• TITUS { nmmw Class S4C Book. ^- COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 'n FEEDING CHART, DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN DIGESTIBLE CARBOHYDRATES. DI GESTIBLE FAT . ^1^' L 1 [ I ASH. FERTILIZER VALUE PER TON IN $: RUMINANTS. 16,7 0.8 2.8 65.0 — u az INDIGESTIBLE RESIDUE. NUTRITIVE RATIO: IML I. I 12.0 0.4 1.2 ■ — m - 0.6 12. 3 0.4 1.1 ■ — m 0.96 09 1.5 g.9 9.7 I 1.6 5 2.3 It r ALFALFA, RED CLOVER, COWPEAS, SOY BEANS (AVERAGE) | :4.4 39.2 10 7.1 I I .4 SAME DRY (average; 2 .0 5.6 17.9 TIMOTHY AND CLOVER HAY (EQUAL PARTS) 0.8 3.4 40.5 CORN STOVER 0. 5 4 2 9.6 10 7.1 1.0 CORN (kernels) ° _88.b CARROTS SWINE l;7. I 3.1 J_-* I 1.3 6.2 6^ 7j4 31.0 32.0 CORN (KERNELS) 9 CORN MEAL WHEAT SHORTS 1° • :5- I FiSEniNfi rinKT — Notes: l, 6, 7 Mvi'ick's Ken to Prqrit'iljlf Fefdiiiij. 2 (■oniposition. avcrnprp of all varieties: digestion foefficlent, dent corn. 3 Composition, Henry's tal)les. i Average dent and tliiit. .=■ .Massiicliusetts Experiment Station, ISdfi. 8 Averasje of all varieties. 9 Flint corn, digestion coetticients for dent being untivailahle. 10 Digestion coefficient for fat as.sumed from results with ruminants. E.xcept as noted, Chart is based on .loi-dans tigures. It will be observed ihat the nutritive ratio varies according to digestive power of animal, d'repared by ^\ illis Mac(„.erald.) Practical Farming and Gardening OR MONEY SAVING METHODS -IN Farming, Gardening, Fruit Growing, also Horse, Cattle, Sheep, Hog and Poultry Raising EMBRACING The All Important Subjects of Soil Fertility, Crop Culture, Irrigation and Drainage, Injurious Insects, Plant Diseases, Pruning, Grafting, Budding, Spraying, etc., together with Advice on Selecting and Feeding Farm Animals for the Greatest Net Profit, Making Poultry Pay, and Hundreds of Other Priceless Facts for the Wide-a-wake Farmer and Housewife By AN EMINENT ARRAY OF SPECIALISTS Each Having Devoted a Life of Study, Experiment and Practical Experience to His Special Subject EDITED BY WILLIS MacGERALD OF RANDMC NALLY & CO. THE S. A. MULLIKIN COMPANY MARIETTA, OHIO igi4 "The Salvation of Soil Fertility is y the Salvation of Our Country." q^ Copyright igi4 by The S. A. MuUikin Company All rights reserved ^r-^"- i >i APP -2 \m Up ^CLA369525 f\A Introductory Note In publishing this book we Jay no claim to having exhausted the subject of farming. It has been found quite possible, however, to give in a single volume so clear an insight into the essentials of farming under modern conditions as will simplify the farmer's work and result in a saving of time, labor and money. "There are three classes of farmers," says Dean Davenport, of the Illinois State College of Agriculture; "one class studies, experiments, originates; another class emulates the suc- cess of the originator, imitates his methods, and in time learns to go to first sources for information; a third has little faith in 'book learning, ' and, misunderstanding success, will neither imitate nor learn. The whole tendency of modern times is to make farming so difficult a calling— so to raise the standard of competition — that the third class will be crowded to the wall and be forced into the poorest lands." It is for the class that puts brains into the management of soil, plants and animals that this volume has been published. It has been the endeavor throughout the text to give the reader the results of scientific research, coupled with successful experience by the use of only such expressions as can be readily understood by those who have not had a scientific training Thus any farmer with ambition to make the most of his labor and realize the greatest returns for his investment will find in this volume a priceless guide for everyday reference. The work has been divided into departments, each covering subjects of vital importance, and each prepared by a specialist in his line, who has devoted his life of thought, study, experiment and practical experience to his special subject. The list of authors whose names are familiar to wide-awake farmers will be found on another page in connection with the subjects covered by each. It is needless to say that the advantages to be gained from a single practical idea, taken from any of these departments and put into practice, is worth many times the small expense incurred in adopting the more approved methods. For example the use of the wrong kind of fertilizer; failure to use fertilizer when necessary; use of fertilizer when not needed; planting without proper preparation of soil; planting at wrong time or in wrong way; wrong methods in cultivation; allowing insects to destroy crops or fruits; allowing valuable stock or fowls to die from curable diseases, etc., etc., are common occurrences which a better knowledge of these subjects could easily prevent. It is poor economy indeed to save five dollars at the expense of a hundred. The purchaser of this volume who desires to know where to obtain reliable books on special farming subjects will find a list of such publications, with prices, following each department throughout this work. Any of these books may be ordered from the publishers whose names appear at the foot of title page, and the order will be filled promptly on receipt of list price. We now send forth this volume on its important mission with implicit faith in the intelligence of the American farmer to discriminate between gold and brass — wheat and chaff. The instructions this work contains have been secured from the highest obtainable authorities and not to be compared with the so-called "Farm Books" scrapped together from unreliable sources. To the thrifty tillers of the soil, upon whose shoulders to-day rest the responsibility for the prosperity of out nation; who have earned their honest dollars by the sweat of their brow, this volume is respectfully dedicated, with the hope that it may serve well its purpose in the special field of usefulness to which it is assigned. February 2, 1914. THE PUBLISHERS. Contents Paoes Modern Ideas in Soii^ Treatment and Tillage 5-48 By Joseph J. Edgerton, B.S. A., Instructor in Agricultural Physics, Iowa College of Agriculture, Field Crops: Their Adaptations and Economic Relations, wih Specific Cultural Directions 49-82 'By Joseph]. Edgerton, B.S. A. Vegetable Garden and Trucking Crops 83-110 By Arthur T. Erxviii, Assistant Professor of Horticulture, loiva College of Agriculture. Fruit Culture and Forestry. 111-136 By L. R. Taft, M.S., Horticulturist, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. Important Injurious Insects and Diseases Affecting Field and Garden Crops, Fruits and Shade Trees 137-206 By E. S. G. Titus, M.S., Field Assistant to the State Entomologist of Illinois. Selecting and Feeding Farm Animals for Profit 207-281 By Herbert II'. Munford, B.S., Professor of Animal Husbandry, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, and Chief of Anitnal Husbandry, Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. Beep Making 282-288 By L. H. Kerrick, Bloomington, III., President of the American Aberdeen-Augus Breeder^ Association. Feeding Native Cattle for Beep 289-291 By John P. Stevenson, Practical Farmer, Tarkio, Mo. Feeding Range Cattle for Beep 292-296 By David Rankin, Practical Farmer, Tarkio, Mo, Diseases of Farm Animals 297-384 By R. A. Craig, D.l'.M., Instructor in Veterinary Science, Purdue Uniziersity, LaFayette, Ind.: and Assistant State Veterinarian of Indiana. The Silo in Modern Agriculture 385-404 By F. IV. Noll, Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, Uniziersity of IVisconsin. Making Poultry Pay 405-452 By Clarence Hewes, Rdttor of "Inland Poultry Journal,^'' Indianapolis, Ind. Handy Rules and Useful Information 455-469 Wholesome Cooking Without Waste 470-499 By Francois Tanty. Index 500-517 TO °* S S ■a^ o" S 5 !^ " *■" 3 i- 4-^5 JO Ml « -ES •2.9 ^"S ^ ?a ^M^S o ■S-a, S a t- •-- CO o « cS a -"-Sfq Isgl a:3 o sSo5 = •- o a ce a5^ PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING Modern Ideas in Soil Treatment and Tillag'e By Joseph J. Edgerton, B. S. A. Instructor in AgriciMural Physics, Icncu College of Agriculture FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS Modern farming, from the very nature of the case, represents no radical depar- ture from the best agricultural })ractice of earlier days. The advance that has been made is chiefly along the lines of a more thorough understanding of the principles underlying successful method ; of the systemization of agricultural research and har- monizing of results; and of the formulation of a body of flexible rules, more or less easily adaptable to the solution of individual difficulties. We can not get away from the necessity for experimentation ; for the science is intricate, and the conditions under which its laws operate are ever varying. But instead of being dependent upon his own experiments, as formerly, the farmer is now able, through the accumulation of recorded data of experiments systematically conducted, to profit by the experience of others. In many cases reference to this fund of accumulated experience will enable the present-day farmer to project his operations on a sure foundation, where otherwise he would be compelled to grope his way in the dark and with a great deal of uncertainty as to the final outcome. In the modern view, the soil is a laboratory, in which plant food is elaborated, and in which, under favoring conditions, the physical and chemical processes of organic growth are carried on. The soil had its origin in the rock masses of the eartlTs surface, from which it was broken down into its present form by the action of rain, snow, wind, changes of temperature, erosion by rivers and glaciers, the growth and decomposition of vegetation, the burrowing of various forms of animal life, and other similar agencies. Thus it will be seen that tlie bulk of the soil is decomposed rock, the additional material being organic matter — dead plant or animal tissue, returned to the earth that nourished it, and more or less completely (5) FUNDAMENTAL NOTIONS Fig. a. Photograph of total root of one hill of corn, showing depth to which this plant penetrates the soil in its search for moisture and food. (Prof. F. H. King: Physics of Agriculture.) broken down into its chemical con- stituents. This organic matter, called humus, is one of the most imjDortant factois to be consid- ered in the study of soil manipu- lation. Source of Plant Food — Plants, like animals, requii-e both food and water for their suste- nance. The water is obtained through the roots. Of the food materials, the carbon and a large part of the oxygen (which together constitute a large percentage of the dry matter of all plants) are, under the influence of sunlight, taken in through the leaves in the form of carbon dioxide,^ while the ash or mineral portion (composed essen- tially of nitrogen, phosphorus, po- tassium, calcium, sulphur, iron, magnesium, and possibly sodium and chlorine^) is taken up by the roots from the soil. These mineral constituents, wdtli the exception of nitrogen,'' are rendered available to the roots of the plants by the 1 This gas exists in the air as a resultant product of animal respiration and decomposi- tion, and of combustion generally. 2 There are other mineral elements found in the ash of plants, some of which, such as silica, are present in large quantities. Their presence, however, is only incidental, owing to their pres- ence in the soil water. They are not essential to the welfare of the plant. 3 This element, owing to its great impor- tance, and the need of a thorough knowledge of its source and the means by which it may be increased, as well as the conditions under which it is lost, will receive especial attention iu an- other place. WHAT GOVERNS SOIL FERTILITY ? 7 o-radual decomposition of the rock materials, and their subsequent solution in the soil waters. Thus physical and chemical action in the &oil are constantly transforming ^o^ew- tial into available plant food, and the soil water is transporting the salts thus prepared to the root hairs of the plant. This food-laden water is passed from cell to cell of the plant by what is called omiotic pressure,^ and the excess of water over what is required for purposes of growth finally is transpired from the leaves of the plant, leaving the salts behind to enter into the combination of organized tissue. This brings us to the consideration of the subject of SOIL FERTILITY Determining Factors — Soil fertility is dependent upon natural condi- tions and upon soil management, and may be defined as the ability of a soil to 2)roduce in response to a given amount of assistance rendered if in the form of culti- vation. This term is too commonly used as referring only to the amount of the mineral elements a soil may contain in a soluble form. But in reality the quantity of salts or mineral plant food a soil may contain is only one of several factors that determine its fertility. In fact, it is a factor of rather secondary importance, because the most plentiful supply of plant food will fail to produce a crop in the absence of sufficient moisture to convey it to and through the plant. The quantity of soluble salts a soil contains is, nevertheless, of vital importance. While but a very small percentage of the total plant is made up of these elements, this little is just as necessary to the life of the plant as though it comprised the whole. The absence from the soil of any one of these elements will insure as com- plete a failure of plant growth as though they were all absent. If you plant seeds in a soil from which one of these essential elements, as potash, has been removed, there will be but a very feeble growth of two or three leaves to a plant, and this growth will be accomplished by the aid of the little of this element that nature has stored in the seed for the purpose of securing its germination and start in life. Some of these elements need to be present in much larger quantities than others. Iron, for example, is just as essential for the life of the plant as is any other element, but only a comparatively small percentage is necessary. In order for a soil to be fertile, it is necessary not only that these elements all be present in a soluble form, but that the quantity be many times greater than the immediate needs of the crop. This is owing to the fact that (a) the root hairs in 1 Osmosis is the term applied to tiie diffusion of liquids through porous membranes. 8 SOIL FERTILITY penetrating the soil come into contact with a ver}', very small part of it ; that (b) the capillary moisture is frequently so low tluit but a small portion of these salts is taken up thereby and moved into contact with the plant roots ; and that (c) the feeding period of the plant covers but a comparatively short space of time. It has been found by analyzing plants at various stages of development that, of the total mineral plant food taken up by a crop (wheat being used as an example), 75 per cent of it is taken up during the first fifty days of the plant's life (or, in the case of wheat, by the time it has reached the height of eighteen inches). Consider- ing theae facts, it will be readily understood that not only must these materials be present in great abundance, but they must also be in readiness for plant use as early in the season as possible. This early availability will depend, especially as regards the nitrogen portion, upon the amount of moisture, air, vegetable matter, and heat there is in the soil. Alkali Spots — A soil may be unproductive, on the other hand, from con- taining too large a quantity of some of these essential salts. Thus are produced what are termed alkali lands, or alkali spots. Through the presence of an excess of these alkali salts the vegetation is corroded and killed. Such soils are referred to as alkali soils, and occur mostly in sections having natural or artificial irrigation. Small alkali patches occur more or less frequently in semi-humid regions where there is a seepage of Avater from higher lands. The soluble salts in these higher lands, being carried down by the seepage water and left behind upon its evaporation, accumulate to an extent that is injurious to vegetation. Keiuedy for Alkali Spots — There are two forms of alkali — the car- bonate or "black alkali" and the sulphate or " white alkali." The latter may be present in much larger quantities than the former without producing injurious results. If the soil is unproductive from too much black alkali, it may often be corrected in part by the application of gypsum or land plaster, to convert the carbonate into a sulphate. In irrigated sections it is well to examine the water used, and, if it is found to contain considerable quantities of carbonate salts, to use land plaster in the irrigation ditches to correct the condition of these salts before reaching the fields. In semi-humid climates these spots may often be temporarily remedied by scraping off the immediate surface after a long-continued drought, when the long-continued evaporation will have concentrated the greater portion of the excess of salts in the surface three or four inches of soil. Where the trouble is mild a good application SOURCES OF SOIL NITROGEN 9 of a coarse i)arnyard maiini-e well worked into the soil will often afford temporary relief. The permanent remedy, however, is nnderdrainage. NITROGEN OF THE SOIL Ontside of the elements of plant food contained in water, the nitrogen of the soil is tlie only constitnent supplied to the plants through their roots, the source of Avhich does not lie in the rock fragments, and the supply of which can not he increased by improving the facilities for decomposition. Source — Its sonrce is the free nitrogen of the air, and the quantity in the soil may be increased naturally only by drawing upon this bounteous supply. How Obtained — Our ordinary farm crops can not use this nitrogen in its free form, but certain microscopical forms of life that grow upon the roots of leguminous plants (such as clover, lucerne [alfalfa], peas, beans, etc.), forming nodules tliereon, have the power of taiving this free nitrogen and converting it into organic nitrogen. In the subsequent decomposition of this organic matter the increased supply is made available for the use of succeeding crops. The amount o^ nitrogen that may be added to the soil by the growing of a single crop of some legume is often relatively very large. When the effect upon future crops or the commercial value of nitrogen as a fertilizer is considered, this collateral benefit derived fi;om a leguminous crop is often greater than the food value of the crop itself. » Except in soils well supplied with nitrogen, in the form ordinarily available, the leguminous plants will not thrive in the absence of these organisms. But if the organisms are present this family of plants will thrive luxuriantly even on soils con- taining little nitrogen. It follows that, while these organisms are parasitic in their nature, they are in reality a benefit to the host on which they grow. This relation of plants to each other, the growing together for mutual benefit, each obtaining support from the other, is called symbiosis. Some soils upon which clover ordinn- rily refuses to thrive, after being inoculated with these germs by the addition of a sprinkling of soil from an old clover field, will produce clover of the finest kind. Forms of Soil Nitrogen — Nitrogen exists in the soil in several distinct forms, representing tlie various stages of transition fiom the free nitrogen of the air to that form available for farm crops. It may be presont : 1 Crimson clover, when from 5 to 6 inches high, has I per acre; in bloom, $37.06 per acre; fully matured, to been found to contain nitrogen to the value of $21.94 per the value of $4.3.36 per acre. (Report of the Superin- acre; from 12 to 14 inches high, to the value of $34.64 | tendent of Institutes for Ontario, Can., 1900.) 10 SOIL FERTILITY (a) As free nitrogen of the soil air, which is seized upon and made fast by the forms of microscopic life previously described. ■ (b) As organic or albuminoid nitrogen, the product of these nitrogen-fixing germs, and likewise present in all undecomposed vegetable and animal tissue. This is the only form of soil nitrogen that is not soluble in water, and lience readily leached out and lost from the soil. (c) As ammonia, nitrous acid, and nitric acid. These are transition stages in the development of the nitrate or available form from the organic or albuminoid form. (d) As nitrates of lime, magnesia, potash, and soda. This is the form in which nitrogen is used by most farm crops, the nitrates being formed by the union of nitric acid with one of the bases — lime, magnesia, potash, etc. — ^ found in the soil. Nitrification — The process of developing nitrates from the decayed and broken-down albuminoids is termed nitnfication, and involves four distinct stages : (a) The ammonia stage, in which certain organisms, under the proper conditions of temperature, moisture, and air, feed upon the organic or albuminoid nitrogen, throw- ing off ammonia as a waste product. This is a highly volatile product, which, under improper soil conditions, may escape from the soil and pass off into the air as gas.^ But under the proper conditions the ammonia is absorbed by the soil and the soil water, and is retained for the use of another class of germs which in the (b) nitrous-acid stage use it in their life processes, throwing off nitrous acid as a waste product. Still another class of germs ^ take up this nitrous acid and oxidize it into (c) nitric acid, which attacks the bases that are held in the soil by weaker acids, displacing them and forming (d) the various niti'ate salts. These nitrates are formed only under favorable conditions of temperature, moisture, and air ; and, on the other hand, when once formed, they may, under subse- quent unfavorable conditions, be changed back into 1 The pungent odor arising from a rapidly- fermenting manure heap is produced by am- monia that is being formed and is escaping to tlie air. 2 These are called "nitre germs" or "mother of petre." Some idea of the amount of these nitrate salts that may be developed imder proper conditions may be obtained from Fig. 3. Drawing from photograph showing comparative growth a consideration of the fact that formerly the of peas, rye, flax, oats, wheat, and buckwheat in soil fertile in nitrate of potash for the manufacture of gun- all elements of plant food except nitrogen, the peas thriving powder was obtained from the soil. Thereby in virtue of the presence of nitrogen-flxing bacteria on their was developed what was termed " nitre farm- roots. (Prof. F. II. King: Physics of Agriculture. After ing," in which the soil was manipulated to P. Wagner.) get the most rapid nitrification possible. SOIL WATER ESSENTIAL 11 forms unavailable to crops, or even be lost from the soil. 'I'liis brings us to the consideration of another process, called : Deiiitriflcatioii — This process, as the name implies, is exactly the opposite of nitrification. The soil is full of micro-organisms that require oxygen for their existence, and their ability to extract it is such that, if the soil becomes so filled with water as to exclude the air, they will take away that which is combined in the nitrates, either partially or wholly deoxidizing them. In the latter case the nitrogen is set free and may escape entirely from the soil. Soils Lacking in Nitro^^en — A soil that has little nitrogen in the avail- able form will give indication of the fact in the yellow, slender, unhealthy condition of the leaves of the vegetation growing upon it. To the other elements of plant food obtained from the soil, and the best means of maintaining or increasing their quantity, reference will be made under the head of " Vegetable Matter as a Factor of Fertility." SOIL WATER AS AN ELEMENT OF FERTILITY It has been seen that water is the vehicle whereby food, in solution, is conveyed to the root hairs and distributed throughout the plants, besides entering largely into the vegetable structure.* It is therefore as essential -^i^^.-Jy- •■., an element of fertility as is the mineral plant food. '"''[■''''■'S''''-^^ Many soils containing a very high percentage of soluble plant food are a barren waste because of lack of moisture, and it follows, by the same token, that any addition of commercial fertilizers to soils deficient in plant food will prove ineffec- tual unless conditions of moisture are right. The great semi-desert regions of our western plains, as well as most, if not all, similar regions the world over, show the presence, upon chem- ical analysis, of a large percentage of soluble plant food, and numerous 1 Water comprises from 61 to 91 per cent of the total weight of all green crops, the amount varying with the kind of crop and stage of development. Fig. 4. Drawing from photograph showing oats growing under conditions identical with those illustrated in Fig. 3, except that the several pots received 1, 2, and 3 grams, respectively, of Chile saltpetre. Comparisor. shows the immense importance to such plants of nitric nitrogen. (Prof. F. H. King : Physics of Agriculture. After P. Wagner.) 12 ' SOIL FERTILITY experiments have demonstrated that all that is necessary to make these waste places fruitful is simply to supply the needed moisture. But water, on the other hand, must not be too abundant. It must not fill all the pores of the soil so as to exclude the air, or the land will be rendered unproductive while this condition exists. Plants that will thrive in water will not thrive in a soil saturated with water, because in the water culture the water is free to move, and, the constant change bringing different parts constantly to the surface and into contact with the air, a certain amount of this air is absorbed, replacing any that may have been taken out by the roots ; whereas, in a soil saturated Avith Avater there is not this opportunity for the air to enter. Water in soils is of three kinds — hygroscopic, capillary, and free. The hygroscopic water is present in the form of a film around each soil grain. Pressure will not expel it. Only heat above the boiling point of Avater Avill drive it off. Capillary Avater is the outer film around the soil grain, more or less closely filling the interstices, less firmly held than is the inner hygroscopic film by the molecular attraction of the soil, and capable of motion in any direction under stress of capil- lary attraction. Free water is that Avhich lies outside the range of control of the molecular attrac- tion of the soil grains, and moves under the influence of gravity. This Avater practically excludes oxygen from the soil it occupies. Its surface is called the "Avater table." The capillary Avater is the only form of soil moisture that to any extent can be made use of by the plants. Water Required by Crops — The amount of Avater required in the proc- ess of plant building is very large, the various farm crops requiring to be tran- spired through their leaves from 300 to 600 tons of Avater for each ton of dry matter produced. According to Prof. F. PI, King, the results of 138 trials with various farm crops shoAv that, to grow an average acre, the product of which Avas 5.987 tons of dry matter, required 23.165 inches of water. The crop requii'ing the most Avas oats, the average yield of this crop being 8.89 tons ; and Avater required, 39.53 inches. Capacity of Soils for Capillary Water — The amount of capillary water that may be retained in a given qnantity of soil Avill depend upon the fineness of the soil particles, the amount of vegetable matter present,* the general physical 1 The effect of vegetable matter upon the capil- I under the head of "Vegetable Matter as a Factor of laiy capacity of soils will be referred to more fully I Fertility." AETIFICIAL IRRIGATION 13 condition, the distsince above the water table, and the frequency and amount of rainfall. Prof. F. H. King has found that under field conditions, and with tlie surface only eleven inches above the water table, soils would contain capillary water as follows : Clay loam 32. 2 per cent. Clay - 23. 8 to 24.5 percent. Claj' and sand _ 22 6 per cent. Fine sand 17. 5 per cent. This, when averaged and reduced to inches, is equal to 31.24 inches of water distributed thi-ough the first five feet of soil.^ Water not all Available to Crops — Of this capillary Avater only from 50 to 75 per cent can be extracted by the crops for their use, owing to the fact that the roots, Avhile thoroughly permeating the soil, actually come in contact with only a very small part of it ; and to the additional fact that, wlicn the water move- ment through the plant for the translocation of materials falls below a certain rate, growth ceases to take place. Long before this point is reached, growth becomes very slow and imperfect. It frequently happens, in the absence of a properly dis- tribnted rainfall, that this condition is reached just as the crop is ready to form the seed or grain. The result is an average and sometimes large growth of foliage, but little grain. Time of Greatest Need — By far the largest portion of the water used by a crop is required from the time of blossoming to maturity. This period fre- quently coincides with one of very limited rainfall. IRRIGATION It follows from what has been said that the artificial application of moisture may often, even in humid climates, be very beneficial to crops, and the farmer of a humid climate, who is so situated that he can at comparatively small expense maintain a storage supply of water for such use in time of need, will find this a very profitable investment. In fact, the returns should be greater in proportion to the amount invested than in arid countries, where all the water must be supplied in this way. A little additional water applied just at the right time may be pro- ductive of large results, even in average years.^ 1 A 5-foot column of the same soil would contain less, because the water table would be much farther away from part of it than In the above case. 2 Prof. F. H. King reports the following result of an experiment conducted with a variety of flint corn: On the irrigated soil, 14.5 tons of dry matter were produced ; while on the same kind of soil, growing the same kind of corn, not irrigated, but otherwise receiving the same treatment, there were produced only 4 tons of dry mat- ter per acre. In an experiment conducted by the writer during a year when the distribution of the rainfall was better than the average, an application of water equal to 5 per cent of moisture in the first four feet of soil resulted in increasing the yield of corn from 68 to 91.5 bushels per acre. 14 SOIL FERTILITY The quantity of water required to irrigate a tract of land is seemingly very large. To cover one acre of land one inch deep will require 3,630 cubic feet of water ; and to carry this depth of water onto 100 acres, in 50 hours, would require a stream one square foot in cross-section, and flowing at the rate of two feet per second. TILLAGE TO CONSERVE MOISTURE Since the annual rainfall for a given locality, while fairly constant, is irregular and uncertain as regards its distribution throughout the season, and since irriga- tion is not generally practicable, it becomes necessary to conserve the soil moisture and to make the available supply of capillary water as large as possible. These ends are accomplished by such means as proper tillage, underdrainage, and in- creasing the supply of humus. Deep plowing and subsoiling on heavy, close-textured clay soils may loosen them up and increase their water-holding capacity. This practice is especially applicable in climates Avhere the frost does not penetrate to loosen up the subsoil. Frequent stirring of the surface soil cuts off the capillary connection with the deeper soil water, and thus prevents its coming to the surface and being evaporated, besides checking the growth of Aveeds that would absorb moisture needed by the crop. This frequent stirring to check evaporation is necessary for the reason that when the surface is allowed to stand for a short time the capillary connection with the lower ground becomes reestablished. In case of a rain this reestablishment takes place very quickly ; so, to retain the largest possible amount of a given rainfall, it is necessary to thoroughly stir the surface soil as soon after the rain as it can be done without jJnddling.^ Tools used for this purpose should be such as will stir all the surface and pulverize it as thoroughly as possible. The Harrow — If tlie surface soil has been previously made very loose, or if it is somewhat rough as left by the plow, harrowing, thoroughly done, may develop a very good mulch. If, however, the surface has become somewhat firm, as after a heavy rain, the harrow may increase the loss by evaporation by simply cutting small furrows and increasing the amount of surface exposed. The Disk — The disk-harrow or cultivator, as well as the surface cultivators 1 Very fine-grained soils have a tendency, owing to the close contact of their particles, to contract upon themselves at all times. When they become very wet this tendency is increased. If stirred at the proper stage, as the excess of moisture is leaving, this tendency is readily overcome. If, however, this cultivation is done before a sufficient amount of water has been re- moved, all parts of the soil subjected to the pressure of the horses' feet and the tools used will be compressed still more, excluding the air and reducing the capillary capacity of the soil. These portions, when dry, form hard clods, and this cementing action in soils is termed puddling. TILLAGE TO COARSER VE MOISTURE 15 with blades running horizontally under the surface, form an excellent mulch. The surface is practically all moved and deposited in a different place and in a finely jiulverized condition, thus cutting off the capillary connection very completely. Effectiveness of the Soil Mulch — Professor King found that a 3-inch soil mulch, as against no mulch, conserved from evaporation during a period of 100 days on a black marsh soil 2,928 inches of water ; on sandy loam, 3.009 inches ; and on virgin clay loam, 13.458 inches. Depth of Mulch — The same investigator found that during a 100-day period a 3-inch mulch conserved 0.181 inches more water than a 2-inch mulch, and the 2-inch mulch conserved 0.11 inches more than a 1-inch mulch when stirred in the same manner twice a week. Frequency of Cultivation — Professor King also found that a 3-inch mulch, when stirred twice a week, conserved 0.323 inches more water than wlien stirred once a week, and that stirring once a week conserved 0.586 inches more than stirring only once in two weeks. The necessity for frequent cultivation will depend, howevei-, upon the condition of the weather and the character of the soil. Dry weather immediately following the stirring makes the mulch more effective and more lasting. On a close-grained soil, as clay, the particles tend to di-aw together and reestab- lish capillary connection much more quickly than on a coarser, looser soil, or a soil well supplied with vegetable matter. Hence, the former will require more frequent stirring than the latter in order to maintain an equally good condition of mulch. Plowing — The time and manner of plowing may affect the quantity of mois- ture available for a given crop. Ground plowed late in the fall and left in the rough will catch and hold the snows and rains, and will contain a larger amount of moisture the next spring than similar soil left unplowed. On land that is to be put into a fall crop, moisture will be conserved for the starting of that crop by plowing as early as possible after the spring croj) has been removed, to save what would otherwise be evaporated through the growth of weeds and other vegetation. Spring plowing, for the greatest saving of moisture, should be done as early as the soil is in fit con- dition. When the frost leaves the ground, capillary connection between the lower soil and the surface is very complete, and the warm, dry winds that are apt to occur at this time of year frequently cause a rapid evaporation of moisture. At this season a loss of 28.2 tons of water per acre per day for seven consecutive days has been observed. For the same reason, land that has been plowed in the fall should be gone over with the disk-harrow or other effective tool as early in the spring as the 16 SOIL FEETILITY condition of the soil will permit, for the purpose of developing a mulch. In the same way, also, evaporation may be checked on unplowed land, where there is more of it than can be plowed in good season. For the conservation of moisture, plowing at any time of year except late in the fall should be followed immediately by thorough harrowing. Ground freshly plowed, unless very mellow, will allow the air to circulate more or less freely throughout the greater portion of its depth. Such a condition, owing to the large amount of surface exposed, affords an opportunity for very rapid evaporation, and if allowed to go uncorrected, in a dry time, may so reduce the water content of the plowed portion that seeds can not germinate. The writer knows of one instance where there was no rain from the tiuie of plowing in the spring until late in the summer, and land that was plowed and left for some time without harrowing became so dry that the corn, when planted, did not germinate until the autumn rains ; while other tracts in the same locality which were not allowed to lie over night, or even during the noon hour, without harrowing, and were kept well cultivated after- ward, were by this diiference in treatment enabled to produce a fair crop of corn. The Roller — This implement is used mainly for the purpose of firming the plowed soil, to bring the particles into closer contact. Through this reestablish- ment of capillary connection with the deeper soil, the water may be drawn up from the lower levels into the seed-bed, to aid in the germination of the seeds and starting the young plants. When the roller is used it should be followed by some implement that will stir the immediate surface into a dry dust mulch, in order to prevent this water, when drawn up, from reaching the surface and escaping by evaporation. Level culture will conserve the moisture better than ridged cultivation, there being less surface exposed for evaporation. There is quite a prevalent notion that ridged cultivation will increase the yield of potatoes, but experiments do not bear it out. Late ridging, after the potatoes are set on, may be of some benefit in protect- ing the tubers from the sun. UNDERDRAININO TO CONSERVE MOISTURE The lowering of the water table by underdrainage, on lands where it remains a considerable portion of the time nearer to the surface than four feet, will increase the amount of water available to plants in two ways *. (a) By increasing the supply of capillary water. (b) By permitting a greater root development. (a) Capillary Svipply — The removal of the free water from a soil removes. EFFECT OF UXDERDRAINAGE 17 to a great extent, the tendency of fine-grained soils to contract into a puddled condition, also allowing the various aggregations of jiarticles to become broken up and separated, and the soil to become more free and open generally. In this way the amount of capillary water that a cubic foot of the soil will retain is greatly increased. This n)ore open condition of soil allows a free passage of Avater through it in all directions, and enables a much larger proportion of a dashing rain to enter it instead of running off the surface. It also enables the surface to more quickly get in readi- ness for cultivation after a I'ain, so that a mulch may be developed, to prevent that which is taken in from being lost by evaporation. (b) Root Develoi>ineiit — The root sys- tems of farm crops do not, as many suppose, confine themselves to the few inches of soil at the surface, unless compelled to do so by a saturated soil or other impassable barrier. Tlicre are few of our farm crops but will penetrate to a depth of four feet if the soil is in proper condition. AYhere the soil is free and open to a good depth there will be a much larger and better developed root system, with corresponding increase of capacity for absorbing and carrying moisture to the plant. This last is a most important factor, as it frequently happens, where the water table stands high during the early part of the season, that there is so small a development of roots that, when the plant reaches the stage of most rapid development and most rapid transpiration of moisture, the roots will not be able to take in water fast enough to supply the needs of growth, even with a comparative abundance of water present in the soil.^ J- It is due to this fact that crops thrive and develop so much better iu a dry summer if preceded by a moderately dry spring than when pre- ceded by a wet one. 2 Fig. 5. Photograph showing root de- velopment of oats. (Prof. F. H. King: Physics of Agriculture.) 18 SOIL FERTILITY HUMUS AS A CONSERVER OF MOISTURE The supply of humus/ as a factor in controlling the capillary supply of mois- ture, can not be too highly valued. Its presence (a) produces a more porous con- dition of soil, (b) prevents the soil particles from drawing together in a puddled condition, (c) increases the actual capillary capacity, and (d) tends to prevent the solidifying of the surface, thus serving to check evaporation in the absence of cul tivation, and making necessary less cultivation to maintain a good mulch. AIR AS AN ELEMENT OF FERTILITY As we have seen, air is necessai'y in the soil to supply oxygen for the develop- ment of the nitrogenous plant food, and in its absence, though only temporary, this plant food, once developed, may be reduced into an unavailable form, or even lost from the soil. Air is also needed for the processes of decomposition and other chemical action that develop the various forms of plant food. Without air in the soil, the seeds of farm crops will not germinate. If after germination the air be excluded, they will cease to grow, will get yellow and sickly, and, if this condition continues long enough, will die. A soil may also be too oj)en and admit of a greater circulation of air than is best. A very coarse, gravelly soil ; land into which a large amount of coarse manure has been plowed ; or a piece of poorly plowed laud left without any further treatment, may in this way be subject to a loss of moisture by internal evaporation. The supply of air in the soil may be modified by (a) tillage, (b) kind of vegeta- tion grown, (c) underdrainage, and (d) the addition of vegetable matter. (a) Ventilation by Tillage — Almost all the different processes of tillage- produce a change of air at the time, and also affect the movement of soil air for some time to come. Plowing a hard, compact soil breaks it up and admits a freer entrance and circulation of air, whereas, the plowing in of vegetable matter on soils that are too loose and open will result in a beneficial restraint upon this movement. Subsoiling will increase the air movement in the deeper soil. Harrowing may check the entrance and escape of air on fresh-plowed land where ventilation is excessive, or facilitate the aeration of lands that have lain without stirring until a crust has formed over the surface. Disking and stirring Avith the various forms of cultivators give more thorough aeration to the seed-bed. Rolling, by closing up the pores to some extent, usually results in a lessened 1 The influence of humus on moisture will be discussed more in detail under the head of " Vegetable Matter as a Factor of Fertility," page 23. importa:N'CE of soil warmth 19 amount of air movement in the soil, and, on soils that are too open, will be beneficial for this purpose. (b) Ventilation by Veg'etation — The growth of any kind of vege- tation, by drawing the moisture out of the soil, tends to draw air in to take its place. The decomposition of the roots of deep-feeding plants leaves openings that admit of a greater aeration of the deeper soil. (c) Ventilation by Underdrainage — Underdrainage modifies the amount of air in the soil: (1) By removing the free water that would 'otherwise exclude the air. (2) By loosening up the soil and giving greater freedom of movement. (3) The water in passing from the soil into the drain will tend to draw the air into the soil to fill the space it has occupied. (d) Ventilation by Addition of Hnnius — Vegetable matter, added to the soil in the form of barnyard manure, stubble, weeds, sod, and other green crops, plowed under, will have the eifect of making a close, heavy soil more open, and of binding together those that are too thoroughly aerated. TEMPERATURE AS AFFECTING FERTILITY A proper soil temperature is an indispensable factor of a high degree of fertility. No matter how perfect the other conditions, if the temperature is too low germina- tion and growth will not take place. Corn, for example, requires a soil temperature of 60° to 65° Fahr. during a portion of the day, for satisfactory germination. If the soil is so cold as to allow only slow and feeble germination the crop can never make the growth and development that it would under the same after-conditions, but with a good, vigorous start. A certain degree of warmth is required also for the various chemical changes incident to the decomposition and development of plant food. This is especially true of the nitrogenous plant food. The nitrifying germs do not thrive below a temperature of 55° Fahr., and do not attain their most rapid growth and elabora- tion of nitrates until the soil temperature gets well up toward 100° Fahr. The temperature of the soil also affects the rate of plant-feeding. As we have seen,^ the water and plant food of the soil are supplied to the plant by osmotic pressure, and this, as well as the capillary movement of the soil water, is to a marked degree affected by the temperature. If the soil temperature falls below a certain point, this action may become so feeble as to allow the plants to wilt when there is an abundance of water present in the soil. 1 See page V, footnote. 20 SOIL FERTILITY Poor Stands of Grain are often caused, not by poor seed, as supposed, but because the seed was placed in a soil too cold for germination. The above con- sideration, coupled with the facts that the soil temperatures, under average field conditions, between latitudes 40° and 45°, will not average above 45° Falir. for the month of April, or 58° Fahr. for the month of May, and that plants require the bulk of their nitrogenous food during the early stages of growth,^ emphasizes very strongly the need of increasing the temperature of the soil, especially early in the spring. Conditions Affecting- Soil Temperature — These conditions are as follows : (a) Color of soil, (b) topography of surface, (c) smoothness and compact- ness of surface, (d) tilth, (e) wetness of soil, (f) rate of evaporation, and (g) amount of vegetable matter being decomposed therein, (a) Color of Soil — A dark-colored surface will absorb and pass on to the deeper soil more heat from the sun than will a light-colored one, the difference ranging from 1° to 3° Fahr.*^ (b) Topography — A south slope will receive the sun's rays more nearly verti- cally than will a level field; hence a given cross-section of heat rays will be spread over less surface of soil than on a level surface, or one sloping away from the sun. Professor King found that a stiff red clay soil, sloping 18° to the south, had a tem- perature of 70.3°, 68.1°, and 66.4° Fahr. for the first, second, and third feet in depth, as compared with 67.2°, 65.4°, and 63.6° for the same kind of soil and the corresponding depths on a level surface. (c) Smoothness and Compactness — A rough, uneven surface, owing to the greater amount of surface exposed, will radiate back into the atmosphere a larger portion of the heat received than will an even surface. If the roughness is due to a cloddy condition this loss is aggravated, since the poor connection between the clods and the underlying soil prevents the heat being conducted downward. A firm, compact soil will conduct the heat into the deeper soil much more readily than one that is very loose and open. (d) Tillage — It follows. from what has Just been said that thorough culti- vation, especially if deep, hinders the conduction of heat to the deeper soil. But while the total amount of heat stored in the soil may be lessened on this account, the temperature of the cultivated portion is very much increased by this concentra- tion. This is one of the chief advantages to be gained by a thorough and early ^ See page 9, footnote. I 2 A light-colored soil may be made materially darker I by the addition of vegetable matter. SOIL TEXTURE AND FERTILITY 21 preparation of the seed-bed. Tillage also favors a more rapid decomposition of the organic matter in the soil, which action produces heat. Thorough ])reparation further increases the temperature of the seed-bed by removing any excess of mois- ture that may exist, and by checking evaporation from the surface. (e) Wetness of the Soil — A wet soil is colder than a similar soil when dry, for two reasons: (1) The various chemical changes which produce heat are taking place less rapidly, (3) It requires a greater amount of heat to raise the tempera- ture of a pound of wet soil through any given number of degrees than to effect an equal increase of temperature in the same weight of dry soil. The siDecific heat of water is much greater than that of soils. To raise the temperature of water a given number of degrees requires nearly ten times as much heat as for sand, weights being equal in both cases. The matter of removing all excess of moisture is there- fore very important, from this standpoint. For the same reason the manner of removing should be by underdrainage rather than by evaporation. (f) EvAPORATiox — This process has a marked cooling effect upon the soil, as much heat being required to evaporate a pound of water from the surface of the soil as would raise through se^jeral degrees the temperature of a cubic foot of average soil. Professor King records a difference in temperature, in favor of drained as against undrained soil, as great as 12.5° Fahr. on a cloudy day, and states that the difference is due mainly to difference in rate of evaporation. (g) Effect of Vegetable Matter — The decay of vegetable matter in the soil increases its temperature (1) by making it darker colored, so that more of the sun's heat will be absorbed, (2) by lessening evaporation of water from the surface, and (3) by reason of heat produced in the jn-ocess of decomposition.' MECHANICAL. STRUCTURE AND ITS RELATION TO FERTILITY The size of the soil particles, and tlieir mechanical relation to one another, is not the least of the factors that determine the value of a soil for the production of crops. Soil grains vary in size from the coarse grains of sand down to particles so fine that they can be seen only by the aid of a powerful microscope. The smaller the particles, the larger the amount of soil-grain surface in a cubic foot of soil. A soil with particles of a given average size contains practically ten times as much surface as one whose particles are ten times as large. The amount of surface, other things being equal, determines the rate of solution of the mineral plant food. 1 Everyone is familiar with the generation of heat in 1 proportionally upon the decomposition of all organic the fermenting manure heap, and with the use of ma- matter everywhere, nure to develop heat in hotbeds. The same result follows | 3 22 SOIL FEETILITY The amount of surface also affects the amount of moisture that may be held in the form of a film around the soil gi'ains. The amount of surface also is a measure of the amount of feeding ground allotted to the plant roots growing in the soil. A column of soil one foot square and four feet in depth (to which depth the roots of most of our farm crops j)enetrate), whose particles have an average diameter of .01 of an inch, would expose a surface of .34 of an acre, while one whose particles aver- aged .001 of an inch would have a soil-grain surface area of 3.4 acres. The size of the soil particles very materially affects the amount of pore space in a soil, as well as the size of the pores. The larger the particles, the larger the pores, but the smaller the aggregate amount of pore space ; ^ and a greatly lessened proportion of this space will consist of pores small enough to hold water, or to draw it from the deeper soil by capillary attraction. It follows from the foregoing that, generally speaking, the finer the soil the more capillary water it will retain, and the greater will be its power to draw water from supplies deep down in the earth. It is possible, however, for both water movement and water capacity to be lessened by an extreme fineness of soil grains. In the case of an extremely fine clay soil the particles may be so drawn together by their attraction for each other, rendering the interspaces extremely fine, as to permit only a comparatively small amount of water to enter these various aggrega- tions. An extremely fine-grained soil, with its consequent fine i)ore spaces, is unfavorable to thorough aeration ; neither does it idlow the roots proper freedom in penetrating and exploring the feeding ground. Any tendency toward a puddled condition in these soils is apt to affect the uniformity of development of the root systems, and in the case of tuberous crops, as potatoes, or root crops, such as sugar beets, may materially affect the condition and quality of the crop. How Certain Physical Defects may be Remedied — (a) Tillage when the soil is in proper condition will break up tiie contracted condition and increase the aeration and capillary capacity of the surface portion of very fine soils. (b) Freezing expands these soils, forcing the particles apart. Its beneficial effects on a stiff clay soil can hardly be estimated, especially if not counteracted by heavy rains after the frost goes out. The thoroughness' with which the frost does this work can not be duplicated by the use of any tool or combination of tools. (c) Underdrainage, to prevent the free water remaining in the sqII, is a great factor in preventing its contraction. 1 The amount of pore space in a cubic foot of soilthat 1 from a little more than one-third in the case of a fine is unoccupied, or occupied only by air or water, varies | gravel to over one-half in some of the finest clay soils. FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS 23 (d) Tlie growth of grasses whose roots will thoroughly fill the upper soil, and of the legumes, whose larger roots penetrate the deeper soil, is an important aid in loosening up and expanding these soils. The decaying roots and other vegetable matter, if sufficient in quantity, will effectually prevent their contraction into a puddled condition, Avill render them con- stantly more loose and open, will make them much more easily cultivated, and, in fact, will improve them in every way. Decaying vegetable matter also tends to bind together those soils that are too coarse and wliose pores are too large, increasing their water- holding capacity and decreasing evapoi'ation therefrom. VEGETABLE MATTER AS A FACTOR OF FERTILITY Lands continuously cultivated gradually diminish in productive capacity The growth of any kind of vegetation, as we have seen, takes up a certain amount of various mineral elements from the soil. The discovery of this fact, and of the additional one that these several substances are necessary elements of plant food, naturally led to the conclusion that the loss in productive capacity must be due to the diminished supply of mineral plant food, and that any successful effort to maintain or increase the fertility of a soil must lie in the direction of replacing these elements by artificial means.* The table ^ on the following page shows how much of each of the three elements most readily lost from the soil is removed therefrom in the production of various crops. Photograph showing root development of " 3I01 Fig. 6. medium red cfover. (Prof. F. H. King : Physics of Agriculture.) 1 In some of the States more than $0,000,000 is ex- pi'nded annually for commercial fertilizer.s in an effort to increase the productiveness of the land. 3 Adapted from publications of the United States Department of Agriculture. 24 SOIL FERTILITY Fertilizing Constituents Removed from Soil by Given Quantities of Certain Crops KIND OF CROP. Weight of Material. Nitrogen. Potash. Phos- phoric Acid. Alfalfa, dry green _ Barley, grain only Beans, kernels only _ - Beets, red, roots only yellow fodder, roots only sugar (whole plant, to produce one ton roots). Buckwheat, dry hajr - - - green, in blossom __ Cabbage Carrots Clover, Alsike dry _ _ - - - - green - -- -. crimson, dry green red, dry _ - - - _ - . " green white, dry - green -.. Corn, field (kernels and cobs) fodder, dry (with ears) sweet (whole plant, to produce one ton husked ears) . Cotton (to produce 100 lbs. lint) Cow-pea, dry, whole plant ^ green Flax (to produce 100 lbs. fiber) Hemp (to produce 100 lbs. clean fiber) — Hops, leaves and stems — Kentucky blue grass _ _ - - - - - Lettuce leaves -. Millet, dry _ - green - Oats, hay, in bloom " green fodder --. -- — grain only .__ -- -- Onions Parsnips - Peas, dry, in bloom _ - " green __ " seed only Potatoes, Irish, tubers - sweet, roots — Pumpkins, whole fruit - Rice, uuhuUed grain only - . Rye, grain only Sugar cane, leaves and tops removed Timothy hay Tobacco (to produce one ton leaf) Tomatoes, fruit - Turnips, roots Wheat, winter (to produce one ton grain) . Poimds 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 ,500 to 3,060 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 5,260 947 2,000 2,000 687 598 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 1,600 to .3. 000 2,000 2,000 5,000 Pounds 44.00 14.40 35.00 80.00 4.80 3.80 4.60tol2.00 16.70 10.20 7.60 3.20 46 60 8.80 40.00 8.60 42.00 10.60 50.00 11.20 28.20 36.00 15.20 20.71 39.00 5.40 12.37 6.27 15.00 23.80 4.60 25.60 12.20 24.00 9.80 40.00 4.00 4.40 66.00 10.00 80.00 4.20 4.80 2.20 26.80 35.00 3.40 25.20 44 to 120.10 3.20 3.60 51.11 Pounds. 34.00 11.20 12.00 24.00 8.80 9.20 5.54 to 17.20 48.40 8.60 8.60 10.20 40.20 4.00 25.00 9.80 40.00 9 20 .30.00 4.80 9.40 18.00 17.80 13.06 29.40 6.20 7.29 10.13 17.60 31.40 7.40 34.00 8.20 50.80 7.60 12.00 3.50 12.40 .34.00 11.20 20.00 5.80 7.40 1.80 5.60 11.00 2.17 .30.60 70 to 170 5.40 Pounds. 10.60 2.60 15 00 24.00 1.80 1.80 1.47 to 4.74 12.20 2.20 2.20 0.20 14.00 2.20 7.60 2.60 10.00 2.60 14.00 4.00 11.40 11.00 5.80 8.17 10.60 2.00 6.76 3.32 8.00 8.00 1.40 10.00 .3.80 13.40 2.60 16.00 2.50 3.80 10.20 3.60 16.00 1.40 1.60 3.20 9.40 16.00 1.48 9.20 11.8 to 20.4 1.00 2.00 22.22 It is the gravest error, however, as has been previously pointed out, to consider that the f ertiUty of a soil depends upon its supply of mineral plant food ; neither is it any more correct to consider the supply of soluble mineral plant food in any soil as a definite amount, like so much horse feed in a barrel, to be drawn upon until exhausted, with no power in the barrel to renew the supply. As has been shown, all HUMUS THE PRIME ESSENTIAL 25 soils have their origin in the rock masses of the earth, and wliat lias been developed from a given material may continue to be developed therefrom under like condi- tions; under improved conditions the rate of its development may be accelerated. If there Avere no means of replacing tliese elements from the foundation soil, the estimates that have so conmionly been made as to the number of years a given soil might be expected to produce a certain crop, based upon the amount of plant food in the soil as shown by chemical analysis, and the quantity taken up by an average growth of this crop, would be entirely erroneous. This method of calculation takes no account of leaching, which in humid or semi- humid climates is very great, there being leached out of an average soil by the percolating waters from five to seven pounds of plant food for every pound taken up by the crop. It is also a decided error to refer to the sale of so many pounds of plant food, contained in grain, as the only, or even the greatest, evil resulting from the continued production of grain crops and their sale from the land. Even if the whole croj) were returned to the soil, there would be replaced oiily 15 to 20 per cent of the mineral plant food that has been given up by the soil during the production of that crop. As the rock fragments are decomposed and dissolved, a part is taken up by the plants, and, as we see, a much larger part is carried away by the percolating waters to the sea, to be again laid down, to go through the process of rock formation, and perhaps at some future day to repeat the process now going on. It may still be asked, what causes the reduction in fertility, if not the reduction of the amount of soluble plant food? The answer is, a lessening of that element in the soil which not only afEects, but very largely controls, all the factors of fertility heretofore discussed, namely, humus. Effect of Hviinvis on Mineral Plant Food — The supply of vege- table matter in the soil not only improves the mechanical condition thereof as i-egards the decay of the rock fragments, but the heat generated by its decom- l)Osition and the humic acid supplied therefrom are among the most potent agents in rendering soluble the mineral plant food. The following experiment is given to show the effect of vegetable matter in decomposing and rendering soluble the inert mineral matters of the soil. It also illustrates the loss of this soluble plant food from a soil, aside from what is taken up by the crop, as the soil was kept bare. Two boxes were filled with soil identi- cally the same, except that to one was added 20 per cent of its weight in cow 2fi SOIL FERTILITY manure. These boxes were treated exactly alike for twelve months, the soil receiving an occasional stirring. At the end of this period an analysis showed an increase of 30 per cent in the soluble plant food of the soil to which manure was added, after making allowance for what was contained in the manure, while that which received no manure showed a loss in soluble plant food of 4.36* per cent. According to a series of experiments that have been cairied on for a number of years at the Minnesota Experiment Station, continuous grain-cropping where (a) no manure was applied resulted in the reduction of the humus content of the soil at the rate of 1,500 to 1,800 pounds an acre per annum. But where (b) a rotation was practiced that had clover for one of its factors, and had the second-growth clover plowed under as green manure, there was at the end of the first complete rotation "not only no decrease, but a very decided increase, in the amount of humus in the soil. The amount of soluble plant food was very greatly reduced in the first case, while in the latter there was a decided increase. This, too, in spite of the fact that the rotation lands had in consequence thereof produced larger crops which had consequently removed more plant food from the soil. The increase in yield was five bushels of wheat and twenty bushels of corn to the acre. The more abundant the vegetable matter in the soil, the more rapid will be its oxidation and reduction. It is found also that the amount of soluble plant food is reduced much more rapidly than is the humus content, the change in this latter showing itself very quickly in its effect upon the mechanical condition of a soil, and consequently upon the decomposition of its particles. Professor Snyder has done quite extensive work in the way of collecting and ana- lyzing soils that have been cropped in various ways ; also of soils that have not been cropped at all. He finds that a native prairie soil contains about twice as much vegetable matter, and three to five times as much of the more important elements of plant food in a soluble form,'as adjacent soils that have been continuously cropped with grain for fifteen or twenty years, while many farms that have been under culti- vation for much longer periods, but which have been allowed to produce an occa- sional crop of timothy and clover (receiving now and then a dressing of manure), remain in a condition almost equal to that of the native soils. One particular instance may be cited. Of two adjoining farms, both under cultivation for thirty- five years, and originally alike, one has received frequent dressings of manure, has produced wheat, corn, oats and timothy, and clover in rotation, and shows no apparent decline in fertility. The other has grown grain continuously without receiving any manure or vegetable matter in any form. During the first few years HOW HUMUS 0ON"SEEVES MOISTURE 27 heavy crops were raised, but during the past few years the yields have been very low, especially in dry years. It is estimated that the producing power of this piece of land has been reduced 68 per cent. A neighboring farm that has been under cultivation for forty-two years, and has received a systematic rotation, with a (b'ess- ing of manure, every five years, at the rate of ten tons per acre, is in even better condition than the one first mentioned. Effect of Humus on Moisture of Soils — It has been found tlmt a native prairie soil will retain about 30 per cent more moisture than one that has been continuously grain-cropped for fifteen or twenty years. Some samples of soil taken in 1899, to a depth of four and one-half feet, showed the following relation to each other in percentage of moisture and total volatile matter. The samples were taken on the same day on land that was almost level being taken from adjoining plots, which had produced the same kind of a crop, and had had the same kind of cultivation and treatment throughout the season. The results are averages for the four and one-half feet in depth. SAMPLE. Vegetable Matter Per Cent. Moisture Per Cent. No. 1 -- . . .. . ^ 2.. 