and speed in reading may often be greatly increased 
 by means of interesting drill exercises. An experiment- 
 cited in Chapter III showed how a few minutes of con- 
 centrated drill each day for one month appreciably af- 
 fected the reading rate and accuracy of the pupils. 
 
 333 
 
334 SILENT READING 
 
 Drill work is psychologically sound. Children in- 
 stinctively love rhythm. They enjoy doing certain men- 
 tal and physical exercises even for a considerable time 
 after perfection has been reached. This fact prevents 
 drill work from being a monotonous grind. Learning 
 is a process of neural connecting and permanence of 
 connections. Other things being equal, those nerve paths 
 which are most frequently exercised become stronger. 
 But if the exercise of neural paths is not accompanied 
 by a feeling of satisfaction, — a ''mental set" of ap- 
 proval, desire, and readiness to act, — little will be ac- 
 complished by the drill or exercise. It is evident, then, 
 that interest is absolutely necessary if achievement is 
 to be at all commensurate with the effort expended. 
 
 Regardless of the fact that there is an innate tend- 
 ency to enjoy drill because of the factors we have 
 mentioned, pupils tire of the intensive exercises sug- 
 gested in previous chapters, unless those are properly 
 administered. O'Brien^ found that the best results in 
 reading drills are secured when the reading stretch is 
 from two to four minutes in length. The length of 
 drill should, of course, vary in the different grades. 
 Since the element of fatigue quickly sets in when pupils 
 are forced to concentrate on reading done under time 
 pressure, it is well to allow a minute or two for rest 
 between the intensive reading stretches. This rest period 
 may be devoted entirely to relaxation. The time can 
 be more profitably used, however, by asking a ques- 
 
 ^O'Brien, J. A. Silent . Reading. The Macmillan Company, 
 New York City, 1921. 
 
MOTIVATING DRILL WORK 335 
 
 tion or two about the material just read. This exer- 
 cise can be varied by calling upon some of the pupils 
 for an oral reproduction. 
 
 Motivating drill work. In so far as possible, all 
 drill work should be pupil-motivated ; that is, the mo- 
 tive or desire to do the thing should come from the 
 pupil. The teacher should be careful to point out the 
 many advantages of rapid, purposeful, and thorough 
 reading habits. Their own records of slowness in rate 
 and inefficiency in thought-getting, as revealed by stand- 
 ard tests, may awaken pupils to a serious consideration 
 of their reading problems. The use of individual and 
 group charts as a stimulus to better reading often proves 
 an effective device. In brief, pupils should be made 
 to feel that they will reap results to the degree that 
 they earnestly and enthusiastically enter upon the un- 
 dertaking. 
 
 Often a child who tries to read a very interesting 
 story finds that his lack of familiarity with certain 
 important words and phrases handicaps him badly. 
 This may be made a motivation for word drill of some 
 sort. The child feels the necessity for such drill, and 
 consequently attacks the words with the proper mental 
 set because he, knows that a mastery of them assures 
 him greater enjoyment. Such evidence shows that word 
 drills should follow the reading study period. 
 
 Motivation by the teacher. Occasionally the teacher 
 will find it necessary to create a motive for study and 
 drill work by taking the initiative. This is called 
 
336 SILENT READING 
 
 teacher-motivation. Such is likely to be the case when 
 the course of study is limited in scope and in its appeal 
 to the experiences of the child. Not infrequently there 
 is a dearth of supplementary reading material in a 
 school. The scholastic ideals of the school and com- 
 munity may be below average. Under such circum- 
 stances, pupils may see little or no value in the drills 
 or subject-matter presented. However, the enthusiasm 
 of the teacher for the subject in hand, her knowledge 
 of its scope and application to life, together with her 
 ability to arouse an enthusiastic response in her pupils 
 often saves the situation until adjustments can be made 
 by obtaining more material which has an inherent ap- 
 peal to the life experiences of the child. Even under 
 the most adverse circumstances, however, pupil-moti- 
 vation should be emphasized, because, after all, it is 
 largely through self-expression that self-realization is 
 possible. 
 
 The value of instinctive tendencies. *'Our behavior 
 consists largely of intelligent actions which rest on an 
 instinctive basis. The instinctive tendencies persist and 
 develop along intelligent lines. "^ However, the child 
 does not learn the names and meanings of new words 
 and numbers by means of his instincts, which repre- 
 sent neural connections formed before birth. Learning 
 to read and cipher are acquired by forming new neural 
 connections, — connections which have no immediate 
 motor expression. 
 
 ^Warren, H. C. Elements of Human Psychology (p. 245). 
 Houghton Mifflin Company-, Boston, 1921. 
 
MOTIVATING DRILL WORK 337 
 
 "What, then, is tlie value of these instinctive traits 
 as a means of education, if the child does not acquire 
 knowledge by means of them? Possibly the greatest 
 value of instincts and instinctive tendencies in the learn- 
 ing process is that they exert a ^'motivating, energiz- 
 ing, and driving" influence upon the neural system. 
 Often a child might despair of learning a new word 
 list did he not have an inborn tendency to emulate, 
 to rival, and to win social approval. These tendencies 
 act as an impelling influence which keeps him at work 
 even when he sees little immediate value in a drill. 
 The teacher's failure to use these inborn tendencies is 
 a failure to aid the child in the realization of himself. 
 Some of the instinctive tendencies which the teacher 
 should utilize in reading work, especially in drill exer- 
 cises, are imitation, play, emulation, and rivalry. 
 
 The tendency to imitate. The imitative tendency 
 is much stronger and more extensive among human 
 beings than among the other species. The vast system 
 of connections between the various centers in the human 
 brain makes it possible for the child, when reading, to 
 imitate good vocal expression, good gestures, and good 
 acting in dramatization. The value of this imitative 
 tendency must not be overlooked. Poor oral readers are 
 often stimulated to better reading by hearing the good 
 readers give an excellent oral rendition of some lesson. 
 The teacher should never allow a literary masterpiece 
 to be read poorly. The standard should be excellence, 
 not only for the sake of doing justice to the master- 
 
338 SILENT READING 
 
 piece, but also that the poor readers may catch the 
 spirit of doing their work well and naturally. 
 
 The value of the imitative tendency in silent reading, 
 especially in drills, is evident. If it is possible to 
 create a "fashion of thoroughness and rapidity in read- 
 ing" among the majority of pupils, it affords a very 
 potent stimulus for raising the standards of all the 
 others. Children in the primary and intermediate 
 grades at least, are likely to enter very enthusiastically 
 into any "fashion" or "popular school activity." 
 
 The tendency to play. Play is an instinctive tend- 
 ency or impulse which is very strong in children. It 
 finds its greatest expression in organized games. It is 
 through play that the child learns social adaptation, 
 much of his language, and the meaning of many things. 
 Play in the form of games affords him a natural out- 
 let for his physical and mental energies. His native 
 impulses, freedom of action, and spontaneity of verbal 
 response are too often inhibited by the artificial environ- 
 ment of the schoolroom. Since the school should take 
 up the work of education where nature leaves off, it 
 is reasonable to infer that the work in the early grades 
 should be presented in such a way that this native 
 tendency to play may function most effectively. For 
 example, the "Animal Lesson" described below is 
 keenly enjoyed by children and habituates them to rapid, 
 concentrated, and purposeful reading. 
 
 The "Animal Lesson." After the children have 
 learned to recognize the pictures of several animals. 
 
MOTIVATING DRILL WORK 339 
 
 prepare flash cards bearing sentences that mention 
 characteristics of each animal. The following are typ- 
 ical: 
 
 Chases kitty up a tree. 
 Eats hickory nuts. 
 Makes sweet honey. 
 Has a long neck. 
 Has a long trunk. 
 Has pink eje&. 
 Gives sweet milk. 
 
 The necessary pictures of animals may be cut from 
 magazines, or the children may make silhouettes. Stand 
 the pictures on the blackboard ledge. Flash the cards 
 describing the animals in rapid succession. Let the 
 pupils reach quickly for the pictures as the phrase cards 
 are flashed. For example, when the teacher flashes the 
 card bearing the phrase, ' ' eats hickory nuts, ' ' the pupils 
 rush for the picture of a squirrel. When the pictures 
 are all taken, the pupil who has the greatest number 
 is declared the winner. 
 
 The tendency to emulate. The impulse of emula- 
 tion is exhibited by the child in his expressions, "Watch 
 me," "See me do it." He instinctively likes to show 
 his prowess, his mastery over things. Nor is this trait 
 confined to grade pupils only. High-school and col- 
 lege students are often not modest in announcing their 
 achievements. The cardinal virtue of emulation is that 
 the child strives to excel or to master a situation be- 
 cause of the satisfaction derived from the activity or 
 
340 SILENT READING 
 
 conquest itself. He strives to reach some goal, to sur- 
 pass his own record. Rivalry with one's own record 
 of growth is a commendable attitude. 
 
 The practical application of this instinctive tendency 
 to emulate is seen when the pupil tabulates and charts 
 his daily or weekly records made in the speed and 
 accuracy drills and tests in reading. Charting his daily 
 progress may be an artificial incentive. However, it 
 often stimulates the pupil to greater effort, as well as 
 to an inquiry as to why he suffered lapses in some 
 of the records. The impulse to excel the achievements 
 of others in one's own class or in other grades is known 
 as rivalry. Rivalry is social; it requires competitors. 
 
 Often the speed and accuracy in reading of pupils 
 in a certain grade is equal or superior to that of those 
 in the grade immediately above. The authors recall 
 having a sixth-grade class that often made a higher 
 class average in speed and comprehension than did the 
 seventh-grade rivals. Again, there is such great over- 
 lapping in the reading abilities of pupils in the grades 
 that it is not unusual for the brighter third of a fourth- 
 grade class to excel the lower third or average pupils 
 of the fifth grade. Comparing the scores made by 
 pupils within a grade, or comparing the scores of those 
 in consecutive grades, will often appreciably motivate 
 an interest in reading. Rivalry should always be kept 
 within reasonable limits. When ill-feeling or unfair 
 tactics develop among the pupils, the use of rivalry as 
 an incentive is to be condemned. 
 
MOTIVATING DRILL WORK 341 
 
 Devices based on inherent traits. Focusing the 
 pupil's attention upon reading, especially upon the drill 
 exercises, is absolutely imperative if economical results 
 are to be achieved. The supplementary reading exer- 
 cises suggested in Chapter XII will yield returns largely 
 to the degree that pupil focalization is secured. But 
 how can this group consciousness be assured 1 Possibly 
 one of the most effective devices is to arouse a spirit 
 of competition by dividing the class into two groups, 
 of as nearly equal reading ability as possible. A class 
 division in which the girls are pitted against the boys 
 usually stimulates every member to greater effort. In 
 all drills and tests, however, only one or two of the 
 better pupils on each side will have a chance to score, 
 unless some system of weighted points is used. If there 
 is a class of ten or more, the first four who get the 
 answer right should receive credit for their sides. For 
 example, the one who first holds up his hand scores 
 four points for his side (providing he is right) ; the 
 second, three points ; the third, two points ; the fourth, 
 one point. Such weighting of scores insures almost 
 undivided attention and 100 per cent participation. 
 