37 4.5 11.93 No. 2 . ... -• 21 7 A soil will not yield all its water to plants. In a good average soil, plants can not reduce the moisture below 6 or 7 per cent. So that soil Xo. 2 contained at the time of sampling less than twice as much vegetable matter and more than two and one-half times as much available moisture as No. 1. In experiments to determine the effects of manure upon evaporation it has been found that a good application of well-rotted manure, well worked into the soil, will reduce the evaporation to the extent of one ton of water per acre per day. To show the effect upon the moisture capacity of a soil produced by an extreme amount of vegetable matter, the following example is given : This sample was taken on a piece of permanent pasture land and to a depth of four feet. The per- centage of vegetable matter present was 34.66, and the moisture content was 63.13 per cent. During the extreme drought of 1901 the moisture was so conserved on a plat very rich in vegetable matter, as to result in a yield of over eighty ])ashels of corn to the acre ; while a plat a few rods distant, on practically the same level and 28 SOIL FERTILITY Fig. 7. Pliotograiih of corn, showing moisture-conserving effect of vege- table matter in the soil during a dry season. (Edgerton.) receiving the same cultivation, but poor in hnmus, produced less than twenty bushels per acre. (Figs. 7 and 8.) The loss of vegetable matter produces a decided effect upon the soil in another way especially notice- able in wet seasons or after heavy rains. As the vegetable skeleton is decomposed the soil particles are allowed to come together more closely and form greater obstruction to the passage of the excess of water through them, so that even if well under- drained a much longer time is required for the sur- face to get in proper condition for cultivation, and for the soil to receive a new supply of air for the use of roots and the various germs. The writer has known this difference in vegetable content to mean, on the one hand, the almost continual exclusion of air from the soil, with no opportunity for cultivation; and, on the other hand, fairly good aeration, a fair opportunity for cultivation, and a good healthy growth of crop. (Figs. 9 and 10.) Effect on Aeration — In soils that are at all comjiuct the problem of improving the aeration is a very important one, and for this purpose no treatment or manipulation can be applied that will duplicate the effect produced by the presence of decaying vegetable matter. Tillage will open up the surface portion but can not extend to the deeper soil. After the soil is stirred, in the absence of a good supporting vegetable skeleton, it tends to settle and draw together again, gradually cutting off the air movement. In very fine soils a heavy rain, Fig. 8. Photograph of corn grown on soil having the same elevation and located only a few rods from that which produced corn shown in Fig. 7, but which, by reason of long cultiva- tion, contained a very small amoimt of vegetable matter. (Edgerton.) INCREASING THE HUMUS CONTENT OF SOILS 29 soon after the stirring takes place, may cause almost an entire suspension of- air movement. The jiresence of a good supply of vegetable matter will maintain a constant open condition on any Avell-drained soil under almost any conditions of rainfall. , The growth and decomposition of somewhat fleshy roots, as of clover and alfalfa, open up passageways for the air into the deeper soil. On soils that are too coarse and open, vegetable matter, by increasing the amount of water held and binding the particles together, also by partially filling some of the larger inter- spaces, tends to hold in check the excessive air movement of such soils and thus to lessen internal evaporation. Iiiflvieiice on Soil Temperatvire — As we have observed, the temper- ature of a soil is a very imj)ortant factor. Vegetable matter affects temperature (a) by making the soil darker in color, and enabling it to absorb more of the sun's heat; (b) by lessening evaporation, which is a cooling process; (c) by enabling the soil to get rid of its surplus water by percolation, so that the same amount of heat will raise the temperature of the soil to a higher degree ; (d) by its decomposition, and by furnishing conditions more favorable for the action of the countless germs in the soil, and for the more rapid decomposition of the mineral matters. Almost all of these processes of decomposition generate more or less heat. Methods of Increasing the Hnmns Content of Soils — As pre- viously stated, the production of a cultivated crop on an average soil Avill result in the loss from that soil of from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds of humus per acre, which in some manner must be replaced if the fertility of the soil is to be maintained. There are three ways in which this may be done ; (a) By the application of manure, (b) by proper rotation of crops, and (c) by a combination of the first two. (a) Application of Manure — From what has been said it is but a logical deduction that the sale of the roughage from the farm, or the burning of the straw, is far worse for the fertility of that farm than is the sale of the grain portion of the crop, inasmuch as the greater portion of the vegetable fiber of a crop is contained in the fodder portion. If lands are to produce grain or other cultivated crops continuously, and to be maintained solely by the application of manure, they will require a dressing of at least fifteen tons of well-rotted manure every five years, or as may sometimes give better results, a dressing of three tons each year. This should be thoroughly worked into the soil. The time of application should be governed by the crop that is to follow. More- over, unless manure is plowed in soon after being drawn, the condition and topog- raphy of the surface will have a great deal of influence upon the loss that may 30 SOIL FEETILITY occur. Manure spread and allowed to lie for some time on a stiff clay, with an unplowed surface, especially if rolling, or on rolling ground when frozen, may be subjected to heavy loss by the action of rains leaching through it and carrying portions of it away in the surface drainage. (b) Pkoper Rotation — This means not only that various crops shall be grown, but tbat the variation shall be such as to allow the ground to be covered a portion of the time with crops, perennial in their nature, that do not require culti vation, so that they may be left to occupy the ground long enough for their roots to thoroughly ramify the soil. It has been clearly demonstrated that such a system may result, not only in maintaining the supj)ly of vegetable matter in a soil, but in increasing it, while at the same time, larger crops are being produced. As regards the crops adapted for this purpose: Some of the leguminous plants should be used in the rotation, as they will not only increase the supply of nitrogen, but, their roots being large and pene- trating deeply, they will open up and add humus to the deeper soil. Some of the grasses that develop a good sod, as timothy, blue grass, or orchard grass, should also have an occasional place in the systemj, as their roots permeate all parts of the soil most com- pletely and greatly improve its mechanical condition, especially as regards the upper portion, or that which forms the seed-bed. (c) Combining Rotation with Applications OF Manure — A combination of the two methods just described is much better than either one alone. The application of manure can not well be made to reach the subsoil with its physical effects, and, on the other hand, the soil may be improved much more rapidly by the addition of manure than by rotation alone. Also, if so desired, a larger per- centage of grain crops may enter into the rotation ""'^IrdSirgSVb^e'rlT^^^^^^^ without injury to the land, if the rotation is supple- StumusiKroll'TEdgert^S mentcd with an occasional dressing of manure. BENEFITS OF STOCK-RAISING 81 MIXED FARMING The surest way to improve the fertility of a piece of hmd, or even to maintain it, is to employ such a mixture of stock and grain-growing that practically all the grain and roughage that is raised on the farm will be consumed thereon. If no stock is kept, the only incentive for rotation is the improvement of the soil, and consequently it is too apt to be neglected. If there is a considerable amount of stock the grow- ing of grasses and clover has for its additional purpose the supplying of pasture and hay for the animals. In the latter case, also, the manure, a large part of which is sure to be lacking in exclusive grain-grow- ing, is a consideration of value. The kind of stock used is of minor importance so long as it is such a class or combination of classes as to utilize the "roughness" for either food or bed- ding. It is very much better to have the straw worked into manure by utilizing it for bedding than to let it rot in the stack. Bedding should be used freely enough with all •animals to absorb all the liquid, as there is often moie plant food voided in the urine than in the solid ex- crement. Furthermore, the liquid portion of the excrement is in such condition as to be very readily transformed into available plant food and thus to give quick returns for its application. There is a difference, however, in the concentra- tion and mechanical division of the excrement from the different classes of animals which renders the immediate effects of their application decidedlv different. For example : The application of one ton of sheep manure Avill produce much greater im- mediate results than the same amount of the manure of cattle, the difference in concentration making it somewhat richer (it has a considerably less percentage ,1 , Ai m/\i' .I^\' • n Fig. 10. Photograph of corn grow- ing on the same level and only 100 feet from that shown in Fig. 9, on land having the same underdrain- age, but with a larger quantity of vegetable matter in the soil. (Edg- erton.) 32 SOIL FERTILITY of water), and the difference in mechanical division making its content of plant food more readily available and so increasing its immediate effect upon the soil. Commercial vs. Natural Fertilizers — Tlie term ''commercial fertil- izers/' as used here, is intended to apply in its entirety only to those fertilizers made by grinding ujo various kinds of rock material that contain a high percentage of one or more of the essential elements of plant food. Those having an animal or vegetable origin (like tankage from slaughter-houses, the guanos, etc.) have a value, as heretofore explained, aside from the actual plant food contained. Owing to the multiplicity of causes that usually combine to produce a given effect in the agricultural world, it very commonly happens that first conclusions as to the cause of a given result cover but a small portion of the actual field. It was but natural, in the present case, that inasmuch as the percentage of soluble plant food in a soil decreases as the yield of crops decreases, the soil's con- tent of soluble plant food should at first have been considered the sole controlling factor in crop production. The logical procedure from such a basis would be an attempt to maintain or increase the productiveness of the soil by adding to it some material containing these essential elements in large quantity. Hence, there has grown up an immense industry, based on this theory, and more or less patronized by all the older sections of the country. Most of the Eastern States spend annually millions of dollars in an effort to increase the productiveness of their soils by this method. That some benefit is often derived fi-om such application there is no doubt, and in favorable seasons and under certain conditions the effect may even be very marked. The outcome, however, is very uncertain, owing to the fact that such an application, as a rule, affects only the one factor of fertility, namely, the sup- ply of mineral plant food. The moisture capacity, temperature, aeration, etc., are unaffected thereby. It follows that very often this application produces no increase in yield, and the total crop is sometimes worth no more than has been expended on commercial fertilizers for its production. The mineral plant food contained in these fertilizers is only partially soluble, and those who have been using them for years have discovered that by mixing them with manure and maintaining proper conditions for fermentation these materials will be rendered much more soluble. It is only reasonable to suppose that a similar action would produce a similar effect when applied to the same materials already in the soil. This we have seen to be the actual result as evidenced by experi- ment. Therefore, when we remember that the soil contains an abundance of these ECONOMY IN FERTILIZING 33 necessary mineral elements, in one form or another, and that the conditions neces- sary for their rapid transformation into available form are also the conditions most favoring the other factors of fertility, we can only conclude that millions of dollars ai-e annually being wasted. In fact, money spent in this way is very often worse than wasted, because if the proper methods were pursued, the farmer would not only save that expense but enjoy a much larger yield of crop and an improved condition of soil for years to come. When a man buys such fertilizer he is spend- ing money for a commodity which he already possesses in greater abundance than he can ever hope to utilize. In sliort, it is poor business policy to huy what you can groio or develop yourself loitliout any expense, especially when hy so doing you are increasing your gross returns and permanently improving the condition of your lands in other ways. An extensive series of experiments with the various commercial fertilizers and barnyard manure conducted by the Michigan Agricultural College furnishes a good illustration.^ This report covers nine separate sets of experiments, conducted, one at the college and one in each of eight different counties. The crops used were corn, potatoes, beans, and sugar beets. A statement of the condition of the lands used is lacking in most of the cases, but those described are spoken of as having been severely and injuriously cropped. These results do not show much benefit to have been derived by the use of commercial fertilizers over no fertilizers at all, whereas, the increase in yields of plots fertilized with manure over those fertilized with commercial fertilizer was very marked, and in some cases almost double. This, too, in the face of the fact that in some cases, at least, the manure was applied in a coarse and unrotted condition, a procedure that would not, by any means, give the best possible results for that year. Many similar cases might be given, but this example is sufficient to show the immediate effects produced by manure, and it very frequently happens, in the appli- cation of manure, especially if it is not well rotted before being applied, that much greater benefits will be derived therefrom in the second and third years after appli- cation than in the first, and the effect may continue to be noticed for years. An idea of the immediate benefits that may be derived from the growing of legu- minous crops upon the land may be obtained from the following examples : Prof. J. F. Duggar reports an experiment in which the plowing under of a crop of cow-pea vines, after the peas had been harvested, gave an increase in yield of 250 per cent of wheat, 300 per cent of oats, and an increase in seed-cotton worth 1 Bulletin 181, Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. 34 SOIL FEETILITY (at Gfc.) 116.50 to $17.40 to the acre. In an experiment at the Wyoming Station, a tract of land of uniform condition and quality was divided, and one-half seeded to and allowed to remain in alfalfa for five years. The other half produced each year a crop of grain or pota- toes. At the end of the five years the whole plot was plowed, prejDared, and each half planted to the same crop. The increase in yield from the alfalfa land over that from the land that had been continuously cropped with cultivated crops, when figured at the local market prices, was equal to 116 per acre. This was figuring the crop from the two sections to be of equal quality, whereas, as a matter of fact, there was considerable difference in quality in favor of the alfalfa land. Where plants are enabled to go right along with a normal and vigorous development they can elaborate and store up in their seeds a larger amount of material, and plumper, heavier seed will result than where the plants are less thrifty, or where their development is cut off by a sudden shortage in moisture supply or other cause. In the above case oats from the alfalfa land weighed forty- three' pounds to the bushel.^ Fig. 11. Photograph showing beneficial effects upon the soil of growing leguminous crops, alfalfa being used in this experiment. The two larger samples of oats and wheat were grown upon alfalfa land, the two smaller ones upon land that had been continuously in some grain or cultivated crop. (Prof. B. C. BufiEum, Bulletin 44, Wyoming Ex- periment Station.) 1 The legal weight of oats in the various States ranges between 26 pounds (Maryland) and 36 pounds (Oregon and Idaho). BENEFITS OF ARTIFTCTAL DRAIXAGE 35 SOIL AMENDMENTS There may occur, either from improper treatment or from unfavorable natural conditions, soil conditions that may be greatly ameliorated by the application of certain mineral ingredients as corrective agents. As we have seen, lands that have become unproductive through too great an accumulation of carbonate salts (black alkali) may be greatly improved by an application of gypsum to change these salts into the sulphate (white alkali) form, which is less injurious. Close, heavy soils, or even lighter soils, under improper conditions may become sour. In such cases an application of lime will be found of great value. From twenty to seventy-five bushels may be applied, according to the severity of the case. A direct application of lime is sometimes injurious to certain crops, so that the safer plan will be to make any such ajiplications the fall before the land is to be put into crop. Lime may also perform a very valuable service in improving the texture of very fine heavy clays, by flocculating* the minute particles and thus rendering such soils more free and open for the entrance of air, the movement of moisture, and the penetration of roots. UNDERDRAINAGE WHAT TILE DRAINAGE DOES In what has gone before, many of the various soil amendments effected by proper drainage have been indicated in their connection. We may now summarize these benefits : It has been shown that air (the most important components of which are nitro- gen, oxygen, and a small proportion of carbon dioxide) must be present in the soil, being essential to the germination of seeds, to the growth of plants, to the activ- ities of the nitrifying bacteria, to the life of the parasites of the legumens, and to the chemical changes that set free mineral plant food in the soil. Free water excludes air, and the mischief, as has been seen, does not end with the simple cessation of the processes mentioned; for the denitrifying bacteria, deprived by excess of water of the oxygen they require, extract the needful element from the nitrates, so locking up or even setting free available nitrogen. Underdraiiiage Aerates the Soil — (a) By improving soil texture, or making possible such improvement, so as to admit air to spaces formerly occupied by freie water ; (b) by admitting plants to a deeper growth and providing livable 1 This term refers to the gathering; together of the fine particles into groups or clusters, and has the effect of making the soil somewhat coarser. 36 UNDEEDRAINAGE conditions for earthworms and burrowing animals, all of which aid in ventilation ; (c) by permitting the flocculation of the clay subsoil and by lessening its tendency to contract upon itself ; (d) by the agency of the lines of tile themselves, into which soil air is forced by barometric high pressure or expansion due to rising temper- ature, and from which the plant roots derive fresh air when barometric low pressure or fall in temperature produces a partial vacuum in the soil. Effect on Soil Moisture — We have also observed that plants can not properly develop without an adequate supply of capillary moisture. In the under- drained field the reservoir of capillary water has been increased ; surface washing and leaching are both reduced, owing to the greater capacity of this reservoir to handle the rainfall ; a heavier rainfall may be received without making the surface soil too wet for proj^er cultiva- tion. By no means of least importance is the fact that the larger root develop- ment, that is stimulated by underdrain- age, enables the plant to absorb a given amount of water with a much less per- centage of moisture present in the soil. Effect on Soil Temperature — A warm soil, as we have learned, is also of the greatest importance. Un- derdrainage aids greatly in the produc- tion of a warmer condition of soil : (a) By removing the surplus moisture by percolation instead of evaporation ; (b) by decreasing the amount of surplus water in the soil, and thus enabling a given amount of heat to warm a larger amount of soil ; (c) by enabling the soil in the early spring to absorb a larger pro- portion of the warm rains (such rainfall containing a very large amount of latent heat); and (d) by improving the condi- FiG. 12. Photograph showing shallow rooting of corn in tious f or decomposition and various ,n,dramedsoil. (Pvot. F.U.King: Physics of Agricul- chemical actloUS which produCC heat. . / wmmam \ I ' ^syfflHi /"^i'^: M ^PWc^K n^^Vf/^^J^^^^^VuB ^^^1 m U WS^f^m^^mm ^fS ^^M^^^^^^^^ % PLANNING A DEAINAGE SYSTEM 37 Effect on Alkali Lands — It has also been pointed out that an excess of salts (forming alkali lands) may be fatal to the growth of vegetation. Underdrain- age is the only practical, permanent remedy for such conditions. WHEN DRAINAGE IS BENEFICIAL The kind of lands that need underdraining are : (a) Flat lands with basins, or where surface drainage is very poor ; (b) comparatively flat lands, if of large area, that receive the surface drainage from higher ground ; (c) low-lying lands that are kept too wet by the natural underground seepage from the surrounding higher lands ; (d) flat lands, of considerable extent, having fair surface drainage but underlaid near the surface with thick beds of close, impervious clay ; (e) hillsides where there is an outcropping of water-bearing strata ; (f) lands that are subject to inundation, especially if of a somewhat fine texture, or if surface drainage is not first class ; (g) lands requiring excessive irrigation for special crops, as rice •- and (h) alkali lands. All lands in which the surface of the free water remains for any considerable length of time nearer the surface of the ground than three feet will be benefited by underdrainage. This may be determined by digging a hole with a spade or post auger, in Avhich the water will stand on a level with that in the surrounding soil. HOW TO DRAIN LAND Location of Ditches — The getting of a proper outlet is of course the first consideration in locating a tile drain. The outlet should be as free and unob- structed as possible ; any obstruction at the mouth will tend to fill up the drain farther back, for the water is carrying more or less sediment almost all the time, and if the flow is checked the sediment will be dei:)osited. It must be so located that there will be a continuous rise in the line of tile from this point to the source, else there will be a stoppage from the same cause. In draining level land that is not affected by seepage from higher lands the drain should in a general way follow the lower land. The exceptions occur where there is so little difference in altitude between the outlet and some of the lower portions of the field to be drained that the tile can not be placed far enough" below the surface in the lower portion to insure its remaining undisturbed ; or where, to reach some low point in the field at a given altitude, it becomes necessary to cut across and shorten the distance of the main line as much as possible. Wet sloughs or draws that have a fair slope of surface are usually wet because 38 UNDERDRAINAGE of seepage water from the higher ground on either side, and will be dry ground if this is cut off. So, in a wide draw, the best plan is to run a line of tile up either side to catch this water as it comes from the higher ground. Where the draw is narrow, one line up the center will usually answer every purpose. In draining any piece of land the conditions should be carefully studied, and the actual source of the water that is causing the trouble should be determined. Level lands that are wet because of seepage from higher ground will usually be more thoroughly dried by running one line of tile along the outcrop (several feet, it may be, above the main body of wot land), to catch this water as it comes out and prevent it getting into the other soil, than by a whole network of underdrains distributed through the level land to remove the water after it once gets in. The same principle applies to boggy hillsides and all lands made wet from the outcrop of a water-bearing stratum.' The mistake has very frequently been made, in attempting to drain such places, of putting the tile on the lower side to catch the water after it has passed through the other soil and has done more or less damage, instead of on the upper side, to catch it before it gets into the adjoining terri- tory. In determining the location of a system of tile drains on level land a level should be used, as the eye, measuring as it does by comparison with surrounding objects, can not be depended upon to tell which are the lowest and highest points. Depth of Drain — Except where the outlet is such as to necessitate a shallower ditch in order to maintain a proper fall, tile should always be placed four feet below the surface, and for the following reasons : (a) To obtain, as we have seen, a large reservoir for capillary water and a larger field for root development. (b) To enable a given line of tile to drain a larger area."'^ (c) To enable the excess of water to get away more quickly after a heavy rain. It is a mistaken idea that a shallow-laid tile will carry off the surplus water more quickly after a rain than a deeper one. Aside from the fact that the deeper-laid tile develops a larger reservoir, into which this surplus water can sink many hundred times as fast as it can get into any tile, the water will find its way through the soil to the deeper tile faster than to the shallower one, by reason of the steeper incline of the surface of the free water that may be developed. The water reaching 1 This water-bearing stratum may be a layer of sand or gravel, or any other porous substance, with a layer of clay or other less porous substance beneath. 2 The surface of the free water does not extend from the tile on a level, but owing to the friction and the attraction of the soil particles, which hinder its flow, it recedes on an incline so that a tile 4 feet in depth will draw the water from a distance at least one-third greater than one 3 feet in depth. CUTTING THE DITCH 39 the tile mtiy also be forced into the deeper tile faster than into the shallower one, by reason of the greater pressure developed by the greater depth, or head of water. Establishing the Grade and Cutting the Ditch — In some sec- tions tiling consists largely in the drainage of sloughs or other lands that have a good fall all the Avay from source to outlet. In such districts a careful man of good judgment may do a good job without using a level ; especially if he have run- ning water for a guide. Such cases are, however, comparatively rare. The first step in establishing the grade is to determine the distance between the source and the outlet, and the difference in altitude between the outlet and the bottom of the pro- spective ditch at the source. The amount of this difference in altitude, divided by the number of hundred feet in length of ditch, will give the amount of fall for each hundred feet of ditch. The fall or grade should be made unifoi-m all the way, unless the conditions are such as to bring the steeper grade at the lower end of the drain. If the steeper grade be at the upper end of the line, sediment will be deposited in the lower portion of the drain, where the water runs less swiftly. If the topog- raphy o^ the area to be drained is such as to necessitate a steeper grade in the upper portion, then a silt basin should be constructed at the point where the change in grade is to be made, for the purpose of collecting the sediment brought down by the swift-running water and preventing its getting into the lower portion. This basin should extend two or three feet below the line of tile, and should be occasionally cleaned, as the sediment gathers. A fall of two inches for every one hundred feet should be secured where possible. In the draining of flat lands this will very often be impossible, and in such cases the greatest care must be taken to have the line of tile true to a line of uniform grade. It is sometimes necessary to lay drains on such lands Avith a fall of less than one-half inch to the hundred feet. In such cases a little inaccuracy in the workmanship, that would leave the bottom of the ditch a half-inch too high at any point, would leave no fall for a hundred feet, would reduce the capacity of the tile, and might in time cause a complete stoppage. For the laying of drains under these conditions an experienced and careful man or crew should be secured, and even then the work should be carefully supervised and inspected. The bottom of the ditch should be scraped to an exact grade, as bringing the tile to grade by filling under loose dirt in the low places will cause the tile to get out of shape through the settling of the loose dirt. Perhaps the best method of obtaining an accurate grade to the bottom of the ditch is by means of a line stretched above and attached to stakes set every 50 or 100 feet along the line of ditch. Care must be taken that the line is parallel with 40 UNDERDRAINAGE the desired grade ; then, that the measuring rod be set accurately at the point indicating the depth of ditch below the line, and the ditch carefully measured all the way. The ditch should not be made wider than will just give room to work conveniently. Anything more is a waste of energy in removing the dirt and in tilling the ditch. The ditch should be narrowed down with the last spading so that at the bottom it is little wider than the tile. The bottom should be left rounded by the use of a cleaning scoop of convexity similar to that of the tile, to aid in keeping the tile in its proper place. A ditch unnecessarily wide at the bottom is liable to cause the tile to be misplaced in the filling. Laterals should enter the main at a higher level than the bottom of the main, unless the same sized tile is used for both and there is good fall. They may be brought in on top of the main, or at the side, above the bottom. Many tile makers now make con- nections for joining mains and laterals. If these are used the difference in altitude of lateral and main ditch should equal one-half the difference in diameter of tile used. For example, in joining a 3-iuch lateral to a 5-inch main, the bottom of lateral ditch should be one inch above bottom of main. Laying of Tile — The first thing to look to in this connection is the character of the tile. They should be smooth, strong, well shaped, and with good, well-fitting ends. A porous tile is not essential, as but little water enters the drain in this way. They should also be well and uniformly burned so as to be of uniform diameter and thickness of rim. If they are not uniform in this respect they may be sorted, putting the hard-burned ones together and at the upper end of the sys- tem, or using them for laterals, as they are smaller. The tile should be laid in perfect alignment, crowded up as tightly and made to fit as snugly as possible, to prevent sedjment entering at the joints. The laying is usually done by means of a tile hook on the end of a long pole. ■i^itJ^M- FiG. 13. Photograph showing willow roots as takeu from a tile drain which they had completely clogged. (Edgerton.) COST OF TILE DRAINAGE 41 Filling the Ditch — After the line of tile has been carefully inspected a few inches of dirt (clay, if possible) should be carefully filled in by hand to hold the tile in place, after which the remainder of the filling may be done with horses attached to a plow by means of a long doubletree, that will enable one horse to walk on either side of the ditch. Frequency of Drains — The distance apart that drains should be placed on level land will depend upon : (a) The character of the subsoil throngh which the water must pass in order to reach the tile, whether fine and close or open ; (b) the depth of the tile below the surface, the deeper drain drawing water from a greater distance than the shallower one ; (c) the frequency of overflow or of rains sufficiently heavy to produce percolation. It is seldom necessary to place drains nearer than 100 feet, and in open, alluvial soils, 300 feet will usually suffice if the tile is laid four feet deep. On such lands a system may be put in in such a way that other laterals may be inserted later, if those first put in are found too far apart. This will avoid the possibility of needless expense in putting in more lines than are needed. Size of Tile — A tile should be sufficiently large to carry away the surplus water as fast as it can get to and into it. But any size greater than is necessary to do this is not only an unnecessary expense, but in many cases does not make so good a drain. The theory held by some that a large tile is less liable than a small one to become filled with sediment, is not correct. With a given amount of water pass- ing, the larger the tile the more readily will the sediment be deposited, because the water, being spread out over a greater surface, will be more shallow and run much mbre slowly. After this deposition has once begun the tendency is greatly increased. A 3-inch tile is the best size for laterals or any single lines of not more than half a mile in length and having a good fall. The fall is, of course, a large factor in determining the amount of water a tile will carry. Larger sizes should be used for the main drain, varying according to the amount drained into it. An 8-inch tile, with a fall of two or more inches for every 100 feet is sufficient to carry the surplus water from 80 acres of land. The carrying capacity of a tile varies according to the square of its diameter, except for the influence of friction which is proportionately greater in tlie smaller sizes. Keep Clear of Tree Roots — Any living trees should be avoided with lines of tile, or else the trees killed at once, lest they enter the tile and choke it up. Such trees as the willow, poplar, elm, and soft maple should never be left nearer than 75 feet. Cost of Tiling" — This is a question that can be determined for each case 42 KOADS AND ROAD MAKING only by the conditions affecting the same. The cost of digging the ditch will depend upon the average depth, the size of the tile to be laid, the character of the soil/ and by the amount of fall, making a greater or less amount of care necessary in getting the line of tile true and even. The cost of tile will also vary somewhat with different seasons and with the distance to a good tile factory. The writer has paid all the way from 19 to $13 a thousand for 3-inch tile, and from 20 to 35 cents per rod for cutting a 4-foot ditch, laying the tile and filling in sufficient dirt to hold the tile securely in place. Most modern tile are made 13 inches in length and sixteen of them will lay one rod. ROADS AND ROAD MAKING The condition of the roadways of any locality, whether in city or country, largely determines the value of its property. A good road is essential, not only for pleasurable driving, but also for the marketing of the various products of the farm. In sections having very poor roads it frequently happens that the farmeis are unable to take advantage of the favorable changes in the market, owing to inability to haul their crops whenever they desire. The cost of moving farm products and supplies averages,^ on all our country roads, twenty-five cents per ton per mile, while in the "good-roads" districts the average is only about eight cents — a difference which in the aggregate amounts to more than the entire annual expenditures of the National Government. Whereas, one-tiuelfth of the farm value of the agricultural products of the United States would be sufficient to pay for hauling over good roads to shipping points, the cost of hauling over roads as they are is equal to one-quarter of the farm value. The destruction of perishable products for want of access to markets, the failure to reach markets when prices are at a maximum, and the enforced idleness of men and draft animals during seasons of impassable roads, constitute a "bad-road tax" upon the industry of the nation generally and upon that of the farmer directly. EARTH ROADS There are various systems of road construction, but for many years to come the greater portion of tlie roads in many parts of tha country will continue to be con- structed entirely of earth, owing to the difficulty of obtaining other material. The 1 Whether friable and easy to dig, or hard aud stony; also whether or not there are sand patches that are liable to give trouble by caving. 2 According to calculations made by the United States Department of Agriculture. EARTH ROAD CONSTRUCTION 43 earth road, howevei", by the use of proper methods of construction and of mainte- nance afterward, may be made into a very passable road for all seasons of the year. As the construction should be tlio same whether an all-cartli road is the end sought, or whether it is to be finished l)y surfacing a part or all of it Avith stone or gravel, the construction of the ''dirt road *' will be first considered. Drainage — The first essential of a good road, regardless of the surfacing material used, is thorough surface and uuderdrainage, either natural or artificial. No stone surface will keep its place for-any length of time if it has a soft, spongy foundation. There should be surface drains where necessary, to carry off the surface water quickly and not allow it to stand and soak into the road. If there is not good natural uuderdrainage, tile should be laid. This should have a free outlet and as much fall as possible. In most cases one line under the center of the road will be more effective than two lines run on either side of the road, as the former gives a greater depth of drained soil where it is most needed. "Where possible, the tile should be laid four feet below the natural level of the ground, regard- less of the amount of grading that has been done. If the road passes through a springy place in such a way that the water comes in from both sides, it is usually best to put a line of tile on each side of the road If it is on a hillside and water comes out directly under the roadbed, these lines, or branches therefrom, should be carried under the road in such a manner as to catch this seepage. If the road passes such a place on the lower side, so that water tends to enter the roadbed only from one side, the tile should be placed on that side in such manner as to catch the water before it enters the road, instead of, as sometimes placed, on the lower side to catch it after it has passed through the road and done the mischief. A 3-inch tile with a good fall will be large enough to carry the water for a half-mile of road, except in very wet places or where the surface drainage is not good. Where it is necessary to put in longer lines larger sizes of tile will be necessary in the lower part of the course. Owing to the difficulty of securing outlets in many localities it may often be of mutual advan- tage for the road supervisors to join with the farmers and drain the road and adjacent farm lands in one system. ' Establishing the Grades — The steeper grades in the road should be lessened as much as maybe. The extent to which this should be carried, from an economical standpoint, will depend upon the quality of the roadbed. It will be of no special advantage to be able to haul very large loads over the main portion of the road if there are a few places over which these loads can not be drawn. Forming- the Roadbed — The roadbed should be made of medium width; 16 or 18 feet, with a strip of grass 3 feet wide on each side, making 22 to 24 feet between the surface drains, is usually satisfactory. The surface should be graded to a proper convexity by the use of a road machine, or by other means where a road machine can not be used. The surface should have sufficient slope to carry off 44 ROADS AND EOAD MAKING the water quickly, but not enough to cause washing, or to cause vehicles to slide or cut deep ruts on the lower side by reason of the weight of the load being thrown largely on that side. A road of the width mentioned should be about 6 inches higher in the center than at the margins. The surface should be thoroughly harrowed to get it even and smooth and then well rolled with a heavy roller. This will put the surface in shape not only for convenient traveling but also for quick surface drainage, preventing the water from entering the road to soften it up. Surfacing" — In some localities where the soil is a gravelly loam, excellent roads may be maintained without the use of any other material. In most sections, however, they may be very greatly improved by surfacing with rock or gravel. MACADAM ROADS Where a road is required to support a large amount of heavy traffic the surfacing should be done on the macadam plan, which is as follows : Prepare the roadbed a year in advance, if possible, to allow it to become thoroughly settled. On each side of the portion of road that is to be surfaced, is left a shoulder of earth* of a height equal to the desired thickness of the made surface, to hold it in place. Over the roadbed is then spread a 3 or 4-inch layer of crushed rock of as nearly uniform size as possible. This layer is thoroughly rolled and then evenly covered with enough finely crushed rock to fill the interspaces between the larger rock, into which it is worked by thorough wetting and rolling. Then another layer is applied in like manner, making a very solid road surface, 8 or 9 inches thick. The layer of rock should be evenly spread, so there will be no tendency to bunches and hollows. The roller used should be heavy and of suflScient diameter so that it will not push the stone in front of it in the least. The rolling should begin at the outer edges and continue toward the center, and should be repeated until the surface is thoroughly hard and smooth. COMBINATION EARTH AND STONE ROAD Where there is less heavy traffic a much cheaper form of construction than the all-stone road, and one that gives very good satisfaction, is that which employs stone for one-half and -earth for the other. The one track is sufficient for the heavy loads, and may, in times when the dirt surface is soft, carry all the traffic. GRAVEL ROADS In many sections there are beds of gravel that may be used with very good results for the surfacing of roads where traffic is not heavy. The best results are obtained by screening the gravel and using the same methods in its application as in the construction of the stone road. Crushing the gravel will very much increase its value for this work, as it is usually BOOKS ON SOIL TREATMENT 45 so rounded as not to bind nearly so well as the more angular forms. The thickness of the application may depend somewhat upon the amount of traffic. SANDY ROADS A sandy country sometimes presents a difficult problem in roadmaking, owing to the almost complete absence of binding properties in the sand when dry and to the readiness with which it parts with its moisture. Sand, when containing the necessary amount of moisture to bind it together, forms a very good road, and with this principle in mind it may be readily under- stood that the most practical treatment of such roads will be along the line of increasing their water-holding capacity. Clay, where it can be obtained, if applied to the surface iu proper quantity, will supply this deficiency in the best and most permanent form. Straw, sawdust, and any other form of vegetable matter will increase the moisture-holding capacity of such roads, but the rapid decay of these substances renders their frequent renewal necessary. Scl^:y^>^-<^^'^^-^ PUBLICATIONS ON TILLAGE AND GENERAL AGRICULTURE Agriculture and Chemistry. By F. H. Storer. Three volumes. Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y $5.00 An exhaustive treatise on the chemistry of soils, manures, and all farm products. Espe- cially adapted to the classroom, or to use by the student of agriculture who has already done considerable reading. Agriculture, Manual OP. By Emerson and Flint. Orange Judd Co., ^.Y .... 1.00 Agriculture, Physics OF. By Franklin H. King. i^. IT. /uw^-, Madison, Wis. (1901) . 1.75 A plain and comprehensive treatise on the origin, structure, and treatment of soils. Com- paratively free from technicalities, and well adapted to the use of the general reader. Contains chapters on the principles underlying the construction of farm buildings, and discusses in detail the operations of farm drainage, roadmaking, and the general application of mechanical prin- ciples to farm operations. Agriculture, Principles OF. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillari Co., lii. Y. (1902). . 1.25 A book well adapted to first reading, covering, in concise and simple form, the various operations of farm management. Alfalfa and the Soil. Farmers' Bulletin 31. United States Department of Agriculture Confined to a consideration of the beneficial effects upon the soil produced by the growth of alfalfa. 46 BOOKS ON SOIL TEEATMENT Alkali Lands. Farmers' Bulletin 88. United States Department of Agriculture . . Barnyard Manure. Farmers' Bulletin 21. United States Department of Agriculture . Dwells on the importance of conserving the natural nianurial products of the farm, and passes in review the various means of making economical use of this element of wealth. Chemistry, Elementary. By Ira J. Remsen Henry Holt & Co., ^.Y $0.80 A textbook giving a clear presentation of the fundamentals of chemistry. Chemistry of Soils and Fertilizers. By Harry Snyder. Chemicnl P^iblishing Co., Easton, Pa 1.50 Chemistry OP the Far.m. By R. Warrington. Orange Judd Co.. ^. Y. . ... 1.75 a practical treatise in plain language on the composition of the various farm crops aud the modes in which the various elements of fertility are absorbed and converted into plant structure. Composition and Use of Fertilizers. By L. L. Van Slyke. Bulletin 55. Pennsyl- vania Dejmrtment of Agriculture. Harnsburg, Pa. (1899) . . A systematic discussion of the natural and artificial sources of fertility, with directions for home mixture of fertilizers, and specific formulas for aiiplication to various crops. Draining FOR Profit AND Health By George E. Waring Orange Judd Co.. '^.X 1.00 An exhaustive treatise on sanitary and commercial drainage. Embanking Lands from River Floods, Principles and Practice of. By William Hewson. D. Van Nostrand CV, N Y . . 2.00 Considers the subject as applied to the levees of the Mississippi River. Experi.ment Station Work. L Phosphates, Barnj^ard Manure, Potato Scab. Farmers' Bulletin 56. United States Department of Agriculture Same. II Lime. Ashes, Mixmg Fertilizers, etc. Farmers' Bulletin 65. United States Departtne?it of Agriculture . . . Same. IV. Loss of Fertility, Availability of Fertilizers. Farmers' Bulletin 78. United States Department of Agriculture . . . Same. V Humus. Farmers' Bulletin 78. United States Department of Agriculture . Same. VII Home-Mixing of Fertilizers. Farmers' Bulletin 84. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture . . ... Same. XVI. Fertilizers for Market Garden Crops. Farmers' Bulletin 124. United States Department of Agriculture . . Experiment Station Work. XIX. Winter Orchard Irrigation. Farmers' Bulletin 144. United States Department of Agriculture Far.m Buildings, Practical Suggestions for. Farmers' Bulletin 126. United States Department of Agriculture Farm Drainage. By French. Orange Judd Co. . ^ . Y 1.00 This work gives a thorough discussion of the principles of drainage, explaining how to lay out a drainage system, and the various steps necessary to the proper laying of tile in face of various difficulties. Farm Drainage. Farmers' Bulletin 40. United States Department (f Agriculture . A condensed discussion of the subject of drainage. BOOKS ON SOIL TREATMENT 47 Fertility of the Land. By I. P Roberts. The Mncmillan Co . N. Y. (1899) . . . $ 1.25 A valuable work for either the classroom or the man who drives the plow, covering not only the subjects of soils and soil treatment, but irrigation and drainage as well. A practical treatise free from techuicaUties difficult to understand. Fertilizers. By E. B. Voorhees. The Macmillan Co., '^ Y (1902) 1.00 An extensive, detailed discus.sion of the natural fertility of soils and of the various artificial fertiUzers — their use in general and for specific crops. First Principles op Agriculture. By E. B. Voorhees. Silver, Burdette & Co., Boston 1.00 This work treats of agriculture in a general way, but contains chapters on soils, their com- position and improvement, treated in a less exhaustive manner than in the treatise on fertilizers. A good book for first reading. Fokage Crops. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co , N. Y. . . .... 1 GO Geology, First Book in. By N S. Shaler. D. C. Heath cfe Cb., N Y 1 10 Includes a discussion of the origin of soils. How Crops Feed. By S. W. Johnson. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.50 A detailed discussion of the chemical composition of the soil and atmosphere and the part each plays in plant development. Especially adapted to the classi-oom, but is largely free from technicalities. How Crops Grow. By S. W. Johuson. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.50 Goes thoroughly into the chemical processes of plant life. A valuable work for one who wishes to carry his studies to the very foundation. How THE Farm Pays. By Henderson and Crozier. Peter Henderson, N. Y. . . 2.00 A ti'eatise by two practical farmers on the details of farm practice. Contains abundance of suggestion, but is general in scope. How TO Drain a House. By Geo. £. Waring. D. Van Nostrand Co., N. Y. . . . 1 25 Irrigation and Drainage. By F. H. King. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. . . 1 50 An exhaustive work designed to meet the needs of the classroom and of everyone having to drain or irrigate land Deals largely with the problems and practices of arid-land irriga- tion, treats practically the subject of farm drainage, and gives directions easily followed. Irrigation Ditches, How to Build Small. Farmers' Bulletin 158. United States Department of Agriculture .... ....... Irrigation Farming. By L ]M. Wilcox. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 2 00 a discussion of the methods of irrigation and the benefits to be derived therefrom, together with notes on the principles of common law involved. Irrigation for the Farm. Garden, and Orchard. By Henry Stewart Orange Judd Co.. N. Y 1.00 Irrigation in Connecticut and New Jersey. Bulletin 36, Office of Experiment Sta- tions. United States Department of Agriculture ... ..... .05 Deals particularly with garden irrigation, showing how by irrigation the yields of vege- tabl,es may be largely increased, and their quality improved. Irrigation IN Field AND Garden. Farmers' Bulletin 138. United States Department of Agriculture Irrigation in Fruit Growing. Farmers' Bulletin IIG. United States Department of Agriculture Gives results of experiments in irrigating various kinds of fruits, discussing methods of applying water, amount to use. and other kindred topics. 48 BOOKS ON SOIL TREATMENT Irrigation in Humid Climates. Farmers' Bulletin 46. United States Department of Agriculture - Irrigation on the Great Plains. Reprint 81. United States Department of Agri- culture Irrigation, Practical. Reprint 201. United States Department of Agriculture . . Irrigation, Rise and Future of. Reprint 181. United States Department of Agriculture. Land Draining. By Manley Miles. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y I 1.00 Treats thoroughly the subject of drainage, discussing advantages, general principles, and methods to be followed in specific cases. Leguminous Plants for Green Manuring. Farmers' Bulletin 16. United States De- partment of Agriculture ■ Liming OP Soils. Farmers' Bulletin 77. United States Department of Agriculture . . Manures AND Manuring. By C. M. Aikman. D. Van Nostrand Co.,^.Y 2.00 Manures: How to Make and Use. By Frank W. Sempers. W. A. Burpee, Phila- delphia .40 Manures: The Philosophy op Manuring. By A. B. Griffiths. D. Van Nostrand Co., N. Y ^ 3.00 Principles op Plant Culture. By E. S. Goflf, ^. 5. G^(#, Madison, Wis. . . . 1.10 a discussion of fundamentals. Sewage Disposal on the Farm. Farmers' Bulletin 43. Uiited States Department of Agriculture a highly valuable discussion of sanitary measures necessary for the preservation of health on the farm. Soil, The. By F. H. King. The Macmillan Co., 'S.^. {\SQ5) 75 About 300 pages of Professor King's larger work. Physics of Agriculture, are devoted to the topics which are the exclusive subject of this book. Soil OP THE Farm, The. By Scott and Morton. The Macmillan Co.,'N.Y 1.00 Soils and Crops. By Morrow and Hunt. Orange Judd Co., 'N. Y 1.00 Suggestions to Southern Farmers. Farmers' Bulletin 98. United Slates Department of Agriculture Ten Acres Enough. American Netcs Co., N. Y Shows how intensive cultivation may be made to yield large returns on a small tract of land. Tile Drainage. By W. I. Chamberlain. Supplied by Oraw^e J«f?d C' but is a little more liable to lodge if the land is very rich. It will stand better, however, than oats. Spring wheat should not be grown where winter wheat can be grown successfully, as its later ripening renders it more subject to damage by storms, chinch bugs, and hot, blighting days at time of filling. Prepare the soil well and sow with the drill ' as early in the spring as the ground is in proper condition for working. MACARONI WHEAT Macaroni wheat is a variety of wheat comparatively new to this country, but grown in large quantities in the east and south of Russia. Its principal use at present is for the manufacture of macaroni. Tliere is a growing demand for this variety of wheat in this country, and it is especially adapted to the hot and semi- arid regions of the West and Southwest, where most cultivated grain crops are un.certain. It is also adapted, by reason of its long residence on soils of that character, to growing on soils that are somewhat alkaline. So far as it has been groAvn in this country it gives promise of being proof against depredations of smut and rust. In the northern sections it is a spring wheat, but in the South may be grown as a winter wheat. Reports from Kansas indicate that this grain at present is not sufficiently hardy for fall seeding so far north, but it can undoubtedly be made so by selection. Fall seeding, where it can be practiced, will give the best results. Macaroni wheat is a vigorous grower and where seeded in the fall will make an abundance of winter pasture. Culture — The same as for other wheats, using about the same amount of seed. The grain should be thoroughly ripe before being harvested, and harvesting should not be done in damp or cloud}' weather if it can be avoided. OATS Oats also are adapted to a wide range of climatic conditions as well as uses. Through selection and breeding there have been established varieties having a wide range in time of ripening. The later ripening varieties, where the conditions are favorable for their growth, will give a larger yield of grain than the earlier varieties, owing to the greater length of time allowed for the gathering and elaboration of food. On the other hand, for many conditions the early varieties are the more satisfactory. They do not grow so rank, hence are better adapted to rich soils. They are much less liable to be caught by storms or by hot days at filling time — circumstances that will produce a poor-quality, light-weight grain. Xot growing 1 All spring crops of small grain, as well as those sown in the fall, should be sown witli the drill. A (iftn less seed will produce as good a stand as in broadcast seeding and the seeds are all down where they are not liable to be killed, or at least stunted, by hot, dry days soon after germination. Moreover, plants get a good, deep, vigorous hold that enables them to better w'<'h- stand droughts. 56 GKAIN CEOPS L^ i so rank and ripening earlier, they are a far better nurse crop with which to start clover or grass crops than the later varieties. Culture — The same as for spring wheat, except that oats will not stand up on quite so rich land, not being quite so stiff in the straw. Remedy for Lodging — Lodging is due, except in cases of severe storm or extreme condi- tions, to a lack of woody fiber in the stem, caused by undue shading by a heavy growth of foliage. By pasturing with a sufficient amount of stock to eat off the excessive growth before the seed stalks are started, or by mowing the crop just as they are starting, the tendency to lodge may be very materially less- ened, BARLEY Barley is an excellent food, when ground, for all classes of animals, but is too hard to be properly masticated when fed whole. It is not quite so well relished as corn, and ex- periments indicate that its feeding value is a little less. Barley is well adapted to cool climates and to rich lands. Being shorter in the straw than oats or wheat it is less liable to lodge than either of them, and this, combined with its early ripening, makes it one of the best nurse crops we have. Considerable objection is sometimes offered to the raising of this crop on account of the beards; but with modern machin- ery and methods of handling this objection should have but little weight. Varieties of beardless barley are being devel- oped, some of which give much promise for the future. The Success is one of the best of these, but as yet they are far outyielded by the six-rowed, bearded variety known as the Mandscheuri. Culture — Prepare the soil the same as for oats (except that richer ground may be used) and sow early with the drill. Barley will stand more freezing than oats, hence may be sown earlier. It is important to sow all these small grains that are adapted to cooler latitudes as early as conditions will permit. Their nature is to ripen about a certain time of the year, regardless of the time they were sown; so that a given variety, if sown early, has a longer time in which to gather plant food than if sown late. For this reason the early-sown grain is better filled and weighs more to the bushel. Fig. 15. Photograph show- Kilt< Reld vi'ifentcorn' Rye is morc rcsistaut to cold and severe climatic changes Z'rS'iro^lT'"^^ than winter wheat, hence, may be grown farther north. It EMMER 57 is adapted also to places where for one reason or another the soil can not be put in proper condition for wheat. Being a more rugged plant and a coarser feeder it will get hold where the wheat plant will not. This crop, when ground, makes a valuable food for all kinds of stock, there being no other feed that will make heavier fleeces on lambs. Culture — While it is true, as stated above, that barley will make a fair crop under conditions where wheat would fail, yet there is no other crop that will respond more freely than rye to good treatment. To get the best results the ground should be as carefully prepared as for wheat and the rye drilled in in the same manner It may be put in later than the wheat, but if put in eai'ly will make an abundance of fall and early spring pasture and a good crop of grain besides. Fig. 10. Photograjjli showing a sood I ype of tip end, Reid Yel- low Dent corn. (From an ear furnished by L. C. Brown.) EMMER ' Emmer is a cereal new to this country, but one that givps promise of great value to particular sections. It comes from Europe, Eussia, from which country we get our best seed, raising the largest .amount.^ The great value of emmer lies in its drought-resisting qualities and its consequent adaptation to the regions of scanty and uncertain rainfall. It will thrive, however, under a very wide range of climatic conditions and is worth a trial in any section of the country. It is raised both as a winter and a spring crop. Emmer is closely related to the wheats, although the chatf adheres to the grain when threshed. It is similar in composition to oats, containing a little less fat and a little more protein. For the year 1900, at the Iowa Experiment Station, it gave a yield per acre of 2,200 pounds of grain, weighing 35 pounds to the struck bushel. The North Dakota Experiment Station reports a yield for 1900 of G3 bushels per acre. In a feeding experiment with sheep, at the Iowa station, in which were compared the feeding value of emmer, soy beans, corn, and gluten-feed and corn, all other conditions being the same, the largest gains were made by the lot fed on emmer. The straw is shorter and stiffer than that of wheat, making it much less liable to lodge ; for 1 This grain is frequently improperly called speltz. 2 See Farmers' Bulletin 139, United States Department of Agriculture. Fig. 17. Photograph showing a good type of butt end, Reid Yellow Dent corn. (From an ear furnished by L. C. Brown. 58 GRAIN AND ROOT CROPS this reason it should prove an excellent nurse croji. Emmer seems thus far to be more resistant to the attacks of rust than the more common cereals of this country. Not the least of its prospective value lies in the improvement that may be made in our wheats by crossing them with it.