 Arousing" competition by using* tests. Keen compe- 
 tition in reading may be aroused by comparing aver- 
 age scores in rate and comprehension made by classes 
 of the same grade throughout the whole school system. 
 Many supervisors give reading tests at stated intervals, 
 then record and chart the results for each grade 
 throughout the system. Mimeographed reports show- 
 
342 SILENT READING 
 
 ing comparative rankings are then sent to all grades 
 concerned. Such, reports show the average class score 
 compared with the reading standard for the grade and 
 with the score of other classes. When the spirit of 
 fair play and sympathetic co-operation are present, such 
 scientific methods of supervision and standardization are 
 Yery valuable. 
 
 In one-room schools and small-town schools having 
 but one class in each grade, it usually produces an 
 exhilarating effect to compare not only the class aver- 
 ages of one grade with those of the grade immediately 
 above, but to compare the scores of pupils in one grade 
 with those of pupils in the next one or two grades 
 above. Often a few of the better pupils in the fourth 
 grade make a score in rate and comprehension higher 
 than that of some of the poorer pupils in the eighth 
 grade who are tested over the same reading material. 
 When such friendly comparisons are made, the question 
 often becomes that of determining how rapidly and well 
 the pupils of the respective grades really should read. 
 
 Standards of achievement. In this chapter we have 
 emphasized the necessity of having the child focus on 
 what he attempts to do. But upon what particular 
 thing shall he focus? Have we any accurate scientific 
 instrument which will demonstrate to the pupil in what 
 school achievements he is deficient? If such a measur- 
 ing rod could be devised, would it not be of intrinsic 
 value to pupil and teacher? They could then co-operate 
 in making a drive upon the objectives not yet realized. 
 
MOTIVATING DRILL WORK 343 
 
 The standardized test as a measure of achievement. 
 
 Standardized tests are based on the principle of defi- 
 niteness. They are instruments for definitely and re- 
 liably measuring certain skills and abilities that the 
 pupil has acquired. If a pupil wishes to know whether 
 his rate of reading and his ability to comprehend are 
 up to standard, he may determine this reasonably well 
 by taking the examinations provided by a few reading 
 tests and scales. He may thus discover for himself 
 what detrimental factors operate to lower his score. 
 By means of the standardized test he takes stock of 
 his assets and liabilities. Focalization upon specific 
 aims now becomes possible. The principle of maximum 
 reward for minimum effort is able to function. This 
 attitude of scientific approach to all problems and the 
 careful appraisal of them are of inestimable value to the 
 pupil during his school life and in later years. 
 
 "We may well ask what values accrue to the teacher 
 from a use of standardized tests. Not so long ago her 
 rating was largely determined by the whims or personal 
 opinions of her supervisors. If, when an official visit 
 was made to her room, the pupils seemed very much 
 interested in their work, the room cheerful, and the 
 teacher artfully gracious, she might reasonably expect 
 a mark of ''good" or *' superior" in the superintend- 
 ent's estimation. The fact that she was superior in 
 teaching skill, that she helped pupils discover their diffi- 
 culties, and then scientifically remedied their shortcom- 
 ings, was no factor in the appraisal of her ability. 
 
344 SILENT READING 
 
 The determination of gfoals. Research in the field 
 of education is making it possible to determine by means 
 of standardized tests of intelligence and achievement, 
 the probable goals or limits that each pupil should real- 
 ize in each subject for any particular year. When- 
 ever this theory comes to determine practice, then 
 teacher, parent, and pupil will definitely know at the 
 beginning of the year what achievements should be 
 forthcoming. The pupil's integrity of effort and the 
 teaching skill of the teacher will thus be measured in 
 terms of results produced, instead of in terms of opin- 
 ionated statements. 
 
 Monroe says :^ 
 
 The teacher is a manufacturer. The raw material 
 is the children. Textbooks, school buildings, equipment, 
 libraries, and methods and devices of teaching are the 
 "machines" or instruments which he uses to change 
 this raw material into the finished product or educated 
 boys and girls who are prepared to do their part in 
 the life of the community, state, and nation. With- 
 out definite aims the teacher cannot plan his work effec- 
 tively. He does not know, except in an indefinite or 
 general way, what he is to do. If he has definite aims, 
 but no instruments for measuring his results accurately, 
 he cannot learn when he has attained his aims. Thus 
 he is compelled to work in the dark. If he makes in- 
 accurate measurements, but considers them accurate, 
 he is in a still more serious situation. His efforts are 
 almost certain to be expended unwisely. 
 
 The teacher-made tests. There are not enough re- 
 liable standardized tests in any subject even to consider 
 
 iMonroe, W. S. Measurincf fhe Results of Teaching. Houghton 
 Mifflin Company, Boston', 1918. 
 
MOTIVATING DRILL WORK 345 
 
 their taking the place of the teacher's quizzes and tests. 
 Standardized tests should be used to supplement, but 
 never to supplant the teacher's examinations. 
 
 Good testing is good teaching. If a thing is worth 
 teaching it is worth testing. Children live in the pres- 
 ent. Often some of the essentials in a certain subject 
 become distasteful to the pupil. The business of the 
 school is to see that he becomes educated, even in spite 
 of himself. However, it is possible to create in most 
 pupils a desire to be tested. If the child sees that the 
 test is his means of determining accurately how much 
 he has achieved on his problem, and just what part 
 of the job is yet to be done, he will be convinced that 
 this frequent test or inventory is his ally instead of 
 his foe. He will often demand a test over an assign- 
 ment before he reads it, so as to know definitely where 
 to direct his attack. "Whether he plans to save time 
 and energy, or to acquire as much information as pos- 
 sible with minimum effort, the test is his most reliable 
 and scientific method of approach. He will learn to 
 regard it as a challenge to his preparation. It often 
 is the spirit in which the test is given, rather than 
 the test itself, that brings discord and makes some test- 
 ing of doubtful value. The value of both the stand- 
 ardized and teacher-made tests as sources of motivating 
 power is apparent. These tests show the pupils where 
 they are weak, and develop the mental set necessary 
 for intensive drill exercises. 
 
 In previous chapters we have said that interest must 
 
346 SILENT READING 
 
 be present in drill work if it is to be effective. "We 
 are now ready for the other half of the truth, namely, 
 that one must know definitely where the drill is needed 
 and how much of it is necessary. Too much energy 
 of both pupils and teachers has too long been dissi- 
 pated in drill work, not so much because interest was 
 wanting, but because there was no focus upon the spe- 
 cific needs of the individual child. Often children are 
 annoyed with reading, spelling, and arithmetic exercises 
 which they have known for days. It is through the 
 test that teacher and pupil get a correct estimate of 
 the values and aims not yet accomplished. 
 
 The value of charting results. Too often both stand- 
 ardized and teacher-made tests are given without mak- 
 ing results known to the pupils. The inspiration and 
 interest which these tests would naturally foster is lost. 
 *' After testing, what?'* is a very searching question 
 now being asked by school men, and especially by mem- 
 bers of finance boards that must arrange to pay the 
 bills. It is not within the province of this chapter 
 to attempt an answer to this question which has occa- 
 sioned the writing of some splendid books. Invariably, 
 a close analysis of the results of these tests suggests 
 a change or broadening of the course of study to meet 
 individual needs, as well as a revaluation of several 
 elements both spiritual and material within the school. 
 But there is yet another inherent virtue that may 
 evolve from the testing of pupils, namely, the awaken- 
 ing and sustaining of a genuine interest for greater 
 
MOTIVATING DRILL WORK 347 
 
 achievement. This may be realized in several ways, 
 but the one to be discussed here considers briefly the 
 efficiency of tabulating and charting the results of tests. 
 
 Most pupils are keenly interested in knowing just 
 where they stand with reference to some standardized 
 test for their grade, or how their standing compares 
 with that of other pupils in their class. Graphing the 
 scores or achievements of pupils as an incentive to ex- 
 cellence is psj^chologically sound practice. It appeals 
 to the impulses of rivalry, emulation, and social ap- 
 proval. Many of the large mercantile houses send 
 weekly reports to their salesmen in the form of graphs, 
 which are only comparative scores of sales made. 
 
 Now and then there may be a pupil who is not af- 
 fected by a daily comparison of his scores with those of 
 his classmates, but there is rarely one who is not more 
 or less interested in charting and studying his own 
 progress from day to day, once he makes the start and 
 becomes interested. Having the scores of the whole 
 class charted weekly and compared with the standard 
 for that grade enables the teacher to measure the suc- 
 cess of her own efforts. It is at least one scientific de- 
 vice which she can employ to measure the probable 
 effectiveness of her methods. The charts are silent re- 
 minders to pupils and teachers of standards yet to be 
 attained. Perhaps no better argument can be urged 
 for charting pupils' scores than that each child can 
 see his own daily progress, can watch himself grow. 
 It is good practice to have each student record and 
 
348 SILENT READING 
 
 chart his own achievement from time to time. His 
 impulse to excel then centers on surpassing his previous 
 daily or weekly record, rather than excelling that of 
 some classmate. 
 
 Methods of charting. Two methods of charting are 
 advised. (1) Making records and charts for the class 
 as a whole, (2) recording and charting each pupil's 
 scores. The latter work should be done by the pupil 
 himself so that he may study his own progress and 
 become interested in diagnosing his own difficulties. 
 
 Charting class progress. The group chart shows 
 the achievements or scores of the whole class in com- 
 parison with the universal standard for that particular 
 grade. Pupils can see at a glance what portion of 
 their class is up to average or above. This chart also 
 enables them to make comparisons of the work of indi- 
 viduals. Names of pupils should not appear on the 
 chart because those who have low scores may be need- 
 lessly humiliated by such publicity. Each child should 
 be designated by a number, known only to teacher 
 and pupil, as shown in Fig. 5, 
 
 The chart shown on the opposite page indicates the 
 comprehension scores made by a class of seventh-grade 
 pupils in a consolidated school who were measured by 
 the Thorndike-McCall Reading Scale: Form 6. As 
 shown by the vertical bars, three pupils are below the 
 standard for the fifth grade, eight below that for the 
 sixth grade, twelve below that for the seventh grade, 
 and one is above the seventh-grade standard. 
 
MOTIVATING DRILL WORK 
 
 349 
 
 58 
 
 SI 
 
 5b 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 50 
 
 49 
 
 48 
 
 47 
 
 llllllllll 
 
 37 
 Pupils Number -» I 2 3 4 S fe 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 
 
 Figure 5. (See the explanation on page 348.) 
 
350 SILENT READING 
 
 Making a group chart once a week is often enough 
 in most schools. Paper is not necessary. Often better 
 results are obtained if a conspicuous place on the black- 
 board is set aside for showing the weekly class stand- 
 ing. The use of colored crayons gives such a chart 
 or record a tone that is worth while. Pupils should 
 draw the scale and help construct the diagram. Such 
 work is a valuable experience for them and motivates 
 an interest in the test. 
 
 At least two charts should be made for every group. 
 One should show the rate of reading and the other 
 the comprehension scores. Standardized tests may be 
 used to determine progress, but if those are not avail- 
 able the teacher may select an appropriate lesson and 
 have the pupils read it through once, keeping check 
 on their time. The teacher should give a test on the 
 content and take the class average as a standard. 
 
 Individual progress during a given period may be 
 shown as the chart (Fig. 6) on the opposite page in- 
 dicates. This chart shows the comprehension scores 
 made by a class of seventh-grade pupils measured by 
 the Thorn dike-McCall Reading Scale: Form 7. The 
 vertical black bars are the same as those shown in Fig. 
 5. The open bars represent the increased reading 
 ability of the pupils. In addition to the regular as- 
 signments these pupils were given specific drill exer- 
 cises ten minutes daily for twenty days. Thought- 
 getting drills were also emphasized. 
 
 If paper is used for the chart it is best to rule it 
 
MOTIVATINa DRILL WORK 
 
 351 
 
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 o 
 
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 o 
 
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 o 
 
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 61 
 60 
 59 
 58 
 57 
 56 
 55 
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 52 
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 50 
 49 
 48 
 47 
 46 
 45 
 44 
 43 
 42 
 41 
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 fiifiU Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 15 
 
 Figure 6. (See the explanation on page 350.) 
 
352 SILENT READING 
 
 off into one-inch squares. Show the points, scores, or 
 per cent of achievement of the pupils on the vertical 
 axis; place the numbers representing the names on the 
 horizontal axis. The universal standard to which the 
 grade should attain should be indicated by a very heavy 
 horizontal line near the top of the chart. (See Figs. 
 5 and 6.) 
 
 Charting individual progress. The individual chart 
 should have as many squares on the horizontal axis 
 as there are school days in the month, if the pupil 
 is to plot his daily progress. The vertical length of 
 the chart will be determined by the number of points, 
 scores, or per cent allowed to each square. The chart 
 should usually be long enough to show the daily gains 
 or losses rather conspicuously. 
 
 As already noted, each pupil becomes more interested 
 in his OA^Ti progress than that of his classmates. This 
 gives its value to the individual chart. Often, in the 
 rural school, there is only one pupil in a grade. In 
 such cases, rivalry within the class is obviously im- 
 possible. However, if the pupil becomes interested in 
 tabulating and graphing his reading scores in speed, 
 and comprehension, he will be watching himself grow. 
 He will occasionally be annoyed that his records vary 
 from day to day, that he even fails to equal the achieve- 
 ments of the preceding week. Often a spirit of genuine 
 inquiry is stimulated by the pupil's attempt to account 
 for these plateaus, peaks, and valleys in his reading 
 curve. Although class rivalry may be lacking because 
 
MOTIVATING DRILL WORK 
 
 353 
 
 3 
 
 c 
 
 S 
 
 V 
 CL 
 
 5 
 
 
 380 
 
 370 
 3tO 
 350 
 340 
 330 
 310 
 310 
 300 
 190 
 280 
 L70 
 2.U} 
 iSD 
 ^W 
 230 
 220 
 210 
 ZOO 
 190 
 180 
 170 
 lUD 
 
 I5D 
 140 
 
 130 
 110 
 tlO 
 
 Pay5 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO II 11 13 14 IS" l(* H 18 19 20 
 
 Figure 7. An individual chart. Tlie scores indicated repre- 
 sent the progress made in reading- rate during a period of 
 twenty days in which speed drills were given for ten minutes 
 per day. 
 
354 SILENT READING 
 
 of lack of numbers, the most wholesome kind of rivalry, 
 — ' an attempt to beat one 's own record, — may never- 
 theless operate. Thus the results that obtain from using 
 standardized tests in rural schools are quite as valu- 
 able as those that accrue when those tests are used in 
 town and city schools. 
 
 SUMMARY 
 
 1. A rich course of study, a good library, definite assign- 
 ments, broad reading, scientific methods, and drill exer- 
 cises produce effective study habits. 
 
 2. Pupils must be genuinely interested and they must know 
 where their attention should be focused. 
 
 3. Psychological doctrine gives a basis for drill work. 
 
 4. Pupil-motivation should be emphasized in all drills. 
 
 5. The teacher must not overlook the value of instinctive 
 tendencies in drill work. 
 
 6. Teachers should use devices based on inherent traits. 
 
 7. Focalization upon specific needs arouses the child's in- 
 terest. 
 
 8. Teacher-made tests, which are valuable and necessary, 
 are not second in importance to standardized tests. 
 
 9. Charting results creates interest in reading and serves 
 as a diagnostic device for both teacher and pupils. 
 
 SUGGESTED READINGS 
 
 Alexander, Carter. School Statistics and Publicity. Silver, 
 Burdett and Company, Chicago, 1919. 
 
 Colvin, S; S. and Bagley, W. C. Human Behavior. (Chap- 
 ters 3 io 11.) The Macmillan Company, New York City, 
 1918. 
 
 Colvin, S. S. The Learning Process. (Chapters 3, 4, 17, 
 18, 19.) The Macmillan Company, New York City, 1920. 
 
 Dewey, John. Interest and Effort in Education. Houghton 
 Mifflin Company, Boston, 1913. 
 
 Dewey, John and Evelyn. Schools of Tomorroiv. E. P. Dut- 
 ton and Company, New York City. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
A. PAMPHLETS SUITABLE FOR USE AS READING MATERIAL 
 
 The following pamphlets are suitable for use as reading 
 material as outlined in the plans given on pages 246-249. 
 In asking for a supply of this material teachers should 
 write directly to the sources indicated. Publications of the 
 United States Government may be obtained by addressing 
 the Superintendent of Documents, United States Bureau of 
 Engraving and Printing, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Farm Bulletins (Issued by the United States Department 
 of Agriculture.) 
 No. 
 
 535 Sugar and Its Value as Food 
 
 565 Corn Meal as a Food: Ways of Using It 
 
 567 Sugar-beet Growing Under Irrigation 
 
 602 The Production of Clean Milk 
 
 606 The Collection and Preservation of Insects and 
 
 Other Material in the Study of Agriculture 
 
 607 The Farm Kitchen as a Workshop 
 609 Bird Houses and How to Build Them 
 630 Common Birds Useful to the Farmer 
 
 637 The Grasshopper Problem and Alfalfa Culture 
 
 653 Honey and Its Use in the Home 
 
 660 Weeds. How to Control Them 
 
 670 Field Mice as Farm and Orchard Pests 
 
 691 Grasshoppers — Sugar Beets and Truck Crops 
 
 697 Duck Raising 
 
 702 Rabbits in Relation to Trees and Crops 
 
 712 School Lunches 
 
 734 Fly Traps and Their Operation 
 
 744 The Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers 
 
 747 Grasshoppers and Their Control 
 
 808 How to Select Foods: I. What the Body Needs 
 
 357 
 
'358 SILENT READING 
 
 817 How to Select Foods: II. Cereal Foods 
 824 Foods Rich in Protein 
 
 Bulletins of the Children's Bureau of the United States 
 Department of Labor 
 No. 
 
 8 Infant Care (Care of Childre7i Series No. 2.) 
 
 Baby-saving Campaigns (Infant Mortality Series 
 No. 1.) 
 
 35 Milk: Indispensable for Children (Care of Children 
 
 Series No. 4-) 
 
 36 Save 100,000 Babies: Get a Square Deal for Children 
 47 The Public Health Nurse: How She Helps to Keep 
 
 Babies Well 
 
 Bulletins of the Connecticut State Department of Health 
 (Hartford, Connecticut) 
 How to Avoid Tuberculosis 
 Diphtheria 
 Scarlet Fever 
 
 Bulletins of the Virginia State Department of Health 
 (Richmond, Virginia) 
 No. 
 
 5 The Sanitary School 
 
 6 Bluebird Day 
 
 7 First Aid 
 19 Fresh Air 
 
 27 The Best Weapon Against Flies 
 36 The Drinking Cup 
 
 Bulletins of the International Harvester Company's 
 Agricultural Extension Department (Chicago) 
 Humus: The Life of the Soil 
 Helps for Wash Day 
 Cold-pack Canning 
 We Must Feed Ourselves 
 The Story of Bread 
 
 B. BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR USE IN GRADES I, II, AND HI 
 The following list of titles was made by members of a 
 
APPENDIX 359 
 
 class in the College of Education at Des Moines University, 
 who were working on the problem, "Appropriate Reading 
 Material for the Primary Grades." Although the list is not, 
 of course, exhaustive, it includes such titles as are recom- 
 mended for a place in the reading library of the first, 
 second, and third grades. Teachers will find that the books 
 mentioned contain interesting, wholesome, and practical ma- 
 terial suitable for the ordinary library. In several instances 
 a title appears in more than one list because the subject- 
 matter of the book is suitable for use in several grades. 
 The numbers in parentheses following the titles correspond 
 to those appearing on pages 376-378, and indicate the names 
 and addresses of the publishing firms from which the respec- 
 tive books may be obtained. 
 