^ Culture — Same as for wheat, except that the earliuess of seeding should be emphasized, and that tlic rate of seeding should be about the same as for oats. FLAX Flax is a grain rich in fat and protein, which supplies the linseed oil of com- merce on the one hand, and the oil cake, or oil meal for stock feeding on the other. Culture — Flax is a strong-feeding plant adapted to the taming of freshly-broken wild land, as it can be made to produce a fair crop where the sod is too resistant to be properly worked up for any other crop. Such lands, however, should be put in as good condition as possible, as the extra work will be more than repaid by the increased yield. A good heavy roller is a necessary part of the equipment for properly putting in flax on freshly-broken wild land. If a soil that has been under cultivation is used, it should be rich in vegetable matter and should be prepared the same as for corn. The flax plant is very tender and seed should not be sown until all danger of frost is past. A press drill should be used in the seeding. Flax-sick Soil — One of the necessities for a rotation of crops lies in the fact that if a given species of plant is grown continuously on the same ground the various parasitic diseases that prey upon it have an opportunity to multiply until they may destroy the crop. This is especially true of flax, and for this reason it should not be grown two years in succession on the same ground. It is the continued cropping that gives rise to what is known as "flax-sick soil." BUCKWHEAT Buckwheat, while used primarily for human food, is also a valuable food for stock, experiments indicating that it has a feeding value almost equal to that of wheat. Culture — One of the chief values of this crop lies in its adaptability to the production of a crop late in the season on lands that have been too wet in the early part of the season for the start- ing of other crops. It may be sown as late as the middle of July in sections as far north as the center of Iowa. A good seed-bed should be prepared and the seed sown broadcast and well covered or put in with the drill. ROOT CROPS One of the urgent needs of winter feeding in sections of the country where animals must be fed for a long time on dry feed is for some product that will furnish 1 See Bulletin 63, Iowa Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa. BEETS 59 the laxative that is obtained in summer from tlie grass. Too lax a condition in cold weather is not desirable, but a certain degree of it is necessary in order for the various food materials to bo properly assimilated and carried through the body. This is especially true of animals from which it is desired to obtain a large flow of milk. There is probably no other form of succulent food that will so largely aid in the translocation of food materials from tlie digestive tract to their proper destination as tiie unor- ganized compounds found in the various root crops. Their value for use as a regulator of the system can hardly be over- estimated. BEETS Of these several varieties are used for field crops. The sugar beet, grown extensively for the manufacture of sugar, is also valuable for stock food, being better relished by hogs than the mangel varieties. Where used for the manufacture of sugar the pulp from which the juice has been expressed is a valuable food. The varieties of mangel are better adapted, however, for exclusive stock feeding as they yield more heavily, are much more easily harvested, carry less dirt with them to the cellar, are better relished by sheep and cattle, and are about as good for hogs. Of the mangel varieties the Mammoth Long Red is one of the best for light soils. It is usually the heaviest yielder and is less liable to be damaged if caught in a little freeze before being harvested, as the heavier growth of leaves affords greater protection. In some sections the Golden Tankard makes a better keeper, but this is not universally true. Culture — When growing for feed select a piece of soil rich in vegetable matter or enrich well with well-rotted manure. This should be free from trash, corn stalks, etc., that will interfere with hoeing, or cause the small beets to be covered up when cultivating. Plow thoroughly in the fall or early spring. Develop a seed-bed earlv and kill all the weeds as nearly as possible before planting the crop. A fine seed-bed is necessary, but it must not be too loose. If loose in the subsurface, the moisture will not be drawn up well around the seed ■•»«^t.^-'-* Fig. 18. Photograph show- ing ear with grain too irregular. (James Atkin- son, Iowa State College of Agriculture.) 60 ROOT CROPS for their germination, and if there is too much loose earth on the immediate surface, a dashing rain may bury and destroy the young plants soon after they come up. The seed may be sown with any garden drill, or in large areas with horse drills made especially for that purpose. If the horse drill is used, care must be taken not to get the beets planted too deep, as a uniform stand is highly important. Use plenty of seed, as they must be thinned in any case. From 5 to 15 pounds of seed to the acre will be required, according to the width between the rows and the care used in planting. Much more seed should be used with the horse than with the hand drill, as the former is not so accurate in its work and more of the seed may be buried too deeply to come up. Give thorough cultivation. If done at the right time and if the land has been well cleaned of weeds, this may be done mostly with the horse, no hand work in many cases being needed, except a hoeing with a wheel-hoe when beets first come up, and thinning after they get well started. The thinning may be done, first, with the hoe — cutting through the row, leaving bunches of two and three in a place — and afterward by going over them and hand-thinning to one in a place, having one plant every 10 inches when through. Beets should not be harvested in the fall until there is danger of freezing weather, as it is more difficult to keep them if harvested before the warm days are past. A light freeze will do them no harm, if they remain in the ground until thawed out. When pulled, the tops should be cleanly removed and the dirt jarred off, as both affect their keeping. They should be stored in a cool place where the temperature will be as uniform as possible and where there is fair ventilation. Culture for Sugar — Where the sugar beet is grown for sugar, care should be taken, in the first place, to obtain seed of beets that have been developed especially for that purpose. Secondly, the soil must not be overrich, especially in fresh manure, as too large and rough a growth is less productive of sugar. A smooth, clean beet of medium size gives the best quality of juice. Sugar beets will also bear being left closer together in the row than where more size is desired, 6 to 8 inches being a good width on good soils. CARROTS These are grown more especially for horses. They start more delicately than beets, are more difficult to harvest and do not yield so well, but horses are very fond of them, whereas they are not so fond of beets. For this purpose a large growing variety that will yield well should be selected. The Large White Vosges is perhaps the best variety. The Long Yelloiv Orange is a good yielder, but grows so long that it is more difficult to harvest. Culture — The same as for beets except that they may be left nearer together in the row, 6 inches apart being a good distance. TURiaPS A valuable crop for early winter feeding, but will not keep so well as beets. Sheep are especially fond of them, and in the milder climates they may be fed off the ground without harvesting. RUTABAGAS, KOHLRABI, POTATOES 61 Culture — The best soil for turnips is one rich in vegetable matter. Prepare and sow in ilrills, thinning and cultivating the same as for beets. Or, if the ground is free from weeds, they may be sown broadcast. For winter feeding they should not be sown before the latter part of June for Central Iowa. Turnips will stand considerable freezing weather, before harvesting, without damage. They are better, however, not to be harvested while in a frozen condition. If they are caught l)y a freeze, leave in the ground until the frost is again ou* of them. RUTABAGAS OK SWEDISH TURNIPS Tlie rutabaga is a hard-fleshed turnip belonging to the same family as cabbage. It is a much better keeper than the common turnip and in cool climates is a heavy yielder and a very valuable crop ; but it is not adapted to the dry, hot summers of Iowa and localities farther south and southwest, developing practically no bulb in these sections. Culture — The same as for beets. KOHLRABI The kohlrabi is another plant closely related to cabbage, but differing from the one just considered in that it produces the bulb entirely above ground. It is not properly a root crop, but is treated here because of its similar economic relation in the problem of stock food supply. The kohlrabi is a good keeper, is easy to raise a,nd easy to harvest, starting much more quickly than beets or carrots. It is adapted to a much wider range of climatic conditions than the rutabaga ; growing in warm as well as cool climates and being resistant to drought. Culture — The same as for beets. POTATOES , Culture — A good clover sod, well plowed and prepared, makes an excellent bed for the potato. The potato likes an abundance of vegetable matter, but not much of this should be in the form of freshly applied stable manure, especially if the crop is intended for market, as it tends to produce a scabby tuber. Too rich a soil is apt to cause a very rank growth of vine and few potatoes. For an early crop, potatoes may be planted as soon as the frost is out of the ground and the soil in workable condition. For a winter crop they should be planted late enough so that the tubers will not be ready to set until the fall rains commence. They may be tended very largely with the harrow if the soil is kept sufficiently loose for the harrow to be effective. A little drag- ging, pruning, and burying of the tops will do them no harm. Use level culture until the tubers set on, when they should be hilled enough to protect the tubers from injury by the sun. Experi- ments indicate that ridging does not increase the yield. 62 ROOT AND SOILmCx CROPS ARTICHOKES Artichokes are a valuable food for maintaining hogs in a healthy condition during the fall, when they are on a heavy feed of corn. They are very easily raised and the hogs do their own harvesting. Culture — Plant moderately early on a piece of ground where it will be convenient to allow the hogs to run in the fall. If the soil is not already rich in vegetable matter, manure well. Plant and cultivate the same as potatoes. The tops, early in the season, will get large enough to shade the ground and keep down the weeds. The tubers are usually attached to the plant by much longer stems than are potatoes, which makes them diflBcult to harvest, but by allowing the hogs to do the harvesting this objection is removed. By not allowing the hogs to dig them too close they will re-seed themselves and produce a crop the following year, without the necessity of any planting or cultivation. PUMPKINS The pumjjkin has a similar economic place in the feed yard to that of the root crops. It is a valuable fall and early winter feed for cattle, sheep, and swine, and is adapted to a very wide range of climatic conditions. Culture — Pumpkins maybe grown with the corn crop, producing, where the stand is not perfect or where the corn docs not grow large, a considerable amount of feed without materially affecting the.yield of corn. If grown as a separate crop, the ground should be prepared the same as for corn. Plant about the same time, in hills 8 feet apart each waj^ putting 3 to 4 seeds in a hill. When the plants are well started, thin to one plant in a hill. Give thorough cultivation. Harvest before freezing weather and store in a cool, dry place. SOILING CROPS In those portions of the country that are subject, during the summer, to a period of two or more weeks' drought, in which the grasses of the pastures cease to grow, there should be planted each spring some crop of quick growtli that may be cut off and fed during this period. Such a practice not only maintains a steady growth of the animals, but by saving the Fig. 19. Photograph pastures renders them more productive. If pastures are eaten perins."( James Atkin- vcry closc, they may become so thoroughly burned out at such fege o^fT|ricutturp^°^" times as to kdl much of the gras§, making it slow in starting SORGHUM, KAFIR-CORN 63 up again and much less productive for a long time afterward. This killing out, mak- ing thin patches, gives the weeds their opportunity and thus makes weedy pastures. A given amount of land may be made to carry a much larger amount of stock by being handled in this way. In fact, a much larger amount of feed can be produced per acre in this way in any locality than can be obtained by pasturing, so that as lands become higher in price resort will have to be made more and more to this method of summer feeding. Some of the crops best adapted for this use are ■ SORGHUM Sorghum is one of the best crops for soiling purposes. It grows very rapidly, is ready early, yields abundantly, and above all is very much relished by all stock, owing to Us sweet, pleasant taste. It is also well adapted to the semi-arid regions, being exceedingly resistant to both drought and heat. Culture — Prepare the soil the same as for corn and sow with a grain drill at the rate of 100 pounds of seed per aci'e. Sorghum should not be sown until the ground is thoroughly warm, or it will be slow in starting and the weeds will get a start For Central Iowa it should not be sown before the 1st of June, and will make a good, heavy crop when sown as late as the 10th of July. In humid or semi-humid climates, when sown in this way on laud that has been well prepared, no cultivation is needed. In drier climates better results may be obtained by drilling in rows 26 to 30 inches apart and giving thorough cultivation to conserve the moisture. SoRGiiuM Poisoning — In the drier regions west of the Missouri River there have been occasional deaths from what appeared to be a virulent poison, when cattle have been grazed on this crop. This has prejudiced a large number of farmers against its use. So far as the writer knows no trouble of this kind is ever experienced where sorghum is cut and fed green or as dry fodder. There is a prevalent belief that it is only the second growth of sorghum that causes this trouble, but this is not correct. Most of the reported cases have occurred in pasturing the second growth, for the reason that the first growth is seldom pastured, being cut for fodder instead. It is not yet known what is the cause of these deaths, but present evidence indicates that they are not due to any poison in or on the plant itself. Like the corn stalk disease, it is yet to be worked out. KAFIR-CORN Kafir-corn also is an excellent plant for soiling and for some conditions may be preferable to sorghum. It is not as large a yielder as sorghum and usually not so well relished by stock, although a few reports indicate that there are exceptions to this rule. Being in a high degree drought-resistant, it is well suited to semi-arid regions. Culture — The same as for sorghum. 64 SOILING CROPS CORN Corn is not so well adapted for the use under consideration in the semi-arid climates as the two crops just considei'ed, but it is equal or superior to the kafir- corn for humid and semi-humid climates, as it is just as well relished and, where moisture is plentiful, will produce a larger yield. Culture — Corn may be sown broadcast, drilled the same as the crops just considered, or planted thickly in drills with a corn planter having a drill attachment. In the latter case it can be given cultivation and will develop more grain. It should be planted thick enough so that the stalks will be small and soft. RYE The chief value of this crop for soiling purposes lies in the fact that it will fur- nish a supply of food earlier in the season than can be obtained from any of the spring-sown crops. Culture — The same as for a crop of grain except that 6 pecks of seed per acre should be used. PEAS - AND - OATS Peas-and-oats is one of the earliest spring crops that can be sown for soiling, being ready to follow immediately after the rye. This crop may be grown as a win- ter crop in the South. Culture — Sow very early on rich soil, mix the oats and peas half-and-half, and seed with the drill at the rate of 3 bushels per acre. RAPE Rape is especially well liked by sheep and swine, yields heavily, is very succu- lent and will continue to grow until freezing weather. Its great succulence gives it a tendency to produce bloat if eaten ravenously, especially while wet. It grows best in a cool, moist climate, but is quite resistant to drought. Culture — If land is not rich, manure well and prepare thoroughly as for a root crop. Drill with a grain drill, stopping two out of every three holes, or with a horse beet drill. Seed at the rate of 5 pounds of seed per acre. Give thorough cultivation. This crop starts quickly and grows rapidly and will soon shade the ground and keep down weeds. Another method of growing this crop for a supplementary feed is to seed with the spring vari- eties of small grain. In such cases seeding should not take place until the grain is well up, lest the rape get the start of the grain. As so little seed is required, this entails very little expense, and if the season is favorable a large amount of feed will be produced after the grain is cut oflE. Still another plan that frequently meets with success is to sow in corn at the last cultivation. The amount of feed that the rape will make in such cases will depend largely upon the condition of the corn growth. If the corn is of good stand and rank in growth, the rape can make but little feed. SOY BEANS, COW-PEAS, TEOSINTE 65 SOY BEANS The soybean is valuable for soiling, especially for use in conjunction with sorghum or some of the more carbonaceous foods. It is especially adapted to use on lands that need building up, as it will thrive better on this soil than many of the other crops, and at the same time will improve the soil. It is also well adapted to regions of light rainfall. Culture — The same as for the seed crop except that a little heavier yield may be obtained by using more seed to the acre. COW-PEAS The cow-pea holds a similar economic place among soiling crops as the one just discussed. In many parts of the country it pro- duces a much larger quantity of feed and in such localities is pref- erable to the former on that account. It is also well adapted to growing on and improving thin lands. Culture — More seed to the acre should be used than for a seed crop ; otherwise the culture may be the same ; or, on good clean ground cow-peas may be sown with a grain drill and not cultivated. The same observation should be made in regard to securing the earlier, quick-growing varieties for the northern sections, and also to securing seed grown as far north as possible. TEOSINTE Teosinte is a new crop for the North, but, so far as tried, does not give promise of possessing any advantages over those pre- viously mentioned for this region. It gives very large yields under favorable conditions in the South and is reported as mak- ing excellent forage. It is a native of Mexico, and is thought by some botanists to be the original of our Indian corn. Culture — Prepare the soil the same as for corn and plant in hills the same distance apart each way; place two seeds in a hill, and cultivate the same as for corn. ANNUALS FOR DRY FORAGE It not infrequently happens in many sections of the country fig. 20. Photograph that by reason of winterkilling on present mowing lands, or of open"- space *^be° failure .to secure a proper stand on those intended as such, there g^Ht [lowa state is a temporary shortage in the supply of dry roughage for winter tureT^ of A^ncui- >•> 5^ <:> - 66 ANNUALS FOK DEY FORAGE use. There are a number of annuals well adapted, when properly grown and cared for, to supplying such deficiencies. On some of the higher-priced lands it may even be economy to grow some of these crops each year and maintain a smaller amount of mowing land, as many of these will return a much larger yield per acre than can be obtained from the permanent meadows. Furthermore, by the use of some of these crops, good winter feed may be obtaiued in regions where, for lack of rain, the native grasses do not get large enough to mow and where our common perennial grasses will not survive the summer's drought and heat. The Experiment Station at Higlimore, in the buffalo-grass region of South Dakota, reports for 1901 a yield of three tons of dry fodder per acre in the case of yellow Milo Maize and 2.9 tons per acre of Amber Cane. CORN The first thing that should be considered in this connection in a region where corn is grown is the utilization of the fodder portion of the corn crop. The corn should be cut when it is sufficiently matured, so that it will not shrivel up and become loose in drying out. The grains on a majority of the ears should be well dented. Whether or not this fodder maintains the value it has when first cut, will depend upon the manner in which it is put up. This is a very important matter, even if the corn is only to stand in shock until it is thoroughly cured, as an improperly built shock may become very much damaged within a few days after cutting. Whether the corn is cut by a machine and bound into bundles or set up loose, it is important that each bunch be set up snugly at bottom and top, and that it be set up straight, not allowed to lean to the one side or the other. No more time is required to set it up the right way than the wrong. It should be cut close to the ground, not only to save the feed and leave less stubble in the way. but to have the ears kept up off the ground in better shape. This is especially important if the corn is to stand and be fed from the shock during the winter. The manner of tying the shock is also of the greatest importance. The band should be placed just as near the top as possible and yet enclose all but a few of the tops. This will not only save twine, but it will be found that the shock will stand much better than if placed lower down. The band (ordinary binding twine may be used) should be drawn tight, both to exclude the rain from the shock and to keep it from getting out of shape. In order to secure the proper tightness of the band the shock must first be drawn up with a rope. This should be done in such a manner as not to twist the shock at all in the operation, as any twist given to it at this time will tend to throw it over as it settles. The best and quickest method of drawing up and tying the shocks is for two persons to perform the work together. The rope is passed around the shock, each takes an end, both draw with force as nearly equal as possible, and while one holds the two ends the other ties the band. SORGHUM, MILLET 67 Shredding or Cutting — The cutting or shredding of the fodder, except for convenience of feeding, for mixing with other grain, for spring feeding, or where it is desired to get the corn separated from the stover, is not a profitable operation, as not enough more will be consumed, over what would be consumed when fed whole and in a similar manner, to pay for the extra expense. It is much easier, however, to feed the corn fodder when in this form, and if fed in the barn, what is not eaten, if shredded or cut, is very good material for bedding. For spring feeding it is much better to have fodder cut or shredded and under cover, as it damages rapidly in the field after the warm weather comes on. It is also more difficult to get it from the field at this time and the weather conditions are not so favorable for outside feeding. If fed whole, the fodder should be fed in racks, or, during freezing weather it may be fed on a good clean, sheltered blue-grass pasture, if well scattered. If corn is to be cut and fed with all the corn on, it will produce more feed to the acre by planting somewhat thicker than for a grain crop, and the consequent lessening in the size of the ears will enable the cattle to handle them better. SORGHUM Sorghum makes excellent dry feed for winter use and is much relished by all classes of stock. Culture — The same as for producing a crop for soiling purposes. Cut when the seed is in the dough stage. It ma}^ be cut with a corn binder and shocked the same as corn, or mowed and handled the same as hay. It should be cured well before being shocked, and then should stand in shock for some time before being put 'n stack or barn, as the stalks dry out very slowly In sections where the winters are dry and cold, it will keep in very good condition in the field for winter feeding, if put in large shockg. MiLO Maize — There are two varieties of this non-saccharine sorghum, the white and the yellow. This is a heavy yielding crop and one that is also well liked by stock. For some sections this may be a more profitable crop than sorghum. Its culture is the same as for sorghum. MILLET Millet is a quick-growing plant of which there are many varieties, some of them very resistant to heat and droitght. Most of them make hay that is not nearly so coarse, and is much more easily handled as such, than the crops previously con- sidered in this connection. Some of them grow veiy large. Pearl Millet or Pencil- laria, that is being so widely advertised by seedsmen, yielding a very large amount of hay. Little satisfactory evidence can be obtained, however, at the present time as to the character of the hay produced. The yield of most of the millets is very much less than that of the sorghums. Culture — Sow on well-prepared soil from the middle of May to the 1st of July. In favor- able seasons a crop of the earlier varieties may be obtained, as far north as Central Iowa, after a crop of barley or early oats has been harvested. Millet should be cut when seeds are well formed. 68 ANNUALS FOE DRY FORAGE SOY BEANS The soy bean is a very valuable hay plant, especially if there is no clover or other nitrogenous forage on hand. As has been observed, it is especially adapted to thin lands and to sections of scant rainfall.^ Culture — The same as for soiling purposes. Cut when first pods begin to turn. COW-PEAS This crop produces a hay very similar to that of the soy bean, except that the vines do not stand up so well, and it is difficult to obtain hay of as good quality. Culture — The same as for soiling purposes. Cut when first pods begin to turn. OTHER SOILING CROPS Velvet Bean — In some sections of the South this plant produces a larger crop of feed and greater improvement upon the soil than the cow-pea, but it is adapted only to extreme southern conditions. Oats and Field Peas — This crop furnishes a large quantity of excellent forage and is especially adapted to northern sections where the more tropical plants do not thrive so well. Varieties should be selected that will ripen together. Culture — The same as when grown for soiling. Cut when the oats begin to turn. Hairy Vetch — This is not a satisfactory hay crop when grown alone, on account of its low trailing habit, but it may be grown with some kind of small grain. It usually gives the best results when sown with winter wheat or, in the milder climates, with winter oats. Culture — Prepare the ground the same as for winter wheat and sow at the same time as for a crop of winter wheat. With winter wheat mix in equal parts, and with oats mix one part vetch to two parts oats. Of the former mixture sow 4 to 6 pecks per acre ; of the latter 8 to 10 pecks should be used. Sow with a drill ; in the North this must be a press drill. Salt-bnslies — This is a class of plants adapted to extremely dry and strongly alkaline regions, where none of the commonly cultivated crops will grow. While they are called a bush, the percentage of fiber in them is not large. "While green, they are quite succulent. They are relished by all classes of animals, and, for the con- ditions above mentioned, are a very valuable supplement to the other feeds. As they take up a large amount of salts, their growth on alkali lands tends to correct 1 Prof. H. Garman, of the Kentucky Experiment I qualities than any other forage plant that has recently Station, says of this plant: " In short, it has more good | engaged the attention of our farmers." CARE OF PERMANENT MEADOWS 69 that trouble. Owing to the large amount of salts taken up by them the hay made from them should not be allowed to constitute the whole of the roughage, at least until the animals become accustomed to it. PERMANENT MEADOWS While the permanent meadow is not so productive as many of the annual crops, yet a piece of good clean mowing ground is a source of great satisfaction to its owner. This manner of obtaining forage can not be entirely dispensed with, if the productivity of the land is to be conveniently maintained. In order for each part of the farm to have an occasional rest from cultivated crops and a thorough filling up with grass roots, these mowing lands should not be made too permanent, and yet there may often be reason why they should stand for a considerable length of time. In such cases some care is often necessary to keep them in the most productive condition. In some sections meadows are subject to killing by extreme cold and in others by extreme drougtit and heat. When this occurs the sod should be scarified with the disk or other efficient implement and more seed sown. Frequently the same kind of seed will not produce a growth in time to cut with the remainder of the crop the year that it is seeded. In such cases it will be advantageous to seed with it some small grain or other quick-growing crop to help out the yield of that year. A light dressing of manure immediately following this seeding will sometimes assist in getting a good catch. This seeding should be done very early in the spring, before the ground becomes settled by the spring rains. In many parts of the country great difficulty is experienced in keeping the blue grass out of the meadows for any c(msiderable length of time. This, while a very valuable pasture grass for such localities, is not a desirable grass to have mixed in the mowing land, as it ripens earlier than most other plants used for that purpose and does not grow large, thereby lessening both the yield and quality of the hay obtained. This grass can best be kept down by inducing as early and as large a growth as possible of the other grasses. To this end the meadows should not be closely pastured, the stock being kept entirely from them during the late winter and early spring. An occasional dressing of manure will also help greatly in this direction. On farms that can all be cultivated, less care need be exercised in keeping this grass out, if the meadow be turned into pasture when the blue grass comes in, that which has been in pasture plowed up, and a newly-seeded section used for mowing. Where plants are used, for permanent meadows, that have a tendency to thicken up into a very dense sod, there is often produced what is termed a sod-bound condition. The remedy for such a condition is thorough cutting up with a disk and sowing some clover seed, in sections where clover thrives, after disking ; the harrow may then be run over the ground to advantage. Manuring is also a help in correcting a sod-bound condition. A little manure is a good thing for a meadow at any time, and, when it is not needed worse elsewhere, may be applied here to 70 PEEMANENT MEADOWS great advantage. It always should be well rotted, however. When spread on the surface there is much less opportunity for decomposition than when incorporated in the soil, and any coarse manure will be gathered up more or less with the succeeding crop of bay. SEED MIXTURES FOR MEADOWS Not only is there an adaptation of plants to climate as regards temperature and moisture, but there is also an adaptation to soil conditions. Where there is more than one valuable plant adapted to a given condition a larger yield can be obtained by growing them together than by growing them separately, owing to the fact that difEerent plants will feed somewhat differently. It is, therefore, of advantage, so far as time of ripening and habit of growth will permit, to grow these plants in combination. The following mixtures per acre ' are given as in a general way adapted to the accompanying described conditions. The variation of conditions, however, and the manner in which one may shade off into another, make it advisable for each locality to do more or less experimenting for its own peculiar conditions. I. For Humid, and Semi-humid Climates Having- More or Less Severe Winters (a) For Bich, Well-under- (6) Or, for Rich, Well- (c) For Thin, High drained Soils : underdrained Soils : Lands: (d) For Wet Lands : Medium Red Clover 6 lbs. Medium Red Clover 7 IbiS. Mammoth Red Clover 6 lbs. Alsike Clover 5 lbs. Timothy 4 lbs. Orchard Grass 18 lbs. Timothy __._41bs. Timothy 4 lbs. In some sections half the timothy may be replaced to advantage by red-top, although this plant does not make as palatable hay as timothy. These mixtures may be sown with either a fall or a spring nurse crop. In some localities subject to severe, hot, dry weather at the time the nurse crop is removed, better results may be obtained, in case a spring nurse crop is used, by seeding the timothy on the stubble at the close of the hot weather — say about the 1st of September. II. For Humid and Semi-humid Climates Having- Milder Winters and Hotter Summers (a) For Light, Sandy (b) For Richer, Heavier, (d) For Low, Wet Soils: Well-underdrained Soils: (c) Or, instead of (b) : Lands: Medium Red Clover 6 lbs. Medium Red Clover 5 lbs. Medium Red Clover. 5 lbs. Alsike Clover 4 lbs. Tall Oat Grass 14 lbs. Orchard Grass 15 lbs. Orchard Grass 15 lbs. Red Top 4 lbs. Rescue Grass 10 lbs. Tall Fescue 10 lbs. Large Water Grass 4 lbs. As a rule, the best time to seed the foregoing mixtures, for the climates mentioned, is at the beginning of the fall rains. 1 The quantity of seed here recommended contem- I thorough preparation of the seed-bed. If either of these plates the use of pure, clean, germinable seed and a | conditions is lacking, more seed must be used. TKEATMENT OF PASTURES 7l III. For Semi-arid Regions (a) ib) Orchard Grass 20 lbs. Alfalfa 20 to 30 lbs. Meadow Fescue 15 lbs. Red Clover 3 lbs. Seed (a) with a press drill, on thoroughly-prepared ground, well firmed in the subsurface. Sow moderately early in the spring, without any other crop, and mow the weeds to prevent smothering the first summer.' Seed (b) alone, with a press drill, on soil thoroughly prepared, and with the subsurface well firmed. Alfalfa^ should be seeded in the fall in localities having dry, hot summers. Where the summers are more moderate and the winters more severe, seeding should be done early in the spring and the weeds mown the first summer. IV. For Arid Climates (a) (6) Alfalfa 20 to 30 lbs. Smooth Brome Grass 40 to 50 lbs. Seed (b) on well-prepared soil, with well-firmed subsurface, early in the spring. Fall plowing is best for this purpose. Owing to the coarseness and lightness of the seed, it does not seed readily with a drill. Should be sown broadcast, and covered as well as possible with the disk and smooth- ing harrow. No alarm should be felt over a somewhat thin appearance of the stand at first, as it tends to thicken up very fast after the first year. PERMANENT PASTURES In most localities there is more or less land that is not suitable for cultivation and that must be utilized in the form of a permanent pasture. In any case it is usually desirable to have more or less land in this form. The value of such pastures will depend very largely upon getting the varieties best adapted to the conditions and upon the degree of care that is given them. They are subject to the same damaging effects of extreme climatic conditions as are the permanent meadows, and the same remedy is applicable. The sod-bound condition, especially in the blue grass regions, is even more liable to occur in pastures than in mowing lands. The method of spreading by underground runners, that is characteristic of some of the best pasture grasses, contributes largely to the development of such a condition.' The disking of such pastures, followed by a light seeding of clover and the appli- cation of manure, as in the case of mowing lands, is the best method of improving them. The native pastures may also be very greatly increased in productiveness by thoroughly cutting them up with a disk and seeding with plants adapted to the various conditions. 1 Bulletin 62, Kansas Experiment Station. I to the difficulty of curing it into a good quality of hay in 2 Alfalfa is hardy and productive in the more moist such climates, climates, but is not recommended as a hay crop owing | 72 PERMANENT PASTURES As in the case of mowing lands, a greater productiveness may be secured by growing a mixture of plants for pasture. The variety thus afforded also makes the pr6duct of greater value. SEED MIXTURES FOR PASTURES I. For Humid Climates Having Severe Winters (a) (c) For High, Rather Thin Soils : Medium Red Clover _ 3 lbs. Mammoth Red Clover 3 lbs. Kentucky Blue Grass i 8 lbs. Kentucky Blue Grass _ 8 lbs. Orchard Qiass 8 lbs. Orchard Grass 8 lbs. Smooth Brome Grass 10 lbs. Smooth Brome Grass 10 lbs. (6) (d) For Low, Wet Lands : Medium Red Clover 2 lbs. Alsike Clover 4 lbs. White Clover 2 lbs. Red Top 6 lbs. Orchard Grass 8 lbs. Timothy _• 4 lbs. Meadow Fescue 5 lbs. Smooth Brome Grass 8 lbs. All the components of Mixture (a) start very early in the spring, and the clover and brome grass will remain green and continue to grow during quite dry weather. II. For Humid Climates Farther South (a) For Light Sandy Soils : (b) For Richer, Heavier, Well- (c) For Low, Wet Lands : underdrained Soils : Smooth Brome Grass 15 lbs. Orchard Grass 10 lbs. Alsike Clover 4 lbs. Tall Oat Grass 151bs. Tall Fescue , 10 lbs. Red Top 4 lbs. Haiiy Vetch 15 lbs. Rescue Grass .10 lbs. Large Water Grass 4 lbs. Medium Red Clover 3 lbs. (or Hairy Vetch, 12 lbs.) Mixture (a), below the snow line, will afford growing pasture for almost the entire year. One report^ from the South mentions orchard grass as not being relished by the stock, but as a rule they are fond of it. All the foregoing mixtures are best sown at the beginning of the fall rains. III. For Semi-arid Regions Meadow Fescue : 10 lbs. Orchard Grass , 12 lbs. Smooth Brome Grass 15 lbs. Medium Red Clover ._ 2 lbs. Alfalfa 6 lbs. (a) Prepare the ground thoroughly, and seed with a press drill early in the spring for the more northerly regions, and in the fall farther south. (b) The same mixture may also be sown advantageously on the native pastures, after first thoroughly scarifying them with a disk or other effective implement. 1 This grass once introduced into a locality to which I 3 Bulletin 87, Kentucky Experiment Station, Lex- it is adapted, will usually come into a pasture very ington, Ky. quickly without seeding. | FIELD CROPS AND GRASSES 73 PLANTING TABLE NAME. Inches Apart in Rows. Rows or Drills, Inches Apart. Quantity Sown Per Acre. Alfalfa .... Artichokes Barley Beans, field, for forage.. " soy, for forage . . . " soy, for seed " velvet, for forage Beets, for stock " for sugar Buckwheat Carrots Clover, Alsike — " red Corn, field, for grain " " for forage ... Cow-peas, for seed '• for forage Emmer Flax Grass, blue - " bronie, smooth " meadow fescue - " orchard " red top "• rescue " tall fescue " tall oat " timothy. Kafir-corn, for grain " " for forage Kohlrabi Macaroni wheat, spring seeding. " " fall seeding Millet Milo maize Oats Peas, field Peas and oats, for forage Potatoes Pumpkins, alone Rape Rutabagas. . _ Rye, for grain " for forage Sorghum, for forage Turnips. Vetch.. Wheat and Hairy Vetch, for forage. 15 Drilled Broadcast In Drills In Drills In Drills Alone Alone 43 to 48 In Drills Broadcast Di-illed Broadcast Drilled • Alone Drilled Drilled Drilled Broadcast Drilled Broadcast Drilled Broadcast 10 to 18 In Drills Drilled Broadcast Drilled Broadcast In Drills Broadcast Drilled Broadcast 36 26 to 30 26 to 30 26 to 30 26 to 30 42 to 48 30 to 36 26 to 30 .36 to 40 30 to 36 28 to 30 20 to 30 lbs. 6 to 7 bu. 8 pecks. 10 pecks. 2bu. 3 to 4 pecks. 2 to 3 pecks. 1 to 2 bu. 5 to 15 lbs. 5 to 1.5 lbs. 2 to 3 pecks. 4 to 6 lbs. 7 lbs. 10 lbs. 8 lbs. 2 to 3 pecks. 3 to 4 pecks. 2 to 3 pecks. 4 to 6 pecks. 8 pecks. 10 pecks. 2 to 3 pecks. 30 lbs. 45 lbs. 25 lbs. 30 lbs. 9 lbs. 30 lbs. 35 lbs. 35 lbs. 6 lbs. 7 to 10 lbs. 4 to 5 pecks. 2 lbs. 4 to 6 pecks. 4 to 5 pecks. 4 to 5 pecks. 6 pecks. 6 pecks. 8 pecks. 8 pecks. 10 pecks. 2 to 3 bu. 3bu. 6 to 10 bu. 5 lbs. 5 lbs. 2 lbs. 4 pecks. 5 pecks. 6 pecks. 75 to 100 lbs. 100 to 125 lbs. 2 lbs. 4 lbs. Ibu. 4 to 5 pecks. 5 to 6 pecks. 4 to 6 pecks. 74 SEED BKEEDING AND SELECTION HOME-GROWN SEEDS Nothing is of greater importance in the prodnction of any crop than that good seed be used to start it. While there are reasons why a man or company making seed-growing a sj)ecialty should be able to make the best progress in the develop- ment of good seeds, there are, on the other hand, very strong reasons why the farmer to a large degree should be his own seedsman. Objections to Purchased Seed — As a rule, seedsmen are anxious to supply the purchaser with good seed, since they know that spurious seed will lose them customers. How well many, of them do this depends entirely upon the intel- ligence, vigilance, and integrity of their employes. Much seed is grown by con- tract and often in a different part of the country from that in which the seed house is located. In this way the purchaser may obtain seeds not adapted to his climate. A lack of vigilance in keeping weeds out of the growing seed crop may result in seeding the purchaser's farm with weeds that are very difficult to eradicate. The handling of a large quantity of seed requires a great deal of care to prevent injury to its germinating qualities. A little carelessness on the part of persons having this work in charge, or a lack of integrity in reporting conditions, sometimes results in the sending out of a lot of seed that is very poor in germinating qualities. The writer has purchased from prominent seedsmen seed not 5 per cent of which would grow. Some Tests of Purchased SaniiJles — Some of the conditions that may be met with in purchased seeds or in home-grown seeds that have not been properly cleaned or cared for, are illustrated in Figs. 21, 23, and 23.^ In each case tube No. 1 represents a pound of seed as it was obtained on the market; No. 2 the quantity of pure seed contained in the pound ; No. 3 the amount of broken seed and dirt; No. 4 the amount .of spurious seed; No. 5 the total waste, and No. 6 the quantity of pure and germinable seed. It will be observed that of the sample represented in Fig. 21, only about 60 per cent was pure seed, and that if it were clover seed purchased at, say, 15 a bushel the purchaser would in reality be paying nearly $10 a bushel for the pure seed. In Fig. 22 is shown a sample which, while containing a larger percentage of pure seed, at the same time contains very little germinable seed. Such a sample would be of no value whatever as seed. The sample represented in Fig. 23 shows a condition that should always obtain, and that with proper care may always be secured in the home-grown seed. 1 From Farmers' Bulletin 111, United States Department of Agriculture. IMPROVEMEJ^T AND MODIFICATION 75 <^<2-/^?'-A 80 BOOKS ON CROPS, SEEDS, AND WEEDS PUBLICATIONS ON FIELD AND FORAGE CROPS, SEED SELECTION, AND THE ERADICATION OF WEEDS Note — For additional publications on specific crops, see also the book list on page 108. Alfalfa. By F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co., N. Y $0.50 A suggestive presentation of the best methods of growing this most valuable crop under various conditions. Alfalfa, OR Lucerne. Farmers' Bulletin 31. United States Department of Agriculture Cattle Ranges op the Southwest. Farmers' Bulletin 72. United States Department of Agriculture Corn, Book of. By Herbert My rick. 07'ange Judd Co., N. Y 1.50 Corn Culture, Indian. By C. S. Plumb. Breeder's Gazette, Chicago 1.00 Corn Culture in the South. Farmers' Bulletin 81. United 'States Department of Agnculture Cowpeas. Farmers' Bulletin 89. United States Department of Agriculture Farm Gardening AND Seed Growing. By Francis Brill. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y. . 1.00 Flax Culture. Orange Judd Cc?., N Y 30 Flax for Seed and Fiber. Farmers' Bulletin 27. United States Department of Agri- culture ■ Fodder and Forage Plants. Bulletin 2, Division of Agrostology. United States Department of Agriculture .05 Forage Crops Other Than Grasses. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 Forage Plants. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co. , '^ . Y 1.00 This is a thorough treatise on the various plants grown for forage, their characteristics, and their adaptation to various conditions of soil and climate. Forage Plants, Southern. Farmers' Bulletin 102. United States Department of Agriculture Germination of Seeds as Affected by Commercial Fertilizers. Bulletin 24, Divi- sion of Botany. United States Department of Agriculture .05 Good Seed, The Farmers' Interest in. Farmers' Bulletin HI. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture Grasses, American. Bulletin 7, Division of Agrostology. United States Departnunt of Agriculture .20 Grasses and Clover. By H. A. Dreer, Philadelphia, Pa 25 Grasses, The True. By Edward Hackel. Henry Holt & Co., 'Si. Y 1.50 This is purely a textbook, treating of only the one famUy of plants. BOOKS ON CROPS, SEEDS, AND WEEDS 81 Hemp. By S. S. Boyce. Orange Judd Cb., N. Y $0.50 Hop, The. By Herbert Myrick. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . 1.50 Hop Culture in California. Farmers' Bulletin 115. United States Bepartimnt of Agriculture Hops. By Emanuel Gross. D. Van JVostrand Co , 'N . Y 4.50 Thi.s is an exhaustive treatise on this crop, considered in its botanical, agricultural, and technical aspects, and as an article of commerce. Kafir Corn. Farmers' Bulletin 37. United States Department of Agriculture . . . . Treats of the characteristics, culture, and uses of this crop. Leguminous Plants. By E. W. Hilgard. The Macmillan Co.,'N.Y ~ . 1.00 Manuring op Cotton, The. Farmers' Bulletin 48. United States Department of Agri- culture Meadows and Pastures in the Middle Eastern States. Farmers' Bulletin 66. United States Department of Agriculture Millets, The. Farmers' Bulletin 101. United States Department of Agriculture . . Peanut Plant, The. By B. W. Jones. Orange Judd Co., N. Y . . . . . .50 Peanuts: Their Culture and Uses. Farmers' Bulletin 25. United States Depart- ment of Agricxdture Poisonous Plants, Thirty. Farmers' Bulletin 86. United States Department of Agriculture . . Gives information as to means of recognition, symptoms of poisoning, and treatment for same. Poisonous Plants of the South. Bulletin 9, Volume XXH. North Carolina State Board of Agriculture ... Principal Poisonous Plants in the United States. Bulletin 20, Division of Botany. United States Department of Agriculture ... . .05 Red Clover Seed. Farmers' Bulletin 123. United States Department of Agriculture . Soiling Crops and the Silo. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.50 A comprehensive discussion of the crops best adapted to a line of work that should receive increasing attention from the farmers of the country. Sorghum as a Forage Crop. Farmers' Bulletin 50. United States Department of Agriculture Sorghum Syrup Manufacture. Farmers' Bulletin 135. United States Department of Agriciilture Soy Bean, The, as a Forage Crop. Farmers' Bulletin 58. United States Department of Agriculture Sugar Beet, The. Farmers' Bulletin 52. United States Department of Agriculture . . Sugar Beet Seed, Selection in Growing. By Lewis S. Ware. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. 1 .50 Sugar Industry, American. By Herbert Myrick. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.50 82" BOOKS ON CROPS, SEEDS, AND WEEDS Tobacco, Culture of. Farmers' Bulletin 82. United States Department of Agriculture . Tobacco CuLTunE. By Fourteen Growers. Orange Judd Co., l!i. Y $0.25 Tobacco Leaf. By Killebrew and Myrick. Orange Judd Co., 'Si.Y 2.00 A practical handbook, discussing methods of growing, harvesting, curing, packing, and selling tobacco. Tobacco, Method.s of Curing. Farmers' Bulletin 60, United States Department of Agriculture ... Tobacco Soils. Farmers' Bulletin 83. United States Department of Agriculture . . . Weeds and How to Kill Them. Farmers' Bulletin 28. United States Department of Agriculture Weeds : How to Eradicate Them. By Thomas Shaw. Thomas Shaw, St. Anthony Park, Minn 1.00 Weeds, Legislation Against. Bulletin 17, Division of Botany. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture .05 Wheat Culture. By D. S. Curtis. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 50 Veg*etable Garden and Trncking- Crops By Arthur T. Erwin Assistant Professor of Horticulture, Iowa College of Agriculture ESSENTIALS IN GARDENING The Soil — Any fertile, well-drained soil, suitable for corn, will produce good garden crops. With a home garden a first requisite is convenience to the kitchen, hence, there is usually little choice as regards special soils. Certain soils have their specific adaptatioji to special crops, however, and the grower who devotes attention to particular kinds should make a close study of this local factor. In general, '^ quick," sandy soils are best adapted for early crops. On the other hand, they do not retain moisture so well in the heat of the summer, hence, for later crops a more retentive soil is preferable. Aside from this, on a rolling soil a variation in eleva- tion will often produce crops which mature several days earlier, and even on a small plot this variation should be noted and used to best advantage. Planning' the Garden — It is a lamentable but indisputable fact that the farmer's table is not supplied with its daily quota of fresh vegetables as it should be. Poor planning and improper arrangement of the vegetable garden are no doubt in large measure resj^onsible for this. As commonly laid out, the garden requires an endless amount of hand labor, which is always expensive and far in excess of that required for any other proportionate area on the farm. The work should be so planned that the 'Miorse hoe"' may be used whenever possible. To facilitate this, the garden should be oblong in shape and the crops planted in long rows (Fig. 24). At each end it is well to leave a strip of sod as a turning ground. Group crops according to their season of maturing, placing all perennial crops, such as rhubarb and asparagus, in adjoining rows, and early crops, such as peas and beans, together. The prevailing system of growing the various crops in raised beds is a poor one, except for a few of the very early crops. With these it has an advantage in providing a soil which warms up earlier, but for general crops it is expensive and unnecessary. The soil is also more exposed and likely to suffer from drought. Regarding this matter, I can not do better than quote the words of Professor Bailey, the truth of whose statement many a farmer's boy will verify: '' The old practice of growing vegetables in beds usually entails more labor and (83) 84 ESSENTIALS IN GAEDENING expense than the crop is worth, and it has had the effect of driving more than one boy from the farm. These beds always need weeding on Saturdays, holidays, circus days, and the Fourth of July." Eegarding the size of the area for the family garden, much, of course, depends upon the size of the family and their fondness for vegetables. Bailey recommends 100 by 150 feet for a family of five. This is based upon the constant use of the ground and a close succession of crops, a plan which is most essential in the limited area of the city man's garden. In the country, however, conditions are different. Land is more plentiful and help is the expensive item. In this case, less intensive succession of crops, less hand labor, and a larger area of land seem advisable. For the needs of the average farmer's family of five, including potatoes and vine crops, from one-half to three-fourths of an acre is none too large. Essential requirements in the family garden are variety and a regular supply, rather than a large crop of any given kind. In the garden a limited rotation of crops is essential. Certain crops have their specific enemies, such as the club root of cabbage, and rotation is the only practical method of keeping these foes in check, as well as aiding in maintaining soil fertility. PAR TI AL - SEAS ON CROPS — i\/i /\ f T>vT - _ 1 VI ,^-\ ii>j - -_- - S E ASON . _ _ _ _ _ /'^^ "CD <'~^ TD Ci ^^^ i-< t^ Jr-' cr> RER E N IMIy^L CRORS PARTIAL-SEASON CROPS: MAIN-SEASON CROPS: PERENNIAL CROPS: Tiirnino Rootc Vi ne C fops ( Melons, etc.) , m. u l. ^pTaf bIT Corn Tor.atoes Egg ^lant '^^''Tors^e-rad' h"'"' FiQ. 24. Plan for garden. A convenient arrangement, with a view to securing long rows, for horse cultivation- LABOE-SAVING IMPLEMENTS 85^ Seed — Seed should be purchased from a reliable seedsman and one should expect to pay a good price for a good article. Cheap seeds and bargain packages are invariably a dear investment at any price. Varieties — The testing of new varieties is a fascinat- ing line of work, and every grower should devote a small area to this purpose, but for the main crop. Fig. 25. Typical single- wheel hoe and cultivator. Environment is a ruling factor with varieties. " The friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, Grapple them to thy soul with hoops of steel." The naming of varieties in the following pages should be regarded as tentative, those mentioned being named as the representatives of certain types which have a general adapta- tion rather than as specific varieties and. one can determine the kinds best adapted to his peculiar conditions only by actual experience. Implements — Among the most important of the implements for general cultivating and garden work may be mentioned the various types of horse hoes, hand cultivators, and wheel hoes. These types of tools are invaluable and in a single season will pay for themselves in labor saved. They should be regarded as an essential part of one's equipment. In dry seasons thorough preparation of the seed-bed is of special importance. If the soil is cloddy and open it dries out quickly, and poor germination results. The soil particles should be fine and well worked together. Often the roller is of special advantage for this work. For summer planting the advice of Peter Hen- derson, to "place your foot on every seed you plant," may be followed with jorofit. Transplanting- — In transplanting, it is best to do the work in the cool part of the day, as this enables the plants to revive during the night. Wilt- ^^^' ~^' '^^'P'*^^' double-wheel hoe and cultivator, for straddling 86 ESSENTIALS IN GAEDENING ing is much less severe in a moist atmosphere, hence when possible it is an advan- tage to transplant cabbage and other seed-bed crops just before a rain. Wilting is caused by the uncompensated giving off of moisture from the leaves. In the plant there is normally an equilibrium between the root system and the foliage. In transplanting, the root system is partially destroyed and as a result the amount of moisture required for the foliage is in excess of the supply and wilting follows. Hence, in transplanting crops of any kind it is important to cut back the tops to make them balance with the root system. With such plants as celery and cabbage, about one-half of the leaf surface should be cut back. On a small scale, good results may be accomplished by placing a flower pot over each plant for the first day or two. This keeps the plant cool and' moist and enables it to become reestab- lished before being exposed to the hot sun. If the soil is dry, watering after trans- planting is advisable, though under average conditions for work done in the spring of the year this is unnecessary. There is an ample water supply in the soil which will be rendered available if pains are taken to firm the soil well, bringing the moist particles into close contact with the delicate roots. Hardening Off — Sudden changes in temperature are always trying on plant life. Plants which have been started within doors should be gradually accustomed to the outside temperature before being placed in the field. This process is known as ''hardening off." In hardening off, the plants are usually watered less freely to harden up the growth somewhat, and the ventilation period is gradually length- ened each day until the plants are accustomed to the outside temperature. • As a result, such plants readily become reestablished in the new soil, whereas, if suddenly withdrawn from the higher temperature the check in growth would be severe and earliness often would be sacrificed. This is of special importance, as earliness is the essential object in starting any plants indoors. HOTBEDS Location and Construction — For the starting of tomato plants, early cabbage, sweet potato, and similar vegetables, hotbeds are a necessity. The beds should be located upon a south or east slope with a building or fence to protect from the north and west winds. The soil for the frames is usually excavated to a depth of about two feet and filled in with manure. This should be piled and allowed to heat for a few days, and turned before being placed in the beds. It should be thoroughly tramped as thrown into the beds, taking special pains to firm around the edges. The temperature will again rise, and no planting should be done until the HOTBEDS AND FORCING BOXES 87 temperature has reached its maximum and has fallen to about 90°. Four inches of mallow garden loam should now be placed over the manure, and the bed is ready for use. The seeds may be sown directly in this soil. Care must be taken, especially for the first few days, to provide proper ventilation, as the heat is quite strong and ammonia is given off freely. In the prairie region the sash are apt to be blown off and broken by the wind. To avoid this the frames should be slightly wider than the lengtli of the sash, and an inch strip placed along each side, extending up the height of the sash bar, to prevent the wind from getting under the sash. The accompanying illustration. Fig. 27, will indicate the gen- eral plan and structure of a simple hotbed. Forcing: Boxes — A forcing box is very cheap in construction, and will enable one to secure crops of lettuce and radishes two or three weeks earlier than from out-of-doors. These boxes are operated upon the principle that heat is readily stored up under glass. The ... .3 SOIL . > J«5 -^^J- M A N U R F V„>' ^ J«5 MANURE ^A^' P^ >- 1, fei ^ IT." ^ Fig. 27. A ojmplc hutbed. vEi-wm.; soil is spaded and a bottomless box, the size of a window sash, is placed over the area. The sash should be left closed for several days, during which period the temperature will run up considerably if the weather be sunny. The seed should then be sown, and as soon as the plants germinate ventilation and watering will be necessary. If a number of sash are desired, 6-incli fencing boards may be used for the sides. Those who are interested in the growing of special crops will find an extended list of literature at the end of this section. In addition to special works, every grower of garden plants should possess a copy of some general book on this subject, such as Green's Vegetable Gardening, or Bailey's Principles of Vegetable Gardening. 88 CULTUKAL DIRECTIONS TUBER AND BULB CROPS IRISH POTATO SWEET POTATO ONION LEEK IRISH POTATOES The Irish potato is a staple article of food throughout the civilized world, and probably ranks second only to wheat as a food product. It is essentially a northern crop, but thrives best in a warm soil of a slightly sandy texture. The pine lands of this quality in Wisconsin and Minnesota seem to furnish ideal conditions for its growth. Culture —The most important point is an ample supply of moisture. Without this, good tubers can not be produced. It is not a bog plant, however, and good drainage is necessary. An ample water supply throughout the season may be secured by early planting and frequent surface tillage. The soil should be fertile, and it is a good plan to plow under a coat of manure in the fall of the year, leaving the ground in the rough until spring. The manure should be thoroughly decayed, however, as fresh manure seems to favor scabby potatoes. It is often best, as a matter of fact, to apply a heavy coat of manure to some crop grown the previous season, rather than the year the potatoes are grown. In addition to the scab, grub- worms are also very much worse in freshly manured soil. The preparation of the ground should be deep and thorough, as the tubers develop better in a loose soil. If plowed in the fall, the ground should be replowed just before planting and the rows then laid out, making the furrow at least four inches deep. With this thorough preparation before planting, the tubers have ample room to form below the surface and they are much less liable to grow above the soil and turn green. Fig. 2^ Some noteworthy varieties of Irish potato. (Erwin.) lEISH POTATOES 89 Seed potatoes should be cut with at least one sound eye to each piece. Cutting machines are used, and for large planting are convenient, but no mechanical device can equal a knife in the hands of an intelligent operator. There is much speculation as to the proper size of pieces and number of eyes to a seed. It should be borne in mind that the eye is a young plant and the tuber contains a storehouse of material for it to feed upon until it becomes established in the soil ; hence, the important thing is to have an ample supply of food for each eye. Medium-sized tubers are preferable, anji a liberal-sized piece should be allov^ed to each eye. The use of peelings and small, inferior potatoes for seed purposes is to be condemned, as poor crop and the "running out of the variety" is an inevitable result. Plant 15 inches apart, with Si feet between the rows. At this distance ten bushels of seed will be required per acre. After planting, the ground should be harrowed, in order to make it firm and smooth and to kill young weeds; and the operation should be repeated frequently until the plants appear. Until the young plants have attained a height of 4 to 6 inches they may be cultivated with a light, slant-toothed harrow or weeder. This is a very effective method of cultivating, as it destroys the weeds in the hills, where they are difficult to get at with a plow, and it will not harm the potatoes. After this plowing alone can be practiced. This should be continued until the plants have attained full growth and the vines begin to spread, after which no cultivation is necessary except in very dry seasons. The cultivating should be shallow, and many prefer the one-horse cultivator to the double-shovel plow. The last cultivating is done with a double shovel, throwing the furrow to the row, thus ridging the ground slightly. Digging- — The maturing of the tubers is indicated by the dying of the vines. With early varieties and a good market, it will pay to dig at once. Later varieties handle better if left in the ground until well ripened. If the soil is moderately dry it furnishes an ideal place for the maturing of the tubers. In wet falls, however, they will rot instead of ripening if left in the ground after the tops die away. Under such conditions it is advisable to harvest as soon as the tops are dead. Hand digging is expensive and practiced only on a small scale. For large areas potato diggers are largely used and are quite satisfactory. Sorting and Storage — After harvesting the grower is confronted with the problem of storing or selling at once. Spring prices are often glittering, but the fluctuation makes the risk of holding all the greater The shrinkage and loss in storage must also be taken into account. One must be one's own judge in taking account of existing conditions, but in general, Terry's advice that " Cash in the bank is better than potatoes in the cellar" is good. Before selling, the tubers should be carefully assorted into uniform grades. Often a graded article will command a ready sale at a good price while a mixed crop will go begging, and in any case the first-class tubers in a mixed lot are rated in and sold at the price of the seconds. The very small tubers injure the sale of tlie product and should be kept at home for chicken feed. In the spring, the work may be done very much more rapidly with a sorting machine. In the fall, how- ever, the use of this machine is not advisable if the potatoes are to be stored or kept any length of time, as the skin is quite tender and they are likely to be more or less peeled and bruised. A dark, well-ventilated cellar with a temperature 6° to 8° above freezing is the best place for storing. Raised floors and an interval of a few inches between the bins and the wall should be 90 TUBER AND BULB CROPS provided to admit of proper ventilation. It is also an advantage to have the sides of the bins constructed of slats rather than solid boards. The exclusion of light is important, as the tubers develop chlorophyll and turn green in the presence of sunlight, vrhich spoils the flavor of the tuber. Temporary storage may be provided in the fall by piling and covering with stravr to protect from frost. Sprouting in winter usually indicates too high a tem- perature, and may largely be prevented by keeping the temperature down and ex- cluding the light. Varieties vary much in their adaptation to local conditions. Those grown on wet, swampy soils are watery and more or less touiih ill texture. The same varieties grown on upland soil will be higher in flavor and more mealy in charac- ter. Restaurant and hotel- keepers prefer the former for Saratoga chips and the latter for baking. Early Ohio, Maggie Murphy, Car- man, and Rural New Yorker are standards. The Burbank is another favorite variety and regarded by many as of the first rank in quality, though not so productive as the others named. Fig. 29. Well-known varieties of sweet potato. (Ei-win.) SWEET POTATOES The sweet potato is distinctly tropical in its requirements. A light, warm soil, rich in organic matter, is essential. Cold or heavy clay soils are unsuccessful. In SWEET POTATOES, ONIONS 91 the South, level culture is practiced. In the cooler sections of the North the ridge system secures a warmer soil, and is an advantage, especially in wet seasons. Propagation and Culture — The sweet potato is usually propagated from shoots started in hotbeds. The tubers are placed quite close together but not touching each other, and covered with 2 or 3 inches of soil. The shoots are taken off when 3 or 4 inches in height, and transplanted to the field when the ground becomes warm. Frequent cultivation of the surface soil is important and will do much toward producing good-sized tubers. The question is often asked as to whether or not it will pay to remove the vines in order to prevent their rooting. A number of experiments have been conducted along this line, and the consensus of opinion is that it will not, there being little difference in yield between the crops so treated and those where the vines have been allowed to grow unmolested. The sweet potato is a main-season crop and the vines remain green until frost. Before dig- ging, the vines should be mown off with a brier scythe If the crop is caught by an unexpected, heavy frost the vines should be cut away in the early morning before the sun blackens them, other- wise the keeping qualities of the roots seem to be affected. The tubers bruise readily, and require careful handling They must have a higher storage temperature than that of other root crops, keeping well in a temperature of 55° to 60°. The roots are usually packed in barrels, buckwheat chaff or sawdust being used as a filler. Varieties — In popular parlance the term "Yam" is used to designate the yellow-skinned types of sweet potato.' In the South this type reaches perfection and produces tubers with a high percentage of sugar and of a rich, mealy character. In many parts of the North, however, the red sorts are preferred. Vineless varieties of the sweet potato have attracted recent attention. Such a type is no doubt desirable, but the varieties produced thus far have generally proved poor bearers. Florida, Red Jersey, and Yellow Jersey are among the most productive sorts in the North. OXIONS The onion is a hardy plant and should be sown as soon as the ground will permit. Culture — A convenient plan is to sow with a drill, placing the rows 13 to 15 inches apart. When the plants reach a height of 3 inches, thin to 4 inches apart. In doing this care should be taken that the remaining plants are left intact, with the soil firm around them. Careful hand- weeding is necessary until the plants become well established. If neglected in the early stages of growth, the young plants are easily smothered out by weeds. This is the most expensive period in the growing of onions, and the Hazeltine weeder is an invaluable tool for this work Later, some form of a hand wheel hoe can be used to excellent advantage. When the tops die off the crop is ready for harvesting. Bunch three rows together and allow them to lie until perfectly dry. This period is a critical one in the care of the crop. If allowed to remain in the ground after the tops die they are likely to throw out new roots after the first rain. On the other hand, the bulbs must be thoroughly dry before storing. A cool, dry shed should be provided for this purpose. A series of shelves, four inches in depth and with ample space between for free circulation of air, furnishes excellent conditions for storage. 