 GRADE 1 
 
 Alexander, Georgia: Child Classics (9) 
 
 Baker and Thorndike: Every Day Classics (34) 
 
 Brooke, Leslie L. : Jolmny Croiv's Party (62) 
 
 Johnny Croiv's Garden (62) 
 Burchill, Georgine: Story Steps (51) 
 
 Progressive Road to Reading (51) 
 Caldecott, R. : Panjandrum Picture Book (62) 
 
 Hey Diddle Picture Book (62) 
 Coe and Christy: Story Hour Reader (2) 
 
 Story Hour Primer (2) 
 Craik, G. M.: Bow-Boio and Mew-Meic (35) 
 
 So-Fat and Mew-Mew (35) 
 Dressel, H. and others: The New Barnes Readers (6) 
 Dyer and Brady: The Merrill Primer (35) 
 
 Merrill First Reader (35) 
 Edson and Laing: Edson-Laing Primer (^7) 
 
 Edson-Laing First Reader (^7) 
 Elson and Runkel: The Elson Primer (48) 
 
 'The Elson First Reader (4S) 
 Field, W. T.: The Field Primer (21) 
 Firman and Maltby: The Winstoii Primer (59) 
 
 The Winston First Reader (59) 
 
360 SILENT READING 
 
 Fox, F. M.: Indian Primer (20) 
 
 Mother Goose Primer {1^2) 
 
 Adventures of Bonny Bear (43) 
 Free and Tread well: Reading-Literature Primer (46) 
 
 Reading-Literature First Reader (46) 
 Greenway, K.: Marigold Garden (62) 
 
 Under the Window (62) 
 Grover and Chutter: Art-Literature (4) 
 McManus and Haaren: Natural-Method Readers: Primer (49) 
 
 Natural-Method Readers: First Reader (49) 
 Potter, Beatrix: Tales of Peter Ra'bUt (57) 
 
 Little Black Samho (44) 
 Raymond, MacDonald, and Alden: Why the Chimes Rang (9) 
 Searson and Martin: Primer (55) 
 
 First Reader (55) 
 Serl and Evans: Work-a-day Doings (51) 
 
 Work-a-day Doings on the Farm (51) 
 Silvester and Peters: Happy Hour Stories (2) 
 Young and Field: Literary Readers (21) 
 
 GRADE II 
 
 Adelberg, Otilla: Clean Peter (29) 
 Bannermann, Helen: Little Black Samho (44) 
 Bayliss, Clara: Lolami, the Little Cliff Dweller (41) 
 Bigham, Madge A.: Mother Goose Tillage (43) 
 
 Merry Animal Tales (28) 
 Blaisdell, M. F.: Tommy Tinker's Book (28) 
 Brown, A. F.: The Lonesomest Doll (25) 
 Burchill, Georgine: Progressive Road to Reading: Book 
 
 II (51) 
 Burgess, Thornton: Old Mother West Wind (28) 
 
 Grandfather's Frog (28) 
 
 Johnny Chuck (28) 
 Coe and Christy: Story Hour Reader (2) 
 Deming, T. 0.: Little Indian Folk (53) 
 
 Little Red People (53) 
 Dopp, K: The Tree Dwellers (43) 
 
 Early Cave Men (43) 
 
APPENDIX 361 
 
 Dressel, H. and others: TJie Netv Barnes Readers (6) 
 Edson and Laing: Edson-Laing Second Reader (47). 
 Faulkner, Georgene: Italian Fairy Tales (13) 
 
 Old Russian Tales {13) 
 Firman and Maltby: The Winston Readers (59) 
 Free and Tread well: Reading-Literature Second Reader (46) 
 Greenway, Kate: Marigold Garden (62) 
 
 Pied Piper (62) 
 Grover, Eulalie: Kittens and Cats (25) 
 
 The Overall Boys in Switzerland (43) 
 
 The Sunhonnet BaMes in Holland (43) 
 Hall, Jennie: Weavers and other Workers (43) 
 Lang, A.: The Princess on the Glass Hill (29) 
 
 Jack the Giant Killer (29) 
 
 Jack and the Bean Stalk (29) 
 Lefevre, Felicite: The Cock, the Mouse, and the Hen (1) 
 Lucia, Rose: Peter and Polly in Summer (2) 
 McManus and Haaren: Natural-Method Readers: Book II (49) 
 Morcomb, Margaret: Red Feather Stories (31) 
 Perkins, Lucy F.: The Eskimo Tioins (25) 
 
 The Japanese Ticins (25) 
 Potter, Beatrix: Talcs of Peter RalMt (57) 
 Pyle, K: In the Green Forest (28) 
 
 Careless Jane (17) 
 Seachrest, E.: Greek Photo Plays (43) 
 Searson and Martin: Second Reader (55) 
 Serl, Emma: In Fal)leland (51) 
 Weimer, Teresa: Chats in the Zoo (43) 
 White, E. O.: Brothers in Fur (25) 
 Williston, T. P.: Japafiese Fairy Tales (43) 
 Young and Field: Literary Reader: Book II (21) 
 
 GRADE irc 
 
 Bailey, Carolyn S.: For the Children's Hour (15) 
 Baldwin, J.: Fifty Famous Stories Retold (2) 
 
 Hero Tales Told in School (49) 
 
 Fairy Stories and Fahles (2) 
 Baum, Frank: The Wizard of Oz (44) 
 
362 SILENT READING 
 
 Bigham, Madge A.: Merry Animal Tales (28) 
 Blaisdell, M. F.: Polly .and Dolly (28) 
 Brooks, D.: Stories of the Red Children (19) 
 Brown, A. F.: The Christmas Angel (25) 
 
 The Lonesomest Doll (25) 
 Bryce, Catherine: That's Why Stories (37) 
 Burgess, Thornton: Grandfather's Frog (28) 
 
 Adventures of Reddy Fox (28) 
 
 Adventures of Paddy the Beaver (28) 
 
 Adventures of Old Mr. Toad (28) 
 
 Bedtime Story-hook (28) 
 
 Mother West Wind's Why Stories (28) 
 
 Mrs. Peter RahUt (28) 
 
 Old Mother West Wind (28) 
 
 Old Mother West Wind's Animal Stories (28) 
 
 Old Mother West Wind's Neighbors (28) 
 Carpenter, F. G. : Around the World with the Children (2) 
 
 Stories Pictures Tell: Books II and III (43) 
 Carroll, Lewis: Through the Looking Glass (1) 
 Coe and Christy: Story Hour Reader (2) 
 Davidson and Anderson: Lincoln Third Reader (26) 
 Doheny, M. A.: A Dramatic Reader for the Third School 
 
 Year (28) 
 Dutton, M. B.: In Field and Pasture (2) 
 Eggleston, E.: Great Americans for Little Americans (2) 
 Faulkner, Georgene: Old English Nursery Tales Retold (13) 
 
 Christmas Stories (13) 
 Firman and Maltby: Winston Third Reader (59) 
 Free and Treadwell: Reading-Literature Series: Book III (46) 
 Grimm, J. K. and W. K.: Fairy Tales (1) 
 Hardy, M. E.: Nature's Wonder Lore (43) 
 Husted, Mary H.: Stories of Indian Children (41) 
 Ingelow, Jean: Mopsa the Fairy (17) 
 Kipling, Rudyard: Just-So Stories (16) 
 Lang, A.: Princess on the Glass Hill (29) 
 
 The Sleeping B canity (29) 
 
 Pretty Goldilocks (29) 
 
 The Snoio Man (29) 
 
APPENDIX 353 
 
 Lucia, Rose: Peter and Polly in Autumn {2) 
 
 Peter and Polly in Spring {2) 
 
 Peter and Polly in Summer {2) 
 
 Peter and Polly i7i Winter (2) 
 McManus and Haaren: Natural-Method Reader: Book III (49) 
 McMurry, L. B.: Classic Stories for Little Ones (41) 
 Malory, Sir Thomas: Story of King Arthur's Knights (34) 
 
 Morcomb, Margaret: Red Feather Stories (31) 
 Miiller, Mary: Little People of Japan (20) 
 Mullock, Maud: The Little Lame Prince (27) 
 
 The Adventures of a Broivnie (27) 
 Olmstead, E. G.i Ned and Nan in Holland (46) 
 Peary, J. B.: Children of the Arctic (53) 
 Perkins, Lucy F.: The Snow Bady (25) 
 
 The Japanese Ttuins (25) 
 
 The Eskimo Twins (25) ' 
 
 The Puritan Twins (25) 
 Pyle, K.: The Christmas Angel (28) 
 
 As the Goose Flies (28) 
 
 The Counterpane Fairy (17) 
 Ruskin, John: The King of the Golden River (21) 
 Scudder, H. E.: Fables a7id Folk Stories (25) 
 
 George Washington (25) 
 Seachrest, E.: Gi'eek Photo Plays (43) 
 
 Egyptian Photo Plays (43) 
 Searson and Martin: Third Reader (55) 
 Shillig, E. E.: The Four Wonders: Cotton, Wool, Linen, 
 
 Silk (43) 
 Smith, M. E.: Holland Stories (43) ' 
 Stevenson, R. L.: Child's Garden of Verses (49) 
 Terry, A. G.: Tales from Far and Near (46) 
 
 C. BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR USE IN GRADES IV AND V 
 
 The following list of titles, compiled by Mary L. Perham, 
 
 appeared in the December (1921) number of the Elementary 
 
 School Journal. Some titles which originally appeared in 
 
 this list have been included in other lists of this Appendix 
 
364 SILENT READING 
 
 and are consequently omitted here. Concerning this list the 
 compiler says: 
 
 The following lists of books are the result of an attempt 
 during the past two years to discover the worth-while books 
 that children of the fourth and fifth grades actually enjoy 
 reading. Each list provides for the difference in taste and 
 age found in the average group of forty or fifty children of 
 the grades for which they are indicated. Only those books 
 which the children themselves have expressed pleasure in 
 reading are included. 
 
 GEADE IV 
 
 Bailey, Margery: Seven Peas in tJie Pod {28) 
 
 Beson, Henry: Firelight Fairy Book (5) 
 
 Blaisdell, A. F. : American History for Little Folks (28) 
 
 Brown, A. F. : Star Jewels (25) 
 
 Brown and Bell: Tales of the Red Children (3) 
 
 Bryce, Catherine T.: Folklore from Foreign Lands (37) 
 
 FaUes from Afar (37) 
 Bryce, Marion: Nancy in the Woods (61) 
 Carpenter, F. G.: Around the World with the Children (2) 
 Carroll, Lewis: Alice's Adventures in Wonderland (34) 
 
 Through the Lookifig Glass (34) 
 Chambers, R. H.: Hide and Seek in Forest Land (3) 
 Colum, Padraic: Boy Who Kneiv What the Birds Said (34) 
 Craik, Mrs. D. M.: Little Lame Prince (24) 
 Curtin, Jeremiah: Fairy Tales of Eastern Europe (32) 
 Dickinson, A. D.: Children's Book of Thanksgiving Stories 
 
 (16) 
 Dunton, Larkin: Glimpses of the World (51) 
 Farmer, Florence V.: Boy and Girl Heroes (34) 
 Ghosh, Prince: Wonders of the Jungle (24) 
 Gibson, C. C. : In Eastern Wonderlands (28) 
 Hall, Jennie: Viking Tales (43) 
 Hallock, E. B.: In Those Days (34) 
 Hopkins, W. J.: Sand Man: His Farm Stories (39) 
 
 Sand Man: His Sea Stories (39) 
 Howells, W. D.: Christmas Every Day (23) 
 Jacobs, J. (Editor) : Celtic Fairy Tales (42) 
 
 English Fairy Tales (42) 
 
APPENDIX 365 
 
 Johnson, Clifton: Oak-tree Fairy Book (28) 
 
 Birch-tree Fairy Book (28) 
 
 Elm-tree Fairy Book (28) 
 Judd, Mary C: Classic Myths (43) 
 Jusdon, K. B.: Old Crow Stories (28) 
 Lagerlof, Selma: Wonderful Adventures of Nils (16) 
 Lucia, Rose: Stories of American Discoverers (2) 
 Mace, W. H.: Primary History (^3) 
 Martin and Davis: Firebrands (28) 
 McDonald and Dalrymple: IJne San in Japan (28) 
 
 Marta in Holland (28) 
 
 Joseph in Spain (28) 
 
 Hassan in Egypt (28) 
 
 Betty in Canada (28) 
 
 Donald in Scotland (28) 
 
 Gerda in Siveden (28) 
 McMurrj^ and Cook: Songs of Tree-top and Meadow (41) 
 Morley, M. W.: Little Mitchell (33) 
 Moseley, M. W.: Donkey John of the Toy Valley (33) 
 Mulets, Lenore: Sunshine Lands of Europe (60) 
 Nixon-Roulet, M. F. : Our Australian Cousin (39) 
 Otis, James: Mary of Plymouth (2) 
 Page, Thomas Nelson: Captured Santa Claus (49) 
 Perkins, F. O. (Editor) : Peter Pan (51) 
 Porter, B. C: Wonder Oak (18) 
 Pratt, M. L.: Legends of the Red Children (2) 
 Pyle, Howard: Ttuilight Land (23) 
 
 Garden Behind the Moon (49) 
 Pyle, Katherine: In the Green Forest (28) 
 
 Christmas Angel (28) 
 
 Counterpane Fairy (17) 
 Richards, L. E.: Pig Brother (28) 
 Scandlin, Christiana: Hans the Eskimo (51) 
 Schwartz, J. A.: Little Star Gazers (53) 
 Sherman, F. D. : Little Folk Jjyrics (25) 
 Shillig, Elnora E.: Four Wonders (43) 
 Shute and Dunton: Land of Song: Book I (51) 
 Smith, E. Boyd: Farm Book (25) 
 
366 SILENT READING 
 
 Smith and Hazeltine: Christmas in Legend and Story (30) 
 
 Snell, Roy J.: Little White Fox (28) 
 
 Stone and Fickett: Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago 
 
 (24) 
 
 Everyday Life in the Colonies (24) 
 Usher, R. G.: Stories of the Pilgrims for Children (34) 
 Wade, Mary H.: Our Nortvegian Cousin (39) 
 
 Coming of the White Men (58) 
 White, E. O.: Little Girl of Long Ago (25) 
 Wiggins and Smith: Posy Ring (16) 
 
 Magic Casements (16) 
 Wilmot-Buxton, E. M.: Stories of Norse Heroes (12) 
 
 GRADE V 
 
 Aanrud, Hans: Lisheth Long frock (21) 
 Alden, R. M.: Why the Chimes Bang (9) 
 Asbjornsen, P. C: Fairy Tales of the Far North (67) 
 Baldwin, James: The Old Northwest (2) 
 Blaisdell and Ball: Story of American History (21) 
 
 Pioneers of America (28) 
 
 Heroic Deeds of American Sailors (28) 
 Branch, M. L. B.: Guld, the Cavern King (50) 
 Brooks, E. S.: True Story of Benjamin Franklin (30) 
 
 True Story of Lincoln (30) 
 Brown, Frances: The Wonderful Chair (24) 
 Browne, G. W.: Two American Boys in Hatvaii (71) 
 Bryant, S. C: I am an American (25) 
 Bullen, F. T.: Cruise of the Cachalot (66) 
 Burgess, Thornton: Burgess Animal Book (28) 
 
 Bird Book for Children (28) 
 Burnett, F. H.: Little Lord Fauntleroy (49) 
 
 Little Princess (49) 
 Burt, M. E.: Poems Every Child Should Knoiv (16) 
 Chamberlain, J. F. and A. H.: Africa (34) 
 
 Europe (34) 
 
 North America (34) 
 
 South America (34) 
 Coe, F. E.: Makers of the Nation (2) 
 
 Founders of Our Country (2) 
 
APPENDIX 3g7 
 
 Colum, Padraic: Adventures of Odysseus and the Fall of 
 
 Troy {3Ji.) 
 Curtis, Alice T.: Little Maid of Bunker Hill {40) 
 
 Little Maid of Massachusetts Colony (40) 
 
 Little Maid of Narragansett Bay (40) 
 
 Little Maid of Old Philadelphia (40) 
 
 Little Maid of Provincetown (40) 
 Davis, J. W. (Editor) : Pinocchio Under the Sea (34) 
 Deming and Bemis: Stories of Patriotism (25) 
 Dickinson, H. W. and A. D.: Children's Book of Patriotic 
 
 Stories (16) 
 Eastman, C. A. and E. G. : Smoky Day's Wigwam Evenings 
 
 (28) 
 Eastman, E. G.: Indian Legends Retold (28) 
 French, Allen: Heroes of Iceland (28) 
 
 Story of Rolf (28) 
 Ghosh, Prince: Wonders of the Jungle: Books I and II (24) 
 Gordy, W. F.: American Leaders and Heroes (49) 
 Grenfell, W. T.: Adrift on the Ice (25) 
 Griffith, A. M.: Stars and Their Stories (63) 
 Haaren and Poland: Famous Men of Modern Times (2) 
 Hallock, E. B.: In Those Days (34) 
 
 Hancock, M. S.: Children in History (Early Times) (28) 
 Hawkins, C. J.: Little Red Doe (28) 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel: Wonder Book (25) 
 Hudson, W. H.: Little Boy Lost (70) 
 Hyde, L. S.: Favorite Greek Myths (24) 
 Johnson, Clifton: Fir-tree Fairy Book (28) 
 Kaler, J. O.: The Life Savers (17) 
 Lang, A.: Green Fairy Book (29) 
 
 Blue Fairy Book (29) 
 Larkin, Shute, and Duncan: Land of Song: Book II (51) 
 Lefferts, Walter: American Leaders: Books I and II (27) 
 Lofting, Hugh: Story of Dr. Doolittle (53) 
 Martin and Davis: Firebrands (28) 
 McFee, Inez: Boys and Girls of Many Lands (12) 
 McMurry, C. A.: Pioneers of the Mississippi Valley (34) 
 Mills, E. A.: Story of a Thousand Year Pine (25) 
 
368 SILENT READING 
 
 Molesworth, M. L. S.: Cuckoo Clock (27) 
 
 Christmas Tree Land (5^) 
 
 Carrots (34) 
 Nixon-Roulet, M. F.: Our Brazilian Cousin (39) 
 Olcott, F. J.: Arabian Nights (63) 
 
 Story-telling Poems (25) 
 Ouida: Moufflon (21) 
 
 A Dog of Flanders (21) 
 Page, T. N.: Two Little Confederates^ (49) 
 Paine, Albert B.: Arkansaw Bear (1) 
 Parkman, M. R.: Heroes of Today (11) 
 Perkins, L. F.: Mexican Twins (25) 
 
 French Twins (25) 
 Perkins, F. O. (Editor) : Children's Bluebird (51) 
 Pyle, Howard: The Wonderful Clock (23) 
 Riis, Jacob: Hero Tales of the Far North (34) 
 Schultz, J. W.: Sinopah, the Indian Boy (25) 
 
 Quest of the Fish-dog Skin (25) 
 Schwartz, Julia: Wilderness Babies (28) 
 Seton-Thompson, E. : Wild Animals I Have Known (49) 
 Sewell, Anna: Black Beauty (64) 
 Sherman, F. D.: Little Folk Lyrics (25) 
 Sidney, Margaret: Five Little Peppers (30) 
 ■Smith, M. P. W.: Stories of Old Deerfield (28) 
 
 Jolly Good Times on a Farm (28) 
 
 Jolly Good Times at Hackmatack (28) 
 
 Boy Captive in Canada (28) 
 Spyri, Johanna: Moni, the Goat Boy (21) 
 
 Heimatlos (21) 
 Stein, Evaleen: Gabriel and the Hour Book (39) 
 Stimpson, M. S.: Child's Book of American Biography (28) 
 Stocking, J. T.: The City That Never Was Reached (65) 
 Stone and Fickett: Everyday Life in the Colonies (24) 
 
 Days and Deeds a Hundred Years Ago (24) 
 Tappan, E. M.: Robin Hood: His Book (28) 
 
 Little Book of the Flag (25) 
 
 American Hero Stories (25) 
 Tileston, Mary W.: Child's Harvest of Verse (28) 
 
APPENDIX 369 
 
 Wade, Mary: Twin Travelers in South America (53) 
 
 Leaders to Liberty (28) 
 Wesselhoeft, L. F.: Jack, the Fire Dog (28) 
 
 Laddie, the House Dog (28) 
 White, S. E.: Magic Forest (34) 
 Whittier, J. G.: Child Life (25) 
 Yard, T. S.: Top of the Continent (49) 
 
 D. SUPPLEMENTARY READING MATERIAL FOR GRADES IV 
 
 TO VIII 
 The following titles are suggestive of a type of reading 
 material which gives much information on several of the 
 content subjects usually studied in grades four to eight, 
 inclusive. This list is part of a bibliography prepared by 
 a group of superintendents and grade principals who were 
 working with the authors on the problem, "Supplementary 
 Reading Materials for the Intermediate and Upper Grades." 
 Many valuable suggestions were derived from Bobbitt's 
 article, "Reading in the Elementary Schools of Indianapolis: 
 Part V. — The Reading Materials"^ and from Hartman's 
 book. The Child and His School? 
 
 HISTORY AND CIVICS 
 
 Austin, 0. P.: Vncle Sam's Secrets (3) 
 Baldwin, James: Old Stories of the East (2) 
 
 Fifty Famous Stories Retold (2) 
 
 Old Greek Stories Retold (2) 
 Bayliss, C. H.: Lolami, the Little Cliff Dweller (41) 
 Beard and Bagley: History of American People (34) 
 Chase, A.: Children of the Wigiuam (19) 
 Church, A. J.: Stories of the Old World (21) ' 
 Coffin, C. C: Old Times in the Colonies (23) 
 Button, M. B.: Little Stories of Germany (2) 
 Eastman, C. A.: Indian Boyhood (16) 
 
 Indian Child Life (28) 
 
 Wigioam Evenings (28) 
 
 ^Bobbitt, Franklin. "Reading- in the elementary schools of In- 
 dianapolis : Part V. — The reading- materials." Elementary School 
 Journal, Vol. 19, (May) 1919. 
 
 2Hartman, Gertrude. The Child and His School. E. P. Dutton 
 and Company, New York City, 1922. 
 