92 PULSE CEOPS Freezing is not injurious, if the building is well enclosed to prevent sudden freezing and thawing. For small crops a portion of the haymow may be used for storage. Onion Sets — Sets are produced by sowing the seed very thickly and preferably on a poor soil. On account of the crowded condition the young bulbs can not develop fully and growth is arrested when they are about half size. To prevent the sets from overgrowing the seed should not be sown until the middle of June. Bulbs one-half inch in diameter command the top price. The sets are planted as soon as the soil can be worked in the spring, and the crop is usually ready for market by the first of June. The bulbs are set 3 inches apart and about 3 inches deep, taking pains to firm the soil well around the bulb. Varieties — There are three general types of varieties, white, red, and yellow skinned. The white are usually more mild in flavor. In many markets the demand for red exceeds all others. Early Bed Wethersfield, Yellow Strasburg, and Silver Skin are general favorites. LEEKS These are a species of onion producing a straight stem. The stems are mild in flavor and are highly prized for winter soitps. Culture — The culture is similar to that of the onion. The leek requires the entire season for growth and is stored in the green state, as in the case of celery. "Varieties — American Flag is a desirable sort. PULSE CROPS PEAS BEANS Peas and beans belong to the family Legummosce, and by the botanist are regarded as closely related. Horticnlturally, however, they differ essentially as regards cultural requirements, beans being a tropical plant, while peas are hardy and a cool-season crop. PEAS Culture — Peas should be sown as soon as the ground can be worked in the spring. In many sections successional crops may be had by planting every two weeks. In the drier atmos- phere of the Northwest, however, they do not thrive well in late summer, and the early-season crop is the main one. A fall crop may be secured by sowing early-maturing varieties the fore- part of July. A good rotation may be secured by planting the ground to early potatoes, harvesting these in July, and sowing to peas for a fall crop Varieties — There are two types of peas generally grown in the United States, those having a small, round seed, and tho.se having wrinkled seed. The wrinkled sorts are the less hardy and should be planted later in the spring. While less vigorous than the smooth, round peas, they are regarded by many as superior in quality, and for this reason are preferable for the main-season crop. In addition to these there is a third type with an edible pod, known as the sugar pea. While popular abroad, they are little grown as yet in this country. POLE AND BUSH BEANS 93 The tall-growing varieties of peas are usually grown in double rows 5 feet apart and sup- ported by brush or wire netting. The dwarf sorts are equally productive, however, and are largely supplanting the tall kinds, because they require no support. On rich soil peas tend to vine too heavily, and the best crops are secured on a moderately poor soil. For early planting some of the best varieties are First of All, Extra Early, and Gradus; Main- season crop; Junus, Nott's Excelsior, and Stratagem. BEANS The garden beans are na- tives ot the warmer parts of South Africa,' and are very tender to frost. For this reason they should not be planted until the ground has become warmed. A good guide for planting time is ''when the oak leaves reach the size of squir- rels' ears." If the seed is sown too early it decays quite readily. In their cultural require- ments beans' are divided into two types: Pole Beans — climb- ing varieties which require a support — and the dwarf, com- pact-growing sorts, known as Bush Beans. Pble Beans : Culture — The climbing Lima bean belongs to this type and is a kind, of high flavor, much prized in the South and East. It is more tender than the bush beans, however, and for this reason is not so successful in the Northwest. In that section the Dwarf Limas are more satisfactory. In planting pole beans it is best to place the poles, before planting, in rows 3 feet each way. If the soil is thin it is a good "VtUAJ' U; O-IVXCA. Fig. 30. Some standard varieties of Lima beans. 94 VINE CROPS practice to apply a shovelful of well -decayed manure under each hill. To insure a good stand, 6 to 8 seeds should be sown to each pole. Wire netting is a convenient support and in many sections is preferable to poles. Some of the standard varieties of pole beans are Dreer's Pole Lima, Siebert's Lima, and Large Lima. Busll Beans: Culture — Bush beans require a very much shorter growing season, and by successional sowings may be had for table supply throughout the svimmer. The last planting should be made at least seven or eight weeks before heavy frost. To secure good snap or string beans a rapid growth is necessary. Otherwise the pods become stringy. It is also necessary to keep all pods picked, allowing none to mature, for the ripening seeds will check the growth of the plant and destroy the future supply of green pods. When grown as a field crop for market the plants are pulled by hand and piled with the roots upward, or harvested with a bean puller. If not allowed to stand until the pods shell too much they may be mowed and raked up as hay. For small quantities, a hand flail and fanning mill may be used for threshing and cleaning. By large growers, a regular bean thresher is employed. Varieties — Bush Beans: Yellow Podded, Golden Wax, and Valentine Wax. Shell and String Beans: Stringless Oreen Pod and Early Refugee. For field use, the Navy is probably best known. Dwarf Limas, Henderson's Bush Lima, and Burpee's Bush Lima are common types. Dwarf Limas are not equal to pole Limas in flavor and quality, but have the advantage of maturing earlier and being more productive. VINE CROPS CUCUMBERS MELONS PUMPKINS SQUASHES Vine crops are frost-tender and thrive best on a warm, sandy soil. They are grown in hills and cnltivated both ways so long as the vines will permit. In the North they require the entire season for growth and should be planted as soon as the weather becomes well settled and warm. The flowers of vine 'crops are mone- cious, i. e., the male flower is borne upon one branch and the female upon another. The pollen is transferred by bees, hence this insect plays an im- portant part in the growing of this class of vegetables, failure being sometimes due to lack of proper poUenization. CUCUMBERS Culture — Plant as soon as the soil becomes thoroughly warm, in Fig. 31. Popular varieties of cucumber. (Erwin.) hills 6 feet each way. To allow for MUSKMELONS, WATEEMELONS 95 insect ravages it is well to plant 6 to 10 seeds to a hill, and thin to 3 when the plants begin to vine well. Cultivate both ways as long as possible. No fruit should be allowed to ripen on the vine, as this will cause the plants to discontinue growth and cut short the crop. Varieties — The White Spine, Long Green, and Cool and Crisp are standards. MUSKMELONS There is much confusion regarding the itse of the term muskmelon and canta- loup. With some the terms are regarded as synonymous. According to Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Horticulture the cantaloup is a special form of muskmelon, having a deeper furrow and a hard rind. Culture — The cul ture of the muskmelon is similar to that of the cu- cumber. The fruits are of a higher flavor if al- lowed to remain on the vines until they separate readily at the shoulder. Varieties — A large, nearly smooth-skinned type known as the Montreal muskmelon has recently aroused considerable in- terest in the West. While of a superior size it is coarse and low in quality. -,. ' , ,, '. , Fig. 32. Anexcellent variety of muskmelon, of the fine-netted skin type. (Erwin.) medium- to- small -Si zed varieties with a finely netted skin are the par excellence of quality. Of this type the Netted Oem and the well-known Rocky Foi'd, which is a slight variatipn of the Gem, are good examples. WATERMELONS The watermelon thrives best in the South. Good crops may be grown in the North, however, if planted on an early "quick" soil. Culture — The hills are usually placed 8 or 10 feet apart, and, if the soil is thin, a shovelful of well-decayed manure should be placed under each hill. The fruit is borne on the side branches, and many growers recommend the pinching back of the terminal buds to stimulate side growth. Varieties — Mountain Sweet and Hungarian Honey are good northern sorts. 96 ANNUAL ROOT CROPS CITRON Citron is a fruit very similar to the watermelon in appearance and culture, but bearing a thick, hard, fleshy rind, which is used for preserving. PUMPKINS Pumpkins are coarse growers and, hence, are generally planted in the field rather than the garden. A favorite plan is to plant in alternate rows in every sec- ond hill in the cornfield. The fruit should be stored or covered with fodder upon the approach of heavy frost. The crop is largely grown for stock, and finds only limited use as a table vegetable. SQUASHES The term "squash" is quite a broad one, including those classes of gourds which produce an edible fruit. It is a popular error that squashes, pumpkins, and melons will cross-fertilize if planted near one another. Those who have made careful investigation, however, are emphatic in their statements that such is not the case, and that squashes never cross with watermelons and spoil their flavor, as is sometimes stated. Hand crosses between the pumpkins and squashes failed in the majority of cases, and in no case were the results apparent until the second generation. Culture — The general cultural requirements of the squash are similar to those of the cucumber except with the long-vined sorts, for which the hills should be ten feet apart. Sow 6 to 8 seeds per hill and thin to 3., Of the summer squashes, Silver Custard and Crookneck are good varieties ; of the winter squashes, Boston Marrow and Huthard. Varieties — There are two distinct types of squashes— the summer and winter species. The summer varieties mature early and are used before the rind hardens. The fall and winter varieties are usually provided with a hard, flinty shell of a warty appearance. The Hubbard is a well-known and excellent representative of this class. Winter varieties are readily stored if handled carefully and held at a temperature of 40° to 50°. ANNUAL ROOT CROPS BEETS CARROTS TURNIPS SALSIFY PARSNIPS RADISH Root crops are of the easiest culture. The essential conditions are a deep, rich soil, with ample moisture. A straight, symmetrical root is required, and to secure this, deep plowing and a well-prepared seed-bed are necessary. The soil should be fertile, but it is not advisable to plow under fresh manure, as the roots are apt to acquire an astringent flavor and a forked growth. On poor, clay soils the roots are usually leathery and of inferior quality. BEETS, CAREOTS, TURNIPS 97 BEETS There are two general types of beets — the turnip-rooted and the long-rooted. The turnip-rooted sorts mature the more quickly and are generally grown for the early-season crop. Culture — The beet ranks with the onion and pea in point of hardiness, and should be sown as soon as the ground is in a tillable condition. Plant 1 inch deep in rows 3 feet apart. As the seed usually germinates unevenly, it is well to sow thickly. Thin as the plants reach 5 or 6 inches in height until they are 5 inches apart. The thinnings make excellent greens. By successional sowing a suppl}^ may be had throughout the summer and fall. Upon the approach of heavy frost the crop should be pulled and piled. The tops are cut off 3 inches above the crown.. This is important, as, if the crown of the root is cut, they readily decaJ^ Store in a cool cellar or root pit. If the atmosphere is dry they should be covered with slightly moistened soil or sand. If allowed to dry out the roots become wilted and corky. Good corn land is well adapted to beet growing, and for early varieties a quick, sandy soil is advantageous. Varieties — The Eclipse is a general favorite. Other standard varieties are the Early Turni'p. Egyptian, and Long Dark Blood. CARROTS I Culture — Like other root crops, the carrot thrives best on a rich, deep, well-drained soil. The plants are quite hardy and of the easiest culture when once established. The seed germinates slowly, and hence it is a good practice to sow with it some companion crop, such as radish. This will keep the rows defined and insure early culture. Early culture is important, as the young plants are rather delicate and easily smothered out by weeds if neglected. The seed should be sown rather thickly and the plants thinned to 3 inches apart. Early varieties are sown as soon as the soil will permit. The winter crop should be sown about the first of June. Crops intended for storing should not be planted before this, as they may mature their growth and the tops will die off while still in the soil. The roots which are harvested while still in a growing condition store best and are of superior qualit}'. Harvestiug" — For convenience, the first step in gathering should be the mowihg off of the tops with a brier scythe or cropping off with a hoe. Digging may be facilitated by plowing a furrow from the row on each side, or plowing out the roots. Varieties — Scarlet Horn and Impi'omcl Long Orange are among the best. TURNIPS The turnip is a moisture-loving plant and does not thrive best in the hot, dry atmosphere of midsummer : hence it is grown almost entirely as a spring and fall croj:). Culture — The seed is sown early and the roots usually reach marketable size in eight to nine weeks. Turnips are often sown as a successional crop with early potatoes and cabbage. The seed is sown broadcast and the only important point in culture is that the plants have an ample supply of moisture. The soil is likely to be dry when the fall crop is sown ; hence, thorough 98 ANNUAL ROOT CROPS preparation of the seed-bed is necessary. Germination may be assisted by rolling, which brings the moist particles of soil into contact with the seed. Turnips are injured by freezing, and should be stored in a cool cellar before heavy frost. The roots are largely used as stock food and find only a limited demand as a table vegetable. Varieties — Purple Milan, Early Snowball. RUTABAGAS OR SWEDISH TURNIPS The rutabaga is identical with the turnip in its culture, with the exception that it requires a longer season for growth, and for the winter crop should be sown four or five weeks earlier. Varieties — Oolden Heart is a satisfactory variety. SALSIFY This is a delicious winter vegetable of the simplest culture. It is often called "oyster plant/' on account of its oyster-like flavor. The plant is as yet comparatively little known in this country, but should be more generally grown. Culture — Salsify is a main- season crop and should be sown early in the spring. The roots are not injured by frost and may be left in the ground over winter or stored. They become woody and unfit for use after growth begins the second spring, however. The general culture requirements of salsify are similar to those of carrots and parsnips. Varieties — Sandwich Island Mammoth is one of the most productive varieties. Fig. 33. Sandwich Island Mammoth, the standard variety of salsify. (Erwin.) PARSNIPS Culture — Sow early and give the same culture as for the carrot. The roots may be stored or left in the ground over winter. If stored it is best not to dig them until after heavy frost, as the roots seem to be improved in quality by freezing. The seed is slow in germinating and radishes may be sown with them as in the case of carrots. Varieties — Hollmo Crown is an excellent sort. EADISHES, ASPARAGUS 99 RADISHES Culture — To produce crisp, tender roots the radish requires a cool, moist season of growth, similar to the turnip. Sow early in the spring, and repeat at intervals of ten days for successional crops. Early varieties mature in from twenty to thirty days. Winter varieties with a long, tapering root are grown to a limited extent ou\j. One of the best varieties of this type is the Black Spanish. Varieties — White Turnip, Scarlet Globe. PERENNIAL ROOT CROPS ASPARAGUS HORSE-RADISH RHUBARB The crof)o placed under this heading are not closely related botanically, and are arbitrarily placed in this section on account of their similar cultural requirements and their permanent location in the garden. Their permanency indicates the necessity of thorough preparation before jjlauting. An asparagus bed, for example, should yield profitable crops for twelve to fifteen years, provided the preparatory work has been properly done. In preparing the bed for any of these crops the ground should be deeply plowed and a heavy coat of well-rotted manure worked in. If the soil is not in good mechanical condition it will also be an advantage to plow in the fall and leave the ground in the rough over winter. ASPARAGUS Culture — Asparagus is a hardy perennial, native of Europe, propagated by division of the roots or by seed. If propagated from seed, which is the best method, the plants should be grown in the seed-bed the first year and transplanted to the permanent bed the second spring. As the bed will last for a number of years if the crop is properly planted, thorough preparation is of special importance. The land should be deeply plowed and heavily manured with well-rotted stable manure the fall before planting. As the stalks are the edible portion and asparagus is a strong feeder, it will require annual applications of manure throughout the life of the bed. The rows should be 6 feet apart and the plants 2 feet in the row. A convenient method of planting is to furrow out the rows to a depth of 8 inches, and plant in the bottom of the furrow. Cover the roots lightly at first, packing the soil well, however, around them, and gradually fill in the furrow as the stalks appear above the surface. This is a more convenient system than the old one of planting in solid beds, and will give good results. The plants should become well established before any crops are harvested, and for this reason it is best not to gather any stalks until the second spring after the plants are put out, and even then it should not be cropped heavily the first time. During the first two years frequent tillage is important. After the plants become well established the ground is sufficiently shaded and mulched to give little trouble from weeds. 100 PERENNIAL ROOT CROPS The shoots should be gathered as they appear in spring and before they are more than 8 or 10 inches in height. If allowed to grow taller than this they become woody. The stalk should be gathered liy reaching 2 or 8 inches below the surface, grasping the stalk with the fingers and breaking off with a simple twist. A case-knife is often used for this work, but it is not to be recommended, as the young crowns are clustered together and the blade of the knife is likely to sever a number of them, spoiling the future cro^j. Cropping should cease about the middle of June and the tops thereafter should be allowed to grow at will. After frost in the fall the tops are mown off and the beds well dressed with rotted manure. Asparagus is a native of the seashore and occasional applications of salt will stimvxlate growth. Varieties — Among the best varieties are Conover's Colossal and Palmetto. KHUBARB Culture — The most convenient method of propagating this vegetable is by division of roots. The plants may be set out in either spring or fall, planting 4 feet apart in rows 5 feet wide, in a rich, moist soil. No crop should be gathered until the second year after transplanting. Give clean culture during the summer and apply a coat of manure in the late fall. This should be plowed under the following spring. This mulch will prevent deep freezing, thus securing an early crop of stalks in the spring, and the additional supply of plant food will also aid in procuring a rapid growth. Rhubarb is essentially a moisture-loving plant and if properly supplied with water and an ample food supply, an excellent growth is insured. Varieties — There are apparently no new varieties of superior merit. The old standards, the Linneas and Victoria, are favorites. The Linneas is an early variety and less acid than the Victoria. The Victoria is a strong, heavy-growing sort with pink stalks and a more decided acid flavor. Forcing' — Rhubarb is readily forced in a warm cellar ; hence, winter crops of this delicious vegetable may be enjoyed by digging the roots late in the fall and storing them in a warm, dark cellar. The roots should be dug upon the approach of heavy frost and left above ground for a couple of weeks for the purpose of freezing. This freezing process is necessary, for without it the roots do not take on an active, vigorous growth when brought into a warmer temperature. The roots may be packed in closely, with only sufficient soil attached to supply moisture, and the cellar should be practically dark. Occasional watering may be necessary to keep them moist. The tem- perature should be 50° to 60°. This winter forcing is a very simple process and may be employed by any farmer who will comply with these conditions. Well-established roots should be used. Forced roots, of course, are very much weakened, and if again planted out-of-doors will not bear crops until the second year. HORSE-RADISH Culture — Horse-radish is a hardy perennial of the simplest culture. A rich, deep soil fur- nishes the best conditions for the development of symmetrical roots. Propagation is by root cut- tings, which should be one-half to three-fourths inch in diameter and 4 to 6 inches in length. To insure planting them with the crown end up it is well to make the upper cut sloping. The roots are used as a condiment with meats in late fall and early spring. A winter supply may be had by storing roots in moist soil or sand in the cellar. Grated horse-radish soon loses its strength. Freshly grated and neatly bottled packages find a ready sale in small towns, and one can nearly always find an excellent local trade for a limited supply. CABBAGE, BKUSSELS SPROUTS 101 COLE CROPS CABBAGE CAULIFLOWER BRUSSELS SPROUTS KOHLRABI CABBAGE Cabbage is a hardy, partial-season crop. The plants are usually started in the hotbed or window box and set out when the second or third true leaves appear. An excellent seed-bed for starting the plants may be secured by burning straw or brush -to warm the soil and kill weed seeds ; then pulverize and sow at once. Culture — The early varieties are set out as soon as the state of the ground will permit, and do not suffer seriously even if caught by late frosts, provided the plants have been properly "hardened off." The seed for the fall and winter crop is usually sown about the middle of May. The distance for planting varies much, as some varieties produce very large heads and others small ones. For the general run of varieties, 2 feet apart in the row is a convenient distance. If the plants are spindling they should be planted deeply and side roots will be emitted along the buried portion of the stem. A rich soil and frequent surface tillage to conserve the moisture and a uni- form period of growth are the essential conditions for successful cabbage culture. If the soil becomes dry the heads "set." If rains follow later a second growth comes on, causing the heads to split and making them practically worthless for market. Storing' — Upon the approach of heavy frost the plants should be pulled and stored in a pile with the roots up. Cover with 3 or 4 inches of straw, and as winter approaches add layers of earth to protect from freezing and thawing. For storing purposes the heads which are not quite solid and mature preserve best. In storing out-of-doors, it is important to secure a site where the drainage is good. Ventilation should be provided by small openings through the sides of the pile. If the supply is to be used during the winter, a more convenient method is to store in a root cellar where the temperature is about 36". In storing cabbage it is very important that the heads should be well drained. When growing in the field the leaves gather the dew, so that heads for storing should be pulled and piled with the roots upward for several hours to allow the water to drain out of the leaves. A method of storing, convenient for the farmer, is to store the heads in barrels ; they will preserve better, also, if each head of cabbage is wrapped up in a newspaper. Varieties — There arc two general types of cabbage, the wrinkled and the smooth-leaved. The wrinkled-leaved sorts are regarded by some as superior in quality, but they are less productive than the common type and, hence, are not so generally grown. The smooth-leaved type may be subdivided into the purple-leaved and the green-leaved, or the common form. The purple-leaved is much prized by the Germans for pickling. The behavior of varieties of cabbage differs much according to local conditions. Early Jersey Wakefield is a standard early sort. Flat Butch and Drum Head are valuable winter varieties. BRUSSELS SPROUTS This is a member of the cabbage family witli small, lateral buds which are used similarly to cabbage. Its culture is practically the same as that of cabbage. 102 SALAD CROPS CAULIFLOWER This is a variety of cabbage which has been improved by the enlargement of the terminal flower buds. Its cultural requirements are similar to those of cabbage. It requires more careful attention, however, and commands a better price on the market. The heads should be shaded for blancliing when two-thirds formed. A convenient method of doing this is to break the midrib on the large, outer leaves and pin them together over the head. Varieties — Early Dwarf, Erfurt, Giant, and Nonpareil are valuable. KOHLRABI This is another member of the cabbage family, with an enlarged, turnip-shaped stem, grown considerably as a winter food for stock and in a limited way as a garden vegetable. The tubers should be used when 2 or 3 inches in diameter, as they become tough and woody when older. Wliite Vienna is one of the best known varieties. SALAD CROPS LETTUCE CELERY CRESSES LETTUCE As usually grown lettuce is a hardy, early-season crop of the simplest culture. Culture — For the first crop it is ai;i advantage to sow in raised beds, as such soil warms up earlier. Later crops are sown in rows and thinned to 8 inches apart. The last crop is usually cleared by midsummer, and the ground may be used for fall turnips. If the daily supply is gathered early in the morning before becoming wilted by the hot sun it will be the more crisp and palatable. There are two general types of lettuce — head or cos lettuce, and the loose or leafy type. The cos variety forms small cabbage-like heads, and is a type of superior quality. It requires a longer period of growth, however, and greater care in culture. For the farmer's garden the loose type will generally be found preferable. Varieties — There is an endless list of good varieties which have their special adaptation to local conditions. Black Seeded, Simpson, and Ch'and Rapids are standard kinds. CELERY The growing of celery is largely restricted to the market gardener, for the reason that its cultural demands are more exacting than those of other crops. On the other hand, the value of the crop is greater in proportion. In fact, there is prob- ably no plant grown which will bring as large returns per acre as celery, and in most towns and villages there is an excellent demand for a limited supply. The CELERY, CRESSES 103 essential requirements for successful celery growing are a rich, moist soil and early transplanting, that the plants may become established before the hot, dry weather comes on. The grower who is not able to irrigate will find bottom lands most satisfactory. The plants should be started in the seed-bed and transplanted once before being put out. The first transplanting is usually done when the second or third true leaves appear. The crop is usually put out about the middle of June. Culture — There are two general systems of culture for celery — the level culture and the trench system. In the trench system a furrow is laid out, a man following with a spade, to deepen the trench to 13 or 14 inches. The plants are then set in the bottom of this trench. At blanching time in the fall the trench is merely filled in. The level-culture system is similar to that practiced with other garden vegetables. Both systems of culture have their special points of advantage. In dry seasons the plants in the trench fare better on account of being protected from the dry winds and somewhat shaded. In wet seasons the level culture is very much more successful. This system involves less labor, and on the whole is probably to be preferred. The plants should be set out late in the evening, while it is cool, and it is also well to remove one-third or one-half of the top to prevent wilting. Frequent tillage should be given throughout the summer to insure a constant supply of moisture. Blanching" — Before the stalks can be used for the table the green coloring matter must be removed. This is brought about by any practical method which will exclude the light. For the early, dwarf varieties, 12-inch boards may be used, set up on each side of the row, with a strip across the top to hold them together. The placing of 4-inch drain tile over each plant is also a simple method. With the later crop, soil is often used for blanching. If soil is used, care must be taken to gather the stalks together before placing it around them. A convenient method is for a man and boy to work together, the lad working on the opposite side of the row, gathering the stalks, and holding them in position until the soil is filled in around them. This can not be completed at one time, and two or three operations are necessary. If the crop is to be stored in the cellar for the winter, outdoor blanching is not necessary. The roots should be taken up for storing upon the approach of heavy frost and placed in a cool cellar, packing a small quantity of soil around the roots to keep them moist. The plants may be packed quite closely together and if the light is excluded, blanching will be completed in three or four weeks. If the soil becomes dry, occasional watering may be necessary. A temperature of 50° to 60° is suitable. The crop may also be stored out-of-doors by covering with straw and layers of soil to protect from frost. This is not convenient for getting out supplies in cold weather, however, and cellar storage is preferable for the small grower. Varieties — W7dte Plume and Golden Self Blanching are good early varieties. For the main- winter crop. Giant Pascal, Kalamazoo, and JVeic Rose are considerably grown. Celeriac is a variety of celeiy with a turnip-shaped root. The enlarged root is the edible portion and is used as a salad. CRESSES Water Cress is a species of nasturtium of perennial growth, used for gar- nishing and salads. It is a hardy, moisture-loving plant and readily establishes 104 SOLANACEOUS CROPS itself along streams after the bed has been prepared and the seed sown. There is little variation in varieties of cress. Oarden Cress is a partial-season crop which is used to a limited extent for garnishing. The crop is hardy and should be sown quite early. Plants mature in from six to eight weeks. SOLANACEOUS CROPS TOMATO E6G PLANT PEPPER The plants mentioned in this group are tender and require a long, warm season for growth. They should be started in the hotbed or window box, and a better root system is secured by transplanting a second time before placing in the field. That the crop may have ample time to ripen it is of special importance to have strong, Avell-established plants to start with. This is especially true in the regions of the Northwest, where frost comes early. TOMATOES Culture — Where there is a choice of location, a warm soil is always preferable for the tomato. In a bad location or in cold, wet seasons plants set fruit poorly, the foliage takes on a yellow complexion, and a poor crop invariably follows. To secure fruit of good color and free from rot, a support of some kind is an advantage. Posts, wire netting, or any framework that will spread the vines and admit sunlight and air will fill the requirements. The yield of the tomato is materially increased by proper training. Some experiments along this line with which the writer was connected at the Iowa Experiment Station showed the follow- ing results : A row of untrained plants yielded 157 pounds of sound fruit and 34 pounds of rotten fruit. The same number of trained plants yielded 197 pounds of sound fruit and 15 pounds of rotten fruit. In the one case we have 20 per cent of decayed fruit and in the other only 7 per cent, which clearly indicates the importance of getting the vines up off the ground to prevent rot. The relative solidity of fruit is also an important factor in determining the shipping and keep- ing qualities. Fruits of the same size from different varieties vary mxich in weight, the heavy ones containing small seed chambers and a large pro- portion of flesh. Varieties showing this character of fruit invariably Fig. M. Speciuieu tomatoes of standard varieties. (Erwin.) keep and ship better than the lighter TOMATOES, EGG PLAXT, PEPPERS 105 fruited sorts. For example, the New Jersey, a light tomato, rotted to the extent of 27 per cent, while the Lorillard, a well-known heavy va- riety, was affected only 5 per cent. Upon the approach of frost the green fruit may be gathered and stored in a sunny room to ripen Varieties — There is a long list of varieties of tomatoes, many of which are of excellent quality. The ideal type of tomato is a smooth, medium -sized fruit with small seed cavities and a large proportion of flesh. If they are grown for market the medium-sized fruit, evenly graded, is preferable to the large varieties. Acme, Dwarf Champion, and Livingstone Beauty are much grown. The yellow- fruited sorts are more meaty than the reds. The flavor is distinctly peculiar, however, and while preferred by a few who have cultivated a taste for them, they are not in general demand. Kk;. .35. One of the favorite sorts of egg plant. (Erwin.) EGG PLANT Culture — The egg plant, like the tomato, should be started within doors. It is even more tender than the former plant, however, and should not be planted out until the weather becomes settled and warm. Well-drained soil is important, and without this or in cool seasons the crop is likely to be a failure. The plants are usually set 2 feet apart in the row. Varieties — Black Pekin and New York Imijroved. There are also small scarlet and white varieties, the fruit of which is used for decorative purposes and is of little value as a vegetable. PEPPERS Culture — The plants may be started in the hotbed or sown directly out-of-doors after the weather be- comes warm, and thinned to 13 inches apart. A variety collection of pep- pers shows a most interesting varia- tion in size, shape, and color. The seedsmen's general list of standard varieties is quite successful. Fig. SU. some popular varieties of peppers fur various uses. (Erwin.) 106 • MAKING AND CAEE OF LAWNS CORN SWEET CORN POPCORN SWEET CORN The general cultural requirements of this crop are identical with those of field corn, for details of which see page 49. Culture — For corn as a garden crop, earliness and a succession are matters of prime impor- tance. For the early crop choose a warm soil and plant in hills. For the main-season crop many prefer to plant in rows. Especially for the early varieties, which are planted before the ground has become thoroughly warmed, should one make sure of having fresh, vigorous seed. Germi- nation may be hastened by soaking the seed in warm water over night before sowing. Varieties — Varieties vary much in the length of their growing period, and are often classed as early, medium, and late. The Early Cory and Early Maine are excellent varieties for the West, and mature in eight to nine weeks. SfoweU's Evergreen is largely grown for the main-season crop. Country Oentleman and Ne Plus Ultra are valuable late varieties. POPCORN This crop adds to the enjoyment of the long, winter evenings, and a few rows should find a place in every vegetable garden. Its consumption is increasing, and popcorn is becoming a crop of commercial importance in a few localities. At one point in Northern Iowa a single grower devotes 500 acres to popcorn, and there are many others of less importance. Its general culture is largely the same as that of field corn. As the crop is not saleable until a year or more old, good storage room is important. White Pearl is a variety which is largely grown. MAKING AND CARE OF LAWNS There is nothing that adds more to the external beauty of a home than a well- kept lawn. A perfect lawn is not obtained by simply seeding with certain kinds of grasses. A green surface may be obtained in this way in a few months under favor- able conditions, but a soft, velvety turf that is a delight both to view and to walk upon, is obtained only after the exercise of intelligent care for a period of years. Preparation of the Soil — It must be remembered that the lawn, when once formed, is to remain undisturbed ; the sward is to be permanent, and hence the importance of most thorough preparation of the soil. The first essential is thorough underdrainage. Where the process of grading has involved much filling in time should be allowed for settling of the soil. If grading is done with soil removed SEEDING AND SODDING 107 in excavating the cellar, it should be covered over with 4 to 6 inches of good sur- face soil, as rich as possible in vegetable matter. If the soil is full of Aveed seed, it should be hoed one season, if possible, to get it cleaned up. Well-rotted manure should be used quite liberally and the surface put into the very finest condition possible, as the seeds to be used are very small and the plants, for a time, very delicate. Selection of Seed — For sections of the country to which it is adapted there is no better grass than the Kentucky blue grass. This is made more thrifty in many localities by the volunteer entrance of white clover during favorable seasons. Some of the fescues or timothy may be sown with it as a protection while it is getting a start. The blue grass Avill crowd them out when it gets a hold. Too great care can not be observed in obtaining pure seed, as foul seed may cause a great amount of annoyance and extra work. Seed should be sown very early in the spring to get a good start before the weather gets too dry and hot ; or in the early fall after the rains and cooler weather have arrived. The seed should be sown evenly and not covered very deep, a light raking with a garden rake being all that is necessary. If there is no immediate prospect of rain, the ground should then be rolled, to press the seeds into close con- tact with the earth and aid in their germination. If a good growth is not obtained the first season, and especially if the lawn is in an exposed situation in a severe climate, it should be covered the first winter with coarse manure for protection. This manure should be as free from weed seeds as may be. It can be left on in the spring until the grass starts, giving opportunity for some of its finer and more soluble particles to be transferred to the soil by the spring rains, when it should be raked off. Sj)ring seeding, if followed by dry, hot summers, may also be advantageously protected from the sun in a similar way, using hay or straw for the covering, but only just enough to form a shade. Transplanting Turf — A good turf may be obtained more quickly in this manner than by seeding. The ground that is to receive the turf should be well loosened and made smooth and even on the surface. A piece of smooth, tough sod of the desired grass and free from weeds should be selected from which to obtain the supply. Cut this turf in strips about one foot in width, two to three inches in thickness (great care should be taken to have the thickness uniform), and of such length as will make them of convenient weight to handle. These are rolled up into snug rolls for convenience in handling. 108 BOOKS ON GARDENING The turf is then transferred to the prepared soil, closely laid, rolled, and watered. This method has the advantage of providing a fine turf the first season and insures a good, clean sod, free from objectionable plants, a result not always readily obtained by seeding. An occasional covering with manure during the winter, as above described, will be found of great benefit in keeping up a healthy, vigorous growth, and in giving a rich, green color to the grass. /v / ^2o/^tA-^v^v.>*^ PUBLICATIONS ON SPECIFIC CROPS, TRUCK FARMING, AND THE MARKETING OF PRODUCE A B C OF Potato Culture. By T. B, Terry. A. I. Boot & Co., Medina, O. (1893) . $ 0.50 Gives in detail the methods of one of the most successful potato growers in the United States. Asparagus. By F. M. Hexamer. Orange Judd Co. , 1^ . Y . {IQOi) 50 This is the most recent work on the subject of asparagus culture. Asparagus Cultutie. By Barnes and Robinson. Oeo. Houtledge & Sons, N. Y. . . .50 Asparagus Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 61. United States Departmetit of Agriculture. Broom Corn and Broom. Orange Judd Cb., N. Y 50 In addition to cultural directions, this book gives considerable information on the subject of broom-making, for home use and for market. Cabbages, Cauliflowers, Etc. By C. L. Allen. Orange Judd Co., N". Y. (1901) . . .50 Treats of the various types and varieties of cabbage, cauhflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, kale, collards, and kolilrabi, paying especial attention to seed growing. Celery for Profit. By T. Greiner T. Greiner, La Salle, N. Y (1893) 20 Cyclopedia of Horticulture. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co , N. Y. (4 vols.). 20.00 The most comprehensive American work on this subject. All classes of vegetables and flowering plants are treated, culturally and botanically, by an acknowledged authority. Pro- fusely illustrated. Forcing Book, The. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmdllan Co., 'N. Y. (1900) .... 1.00 The best American work on the forcing of vegetable crops. Gardening FOR Profit. By Peter Henderson. Ora7ige Judd Co., l:i. Y. (1897) . . . 1.50 Peter Henderson was one of the earliest and most successful growers in America. Garden Making. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co., l^.Y . {\m.)) 1.00 This is a book devoted to the general improvement of the home grounds. Ginseng. By Maurice G. Kains. Orange Judd Co., 'Si.Y. {19Q\) .50 Greenhouse Construction. By L. R. Taft. Orange Judd Co., ']^.Y. {1%99) ... 1.50 Professor Taft is regarded as the American authority on greenhouse construction. BOOKS ON GARDENING 109 Gkeenhouse Management. By L. R. Taft. Orange Judd Co. , 1^ . Y . (1900) . . . . |1.50 A standard work on all the details connected with the management of greenhouse plants. How TO Grow Melons for Market. By Van Ornam TF, A. Burpee <& Co., Philadelphia 20 How to Grow Mushrooms. By Wm. Falconer. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 How to Grow Mushrooms. Farmers' Bulletin 53. United States Department of Agri- culture How to Make the Garden Pay. By T. Greiner. Wm. Henry Maule, Philadelphia (1894) 2.00 Kitchen Garden of One Acre, A. By Van Ornam. W. A. Burpee & Co., Philadelphia .30 Market Gardener, The Young. By T. Greiner. T Greiner, La Salle, N. Y. (1896) . .50 Written as a guide for the beginner. Market Gardening and Farm Notes. By Burnett Landreth. Orange Jiidd Co., N. Y (1893) 1.00 Marketing Farm Produce. Farmers' Bulletin 62. United States Department of Agriculture Mushrooms, Edible and Poisonous. By G. F. Atkinson. Andrus & Church, Ithaca, N. Y. (1900) 3.00 Clearly written and with a large number of illustrations which are of value to the amateur in determining edible and poisonous species. Mushrooms, Edible and Poisonous. By J. A. Palmer Prang & Co., Boston . 2.00 Onion Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 39. United States Department of Agriculture . . Onion Culture, The New. By T. Greiner. Orange Judd Co. , N. Y. (1891) ... .50 Detailing a new method of onion culture which Mr. Greiner has found very successful and profitable. Onions: How to Raise them Profitably. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. (1887) 20 Onions FOR Profit. By T. Greiner. T (?m7je/-. La Salle, N. Y. (1893) 20 Open- Air Vegetables. By H. A. Dreer. H. A. Dreer & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. (1900) .25 Plant Breeding. By L. H. Bailey. The Macmillan Co.,^.Y. {ISTi) . ..... 1.00 a work of distinct value to every grower interested in the improvement of plants by selection. Potato Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 35. United States Department of Agriculture . . Potatoes for Profit. By Van Ornam. W A. Burpee & Co., Philadelphia, Pa. . . .20 a practical pamphlet devoted to the culture of this tuber. Prize Gardening. By G. B. Fiske. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y. {\mi) 1.00 A work describing the methods of a number of successful amateurs in various parts of the United States. Rhubarb Culture. By Fred S. Thompson. rewfZa^e c6 Cb., Milwaukee (1894) ... .50 Rhubarb Culture, The Neav. By Mosse and Fiske. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. (1901) . .50 The authoritative work on the winter forcing of rhubarb. 110 BOOKS ON GARDENING Some Edible and Poisonous Fungi. Bulletin 15, Division of Vegetable Physiology. IPniied States Department of Agriculture fO.15 Sweet Potato Culture. By James Fitz Oraiige Judd Co.,'N.^Y. (1886) 50 Sweet Potatoes. Farmers' Bulletin 129. United States Department of Agriculture . Tomato Growing. Farmers' Bulletin 76. United States Department of Agriculture . . Vegetable Garden, The. Farmers' Bulletin 94. United States Department of Agi'iculture Vegetable Gardening. By S. B. Green. TFeiJ Robin, Bluebird, Chickadee, House-wren, Rose-breasted Grosbeak, Song-sparrow, Chipping-sparrow, Tree-sparrow, Baltimore Oriole, Meadow-lark, Flicker, Downy Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Black-billed and Yellow-billed Cuckoos, Barn Owl, and the Long-eared, Short-eared, Barred, and Screech Owls, Five are distinctly iiijurious and should be destroyed, viz., the English Sparrow, Duck-hawk, Goshawk, Cooper's Hawk, and the Sharp-shinned Hawk. INSECTICIDES ARSENICAL POISONS FOR BITING INSECTS Paris Green, Liondon Purple, Scheele's Green, Paragrene, and Green Arsenoid are all arsenicals of the same general character. Paris green is composed of arsenic, copper, and acetic acid ; Scheele's green is said to contain no acetic acid, is more easily applied, and, like Paragrene, remains in suspension longer ; while London purple and Paragrene need more lime added to prevent foliage burns. For Sprayiisig — Make a thin paste of the arsenical substance used, by adding a small quantity of the poison to a small quantity of water and freshly slaked lime in same quantity. Strain this POISONS FOR BITING INSECTS 141 into a spray tank, and add water in the proportion of 100 to 300 gallons to each pound of poison. Apply the stronger mixtures to resistant foliage, such as the potato. For the apple, use 150 gal- lons to each pound of poison. Never spray fruit trees when in bloom, lest bees be poisoned. FoK Dry Use — For vegetables soon to be used for food, mix poison with 100 times its weight of plaster of Paris, flour, or lime, and apply lightlj'. Dust garden crops with poison from a bel- lows or bag. For low field crops, place in bags hung at ends of a pole and carry through field on horse or mule back. See under Cotton Worm. Combined Mixture: Bordeaux with Paris Green or Other Arsenite — Prepare Bordeaux mixture in the usual way (see Fungicides) and add to it the poison to be used. In this combination the Bordeaux mixture simply takes the place of the water in the Paris green and other arsenical solutions. Arsenite of Lead — Least caustic of all arsenites in its effect on foliage. Remains in suspension and adheres to foliage much better than ordinary arsenites. May be bought at from 15 to 18 cents per pound. Prepare as follows : Combine 3 parts of arsenite of soda with 7 parts of acetate of lead, dissolving each in water separately and then pouring together. They unite readily and form a white precipitate. May be used much stronger than any other arsenite on foliage. Arsenite of Lime — This is a cheap insecticide, and does not burn the foliage, because the amount of arsenic is under perfect control. It is made by boiling together, for 45 minutes, White arsen ic.. 1 pound . Fresh stone lime 2 pounds. Water. -. 1 gallon. Put this in a tight vessel marked POISON". Before using, stir thoroughly, and use one quart of solution to a barrel of water. Poison Fixative — To make poisons adhere to cabbage, etc.: Pulverized resin 5 pounds. Concentrated lye .1 pound. Fish-oil, or any cheap animal oil except tallow _ 1 pint. Water 5 gallons. "Place oil, resin, and a gallon of water in an iron kettle and heat until resin is softened ; add Ij^e solution made as for hard soap ; stir thoroughly ; add remainder of water and boil about two hours, or until the mixture will unite with cold water, making a clear, amber-colored liquid. If it has boiled away too much, add suflicient boiling water to make 5 gallons." — Sanderson. In using this, dilute 1 gallon of the solution with 16 gallons of water, and add 3 gallons milk of lime and a quarter of a pound of any arsenite. Poisoned Baits — For cutworms, grasshoppers, etc.: Green Bait — Dip fresh clover or other green succulent vegetation in a strong arsenical solu- tion and distribute in small bunches about infested fields. Cover with boards or stones to keep moist ; renew when dry. Bran Mash — For grasshoppers make a mash of 1 pound Paris green, or other arsenite, and 5 pounds bran ; sweeten with molasses. For cutworms, army-worms, etc., use 1 pound Paris 142 INSECTICIDES green to 20 pounds dry middlings or bran, sweetened with 1 quart molasses and mixed with enough water to make moist. Drop a tablespoonf ul of this in a place, along the front of the line of march of army-worms ; or at the base of each plant in a field, for cutworms. CONTACT INSECTICIDES FOR SUCKING INSECTS Kerosene Enmlsioii — Dissolve 2 poimds whale-oil soap (or hard soap, or 1 quart soft soap) in 1 gallon boiling water, add boiling hot, away from the fire, to 2 gallons coal-oil. Churn rapidly by driving the liquid back into itself with a force-pump until the mixture assumes the consistency of cream. Use this solution diluted as desired. For 10 per cent, solution add this preparation to 20 gallons water. A stronger solution can be applied to plants before the buds open. Wliale-Oil Soap — This is a very effective wash against scales, slugs, and many other soft-bodied msects. For summer treatments use 1 pound to 7 gallons water. For winter use, dis- solve 2 pounds of the soap in 1 gallon water and apply hot. Lime, Sulphur, and Salt Wash, or "California Wash " — The most effective wash at present known for use against the San Jose scale. Prepare as follows : Lime (not slaked) 15 pounds. Powdered sulphur - 15 Common salt - - 15 Slake the lime in a small quantity of hot water in an iron kettle over a fire, and slowly sift in the sulphur while the lime is slaking, stirring constantly. Boil this one hour, or until sulphur is all dissolved ; then add the salt and boil 15 minutes longer. Put this solution in spray barrel and add sufficient hot water to make 50 gallons. Spray on trees hot. This wash needs to be thoroughly boiled, not simmered. If steam heat is available it has been recommended to put the sulphur and lime in a barrel and steam-boil for three or four hours, adding the salt and boiling a short time longer. One and a half pounds of blue vitriol may be used in place of salt. GASES AND OTHER INSECTICIDES Carbon Bisulphide — This is the cheapest and most efficient insecticide for use against weevils in granaries and warehouses, and against insects working on the roots of plants. The vapor of this liquid is not only highly poisonous but is inflammable and explosive ; hence, keep fire of every kind away from it. It is a colorless liquid, costing about 10 cents a pound, and can be used to advantage in grain bins, as the vapors are heavier than air and will work down through the grain. For this purpose use 1 pound to every 100 bushels of grain, make the enclosure as nearly air-tight as possible, and, if necessary, cover grain with blankets. Leave for not more than twenty- four hours, then allow air to enter. For root-lice or other root insects use a teaspoonful to a hole made 2 or 3 inches away from the plant, and close the hole with the foot. For ant nests put 1 ounce in each of several holes made in the hill ; then cover with a wet blanket for ten minutes. Carbolic Acid Wash — To prevent egg-laying on bark. In a 6-gallon saturated solution of washing-soda dissolve 1 gallon soft soap, add 1 pint carbolic acid, mix thoroughly, add enough lime to make a thick whitewash, and stir in one-half pound of some arsenite. FUNGICIDES 143 Hellebore — Apply dry for saw-flies and other soft-bodied insects. It can also be used as a spray — 1 ounce to 2 or 3 gallons of water. Pyrethriiin (Buhach, Persian Insect Powder) — Not poisonous, in ordinary quan- tities, to man. May be used dry by means of a bellows. Thrown about the room in this way, it will materially decrease the number of flies. Burn in a room to destroy mosquitoes. Used as a spray, 1 ounce to 3 gallons of water. Hydrocyanic Acid CJas — The best agent in use for disinfection or fumigation of nursery stock, and for destruction of some greenhouse insects and pests in dwelling houses, storehouses,' mills, etc. Diffuses quickly, and is a most deadly poison. FUNGICIDES Bordeaux Mixture — Copper sulphate (blue vitriol) 4 pounds. QuickUme (not air-slaked) 4 pounds. Water, to make 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulphate in about two gallons of water in a wooden vessel, or suspend it in a cheese-cloth sack in a large bucketful of cold water. When dissolved, pour the solution into the apparatus used for spraying and fill about one-third full of water. Slake the lime in a small quantity of water, and when slaked, stir, adding more water. Strain this into the copper sulphate solution. If lime is left after straining, pour on more water and stir it. Repeat this until nothing but stone lumps and sand are left. Now add sufficient water to make 50 gallons in your tank. Thoroughly agitate the mixture before spraying it. Bordeaux mixture should be used when fresh, and none should be kept over for the next spraying. If plants to be sprayed have very tender foliage and there is danger of burning it, use just half the above quantity of copper sulphate and lime to the 50 gallons and prepare as before. What is sometimes called the " 1 to 11 formula" is made in the same way as the first one given, but using only sufficient water to make 44 gallons. Amnioniacal Copper-Carbonate Solution- Copper cai-bonate __ 6 ounce.s. Ammonia, about , _. 3 pints. Water ...50 gallons. In a wooden pail make a paste of the copper carbonate by adding a little water. Pour into this the ammonia necessary to dissolve the copper carbonate — no more — and stir until all is dis- solved. Dilute with water and use. To MAKE Copper Carbonate — Dissolve 10 pounds copper sulphate in 10 gallons of water, and 12 pounds of carbonate of soda in same amount of water. When cool, mix the two solutions slowly, stirring well. Allow it to stand 13 hours and settle, then pour off liquid. Repeat this operation twice, and then drain and dry the resulting powder, which is copper carbonate. Copper-Sulphate Solution — Copper sulphate 4 pounds. Water, to make 50 gallons. Dissolve the copper sulphate as directed in preparation of Bordeaux mixture. This solution will injure foliage; use only before buds open, or on machinery and in granaries to disinfect. 144 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS Formalin — For Oats, Wheat, etc. — One pound (1 pint) to 50 gallons water. For Potatoes — One-half pint to 15 gallons water. Corrosive Sublimate — Corrosive sublimate.--. _ _ _ 2 ounces. Water 15"4 gallons. This can be used for 'potato scab and disinfection purposes. Label it POISON. Bordeaux Wash — To paint over wounds on trees and to wash injuries to limbs. Make a mixture as for the carbolic acid wash, adding one half pound blue vitriol in place of Paris green. I. FIELD CROPS (a) IMPORTANT IXJURIOUS INSECTS Northern Corn-Root-worin {Diabrotica longicornis, Fig. 60) — From Nebraska east to the Atlantic Ocean, but injurious only from Ohio to Nebraska. Attacks corn in both larval and adult stages. Eggs laid in early fall, one to five inches deep in the soil and within a few inches of stalks. Hibernates in the egg, which hatches from June to August. At first eats entire root, but later burrows under outer layers of larger roots, thus killing them and weakening the support of the stalk, causing it to dwarf and produce small ears if on poor land, or to be Fig. 60. Northern Corn-Root-worm: beetle, larva, and piece of corn root with larva. (Forbes, 18th Illinois Report.) blown over when on rich loams. Larvse are nearly white, with brown head ; are not quite ^ inch long, and are nearly cylindrical. Adult beetle is greenish or greenish yellow, ^ inch long, somewhat resembling in form the striped ciicumber beetle. Larva? pupate near the roots in the soil, and adults emerge during the latter part of July and in August and feed on corn silks and pollen. Reports have been made of several other food plants for the beetles. CORN-ROOT-WORMS 145 Treatmp:nt — So far as known these worms are never injurious after a crop of the smaller grains ; corn crops following these will then be safe for two years. The remedy is, therefore, simple — rotation . Southern Corii-Root-worin {Diahi^otica duodecempunctaia) — Abun- dant in Northern and Southern States. Attacks corn seriously only in the South. Well known, however, as a squash, melon, and cucumber pest, eating both leaves and fruit. Larva has habits very similar to those of the previous species. Beetle is larger than the northern corn-root-worm beetle, greenish yellow, with twelve black spots on wing-covers. The beetle injures corn by feeding on pollen, silk, and unripe kernels. Treatment — Same as for northern corn-root-worm. Wireworiiis {Drasterius elegans, Melanotus cribulomis, and other species, Fig. 61) — Occur in all the states, attacking grasses, grains, and potatoes. The wire worms are hard, cylindrical ground worms, feeding upon roots and seeds in the ground, and are often very destructive to crops. The beetles, which are nar- row, elongate, and usually dark-colored, are generally known as "snapping-beetles," Fig. 61. Corn Wireworm larva, and beetle. (Forbes.) *' spring-beetles," or "click-beetles." They lay eggs during May or June in grass land or wherever vegetation is plentiful, and the larvae feed upon roots. They de- velop slowly, taking in many cases two or three years to mature. When mature they pupate in the fall, and the adult stays in the pupal case until the following spring. Treatment — Fall plowing and rotation of crops. Do not plant corn or potatoes immediately after grass crops. Corn-root Web worm or Tobacco Stalk-worm {Cramhus caligi- noseUus) — Eggs laid in grass land in May or early June by small whitish or yellowish moths. The young larvae form loose silken tubes close to the surface of the soil, usually a little below, and thence burrow among the roots and feed upon stalk, outer leaves, and crown. The moths emerge by August, and eggs are then laid for another brood, which hibernate in the web over winter as partly-grown larvae. Corn planted on sod land is thus often seriously injured by them. Treatment — Do not plant on sod land, but after some other crop. Late fall plowing or harrowing deeply will destroy many of the larvae. 