370 SILENT READING 
 
 Eggleston, E.: Stories of American Life and Adventure (2) 
 Finnemore, A. J.: Story of RoMn Hood and His Merry 
 
 Men (34) 
 Frye, Jane: Tfie Young American Readers (59) 
 Gordy, W. F.: Stories of American Explorers (49) 
 
 American Beginnings in Europe (49) 
 GrifHs, W, E.: Young People's History of Holland (25) 
 Guerber, H. A.: Story of the Chosen People (2) 
 
 Story of the Thirteen Colonies (2) 
 
 Story of the English (2) 
 
 Story of France (2) 
 Hall, J.: Men of Old Greece (28) 
 Hart, A. B. : Colonial Children (34) 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel: Grandfather's Chair (25^ 
 Johnson and Spencer: Ireland's Story (25) 
 Kingsley, Charles: The Heroes (17) 
 Lang, Andrew: True Story-hook (29) 
 
 Red True Story-hook (29) 
 Longfellow, H. W.: Miles Standish (12) 
 
 Evangeline (9) 
 Mclntyre, M. A.: The Cave Boy of the Age of Stone (3) 
 McMurry, C. A.: Pioneer History Series (34) 
 Moore, C. W. : Life of Ahraham Lincoln for Boys and Girls 
 
 (25) 
 Morris, Charles: Historical Tales: Greek (27) 
 
 Historical Tales: Roman (27) 
 
 Historical Tales: Russian (27) 
 
 Heroes of Progress in America (27) 
 
 Home Life in All Lands: Vol. II (27) 
 Parkman, Francis: Montcalm and Wolfe (28) 
 
 Oregon Trail (34) 
 
 Rivals for America (28) 
 Reynolds, M. J.: How Man Conquered Nature (34) 
 Roosevelt, Theodore: Winning of the West (42) 
 Tappan, Eva M.: Story of the Roman People (25) 
 
 American Hero Stories (25) 
 Terry, A. G. (Editor) : History Stories of Other Lands, 6 
 Vols. (46) 
 
APPENDIX 371 
 
 Waterloo, S.: The Story of Ah (16) 
 
 Wilson and Driggs: T7ie White Indian Bop (,60) 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 Allen, N. B.: Geographical and Industrial Studies: South 
 
 America {21) 
 Bishop and Keller; Commercial and Industrial Geography 
 
 (21) 
 Blaich, Lydia R. : Three Industrial Nations (2) 
 Brigham, A. P.: From Trail to Raihcay (21) 
 Bullen, F.: Cruise of the Cachalot (3) 
 Butler, E. C: Our Little Mexican Cousin (2) 
 Carpenter, F. G.: Hoiv the World Is Clothed (2) 
 
 Hotc the World Is Housed (2) 
 
 Hoiu the World Is Fed (2) 
 Chamberlain, J. F.: How We Are Clothed (Sit) 
 
 Ho 10 We Are Fed (34) 
 
 HoiD We Are Sheltered (34) 
 
 Hoiv We Trade (34) 
 Darwin, C. R. : Voyage of the Beagle (3) 
 Dasent, G-. W.: East o' the Sun and West o' the Moon (42) 
 Dodge, M. M.: The Land of Pluck (11) 
 Doubleday, R.: Year in a Yawl (16) 
 Finnemore, John: Peeps at Many Lands: England (34) 
 
 Peeps at Many Lands: Switzerland (34) 
 
 Peeps at Many Lands: Japan (34) 
 Jonckheere, R.: When I teas a Boy in Belgium (30) 
 Jungman, B.: Peeps at Many Lands: Holland (34) 
 Krout, M. H.: Alice's Visit to the Hawaiian Islands (2) 
 McDonald and Dalrymple: Little People Everyichere Series 
 
 (28) 
 Mitchell, A. F.: Pas and Patio (6d)- 
 Muller, M.: Elsdeth: A Story of German Home Life (17) 
 Peary, J.: Children of the Arctic (53) 
 Price, O. W.: The Land We Live In (52) 
 Rocheleau, W. F.: Geography of Commerce and Industry (19) 
 Schwatka, F.: Children of the Cold (19) 
 Shaw, R. E.: Big and Little People of Other Lands (2) 
 
372 SILENT READING 
 
 Spyri, Johanna: Heidi (2) 
 
 Stockton, F. R.: Personally Conducted (49) 
 
 Thomson, M. P.: Peeps at Many Lands: Denmark (34) 
 
 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY 
 
 Allen, N. B.: Industrial Studies: Europe (21) 
 Bassett, S. W.: The Story of Sugar (40) 
 
 The Story of Wool (40) 
 
 The Story of Porcelain (40) 
 
 The Story of Glass (40) 
 Bogart, Ernest: Economic History of the United States (29) 
 Bolton, Sarah K.: Lives of Oirls Who Became Famous (12) 
 
 Lives of Poor Boys Who Beca^ne Famous (12) 
 
 Famous Men of Science (12) 
 Burns, E. E.: Story of Great Inventions (23) 
 Butler, F. 0.: The Story of Paper Making (10) 
 Bond, Alexander R.: With Men Who Do Things (36) 
 Brooks, E. C: The Story of Cotton (43) 
 Carpenter, F. 0.: Foods and Their Uses (49) 
 Casson, H, N.: History of the Telephone (33) 
 Chase and Clow: Stories of Industry: Vol. II (19) 
 Cooke, A. 0.: A Day with Leather Workers (38) 
 
 A Visit to a Cotton Mill (38) 
 
 A Visit to a Coal Mine (38) 
 
 A Day in a Shipyard (38) 
 Doubleday, Russel: Stories of Inventors (16) 
 Dunham, E.: Jogging Around the World (53) 
 DuPuy, W. A.: Uncle /Sam's Modern Miracles (53) 
 Forman, S. E.: Stories of Useful Inventions (11) 
 Grey, Z.: The Young Forester (23) 
 Hall, G. S.: The Story of a Sand Pile (6) 
 Howe, W. D.: Making a Capital in the Wilderness (9) 
 Keller and Bishop: Commercial and Industrial Geography 
 
 (21) 
 Kinne and Cooley: Shelter and Clothing (34) 
 Kipling, Rudyard: Captains Courageous (16) 
 Kirby, M. and E.: Aunt Martha's Corner Cupboard (19) 
 Lane, M. A.: Industries of Today (21) 
 Laut, A. C: The Story of the Trapper (3) 
 
APPENDIX 373 
 
 Martin, E. A.: The Story of a Piece of Coal (3) 
 
 Morgan, J. H.: Boy Electrician (27) 
 
 Mowry, A. M.: Captains of Industry (51) 
 
 Parker, E. P.: Petroleum and Its Uses (Series G 1918) (68) 
 
 Rocheleau, W. F.: Great American Industries: Vol. II (20) 
 
 Geography of Commerce and Industry (19) 
 Samuel, I.: The Story of Iron (40) 
 
 The Story of Gold and Silver (40) 
 Smith, J. R.: Iron and Steel (Series C) (68) 
 Tappan, E. M.: Makers of Many Things (25) 
 
 Travellers and Travelings (25) 
 
 Diggers in the Earth (25) 
 
 The Farmer and His Friends (25) 
 Towne, E. C: The Story of Money (14) 
 Tower, W. S.: The Story of Oil (3) 
 Warman, C. Y.: The Story of the Railroad (3) 
 
 E. LITERARY SELECTIONS: FOR BOYS AND GIRLS FROM 
 10 TO 15 YEARS OF AGE 
 
 It is believed that the books listed on this and the fol- 
 lowing pages will be found as interesting to boys and girls 
 as the vicious dime novel and at the same time afford 
 them clean, inspiring, and wholesome reading material. 
 The list was selected from Books for Older Boys and Girls 
 edited by Ruth G. Hopkins, Head of Children's Department, 
 Bridgeport (Connecticut) Public Library. The authors are 
 deeply indebted to Miss Linn Jones, Head of the Childrens' 
 Library of the city of Des Moines, for her co-operation in 
 selecting those books which are most in demand by the 
 boys and girls of that city. 
 
 This list is suggestive of the type of reading material 
 that is safe and wholesome for older children to read. 
 Teachers and parents who wish to add interesting selections 
 to the children's library can obtain wholesome information 
 by consulting The Bookshelf for Boys and Girls, published 
 by R. R. Bowker, New York City, and by reading Clara 
 Whitehill Hunt's book, What Shall We Read to the Children, 
 published by Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. 
 
374 SILENT READING 
 
 Alcott, Louisa May: Jach and Jill (28) 
 
 Little Women (28) 
 Aldrich, T. B.: Story of a Bad Boy (25) 
 Altsheler, J. A.: The Horsemen of the Plains (66) 
 
 The Last of the Chiefs (66) 
 Ames, J. B.: Torrance from Texas (11) 
 Amers, J. B.: The Mystery of Bam Island (11) 
 
 Under Boy Scout Colors (66) 
 Ashmun, M. E.: Heart of Isabel Carleton (SJt) 
 
 Isabel Carleton at Home (5^) 
 Baker, Olaf: Shasta of the Wolves (69) 
 Barbour, R. H.: For the Honor of the School (66) 
 Bates, K. L.: In Sunny Spain (17) 
 Bond, A. R.: Pick, Shovel, and Pluck (36) 
 Brooks, E. S.: Master of the Strong Hearts (17) 
 Brooks, Noah: The Boy Emigrants (49) 
 Brown, A. F.: In the Days of Giants (25) 
 Brown, Helen D.: Two College Girls (25) 
 Brown, Edna A.: When Maw Cam^e (30) 
 Brownell, Agnes: Thankful Spicers (49) 
 Clemens, S. L. (Mark Twain) : Prince and the Pauper (23) 
 
 Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (23) 
 Collins, A. P.: The Book of Stars (3) 
 Colum, Padraic: Children of Odin (34) 
 
 Adventures of Odysseus and Tales of Troy (34) 
 Coolidge, Susan: What Katy Did at School (28) 
 Cooper, J. F.: The Spy (42) 
 Daulton, Agnes: From Sioux to Susan (11) 
 Deland, E. D.: Oakleigh (23) 
 Dix, Beulah M.: Betty-Bide-At-Home (63) 
 Doubleday, R.: Cattle Ranch to College (66) 
 Drysdale, William: The Fast Mail (58) 
 DuChaillu, Paul: Wild Life under the Equator (23) 
 Eggleston, G. C: Long Knives (30) 
 
 Bale Marked Circle X (30) 
 French, H. W.: Lance of Kanana (30) 
 French, Allen: Story of Rolf and the Viking's Boiv (28) 
 Gaines, Ruth: Treasure Floioer (17) 
 
APPENDIX 375 
 
 Gregor, Elmer R.: Red Arrow {23) 
 