146 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS Corn Root-louse (Aphis maidi-radicis) — All corn states. Presence of this plant-louse on corn roots can be detected by dwarfed appearance and yellowing and reddening of plant. Lice, found in masses on the roots, are readily recognized if an infested plant is pulled up. The nests of the small brown ant, if opened in winter, will be found to contain many of the little black eggs of this Aphis well cared for by these ants. On appearance of the first smartweed, the ants carry the newly-hatched lice to them and place them on the roots. Later, when the winged lice appear on these weeds and lay eggs, the ants transfer these to the corn roots. Late in the fall the females are housed by the ants in their nests, where the eggs are laid. Treatment — Clean culture, eradication of weeds in early spring, destruction of ant hills in late fall, deep fall plowing and harrowing, rotation of crops. Larger Cornstalk-borer {DiatrcBa saccharalis) — Maryland to Alabama and westward to Kansas and Oklahoma. Large white, brown-spotted caterpillars of this species may be found boring into stalks of corn, especially when young. Often occasion large loss in crop. Larvte pass the winter in their cells in the tap- root of the cornstalk or sugar cane, and transform in early spring. Often make several holes in a single stalk, weakening it and causing it to fall. Treatment — Where corn has been much infested in fall drag off and burn all old butts and stalks. Rotation will materially decrease injury by this insect. Corn Bill-bug^s [Sphenophorus ochreus, and others. Fig. 62) — Corn-growing states. Attacks plant by feeding in the stalk when young. Adult beetles are hard oval insects with stout beak, by means of which they drill holes in the cornstalk ^*,]ilTjOTi^\ near the surface of the ground and feed on the interior. As ^ L i',l]!llli ^* the corn continues growing and these leaves open out, many of them have a row of elongate holes across blade, where beetle has punctured it while it was rolled up. Beetles feed with the head downward. One species (S. parvulus) has been reported from Maryland and Nebraska as seriously injuring blue-grass. Another (S. rohustus) has been known to breed in the roots of corn. Native food plants of this genus are the grasses, rushes, and sedges. Treatment — Where land has recently been broken from swamp or mil i^^rshes, plant at first some other crop than corn, such as flax or potatoes. Bill-bug. (Forbes.) Fall plowing of infested land will tend to drive the beetles to other fields. CORN EAR-WOEM, ARMY-WORMS U7 Corn Ear-worm {HeUothis ar'miger) — All corn and cotton states, but not 80 destructive in the North as in the South, where it feeds on cotton bolls. It is the worst pest of sweet corn, injures tomatoes to an extent, and bores into the buds of tobacco. Olive-green moths appear about the time corn is silking and lay eggs on the silk. These hatch in a few days, and the young worms at first feed on silk, later working their way down into the ear and feeding on the tender kernels. When full grown the worms go to the ground to pupate, and in case of the fall brood stay in the cells as pupas until spring. Treatment — No practical remedy if in corn or tomatoes. Thorough breaking up of corn ground in fall reduces their number somewhat. For remedies for attacks on tobacco and cotton see under insects affecting those plants. Arniy-worni {Leucania unipunda, Fig. 03) — All states. The true army- worm is a brownish-white striped caterpillar growing to 2 inches in length, the larva of a moth with dull-reddish fawn- colored wings, each fore-wing with a white spot. They occur every year, but are only rarely so abundant as to justify the name. When this happens, they advance over the country in vast numbers, devouring all grasses and grains in their track, usually feed- ing by night or in cloudy weather. When mature they enter the ground and pupate, and a second brood of worms appears in September, hiber- nating as larva?. Treatment— Clean culture; burn stubble in winter; when army is advancing use poi- soned baits, scattering them along in front of it ; dig ditches to entrap them and then drag a log through to kill them. Fall Army-T^^oriii, Coininon Grass-worm {Laphygma frugiperda, Fig. 0-4) — All states, but especially the Central and Southern. Distinguished from the true army-worm by dark stripes along each side, separated by a stripe of grayish yellow, and also by the fact that the most destructive brood appears after August 1st — whence its common name. The worms are especially injurious to lawns, but feed on all grasses and cereals and on some garden vegetables. Moths Fig. fi3. Army- worm: a, adult male, b, c, d, details; larva on grass, and pupa. (After Riley.) 148^ INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS Fig. 64. Fall Army- worm : larva at left; a, adult moth; 6, c, color varieties. (Bruner.) are variable in color : hind-wings are pearly- white ; fore-wings range from dull grayish ])rown to almost black, but always have a light spot on upper side near outer edge. Treatment — Same preventives as for the army- worm. Lawns may be rolled in early morning or late afternoon, or sprayed with kerosene emulsioti and then thoroughly washed down with water. Hessian Fly {Cecidomyia destructor) — All wheat states. Adult fly is a dark- col- ored, two-winged gnat (^ inch). Lays eggs in fall on upper surface of wheat leaf, or, in spring, beneath sheath. Maggots burrow into stem, spring brood ren\aining in portion above ground, fall brood going lower. Ravages are detected by stooling out of wheat, a darkening and broadening of leaves, absence of central stem, and a gradual yellowing and dying of plants. Damp springs favor tbe insect. Its emergence is retarded by drought, so that late sowing may fail as a remedy after summers with little rain. Treatment — Delay sowing of wheat until after time for the fly to lay its eggs. Farm practice as to date of sowing is in some states as follows : Northern Ohio, September 10th ; Cen- tral Ohio, September 25th ; Southern Ohio, October 10th ; Central Maryland, September 26th to October 5th ; Northern Delaware, October 1st ; New York, September 20th to 25th ; Michigan, September 1st or not until October 1st. Clean cultivation, burning of stubble, rotation of crops. Cliiiicli-bug {Blissus leucopterus, Fig. 65) — Especially in Southern and Central States, and west to Rocky Mountains. - ^ One of the most de- V^.j!<^^ J "^.X iP^ ..s ^ fRi structive of pests, hav- ing doubtless caused more injury to the far- mers of the Mississippi Valley than any other insect attacking grain. The adult bug is black, ^^ itli white wings and Fig. 65. Chinch-bug: adultat left; a, 6, eggs magnified and natural size; c, young , i .i, f +i nymph; e, second stage of nymph; /, third stage; g, full-grown nymph; d, h, tWO Clai'K SpOtS Oil tllC j, legs ; i, beak, through which food is taken. Small lines show natural size. <. • t n (Riley.) lore-wmg. in all CHINCH BUG, WHITE GRUBS, GRASSHOPPERS 149 stages it lias a rank, fetid odor. Young bugs are mostly red but vary somewhat in the different stages. After wheat harvest it attacks first oats and then corn, later in the fall going to wheat again. In migrating from Avheat to corn adult insects rarely fly. Eggs are laid on the corn, and this brood hibernates when full grown, and, coming out in the spring, lays eggs on the wheat stalks. Treatment — Plow strip around corn field or along side from which attack is expected, pulverize the soil very thoroughly, and when bugs begin to migrate make a deep furrow in this soil with the steeper side toward the corn. On a hot day myriads of bugs will perish attempting to cross the fine soil, but if any seem to be getting across drag a log up and down the furrow. If a line of coal-tar is spread in front of their line of march and post-holes dug a foot deep every ten feet along the line, the bugs will turn as the line is reached and fall into the holes, where they may be killed. Ten per cent, kerosene emulsion may be sprayed on the bugs when they are on corn stalks. It will pay to use every effort possible to keep them out. White Grubs, May Beetles, June Bugs {Lnchnostema fusca, L. rugosa, and others. Fig. GO) — The Lachnosternas are widely distributed. The larvae are fleshy white, brown-headed grubs that feed on and sever grass roots and roots of - some other plants. The adult beetle, which is generally known in some one, at least, of its many species, feeds on the leaves of trees, eating at night. Treatment — Beetles: Luring by means of lights into tubs with kerosene and water. The only objection to this is that many beneficial insects are also de- stroyed.' Lavvm: Liberal sprays of kerosene emulsion, where they are affecting lawns; heavy potash fertilizers; allowing poultry to follow after the plow in break- ing sod ; letting hogs run in grass land before plowing ; rotation of crops , frequent breaking of meadow lands. Grasshoppers {Melanoplus species, Scliistocerca ameiHcana, and others, Figs. 67, G8) — Numerous species, attacking all kinds of plants. There is no need Fig. 66. White Grub : beetle, larva, and tip of posterior segment of beetle from beneath. (Forbes.) 1 See under Codling-moth, page 172. 11 150 INSECTS INJUEIOUS TO FIELD CROPS Fig. 67. Above — Two-striped Grasshopper, M. bivittatus. (After Riley.) At right— Common Red-legged Grasshopper, M. femurrubrum. At left — The Rocky Mountain Locust, M. spretus. (Forbes. )i Fig. 68. Rocky Mountain Locust : a, female ovipositing ; 6, egg-pod removed from ground, end broken away show- ing eggs ; c, eggs ; d, e, egg-masses in ground ; /, egg-mass completed and covered. (Riley.) to describe these well-knowu pests. The figures given show in one instance the man- ner in which the grasshoppers deposit their eggs, and, in the other, three of the more im- portant grasshoppers. The Eocky Mountain locust {Melanoj)lus spretus) has often caused an immense amount of damage in the regions it frequents — from the Mississippi westward to the mountains and from Canada south to Kansas. The other two species are well distributed over the country. Treatment — Protect the insect-eating birds ; place poisoned bait near crops to be protected; burn over stubble ground or roll hard ground in early spring to destroy the young. Where fighting on a large scale is needed, what is known as the "hopperdozer," Fig. 69, will be found the most successful means of destruction. This is made from 8 to 10 feet long, a foot wide, and an inch deep, set on runners, and provided at the back with a screen a foot high against which the "hoppers" strike and fall Fig. 69. Large Hopperdozer. (After Riley, United States Department , , . . ., m. of Agriculture ) back into the pan. J he pan CUTWOEMS, COEN-ROOT WEBWOEM 151 may be made of sheet iron and the screen of canvas. Put crude petroleum in the pan and smear it on the canvas; then hitch a horse to the machine and draw it through the fields where the grass- hoppers are abundant. They will jump up and either strike the screen and fall into the pan, or fall directly into the latter. Many will jump out again, but if they were even slightly wet with the coal-oil they will die. Tar may be used instead of petroleum for the screen and coal-oil on water for the pan. Cutworms (Agrotis ypsilon, Fig. 70, A. annexa, Peridroma saucia, and many others) — All states. Though the life liistories of the various species vary more or less, their general life is the same. Adults are moths with dark fore-wings and light hind-wings, as may be seen in the illustration. They feed at night, sucking nectar from various flowers. As a rule there is but a single brood of worms in a season, though a few species have two. Female moths lay their eggs on stones, leaves, sticks, etc., wherever there is plenty of vegetation, usually in midsummer; larvae feed until winter, when they form an oval cell in the earth and curl in it Fig. 70. Greasy Cutworm, Agvi, Side and upper views of larva and adult moth. (Forbes.) until spring. Then they come forth and do the noticeable damage. They are rapid, voracious feeders, especially when attacking young crops. When full grown a cutworm is of a dull brown, gray, or greenish hite, usually marked with darker longitudinal lines, stripes, or dots. The head and next segment are reddish- brown and horny. When full grown the larvae enter the ground and jjupate, the moths soon after appearing and laying their eggs. Some species vary from the above history by laying the eggs early in spring and hibernating in the pupal or adult state. Treatment — Plow land during midsummer or early fall, the sooner after midsummer the better. This treatment will cause many young larvae to perish from lack of food. Thorough cultivation of the land in spring is good practice. The most successful remedies found have been the use of poisoned baits, especially the poisoned bran mash. Put this in field where plants are to be set, a tablespoonful near each hill, keeping chickens out of the field for several days. Tobacco Stalk-worm or Corn-root Webw^orm (Crambus caligi- nosellus) — Some of the Atlantic States. Larva works in the stalk or at base of 152 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS stalk near surface of ground ; plant soon wilts and dies. Where larger plants are attacked, stalks may be hollowed out to'the first leaves. Several larvae often work on a single plant. Treatment — Avoid planting ou grass or timothy sod land. Advisable to put grass land in wheat, and then clover before tobacco. Horn Worm or Tobacco-worm {Protoparce celeus, Fig. 71, P. Caro- lina) — First named occurs in northern United States ; the other species, in the South. Insects hibernate in pupal state; moths emerge early in spring, laying Fig. 71. Northern Tobacco-worm : adult moth, above ; full-grown larva, at left ; pupa, at right. All natural size. (From Howard, United States Department of Agriculture.) eggs singly upon lower surfaces of leaves. During larval growth, which occupies about three weeks, they consume a great quantity of food, attaining a length of over two inches. Grown worm is green with oblique white stripes on the body, and a red or black "horn" prominent on posterior end. Moths are night-fliers, dark colored, with orange spots on sides of body. Treatment — Hand-picking is most successful. Jimson- weeds may be used as means of poisoning the moths. Insects visit these at night for the nectar, and a solution of cobalt (1 ounce), molasses (i pint), and water (1 pint) can be placed in the flowers. Spraying with Paris green has been found successful in Kentucky, and tests show that there is not enough poison left on the leaves to injure the consumer. TOBACCO AND COTTON WORMS 153 Tobacco Flea-beetle {Epitrix parvula) — All tobacco states. Minute, oval, reddish-brown beetle. Injury is done by adult beetle, holes being gnawed in leaves until they sometimes appear as if peppered with fine shot. Injury especially severe to young plants. Larvaj have been ascertained (Chittenden) to feed on the roots of common nightshade and jimson-weed. Treatment — Bordeaux^ mixture has been found very successful. Spraying with Paris green will keep beetles in check on young plants. Tobacco Bud-worm {Heliothis armiger, H. rhexim) — The latter, south of Maryland ; the former, the ordinary corn-ear-worm in all tobacco states. Larvae of these two insects are very much alike, but the adults are readily distinguished. Eggs deposited in the buds ; young larvae do serious damage by feeding on the unrolled leaves. Later, as leaves become larger and worms grow, large holes are eaten, thus ruining tobacco for the best grade. The later broods seem to prefer unripened seed-capsules. Adult of H. rhexice is the smaller, and has green or dull sea-green wings, crossed by three white bands. Treatment — Clean cultivation ; arsenical sprays. Placing poisoned corn-meal on buds after heavy rains has been recommended. Tobacco Svick-fly {Dicyphus minimus) — Southern States only. A small bug that sucks sap from leaves, causing them to turn yellow, wilt, and split. Adult, a small black bug with long, yellowish green legs, under side greenish, and a yellow line just back of head. Treatment — Spray insects with "Nikoteen," one part to 60 gallons water, or with some other tobacco decoction. Clean up and burn trash in fields in fall. Cigarette Beetle (Lasioderma serricorne) — Southern States, and well- warmed warehouses farther north. Damages cigars and cigarettes by boring into them ; the leaves by puncturing them ; fillers and fine-cut by actual feeding and offensive admixture. Treatment — Cleanliness; whitewash woodwork, and fumigate with carbon bisulphide. Cotton- worm {Aletia xylina) — Cotton-growing regions of United States and other American countries. Hibernates as a moth and lays eggs singly on leaves to number of 500 or less. Larvae, gi-eenish yellow worms, slightly hairy, growing to be fully an inch in length. Late in summer they pupate in leaves, emerging in fall as dull olive-gray moths an inch or more in wing expanse. Treatment — Apply Paris green or other arsenite dry to leaves. Readily done by fastening a sack of cloth ("8 oz. Osnaburg" is recommended) containing the insecticide to each end of a pole and riding between i-ows on horseback, allowing it to be lightly jarred upon the leaves. The insect has many efficient parasites. 154 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FIELD CROPS Cotton Boll -worm, Corn Ear -worm {Heliothis armiger) — For description see corn insects, page 147. Treatment — The treatment given for the cotton-worm will aid. Late fall plowing to destroy pupa, trap crops of corn in the cotton field, and poisoned baits have all been used with varying success. Early varieties are often exempt. Caterpillars and Cutworms (several species of each) — These as a rule do but slight damage. Caterpillars may usually be destroyed by spraying operations recommended for cotton-worm. Cutworms can be most easily handled by means of poisoned baits of clover or grass. Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil {Anthonomus grandis, Fig. 72) — This dangerous enemy of the cotton-grower was imported from Mexico about 1893. It has spread over most of Texas and the invasion of other cotton-growing states seems only a question of time. Adult, a small gray snout-beetle {\ inch) which punctures and lays eggs in cotton bolls and "squares." Young buds usually fall off, and weevils then finish growth on ground. Those that remain on plant feed in bolls and effectually destroy their value. Larva matures and becomes a beetle in about four weeks from the egg. Hibernates as an adult in sheltered places in fields and timber. Treatment — The planting of early varieties is pos- sibly the most successful means of combating ; hand- picking of beetles and infested squares will also aid. Plants should be cut up or plowed out and burned as soon as possible after crop is gathered, at least by October, thus killing many adult beetles before they leave plants for other hibernating places. Plant-lice {Aphis gossyjni) — Seldom of enough importance to justify treat- ment, the hardy and quick growth of plants overcoming any injury. However, a treatment of kerosene emulsion may be given when thought necessary. Grasshoppers (several species) — Poisoned bran mash has been found very effectual in dealing with grasshoppers, and the hopperdozer might be used to advantage in thinning their numbers in adjoining grass or grain fields. Leaf-lioppers, " Sharp-shooters " — These are sucking insects and have been known to injure young bolls severely. Thorough. spray of strong kero- sene emulsion, applied not to the cotton plant but to the trees surrounding , has been recommended. The young of these insects live on shade trees in early spring. Fig. 72. Me-^ican Cotton-boll Weevil: a, beetle; 6, pupa; c. larva. All enlarged. (From Howard, United States Department of Agriculture.) HOP-VINE IIN^SEOTS, GRAIN SMUTS 155 Hop Plant-louse (Phorodon humuli) — All hop regions, attacking hop plants and plum-trees. This plant-louse has what is called an ''alternate food plant" — the plum-tree — upon which the winter and spring are passed. Louse spends summer on hop-vines, increasing greatly in numbers and doing much injury by sucking juices of plants. Lice fly to plum-trees as soon as hop-vines mature and die. Here eggs are laid, and in spring several generations appear and mature before plant-louse again returns to hop plant. The winged forms develop only at the time of the migrations. Treatment — Destroy all wild plum-trees in vicinity; spray domestic trees in fall or spring with strong kerosene emulsion; spray hop- vines with same and destroy vines as soon as possible each year. Hop-vine Borer {Hijdrcecia immanis) — States east of the Mississippi River. Eggs laid on tip of vines just as they begin to climb. Larva bores into vine and later drops to the ground and bores into stem, emerging under ground and feeding on flowing sap. Injury recognized by vine growth stopping, the tips hanging limp soon after pest begins its work. Treatment — Pinch off and burn "muffle-heads" when vines are tied, and early in June expose roots as far as junction of new vine with old, and apply a handful of ashes. For mildews affecting hop- vine apply Bordeaux mixture as often as may be necessary. (b) IMPORTANT DISEASES OF FIELD CROPS General Treatment for Grain Smuts — It has been found that the grain smuts, at least of barley, oats, rye, and wheat, survive the winter on the seed of these grains ; and hence any method whereby the spores can be destroyed with- out affecting the germination of the seed will be more or less successful in prevent- ing the disease in the fields. The following treatments are those recommended : Modified Hot-Water Treatment — For barley, oats, and wheat, soak seed, enclosed in sacks, four hours in cold water; remove, wait four hours, then dip in hot water at 133° F. for five minutes; dry and plant. Water should be at 130° only, for barley, according to Selby (Ohio Bulletin 121). Formalin Treatment — For oats, rye, and wheat. Sprinkle seed with a preparation of formalin and water — 1 pint formalin to 50 gallons water. Shovel seed over several times and cover vv^ith a blanket or heavy canvas for several hours. Plant soon after treatment. Grains may be sprayed with the formalin as they are being put in the drill, but it is not so successful a measure. Barley Smuts ( Ustilago Hordei, U. nuda) — All barley regions. Known also as the covered and the naked barley smuts. The spores of the latter may be scattered by the wind. 156 INSECTS mJURIOTJS TO GARDEN CROPS Loose Smut of Oats ( Ustilago Avenm) — One of the most destructive smuts, the estimated loss from it in the United States being 118,000,000 annually. Where fields are affected, the spores by harvest time have often blown away to other heads, leaving large areas of affeeted heads entirely bare. Rye Smut ( Urocystis occulta) — Attacks leaves and stems. It has been rec- ommended that the seed be treated with hot water (127° F.) for five minutes, and then dried and planted, Loose Smut of Wheat {Ustilago Tritici) — This smut has no fetid odor as has the following species. It attacks both kernel and chaff, converting the head into a mass of spores. Stinking Smut of Wheat {Tilletia fcetens) — The spores of this smut have a fetid odor, and a small quantity of infected grain will contaminate a whole bin-full, often making it useless for milling. Wheat attacked by this species grows as tall as unaffected grain. The kernels only become diseased, and usually all in the head will be affected. Granaries and implements may be disinfected with copper sulphate (2 pounds to 10 gallons of water), articles treated being sprayed or washed. Wheat Rust {Puccima graminis, P. ruhigo-vera) — The only chance of pre- vention for this disease yet known is to plant resistant varieties and Tceep farm clean of volunteer loheat. Corn Smut ( Ustilago Zem) — This wide-spread disease attacks the ear, tassels, leaves, brace-roots and sucker-shoots, and produces the well-known black lumps on corn in the field. Tkeatment — Cutting and burning the smut bolls before they burst will aid in its control. Every possible means should be used to control this disease, as it seems to be constantly growing worse. II. GARDEN CROPS (a) IMPORTANT INJURIOUS INSECTS Variegated Cutworm {Peridroma saucia) — Occurs throughout the United States and attacks a very large variety of plants. Chittenden, in writing on the species in 1901, enumerated over fifty different food plants. This insect, in life history, is similar to other cutworms, the species usually hibernating as a larva, though in some localities it has been found in the winter as a pupa. The larvae on coming from winter quarters will attack any garden plant, several weeds, some field crops, and even shade and fruit trees. This species has a number of CUTWORMS, WOOLLY BEAR, ASPARAGUS-BEETLES 157 Fig. r.3. Yellow Bear: a, larva; b, pupa; c, moth. (Forbes.) insect enemies, and birds of several species feed upon it. The full-grown larva when first hatched is a decided green, with black head. It measures at maturity about If inches in length, and varies in color from very pale forms with faint markings to dark or dull brown mottled with gray or smoky black; along the sides of both forms, undulating velvety black lines. Moth has pale grayish brown fore-wings (darker at outer edges) and pale hind-wings. Treatment — Poisoned baits, such as clover or pigweed, or the poisoned bran mash. Apply before planting if possible. Plants may also be protected with paper or tin cylinders. Yellow or Woolly Bear (Spi- losoma virginica, Fig. 73) — Occurs in all states, being one of the commonest of our pests; attacks all classes of vegetation. Caterpillars, large, dark red, and hairy; moths have yellowish white wings and yellow spots on body. Treatment — Arsenical sprays and hand-picking. Coiiiinon Asi)aragus-beetle (Crioceris asparagi, Fig. 74) — New Eng- land and Middle States and as far west as Northern Illinois. Adult beetles hiber- nate, lay eggs on asparagus shoots early in spring, and also feed on them. Young larvae upon hatching are slimy greenish slugs with black dottings and black head and legs. They do great damage to young plants. The beetles are about ^ inch long ; wing-covers black, with red or yellow markings ; tliorax red, with black dots. Treatment — Dust young plants, when wet with dew, with plaster of Paris mixed with some arsenical poison; in hot weather simply brush larvae from plants; allow fowls to run in beds; leave a few shoots when marketing, as the beetles will deposit eggs on these, which then may be cut down and destroyed. Twelve-spotted Asparagus- beetle {C. duodecempimctata) — Middle States. Larva much like that of previous species; beetles red, with twelve black spots. Treatment — Same as for common asparagus- FlG beetle. Common Asparagus-beetle: a, beetle; j; c, newly hatched larva; d. full-grown larva; e, pupa. All enlarged. (Chittenden, United States Department of Agriculture.) fc. egg 158 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO GARDEN CROPS Fig. 75. Pale-striped Flea-beetle. Adult below ; larva above. (.Forbes.) Bean Ladybird, Western Bean-beetle {Epilachna comipta) — Western States; is working its way eastward. Serious enemy to bean crop in West. Beetles ^ inch long, yellowish brown, with four black spots on each wing-cover; larvae slug-like and yellow, feeding on under side of leaf ; eggs laid in same place. Treatment — Kerosene emulsion under-spray will help in controlling them ; hand-picking still better. Bean Leaf-beetle {Cerotoma trifurcata) — Gulf and At- lantic States. Somewhat resembles striped cucumber-beetle. Strips leaves, except midrib and larger veins. Treatment — Clean culture, destroying especially all tick-trefoil and bush clover. Arsenical spray harmless to plant if used very early ; hand-picking, in small gardens, successful, as beetles, larvae, and eggs may be secured. Destructive Green Pea-louse {Nedaroplwra pisi) — States north of North Carolina and east of Wisconsin. Greenish plant-lice, occurring in great numbers on peas, some clovers, and several other crops. They multiply very rapidly. Treatment — Brush vines and follow up with cultivator to bury the lice. Nuttall's Blister-beetle {Ccmtlians nuttalli) — North- western States. Bright metallic-green or blue-green beetle, elongate and narrow. Sporadic in attacks, usually most abundant after a grasshopper year ; feeds on all legumes and some otlier plants. Treatment — Larvae of this beetle feed on the eggs of the Rocky Moun- tain locust and do much to hold it in check; unless very destructive it might be good policy not to destroy them. Can be controlled by beating into pans of kerosene and water or by driving from the fields, going up and down the rows, brushing the plants always in the same direction. This treatment will serve for all blister-beetles. Pale-striped Flea-beetle {Systena tmniata, Fig. 75) — From New York to Colorado. Feeds on beets and many other plants in the garden. Red-headed Flea-beetle {Systena frontalis) — East of Rocky Mountains. Feeds on several garden plants, including beets, and on gooseberry, grape, and pear among cultivated fruits. Flea-beetles eat small ragged holes in the leaves of the plants on which they are feeding, and ENEMIES OF THE BEET AND CABBAGE 159 often do considerable damage. The larvae have been found feeding on the roots of wild plants, and in one instance in Illinois those of the pale-striped species on the roots of corn. The life history of the red-headed flea-beetle is not yet known. The adult has been found feeding on smartweed. Treatment — Arsenical sprays or Bordeaux mixture will control beetles when found on the leaves. Beet Aphis {Pempliigus hetce) — Washington, Oregon. Has done immense damage on the Pacific Coast. Insect is small, pale yellow or whitish, and covered with a flocculent mass much like the covering of the woolly aphis. Infests several wild plants; yarrows, knot-weed, and grasses — both native and introduced. Treatment — In districts where present do not put beets on new ground nor continue beets in ground where it has appeared. Svigar-beet Webworm, Garden Web worm {Loxostege species) — These webworms are widely distributed. They feed on the leaves of many garden plants, each individual under a separate web. Treatment — Arsenical sprays will control them, as the web is not dense enough to prevent entrance of poison. Zebra Caterpillar {Mamestra pida, Fig. 76) — Distributed over United States, and quite common on garden crops. Brilliantly marked with black and yellow and has a red head. Dr. Forbes has recorded about forty food plants for this species, including garden and field crops, ornamental plants, and trees. Treatment — Arsenical sprays will control this in- sect. Where arsenites are not desirable, use pyrethrum or hellebore, dry or mixed with water. Cabbage Butterfly (Pier is rapce) — Almost all the states. Larva, well known as a cabbage feeder, living on and in the head and eating large holes in the leaves ; pure green and sjjarsely hairy. Adult, a Avhite butterfly, commonly seen in gardens. Treatment — Catch butterflies with a net. Dust plants with lime, or spray young cabbage plants with arsenites; older ones may be treated with hellebore. Harlequin Cabbage-bug {Murgantia Mstrionica) — Probably occurs in all states, especially east of the Eocky Mountains. Brilliantly marked with red and yellow. In South very destructive to cabbage, sucking sap from leaves and stems. Fig. 76. Zebra Caterpillar. Larva and moth. (From Riley, United States Department of Agriculture.) 160 INSECTS INJUEIOUS TO GARDEN CROPS Fig. 77. Cabbage Flea- beetle: a, larva; b, beetle. (Riley.) According to most authorities there are a large num- ber of broods each season. They hibernate as adults. Treatment — Hand-picking is usually successful ; spray- ing with pure kerosene has also been tried with good results where bugs are gathered on trap crops of mustard planted along the gardens. Cabbage Flea-beetle {Phyllotreta vittata, Fig, 77) — Many states. Especially destructive in T pv| \^^H^/ larval state "to cabbage, turnips, and radishes, feeding 1 yS^m ^L^^Pv r on roots; beetles also do appreciable damage by rid- dling the leaves with holes. Adult beetle about y^o inch long, black, with two yellowish stripes which are sometimes broken into four yellow spots. Hiber- nates in this stage in sheltered places in fields. Treatment — Endeavor to control beetles with arsenical or Bordeaux sprays. Destroy all leaves and rubbish in fields in fall. Striped Cucumber-beetle {DiahroUca vittata, Fig. 78) — All states east of Rocky Mountains. Attacks melon, cucumber, and squash vines in both larval and adult stages. Many other plants are fed upon by the beetle. Larvae are subter- ranean, feeding on roots of plants of the cucumber family; adults have been found feeding on beans, peas, and ripe apples, on leaves, silk, pollen and unripe kernels of corn, and on several wild plants. Beetle is yellow, striped with black ; hibernates. Treatment — Arsenical sprays must be used very early, as later the beetles seem to feed but little. Trap crops of early squash may be used to protect cucumber plants, or plants may be covered with netted boxes until they are well out of the ground; plants may be treated with Paris green either wet or dry. If trap crops are used, plant main crop as late as possible. Squash -bug {Anasa tristis) — All states north of Virginia; farther west extends more to the south. Attacks all members of the cucumber family and some other garden plants. Adult bitgs are popularly known as Fig. 78. Striped Cucumber-beetle: a, adult; 6, t^^j.- ,1. Knrro " Tliov qta o-vnviali hrnwn ^ larva; c, pupa; d, last segment of larva. (From StinK-DUgS. -Luey are grayiSll DlOWn, f cuK.T"'^"'^*^^'^''''^''^''"''"""'''*''^"" iiich long; young bugs are greenish, and STALK-BORERS, PICKLE- WORM 161 infest under side of leaves, sucking juices and causing them to wilt. Adults attack not only leaves but tender stems and lay eggs in masses on under side of leaves. Treatment — Place chips or other shelters near vines and collect and kill bugs found beneath them. Look plants over twice a week and crush brownish egg-masses on under surfaces. Squash-vine Borer {Melittia satyr in if or mis) — Quite widely distributed. Larva of one of tlie "clear-wing" moths. Eggs are laid on stems of young vines, especially near roots, about time vines begin to run; young larva bores into stem and devours interior. When full grown it is nearly or quite an inch long, tapering toward each end. It is whitish, semitransparent, and soft; head a dark brown. Larva leaves plant when full grown and forms cocoon in earth near by, where it remains until following season, when moths appear and lay eggs. Attacked vines droop, look sickly, and eventually die. Treatment — When vines are first attacked cut out worms and destroy, else there is no chance to save plant. A good preventive is to bank up young vines with earth as far out as the first blossoms. Pickle-worm {Margaronia nitidalis) — Melon and cucumber regions. There are two broods each year, the second wintering as pupte in ground. Moths, having yellowish brown wings with purple reflections, lay eggs on vines and young fruit in early spring ; larva eats hole in fruit, thus working its way inside. When full grown it is translucent, yellowish white, tinged with green, with yellow head, and is an inch, or more, long. Treatment — Destroy larvae by hand-picking; destroy infested fruit by gathering and feeding to hogs or by scalding. Potato stalk-borer {Trichobaris trinotata, Fig. 79) — Maryland, westward to Missouri and per- haps farther. These small ashen gray beetles appear early in spring and puncture base of potato stem, hol- lowing out small cavities and laying in each one a single egg. The grubs which hatch are white, with brown heads, and burrow in stalk or branches from early August to September. They pupate near the stalks close to the surface of the soil, and the beetles fig. 79. Potato staik-borer • « beetle- soon emerge and hibernate in pupal cell. tiof o^prtoitik:X^lig''iar^^^^^ The larva of a moth {Hydnecia nitela) also bores ^^^u^ai^z^f d'nLturai size:'^Fr^S infn i- c!^Q^L-o " Chittenden, United States Depart- in LO poiaiO SCaiKS. ment of Agriculture.) 162 IMPORTANT DISEASES OF GARDEN CROPS Tkeatment — Rake up and destroy all vines in the fall as soon as potatoes are dug. Keep down all weeds belonging to this family — horse-nettle, jimson-weed, etc. Use fertilizer to enable plants to mature crop. Potato Flea-beetle {Ejntrix cucumeris) — Many states. "This small, blackish, faintly shining, minutely punctured species lives as a larva, so far as known, only on roots of solanaceous plants — potato, tomato, eggplant, tobacco, etc." (Forbes.) The beetles feed on these plants and many others, almost all garden plants being attacked. Treatment — Bordeaux mixture has proved a first-class repellant for flea-beetles of all kinds. Mixture may be prepai'ed in usual way, and Paris green added to destroy other pests ; coat vines well. Striped Blister-beetle {Epicauta vittata, Fig. 80) — Florida to Canada, and west to Rocky Mountains. Attacks principally potato and tomato, but feeds on many other plants, cultivated and wild. Beetle is yellow, with four or six black stripes, and is well known to most farmers and gardeners; often called "the old-fashioned potato-beetle." Larva probably feeds on grasshoppers' eggs. Treatment — Arsenites may be used, or the beetles may be driven from the fields as described under iSTuttall's blister-beetle. Colorado Potato-beetle {Leptinotarsi decemlineata) — All states; the worst of potato pests. Stol^t, yellowish beetle, with ten black stripes on wing-covers; lays orange-colored eggs beneath leaves. The reddish black-marked larvae are voracious feeders. Several generations each year ; hibernates in both pupal and adult stages. Treatment — Hand-picking of eggs and insects. Thorough Paris-green spraying. Begin treating the pests as soon as they appear, and keep at it. Fig. 80. Striped Blister-beetle. (Bruner.) (b) IMPORTANT DISEASES OF GARDEN CROPS Asparagus Rust {Piiccinia Asparagi) — Generally distributed in Europe, but only recently reported from this country. Badly infested fields mature plants unusually early and the plants have a brown hne, as if sapped by insects or injured by frost. Rusted plants appear to have the skin blistered, and are brown beneath the ruptures, but other stages of this rust also occur in the fields. Treatment — Bordeaux sprays appear to reduce affection about one quarter. (Halsted.) Burning rusted brush in fall is recommended. Mow field off clean, and burn all refuse and rubbish in the fall. ROTS, SCAB, MILDEW, WILT DISEASES 163 Brown Rot of Cabbage, Cauliflower, and Turnips {Pseudomonas campestris) — Eastern and Central States. Disease caused by bacterium which enters through wounds, is spread by transplanting from infested fields, or is carried by insects to plants. Diseased heads dwarf, rot, turn brown in places, and give oif an offensive odor ; stems often affected. Losses from this disease are at times large. Treatment — Prevention is the only recourse. Keep the insects down ; plant on new land and only from healthy seed-beds ; avoid stable manures contaminated with cabbage refuse ; keep tools clean ; keep animals out of infested fields ; destroy all mustard weeds ; remove and destroy aifected plants. Beet Root-rot {Ehizoctonia betce) — Some Eastern States. Leaves of attacked plants blacken at base and later fall ; disease then works into the crown and root, causing them to crack ; later they begin rotting. Whether this disease or another introduced through the cracks causes the rotting is not known. Treatment — B. M. Duggar has recommended applying 60 to 70 bushels of air-slaked lime to acre before planting. He states that rot seems to work on soils lacking sufficient limy content. Potato Scab — A well-known disease of the potato tuber. Organisms caus- ing it usually found in soil on which jDotatoes have been grown the previous year. Treatment — Soak seed potatoes in formalin solution (1 pint to 30 gallons water) for two or two and a half hours ; then dry, and plant on ground free from scab. Bacterial Rot of Onions, *^ Slippery Onions" — Outer or inner layers rot and leave contiguous layers sound. Damp or uet weather seems to favor disease ; hence, clean cultivation, thorough drainage, and dry storage will aid in preventing it. Downy Mildew^ {Plasmopora Culensis) — Occurs in many states, but often not until late in the year. Attacks cucumbers and squashes. Angular yellowish spots appear on leaves, which turn yellow rapidly and die as if by frost. The mildew spreads very rapidly through the fields. Treatment — Repeated applications of Bordeaux mixture at intervals of 8 to 10 days are recommended by Selby Dodder of Cucumber and otlier Plants — Affected piants should be destroyed immediately itpon appearance of the parasite. Wilt Diseases — The various wilt diseases affecting cucumbers, melons, squashes, etc., are difficult to handle. Gathering and destroying infested vines, and waging successful war against insects, especially squash-bugs and cucumber beetles, is good practice. 164 INSECTS mJURIOUS TO STORED GRAINS III. GRAINS AND SEEDS IN STORAGE IMPORTANT INJURIOUS INSECTS Some of the insects affecting stored grains begin their life history in the field ; others, in the granary or warehouse. Preventive and remedial measures generally applicable are as follows : General Treatment — Harvest as soon as grain is ripe ,' clean and fumigate granary before using ; quarantine and fumigate infested grain ; make bins as nearly air-tight as possible and fumi- gate with bisulphide of carbon. Heating seed-wheat to a temperature of 130° to 150° will destroy moths without injuring the germinating qualities of the seed. Aiigoumois Grain-inotli {Sitotroga cerecdella, Fig. 81) — Very common throughout South and gradually working north ;4-eported from Ohio and Pennsyl- vania. By far the worst granary pest known. The destructive caterpillar of tliis moth chiefly attacks corn (Fig. 82) and wheat. Eggs are laid in field on grains or in bin on the stored products. Moth is dull grayish brown with wing- spread of about ^ inch; caterpillar grows to be ^ inch long and is white with a yellow head. Iiidiaii-Meal-inoth {Plodia interpundella) — All states. The omnivorous whitish caterpillar of this gray or reddish brown moth lives in Indian meal and other cereals, dried fruits, English walnuts, etc. Kernels o'f grain are spun together with a web. Mediterranean Flovir-nioth {Ephestia huliniella) — Occurs along Atlantic coast and in Gulf States, Min- nesota, Colorado, California, ^New Mex- FiG. 82. Pop corn showing work of Angoumois Grain- ico, and doubtlcss othcr states ; rapidly Agricuitum)" ^"'''' ^"''^''^ ^'^"^^ Department of gp^.^ading. iMoth has leaden gray fore- Fig. 81. Angoumois Grain-moth: a, eggs; 6, larva at work; c. larva, side view; d, pupa; e, moth; /, moth, side view. (From Chittenden, United States Department of Agriculture.) WEEVILS AXD GRAIN-BEETLES 165 wings, with transverse markings and dirty white hind-wings. Caterpillar lives in flours and meals, spinning a web and making the mass lumpy; also feeds on honeycomb. Special Treatment — Mills should be kept tightly closed at night and all incoming grain quarantined and fumigated. Granary Weevil {Calandra granaria) — All states. Flattened, shining, chestnut-brown snout-beetle {\ to \ inch long). Punctures kernels of grain and inserts egg,, or, in case of corn, several eggs, the larvae feeding on interior of grain. Beetles do as much damage as larvae, or even more, feeding on outside of kernels. Saw-tootliecl Grain- beetle {Silvanus stirinamensis, Fig. 83) — All states. Slender brown beetle (^ inch long), very common. Larva feeds on and infests cereals and dried foods. Confused Flour-beetle ( Tr iholin m confusii m) — Plump, shining, reddish brown beetle, less than ^ inch long. Very prolific, causing much injury to flours, feeds, and prepared cereal foods. Square-necked Grain- beetle or Cotton -beetle ( CWhartus gemellatus) — Southern States and even as far north as Xew York. Glossy reddish brown insect. Breeds in the field in corn in the ear and in cotton in the bolls, and continues breeding in harvested crops. Feeds principally on germs of grains attacked. Rice-weevil {Calandra oryzm) — Many states, but especially destructive to rice in the South. Dull-brown beetle with four red spots on wing-covers. Feeds on soft wheat, corn, husked rice, etc. Pea-weevil {B melius pisorum) — All states, attacking peas in storage and field. Beetle, a stout brownish or black insect, indistinctly marked with white. Eggs deposited on surface of pods. Larvae bore into soft peas, and also live on stored peas. Beetles emerge in late summer or autumn, or in early spring before planting time. Special Treatment — Keep seed peas in tight boxes over one season before planting ; plant as late as possible ; fumigate seed peas thoroughly ; throw seed in water, and reject and destroy all that float. 12 Fig. 83. Saw-toothed Grain-beetle: a, beetle: 6, pupa; c, larva; rf. larval antenna. All enlarged. (From Chitten- den, United States Department of Agriculture.) 166 FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES Bean-weevil {Bruclius ohtectus) — All states. Grayish brown beetle (| inch long). Infests beans in storage, breeding there ; often attacks other legumes. Special Treatment — Same as for pea- weevil. Cow-pea-weevil {Bruchus chinensis); Four-spottetl Bean-beetle {B. quadrimaculatus) — Southern States, and west and north as far as Iowa. Resembles bean-weevil in habits and injurious work, and is amenable to same treatment. IV. FRUIT TREES The principal fruits grown in the United States that will be treated here in relation to the insects inhabiting them and the diseases affecting them are the apple, pear, peach, plum, cherry, and quince. A brief statement of the general spraying treatment necessary for each will be given and the principal insects and diseases discussed. The scale-insect enemies will be treated as a group, separately. Orchards of all kinds should be kept clean and free from rubbish, dead limbs, and old stumps. Care in pruning at the proper time and before the limbs get large will save many ugly wounds and prevent many diseases and insects from obtaining entrance to the trees. THE APPLE Spraying Calendar The general spraying treatment required in the apple orchard, against both insects and fungi, may be summarized as follows: Treatment When to Spray Against 1. Bordeaux mixture with Paris green. .Just as leaf buds expand. Scab, canker diseases, leaf -spot, bud-moth, case-bearers. 3. Bordeaux mixture with Paris green. 7-10 days later, or just as blossoms swell. Scab, leaf-spot, bud-worms, case-bearers, canker-worms, tent-caterpillars. 3. Bordeaux mixture with Paris green. Just after blossoms fall. Scab and other leaf diseases, canker- worms, tent-caterpillars, codling-moth. 4. Bordeaux mixture with Paris gree'i. 10-14 days later. Scab, leaf -spot, etc., codling-moth, palmer- worm, Bucculatrix, and leaf feeders. THE APPLE 167 The last spraying is often especially necessary after damp or wet weather. Some experiment stations recommend three sprayings before the one marked 3 in the calendar. This will depend somewhat on the weather and advancement of the season. For the apple scab another treatment may be necessary after the fourth given above — say, a week or ten days later. For plant-lice, psyllids, and such leaf -sucking insects a 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion may be used, or, if applied before the leaves open out, it can be replaced by a stronger solution of whale- oil soap. (a) Important Insects Injukious to the Apple Woolly Aphis {ScJiizonenra lanigera, Fig. 84) — Tlioroughly distributed over United States. The plant-lice of this species are readily recognized on the trtmk and limbs by the woolly secretion attached to their bodies. When abundant it appears bluish white, not unlike some molds, beneath which may be found a cluster of minute, dark plant-lice. Lice are usually most abundant on roots, but appear above ground on branches, trunk, and young shoots, often collecting in an old scar. On large and small roots alike, they foi-m gall-like growths of all sizes ; and by this fact and the smoothness of their galls these growths can usually be distinguished from those of the crown-gall. Fig. 85 shows galls of both kinds. Species multiplies through most of year by birth of living young from wingless females. In October, and later, winged females appear and fly freely, thus distributing the insect; females of next generation lay a single egg, and thus sj^ecies is carried over winter. Treatment — For the aerial form 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion, or whale-oil soap, 1 to 7, may be suc- cessfully used. For the root form, place powdered tobacco around the tree under the surface of the ground, or treat with carbon bisulphide (which see). Apple-leaf Plant-lice (Aphis viali, and other species) — All apple-growing regions. On twigs of apple-trees in win- ter, especially on young stock, may be found oval shining black eggs, placed near buds Fig. 84. Woolly Aphis: a, agamic female: 6, larva; c, pupa: d, winged adult. (Marlatt.) 168 FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES along stem, in crevices of bark or on roughened places. Early in spring they hatch and young lice suck juices of young buds and unfolding leaves, arresting growth and causing them to curl. On young trees considerable injury is often done by preventing free growth of the twigs. The last generation of the year produces both sexes. These pair, and the eggs are laid for the succeeding spring's first brood. Some of the species live a part of the year on grains and grasses. Treatment — Free use of 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion early in spring will aid in keeping these insects in check. Api^le Leaf-hoppers {Typhlocyha mali, and other species) — Several forms occur on apple leaves throughout United States. Leaf-hoppers are sucking insects. Adult is minute, slender, with narrow wing-covers, and tapering from the head back. Those found on apple leaves vary from bright green to yellow, and often have brownish markings. May usually be found in all stages at any time during sum- mer, feeding on leaves, which a^spear spotted with white ; rarely do serious damage. Treatment — Kerosene sprays-or other contact insecticides are the only means of combating these insects. Fig. 85. Woolly Aphis aud Crown-galls, exterior views aud sections. (After Forbes.) THE APPLE 169 Fig. 86. Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer: a b, beetle; c, head of male; d, pupa, natural size. (From Chittenden, States Department of Agriculture.) , larva; Twice United Flat-lieaded Apple-tree Borer [Cliriisabtiiiiris femoi'atMS, Fig. 8G) — Larva lias very Hat head, wide, and with strong jaws; grows to about 1 inch in length. Beetle is bronze-colored, scarcely ^ inch long, with the head rounded and body tapering to a point. Treatment — Borers may be dug out or killed by inserting a wire in the burrow. Preventive methods are undoubtedly best. Tarred paper, wire mosquito- netting, or even ordinary newspapers may be used to wrap around trunk of tree, extending from ground up for 18 or 20 inches. This must be tied tightly at top and mounded up with an inch or two of dirt at bottom. Rouiid-lieaded Apple-tree Borer {Su- per da Candida, Eig. 87) — All apple-growing regions. Beetles are dark brown striped with white, and appear from late June to August ; eggs are laid on bark, or in its crevices, close to surface of ground. Young larva lives a year in the sap-wood, and later bores into trunk, changing in spring of third year .to adult beetle. Larva is legless, white, and dis- tinguished from other apple-tree borers by its round head. Ai)ple Twig-borer {AmpMcerus hicaudatus) — Twigs are injured by a small beetle which enters near the bud and makes a channel several inches long; injury is done in winter or early spring. Larva lives full life in dead or dying green brier roots or in grape roots. Borers sometimes attack grape twigs. Treatment — Clean up neglected brier patches and vineyards and burn refuse in fall. Apple-tree Tent-caterpillar {CUsiocampa americana, Eig. 88) — New England, Middle and Central States ; working on leaves of fruit trees. Egg-masses may be found during winter and spring on small twigs of trees, appearing as small belt of brown encircling twig. This mass when broken open is found to be a large number of eggs closely fastened together and covered with a varnish-like sub- stance. Larvaj hatch early in spring before leaves open out, and as soon as feed- ing commences begin to spin a web or "tent" in smaller forks of tree; feed in Fig. 87. Round-headed Apple-tree Borer: a, larva, from side; 6, larva, from above; c. adult female: d, pupa. Enlarged one third. (From Chittenden, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture.) 170 FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES colonies, and tent is enlarged, as larvae grow, until it sometimes nearly envelops a small tree. Full-grown larva is about 1^ inches long, quite liairy, dull black, with white line down back and a series of white dots on each side. Cocoons are spun of thin yellowish silk and concealed in tree or in some sheltered spot near by. From these, in fall, emerge dull-reddish moths having two oblique pale stripes on the fore-wing. These soon lay eggs on twigs and life cycle is completed. Treatment — Destroy egg-masses in winter and young nests in spring, burning latter with torch, or twisting them out and then burning. Branches around nest may be sprayed with an arsenite, which will prove effectual in killing worms. Yellow-necked Caterpillar [Datana ministra) — Mississippi Valley and eastward. Eggs laid in masses in. spring by brownish yellow moths on under side of leaves. Insect hibernates in pupal state and moths emerge early. Worms feed in colonies, but without forming any web or tent; grow to be nearly 2 inches long, have a black head and a yellow ''neck," and are marked with yellow and black stripes. When not feeding they have a peculiar habit of clinging to the twig with their false legs, and throwing back both the head and anal end. Become full grown in late July or early August, and, descending to ground, pupate beneath the surface. Treatment — Destroy colonies by hand when first noticed — several bare twigs near center of tree being usually the first thing to attract attention to them — and spray suj'rounding branches with a strong arsenite. Fall Webworni {Hyj)hantria cunea) — United States generally; attacks both fruit and shade trees. Insect hibernates as pupa, emerging in spring as moth with very white wings, which sometimes bear scattering black spots. Eggs are laid on leaves or small limbs in quite large masses, and young larvae make nest or web Fig. 88. Tent-caterpillar: a, b, larvte on nest ; c, egg- mass with gummy covering removed; d, cocoon. (Riley.) THE APPLE 171 in which tliey stay when not feeding. As they grow older they separate more, and are able to defoliate a considerable area of the tree. They pupate in early summer, and the second brood does far more damage than the first. These pupate in fall and remain in cocoons over winter. Treatment — Destroy webs when first seen ; use arsenical sprays on trees affected. By keeping careful watch they can be controlled. ' Leaf-crumpler {Mineola indiginella, Fig. 89) — Apple-growing regions, and espe- cially in neglected nurseries and young or- chards; attacks also most other fruits. Eecog- inzed in winter by presence, on twigs, of little irregular bhick masses, which prove on close inspection to be short-coiled tubes tightly fas- tened to twig. Early in spring larva3 in these tubes begin to feed on young leaves, later binding together a small bunch of leaves, often at end of branch. When very abundant they sometimes attack young fruit and the bark of tender twigs. Larva is reddish brown, with dark brown head: becomes full grown in latter Fig. 89. Leaf-crumpler; a, tube of larva; b, . ^ . cluster of tubes and leaves; c, head end of part of May; and pupates within tube. In larva; d, adult moth. (Riiey.) June a small gray moth emerges and begins to lay eggs. Larva upon hatching soon commences its case, and feeds on leaves throughout summer. Treatment — A single spraying with an arsenite applied when leaves are just unfolding will completely control pest. Coclliiig-niotli or Apple-worm (Carpocapsa pomonella, Fig. 90) — Thoroughly distributed over United States. Common flesh-colored worm that is found in "wormy" apples ; work so well known that it is not necessary to describe it. Pest hibernates as larva in tightly spun cocoon, hidden away in crevice of bark, under rubbish on ground, or in apple storage houses and cellars. Early in spring it pupates, and about middle of May moths commence emerging in time to lay eggs on the young fruit and leaves close by. Egg is a tiny, flattened, milk-white form, not commonly seen. Larva commences feeding by crawling into calyx-end of apple, thence boring its way to the center. From last of June and onward first brood become full grown; and soon pupate in crevices of bark. Moths emerge in a few days and lay eggs on apples. Larvse hatching from these eggs rarely enter at end 172 FEUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES Fig. 90. Codliiig-nioth: «, apple showing bur- row; 6, original entrance; e, larva; d, pupa, /, g, moth; i, cocoon. (Riley.) of apple, but may bore in at any place. By first of August some of these are full grown, and descend to trunk of tree or to ground and spin a tight cocoon. There are but two broods in a year, the second brood hibernating as larvae in tigbtly spun cocoons. Many worms are not full grown when apples are picked, and these thus find their way into storage houses or are shipped to other places. Treatment — Spraying apple-trees immediately after the blossoms fall and before the calyxes of the fruit close, with a second spraying 7 to 10 days later with arsenites, will destroy most of these worms. In July trees may be banded with a piece of ordinary "gunny-sacking," 4 to 6 inches wide, which should be removed about every 10 days and worms destroyed. Storage houses and cellars should have screen doors and windows in order to prevent moths from escaping in the spring. Hogs allowed to run in orchard will destroy many worms in the fruit eaten. The "lantern-traps," and all the other so-called "moth-traps," in which lights are used to attract insects are of no value against the codling -moth or plum curculio, as neither is attracted by lights. In fact, the number of strictly beneficial insects caught by these " lantern- traps " is equal to, if not always much greater than, the number of injurious species captured. It will not pay the far- mer to use them. Oreeii Fruit Worms {Xylina anUnnata, and othev species) — Eastern and Central United States. Green or yellowish-green smooth worms which grow to a length of 1 to 1-^ inches. Feed on young fruit of almost any kind, especially apple, peach, and pear. Hibernate as adult moths — dark, broad-winged night-fliers. Eggs are laid early in spring and young larvae attack both foliage and fruit. Are full grown by middle of June and pupate in ground, moths emerging early in fall. Treatment — Thorough cultivation late in summer may be of value in destroying the pupa ; for the worms, jar from tree as for plum curculio. They seem to be able to resist the arsenites ; probably because they eat but little of the surfaces treated. Canker- worms. Spring- {Pahacrita vernata, Figs. 91, 92) and Fall [Ani- sopteryx pometaria) — Distributed over United States, attacking fruit and shade trees, often causing serious damage. Early in spring, soon after leaves begin to put forth, small, green or dark green measuring worms may appear on trees, dropping to ground by a thread when disturbed. These pests, the canker-worms, usually occur THE APPLE 173 Fig. 91. Spring Canker-worm: o, larva; 6, eggs; c, d, details. (Riley.) Fig. 93. Springr Canker-worm, a, adult male; b, adult female; c, d, e, details. (Riley.) in such numbers as quickly to defoliate a tree. They are full grown by middle or last of May, descend to the ground, and form cocoons several inches below surface. Fall species comes out late in autumn and lays eggs on trees, while spring species appears the first warm days in late winter or early spring. The two sexes of the moths are very different, the males having thin ashy-gray wings crossed by several lines and bars, while the females are wingless. Soon after emerging females crawl up trunks of trees and lay eggs on twigs, buds, and smaller branches. Treatment — Thorough spraying with arsenites early in spring will control this insect in orchards. The application should be made as soon as leaves begin to open, and, if necessary, another treatment should be given in a few days. (See under Shade-Tree Insects for other remedies.) Pistol-case Bearer {Cokophora malivorella) — From Canada southward through Pennsylvania, and westward to Nebraska and New Mexico. Hibernates in its little case as a partly grown larva, attacking buds, leaves, and flowers in early spring. As it grows larger it builds on to the old case pieces of stems and leaves. It feeds openly, never mining the leaves as does the next species, but is most destructive to petals and stems of flowers. It pupates the last of May, and in a few weeks moths appear and lay cinnamon-colored eggs on the leaves. The young caterpillar hatches in about a week, beginning immediately to construct a case, and in September it migrates to twigs and fastens itself up for the winter. Treatment — See under Bud Moth. Cigar-case Bearer ( CoUopliora fietchereUa) — Canada and Eastern United States, and perhaps to some extent in other states. This species, which bears a case having a fancied resemblance to a cigar, feeds on buds, leaves, and flowers of fruit trees. It hibernates in its case as a half-grown larva, the case being firmly attached to a twig. In early spring the insects commence feeding on most tender foliage, and as they grow larger discard their case and mine between the leaf surfaces. At times the larva feeds on young fruit, but after flowers fall it gets its food chiefly by mining the leaves. Pupation occurs last of June. Soon thereafter a tiny moth emerges and lays eggs among the leaf hairs. The caterpillars hatch in July, and soon construct the case in which they winter. Treatment — See under Bud Moth. 174 FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES Bud Moth {Tmetocera ocellana) — Probably occurs throughout most apple- producing states. During winter the larva lives securely fastened in a case con- cealed by a bnd or rough place in bark ; in early spring it comes forth and feeds on and in swelling buds and new leaves, tying them together with silk for a retreat, the dry brown leaves often being seen at the ends of the twigs. Larva dark brown, with darker head, being when full grown nearly -| inch in length ; pupates in May, the small, dark ashy-gray moth emerging early in June. Eggs laid by first of July; larvfe which hatch from them feed near tips of branches until hibernating time. Treatment — For the last three pests foregoing — lesser apple insects, as they might be called — the same treatment can be applied — early thorough arsenical spraying. If buds are thoroughly coated with spray there will be but little trouble with these insects. The case-bearers may need a second treatment when flower buds are swelling. Do not spray open flowers. Ai>i)le-leaf Bucculatrix {Buccrdatrix pomifoliella) — Most Eastern and Northern States, and to a less extent in Central and Southern. Does but little damage as a general rule, thougli it may be found mining the leaves in early sum- mer. Larva makes elongate white-ribbed cocoon and fastens it to branch of tree. Cocoons are often seen in fall and winter, and are sometimes objects of much concern to those who find them. Apple-fruit Maggot {Ehagoletis pomonella) — New England, south to New Jersey, and westward at least to Michigan and Northern Illinois. Early in summer, from eggs laid by a small two-winged fly on. the fruit, hatch small, white, footless maggots, which channel the fruit in every direction, utterly ruin- ing it and causing it to rot and fall. Wherever the maggot occurs it is undoubtedly a serious pest. Treatment — Destroy infested fruit by hand-picking or by allowing hogs to run in orchard. Thorough cultivation in fall may aid in checking the pest, as it pupates in ground. Seventeen-year Locust {Cicada septemdecim., Fig. 93) — Adults injure apple and many other trees and shrubs by laying eggs in Fig. 93. The Seventeen-year Locust: a, adult; c, pupa from tender twigS and Smaller branches ; which 6, an adult, lias emerged; d, egg-punctures. (From Riley, United States Department of Agriculture.) larva, upon hatching from Qgg, falls THE APPLE 175 Fig. '.14. Biiffal > Tree-hopper: a, adult; b, c, d, tarsus, antenna, and wiug; /', g, tip of abdomen, showing ovipositor; e, h, i, details. (From Ril^y, United States Department of Agriculture.) uO ground and burrows beneath soil, feed ing on juices of roots ; adult emerges in spring of seventeenth year after larva entered ground. Twigs in which eggs have been laid either break down later or become deformed in growth. Treatment — There is no remedy for the trouble. It would be good practice to cut oflf the affected twigs, as they will never make healthy branches. Do not plant young trees the year a brood is to appear. Buffalo Tree-hopper {Ceres a buhalus, Fig. 94) — This small grass-green insect often attracts attention by its tri- angular shape and lenping powers ; may be seen on twigs and leaves of several orchard trees; damages apple twigs by laying eggs in slits in new growth. Treatment — Insects difficult to combat ; best remedy is vigorous pruning of affected twigs in fall. Red Spider {Tetranyclms Umaculatus, Fig. 95) — AVhile this is not an insect it often occurs in countless numbers on trees in the orchard. The red spider is a small mite and feeds on juices of leaves of several trees and shrubs. On apple-trees they sometimes cluster in masses at base of larger limbs and on trunk, spinning a thick network of fine silken threads. Treatment — Spraying thoroughly with ordinary cold water has been found beneficial, (b) Important Diseases of the Apple Bitter-rot {Gleosporium fructigemim, Fig. 96) — A de- structive disease, occurring over most of the United States, and at times causing immense losses in fruit. Disease may be readily recognized. It begins in the form of one or more small brown specks, which soon enlarge and become distinct dark- colored spots, circular and sunken ; tissue beneath always re- mains dry and tough ; numbers of pustules soon form over affected area, arranged in concentric circles and covering all but outer margin; pustules break and discharge a fine pinkish mass, which later turns ashy gray. The apples are affected with the fig. 95. Red Spider disease throughout, and shrivel up into hard wrinkled bodies nifled.^'cHarvey!?^^ 176 FEUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES Fig. 96. Bitter-rot cauker. (Blair, Illinois Bulletin 77.) known as '' mummies/' which sometimes r.emain on tree throughout winter and until late the following year. The disease lives over winter in the old dried fruits or in wound- like infected spots on limbs. It is distributed by means of spores carried from the mummies or cankers by splashing drops of rain, or by insects. The first infection of the year evidently comes from the cankers, and the spores are carried by rain drops to the apples below, thus spreading in a cone-shaped form. Treatment — Disease travels slowly from orchard to orchard and even from tree to tree. Destroy every affected apple as soon as noticed, and search for and destroy the canker in the tree; look for these sources of infection just above the infected apples ; remove and destroy all mummies. Disease can be kept in check by repeated applications of Bordeaux mixture. Leaf-spot, Apple Blotch {PhyllosHcta pinna) — Caused by fungi which attack leaves and sometimes fruit of apples and pears ; appears on leaves soon after they unfold, in form of small reddish-brown spots, which later turn gray; often confused with ''spray burn" which, however, leaves darker markings. On the fruit this disease occurs as small, black, irregular spots, a number of which often unite in a blotch; not known to do serious damage to fruit. Treatment — Early Bordeaux spraying before leaves open, and again, if necessary, after fruit has formed. Leaf-blight { Entomosporium maculatum) — Disease appears early, and much resembles the one just described ; attacks quince as well as apple; leaves sometimes become so badly diseased that they fall. Treatment — Spray early with Bordeaux, and if necessary several times, until August. Apple Rust, Cedar Fungus {Oymnosporangium macropus) — Occurs wherever red cedars and junipers are grown ; sometimes a serious pest on apple and quince. On apple leaves this disease is first noticed in May or June, when bright yellow spots appear ; fruit is often attacked in same manner : spots are caused by spores blown or otherwise carried from the common "cedar balls." Treatment — Destroy surrounding cedar and juniper trees ; or, if this is not desirable, pick off cedar balls in fall and burn them. Bordeaux spray on the cedars early in spring has been found in some cases quite effective. THE APPLE 177 Fig. 97. Apple-scab on apples. Ai>i)le-scab {Fusicladium clendrUicum, Fig. 97) — A\\ apple regions. This fungous disease attacks both leaves and fruit of the apple and sometimes other fruits. On the upper surfaces of leaves irregular soot-colored spots are formed; on fruit the spots are at first of this same color, but later enlarge, get rough and black, check growth of apple, and cause it to become distorted and worthless as first-class fruit. Sometimes petioles and young twigs are attacked and even fruit stems injured. Treatment — While it is impos- sible to exterminate so wide-spread and common a disease, it can be thoroughly controlled by careful, conscientious spraying. Bordeaux mixture as the buds are swelling, just before the blossoms open, just after blossoms fall, 7 to 10 days later, and even again, if necessary, has been found to give best results. The last two sprayings may cause some burning of fair-skinned apples. Crown-gall of Apple (Fig. 85) — Many portions of United States and spreading rapidly, being carried by infested nursery stock. The cause of the dis- ease is not known but has been ascribed to some form of bacteria not yet isolated. It is a dangerous disease, and growers should be very careful to see that nursery stock is absolutely free from it. "It most commonly affects the crown of the tree, producing a dark, rough, abruptly protruding tumor, varying in size from a pea to that of the fist, or larger. A badly affected tree is likely to show signs of starva- tion, its growth ceasing and its foliage having a sickly yellow look. Young trees often perish from the disease, and even lai-ge orchard trees will die and break off at the base. It is certainly contagious in some forms and perhaps in all. What is apparently a form of this same gall is fonnd growing above the surface of the ground, at first appearing on the trunk as a small lump or tubercle, which later grows into a large wart-like excrescence and eventually girdles the trunk." (Forbes.) Young galls of this kind also start out on the limbs, especially along the under side, and as they grow older darken and get rough in the same manner. On old galls small white or yellow points may be seen early in spring, which later take on the darker color, harden, and break open into rough cankery spots. Treatment — There is no known cure for the disease. Destroy all trees found infested, or cut off the galls appearing on the limbs and paint over with Bordeaux wash. 178 FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES Root-rot ( Telepliora gallactina) — A disease common in orchards, especially in those grown on old forest-land or where diseased trees formerly grew ; usually fatal ; trees affected suffer general loss of roots, and have a " starved and enfeebled look." Often a mass of gum and scaly bark collects at the base of the tree, or large irregular white layers of fungous growth spread between the bark and the wood or run through the ground from root to root. Several species of mushrooms that seem to be the fruiting bodies of some of these "rotten-root" fungi grow at the base of the trunk. Treatment — As this fungus seems to be capable of spreading in the ground from tree to tree, it is well not to plant any young trees on land where old diseased ones have been until after thorough cultivation. An affected tree is worthless and should be at once destroyed. Apple-tree Canker, Api>le-fruit Black Rot {Sphceropsis malorum) — Occurs over a large part of the apple-growing area of the United States. Disease affects limbs and fruit of apple, pear, and quince. Large limbs blacken, and bark roughens and splits, disclosing wood and causing a very rough, ugly-looking canker. Can be distinguished from the bitter-rot canker by the fact that in that canker the bark does not split away and disclose wood beneath. Black rot of the apple is caused by the same fungus, but rarely becomes a serious menace to the grower. Treatment — Remove and destroy affected limbs ; cut out diseased bark, and paint over all wounds with Bordeaux wash. When spraying in regular orchard treatment, see that the limbs are well covered with the spray. ApiJle-twig Blig^lit {Bacillus arnylovorus) — Caused by the same bacterium as the pear blight; rarely affects much more than. the young growth on twigs. Spraying has not been found of much avail ; cut off and destroy twigs affected. (See Pear Blight.) Ripe Rot {Monilia fructigena) — See under Plum. THE PEAR Tlie general spraying treatment recomtnended for the apple will apply to the pear, with the addition of a kerosene emulsion spray hefore the buds burst in the spring in order to control the pear-blister mite and psyllids. The pear is attacked by many of the apple enemies, such as the codling-moth, green fruit worms, case-bearers, and tent-caterpillars, and several of the leaf fungi and canker diseases work on this plant as well as on the apple. THE PEAR 179 Fig. 98. Sinuate Pear-tree Borer: o, larva; 6, beetle; c, pupa, enlarged. (Banks, United States Department of Agri- culture.) (a) Important Insects Injurious to the Pear Sinuate Pear-tree Borer {Agrilus sinuahts, Fig. 98) — This dangerous enemy of the pear is proving difficult of control. It is as yet confined to some of the Eastern States, but will undoubtedly appear elsewhere Larva causing trouble is about two inches long when full grown, white or dirty white in color, with broad flat head and small jaws. Feeds for two years before attaining full growth, and in that time makes "immensely long zigzag galleries " between bark and wood, finally girdling tiee and killing it. Beetle is small (^ inch long), narrow, and dark colored, looking very much like other species of its genus, being square-headed and tapering back almost to a point. It appears in May or early June and lays eggs in crevices of bark, the slender whitish larvge soon hatching and commencing their fatal work. Treatment — No absolutely successful treatment has yet been found. The general recom- mendations for the apple-tree borers will apply, and newspapers or other bands may be fastened about the tree to prevent eggs from being laid on it. Wire netting will not serve, as the beetle or young larva can readily pass through it. Thorough whitewashing of the trunks and lower limbs will aid in keeping the borers out. A little Paris green might be added to the whitewash. Pear-leaf Blister {Eriophyes pyri) — Occurs wherever pears are grown. The injury done the leaf and known by the above name is '"'caused by minute, four- legged mites which live within the substance of the leaf, and pass the winter in the bud scales at or near the ends of the twigs." (Forbes.) There appear at first on the leaves "reddish, blister-like spots, } inch or more in diameter/' These gradually change, through green, to black and unite, forming corky spots. The mites often destroy the larger part of the leaf tissue of a tree. Treatment — Thorough spraying of infested trees in winter with strong kerosene emulsion diluted virith 5 to 7 parts water, covering especially the terminal buds ; hand-picking and destruc- tion of leaves in early spring, when but a few are infested. Pear-slug" {Selandria cerasi) — Light-colored slimy larvae of a "saw-fly," a four-winged fly, which appear on the leaves early in the year and often skeletonize them. Worms feed on upper surfaces only, but to such an extent that trees are sometimes completely defoliated. Treatment — Usually controlled when spraying for other insects, but if not, give a thorough treatment with Paris green or other arsenical spray. Other Insects Attacking the Pear — See Index. 180 FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES (b) Important Diseases of the Pear Pear-blight, Fire-blight, Apple-twig Blight {Bacillus amylo- vorus) — A contagious bacterial disease affecting several of the fruit trees, but doing greatest damage to the pear. Infests cells of plant, multiplying in sap and event- ually permeating and destroying the whole tree. Bacteria are supposed to get entrance at blossoming time, the infection perhaps being carried by insects. Treatment — Cut out affected part several inches below where it shows disease, and paint wound with Bordeaux wash. There being no known cure, trees should be cut out and burned after disease has once reached large limbs and body. Other Pear Diseases — See Index. THE PEACH Spraying Calendar The general spraying treatment for leaf-feeders and diseases affecting the peach is as follows : - Treatment When to Spray Against 1 . Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. Before buds swell. Leaf -curl, brown rot, bud-moth. 2. Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. After blossoms fall. Leaf-curl, brown rot, plum-cur- culio, leaf-feeders. 3. Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. Two weeks later. Brown rot and leaf -feeders. 4. Ammoniacal copper-carbonate. When fruit is well formed. Brown rot. On the peach, as on other fruit trees, kerosene emulsion may bo used in 10 per cent, strength for such sucking insects as need treatment. As peach foliage is more tender than that of other trees, Bordeaux treatments need to be carefully given and the mixtures well prepared. (a) Important Insects Injurious to the Peach Peach-tree Borer {Sanninoidea exitiosa. Fig. 99) — All peach regions. May be recognized by gummy exudations about lower parts of trunk and often by sickly appearance of tree. Insect passes the winter in a cocoon near outer portion of burrow ; pupates and emerges as a moth in the spring. Male moths have clear wings and females purplish front wings and clear hind wings. Eggs are laid from May to July, according to latitude, and are placed singly on bark of tree near base. Larva, upon hatching, burrows into bark and mines between it and sap-wood THE PEACH 181 t IG. 99. IViU h-tree Borer: «, adult female; fc, adult male; c, full- grown larva; d. female pupa; e, male pupa; /, pupa skin extended partially from cocoon. All natural size. (From Marlatt, United States Department of Agriculture.) until fall; is inactive in winter, completing growth early the next year; is soft, pale yellow in color, with a dark, shining head, and grows to be over 1 inch in length. Moths emerge in South very early in spring, but in the North usually not until May or June. There is but one brood a year. Treatment — Digging out borers, killing by inserting a wire, and pro- tecting trees from their entrance. Last named is undoubtedly the best measure, but it is not uniformly successful, and trees should always be looked over each year to see that no larvjs are getting a start. The same protective treatment as recommended for apple borers may be used ; that is, banding with nevFspapers or tarred paper. Fruit-tree Bark-beetle {Scolytus rngulosus, Fig. 100) — From Michigan south to Georgia and Alabama and from Massachusetts west to Arkan- sas. Beetle attacks all the orchard trees, but seems to be foitnd more abundantly on plum and peach. Adult is a small brownish -black beetle, \ inch long, very active, and as early as the middle of March begins to form bur- rows in the bark. After penetrating to the sap-wood the female constructs a brood cham- ber, in which eggs are laid. Larvae upon hatching soon excavate little side galleries which they widen as they grow, full-grown larvae crossing and recrossing galleries until there is a network of grooves all under the bark. The injury is recognized from outside by tiny shot-hole-like openings scattered all over the bark. Larva is Avhite, with yellowish head and brown jaws, and its surface is much wrinkled. Two broods occur in the Forth, and more Fig. lOO. FruiWree Bark-beetle: adult beetle, highly linv PLUM 183 Liittle Peach Disease — Another contagious disease of unknown cause. Trees, especially their leaves, look sickly, and fruit ripens late, scarcely attaining a third its ordinary size. Treatment — Dig up and burn all affected trees. Peach Fruit-spot, Plum-scab, Cherry-scab — This is evidently the same disease, whether occurring in the peach, plum, or cherry, and it also attacks the apricot. It at first produces purple blotches on the fruit, which later cause the skin to split. It works on young bark in the same manner. Tkeatsient — Thorough Bordeaux sprayings early in spring, and again, later, as given in calendar, will control this disease. Browu Rot {Monilia fructigena) — Fungous disease of the peach fruit, somewhat more likely to be prevalent after warm, showery weather. Infection is from mummies remaining on the trees, and perhajis from other causes. The peaches rot rapidly when once started, many falling from the trees. Treatment — Destroy all mummies and diseased fruit. The regular sprays for the leaf -curl, with additional ones as given in the calendar, will control this disease. Other Peach Diseases — See Index. THE PLUM Spraying Calendar The general spraying treatment for the plum is as follows : Treatment 1. Bordeaux mixture and Paris green. When to Spray When leaf buds open. Against Bud-worms, case-bearers, shot-hole fungus. Curculio, green fruit worms, fruit rot. 2. Bordeaux and Paris green. When fruit is just formed. 3. Bordeaux. Two weeks later. Brown rot. 4. Ammoniacal copper-carbo- nate. When fruit is large. Brown rot. Kerosene emulsion for plant-lice in the early spring. (a) Important Insects Injurious to the Plum Pluni-curculio or "Little Turk" {Conotrachelus nenuphar, Fig. 101) — Kanges thi'ough Atlantic States and westward to Missouri River, working on plum, peach, pear, apple, cherry, and quince. The work of this pest is first noticed 184 FRUIT IKSECTS AND DISEASES wlien the fruit is still small by the crescent-shaped spot cut by the beetle when pre- paring to deposit her egg. The larva is well protected from attack with any insec- ticide. Affected plums and some other fruits drop in a short time after larva begins feeding around stone. Larva is a small, stout, dirty white legless maggot, which when full grown pupates in the ground; beetle emerges from ground in latter part of summer, and immediately goes into hibernation until spring. Treatment — Success is attained in treating this insect only by persistent and continued effort. Spraying with arsenites will aid to some extent, but the most successful measure is to spread a sheet or other cloth on the ground in early morning, soon after plums begin to form, and jar the tree, collecting and destroying beetles that fall. This must be kept up for several days. In commercial orchards the cloth is stretched on a frame and the persons bearing it stand one on each side of tree, while another jars it. Other Insects Attacking the Plum — See Index. Fig. 101. Plum-curculio: a. larva; 6, pupa; c, beetle; rf, young plum siiowing crescent. (Riley.) (b) Important Diseases of the Plum Black-knot {PJowrightia morhosa) — Widely distributed over the United States, in some places doing much damage to both plum and cherry-trees; also attacks wild plum and wild cherry. Disease first appears as a thickening or swelling of the twig, which, becoming thicker on one side, soon breaks through bark, a spongy mass growing out, and large, sooty-black, wart-like masses appear, broken by deep fissures. Where the knot girdles the twig or branch it soon kills it. Disease is spread from tree to tree by spores carried by wind or other agency. The most destructive and deadly of plum diseases, and every effort possible should be made to stamp it out. Trees are sometimes killed by it in a couple of years. Treatment — Cut off and burn all parts showing any trace of the knots, cutting some dis- tance below the last sign of affection, washing cut surfaces with Bordeaux mixture, or, if large, painting them over thoroughly with Bordeaux wash. Shot-hole Fung'us {CyUndrisporiimi padi) — Disease appears first as a minute brown spot with reddish margin on leaf. Spot soon gets darker, and finally brownish black, at which stage many spots break away from surrounding tissue and fall out. This causes the characteristic appearance from which the name is taken. Treatment — Bordeaux sprays will control if applied early. CHEERY AND QUmCE 185 Yeflcws — Attacks Japanese plums. See under Peach. Ripe-fruit Rot {Monilia fructigena) — Prevalent in most plum-growing regions. Due to attack of a fungus that probably lives over in a mummy on the tree ; fruit ripens early and at the same time rapidly rots. Treatment — Keep trees clear of infested fruit; use Bordeaux mixture according to calendar. Plum-pockets {Exoascus pruni) — Not common over the country but often quite serious locally. Attacks fruit soon after blossoming time, causing it to turn yellow, then dark brown and black ; fruit usually falls in June. Treatment — Spray with Bordeaux mixture when buds are beginning to swell and again just before blossoms open. Other Plum Diseases — See Index. THE CHERRY Impoktant Insects and Diseases The cherry requires the same general treatmerit as the phwi. It is infested by some of the worst pests of the other fruits, among which are the fruit bark-beetle, pear-slug, black-knot, fruit rot, and leaf-spots, besides many others. Cherry Maggot {Rhagoletis cingulata) — Not common. The life history of this insect is very similar to that of the apple maggot. Treatment — The chief recommendations have been fall plowing, to destroy pupa, and com- plete destruction of all infested fruit on trees as soon as seen. This last, if done in time, would probably prevent its spread in the orchard. Cherry Aphis {Myzus cerasi) — Most chei-ry regions, but as a rule does little damage. A small black plant-louse, occurring as soon as leaves start in early spring. The young hatch from eggs laid on twigs and buds the preceding fall. Multiplies in the usual manner of plant-lice through summer ; hibernates in Qgg state. Treatment — Kerosene emulsion on tree just before eggs are laid, and perhaps in spring soon after eggs hatch. Other Cherry Insects and Diseases — See Index. THE QUINCE Important Insects and Diseases The general treatment for the quince, in the matter of spraying, is practically the same as that for the apfle. The quince is attacked by nearly all the apple enemies of rank, and also by pear- blight and shot-hole fungus. Quince Black Rot — This is identical with the black rot of apples. 186 IMPOETANT SCALE INSECTS Frviit-spot and Leaf-spot — These are caused by the bacillus of the pear leaf-blight. Quince Rust — Caused by same fungus as rust of the apple, and remedied by cutting out cedar trees. Sometimes assumes on the quince a serious character, extending into tissue of young branches and deforming them. Other Quince Insects and Diseases — See Index. V. IMPORTANT SCALE INSECTS OF FRUIT TREES, BUSH FRUITS, AND VINES Rang'e and Importance — Within recent years the scale insects have attained such an importance through their multiplication and rapid spread over the United States, that they are regarded as highly dangerous pests, and in many states have necessitated stringent legislation. All herein treated are capable of doing serious damage to trees and vines. A few general statements regarding their lives will apply to all the species treated. The scales belong to the same order of insects as do the plant-lice, squash-bugs, leaf- hoppers, and other sucking insects injurious to vegetation. Life History — From the outward appearance, one not informed would scarcely consider them insects at all ; but upon raising the tiny scale, the insect may bo seen beneath it. This insect is a louse, appearing to the naked eye only as a soft mass affixed tightly to the bark. Its long thread-like beak or sucking tube is driven far into the wood, and by means of it the louse gets its food — the sap of the tree or vine. The scale is a protective covering secreted from the body of the louse after it has affixed itself to the bark. The larger number of scale insects hatch from eggs laid by the female under her scale, which protects them after she has died and dried away. In the case of the San Jose scale and the European fruit- scales, the young are usually brought forth alive, and this is occasionally true of some other scales also. The peach Lecanium secretes no true scale, but remains exposed all its life. The other species here referred to affix themselves to the tender bark soon after hatching and begin in a short time to secrete their armor. Difficulty of Combating: — By reason of the protective scale it is often a difficult matter to destroy the occupant beneath. Where the period of hatching is well defined a thorough treatment with a contact insecticide may be made before the scale of the louse has had time to become protective. Treatment for the more fully developed insect in those species that pass the winter partly grown can best SAN JOSE SCALE 187 be given after the leaves have fallen in autnmn and b'efore the buds open out in the spring. Most authorities seem to agree that the later the spray can be applied in the spring the better the results will be. In the winter no injury need be apprehended from the use of substances for spraying which would cause the destruction of foliage and often the death of the trees in the growing mouths. The scales to be treated have been divided into two classes : those belonging to the genus Aspidiofns, and often known as the "ring and nipple" scales; and those of various other genera, the most of which pass the winter in the egg stage beneath the female scale. THE RING AND NIPPLE SCALES To this genus belongs the most destructive of the scale insects — the San Jose scale. Several other species at times do considerable damage. The species all closely resemble each other, and it is difficult for the ordinary observer to distin- guish them by the means usually at hand. Whenever a scale is found about which there is any doubt, the much safer plan is to send specimens to some com- petent authority for determina- tion. San Jose Scale {Aspid- iofns perniciosus, Fig. 102) — Widely distributed over the United States and rapidly spreading. It infests practi- cally all our fruit trees, many shade trees, and several shrubs. Trees badly infested show dark scurfy patches on the bark, and the fruit, when present, is often well covered with the scale. On the fruit and young CIL 1-wio-a tliova TO nanolKr r, vorlrlioU FiG. 103. San Jose Scale: a, natural size; 6, magnified. (Howard i/Wigb LiitJie lb UhUclliy a leuuisn and Marlatt, United states Department of Agriculture.) 188 IMPOETANT SCALE INSECTS discoloration where the scale is present. The single scale is nearly circular in outline in the female, grayish in color in mature specimens, with an almost jet- black central nipple surrounded by one or more distinct yellowish or grayish rings. The crowding of scales on bark often changes the circular outline. The young scale is jet-black, evenly circular, and shows the central nijaple and two depressed rings very plainly. The San Jose scale differs from the European fruit-scale in general appearance only in the presence of the black nipple, and from the Forbes and the Putnam scales by the fact that it lacks the distinct brighter-colored exu- vium located near the center of those scales. The insect passes the winter, partly grown, beneath scale. In spring it soon attains maturity, and the males, which are winged, appear and mate with females. No eggs are laid, female giving birth to living young. The number of broods is stated to depend on length of season, as females produce young when they are from "thirty-five to forty days old" and continue to do so for about six weeks. Treatment — Use lime-sulphur-and-salt wash after leaves are oflf trees. If possible to treat trees just before buds swell in spring, do so, as treatment at that time will probably be the most effectual. Treat trees thoroughly, seeing that every branch and twig is well covered with solu- tion. The wash will not injure the trees. If for any reason the materials for this wash cannot readily be obtained, whale-oil soap can be used on all trees but peach at the rate of 2 pounds soap to 1 gallon water. For summer treatment for control of scale use 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion. European Fruit-scale {Aspidiotus ostreceformis) — Known as yet only in some of the Northern States. Occurs on all orchard trees. This scale passes the winter partly mature and by the last of June becomes full grown, the females soon afterward giving birth to living young. "• There appears to be but one brood a year, at least in the Northern States." (Banks.) It very closely resembles the San Jose scale, although the young scales are paler, and the adult female scale is not so nearly circular and lacks dark central nipple. Treatment — Same as for San Jose scale. . , Putnam's ^aikXe {As2ndiotus ancylus) — Widely distributed over the United States, and attacks all orchard trees and many shade trees ; rarely occurs, however, in abundance on fruit trees. Hibernates as a full-grown insect, the females laying eggs late in spring or early summer, and the young hatching in July ; one brood a year. Adult scales of this species also very closely resemble the San Jose scale, but have a visible, orange-colored exuvium and are less circular, while the young scales have no depressed ring about nipple. This scale is usually darker than the Forbes scale. Treatment — Same as for San Jose scale. CHERRY SCALE, GRAPE SCALE 189 Forbes or Cherry Scale {Aspi- diotus forhesi, Fig: 103) — Widely distrib- uted, attacking all orchard trees but rarely occurring in sufficient numbers to be con- sidered serious. Very similar to the scale last described and to the European fruit- scale, but when found on cherry appears to be more shining. It has a grayish rim and usually appears flatter than the other closely related species. Hibernates as a partly grown insect. Eggs laid in late April and through May, and "young hatch the last of May and in early June. Two broods, young again appearing in August and September. Treatment — Same as for San Jose scale. Grape Scale (Aspidiotus uvce) — Occurs not uncommonly throughout all grape-growing regions ; rarely becomes a serious pest. The scales are usually found on vines from ground up to end of the second year's growth, ^yhen abundant they cover surface so that it appears to have had a ragged coat of whitewash, and in such cases vines need immediate atten- tion. '•' Female scale is flat, nearly circular, about -^ inch long, pale yellowish brown or dingy white. When removed, a conspicuous white speck upon bark marks its former position." (Forbes.) Winters as an egg beneath old female scale, and the eggs begin hatching about middle of May ; one brood a year. Treatment — A spray of whale-oil soap (1 to 7) or of 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion applied at time young are hatching will kill them easilj'. Fig. 103. Forbes Scale: a, natural size on cherry twig; b, female scale; c, male scale. (Forbes.) THE LESSER FRUIT SCALES Oyster-shell Scale {Mytilaspis pomortmi, Fig. 104) — All fruit states, infesting many fruit and shade trees, and several shrubs. The common name quite appropriately describes the shape of the female scale, which is about \ inch long. Scale is brownish or grayish white and two or three times as long as wide. In the 190 IMPOETAXT SCALE INSECTS winter the white or yellowish eggs may be found beneath old scale of female. These hatch in late spring and soon attach themselves to young twigs and smaller branches. The male scale is much smaller and more parallel-sided, as may be seen from Fig. 104. Treatment— Spray young scales with kerosene emulsion in early summer. Thorough treatment of affected trees with whale-oil soap, or with the lime-sulphur-and-salt wash before buds open in spring will perhaps be effective May be kept in check if closely watched and not permitted to get a foot- hold. Scurfy Scale {Chionas- pis furfurus, Fig. 105) — All fruit states, especially infest- ing apple, crab-apple, pear, and quince ; occurs, however, on many other trees and some- times on shrubs. This is the most common of orchard scales and may be readily known by its whitish color — in winter turning to dirty white. The female is ovate in shape, while the male is fully twice as long as broad, with parallel sides, and is also nearer snow-white in color. Insect hibernates in e,gg stage under female scale ; eggs when crushed yield a reddish fluid. One brood a year in North, but more have been reported from South. Winged males appear in September, and soon thereafter eggs are laid and female dies ; young begin to appear by the middle of May or soon after. Treatment — Spray in the spring, immediately after eggs begin to hatch, as for oyster-shell scale. This scale rarely needs controlling unless it be present in large numbers on young ti'ees. Peach Scale {Diaspis pentagona) — Occurs throughout South and as far north as Pennsylvania, advancing northward each year. Attacks peach, plum. Fig. 104. Oyster-shell Scale: a, female scale, under side, showing the insect and its eggs within; 6, same, from above; c, same, natural size; d, e, male scale, enlarged and exact size. (Howard, United States Department of Agriculture.) PEACH LECANIUM, RASPBERRY SCALE 191 Fig. 105. Scurfy Scale: a, b, female and male scales, natural size ; c, d, same, enlarged. (Howard, United States Department of Agri- culture.) cherry, and some other plants. This lias^ sometimes been called the •"whitewash" scale, from the peculiar appearance it gives to trees badly infested. The female scale is grayish white, quite flat and irregularly cir- cular; male scale, elongate, three times as long as broad, and snow white. Eggs are laid in May, last of June, and in August. Females hatch from last brood of eggs and hibernate partly or fully developed, but males pass win- ter in egg stage. Treatment — Spray as for other scales that hibernate as eggs. A winter ti'eatment is also ad- visable. Peach Lecaniuin {Lecanmm nigro- fasciatum, Fig. 106) — New York and Penn- sylvania, southward to Virginia, and west to Arkansas and New Mexico. Attacks peach, plum, and, more rarely, apple. " This insect, formerly known as L. persicm, is one of the largest of the scale insects, being about \ inch long and two thirds as wide. It is elliptical in outline and strongly convex." (Banks.) Its color is dull greenish brown, sometimes marked with distinct darker bands. Female hibernates as an adult and lays eggs about last of May, young hatching from early June to mid- July. Young larvse are very fat, pale yellow, with a marginal rim. They become stationary in a short time, and the winged m&les appear by the latter part of July. Treatment — Treat in July with kerosene emulsion, or in winter with some one of the stronger solutions Very easily kept in check. Rose or Raspberry Scale {Aulacaspis rosce) — Quite widely distributed, at- tacking not only rose and raspberry but blackberry and other plants belonging to til is familv Tti '^(^w Tpvcov ^^^- ^^- Peach Lecanium : adults at right, young at left. LUlb lamiiy. in i\ ew J ei sey Howard, United States Department of Agriculture.) (After 192 SMALL-FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES it hibernates in the egg, but farther south some of the eggs hatch in fall, and in Florida it usually passes the winter beneath its scale as a partly developed insect. The scale is stiowy white, circular in outline, and has a dark center. On account of its whiteness it may be readily seen on twigs and branches of infested plants. Treatment — The cleaning up of canes, dead wood, and rubbish in the fall will usually serve to control this insect ; kerosene emulsion spray may be used effectively at time of egg hatching. Insect rarely becomes a serious pest. VI. SMALL FRUITS AND VINES THE GRAPE (a) Important Injukious Insects Grape-vine Flea-beetle {Haltica chalybea)— Occurs wherever grapes are grown east of the Rocky Mountains. On the Pacific Coast a nearly related species does the same damage to buds and leaves. Beetles, Avliich are small and steely blue or greenish blue in color, appear in May and June on buds and leaves. The grub of this beetle is slender ; varies from yellow to yellowish brown in color, and has a black head ; grows to be about f inch long ; and feeds on buds and leaves with adult beetles. Treatment — Spray vines with Paris green (1 pound to 50 gallons water) before buds open in spring, and later, when leaves are out, with regular Paris green mixture (1 pound to 150 gallons water). Add lime to first spray — 1 or 2 pounds to each 50 gallons of mixture. Grape Root-worm {Fidia viticida) — Distributed quite generally over the United States. The life history of this beetle has been worked out by Prof. F. M. Webster in Ohio. Eggs are laid on slightly loosened parts of bark early in year ; and young, upon hatching, drop to ground, afterward finding their way to small fibrous upper roots through cracks in ground. Adult beetles feed on foliage early in year, doing considerable damage by eating irregular holes in upper surface of leaves. Larvae at first feed on fibrous roots, but as they grow larger pass to large roots and gnaw off bark, Avorking their way downward. In early autumn they form a little case near the root upon which they were feeding, and remain in this until the following spring, when they pupate, emerging in June. Treatment — Remedial measures have not been imiformly successful. Spray foliage with strong arsenical mixtures, using lime to prevent burning. This will destroy many adults. Keep ground well cultivated, so as to have a deep powdery soil over roots. This will help keep larvae from reaching food. THE GRAPE 193 Grape Cane-borer or Apple Twig-borer {AmjMcerus hicaudafus) — Occurs principally in Mississippi Valley states and Texas ; closely related species works in the same manner in Pacific Coast states. Eggs laid on stems (usually dead or dying) of grape or other plants early in spring by beetles that hibernated in burrows cut in twigs of apple and other fruit trees. Larva lives in these dead stems until autumn, when it pupates, and a cylin- drical brown adult beetle soon appears. Adult leaves gi-ape stems and goes to some fruit tree, wliere it bores a channel several inches in length in a small twig, in which it passes the winter. Treatment — Carefully prune diseased wood and burn it; clean up all neglected brier patches, as these are also breeding places for the insect. Grape Leaf-hopper {TypliJocyha vifis, T. comes, and others, Fig. 107) — Often erroneously called ''Grape Thrips.*' Several species of leaf- hoppers infest grape-vine. Leaves are injured by their sucking the juices, and first show light spots, which later turn brown, the leaf appearing "burned." If plant is now disturbed, myriads of tiny insects, rosy red, green, and yellow will arise and then settle back on the leaves. The young insects are usually paler in color, and very active. Treatment — Go through vineyard with a screen, or even a palm-leaf fan, upon which has been smeared coal-tar, and as you go, disturb the vines and keep the fan or screen con- stantly moving. Many insects will be caught in this way. Spray the vines with kerosene emulsion, 10 per cent, strength. at the same time jarring the vines to disturb the "hoppers," and filling air with spray. Grape-vine Phylloxera {Phylloxera vasfa- trtx) — Eastern States and parts of California; lare elsewhere in United States. This is one of the root- infesting plant-lice that form galls on roots of plant and sometimes also on under sides of leaves. Insects winter mostly as immature wingless forms on roots. In spring they rapidly increase in size and soon begin to lay eggs. Young from these eggs are wingless, and as soon as grown lay eggs, several generations of this character occurring and rapidly spreading over roots. In midsummer a form appears that crawls up to the surface, acquires wings, and Fig. lOr. drape-vine Leaf-hoppers : above, young of different ages; at I ight, adult of Typhlocyba vulne- •ata; at left, T. conies. (Lugger.) 194 SMALL-FRUIT INSECTS AXD DISEASES migrates to other vines, laying eggs on under side of leaves. The female of this generation lays a single egg, from which hatches a form like that which had wintered over. Treatment — American vines can usually resist the attack, but should any treatment be necessary apply carbon bisulphide. Inject this substance — i ounce to each injection — in four or five places on each square yard of surface over the whole vineyard. Put the fluid 8 to 12 inches deep and not less than a foot from base of vines, closing the holes tightly with the foot ; repeat operation every year until insects are destroyed. Grape-berry Moth (Eudemia botrana) — All grape states. Larvas of first brood feed on leaves and blossoms ; the next brood attacks fruit, burrowing in pulp and producing appearance like black rot. Treatment — Arsenical spraying for first brood. For second brood, bag the fruit; leave none on vines to decay ; keep vineyard clear of trash. Grape Leaf-folder {Desmia i)uiculali.s) — East of the Rocky Mountains. Leaves are folded double and tightly fastened by a small greenish larva which skeletonizes them from the upper side. Moth black, spotted with white; about an inch across wings. Treatment — Clean culture ; hand-picking of affected leaves ; burning rubbish. Eig:lit-spotted Forester {Alypia odomaculata) — East of Rocky Moun- tains. Especially common on Virginia creeper and often on grape leaves. Cater- pillars are light brown, with black dots ; occur on leaves in spiiug, and are some- times veiy abundant. Moth, which appears in midsummer, has fore-wings black, with two yellow blotches ; hind-wings varying, but with two white spots. Treatment — Arsenical sprays when first noticed, and hand-picking. Rose-chafer {Macrodadylus subspinosus) — States east of Colorado and north of Virginia and Tennessee. Attacks many plants. Blossoms are destroyed and leaves eaten by this awkward, long-legged, light-brown beetle (^ inch long) early in the spring. Treatment — Vines maybe covered with netting and clusters bagged; hand-pick from grapes and other plants. Spraying rarely seems to be of value. Insect often infests Spiraea, hence this may be used as a trap crop. Grape-vine SaAV-fly {Ble7inoca7npa pygmcea) — All grape states. Slugs are yellow, with black dots, and feed in the same way as the currant saw-fly, the same treatment sufficing when they become abundant. (b) Impoetant Diseases of the GFrape The following has been recommended as good practice in controlling grape diseases : GRAPE AND CURRANT 195 Spray with Bordeaux mixture (a) just as innk tips of first leaves appear, (b) ten days or two weeks later, before blossoms oj)en, (c) just after blossoming, (d) again in from ten to fourteen days. If another treatment seems to be necessary, use ammoniacal copper-carbonate solution after the fruit is well formed. Downy Mildew (Phmnopora viticola) — All grape regions. This disease attacks all -parts of the vine, on fruit causing what is known as brown rot, the berries shriveling and drying. Treatment — For the mildews and rots that infest the grape, Bordeaux mixture is always successful if applied at the right times. Powdery Mildew ( Uncinula spiralis) — Attacks both foliage and fruit, especially in midsummer, portions attacked being covered with the web-like threads of the fungus. Black Rot {Lcestadia Bidwellii) — One of the most common, wide-spread, and destructive of grape diseases. It chiefly attacks the fruit, causing dark spotting and rotting of the green berries, and may also work on leaves, petioles, and cluster Ijranches, producing elongated dead spots. Rotted fruits dry and hang over winter on the vines, thus carrying the fungus over to the next season. Treatment — Spraying treatment above outlined will control this disease. Destroy all fruit affected by the rot. Chlorosis, Yellow Leaf — Disease shown by yellowing, browning, and dropping of leaves. Eventually kills vine. Supposed to be due to excess of lime in the soil. Small amounts of sulphate of iron have been recommended. Plant resistant stocks, such as Coiicord, Catawba, Delaware, Moore's Early, and Niagara. Some other varieties also may be resistant. Aiitliracnose, *^ Bird's-eye Rot" {Sphaceloma ampelinum) — DarK spots foi-m on surface of leaf, cracking tissue and causing well-defined sunken spots which usually have a lighter-colored center. Treatment — Disease is entirely amenable to Bordeaux sprays. Swab surfaces of canes, ea^ly in spring before buds open, with a warm saturated solution of sulphate of iron, to which has been added 1 per cent, of sulphuric acid. Handle with care to avoid acid burns. THE CURRANT (a) Important Injurious Insects Currant Saw-fly {Pristophora grossularice), Currant-worm (Nematus rihesii) — All fruit states. Small four-winged flies, with deep-yellow bodies. Lay eggs eai-ly in spring on under side of currant leaves along ribs. Larvae feed on leaf tissue and, when abundant, rapidly defoliate a bush. 196 SMALL-FRUIT INSECTS AND DISEASES Treatment — Underspray with hellebore (1 ounce to 2 gallons water) when worms are very young ; if not checked, use again at double this strength. For other currant worms, arsenical spraying in spring is required. Four-lined Leaf-bug {Pcecilocapsus lineatus) — Bright yellow bug, y\ inch long, with black antennae and two black stripes on each wing-cover; young, bright red. Eggs are laid near growing tips of currant and other closely related plants, hatching the following May. Bugs suck juices of plant, especially working on leaves. Treatment — Jar off in early morning into pans of kerosene and water , cut off tips contain- ing eggs , use 10 per cent, kerosene emulsion on young. Currant Stem-borers {Sesia Upullforinis, Saw-fly Borers) — Through- out the United States. The larva of the former species attacks lilac and currant, .boring in the old wood. The saw-fly borers work in yoiing shoots. Treatment — Cut out and burn infested stems, which may be recognized early in spring by wilting of leaves soon after coming out. (b) Diseases of the Cuerant Several leaf-spots and a mildew attack currant. They are amenable to treat- ment with Bordeaux mixture. Use same general treatment in spraying as for grape mildews. THE RASPBERRY, STRAWBERRY, AND CRANBERRY Important Insects and Diseases Cane Maggots {PhorUa sp.) and Cane-borers {Oherea sp.) — Can be controlled by cutting out diseased canes. Saw-fly {Monophadnus ruhi) — Larvge may be brushed from bushes or treated with hellebore spray (1 ounce to 1 gallon water). Raspberry Anthracnose ( Collet otrichium venetum) — All states. This fungous disease appears on bark, and occasionally on leaves and fruit of raspberry, blackberry, and other closely related plants. Small purple spots will first be seen on canes near ground. These spread, acquire a grayish white center, and later attain large size, having purple outer edges. Treatment — Carefully examine all nursery stock before planting. If disease is present, either destroy stock or dip in Bordeaux mixture. When present on planted stock, trim closely, burn all old canes and refuse, and treat young shoots with Bordeaux mixture. STRAWBERRY AND CRANBERRY 197 Strawl)erry Crown-borer {Tyloderma fraga- ricB, Fig. 108) — Occurs in nearly all strawberr}' regions. Eggs are laid in June or July. Larva burrows downward, eating substance of crown in which it remains until full grown. Beetle emerges in August, and hibernates through winter. It is about ^ inch long, brown, with several darker fig. los. strawberry crown- T 11 •,! T 111 borer: a, larva; 6, c, adult spots, and marked with lines and dots. beetle. (After Forbes.) Treatment — Dig up and burn infested vines ; transplant frequently. Strawberry-weevil {Anthonomus signatus) — All strawberry regions. A very troublesome pest that feeds in larval stage on flower buds. Beetle a small black insect with a hard snout or beak. Lays eggs in bud and then so punctures the flower stem that it dries and breaks off. A number of wild flowers are attacked in like manner. Treatment — Plant chiefly pistillate varieties, covering, until danger i.s over, the staminate varieties that are necessary. Strawberry Grubs — Larvte of May beetles, feeding on roots. Avoid use of sod land for berries until it has been several years in cultivation. Strawberry Leaf-spot {Sphcerella fragari(p) — Also called rust or leaf- blight. This fungus may be kept in check by the use of Bordeaux mixture when plants are first set out and 3 or 4 times thereafter. vSpray in spring before blossom- ing, and again about two weeks later; burn off beds in fall and destroy all old leaves. Cranberry Fire-worm ( Teras mmuta) — All cranberry regions, attacking cranberry, apple, huckleberry, and other plants. On cranberries this larva often does much damage by spinning up and eating tips of growing shoots. Larva is small, green, with black head. Another worm {Rliojmhota vacciana), closely resem- bling it but with a yellow head, also does considerable damage to cranberry plants. Treatment — Prof. J. B. Smith states that the only successful treatment is that of keeping the bogs covered with water until rather late — "until at least the middle of May." VII. SHADE TREES IMPORTANT INJURIOUS INSECTS White-marked Tnssock-inoth {Orgyia hucostigma, Fig. 109) — All of Eastern and Central United States. Caterpillar does great damage to shade trees in city parks and along streets, and also attacks fruit trees. Adult moth is a pale ashy-gray insect ; the female, quite stout and wingless, the males, with ash-gray 14 1U8 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES wings and feathered antennae. During July and August there may be seen on leaves, trunks, and branches of trees a silky-white cocoon, often partly hidden in crevices of the bark and later dis- colored by soot and dirt, and from this cocoon soon emerge the adult insects. Female rarely travels far, and usually lays eggs on old cocoon — 100 to 500 in a place, fastened together and enveloped in a white frothy substance, which soon hardens and becomes impervious to rains and snows. Young larvee hatch in April or May in warm springs, and immediately begin feeding on buds and By July they ai'e about full size, and then and in August make The larva is from f to 1-^ inches in length when full grown ; Fig. 109. Tussock-moth: larva above, adult female at left, adult male at right. (After Forbes.) young leaves. their cocoons general color yellowish, the body with three darker stripes, and the head brilliant red ; three long black plumes, two near the head and one at the anal end, and four large white tufts along the center of the back, standing out prominently from tlie remainder of the long, scattered, yellowish pubescence. Treatment — Destroy egg-masses in fall and winier, and use arsenical sprays early in spring. In the North there is probably but one brood ; two are reported in the South. Gipsy Moth {Porthetria dispar) — At present confined to New England, and principally to Massachusetts. Without doubt one of the most serious of the im- ported pests, feeding on all kinds of shade and fruit trees and on shrubbery. Eggs are laid in clusters of 400 to 500 on trees, fences, and in various other places, each cluster being covered with yellow hairs from the female's body. Larvae hatch early in spring and feed on foliage. When full grown they are about 3 inches long, have a mottled gray appearance, and are covered with long yellow and black hairs which arise from tubercles, blue at the anterior and red at the posterior end of the body. They pupate in July, and the moths emerge in August,' soon laying eggs for the next year's brood. Adult female has whitish Avings with dark spots along outer margins, but male is darker, and both have dark curved lines and spots on wings. Treatment — Destroy egg-masses and cocoons; spray with arsenites as soon as caterpillars hatch in the spring. FOREST TEXT-CATERPILLAE, BAGWORM 199 Brown-tailed Moth {Buproctis vhri/son-Jiea) — A most dangerous shade- aiid fruit-tree pest, at present confined to some parts of Massachusetts. Egg-masses may be found in midsummer, 200 to 300 in a cluster, attached to the under side of a leaf, and usually near end of branch. Cluster is covered with dense mass of brown hairs from female's body. Larvie hatch in August and feed near ends of branches in colonies, drawing leaves together mto a sort of tent in which they hibernate, beginning early in spring to feed on young leaves and buds. Full-grown larvae are dark brown, mottled and spotted with orange, and are clothed with reddish brown hairs ; two rows of dense white tufts stand prominently out of upper side of body. Pupate in June, moths soon emerging. Adults have white wings and female a brown tip at end of body. Treatment — Destroy tents in fall and winter by collecting or burning out, and collect and destroy egg-masses in summer. Forest Tent-caterpillar [CHsiocampa disstria) — Ranges from New York westward and southward to Texas and Xew Mexico, attacking both fruit and shade trees. Eggs are laid by brown moths in July and August, in belts encircling smaller twigs of many shade and fruit trees ; from these egg-masses in spring hatch larvae which, when full grown, are dark and hairy, with silver spots along back and a blue head. Larvae live in colonies, but contrary to their common name do not spin a tent] sometimes a slight web is made along a limb. When not feeding they collect in bunches on trunk or large limbs. Cocoons are formed in June and fastened to the bark or at the forks of small limbs. One brood a year. Treatment — Destroy egg-masses when on fruit trees or shi'ubbery ; kill caterpillars when they are massed on limbs or trunk, jarring them from trees, then collecting and destroying them. Spraying would be a costly process when they are working in large trees. Bag worm ( Thyridopte- ryx ephemerccformis, Fig. 110) — From New York westward to Mississippi River and south- FiG. no Bagworm: a, larva, removed from case; 6, chrysalis; c. adult female taken from case; rf, adult male; e, cross-section or bag and female within, latter full of eggs; /, bag and larva from evergreen; g, very young larvae in their cases. (After Forbes.) 200 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO SHADE TREES ward 'to the Gi\\i. Most common on evergreen shade-trees, such as cedar, pine, and arbor-vitse, but feeds also on many others, and on fruit trees of all kinds. Cases may be readily recognized on trees in winter. They are oval, soft, sack- like bodies, an inch or more in length, pointed at both ends, and attached by one end to a twig. Eggs hatch in May and June and the larva immediately com- mences a case, forming it from bits of leaf and stem. In early fall it pupates in this case. The males, which are dark moths with semi transparent wings, emerge and mate with the females. These have no wings and never leave cases until after laying eggs — and then only to fall out and die. Treatment — Destroy cases in winter by picking from trees. They may be piled in a con- venient spot away from trees until later in the spring, when all parasites have had a chance to emerge, and then be destroyed. Arsenical sprays early in the summer will aid in controlling the worms. Canker-worms, Fall {Anisopteryx pometaria) and Spring {Paleacrita vernata, Figs. 91, 92) — Canker-worms occur throughout the United States and attack many kinds of fruit and shade trees. (For descriptions see Ajjple Insects, page 172. ) Treatment — Band trees the first warm days late in winter or in very early spring. In case of threatened injury from fall species, banding must be done in fall before eggs are laid. A suc- cessful means of banding is as follows : Put a narrow band of rough cotton batting around the tree, cutting the bark smooth if it is very rough and uneven. Around this tie an 8-inch band of building or tarred paper, and on this spread a thin layer of ordinary cheap printer's ink, to which a little cai--oil has been added to render it more sticky. If the ink gets crusted over, another coat of the car-oil will be required. The last of May, or when danger is over, these bands may be easily cut from the trees, leaving them clean and free from any sticky substance. Avoid putting sticky preparations directly on the trees, as many of them are very injjarious. Where worms have already appeared on the leaves arsenical sprays may be used. Elm Leaf-beetle {Galerucella luteola, Fig. Ill) — Occurs commonly in New England and Middle Atlantic States and is gradually spreading westward. Appears to prefer English elms. Both beetles and larvffi feed on the elm leaves and have proved to be serious pests, especially in cities and towns. Beetle is yellowish, with black stripes, and about \ inch long ; appears early in spring, and begins laying eggs on leaves in May. Larvse finally attain nearly the color of mature beetle. When full grown they puss down tree and pupate in ground. Treatment — Arsenical sprays applied early on under side of leaves just after buds burst, and several times more if necessary. Kill larvae in latter part of June, when they are clustered on larger limbs and trunk preparatory to pupating. Cottonwood and Poplar Borers (species belonging to several genera) — These insects lay eggs on trunk of tr^e or near a wound, the larvae hatching ELM, WALNUT, AND MAPLE PESTS 201 ^^ Fig. 111. Elm Leaf-beetle: a, egg; 6, larva; c, adult; e, egg; g, larva; j, pupa; k, adult; e, j/, J, fc, enlarged; /, h, i, 1, details. (From Riley, United States Department of Agriculture.) therefrom burrowing into the trunk or limbs of tlie tree and often killing it. Larvae may be destroyed by running a wire into their burrows. Cecroi)ia {Affacus cecrojjia, Fig. 112) — Found attacking walnut and many other shade trees during latter part of summer. It is a large green worm with red and yellow tubercles on upper side of body. It pupates in a dense silken cocoon among branches, or at base of tree on ground. Larva? often defoliate shade trees in parks and along boulevards. Treatment — Hand-picking or arsenical spraying. Gather cocoons in fall and destroy. Elm Scale (Chionaspis americana) — Female scale fawn-color until late in the year, when it becomes a dirty white. Much resembles scurfy scale but is more convex. Male scale pure white, sides nearly parallel, narrow and three-ridged. Eggs purplish, and concealed beneath old female scale. Insect hibernates in the egg stage, hatching about May 1st. Treatment — Kerosene emulsion applied early in spring, just as eggs are beginning to hatch. Cottony Maple-scale {Pulvinaria inmimerahilis) — Quite common on maple and other shade trees through- out the United States. Usually noticed as a white cottony mass on under side of small limbs and twigs ; later in year young scales may be found on under side of leaves arranged along ribs, but without any cottony covering. They pass to limbs and fig. 112. cecropia larva. 202 BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES twigs, and eggs are laid under the cottony covering, hatching in spring and early summer. Treatment — Trees may be freed from the large scales by fastening a sponge or cloth on the end of a pole, saturating it in lierosene, and swabbing the scale from the under side of the limbs. Oyster-shell Scale {Mytilaspis pomorum) — See Apple Insects. Walnut Scale {Aspidiotus juglans-regim) — Well distributed over the United States. While this may be found at times on almost any of the fruit trees, it chiefly infests walnut, locust, and other shade trees. It is the largest of the "ring and nipple" scales, is irregularly circular in outline, and pale gray or dirty white in color. Treatment— Same as for San Jose scale, if it becomes abundant. O • O . V . ^^^'-^^U^ PUBLICATIONS ON INJURIOUS INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES Apple Rots of Illinois. By George P Clinton. Bulletin 69. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station, Urbana, 111 A thorough treatment of the apple rots, which, though written for Illinois, is generally applicable. Asparagus Culture. Farmers' Bulletin 61. United States Department of Agriculture . This general treatise includes short accounts of the insects affecting the asparagus plant, and suggests means of destruction. Black Rot of Cabbage. Farmers' Bulletin 68. United States Department of Agri- culture Boll Worm of Cotton. Bulletin 29, Division of Entomology. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture 10.05 Butterflies and Moths Injurious to Fruit-Producing Plants. By Otto Lugger. Bulletin 65. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, &i. AMi\iony Park, Minn. . Short accounts of these insects, with many text illustrations. Butterfly Book, The. By W. J. Holland. Doubleday, McChire & Co., N. Y. . . 3.00 Gives short accounts of all the important butterflies found in the United States, describes them, and gives food plants of larvte where known. Is illustrated with 48 color-plates and many text figures. Carbon Bisulphide as an Insecticide. Farmers' Bulletin 145. United States Depart- ment (f Agriculture Chinch Bug, The. Bulletin 15, New Series, Division of Entomology. United Stales Department of Agriculture -10 BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES 208 CoLEOPTERA, OR Beetles. By Otto Lugger. Bulletin 66. Minnesota Agricultural Experi- ment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn Condensed Handbook of the Diseases op Cultivated Plants in Ohio. By A. D. Selby. Bulletin 121. Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio . Gives a concise aiCDunt of all the principal plant diseases, a general account of the manner of attack, a table of ins 'cticides with directions for preparation, and a spray calendar. Calen- dar by Greene, Selby, and Webster. Destructive Locusts. Bulletin 25, Division of Entomology. United States Department cf Agriculture $0.15 Diseases op Field and Garden Crops. By W. G. Smith. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. 1.50 Economic Entomology. By J. B. Smith. /. B. Lippincott <& Co., Philadelphia . . . 2.50 Designed as a handbook for the farmer and fruit grower, and a text-book for the student. Contains chapters on general structure of insects, farm practice with reference to keeping their ravages in check, insecticides, machinery, preventives, and descriptions of injurious insects. Illustrated with more than 400 figures. Economic Entomology op the Sugar Beet. By S. A. Forbes and C. A. Hart. Bul- letin 60. Illinois Agricultural Erperiment Statioii, Urhana, III Very full and accurate account of all the insects attacking the sugar beet in this country. Illustrated with many figures. Entomology for Beginners. By A. S. Packard. /. B. Lippincott d- Co., Philadelphia. 1.75 Written as a text-book, yet contains much that is of general value. E.xperiments with Insecticides for the San Jose Scale. By S. A. Forbes. Bul- letin 71. Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station Fall Army Worm and Variegated Cutworm. Bullelin 29, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture Fully treats these two well-known enemies, and gives list of food-plants and means of control. Fumigation Methods. By Willis G. Johnson. Orange Judd Co., 'N. Y 1.00 A practical treatise dealing thoroughly with the subject in its various aspects. Of especial value to nurserymen, millers, and greenhouse owners. Contains also a general review of United States laws relating to nursery and orchard inspection, and an abstract of foreign regulations. Gipsy Moth in America. Bulletin 11, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture .05 A full account of the introduction of this pest, the nature of its ravages, and the means of control. Grain Smuts, The. Farmers' Bulletin 75. United States Department of Agriculture . Hemiptera, or Bugs. By Otto Lugger. Bulletin 69. Minnesota Agricultural Experi- ment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn Hessian Fly, The. Bulletin 16, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture .10 Exhaustive treatment, including full bibliography. Household Insects. Bulletin 4, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Departtnent of Agriculture 204 BOOKS ON INSECTS AND PLANT DISEASES Insect Book, The. By L. O. Howard. Douhleday, Page reference is an important factor in the selection both of a class and of a breed of stock. 4. Choose deliberately — It is economy to take plentyoftime to decide 228 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS the class, type, and breed of animals best suited to your conditions, so that, once a choice is made, a, 2jermanent policy may be pursued. 5. Select for viiiiforiiiity — In the breeding of market stock, a uniform load of -steers, hogs, or sheep Avill command their full value in the market, whereas a mixed consignment might be sold at a discount. Careful attention to the question of uniformity in the selection of the breed of animals to comprise a breed- ing herd of pure-bred stock is of still greater importance than in the breeding of market animals. The history of successful stock breeders of the past leads us to conclude that many a breeder's reputation has been won by persistent adherence to a definite type. In other words, the individuality of herds and flocks has made many a breeder famous. G. Select animals with pronounced constitutional vigor and from strains of blood known to possess longevity and sustained fertility. 7. Select for quality rather than for size. Unusually large animals belonging to a particular breed or class of animals are spoken of as possessing "plenty of scale," or "great scale." Quality refers both to the feeding quality of an animal (as indicated by conformation and good handling quality) and to general quality, or a refinement of form and feature — characteristic evidences of good breeding. 