 Running Fox (3) 
 Hagedorn, H.: Boys' Lije of Roosevelt (23) 
 Hale, Lucretia: Peterkin Papers {25) 
 Hale, Edward E.: Man Witliout a Country (28) 
 Hall, A.: Carpentry and MecTianics for Boys (30) 
 Hawes, C. B.: The Mutineers (5) 
 Heyliger, Wm.: Don Strong of the Wolf Patrol (66) 
 
 Off Side (3) 
 
 High Benton (3) 
 Hill, F. T.: On the Trail of Washington (3) 
 
 On the Trail of Grant and Lee (3) 
 Hurd, Marian K., and Jean B. Wilson: When She Came 
 
 Home from- College (25) 
 Inman, Col. H.: The Ranch on the Oxhide (66) 
 Jackson, Helen H.: Nelh/'s Silver Mine (28) 
 Jacobs, C. D.: Texas Blue Bonnet (39) 
 Keeler, Harriet: Our Native Trees and Hoiv to Identify 
 
 Them (49) 
 Macdonald, G.: At the Back of the North Wind (27) 
 Macdonald, G. : Princess and the Goblin (27) 
 
 Princess and Cur die (27) 
 Masefield, J.: Martin Hyde (28) 
 Meadowcroft, Wm.: Boys' Life of Edison (23) 
 Meigs, Cornelia: Fool of Stars (34) 
 Miller, O. T.: The First Book of Birds (25) 
 
 The Second Book of Birds (25) 
 Moffett, C: Careers of Danger and Daring (11) 
 Montgomery, L. M. : Anne of Green GaMes (39) 
 Morgan, A. P.: Boys' Book of Science and Construction (30) 
 Page, T. N.: Two Little Confederates (49) 
 Paine, A. B.: Boys' Life of Mark Tivain (23) 
 Perkins, L. F.: Cornelia (25) 
 Pyle, Howard: Garden Behind the Moon (49) 
 
 Jack Ballister's Fortunes (11) 
 
 Men of Iron (23) 
 
 Otto of the Silver Hand (49) 
 
 Merry Adventures of RoMn Hood (49) 
 
376 SILENT READING 
 
 Rankin, C. W.: Dandelion Cottage (63) 
 
 Rogers, J. E.: The Tree Guide (16) 
 
 Rold-Smith, N. G.: Faerie Queen (17) 
 
 Rolt-Wheeter, F.: The Boy icith the V. S. Foresters (30) 
 
 Roosevelt, Theodore: Stories of the Great West (11) 
 
 Sabin, E. L.: Buffalo Bill and the Overland Trail (21) 
 
 Schiiltz, J. W.: The War Trail Fort (25) 
 
 Schultz, J. W.: Running Eagle, the Warrior Girl (25) 
 
 Lone Bull's Mistake (66) 
 ■ Rising Wolf, the White Blackfoot (25) 
 
 With the Indians i7i the Rockies (25) 
 Shafer, D. C. : Harper's Beginning Electricity (23) 
 Stevenson, B. E.: Tommy Remington's Battle (66) 
 Stevenson, R. L.: Treasure Island (3) 
 Tolman, A. W.: Jim Sjmrling, Fisherman (23) 
 Tomlison, E. T.: Scouting ivith Daniel Boone (66) 
 
 Scouting with Kit Carson (66) 
 Vaile, Charlotte: Orciitt Girls (58) 
 Wallace, Dillon: Ungava Bod (66) 
 
 Troop One of the Labrador (45) 
 Washington, B. T.: Up from Slavery (67) 
 Zwilgmeyer, Dikken: What Happened to Inger Johanne (30) 
 
 F. LIST OF PUBLISHERS 
 Books mentioned in the bibliographies on the preceding 
 pages may be obtained from the publishers listed below. 
 Teachers can obtain full information regarding any title 
 by asking for a catalogue and descriptive literature which 
 publishers are always glad to supply. A perusal of pub- 
 lishers' catalogues is a good means of acquainting oneself 
 with the annual production of books for children. 
 
 1. Henry Altemus and Company Philadelphia 
 
 2. American Book Company New York City 
 
 3. D. Appleton and Company New York City 
 
 4. Atkinson, Mentzer and Company Chicago 
 
 5. Atlantic Monthly Press Boston 
 
 6. A. S. Barnes and Company New York City 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 377 
 
 7. The Beckley-Cardy Company 
 
 8. Bloch Publishing Company 
 
 9. The Bobbs-Merrill Company 
 
 10. Butler Paper Company 
 
 11. The Century Company 
 
 12. T. Y. Crowell and Company 
 
 13. Daughaday and Company 
 
 14. Dillingham and Company 
 
 15. M. A. Donohue and Company 
 
 16. Doubleday, Page and Company 
 
 17. E. P. Dutton and Company 
 
 18. Eaton and Mains (Abingdon Press) 
 
 19. Educational Publishing Company 
 
 20. A. Flanagan and Company 
 
 21. Ginn and Company 
 
 22. Griffith and Rowland Press (Ameri- 
 
 can Baptist Publication Society) 
 
 23. Harper and Brothers 
 
 24. D. C. Heath and Company 
 
 25. Houghton Mifflin Company 
 
 26. Laurel Book Company 
 
 27. J. B. Lippincott and Company 
 
 28. Little, Brown and Company 
 
 29. Longmans, Green and Company 
 
 30. Lothrop, Lee and Shepard Company 
 
 31. Lyons and Carnahan 
 
 32. Robt. M. McBride and Company 
 
 33. A. C. McClurg and Company 
 
 34. The Macmillan Company 
 
 35. Chas. E. Merrill and Company 
 
 36. Munn and Company 
 
 37. Newson and Company 
 
 38. Oxford University Press (American 
 
 Branch) 
 
 39. The Page Company 
 
 40. Penn Publishing Company 
 
 41. Public School Publishing Company 
 
 42. G. P. Putnam's Sons 
 
 Chicago 
 
 New York City 
 
 Indianapolis 
 
 Chicago 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 Chicago 
 
 New York City 
 
 Chicago 
 
 harden City, N. Y 
 
 New York City 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Boston 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Boston 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 New York City 
 
 Boston 
 
 Boston 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Boston 
 
 New York City 
 
 Boston 
 
 Chicago 
 
 New York City 
 
 Chicago 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 Boston 
 Philadelphia 
 Bloomington, 111. 
 New York City 
 
378 
 
 SILENT READING 
 
 43. Rand, McNally and Company 
 
 44. The Reilly and Lee Company 
 
 45. F. H. Revell and Company 
 
 46. Row, Peterson and Company 
 
 47. Benj. H. Sanborn and Company 
 
 48. Scott, Foresman and Company 
 
 49. Chas. Scribner's Sons 
 
 50. Sherman, French and Company 
 
 51. Silver, Burdett and Company 
 
 52. Small, Maynard and Company 
 
 53. Frederick A. Stokes and Company 
 
 54. E. Thompson and Company 
 
 55. University Publishing Company 
 
 56. Frederick Warne and C mpany 
 
 57. Albert Whitman and Company 
 
 58. W. A. Wilde and Company 
 
 59. J. C. Winston and Company 
 
 60. World Book Company 
 
 61. John Lane Company 
 
 62. Frederick K. Warne and Company 
 
 63. Henry Holt and Company 
 
 64. George W. Jacobs and Company 
 
 65. Pilgrim Press 
 
 66. Grosset and Diinlap 
 
 67. A. L. Bnrt and Company 
 
 68. United States Bureau of Education 
 
 69. Dodd, Mead, and Company 
 
 70. Alfred A. Knopf 
 
 71. Dana Estes Company 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Chicago 
 
 New York City 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Chicago 
 
 New York City 
 
 Boston 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Boston 
 
 New York City 
 
 Northport, N. Y. 
 
 Lincoln, Nebraska 
 
 New York City 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Boston 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Yonkers, N. Y. 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York Ci'ty 
 
 New York City 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Boston 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 New York City 
 
 New York City 
 
 Boston 
 
INDEX 
 
 {The numhe^'s refer to pages.) 
 
 ABC method, 40, 100; de- 
 fects of, 101. 
 
 Action method, 209; value of, 
 210; defects of, 210. 
 
 Adenoids, effect of, on read- 
 ing ability, 130. 
 
 Aims of silent reading, 23. 
 
 Anderson, C. J., cited, 117, 122, 
 136, 137; experiment, 151. 
 
 Arithmetic, clarified, 321-7. 
 
 Articulation in reading, 12, 
 13, 14. 
 
 Assignment, importance of, 
 for retention, 96, 288. 
 
 Attention-span, 105. 
 
 Betts, G. H., quoted, 22. 
 Bird, G. E., experiment, 95. 
 Brown, H. A., cited, 211; 
 
 quoted, 227. 
 Bryan, W. L,., cited, 21. 
 Buckingham, R. B., quoted, 
 
 176. 
 Burgeas, M. A., cited, 125, 150. 
 Buswell, G. T., cited, 144. 
 
 Carelessness and carefulness, 
 150; how overcome, 165. 
 
 Charting, results of compre- 
 hension tests, 274-6, 340; 
 value of, 346-8; methods of, 
 349; class progress, 349; in- 
 dividual progress, 351. 
 
 Charts, use of, 216, 335. 
 
 Class standards, devising, 120. 
 
 Colvin, C, cited, 62. 
 
 379 
 
 Combination method, 19. 
 
 Competition, 341, 353. 
 
 Completion tests, 172. 
 
 Comprehension, test of, 22; 
 importance of, 24, 45; neg- 
 lect of student, 45; average, 
 57; repetition in, 58; evi- 
 dence regarding, 61; im- 
 provement in, 61-6; effect 
 of lip-reading on, 110; drills 
 in, for poor readers, 112; 
 value of measurement of, 
 165; measuring, 165-71; 
 methods of measurement of, 
 171. 
 
 Controlled practice, 63. 
 
 Currier, L. B., cited, 225. 
 
 Dearborn, W. F., quoted, 14, 
 39; cited, 37, 41, 105, 145. 
 
 Delayed recal], 89. 
 
 Devices for classroom work : 
 Reading between lines, 312; 
 filling in, 313. 
 
 Dramatization, value of, 243, 
 32 7-31. 
 
 Drills, need for word, 234; 
 conducting, 234; action- 
 word, 236; preposition, 236: 
 object, 237; opposites, 238: 
 sign drills, 238; familiar 
 combination, 239; speed, 
 240; action-phrase, 240; ac- 
 tion-sentence, 241; games 
 as, 242; dramatization, 243; 
 excursion, 244; anissing- 
 
380 
 
 INBEX 
 
 word, 245; true-false, 246; 
 current topic, 247; hygiene 
 lesson, 248; children's diet, 
 249; riddle, 250; nursery- 
 rhyme, 252; phrase and sen- 
 tence, 253; picture-answer, 
 254; construction work, 
 255; bulletin board, 257; ex- 
 ercise, 289-95; psychological 
 view of, 334; pupil-motiva- 
 tion of, 335; teacher-moti- 
 vation of, 336. 
 Duguid, O. C, cited, 225. 
 