8. If breeding: animals for the oi^en market, select animals with reference to their being adapted for feed lot, stable, or harness rather than for so-called " fancy points " of breed type. 9. If breeding" registered or pure-bred stock, due importance should be attached to these so-called characteristic points of breed type. The suc- cessful breeder of pure-bred stock realizes that it is not to his advantage to breed animals for whit-h theie is no sale, whether it be on account of their color, pedigree,, or general conformation. 10. Adaptation — Select animals with temperaments adapted to the purpose for which they are intended. 11. Finally, having satisfied yourself as to the individual excellence of the " animal, the ancestry or breeding should be taken into account, since this factor materially affects the prepotency of the animal, an important subject which will be considered elsewhere.^ All animals need proving; the best breeding animals are those that produce the best individuals, and not necessarily the ones that show best individually. 1 See page 229. LAWS OF ANIMAL REPIIODUCTIOX 229 HEREDITY, PREPOTENCY, AND REVERSION Of all the laws affecting the breeding of live stock, the one most important to the majority of stock farmers is the law of heredity, or that "like produces like." It is deubtless the oldest recognized law of animal reproduction. Xo other law has been so much discussed, and it would seem that nothing could be added to give greater force to this important law. Notwithstanding these facts, no author dis- cussing the principles of animal breeding can do other than consider this subject at length, not alone because its importance demands it, but because of the wide- spread iadiffe^'ence to its workings. Heredity — So far as Ave can judge from our present knowledge of the work- ings of the law of heredity it appears that there is a tendency for each indiA'idual characteristic in the parent to be transmitted to and reappear in the offspring. When offspring apj^ear which bear only a remote resemblance to their ancestors, skeptics are inclined to lose their faith in the unvarying law of heredity. A few of the best authorities on animal reproduction are beginning to look for the inheritance of individual character from generation to generation rather than the inheritance of characteristics in groups — characteristics which go to make up the individuality of the animal itself. This leads to the thought that in the past our ideas of hereditary transmission have been somewhat at fault, since we have been demanding that the characteristics of animals should reappear in the offspring in bulk rather than as individual characters. A study of the workings of the law of heredity should, therefore, involve chiefly a study of the inheritance of individual characteristics from generation to generation. Experienced stock breeders expect that certain characteristics — for example, such as are normal or natural to the race or breed — will be transmitted with greater certainty than others. Bi'eediiig' with Definite Aim — It is evident that where two animals possessing similar characteristics are mated, the characteristics of the family or breed to which the parents belong will be transmitted much more certainly than where animals are mated possessing notice- ably different characteristics. If, therefore, we are especially anxious to improve a certain point in animal form, it is obvious that we should mate animals which possess that particular character- istic to a high degree. In theory this is what is done by all breeders of pure-bred stock. Owing to carelessness in the selection of breeding animals and their mating, few breeders succeed in mak- ing permanent improvement in their herds. In fact, they are frequently obliged to purchase high- class bulls at long prices to maintain the excellence of their foundation stock. Prei>oteiicy — When an animal has the ability to transmit its characteristics to its offspring with great certainty it is said to be preiiotent. Among the condi- 16 230 BEEEDING OF FARM ANIMALS tions that are believed to affect the relative prepotency of an animal are : First, the breeding of the animal ; second, its age or maturity ; and third, the prepotency of the animal with which it is mated. The Breeding of Immature Stock, which is all too common, can not be too vigorously discoui-aged. The great popularity of the mutton breeds of sheep and their relatively high price, a few years ago, led to the extensive use of ram lambs. The author has reason to believe that such practice, except in rare instances, has proved unwise. It is best, from a monetary standpoint, not to permit ewes to drop their lambs before the ewes are two years old, or beef cattle their calves befoi-e the heifers are from two' and a half to three years of age. The animal should be practically mature before called upon to reproduce itself. If any other system of breediug is followed the chances are that either the parents or offspring become dwarfed or unprofitable animals. The best results in breeding are to be expected when the animals reach full maturity and are in the prime of life, being neither too young nor too old. Relative Prepotency of Parents — Since the sire often appears to be more prepotent than the dam, many have come to look upon the sire as having a greater influence upon the offspring than the dam. The sire has undoubtedly been selected with more care, both as to his individuality and, more especially, as to his breediug, than the dam. Grantiug that the inherent prepotency of the sire and dam are the same, or that the simple question of sex is involved, each parent will have an equal influence in adding the characteristics of the offspring, since, so far as our present knowledge goes, sex as such has little or no bearing upon the prepotency of an animal. The fact that the sire is usually better bred and a better individual fully accounts for the impression that prevails. Breeding: and Prepotency — It is true that prepotency is influenced to a greater extent by the breeding of an animal than by any other factor. When an animal of low breeding and inferior merit is mated with a Avell-bred animal of high individiial excellence, the offspring will resemble the well-bred parent much more than the one of low breeding. This question can not be too carefully considered by stock farmers who are breeding market animals. After good foundation breed- ing stock has been selected, the question of success hinges upon the ability of such animals to reproduce their kind. The fact of the relatively high prepotency of well-bred animals has long since become well established. No other fact or law connected with animal reproduction is more important, for it places within the reach of every stock farmer the possibility of producing animals of high individual mFLUENCE OF THE 8IKE 231 merit which will meet every demand of the open mai'ket at a price that will render tiieir production highly profitable. It makes it possible for the stock farmer to select females of only ordinary merit and of indifferent breeding at a low price and mate them witli well-bred sires possessing to a high degree characteristics demanded by the market. Comparative Influence of Sire and Dam — The relative importance of the sire anfl dam in stock breeding is not fully appreciated by American farmers. It should be borne in mind that the sire becomes the parent of numerous offspring, while it is possible for the dam, at best, to produce only a few individuals annually. As an illustration of how completely this idea is lost sight of by some inexperienced men, we relate the following incident : Not long since a young man in the Central West decided to become a breeder of Shorthorn cattle. He purchased ten cows at prices ranging from f 250 to $500. After the cows and heifers were delivered at his farm, the purchase of a bull appeared to him to be the next necessary step. Instead of taking plenty of time and asking the advice of experienced breeders, this young man foimd a bull which could be bought for $125 — a bull without individual merit and of indifferent breeding. This animal was purchased and placed at the head of the herd. Such a course, every experienced breeder will understand, can have but one outcome, namely, a failure to maintain the excellence of the foundation females, much less to improve them. At the present time females among pure breeds in the United States are selling at a much higher price, relatively, than our bulls. If a breeder can afford to pay $1,000 for a cow, he can afford to pay at least $5,000 for a bull. And yet, while we find many men who are anxious to pay $1,000 for a cow, how few would care to buy bulls at the figure stated. To be sure, the figures (juoted are exceptional and not within the reach of the average breeder. However, the principle holds true, whether the quality of the stock commands $5,000, $1,000, or $100. Much of what is good in our breeding of live stock has been copied from the best breeders of live stock in Great Britain. A study of the conditions in Great Britain will at once convince the most careless observer that good sires are appreciated to a much greater extent there than in the United States. The writer can not recall a single breeder of improved live stock, whose reputation and the excellence of whose stock is well known, who has not achieved this success largely through the intelligent or fortunate selection of one or more great sires. Breeding of Mules — Successful rearing of mules consists, principally, in the judicious selection of the mare. The dominant features of the ass require modification. The ass is too- large of head, too short of neck, too flat in sides, too low in shoulders, too narrow in croup, too thin in arms and thighs, and too narrow in hoof. These defects must be altered by the mare. On the other hand, the ass is preferable to the horse as a beast of burden, more patient in work, hardier, thicker-skinned, surer-footed, and especially adapted to warm climates. The natural defects of the ass indicate what should be avoided in selecting a sire-ass for breed- ing. He should have relatively, a small head, thin neck, round body, higH shoulders, broad croup, well-formed legs, and fiat hoofs. The mare, on the other hand, should have a small head, short, round body, broad chest, muscular thighs, and wide, roimd lioofs. She should be fourteen or fifteen hands high, to insure a foal that will at maturity reach thirteen or fourteen hands. 232 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS The foal, therefore, it is to be borne in mind, takes form and peculiarities from the sire ; size, from the mare. It rarely inherits physical unsoundness from the mare, which may therefore be used where she would be excluded as a breeder of horses. The mule is rarely serviceable before it is four years old, but often works until thirty years of age. Reversion — It is sometimes discovered that characteristics appearing in the offspring, apparently entirely different from those present in either parent, are characteristics which were present in some ancestor more or less remote. When an animal resembles quite closely a distant ancestor it is a case of reversion. Other terms sometimes used to mean the same thing are " throwing back" and " breeding back." If the various ancestors of an individual animal have possessed to a marked degree desirable characteristics, and have not possessed undesirable characteristics to a marked degree, instances of reversion or atavism, in such cases, are not to be dreaded. On the other hand, if in the pedigree of an animal there appear a number of animals v/iiich possessed undesirable characteristics to a marked degree, it is not knoAvn at what time these undesirable characteristics will reajDpear in our breeding operations. It will be seen from this that a good pedigree, or good breeding, means that an animal shall be descended from a long line of ancestors of pronounced merit and that there shall be but few inferior animals in the pedigree. Xaturally, the longer the line of good ancestors, the more prepotent they will be, and their prepotency will extend along desired lines. It should be borne in mind that the laws governing hereditai-y transmission, atavism, and prepotency are equally opera- tive upon internal as well as external characteristics of the animal, and with refer- ence to undesirable characteristics as well as to those which are desirable. PedigTce in Grade Animals — Stock farmers quite generally are more or less indiffer- ent as to the principles of animal breeding, believing such principles to concern only breeders of pure-bred animals. For example, the question of pedigree in grade animals is universally disre- garded, although, as a matter of fact, every animal has a pedigree, whether it be native, grade, cross-bred, or pure-bred. The same things that make a good pedigree in pure-bred animals m°ke 'a good pedigree in grade or cross-bred animals. The matter of selection of breeding stock is of greater importance in the breeding of pure-bred animals than in the breeding of grades, not only because a larger amount of capital is invested in each individual animal, but because pure-bred animals bred in line for generations are more prepotent than grade animals, and when we remember that prepotency is just as effective in the transmission of undesirable as desirable characteristics, and since we know that pure-bred animals are more prepotent than grades, we must be especially careful in the selection of pure-bred animals to get high individual merit. Breeders of registered animals too often attach too much importance to pedigree and too little to individual excellence, while breeders of animals for the market frequently attach too little importance to pedigree and too much to individual excellence. LAWS OF ANIMAL REPRODUCTION 233 Reg'istry no Absolute Criterion — It is well to remember that not all pure-bred animals are well bred, or iu other words, not all pure-bred animals have good ancestors. Breeders' registry associations in the United States have thus far made but little progress in an attempt to make high individual merit a factor in the eligibility for registry ; about all that-is expected is that satisfactory evidence shall be furnished that the animal is descended from registered stock. Many stock farmers have made a mistake in believing that because an animal is registered, it is one of high individual excellence, and that a certificate of registry is a guarantee of the future usefulness of an animal. In most breeders' associations, a certificate of registry simply guarantees to the purchaser that the animal is descended from registered stock. In buying pure-bred animals, the reader should satisfy himself on two points : First, the presence in the pedigree, close up to the animal involved, of a large number of animals of high individual merit ; and, second, the absence of any considerable number of inferior animals, especially during the last few generations. CORRELATION AND FECUNDITY It has been observed that certain groups of characteristics in animals vary simultaneously, or in other words, that any circumstance or condition which affects one character is more than likely to change some other characteristic of the animal. For example, an unusual development in the fat-forming tendencies in animals appears to be detrimental to prolificacy and often to fecundity, as well as to any natural tendency for the production of a large amount of milk. Another example along the same line is that the horns of a wether never develop as do those of a ram. Many other examples might be cited, but as all would simply illustrate the same principle, those given will be sufficient. The important thing for the breeder to consider in this connection is that a successful attempt to improve to any considerable extent a characteristic which from his standpoint is particularly desirable, may be followed by alterations desirable or otherwise in some other character of the animal, and that the unduly high development of one part or characteristic of an animal is usually at the expense of some other part. Conditions Affecting Fecnndity — An animal is said to hQ fecund when it is fertile or has the ability to reproduce itself. An animal is said to be prolific when it is not only fecund, but also has a tendency to produce, at regular intervals, young in abundance. In general, the domestication of animals appears to have been favorable both to fecundity and to prolificacy. This is doubtless due to the fact that domesticated animals may be more regularly and intelligently nourished. Confinement of wild animals, on the other hand, has been sh6wn to be unfavorable to fecundity. The amount and kind of food also affects fecundity. In general, a laxative diet of succulent foods is favorable to fecundity, while dry foods and those which are designated as heating foods 284 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS are unfavorable. Food-stuffs containing a large percentage of sugar are, in good practice, withheld from breeding animals, because it has been shown that such a diet is not well adapted to the secur- ing of good results from breeding animals. Animals in the prime of life are more fecund than the immature, or than animals of advanced age. Young sows farrowing their first litter, for example, seldom produce as large litters as do fully matured sows, and the same has been observed in the breeding of immature ewes. GRADING, CROSS-BREEDING, IN-AND-IN-BREEDING, AND LINE-BREEDING A system of breeding which involves the use of females of a common grade of more or less indifferent breeding, and the use upon these and their female progeny of pure-bred sires of merit for a series of years, is spoken of as grading-up or ivp- grading, the thought being that with each successive generation improvement upon the original stock is effected. Such a system of breeding is the"Tnost rational and valuable one within reach of the conditions which surround the average farmer. By starting even with females which have little to commend them, and mating them with pui'c-bred sires possessing to a marked degree the characteristics desired, rapid improvement is effected. It is of course unnecessary to start with distinctly inferior common stock. It is often economy to juy the best grade stock obtainable and buy pure-bred sires of correspondingly high merit. The first introduction of the blood of the pure-bred sire upon the common stock of the country is fol- lowed by the greatest improvement ; successive crosses show less rapid improvement until the fifth or sixth generation, when the grade females resulting from a system of grade breeding are practi- cally as good for the production of market animals as pure-bred females would be, provided pure- bred sii-es of high individual merit are always selected. The economy of such a system of breeding for the production of market animals will at once appeal to stock raisers, since it places within their reach the possibility of producing animals that will in every way meet the demands of the open market, without the necessity of purchasing high- bred females which, at best, during their whole period of usefulness, can influence only compara- tively few offspring. 'Cross-breeding' — The correct use of the term croHS-breeding is in applying it to a system of breeding involving the use of pure-bred parents of different breeds. It is not difficult to see that if such a system of breeding were persistently and uni- versally followed it would not be long before our improved breeds would lose their identity and individuality. There can be but little question that such a system of breeding has been followed by good results in certain instances, especially in the production of market animals. While such a system of breeding has been em^iloyed in one or two instances in the origination of breeds of live stock, an attempt to use IN-AND-IN-BREEDING 285 it for this purpose has usually been followed by failure; especially has this been found true where breeds of widely different characters have been crossed. The valuable Oxford breed of sheep is uudoubtedly the result of crossing the Old Hampshire and Cotswold breeds. It is not, however, for the production of new breeds that this system of breeding should be employed. For the production of animals for the block this system has been followed by good results where intelligently employed. By "intelligently employed" is meant the mating, for the production of meat-producing animals, of pure-bred individuals, of breeds bred for, and possessing, leading characteristics of a similar nature. This holds true only in some instances, as certain breeds do not appear to "nick" well, even though bred with the same object in view. " In the use of this system it is necessary to hazard the possibility of a failure by experimenting with new crosses or cross-breds, or use only such crosses as experience has long since proved will be followed by good results. The crossing of the Berkshire and Poland China breeds of hogs for the production of pork has proved a good one. The cross-bred animal resulting from the mating of the Siiorthorn and Gallo- way breeds for the production of prime steers has also been found successful. Scotch and English farmers often cross the Cheviot and the Leicester with good results. Other examples might be given, but in the judgment of the author, such a system of breeding will seldom be followed by any considerable number of stock raisers, and largely because of the practical reason that no matter how successful it may be it is open to the same objection as a system of breeding market animals from pure-bred dams and pure-bred sires of the same breed, viz., the expense of pure- bred females is in general prohibitive if the progeny can be sold only in the open market for prices which are little, if any, better than those which it is possible to secure for high grades produced by the intelligent and systematic use of pure-bred sires on common stock that has been graded up. Iii-aiicl-iii-breeding' — Inbreeding may be defined as a system of breeding together parent and offspring, or own brother's and sister's blood. No arbitrary rule has been agreed upon whereby we are^ble to define the term close-hreeding ; it may be looked upon, in general, as the mating of animals as closely related as second or possibly thiixl cousins. No other system of breeding has been so generally resorted to by breeders who have achieved marked success in the improvement of breeds. In the early history of all breeds, when it was highly desirable to establish a uniform type, and when there were but few animals of merit from among which to select breeding animals, it was found that a system of somewhat close breeding was not only the quickest and most satis- factory, but it was practically the only available system of breeding that would bring about satisfactory results. It was followed as a means to an end ; it was used, not because the great breeders believed in a system of inbreeding, but because it was apparently necessary. A system of inbreeding, as practiced by the originators and early improvers of breeds, was a far different proposition from what it is at the present time. Breeds were founded by animals only distantly related, if at all. Now, a majority of our improved breeds contain scores of individuals closely related. 236 BREEDING OF FARM ANIMALS Inbreeding has been so generally practiced that its further use should be left to the master spirits of the breeder's art, and should not be pursued by novices in the business of breeding fine stock. Even those famous breeders vrho made extensive use of a system of inbreeding to improve their flocks and herds agreed that inbreeding, long persisted in, was bound to be followed by loss of size, vigor, and fecundity. In the hands of our best breeders, where only occasionally resorted to, it may prove a valuable system of breeding, to refine evidences of coarseness, to improve early maturing qualities, to establish uniformity, and to increase prepotency. Line-breeding — Line-breeding is the "breeding together of animals pos- sessing a family rehitionship, but not close enough to be looked upon as close inbreeding. This system is the one usually advocated by adherents of the inbreed- ing system. It is the one which has been found more safe and satisfactory than the mating of more closely related animals. Its advantages, although somewhat longer in manifesting themselves, are the same as those which have in former years resulted from a system of inbreeding. If too long persisted in, the evil effects of the system will be the same as those noted in connection with a system of inbreeding followed by unskilled breeders. VARIATION All animals are more or less influenced by their environment or surroundings. Animals of the improved breeds deteriorate much more quickly when proper regard is not given to their comfort, feed, and other conditions surrounding them, than inferior animals improve, when surrounded by conditions well calculated to con- tribute to their general health, more rapid growth, and more uniform and perfect development. A very important factor in the improvement of our leading breeds of live stock has been the careful attention given to the surroundings of the animals at all times with conditions favorable for growth and development. Remove these conditions from animals of our improved breeds and they at once begin to deteriorate, and at a rapid rate. The excellence of jiure-bred stock can not be maintained, much less improved upon, unless conditions under which these animals were developed and imj^roved are continued. The feeding of animals, therefore, is an important factor in successful stock management. Good Foundation Stock Essential — Before considering the subject of stock feeding, however, the importance of stock breeding should be emphasized. To the man who appreciates the differences between well-bred stock and inferior stock, there appears to be a vast amount of inferior stock throughout the country. This inferiority is due more to careless methods of breeding than to insufficient or injudicious feeding. The highest type of animal i">roduction is impossible without IMPOETANT DATA CONCERNING BREEDING 237 the right kind of animals with which to begin. Intelligent breeding is necessary to secure the right kind of animal. The breeding of animals is not an exact science, and although we make^iise of the best methods of breeding, we are not always certain of reaching the desired end. It is doubly important, therefore, that the possibilities of breeding inferior animals should be as far as possible eliminated. As our country grows older and the prices of land and food-stuffs increase in value, the possibility of securing a profit from the keeping of inferior stock will become less and less, and better quality in live stock will be a necessity. Ill this connection it is interesting to note that the average quality of the live stock of Great Britain is much above that of the United States. In order to pay the rent the British farmer must keep profitable stock. Inferior stock has been found to be unprofitable ; hence the uniformly good quality of their live stock. Con- ditions in the United States which have made it possible to render profitable the keeping of any grade of live stock, no matter how inferior, have not contributed to the upgrading of the common stock of the coiuitry. We must look to the future, with its conditions more nearly comparable with those of Great Britain, to bring about this desired end. Maiiag'eiiieiit of Sires — The number of females a sire may cover with- out injury to himself or the quality of his get depends largely upon the age or. maturity of the sire ; the care in, or method of, standing him ; his condition ; his constitutional vigor ; and the length of the breeding season. A bull may usually be depended ujoon to .serve forty to sixty cows ; a stallion, fifty to seventy-five mares; a ram, forty to sixty ewes; and a boar, fifteen to twenty-five sows, without injury to the male or his progeny. IMPORTANT DATA KEGARDING BREEDING Animal Age to Begin Breeding Duration of Heat Interval between Heats Period of Gestation or Incubation Return for Breeding after Parturition Useful for Breeding Horse Years 4 3 1 2 2 i^tol 2 1 Days 5-7 2 4 2-4 1-2 1-2 Days 21-28 21-28 17-28 9-12 Days 337-419 226-326 104-127 143-160 148-162 30 21 28 25 28-35 30-35 55-70 48-60 Days 7-10 21-28 ::15-42 120-180 - 120-180 Years 10*12 Cow.. Hog Sheep 10-12 6 6 Goat 6 Rabbit 5-8 Hen 3-5 Turkey :::;:::z ;:: 10 Guinea 10 Duck 10 Goose - . - 10 Dog - 8 Cat -- 6 238 BKBEDING OF FAEM ANIMALS GESTATION CALENDAR Average period of gestation with horses, 337 days ; cattle, 282 days ; swine, 113 days ; sheep, 148 days. Date on which Animal is Expected Date on which Animal is Expected Date op to Give Birth Date op TO Give Birth Service Service , Mare Cow Sow Ewe Mare Cow Sow Ewe January 1 " 6 Dec. 2 Oct. 8 Apr. 22 " 27 May 2 " 7 " 12 " 17 May 27 June 1 " 6 " 11 " 16 " 21 July 5 June 6 April 13 Oct. 25 Nov; 29 " 7 " 12 " 17 " 22 " 27 " 13 " 18 '• 23 " 28 Nov. 2 " 10.. " 11 " 16 " 21 " 26 July 1 " 17 " 22 " 27 May 2 " 30 Nov. 4 " 9 " 14 " 19 Dec. 4 " 11 " 15 '■ 9 16 " 20 " 14 21 " 25 " 19 26 " 30 " 34 " 31. Jan. 1 " 22 " 26 August 4 " 6 " 12 " 24 ' ' 2'.> February 5. " 6 '• 12 " 27 July 1 9 " 11 " 17 " 29 Jan. 3 10 " 11 U jr. June 1 " 6 14 " 10 " 22 Dee. 4 " 8 15. " 16 " 22 " 6 " 11 19 " 21 " 27 " 9 " 13 20 " 21 " 27 " 11 " 16 34 " 26 June 1 " 14 " 18 25 " 26 Dec. 2 " 16 " 21 " 29 " 31 " 6 " 19 " 23 March 2 . Feb. 1 5 " 23 " 27 September 3 . . Aug. 5 " 11 " 24 " 28 " 7. " 6 " 11 " 16 " 13 " 18 " 23 " 27 July 3 " 7 Aug. 1 •' 6 " 11 8... 13... 18... " 10 " 15 " 20 " 16 " 21 " 26 " 29 Jau. 3 " 8 Feb. 2 " 12 " 17 " 12 " 22 " 21 " 28 " 12 " 16 23... " 25 July 1 " 13 " 17 " 27 _ " 26 Jan. 2 " 17 " 21 28... " 30 " 6. " 18 " 22 April 1 Mar. 3 " 7 " 22 " 26 Octobers Sept. 4 " 11 " 23 ." 27 " 6 -- " 8 " 12 " 27 " 31 8 " 9 " 16 " 28 Mar. 4 " 11 " 13 " 17 Aug. 1 Sept. 5 " 13 " 14 " 21 Feb. 2 " 9 " 16 " 1« " 22 " 6 '• 10 " 18 " 19 " 26 " 7 " 14 " 21 " 23 " 27 " 11 " 15 " 23 " 24 " 31 " 12 " 19 " 26 " 28 Feb. 1 " 16 " 20 " 28 " 29 Aug. 5 " 17 " 24 May 1 April 2 " 6 " 21 " 25 November 2... Oct. 4 " 10 " 22 " 29 " 6 K 7 " 11 " 26 " 30 '7... " 9 " 15 " 27 April 3 " 11 " 12 " 16 " 31 Oct. 5 12... " 14 " 20 Mar. 4 " 8 " 16 " 17 " 21 Sept. 5 " 10 17... " 19 " 25 " 9 " 13 "21 . . " 22 " 27 " 36 Mar. 3 " 10 " 15 " 15 " 20 23.. 27.. " 24 " 29 " 30 Sept. 4 " 14 " 19 " 18 " 26.. -_ " 23 " 31.. May 3 '' 8 " 20 ' 25 December 2... Nov. 3 " 9 " 24 " 28 Junes It 7 " 13 " 25 " 30' 7... " 8 " 14 " 29 May 3 " 10 " 12 " 17 " 18 • 23 " 30 Oct. 5 Nov. 4 " 9 12... 17... " 13 " 18 " 19 " 24 April 3 " 8 " 8 " 15 " 13 " 20 " 22 '' 38 " 10 " 14 23... " 2.* " 29 " 13 " .18 " 25 " 27 April 2 " 15 " 19 27... " 28 Oct. 4 " 18 " 23 " 30.... June 1 %i 7 " 20 " 24 III. PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING Familiarity with the science, or the principles governing the processes, of stock breeding and stock feeding is highly desirable from the standpoint of the stock raiser. It is not to be asserted that such knowledge is absolutely necessary, for it is well known that we have many successful stock breeders and stock feeders who know little, if anything, about the principles of the enterprise to which they look with confidence for a competency. Success in farming is dependent more upon a thorough familiarity with the art or practice than Avith the science or fundamental principles of the business. The art is the practice of stock feeding. Successful stock feeding practice may be acquired from personal contact and experience, and by carefully observing the methods of our most successful feeders. Such experience is acquired, at best, but slowly, and often at great expense. However, a knowledge PRINCIPLES OF I^TOCK FEEDING 239 of the scientific principles of stock feeding makes it possible for the inexperienced to learn the art more quickly, at less expense, and withal more thoroughly. Fewer mistakes will be made in stock feeding practice by men who are thoroughly familiar with the principles of the business than by those ignorant of the same principles. Mistakes in feeding practice are more serious now than formerly, and with the lapse of time this factor will get worse instead of better, because com- petition will be keener, land and food-stuffs more valuable, and labor more expensive. Professor Brooks of Massachusetts well says: "Some knowledge of the com- position of animal products and of foods ; some knowledge of the laws of nutrition, and of the facts discovered by scientific men regarding the most economical pro- duclion of meat, of fat, of milk, and work, will help even the best practical feeder. Such knowledge will not render tlie exercise of the observing faculties and of the judgment the less important. It will rather shai'pen the one and broaden the other." Chemistry of Stock Feeding- — In an attempt to discover principles of stock feeding, investigators have given much attention to the chemical problems, neglecting to some extent, perhaps, the physical and the physiological factors involved. It is a pardonable oversight, since investigations tending to throw light upon the subject should begin with a study of the chemical substances necessary for the development of plant and animal life. The existence of our farm animals is dependent upon plant life. There must, therefore, be certain elements or com- pounds in the plant that contribute to the upbuilding of animal tissues. Of the seventy recognized chemical elements which in their infinite combinations form all organic and inorganic substances, only fifteen are involved in plant life, viz., calcium, carbon, chlorine,. fli(orine, hydrogen, iron, magnesium, manganese, nitrogen, oxygen, potassium, phosphorus, silicon, sodium, and sulphur. In making application of the chemistry of plant and animal bodies to the sub- ject of stock feeding it is seldom necessary to deal directly with these elements, but rather with certain compounds made up through various combinations of these elements, a knowledge of the nature of which combinations is unnecessary for a proper understanding of the chemistry of animal nutrition. These classes of com- pounds are practically the same in plant and animal bodies and are usually referred to as ash, crude fiber, fat, nitrogen-free extract, protein, and water. The percent- ages of crude fiber and nitrogen-free extract are commonly grouped together and referred to as carbohydrates. We reproduce a table from Doctor Jordair's The Feeding of Animals,^ which 1 New York : The Macmillan Co. > 240 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING will aid the reader to understand the relation between the chemical elements and the chemical compounds to which we have referred. COMPOUNDS ELEMENTS C Water \ 2T^" ( Hydrogen f Oxygen Sulphur Chlorine Incombustibia or Inorganic j Phosphorus Matter j Silicon. Fluorine Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Iron [ Manganese I Carbon '• Oxygen I Hydrogen Protein .'. -j Nitrogen Sulphur (generally) Phosphorus (sometimes) Iron (in a few cases) All Vegetable or Animal Matter \ Combustible or Organic Matter ■{ ( Carbon Carbohydrates and Fats < Oxygen {_ Hydrogen COMPOSITION OF FOOD-STUFFS It is necessary, first of all, that the stock raiser recognize the fact that the ele- ments with which he fertilizes his soil will reappear later on, in a measure large or small, in the bodies of the animals he fits for market. These element's will have sufi'ered two transformations in the meantime, — being assimilated, first, by the plant, and second by the animal. All the undigested portion of the animal's food will have been returned to the land as fertilizer, and all the digested i^ortion as well, except so much as has been permanently incorpoi-ated in the animal body, supposing, of course, that all the manure including the urine will be returned to the land. In fixing on the crops to be raised and the. feeds to be bought, therefore, the intelligent farmer has in mind (1) availability for the purpose desii'ed (depend- ing on composition and digestibility) and (2) fertilizer value. Water and Dry Matter — All food-stuffs contain a considerable proportion of water. The residue is included under the general term "dry matter." A proper ration for a farm animal will contain a quantity of dry substance which is practically uniform for animals of the same species, type, age, and condition. (See Table II., Page 246, Column A.) Because water is abundant in plant and animal life we should not conclude that it is value- less, but rather, as in the case of carbohydrates, that it is essential. The leading functions of water related to animal life are as a solvent and distributor of other compounds, while it gives elasticity and firmness as well to animal tissues. Investigations as to the percentage of water in animal bodies under normal conditions have shown that usually more than 50 per cent of the total COMPOSITION OF FOOD-STUFFS 241 weight of an animal is water, tlie percentage varying with the age, condition, and species of animal. Ash and Organic Matter — The dry matter of a food is subdivided into ««/< (inorganic, or mineral components) and organic matter. The mineral substance is called " ash " because it alone remains when the organic matter is driven off by burning. From the foregoing chart (page 240) it will be observed that the constituent in plants and animals containing the greatest number of chemical elements is ash, and yet ash seldom consti- tutes more than one-tenth of the animal, and still less of the plant, seldom exceeding in general, one-twentieth. Clover hay contains a relatively high percentage of ash, while corn yields only a small amount. In the former case tnere are about 6.3 pounds, and in the latter 1.5 pounds ash per hundredweight. "While the relative amount of ash in all food-stuffs is small, it is absolutely necessary to promote both animal and vegetable growth. As a matter of fact, little attention has been paid to the ash constituent of plants intended for animal food, largely because there has seem- ingly been a sufficient supply in most food-stuffs. The author is of the opinion that future investigations will reveal the fact that the ash constituent in food-stuffs is more closely related to economical production of animal products than has been generally supposed. Protein, Fat, and Carbohydrates — The organic components of feeding-stuffs fall into three groups : Proteids, fats, and carbohydrates. Protein — Protein is the nitrogenous element in vegetable and animal structure. Compounds of this class vary much in their nature, composition, and relative feeding value. They have one thing in common, namely, the possession of nitrogen. They are, therefore, frequently spoken of as nitrogenous compounds. The most expensive constituent in fertilizers is nitrogen ; likewise the most costly food-stuffs are those possessing the highest percentage of digestible protein. Whatever other functions protein may have, its chief one is that of a flesh-former. Carbohydrates — The carbohydrates are of two kinds : Fiber and nitrogen-free extract. The fiber (composed principally of cellulose) is the hard, woody framework of the plant. The portion available for nutrition appears to be digested in the intestines. Ni-trogen-free extract includes the more easily digested starches, sugars, and gums. The carbohydrates are the cheapest food- sources of heat, energy, and fat. Since their function is the same as that of the digestible fats found in feeding-stuffs, and since the fats are about 2i times as effective as the carbohydrates, it is customary for simplicity's sake to reckon them together. The fat-content of a feeding-stuff is multiplied by 21 and the product is added to the amount of carbohydrates present. Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen — elements which may be derived from air and water — are the only elements found in the carbohydrates; they are frequently spoken of as nitrogen-free compounds. No other class of chemical compounds comprises so large a part of stock foods as the carbo- hydrates. In some cases, .as in certain varieties of hay and grain, they comprise 80 per cent of the dry matter. While abundant in most food-stuffs, they are nevertheless a valuable constituent, as being the chief source of energy and fat. Fat or Ether- extract — The percentages indicated in the column headed " Fat " (pages 244-5) include several compounds, mainl^^ however, fats that are soluble in ether. Some authorities prefer the use of the more accurate term of ether-extract in referring to these compounds. The value of the ether-extract in a given food-stuff depends largely upon its nature. 212 PEINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING DIGESTION AND GROWTH Only a part of the nutrients in food-stuffs ever nourishes the animal, since only a part is digested. We speak of a given food-stuff as containing a certain number of pounds of protein per liundreUweight. While this knowledge may in certain instances be useful to the feeder, the important thing to know is: How much digestible protein is there in a hundred pounds of a given food-stuff ? or, in other words, Hoiu much protein is there which is available for the use of the animal? Conditions Affecting^ Dig'estion — In the processes of digestion such portions of the food nutrients as are digestible are converted into a form which may be readily taken up by the absorbent vessels of the stomach and intestines. The undigested portions of food-stuffs are believed, in certain instances, to serve the purpose of distending the stomach and intestines. In general, a much higher percentage of the food nutrients in concentrates is digested than in roughages con- taining a large amount of crude fiber. Other conditions, also, affect the relative digestibility of nutrients in food-stuffs: (1) Certain classes of animals, such as cattle, sheep, and other ruminants, digest a higher percentage of crude fiber than do others ; for example, horses. ( 2 ) Not only is there a difference in classes of animals as to their digestive capacities, but there ai-e marked differences in animals of the same class in this regard. In other words, some animals are more econom- ical producers of animal products than others. Processes of Digestion — To be of any use, the digested food must be assimilated by the animal. The process of assimilation consists in the taking up or absorption of digested food particles, which are conveyed by the blood to every part of the animal. A general knowledge of where the various food nutrients are digested is desirable ; hence, a brief reference to the subject seems pertinent. The changes which take place in food during the processes of digestion are mainly chemical; but the first change or process is a mechanical one — that of mastication, the process during which the food is broken or ground up into fine particles, rendering it more susceptible to the chemical action of various juices with which the food particles come in contact during passage through the alimentary canal. The only food nutrient that is partially or wholly digested by the action of the digestive ferments with which the masticated food is brought in contact in the mouth is a portion of the starch constituent of carbohydrates. W^liether the amount digested is large or small depends upon the thoroughness of mastication and the length of time the food remains in the mouth. Under ordinary conditions, since the food remains there but a short time, the amount of starch digested is small. COMPOUNDING OF EATIONS 243 The remainder of the digestible starch is digested partly in the stomach and partly in the intestines. In general, then, Ave may say that carbohydrates are digested partly in the mouth, partly in the stomach, and partly in the intestines. It should be borne in mind, however, that the best authorities believe that the digestion of carbohydrate compounds in the stomach is but slight at best. The food nutrients digested in the stomach under the action of the different ferments in gastric juice, the digestive agent with which the food comes in contact in the stomach, are proteicls. The remaining digestible proteids are digested in the intestines. Fats and oils are mainly digested in the intestines. COMPOUNDING OF RATIONS Agricultural investigators can not hope to attain to mathematically exact results. Food constituents vary from sample to sample ; digestive power varies from animal to animal. The farmer must concern himself with average results, to meet indi- vidual conditions and requirements. Table I. (pages 244-5) is a compilation of the results of American analyses of most of the common food-stuffs, expressly arranged for use by the practical farmer in connection with Table II. (page 246), which is a compilation of the recommendations of German experimenters as to the average ration required by animals of various types and ages. In examining any ration to ascertain bow nearly it conforms to the standard, and what modifi- cations, if any, are needful, attention must be paid to five points; (1) Total amount of dry matter; (3) amount of digestible protein; (3) amount of digestible carbohydrates and fat; (4) amount of ether-extract or fat; (5) total amount of digestible nutrients, and ((5) nutritive ratio. Tlie Nutritive Ratio of a food-stuff or a ration is the relation tbat exists between the quantity of digestible protein and the quantity of digestible carbohydrates which it contains. Thus, if 100 pounds of brewer's grains contain 15 pounds of digestible protein and 45 pounds of digestible carbohydrates and fat, the nutritive ratio is expressed thus : i Protein is to Carboliydrates and Fat ns 15 is to J^, or, Protein is to Carbohydrates and. Fat as 1 is to 3, or, written mathematically. Protein : Carbohydrates + Fat : : 1 : 3. To find the nutritive ratio, then, of a feeding-stuff — that is, to find how many pounds or what fraction of a pound of digestible carbohydrates and fat it contains for each pound of digestible "protein^ we divide its digestible carbohydrates and fat content hy its digestible protein content. The metlium ratios lie between 1 part protein to 5| parts carbohydrates and fat (1 : o.o) and 1 part protein to 8 parts carbohydrates and fat(l : 8.0). If the carbohydrates largely predominate, the ratio is said to be wide ; if the proportion of protein is above the medium, the ratio is said to be narrow. Thus, timothy hay, with a nutritive ratio of 1 :16.6, makes a wide ration ; vetch hay (1 : 3.2) a narrow one. Narrow Nutritive Ratio — The following common and commercial food-stuffs are rela- tively high in digestible protein and low in digestible carbohydrates : Concentrates — Wheat bran, linseed oil meal, wheat middlings, cotton-seed meal, gluten meal, pea meal, cow-peas, and soj' beans. Roughage — Clover, alfalfa, cow-pea, and vetch hay. Wide Nutritive Ratio — The following food-stuffs are relatively high in digestible carbo- hydrates and low in digestible protein : Concentrates — Rye, corn, corn meal, and corn and cob meal. Roughage — Timothy, oat, red top, millet, and Hungarian grass hays, and corn stover. 244 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING TABLE I.— Digestible Ifutrients Pei- Pound of Various Feeding- -stuflfs, and Fertilizing Constituents Per 1,000 Pounds (Compiled by Willis MacGerald) Digestible Nutrients ja« o 2 "i-P as O Nutri- tive Ratio In Decimal Fractious of 1 Pound A H C .3Sf 012 .205 .006 .34t 03( .216 .008 .28f ()2( .169 .004 .347 021 .226 .006 .2T() .015 .125 .005 .282 Am. .138 .005 .292 ()2C .164 .007 Am .018 .092 .002 .249 .032 .121 005 .234 .021 ,150 .004 .2ir .01!: .111 .004 .378 .026 .212 .010 .ItiO Mt .076 .002 160 .017 .077 .002 207 .01(1 .125 .004 .20fi .006 .131 .004 140 .015 .086 .002 269 .014 .178 .005 209 .009 .129 007 239 006 .154 ,002 207 .015 .106 .009 258 027 .116 .oi;-i 280 .020 .158 .010 275 .030 .128 .019 868 .028 .466 014 859 .064 .417 .015 788 048 .418 .020 901 .049 .4,55 .014 923 .045 .540 .013 890 .072 .400 .010 871 .0.59 .436 012 834 .079 .435 .015 916 .110 .423 .012 847 068 .396 .017 903 .084 .459 .015 893 108 .410 Oil 8S7 .108 .422 .015 887 .129 406 .031 911 .048 .492 010 911 .043 498 015 869 .078 .393 .004 578 .025 .373 .012 .595 .017 .340 .007 924 068 .487 ().30 904 .004 .372 .004 908 .012 .404 .008 8.58 .007 .426 .006 . 929 .006 .415 .004 864 .043 .341 .008 . 899 .023 .423 010 . D .217 .24' .189 .247 .140 .177 .193 .109 .153 .171 .130 .238 .094 .094 .135 138 .101 192 138 160 121 143 178 158 .494 .481 .466 504 .585 472 .495 .514 .533 464 543 .518 .530 .535 .540 541 471 398 .35 .5,55 .376 416 .433 421 .384 .446 2 =3 1 to 1 7.0 1 to 7.2 1 to 8.4 1 to 10.8 1 to 8.3 1 to 3 5 1 to 5.6 1 to 5.1 1 to 3.8 1 to 7.1 1 to 5 8 1 to 8.2 1 to 4.2 1 to 4.5 1 to 12.5 1 to 21.8 1 to 5.7 1 to 13.0 1 to 14.3 1 to 25.6 1 to 7.0 1 to 4.3 1 to 7.9 Ito 4.3 to 16.6 to 6.5 to 8.7 to 9 2 to 12.0 to 5.5 to 7.4 to 5.5 to 3.8 to 5.8 to 5.4 to 3.8 to 3.9 to 3.1 to 10.3 to 11.6 to 5.0 to 14.9 to 20.0 to 7.2 to 93.0 to 33.6 to 60.8 to 69.1 to 7.9 to 18.4 Food Fertilizer Content Gi'een Fodders Timothy Kentucky Bluegrass Hungarian Grass Red top Orchard Grass Alfalfa : Red Clover Cowpeas Soy Beans _ Rye Fodder Barley Fodder _ Oat Fodder _ _ Oats and Peas Barley and Peas _ _ Green Corn Fodder _ Green Sorghum Fodder Rape Barnyard 'Millet Common Vetch Fermented Hoiighage Corn Silage . _ Sorghum Silage _ Cowpea Silage Soy Bean Silage Clover Silage. Alfalfa Silage Hay and Straw Ti mothy Hay Mixed Grass and Clover Hay Kentucky Bluegrass Hay Orchard Grass Hay Hungarian Hay Barnyard Millet Hay Mixed Grass Hay Mixed Rowen Alfalfa Hay Red Clover Hay Alsike Clover Hay Cowpea Hay Soy Bean Hay Vetch Hay __ Redtop Hay Oat Hay Oat and Vetch Hay Corn Fodder (Field-Cured) Corn Stover (Field-Cured) Peanut Hay. Wheat Straw Oat Straw _ Barley Straw Rye Straw Peavine Straw Soy Bean Straw 3 9 X! «! 4 9 12 6 17.4 11.9 13 1 12.0 14.1 1.6.1 21.9 20 7 23.4 19 5 23 2 11 5 H 17 5.4 n 10 4 2 9 O 17.6 2 9 1 3 1 9 1 1 11.9 1 1 1 3 3 6 3.8 4 6 9 8 8 15 18.8 13 15 5 14 9 16 8 22 22.3 14 10 8 10 2 5 910 2 6.2| 2.6 13 1 3.0 4.6 2.8 14 3 3 5 17.5 4.0 14 9 8 5.1 12 4 20 9 7 9 10 2 13 2| DIGESTIBLE COXSTITUENTS OF FEEDING-STUFFS 245 TABLE I.— {Continued) Digestible Nutrients £ C-M X , z ■-• ^ 1-, o >>Bja M^ a =«■:: w' 53-^ fc 03 fI^ lu Decimal Fractions of 1 Pound A B C 895 .102 .780 .017 S91 .079 .764 043 884 .099 .700 .011 891 .087 .692 .016 890 ()92 .568 .(U2 874 077 .533 .018 895 .168 534 .007 897 125 .689 .173 091 .011 .056 .001 i;« .011 .104 .(K)l 114 .008 .083 .002 095 .010 .077 .002 211 .009 .165 .001 153 .018 .091 .004 200 .020 .173 .002 091 .010 .065 .003 447 .021 .382 .017 881 .122 .453 .027 882 .122 586 .038 903 .135 .658 .020 876 .082 .647 .009 850 .070 .717 .0*^ 849 .044 .665 .029 895 .168 .5.32 .007 921 .115 .654 .059 884 .115 .548 .020 881 .074 .661 .020 895 074 ..347 .019 873 220 .456 .054 889 0V5 .705 .068 918 .2.58 681 .110 922 .204 .682 .088 898 .186 .409 017 243 .039 .125 .014 918 .157 .478 .051 908 .293 .485 .070 899 282 .464 028 918 .372 .444 .122 889 .003 .369 .017 893 .429 .383 069 130 017 .051 002 102 006 .073 2;« .010 .144 .011 09ti .031 .065 .(K)8 094 .029 .059 003 099 .039 .065 Oil 066 .008 .054 .003 128 .036 .132 .037 Nutri- tive Ratio O a o =s aj si 1> 83: 843 .499 79 .660 610 702 814 067 115 091 087 174 109 193 ,075 403 .575 708 793 729 787 709 700 769 663 .735 .421 .676 E 1 to 7.2 1 to 9.7 1 to 7.1 1 to 7.9 1 to 6. 1 1 to 6.9 1 to 3.2 1 to 5.5 1 to 5.1 1 to 9.4 1 to 10.3 1 to 7.7 1 to 18 3 1 to 5.1 1 to 8.7 1 to 6.5 1 to 18.2 to 3.7 to 4.8 to 4.9 to 7.9 to 10.2 to 15.1 to 3.0 to 9.3 to 4 8 to 8 9 to 4.7 to 2..1 1 to 9, 1 to 2. 1 to 3. 1 to 2. 1 to 3 1 to 3 1 to 1. 1 to 1. 1 to 1 ltol23. 1 to 0. 1 to 3. 1 to 12. 1 to 14, 1 to 2. 1 to 2. 1 to 1. 1 to 6. 1 to 3. Food Grains and Seeds Wheat ._ Corn (average c^f all analyses) - Kye. Barley Oats. _ Buckwheat. Peas Whole Cottonseed Roots, Tubt rs, Ktc. Mangel Beets - -. Sugar Beets Carrots Flat Turnips... .-_ Potatoes __ __ Cabbages A rtichokes Field Pumpkins - - Acorns ( Fresh) Mill Products Wheat Bran Wlieat Shorts.-- Dark Feeding Flour Low-Grade Flour Corn Meal - - Corn-and-cob Meal Pea Meal - Oat Meal - -.- -. Rye Bran - - Barley Meal Buckwheat Bran Buckwheat Middlings -. - By-Prodiicts, Wastes, and Animal Products Hominy Chop -- - Gluten Meal Gluten Feed .-- Malt Sprouts.. Wet Brewer's Grains Dry Brewer's Grains Linseed Meal (Old Process) Linseed Bleal (New Process) Cottonseed Meal Cottonseed Hulls PeanutMeal Sugar-beet Leaves Sugar-beet Pulp Apple Pomace Gravity Skim-milk Separator Skim-milk ^ Buttermilk Whey Whole Milk ^ Fertilizer Content lbs 23 6 18.2 17.6 15.1 20 6 14 4 m.s 31 3 1.9 2.2 1.5 1.8 3 2 3.8 2 26.7 28 2 31 8 28.9 15.8 14.1 3(L8 23.5 23.2 15.5 13.8 Cy /&/(a^^vfl-4-^^ GccC^ 1-t.lS /.8V s:3ii 3 |Vot«-tv\ /.7o .7^ ss c D .tr^,.t?* '/.^o gf 3.VO //.€.< /.^5 3.f^ ni /.•vi^7 A'.rs /.7.2 //4./ '^s^^ z.f? /4^/f /r/f /;^7 of oats. In order to compare this ration with the standard, let us make a little blank, ruled precisely as are Tables I. and 11. (pages 244-6). Above the double 1 NOTES ON TABLE I. —Coefficient of Digestibility — The percentage of a given element of nutri- tion (as. for example, protein) tliat is digested by an animal is called the coefficient of digestibility, and is expressed in the decimal form. Multiplying together the protein content (for example) of timothy hay and the coefficient of digestibility for timothy-hay protein when consumed by ruminating animals, we obtain the per- centage of protein in timothy hay that may be digested, on the average, by ruminants. Authorities — The following references give the authorities for the figures in the foregoing Table : Di- (E) Farmers' Bulletin 16. (F) W.H.Jordan: The Feeding of Animals. gestibility calculated for ruminants only. (G) Herbert Myrick : Key to Profitable Feeding. (H) W. A. Henry : Feeds and Feeding. Based on experiments with i-uminants and swine. (W) F. W. Woll : Handbook for Fanners and Dairymen. (A) United States Department of Agriculture : Yearbook for 1898. (B) United States Department of Agriculture : Yearbook, for 1895. (C) United States Department of Agriculture : Farmers' Bulletin 25. (D) Composition, Farmers' Bulletin 22; coefficients of digestibility (average for ruminants and swine). W. A. Henry : Feeds and Feeding. For references to the original sources from which all these figures have been drawn, the reader is referred to the several authors in question. Manurial Values — In computing the " Manurial Value per Ton " of each feeding-stuff, the following arbi- trary values have been assigned : Nitrogen, 15 cents a pound ; phosphoric acid. 5 cents a pound ; and potash, 4 cents a pound. It mu.st be remembered that the figures given in the last four columns of Table II., giving, as they do, the total fertilizer content, merely furnish a basis for the comparison of manurial values, the portion of a feeding-stuff that is available to enrich the soil being only that part that is not assimilated by the animal. 248 PRINCIPLES OF STOCK FEEDING horizontal line we set down the standard, obtained by multiplying by 10 the stand- ard per hundredweight for a cow yielding 22 pounds of milk, as given in Table 11. In the first vertical column we set down the names and amounts of our severa) feeding-stuffs. ♦ To fill out the horizontal line showing the constituents of clover hay, we mul- tiply the constituents of 1 pound (as shown in Table I.) by 25. To fill out the cotton-seed meal line we multiply by 2 the quantities found in Table I. For oats, we multiply by 6. The nutritive ratio of each feeding-stuff is set down in column E, of course, exactly as it appears in Table I. Lastly, we foot up columns A, B, C, and D, and divide the sum of the C column (carbohydrates) by the sum of the B column (protein). That gives us the nutri- tive ratio of the whole ration, 1:4.6. Comparison with the standard shows that while the totals of diy matter and digestible nutrients and the quantity of carrlDhy- drates are not far out of the way, protein is in excess, while the nutritive ratio shows the same thing — that the ration as fed is too narrow. Since cotton-seed meal is a purchased product, and an expensive one, let us try cutting the amount in half, also reducing the oat ration to 5 pounds. Let us sub- stitute, in order to widen the ration and increase palatability, 12 pounds of corn silage (80 per cent water). Then our trial sheet will stand thus : iutZ<^ CatV>. b\«x>\<^t: '^^ CO a.vro /y,/o /44. //^7 /Sl^^lXiAJJl^ ^^ilXZaP^j^^'i.iut 2S 7US trie Hi //,4o /:5:g ^cU^ ^?f\.e.aLl^ ^ -n yj_ HH M I'J.'Z S H^^ HC Z.SH 3M fiC,/ CP^'^*^'9^/' ll 151 Jl I'SS iM ni*i-5 %%oC z-C'f l^.f^\ /Y'^s (:s.ss This ration is balanced, it is seen, to conform very closely to the standard. The nutritive ratio (1:5.58) is nearly what is desired, and the total of digestible nutri- THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK 249 ents is less than a pound in excess of standard requirements. An animal will digest more of an appetizing ration than of an uninviting one, but if the bulk of roughage is too great, the feeder will soon know it, and may reduce the whole ration uniformly, leaving the balance of nutrients unchanged. The foregoing is given, for purposes of illustration, and not as a model ration. It is far better for a farmer to think, and to build up, on the groundwork of what he knows, an individual systeni of economical, scientific feeding, than to try to follow blindly the model rations recommended by anyone else. The accompanying feeding standards tabulated on page 246 must be studied in the same open-minded spirit. Their use must vary with circumstances. Model rations are the fruit of individual experience; standard rations are the summing up of average experience. Study of feeding standards tells the farmer when he is on the right track; study of model rations suggests how rations in use may be modified along lines other feeders have found profitable. ^ IV. THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK CHARACTERISTICS OF PRIME STEERS "When the word "prime" is used to designate tlie quality and condition of cattle, we should understand it as signifying the very best grade, unless possibly we were to except a few fancy cattle of show-yard merit that occasionally reach the market. Prime steers are taken largely by buyers for the eastern markets and by packers for the dressed-beef trade, the former taking the bulk of such cattle. Such steers are practically above criticism as to both quality and condition. The prime steer should present conclusive evidence to sight and touch that he possesses to a high degree the form, condition, and quality demanded by the dealer in high-class beef. Form — The butcher demands not so much that parallelogramic form popu- larly spoken of by many authorities, as he does a high state of development in loin, crops, back, thighs, twist, and rump. He demands development in these regions because they are the parts from which are secured the high-priced cuts. The ani- mal should show plenty of depth and breadth, furnishing a large surface for flesh, without that tendency to be paunchy which is objectionable to the butcher. The butcher seeks, also, smooth, well-rounded general outlines, which indicate both thickness and evenness of flesh, and an absence of that tendency to be rough and coarse, which would mean loss to him, since the waste in the dressing of a rough, coarse beast would be out of proportion with the weight of marketable beef. 250 THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK Then, too, the butcher is not unmindful of the fact that, having secured satis- factory development of the parts from Avliich are taken tlie high-priced cuts, there is an added value in securing thick, even flesh throughout, on the cheaper as well as on .the more valuable parts of the carcass. To the untrained eye, an un- usual development of loin, crops and thighs would detract from the 1)eauty, style, or gracefulness of the beast. To the butcher, such devel- opment would increase rather than lessen its value. It should be clearly borne in mind, therefore, that no beauty of outline, style, or graceful- ness of carriage will ever take prece- dence of proper development in the most important and valuable parts of the bullock. We should not assume, however, that the highest development in these most valuable parts is incompatible with ideal beef form ; the truth of the matter is, we seldom get high development in the parts from which are taken the high-priced cuts except in animals which are symmetrically developed. It is entirely consistent and desirable, therefore, that we hold up as our ideal standard of the prime steer a combination of well-developed parts from which are taken the high-priced cuts, and a uniformly high develop- ment in all parts capable of taking on flesh, which gives to the animal symmetry and smoothness of outline, and that style and that beauty otherwise impossible. Correct conformation and prime condition must accompany each other in order to secure a high percentage of dressed beef. Quality and Condition — Quality may be considered as (a) general quality and (b) quality of flesh and condition of animal. (a) General Quality — General quality in a fat steer is indicated by a medium-sized, fine, clean cut, breedy-featured head, bearing ears of moderate size and texture ; short legs with clean, fine bone ; a fine, nicely tapering tail ; fine hair ; a pliable skiji of medium thickness, and smooth, well-rounded outlines. (b) Quality of Flesh and Condition of Animal — The quahty of beef depends largely upon the condition of the animal. By condition we refer to the degree of fatness of a bullock. It should not be assumed, however, that the highest quality of beef is found in the fattest beast. Fig. 140. Typical prime steer: High-grade Hereford fattened on the University of Illinois farm, Urbana, 111. (Mumford.) CHAKACTEKISTICS OF PRIME STEERS 251 There are three principal reasons for fattening a steer : (1) In order that, when dressed, there shall not be a high percentage of offal or waste, as a fat animal, other things being equal, will dress a higher percentage of carcass than a half fat or a thin one ; furthermore, in the fat animal, the proportion of those parts, which, from their very nature are unsaleable, is reduced to the mini- mum ; (2) in order that the flesh or lean meat shall be rendered more tender, more juicy, and of better flavor by the deposition of fat throughout its substance ; (3) in order to permit of proper ripening of the meat, as a thin carcass, being full of moisture and lacking the protection of a covering of fat, will rot before it will ripen. Conditions Influencing Beef Quality — The possibility of securing the highest qualit}' in beef is influenced by the breeding and gen-eral quality of the animal. Methods both of growing and fattening the beast also influence the quality of its flesh. There is, too, a quality of flesh which is peculiar to the individual, and which is independent both of breeding and methods of feeding. Desirable quality in flesh is indicated by a firm, yet mellow and springy, consistency of the flesh at 4 Fig. 141. Names and location of points of external conformation of beef cattle. 