 Earhart, iL. B., experiment, 78- 
 81. 
 
 Ebert and Neumann, cited, 87. 
 
 Ebbinghaus, cited, 86. 
 
 Emulation, 339. 
 
 Environmental factors 1 n 
 .speed, 42. 
 
 Errors, common in reading, 
 . 117-9. 
 
 Experiments in comprehen- 
 sion, 53, 54, 62, 65; in or- 
 ganization, 71, 72, 77; in re- 
 tention, 86-7. 
 
 Eyesight defects 129. 
 
 Eye-span, 39, 101. 
 
 Eye-voice span, 145. 
 
 Feeble-minded children, 135. 
 Pinch, C E., experiment, 72; 
 
 cited, 149, 
 Fixation-points, 37, 41, 101-5. 
 Flash-card exercises, 136. 
 Focalization, secured, 341, 343. 
 Folk-tale lessons, 220-4. 
 Foreign children, 146. 
 
 Gates, A. I., experiment on 
 true-false tests, 182. 
 
 Germane (C E. and E. G.), 
 experiments on thought- 
 getting, 54; on organization, 
 71; on testing and recall, 
 
 93; in lip-reading and 
 speed, 109. 
 
 Gilliland, A. H., cited, 33. 
 
 Gist, A. iS., quoted 172. y ^ 
 
 Gray, W. iS., cited, 115, 124, 
 137,^ 139, 154; oral-reading 
 test, 117,"" 138; experiment 
 for speed in reading, 154. '^^ 
 
 Green, iM. G., experiment, 61-2. 
 
 Hawley, W. E., cited, 134. 
 Hearing defects, 130. 
 Horn, Ernest, cited, 134. 
 Hub-and-spoke device, 303. 
 Hygiene in speed, 40. 
 
 Imagery in reading, 21. 
 Imitation, 337. 
 Immediate recall, 89. 
 
 Judd, C. H., cited, 42, 108. 
 
 Kerfoot, J. B., quoted, 158. 
 Key paragraph, 301. 
 Key sentence, 299. 
 Klapper, Paul, quoted, 148. 
 
 Lesson assignment and or- 
 ganization, 70. 
 
 Library books, 133, 198. 
 
 Line length in textbooks, 41. 
 
 Liip-reading, 109; experiment 
 on, 110; suggested treat- 
 ment of. 111; overcoming, 
 108. 
 
 Lyman, R. L., cited, 157, 160: 
 plan for silent reading, 307. 
 
 Malnutrition, effect of, 130. 
 Mann, Horace, quoted, 46. 
 Marker, use of, 143, 222. 
 Material for silent readinsr, 
 
 186, 195, 201, 206, 262, 269. 
 
 280; use of, '280; advanced, 
 
 315. 
 McCall, W. A., quoted, 181. 
 Mendenhall, W. L., cited, 177. 
 
INDEX 
 
 381 
 
 Merton, E., cited, 117, 122, 136, 
 
 137, 151. 
 Methods of teaching reading, 
 
 100. 
 iMonroe, W. S., quoted, 29, 348; 
 
 reading scale of, 187; 
 
 Standardised Silent - reading 
 
 Test, 64, 166. 
 Motor habits in reading, 39, 
 
 104. 
 
 Nursery rhymes in beginning 
 reading, 215-20; value of, 
 220; defects in use, 220. 
 
 O'iBrren, J. A., cited, 13, 145, 
 334. 
 
 Oral reading, drawback to 
 method, 11; value of, 15-18; 
 method of teaching, 18; 
 combined "with silent read- 
 ing, 19, 20; reasons for 
 teaching, 21; overemphasis 
 of, 106-144; psychology of, 
 106; tests of (Gray), 117; 
 habits in, 127. 
 
 Organization, importance of, 
 24, 68, 69, 113; psychological 
 view of, 68; sociological 
 view of, 69; inability in, 69; 
 hoiw to teach, 77, 82, 113; 
 value of, 77; retention 
 through, 98; lesson on, 271. 
 
 Outlines in organization, 69, 
 71, 72, 73, 82. 
 
 Pageants, 327; fire-preven- 
 tion. 328-31. 
 
 Pamphlets for silent reading, 
 200. 
 
 Parker, S, C, quoted, 156. 
 
 Peet and Dearborn Progress 
 Test in Arithmetic, 326. 
 
 Perception-unit, 105, 145. 
 
 Permanency of retention se- 
 cured, 97. 
 
 Peterson, J., experiment of, 
 87. 
 
 Phonics, method for, 102; 
 value of, 136, 137; overem- 
 phasis of, 139; method in 
 beginning reading, 225; 
 time for introduction of, 
 226; deferred training in, 
 229. 
 
 Physical defects, 128-30. 
 
 Physical inspection of school 
 children, 129. 
 
 Physiological factors in 
 speed, 37. 
 
 Pintner, Rudolph, cited, 13. 
 
 Play instinct utilized, 338. 
 
 Pointing to words, 143. 
 
 Presentation o f beginning 
 reading, 208; methods of, 
 211-25. 
 
 Pressey, S. L. and L. C, ex- 
 periment of, 126; cited, 15G. 
 186. 
 
 Problem of the reading 
 teacher, 52. 
 
 Project method for beginning 
 readers, 211-3; value and 
 defects of, 2il4. 
 
 Psychological factors in 
 speed, 42. 
 
 Psychology of oral reading, 
 106-7. 
 
 Pupil-motivation, 92, 335. 
 
 Pupil organization, 82. 
 
 Quantz, J. O., quoted, 13; 
 cited, 109. 
 
 Question method for measure- 
 ment, 174; for drill, 273. 
 
 Rapid reading, value of, 36. 
 
 Reading, abilities compared, 
 156, 261, 298; attitudes, 156; 
 defects, 128-40, 143, 144, 145, 
 146, 147, 150, 151; reading 
 difficulties, 116; illustration 
 of lesson in, 47. 
 
 Reading rate, variation of, 
 28. 
 
382 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Recall value, 88. 
 
 Recog-nition tests, 173. 
 
 Reference work, importance 
 of, 147-9. 
 
 Remedial work, for bad study 
 habits, 75; importance of, 
 115; examples of, 116; prep- 
 aration for, 117; planning, 
 122; tests for, 123-8; in vo- 
 cabulary enlargement, 132; 
 for subnormal children, 134; 
 for word recognition, 136; 
 for comprehension, 140; for 
 word pointing, 143; for nar- 
 row perception-unit, 146; to 
 extend use of reference 
 books, 147; for careless 
 reading, 150; in oral read- 
 ing, 151; to overcome bad 
 study habits, 159; explained, 
 163. 
 
 Repetitions, 151. 
 
 Reproduction method, 171. 
 
 Retention, importance of, 24, 
 86; experiments in, 86, 88, 
 97; increased, 97; teaching 
 pupils, 113; measurement, 
 importance of, 165; training 
 for, 278. 
 
 Sandwick, R. L., cited, 128. 
 
 Scales, 124-6. 
 
 Schmidt, W. A., quoted, 12, 13, 
 105, 107; cited, 145. 
 
 "Signpost paragraph," 84. 
 
 Silent reading, aims of, 23; 
 importance of, 11; method 
 of training primary pupils 
 in, 107; test-s, how made, 
 122; controlled, 231; prin- 
 ciples observed in teaching, 
 260; individual training in, 
 261; material for, 262, 269. 
 2S0. 315; class discussion of, 
 263; drill in, by question 
 method, 27'3; project work 
 for, 1273; in intermediate 
 
 grades, 280; illustrative les- 
 sons in, -282-6; English class 
 work and, 306; Lyman's 
 plan for, 307; outline for 
 seventh - grade, 308 - 10; 
 arithmetic for, 322. 
 
 Single reading, results of, 55. 
 
 Skillful reading accomplish- 
 ments, 160. 
 
 Smith, Bertha M., cited, 124. 
 
 Speed in reading, importance 
 of, 27, 35, 36; physiological 
 factors in, 37; hygienic fac- 
 tors in, 40; psychological 
 factors in, 4)2; environ- 
 mental factors in, 42; meth- 
 ods of obtaining, 299-305. 
 
 Speed drill, dangers of, 30; 
 values of, 32; for poor read- 
 ers, 112. 
 
 •Standardization, 120. 
 
 "Standardized tests, 117; 
 Stone's extension, -64; rea- 
 soning test in arithmetic, 
 324; as measure of achieve- 
 ment, 343. 
 
 Stone, C. W., and Colvin, C, 
 experiment, 62. 
 
 (Story method for beginning 
 readers, '214. 
 
 'Study efficiency, 63. 
 
 'Study habits, 159, 259, 297, 
 298, 318. 
 
 Subnormal children, 134. 
 
 Subject-matter . o f readers, 
 113. 
 
 Substitution, 151. 
 
 Summaries in organization, 
 83. 
 
 Summary-outline, 71. 
 
 Teacher-made tests, 119, 344. 
 Teacher-motivation, 335. 
 Teeth, defects of, 130. 
 Testing before reading, 90-3. 
 Tests, 53, 54, 55, 56, 61, 6i2, 
 64, 72, 75, 97, 117, 119, 120; 
 
INDEX 
 
 383 
 
 how to make silent-read- 
 ing, 122, 123, 127, 136; value 
 of, 166; nature of, 166; com- 
 pletion, 172; recognition, 
 173; question method, 174, 
 176; scoring- of, 180, 178; 
 true-false, 178, 181; reading 
 tests, 288; adaptation of, 
 289, 305; Stone's tests in 
 arithmetic, 375, 326; compe- 
 titive, 343; standardized, 
 343; teacher-made, 344. 
 Theisen, W. W., cited, 127. 
 
 Thorndike, E. L., experiment 
 of, 161-3. 
 
 Thought-getting, 45, 58. 
 
 True-false test for compre- 
 hension, 178, 181; advan- 
 tages of, 183. 
 
 Type, size of, 41, 
 
 Vocabulary limit, effects of, 
 on reading, 126, 130. 
 
 Waldman, Bessie F., cited, 
 
 174. 
 Waldo, C. D., cited, 124. 
 W-atkins, E., cited, 226. 
 Wils'on, E., experiment of, 
 
 18-9-93; results of, 193. 
 Word, importance of analysis 
 
 of, 131; Importance of 
 
 building of, 131; focus, 144; 
 
 method, 103-5; criticism of 
 
 method, 105; recognition 
 
 value, 135. 
 
 Yoakam, G. A., experiment cf, 
 53, 88, 90; cited, 53, 54, 88, 
 90; quoted, 92. 
 
 Zirbes, Laura, cited, 137; re- 
 port, 18'9.