1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, forehead; 4, poll; 5, crest; 6, throat; 7, dewlap; 8, brisket; 9, neck; 10, crops; 11, "back; 12, loin; 13, rump; 14, thigh; 15, flank; 16, fore ribs; 17, fore flank; 18, setting on of tail; 19, twist; 20, breast; 21, hip; 22, hock. (Mumford.) the crops, along the back, at the loins and even on the sides, beneath the gentle pressure of the outstretched hand. Good quality of flesh is indicated in the fat steer by the absence of ties and rolls, or patches of gaudy, flabby fat. A tendency to lay on fat in bunches and to roll at the loin indicates that the fat has been deposited in large masses and has not been so evenly distributed throughout the animal as to give to the flesh that marbled character so necessary to the highest quality in beef. An animal without a tendency to lay on fat unevenly may become bunchy about the tailhead and show other indica- tions of a lack of a well-marbled condition of the flesh simply by being carried to the point of excessive fatness. Judging Beeves on the Hoof — Outstanding coarseness and lack of gen- eral quality in the live animal without doubt are inseparably linked with undesirable texture in the beef cut from such a beast. Fulness at base of tongue, fulness or a 252 THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK roll of fat in front of point of shoulder, a full twist, a large mellow cod, a low, full, thick flank that stands out and rolls visibly as the animal walks, with fulness and smoothness at rump and tailhead indicate that degree of fatness which is essential to the highest quality in beef. These points, which are to be judged by sight rather than by touch, are the ones most depended upon by buyers at the yards. If a close examination is desirable and possible we find that when the ends of the fingers are gently pressed into the flesh on the side of the beast in an effort to find the ribs, there should be a firmness of flesh that does not admit of freely and easily forcing the fingers to the ribs and between them. A lack of firmness indicates the presence of too large a proportion of fat, which may be due either to a too-fat or overdone condition of the animal, or to an inherent lack of flesh, either of which is decidedly undesirable. A proper degree of firmness shows the presence of plenty of flesh or lean meat. Such an examination reveals the quality of the surface flesh, but can not always be relied upon to determine the quality of the beef throughout the carcass. It sometimes occurs that a steer may cut too fat on the block and yet not have exhibited on foot bunchiness or other indications of an overdone condition. Animals which are carried to an extreme degree of fatness, as is seen in some show animals and occasionally among market animals, give evidence of an overdone condition, being very soft in flesh — a condition which often passes into a very hard, unyielding one. It sometimes happens, too, that certain individual animals become hard in the surface fat without ever having shown by softness of their flesh that they were approaching an overdone condition. There is such a thing, however, as an animal becoming too firm in the flesh, and such firmness indicating an overdone condition. What the Market Demands — Prime steers weighing from 1,200 to 1,400 pounds are wanted by shippers, by packers, and by exporters. The demand for steers of these weights, of good, choice, and medium quality, is greater than for steers of any other weight ; hence the market is less likely to be overstocked with these grades. Especially is this true with the steers of choice and prime quality. It is as difficult as it is unnecessary to decide whether form, condition, or qual- ity is of greatest importance to the butcher. The main point to bear in mind is, that an animal characteristically deficient in any one of the foregoing require- ments, is disqualified to meet the full demands of the dealer in high-class beef and consequently is not to be considered as a prime steer. Whether a lack of quality or a lack of condition is more evident in the cattle seen at the Union Stock Yard, Chicago, depends largely upon the prevailing prices for food-stuffs and the prices for cattle on foot. When high prices for food-stuffs have prevailed for some time, and when market prices for cattle have been ruling high, the tendency among feeders is to send their cattle to market in a half-fat condition, in order to take advantage of the prevailing high prices and avoid feeding too much of high-priced food-stuffs, in which case many cattle would lack condition rather than quality. SELECTION OF CHOICE FEEDERS 253 CHARACTERISTICS OF CHOICE FEEDERS It is highly desirable to describe in detail a standard grade of stockers and feeders ; otherwise we should confuse rather than define. If the animals in one ffrade of stockers and feeders Fig. 142. Typical choice feeder: High-grade Hereford photo- graphed at the Union Stock Yard, Chicago. (Mumford.) are more uniform than in the others, it is in the choice grade. Steers of this grade will, under proper management, develop into choice and prime steers. It would seem wise, therefore, to consider in detail their desir- able characteristics. It may be said then that we demand in choice stockers and feeders, first, the ability to fin- ish as choice or prime steers ; and second, the ability to make economical gains in flesh and fat. As far as our present knowledge of the matter goes, we look for indications of these tendencies in the form, quality, and constitution. Form — The general form should be low-set, deep, broad, and compact rather than high up, gaunt, narrow, and loosely made. Stockers and feeders should be low-set, or on short legs, because animals of this conformation are almost invariably good feeders and capable of early maturity. They should be deep, broad, and compact, because this conformation indicates good constitution, capacity for growth and for producing ultimately a relatively high percentage of the most valuable cuts. Select feeders with broad, flat backs and long, level rumps. They should possess straight top and underlines, which should be nearly parallel; and should be low at the flanks, thus forming what we have just spoken of as "good depth," for the barrel of stockers and feeders as well as dairy cows should be roomy. An animal which is too paunchy, however, as has been remarked, is objectionable to the butcher. The matter of low flanks should be emphasized, as it is an almost unfail- ing sign of good constitution and good feeding quality. It should be borne in 254 THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK mind that the stocker and feeder, thin in flesh and lai-gely destitute of external or surface fat, affords the best possible opportunity of determining the covering of natural flesh characteristic of the animal. Secure as much smoothness of outline as is consistent with low flesh, being especially careful to avoid too great prominence in hips, tailhead, and shoulders. Avoid rough, open shoulders, sway backs, and large coarse heads with small eyes set in the side of the head. Short, broad heads and short, thick necks indicate strong tendencies toward beef making. A large, prominent, and mild eye is to be desired. The mild eye denotes that the animal has a quiet disposition, which all feeders know is so desirable in a steer intended for the feed lot. The distance between eye and horn should be short and the horn should be flat and of medium fineness, rather than round and coarse. The lower jaw should be heavily coated with muscle ; the muzzle, lips, and mouth should be large but not coarse. Quality — It is well to distinguish between what might be called (a) general quality and (b) handling quality. (a) General Quality — By general quality is meant general refinement of external conformation as seen in the head, horn, bone, compactness, and smooth- ness of outline. General quality is affected by nothing so much as by breeding; in fact, the two are very closely associated. Good quality is seldom found in a plainly bred steer, but is generally characteristic of a well-bred animal. The desirability of general quality can not be too strongly emphasized. While it is a characteristic that involves many points and is difficult to describe, its presence or absence is quickly discerned by the trained eye of the intelligent buyer. It is this character- istic in the stockers and feeders more than any other that we depend upon as indi- cating that the animal has within it the possibility of making a prime steer. The ability to select stockers and feeders which have within them the possibility of making prime steers, is one of the first and most important lessons for the stockman to learn. Profits in steer feeding come not so much from skill in feeding and management as from intelligent buying and selling. The profit resulting from an increase, during the fattening period, of the value per pound of the total weight of the animal is as important as that resulting from the method employed in the feeding and management. It is seldom possible to produce at a profit gains which do not increase the value per pound of the total weight of the animal. Hence the importance of intelli- gent buying, or the selection of feeders and stockers of good quality. (b) Handling Quality — Good handling quality indicates that the possessor is a good feeder. It shows that the animal is in good health or thrift and capable of beginning to gain as soon as an abundance of food is supplied. We speak of cattle as possessing good handling quality when the skin is mellow and loose. A CHARACTERISTICS OF CHOICE FEEDERS 255 thick, mossy coat of hair of medium fiueness and a moderately thick skin are also desirable. Constitution — The points indicative of good constitution have practically been covered under ''Form" (page 253). Good constitution is indicated by a wide, deep chest, by fulness in the heart girth, depth, and breadth of body, and good handling quality. While we want refinement of form and bone, otherwise spoken of as general quality, we do not want that refinement carried to the point of delicacy. Too much refinement means delicacy, or a lack of constitution, and no animal lacking in constitution should find its way into the feed lot. Breeds — The desirable characteristics of beef form, quality, and constitution should be found in well-bred high grades of any of the leading beef breeds. In the interest of uniformity in the finished product it should be observed that high grade Herefords can usually be put on the market in the fewest number of days and suffer most from carrying beyond the point of ripeness ; that Shorthorns and Aber- deen-Angus grades, while a little slower to mature, are in fully as strong demand in the market as are grade Herefords ; and that Aberdeen-Angus and Galloways may be carried longer on full feed than other breeds of beef cattle without indi- cations of the bunches or rolls of fat which are so strongly discriminated against in our markets. After all that may be said, however, as to breed, the important consideration is to see that the steer should be a high grade of some one of the beef breeds, and that the selection of the individual should receive more attention than the selection of the breed. Age and Condition for Feeding — The question of age should not be overlooked. A thrifty young steer of good weight and in good flesh is to be pre- ferred to an older stunted steer. It should be said, furthermore, that a stunted steer of any age or weight is a profit spoiler in the feed lot. Uniformity in color of feeders is desirable, but the mistake should not be made of getting uniformity of color at the expense of more important characteristics. It is possible to secure good colors, reds and blacks, in steers of very poor quality and containing very little beef blood. If it is a question of choosing between a combination of good quality and correct conformation on the one hand, and good colors on the other, take the quality and conformation and let someone else have the colors. A one- eighth blood Hereford may have Hereford markings, or a one-eighth blood Angus, tlie color and polled characteristic of the pure Angus, and yet both grades may have but little beef character. 256 THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK HOW TO TELL. A GOOD COW Fig. 143. Names and location of points in external conformation of the cow. 1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, forehead; 4, poll; 5, lower jaw; 6, cheek; 7, neck; 8, back; 9, loin; 10, hip or hook; 11, rump; 12, pelvic arch; 13, switch; 14, thigh; 15, flank; 16, udder; 17, barrel or belly; 18, fore flank; 19, brisket; 20, dewlap; 21, heart girth; 22, loin girth. (Mumford.) For Dairy — Head small and clean-cut ; muzzle large ; forehead straight or concave ; neck long and thin without being scrawny; horns relatively small ; eyes bright and prominent; shoulders thin, loin broad but not thickly fleshed as in beef cattle; thighs thin; hindquar- ters long, deep, and power- ful; flank high; legs short and wide apart ; tail long, slim, and loosely jointed ; frame markedly wedge shaped; tapering from rump to shoul- der ; udder set broadly on abdomen, of generous size, extending high up behind, well held up to abdomen, not loose, pendulous or fleshy; milk veins large and prominent, on both udder and belly; teats medium size, evenly placed, and wide apart. A fleshy udder, firm to touch when empty, and retain- ing its size and form after milking, indicates predisposition to inflam- matory disease. Skin clean, with a fresh bright color; hair fine, thick, and soft ; temperament active and docile; large feeder. The main points in the selec- tion of a cow are to secure large udders that are not fleshy, and large roomy bellies, showing capacity for consumption of large quantities of food. Of course, great eaters and large producers are not always prof- itable cows, but they generally are. n^^c „^^ oniri^rv. ,^..rvfit.iKia nnlocc FiG. 144. Tj'pical dairy COW : Rose, grade Shorthorn, owned by the Cows are seldom profitable unless University of Ilhnois, Urbana, ill Record at 10 years of age : thev produce at least 250 pounds, Milk in one year, 11,388 pounds; butter fat, 565.13 pounds; butter, •' ^ 678.16 pounds; average.fat content of milk, 4.96 per cent. Milk in or more, of butter per year. one week, 317 pounds; butter in one week, 19.77 pounds. SELECTION OF A HORSE 257 HOW TO TELL. A GOOD HORSE For Speed — Height, 15i hands; minimum weight, 1,000 pounds; ears, pointed, flexible, set on side, not on top of head ; head, symmetrical, full under forelock and between ears ; neck, long and slim, with little or no arch, set well up on "top corner" of body ; front legs reaching out true, strong and straight ; front feet not thrown sidewise when speeding ; shoulders, set on obliquely ; body, short top line, long lower line ; hips well forward ; muscles along back prominent, development judged by pressure with thumb and fingers ; hind legs crooked at hock (but not too much so or they will be weak, and not too little or animal will "pound"); portion of leg from hock to fetlock and also from knee to fetlock relatively short and broad (not roundish) when viewed sidewise, but thin when seen from the rear ; line drawn from hock to fetlock nearly straight, concave rather than convex; if convex it is ' ' curby " ; hoofs not pointing out ; skin moderately thick and firm; chest capacity large ; body round. For Work — Full fore- head ; intelligent face ; shoul- ders strong and sloping ; gait free and easy ; stride long ; arm muscular ; legs strong, rather short and flat ; pastern sloping ; feet large and not too flat ; body large in girth and round; back broad, with muscular quarters ; croup wide ; weight (not clumsy) from 1,200 to 1,600 pounds, according to work required ; horse docile, hearty, and easily kept. Stallion for Breeding — As nearly as possible a perfect type of the sort of animal desired in the colt. First essentials, soundness, freedom from defects and blemishes, and good size. Should be thoroughbred of good disposition. 15i or 16 hands high; minimum weight, about 1,200 pounds. American horse as a rule too small, and while size is usually the gift of the mare, heredity must not be limited by undersized sire. Good size of prime importance for track, road, or farm. Disposition is imparted by sire, therefore avoid vicious or logy stallions. Other points Fig. 145. Names and location of points used in referring to the external conformation of the horse. 1, muzzle; 2, face; 3, forehead; 4, poll; 5, crest; 6, cheek; 7, lower jaw; 8, throat; 9, neck; 10, withers; 11, point of shoulder; 12, breast; 1.3, elbow; 14, forearm; 15, knee; 16, cannon or shank; 17, fetlock; 18, pastern; 19, coronet; 20. foot; 21, girth; 22, belly; 2.3, flank; 24, back; 25, loin; 26, haunch or hip; 27, croup; 38, dock; 29, thigh or quarter; 30, lower thigh or gaskin; 31, hock; 32, heel. (Mumford.) 258 THE JUDGING OF LIVE STOCK Body, well coupled up ; color uniform and bright ; quarters, full ; shoulders, full ; chest, broad ; head, finely shaped ; ears, large, flexible, pointed, straight, and alert ; eye, quick, full, and gentle ; nostrils, large; hair, soft and silky; skin not thin ; legs flat, not roundish, and muscular; hoofs, black ; feet broad, flat, and round ; in speeding, feet thrown not sidcwise, but straight forward. Do not expect a good colt from service of a traveling stallion, concerning whose antecedents you know nothing. Mare for Breeding — Of good size and color, sound in every particular ; in the vigor of life ; large powers of endurance, good traveler, active gait, well bred ; disposition gentle ; feet having neither toe nor quarter crack. The best breeding mare is not too good to use. More of the good physical qualities of the colt come from the mother than from the sire. HOW TO SELECT A BREEDING BOAR Fat Hogs — The breeding boar should be a good representative of some one of the leading breeds of swine. The question of selecting a good individual is more important than the selection of the breed. The use of grade boars and those of inferior pedigree can not be too strongly dis- Fiu. 14(1. Typical fat hog. (From a photograph fur- nished ioy Wallace's Farmer.) Fig. 147. Typical bacon hog : Engli.sh prize- winning Tamworth sow. (Breeder's Gazette.) couraged. The character of the head should be such as to indicate masculinity — broad, and in length, medium to short ; the neck should be short and broad, and smoothly joined to the shoul- ders ; the jowl of good size, as indicating good feeding quality ; the legs should be short, strong, and straight, well placed to the outside of the body ; back and loin straight or slightly arched, with plenty of width ; the chest should be wide and deep ; the flanks continuing the straight undedine, making the sides deep ; the girth should be large, both at the heart and flank ; hams and shoulders well developed. Compactness and symmetry throughout are desirable points, while strength of limb and masculine character should not be sacrificed to less important points. Such a boar selected from the Poland China, Berkshire, Chester White, or Duroc-Jersey breeds and bred to sows of merit that are high grades of some one of the above breeds will produce pigs which, if properly fed, will weigh 200 pounds at six months of age, and which > vill possess the desirable THE IDEAL MUTTOX SHEEP 259 Fig. 148. Names and location of points of external conformation of the pif?. ], snout; 2, face; 3, forehead; .4, neck; 5, jowl; 6, breast; 7, shoulder; 8, ham; 9, flank; 10, belly; 11, heart girth; 12, back; 13, loin; 14, rump; 15, toes; 10, side. (Mum- ford.) characteristics of the fat hog for American markets, namely, well-developed hams and shoulders, 13 12 good loins, and sides without too much waste. Bacon Hogs — In breeding hogs to produce the highest class of bacon, it is necessary to select animals which have been especially bred for this pur- pose, and feed them upon a ration best calculated to produce fine quality. The large Yorkshire and Tam worth are most extensively used for producing bacon hogs. They do not have the heavy jowls so prevalent in fat hogs, nor do they possess such a large amount of superfluous fat. The lean and fat in the pork is evenly distributed, while the sides are long and deep ; the belly wide and thick, and the back thinly fleshed. The fat should cover the body in an even layer throughout — it should not be more than about H inches in thickness, nor should it be less than about 1 inch. CHARACTERISTICS OF MUTTON^ SHEEP The student of animal form soon discovers that the important points in all animals bred and fed for meat production are noticeably similar. In considering the form of the prime steer, the fat hog or the mutton sheep, it is the same low- set, broad, and compact confer- 4 mation that is demanded. Producers must cater to the demands of dealers and consum- ers or, owing to lessened con- sumption or to lower prices for an undesirable product, sacrifice what they have to offer. The butcher's ideal of a mutton sheep involves form, fleece quality, and condi- tion, the main points being form, condition, and such points of gen- pval nnalifv q<5 nnn^-viVm^a ir\ iha Fig. 149. Pointsof external conformation of the sheep. 1, muzzle; eidl quality as COniriDUte to tne 2, face; 3, forehead; 4, poll; 5, scrag or neck; 0, brisket; 7, better-killine- onalitlPiii sheep: Fleece. (Mumford.) such an examination is of prac- tical utility. For example, by a careful view of the sheep as a whole, at SDme little distance, we judge of carriage and style. The general outlines, providing the sheep has not been blocked by the professional trimmer, should indicate whether the top and bottom lines are straight and parallel, whether the body is deep, the flanks full, and the legs short. At such a distance the sheep should present a low, massive, blocky appearance, the short legs standing well Length of Hind Quarter— Fig. 157 shows the method of determining the length of the hind quarter. It should be of good length and carried as level as possible. Fulness of Kump — Fig. 158 shows one way of noting the fulness or deficiency of the rump. By this method one should be able to judge whether a sheep carries its width well back. In all of these examinations it is well to bear in mind that it is the form of the carcass of the sheep, regardless of the cover- ing of wool, for which we should look. To do this the hand, or fingers, as occasion may require, must be firmly laid on the sheep. The "Leg of Mutton"— Fig. 159 shows manner of examining the "leg of mut- ton." The fleshing of thigh and the filling of the twist should be taken into consideration at this point. While the danger with the beginner in judging sheep is to judge too much by the general appearance of a sheep, Fig. Kjl. Judging mutton sheep: Fleece. (Mumford.) WOOL OR MUTTON, OR BOTH? 267 apart and well to the corners of the body. The legs should be reasonably straight as viewed from the side, front, and rear, which indicates strength and feeding type. A sheep with rather heavy bone is to be preferred to one with a tendency to be too fine boned. As a rule, too fine-boned sheep lack vigor and growth, being delicate and undersized. The fleece of a mutton sheep is practically the last point to be looked to, but it is a point that has been too much neglected. To go into a discussion of the proper examination of the fleece would require a treatise of too great length. Perhaps it will l)e sufficient to say that the wool should be opened as shown in Fig. 160. Such an examination should give a general idea of the quality, length of staple, and density of wool. The best wool on the sheep will be foimd at the point indicated, while the fleece should be opened as indicated in Fig. 161, on the thigh, to see if the quality, density, and length of staple is fairly uniform over the whole body. The wool on the lower thigh is often coarse, open, and shaggy — not a good sign. In conclusion, it may be said that one never learns all there is to be learned about judging sheep. By one who is really anxious to learn, one with a love for sheep and a keen sense of discernment, much can be learned in a short time. The first step is to become familiar with a correct method ; the next, to know that the most important points of the mutton sheep are the leg of mutton, the loin, and the back. With a well-developed loin, back, and thigh, couple a low, massive form on short, strong legs, fronted with a masculine head, and you have a ram that is safe to depend upon as a producer of good feeding lambs. V. THE PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL' WOOL OR MUTTON, OR BOTH? It is very doubtful whether the time will ever come when the keeping of sheep for the production of wool alone can be made profitable in many localities in the United States, Wool growing upon such a basis must, in the future, be confined to localities remote from the great meat consuming centers, where farmers are unprovided with rapid transportation to these centers, or where the cost of transportation of mutton would be so high as to render the carcass of little or no value. A moment's consideration would suggest that wool growing under such con- ditions could only be made profitable upon cheap lands, where the herding of large fiocks would be possible and where the climate and other conditions would be favor- able to the development of sheep and the healthy growth of the wool fiber. 1 From Bulletin 178 of the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, by the author. 268 PRODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL We can conceive how present conditions might be so changed as to render sheep husbandry profitable, if the wool product only were taken into account. It is not probable, however, that we shall ever see a repetition of conditions which existed earlier in this century. It is not probable that the price of the finer grades of wool will go so high that the breeder, even of that class of sheep, can afford to entirely overlook the ultimate value of the carcass for the block. It is not difficult to see that the ranchman who can run large flocks of sheep in bands, and who has at his command an almost unlimited grazing ground, can pro- duce wool more economically than the general farmer who keeps a flock and looks upon it simply as an incidental contributor to his income. The owners of small flocks, then, soonest feel the effects of depression and are most apt quickly to dispose of their flocks after one or two unprofitable years. Vie believe future conditions will bear us out in the statement that there will be very few years when a man who has a flock of sheep of good quality, who pursues care- ful and painstaking methods in handling them, will fail to secure a net profit. There is a promising outlook for the American farmer who economically pro- duces wool and mutton. I doubt if we shall again see the time when tiie fiock master can secure a net profit from his fiock unless he makes a thorough study of the industry, knows what he is trying to do, how he is to accomplish his ends, and is willing to settle upon a policy in breeding and rigidly adhere to it. May I venture to suggest here that one of the greatest sources of loss to the American farmer has been his vacillating from one line of breeding to another, from one rotation of crops to another, and from one system of farming to another ? Use all of the means at hand to decide the wisest line of sheep husbandry to pursue under your conditions, and then do not deviate from it without the best of reasons. Remember that a constant, persistent, and settled policy is best. In connection with this subject the question naturally arises : Can sheep hus- bandry be made profitable by disregarding entirely the wool product? In some few favored localities such a course of sheep husbandry maybe pursued with profit, but under ordinary conditions the wool product contributes materially to the net income from the flock. In some instances breeders of mutton sheep have I'ealized as much for their wool as the men who have been keeping sheep primarily for the wool which they produce. In making such a claim it should not be forgotten that the Ameri- can markets in the past have not been glutted with a large supply of the medium and coarse grades of wool, while the scarcity of fine wools, owing to the common stock of the country being largely Merino grades, has not been apparent until quite PKESENT AND FUTURE OF THE INDUSTRY 269 recently, although a few of the breeders of Merino sheep have persistently proph- esied that former conditions would return, and that the grading up of flocks for the production of the finer grades of wool would again profitably engage the atten- tion of American sheep men. Fashion in the manufacture of woolen fabrics, which has always been a potent factor in the price of different grades of wool, has seemed to encourage the growth of medium and coarse avooIs. While the future of the wool industry will be settled by conditions almost entirely beyond the control of the growers of this country, still everything points to a brighter prospect for the wool grower than for several years past, and esisecially for the producer of fine delaine wools. WORLD'S WOOL PRODUCTION The number of sheep in the world in 1894, according to S. N. D. North, was 571,163,062, and the amount of wool produced was 2,693,986,773 pounds, showing the average weight of fleece per head to be 4.7 pounds. Wool Product of the United States — From the same authority we learn that in the United States, during the same year, there were 45,084,017 sheep, producing 325,210,712 pounds of wool. By this we see the United States produces about one-eighth of the world's suj^ply of wool. The average weight of fleece in the United States is 7.21 pounds; more than two pounds per head above the world's average. For the last twenty years the number of sheep in the United States has varied from approximately 40,000,000 to 50,000,000; the latter figure was exceeded in 1884, while in 1894 the number was estimated at 45,048,017. Current prices for wool and mutton, combined with other conditions, which have made the production of one or the other of these products unprofitable, have caused this variation in the number of sheep kept, and a similar variation in the amount of the mutton and wool produced. It has not been due to an overproduction of wool, for statistics show that never has home-grown wool excelled, or even equaled, the consumption of wool in the United States. Outlook for the Future — No one can consistently say that we ought not to produce at home every pound of wool consumed within our borders. The natural adaptability of many parts of the country for sheep-raising suggests that we should, in every way possible, so adjust our farming operations, and our commercial and economic conditions, that the farms in the United States can produce at least all of the wool needed for home consumption, and that at a fair profit. 270 PRODUCTION AND MAEKETING OF WOOL From statistics furnished in the Wool Book for 1895, issued by the National Association of Wool Manufacturers, we learn that 453,048,456 pounds of wool were consumed in the United States during the year 1894. The wool produced in the United States during the previous year, which would naturally contribute to such consumption, amounted to 348,538,138 pounds. This shows that we produce little more than three fourths of the wool consumed. Since it is a well- known fact that the per capita consumption of the wool in the United States has steadily increased from 4.49 pounds in 1840 to 9.07 pounds in 1890, it is clear that wool growers have a prosperous future before them, if only they will give more careful attention to growing, preparing for market, and to developing markets for their home-grown products. An advance in prices of wools tends to stimulate the industry. More wool is grown, but the manufacturer is obliged to pay higher prices for the raw material. It is difficult for clothiers to get a correspondingly high price for manufactured goods, so that the usual result is that manufacturers substitute, where possible, part cotton. Tlie consumer gets his clothing just as cheaji, but does not get all-wool goods. Sheep growers in the United States have been urged to grow all the wool consumed in the United States. We would go still farther and call attention to the vast undeveloped markets for manufactured products. When we remember that of the inhabitants of the world there are 350,000,000 who do not wear clothes, and 100,000 000 more who wear only about one-half as many as they should, we can see great opportunities ahead in the way of markets for manufactured goods. Perhaps woolen goods would not in all cases be suitable ; — then let garments manu- factured from cotton and other fibers be used, leaving a clearer field for the wool producer who must now compete in a measure with producers of vegetable fibers grown at a minimum of cost. MANAGEMENT OF THE FLOCK AND ITS RELATION TO CONDITION AND VALUE OF WOOL Continuous Care Requisite — The sooner we, as wool growers, fully appreciate the diiference in value to the manufacturer between wools well grown and those poorly grown, the sooner will all our wools command a better price. We must banish forever the idea that condition, quantity, quality, and length of staple are all of the important factors affecting its value. But we must give more attention to the growing of wool fibers of great strength. Strength of the wool fiber depends, to a considerable extent, upon the quality of wool or the size of the fibers. The important point, however, in this connection, and the point which we wish to emphasize, is that there is a great difference in the relative strength of fibers of the same quality or grade of wool. When a difference of this kind exists it is largely due to the way it has been grown. HOW GOOD FLOCK MANAGEMENT PAYS 271 The strongest fiber of wool is produced on sheep when the animal has been supplied with an abundance of nourishing food throughout the year. If, on the contrary, a sheep is poorly nourished, the strength of the wool fiber will sooner or later be seriously affected. If proper care is not continuous through- out the year and the fleck is neglected during any period, then a break in the fiber occurs, which greatly weakens the fiber at that particular point. The strength of the weakest place in the fiber decides the strength of the whole fiber. So far as the writer has been able to discover there is no special ration, which, if fed to sheep, will produce wool of great strength, nor can it be said that any special ration is to be recommended to produce a large quantity of wool. It has often been observed that sheep and lambs which have been on full feed for long periods shear heavy fleeces of wool. This would indicate that any ration calculated to keep the sheep in a thrifty condition would be a suitable one for growing large quantities of wool. From what has been said, the wool grower will understand that it is highly desirable to provide the sheep proper nourishment throughout the year, permitting no periods of neglect to intervene to destroy the strength of the fibers of the fleece. Liberal and judicious feeding does not change the quality of the wool, but it does affect the strength and the quantity of the wool produced by a given sheep. The weight of wool produced is affected both by increase in the length of fiber and by increase in the amount of yolk, or natural oil, in the fleece. Condition of Wool refers to the cleanliness of the fleece — the absence of all foreign substances, such as sand, burs, chaff, and all other substances looked upon by the wool manufacturer as litter. It is not because these naturally light substances affect the weight of the fleece to any considerable extent that wool manufacturers so strenuously object to their pres- ence in the fleece, but that they must be removed from the fleece before it is ready for manufacturing purposes. The process of separating these substances from the fleece is not only very tedious, but very expensive, and, as a rule, it can not be done without more or less injury to the wool fiber. Knowing the above facts we can easily see how condition affects the price of wool, since it directly affects its value. It is not a difficult matter for the wool grower to so manage his flocks that the wool produced by them will be practically free from all litter. He must provide racks for the sheep which will permit them to eat without getting their necks full of chaff, seeds, and dust. (It is, of course, unnecessary to mention the old straw stack.) He must keep his farm free from bur-bearing weeds ; his flock will keep most other weeds in check. If we needed any proof that the farmers of our country are negligent about allowing weeds to grow and seed in abundance on their farms, we might visit some large wool-scouring or woolen mill, and carefully examine the refuse or waste from the mills : We would have abundant proof in the millions of weed seeds found. At some 272 PEODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL mills where such refuse is so dumped that seeds can germinate and grow, we find a large number of species and varieties of weeds. Breeds and their Fleeces — That we might get more definite information concerning the wool produced by the various breeds of slieep, more or less common in the United States, we tried to secure, for each of the breeds, a ewe's and a ram's fleece, which should be average typical fleeces of the breed. In most cases we were successful in securing what we desired, but in other instances we were not fully satisfied that the fleeces submitted were typical of the breed. In examining the tabulated facts below, we make the request that the reader should not consider the figures there exhibited as settling the relative merits of the various breeds as wool producers. Certain general conclusions may be drawn from the table, but it must be obvious to every thoughtful reader that it would be very nearly impossible to secure two fleeces which would in every way be representative of the various breeds. Table Showing Weight op Fleece, Per Cent op Shrink, Commercial Grade, and Price per Pound of Fleeces from Different Breeds of Sheep Breed American Merino American Merino National Delaine Merino Improved Black Top Merino American Rambouillet American Rambouillet. Cross Bred i Southdown Southdown Southdown Shropshire ... Suffolk Hampshire . . . Oxford Down . Oxford Down. Leicester . Cotswold . Cotswold . Lincoln... Lincoln... Tunis Dorset Horn. Dorset Horn . Dorset Horn. Dorset Horn. Cheviot Cross Bred 2 . m Ewe Ram Ewe Ram Ewe Ram Ewe Ram Ewe Ewe Ewe Ram Ewe Ewe Ewe Ram Ram Ewe Ram Ewe Ewe Ewe Ram Ewe Ram *13 Ewe 2 Ewe 1 5gS LBS. OZ 17 12 26 121/2 10 11% 1% 15 1 51/2 1 12 12 i5y2 6 9 2 81/2 3 31/2 8% 11 123/4 121/2 21/2 15 11/2 2 4 ; 1) !_ s 141/2 101/2 1 11 9% 9V3 51/2 4 8I/2 111/2 9 41/2 131/2 i3y2 5% 13 12 43A 1 41/2 101/2 141/2 10 4 72.36 75.15 57.79 69.64 55.42 44.19 60 73 55 75 50. 00 39.11 48 25 56.95 43 67 37. 56 41.53 .33 33 35.39 36 57 33.77 30 85 43 75 40 09 47 51 47.90 46.04 27.39 41 38 Commercial Grade X Clothing . . XX Clothing. Fine Delaine. Fine Delaine. X Clothing . . Fine Delaine . 1/2 Clothing. . % Combing . % Combing . % Combing . 14 Combing Low % Combing. % Combmg Braid Combing. . i/i Combing Low 1/4 Blood Coarse Combing, Braid Combing. . Braid Combing.. Braid Combing. . % Combing % Combing i/i Combing % Combing 1/4 Combing 1.4 Combing % Combing =? p ? ° i: O 3 t. O) o s «3 14 .13 .21V .20 ■ 20 .22 .19 .22 .23 23 .22 .23 .23 .20 .19 19 .19 .19 .20 .20 221/2 .221/2 .22 .22 .22 ■22y2 ■2iy2 I 50 .52 .51 .663/4 •44y2 391/4 ■ 483/4 .50 46 .373/4 .42% .531/2 .41 .321/4 .281/4 .291/4 .3oy4 .3oy4 .29 .39y4 .37 .421/4 .421/4 .403/4 .31 .34 1 Hampshire and Cotswold. 2 Rambouillet and American Merino. 3 Prices quoted Aug. 31, 1899. * Months old. GEADING OF WOOLS 273 That there might be absolute fairness in securing representative fleeces of each breed, the writer appealed to the secretaries of the various sheep breeders' and registry associations to aid in securing the fleeces. In most instances much valuable assistance was rendered. The weight of all fleeces is computed upon the basis of 365 days' growth. Coiiiiiiercial Grade — For the benefit of those who may not understand fully what is meant by the terms used in the column headed "Commercial Grade," a few brief explanations are made: General Grades — All domestic wools may be classified according to their quality, strength, and length of staple as (a) clothing or carding wools; (b) combing wools; (c) Delaine wools. (a) Clothing Wools are short wools and incidentally of relatively fine quality. In a general way all wools less than 2i inches in length are clothing or cai-ding wools. (b) Combing Wools are both long in staple and strong. Most of the coarser long wools are graded as combing wools. However, when a wool is long enough for combing and has the neces- sary size of fiber it may still be disqualified as a combing wool if it has been poorly grown. Breaks in the fiber caused by insufficient nourishment destroy the value of wools for combing purposes. (c) Delaine Wools are fine wools clipped from all varieties of Merinos or high grade Merinos which grow wool of long, strong staple. We might say that Delaine wools are combing fine wools. Subdivision of Grades — Each one of the three classes of wools above mentioned is subdi- vided according to quality or size of fiber, as follows: Picklock ,xf fl^^'-'^ fFine (a) Clothing wools... ^ X (b) Combing wools., i g^oarse or common ^"^ Delaine wools.. ^ Medium I '^°l'°'H^^°?'^ Braid ^ '-°"' I No. 2, or ^ ^ (^ No. 3, or 14 Picklock is a grade that is rarely found in the markets at the present time. Formerly a large quantity of this wool reached our markets. The wool from pure Saxony Merino sheep usually grades Picklock. XXX also is hard to find. When the Saxony Merino was crossed with the com- mon American or Spanish Merino, the cross-bred resulting usually produced wool grading XXX. XX is considered the standard for a pure-bred Merino. Some three-quarter blood Merino, nearly all of the high-grade Merino, and much of the coarser pure-blood Merino wool, grades as X. The terms i, f , and i blood do not necessarily mean that the wools were grown on sheep pos- sessing just that fraction of Merino blood. Many sheep containing no Merino blood grow wool grading f and i blood. No. 1 or i blood is the next coarser grade than X. No. 3 is coarser than No. 1, and so on. Coarse and Braid wools are invariably combing wools, and are the grades most frequently produced by Lincolns, Leicesters, and Cotswolds, which have fleeces coarse and long in staple, but bright and lustrous. 274 FEODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL Fine Delaine is the grade next coarser than the Braid Combing, while Low Delaine is long enough to be Combing, but a grade finer than the finest Combing wools, namely, f blood. Special Grades — Other grades of wool which are occasionally quoted in the markets are (a) felting wools and (b) noils. Upon request, Mr. Charles F. Avery of Boston, has defined felting wools and noils as follows . (a) "Felting "Wools are wools which ai"e adapted for felting purposes, usually of short staple, and having properties which cause them to felt quickly. We presume that j'ou understand that felting is a process whereby the fibers are interlocked in such a way that a solid fabric is produced without the intermediate processes of spinning and weaving." (b) Noils — "In the process of combing wool the fibers are drawn between fine needles and the dead and tender wools are broken off in the process and produce what are called noils, or what might be called combing waste. The long and healthy fibers are carried along through the comb- ing process and are formed into what are called worsted tops." WASHING AND SHEARING SHEEP Washing sheep is not nearly so prevalent as formerly. Most manufacturers agree that wool which has been washed in the country is not so desirable as that which has been sent to market unwashed. It is an unsatisfactory process at best, and many times the country washing makes scouring at the mills more difficult. Injury to the Wool — After a careful investigation of the subject we are- convinced that, in the long run, it is more profitable to dispense with washing altogether. We have secured better results by shearing our sheep during the first half of April than later in the season. This, of course, makes it impossible to wash sheep before shearing. We are satisfied that we can get not only a heavier average fleece, but also a wool of better strength from the same flock by shearing during the first half of April than by shearing in May or June. If reasonable care is taken to keep the wool free from dirt and litter while on the sheep's back, then there is little to be gained by washing. By an examination of the wool market quotations a class of unmerchantable wools will be noted. This class includes wools poorly washed. Injury to the Sheep — The subject of washing should not be dismissed without saying that if the author could believe the washing process an advantage to grower and consumer alike, he woitld still think the custom of doubtful utility on account of injury to the sheep. Sheep are often roughly handled, and not infrequently more injury is done to the sheep than good to the fleece. The sheep will suffer no inconvenience from early shearing, except for the first few days, if they are properly sheltered and protected from the cold, and more especially from WASHING, SHEARING, AND PACKING 275 storms. The wool makes a rapid growth during the cool months of spring, and the sheep are not sweltering under a thick blanket of wool. In the latter case the sheep are not only uncomfortable, but the wool makes little if any growth. For several years, in a majority of instances, the Eastern wool markets have been better in April than in June. This would give the grower who makes a practice of early spring shearing a slight advantage as to markets. Shearing — The best job of shearing is that which secures the largest amount of wool in the best condition for market without injury to tlie sheep. It is highly desirable that the sheep bB closely shorn and that there should be no second cuts. The fleece should be kept intact, not torn apart, and the skin of the sheep should not be wounded. Nearly all of the sheep east of the Mississippi River are shorn by hand, while many in, the West and on the ranges are shorn with machines. MARKETING WOOL Unlike most other farm products, wool can not be consumed on the farm. It is true that in the days of our grandmothers and the spinning wheel, a large part of the then small wool product of the United States was manufactured and used upon the farm. Now we neither spin the wool upon the farm, nor is it possible for us, when low prices prevail, to use up the surj)lus by feeding to our farm animals, thus converting it into meat products, as is possible with grains and hay produced upon the farm. The question of wool markets and the preparation of wool for the market is, therefore, one of vital importance to the wool grower. Dealers in and manufac- turers of wool make the following objections to the majority of wool marketed in the United States : (a) Either by neglect or intent, tags and litter are often incor- porated in the fleeces, (b) Too much twine of an inferior grade is used, (c) The use of the wool box results in packing fleeces into a square bundle that is too compact. Let us consider these objections. (a) Tags — If tags are understood to refer to bunches or locks of manure which have accumulated on small bits of wool about the thighs and hocks, then by all means they should be left out of the fleece, and either sold separately as tags, for what they will bring, or used as manure. We have known breeders of flne wool sheep who have thoroughly washed and dried the tags and then put a handful or so in each fleece. There is no great objection to this, providing the tags are well washed and thoroughly dry. It would be more businesslike, however, to sell the 276 PKODUCTION AND MARKETING OF WOOL washed tags separately, as the wool will never be so valuable as the rest of the fleece. It is perfectly legitimate to tie up all the wool that grows on the sheep in the fleece, provided that the wool is free from all foreign substances which would add to the natural weight of the fleece. It is worth while to offer here one reason why a majority of wool growers incorporate tags and litter in the fleeces which they sell. There are two distinct classes of growers who put tags into the fleece. The first class includes growers who put tags into the fleece either through absolute carelessness or with the evident intent of deceiving the buyer. This class of men is small and undeserving of consideration. The second class includes growers who are progressive and busi- nesslike. This statement sounds inconsistent, but it is not. These men have cut out tags and litter very carefully, it may be, for two or three years ; they have observed that, as a rule, they get no more for their wool than the men who put tags and all into their fleeces. This suggests that buyers are not careful enough in recognizing painstaking methods on the part of progressive growers. Buyers know the extra value of clean wool. Let them encourage the honest, pains- taking growers in a substantial manner by giving more per pound for their wool, a thing which they can well afford to do. Let them at the same time, discriminate against wool carelessly tied, or that which contains chaff, burs, and other litter. Until buyers rigidly adhere to that policy, but little improvement can be expected among wool growers. (b) Twine — Besides weight, there is still another reason why buyers object to coarse twine. The coarse, hard fibers of the twine are apt to work in among the wool fibers. Manufacturers find it difficult to separate these foreign fibers from the wool, and unless they are removed they work injury to goods manufactured from such wool. We believe the time has come when wool growers should adopt a small twine of better quality. A small linen twine used by nearly all wool growers in Australia is to be recommended in everyway. While such twine costs about 25 cents per pound, it runs nearly 2,700 feet to the pound. A pound of linen twine should, therefore, tie 270 fleeces, allowing 10 feet to each fleece, or 135 fleeces, allowing 20 feet to each fleece. This linen twine is soft, and should the fibers become mixed with the wool no material injury would be done. No. 18 hemp twine is also to be recommended. There are about 1,600 feet of this twine to the pound and it can be purchased for about 10 cents per pound. The only objection that can be raised to the use of a small, fine twine for tying wool is that it is hard on the wool packers' hands. (c) Wool Boxes — The majority of wool boxes which tie the fleeces in a square bundle are too small. The most of them were made for fleeces from Merino sheep, and new ones have not been made for handling more bulky, coarse wool ; consequently the fleeces are packed too snugly together. This gives them a heavy, soggy appearance, whereas they should present a light, loose, and bulky appearance. The method of tying wool in Canada is quite satisfactory. The fleece is spread out on a clean shearing floor with the outer ends of the wool up. The skirts of the fleece are folded in toward TEN POINTS FOR WOOL GROWERS 277 the center, only a trifle at each end, but considerable on the sides, so that the sides lap well ; then the fleece is rolled from end to end, making a short, cylindrical roll of wool. A small hemp twine is then run snugly around the roll a little distance from each end. Ten Points for Wool Growers — In conclusion, the following items should receive careful consideration : 1. The manufacturer buys wool on the basis of its true value for manufacturing purposes. The grower, the local dealer, the commission man, and the scourer should each make an honest effort to satisfy his reasonable demands. 2. Breed and feed affect the value of wool from the numufacturers' standpoint. Indiscriminate crossing is unprofitable. 3. A small linen, or flax or hemp twine is best for tying wool. 4. Coarse, heavy paint- marks should be avoided in marking sheep. 5. More and better wool can be secured by early shearing. 6. Loose, bulky fleeces sell best in the market. 7. Avoid lime and sulphur as a sheep dip. 8. Every pound of wool consumed in the United States can be profitably grown here. 9. It is very doubtful, indeed, if the American wool grower can ever afford to ignore the ultimate value of the carcass producing the fleece. 10. Mutton-growing with wool as an incidental product will continue to be a profitable industry. VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR INTERPRETING CATTLE MARKET QUOTATIONS 1. Learn to distinguish between a market class and a market grade. Speaking generally, the market classes of beef cattle are heef, hutcher-stocJc, cotters and canners, and stockers and feeders. The grades are prime, choice, good, medium, common, and inferior. 2. The names of the various classes indicate the uses to which cattle in those classes are put. The grades refer to quality, condition, and conformation, the relative importance of which factors, so far as they influence market values, is indicated by the order in which they have been enumerated, quality being of greatest importance, condition next, and conformation of least importance. 3. Weight has relatively but small influence in determining the grade and price of fat cattle. Quality and condition largely govern both. 19 278 INTERPRETING CATTLE MARKET QUOTATIONS 4. As a basis for comparison and study of other grades, become thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of prime steers and choice feeders ; these are the standard grades of fat cattle and feeders. Fluctuations in the market affect these grades less than others. 5. It is, therefore, more difficult to .determine an approximately correct valua- tion for a lot of low-grade cattle than for cattle of higher grades. G. Where practicable, follow your consignments to the market ; find out the desirable and undesirable characteristics of your cattle from the standpoint of the market. 7. Observe other cattle on the market and compare their quality, condition, conformation, and the prices paid for them, with the quality, condition, conforma- tion, and price of your own cattle, with which you are more familiar, 8. Compare price for which various lots of cattle have been sold with market quotations and note what grade of cattle is bringing similar prices. 9. The terms export, sliipinng, and dressed heef steers are no longer" significant of any particular grade of cattle. Several different grades and even different classes are exported, shipped, and used for dressed beef. 10. The most desirable steer for export, for shipping, and for the best grade of dressed beef either for domestic or foreign trade is the same in each instance. 11. The best grade of any class of cattle must be practically above criticism. 12. When cattle grade the best of their class they command a premium on the market. Such cattle usually sell at strong prices and for their full value. 13. Cattle of the lower grades, necessarily deficient in certain particulars, sell at a discount which in many instances is greater than their inferiority demands. 14. Thus it will be seen that the tendency is to spring the market for choice, prime, and fancy grades, while the common and medium grades are seldom, if ever, sold for more than they are worth; while many times they do not bring their full value, owing to a tendency on the part of buyers to magnify defects of minor importance. ^ / ^/^""Lyl^^T^^^^^-y^^^J--^^ BOOKS ON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY: THE HOESE 279 PUBLICATIONS ON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, BEE KEEPING, AND FISH CULTURE GENERAL PUBLICATIONS ON ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Animal Breeding. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y $1.50 Breeds, The Study op. By Thomas Shaw. Orange Judd Co., ^.Y l.oO Farm Boy, Letters to the. By H. Wallace. The Macmillan Co., N. Y 1.00 Feeding Animals. By Elliott W. Stewart. Orange Mdd Co. , '^ . Y 2.00 Feeding op Animals, The. By W. H. Jordan. The Macmillan Co., NY 1.25 Feeding of Farm Animals, The. Farmers' Bulletin 22. United States Department of Agriculture Feeds and Feeding. By W. A. Henry. TF. J^. iZe?ir2/, Madison, Wis 2.00 Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine. By George W. Curtis. Rural Publishing Co., N. Y. 1.50 Judging Live Stock. By John A. Craig. John A. Craig, Rice Lake, Wis 1.50 Reprigeration and Cold Storage. By A. J. Wallis-Tayler. D. Van Nostrand Co., N. Y. 4.50 Root Crops for Stock. By W. A. Burpee. W. A. Burpee & Co., Philadelphia ... .20 Stock Breeding. By Mauley Miles. D. Appleton & Co.,'^.Y 1.50 Winter Care of Horses and Cattle. By T. B. Terry. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . .35 PUBLICATIONS ON THE HORSE Bridle Bits. By J. C. Battersby. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 1.00 Family Horse, The. By George A. Martin. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1 00 Horse, How TO Judge A. By F. W, Bach. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 Horse, Stonehenge on the. By J. H. AValsh. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 Horse, The. By Youatt and Spooner. Orange Judd Co., N.Y ... 1.00 Horse, The; How to Buy and Sell. By Peter Howden. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 Horse Book, American Reformed. By G. H. Dadd. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . . . 2.00 Horse Book, The American Farmer's. By Robert Stewart. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y. . 3.00 Horse Breeding. By J. H. Sanders. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.50 Horse Keepers, Hints to. By Henry William Herbert. Orange Judd Co.. 1^. Y. . . 1.50 Horses and Horse Breeding, American. By Johu Dimon. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 3.50 Percheron Horse, The, in America and France. By Weld and DuHays. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 Saddle Horse, The. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 Stable Guide, The American Gentleman's. By Robert McClure. Henry T Coates & Co., Philadelphia . 1.00 Trotting Horse, Training The. By Charles Marvin. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y. . . . 3.50 TuRP, Handbook OP The. By Samuel L. Beardman. Orange Judd Co., "S^.Y. . . . 1.00 Vicious Horses, How to Handle and Educate. By Oscar R. Gleason. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 280 BOOKS ON CATTLE, SHEEP, AND ANGORAS PUBLICATIONS ON CATTLE AND DAIRYING Beef Production, Some Essentials in. Farmers' Bulletin 71. United States Depart- ment of AgrirAilt are Beep and Dairy Cattle, Conformation op. Farmers' Bulletin 143. United States Department of Agriculture Cattle Breeding. By William Warfield. Orange J udd Co., N. Y $2.00 Cattle Feeding, Manual of. By H. P. Armsby. John Wiley & Sons, N. Y. . . . 1 . 75 Cattle, Market Classes and Grades of. Bulletin 78. Illinois Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Urbana, 111 Cheese Making. By John W. Decker. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 1.75 Cheese Making, A B C in. By J. H. Monrad. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 Cheese Making in Switzerland. By J. H. Monrad. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 Dairy Bacteriology, Outlines of. By H. L. Russell. Orange Judd Co., T^.Y . . . 1.00 Dairy Calf, The. By L. S. Hardin. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 25 Dairying, American. By H. B. Gurler. Orajige Judd Co., l^.Y 1.00 Dairying, The Chemistry of. By Harry Snyder. Chemical Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. 1 . 50 Dairyman's Manual. By Henry Stewart Orange Judd Co , 1^. Y. . 1.50 Milch Cows, Guenon on. By Thomas J. Hand. Orange Judd Co. , N. Y 1.00 Milk and its Derivatives, Practical Treatise on the Examination of. By J. A. Wanklyn, D. Van Wostrand Co., '^.Y 1.00 Milk AND Its Products. By Henry H. Wing. The Macmillan Co. , 'N . Y 1.00 Milk : Its Nature and Composition. By C. M. Aikman. The Macmillan Co., N. Y. . 1.00 Pasteurization. By J. H. Monrad. Orange Judd Co. , 'N . Y 50 Shorthorn Cattle. By A. H. Sanders. Saiiders Publishing Co 3.00 PUBLICATIONS ON SHEEP AND ANGORA GOATS American Merino, The. By Stephen Powers. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.50 A New Industry. 1 By William Black. Wm. Black, Fort Worth, Texas 3.00 Angora Goat, Information Concerning the. Bulletin 27, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture 15 Angora Goat, The. By S. C. C. Schreiner. Longmans, Oreen & Co., N. Y 3.00 Angora Goats, American. By George Edward Allen. Orange Judd Co., ^. Y 25 Mutton, Raising Sheep for. Farmers' Bulletin 96. United States Department of Agri- culture Sheep, The. By William A. Rush worth. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.50 Sheep, The Domestic. By Henry Stewart. Atnerican Sheep Breeder Co., Chicago . . 1.50 Sheep Feeding. Farmers' Bulletin 49. United States Department of Agriculture . . . lAngora goat raising. BOOKS ON SHEEP, SWINE, BEES, AND FISH 281 Sheep Industry, History, and Present Condition of the. Special Report, Bureau of Auimal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture (1892) $1.40 Winter Lamb, T [IE. By H. H. Miller, E. Wing, and H. O. Miller 50 Wool, The Production and Marketing op. Bulletin 178. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Agricultural College, Mich PUBLICATIONS ON SWINE Hog Raising in the South. Farmers' Bulletin 100. United States Department of Agri- culture Home Pork Making. By A. W. Fulton Orange Jiidd Co., 'N. Y 50 Pig, The. By Joseph Harris. Orange Judd Co., 1^. Y. 1.00 Swine Husbandry. By F. D. Coburn. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 1.50 PUBLICATIONS ON BEES, RABBITS, AND FISH Apiary, Manual op the. By A. J. Cook The Macmillan Co., N. Y 1 25 Bee Culture, A B C OP By A. I. Root. A. I. Root & Co., WeCim-A, 1.20 Bee Keeping. Farmers' Bulletin 59. United States Department of Agriculture . . . Foul Brood, Laws Relative to Bulletin 13, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Dejjartment of Agriculture 05 Hive and Honey Bee. By L. L. Langstroth. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.25 Honey Bee, The: A Manuai, op Apiculture. Bulletin 1, New Series, Division of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture 15 Quimby's New Bee Keeping. By L. C. Root. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 1.00 Belgian Hare Breeding. By J. W. Darrow. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 25 Rabbit Keeper, Practical. By " Cuniculus." Orange Judd Co., N. Y. .... 1.50 American Angler's Book. By Thaddeus Norris Henry T. Coates & Co., Philadelphia 5.50 Carp Culture, A B C op. By Root and Finley A. I. Root <& Co., Medina, 35 Familiar Fish and How to Catch Them. By E McCarthy. D. Appltton & Co., N. Y. 1.50 Fish Culture, American. By Thaddeus Norris. Henry T. Coates & Co., Philadelphia 1.75 Home Fishing and Home Waters. By Seth Green. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 50 Trout, Domesticated: How to Breed and Grow. By Livingston Stone. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 2.50 (283) Beef Making By L. H. Kerrick, Bloomington, 111. President of the American Aberdeen-Angus Breeders'' Association THE CORN BELT FARMERS' OPPORTUNITY Beef is the imperial flesh food of the race ; it always has been and probably will continue to be. Therefore we may expect that the demand for beef, especially good beef, will be as constant as that for any other product of the farm. Intelli- gent beef production will certainly be rewarded with fairly constant and reasonable profits. Where conditions favor it, we strongly advise farmers to convert some part of the products of their farms into beef. Beef making is more intimately connected with the maintenance of soil fertility than any other branch of animal husbandry. Many kinds of forage and roughage and other farm products, which it is not practicable to harvest and prepare for market, may be converted iuto beef to sell and manure to enrich the soil of farms that have a beef herd. When prices of corn and oats and hay are very low — when a great amount of these brings a small amount of money, they may be stored in the form of beef upon young, growing cattle, with chances gained of marketing in that Avay at a higher and profitable price. Beef making is a business of absorbing interest. It may be called a higher branch of farm study. The care of a herd of beef cattle affords room for tlie exercise of faculties only partially engaged in the ordinary routine of planting and tilling and harvesting. The boys are sure to become interested in it, and likely all the family. The world must look to the Corn Belt of the United States for its chief supply of fine beef. Over all this vast region all the feeds required to make the best beef are produced in great abundance. The climate is well adapted to the production of beef. Tlie average farm equipment and improvement with little change or addition, can be well suited to raising and feeding cattle for beef. Costly barns for close housing of feeding cattle are not now deemed necessary or even desirable. Farmers of the Corn Belt have the capital and intelligence needed in the business of making high-class beef. They have shipping facilities almost complete. They have already a good but not adequate stock of beef cattle which is being rapidly increased and improved. (283) 284 L. H. KEREICK ON BEEF MAKING There are indications that Corn Belt farmers are being awakened to the peculiar opportunities and advantages which they may enjoy in the business of furnisliiug the workl its good beef. More are engaging in the business than formerly and still more may engage in it with profit. The middle Western States — the corn States, should become, and I think will become, noted as the great beef-producing region of the worlds- noted not only for the amount, but for the fine quality of the beef produced. When Corn Belt farmers are fully aroused to their advantages it will not be long till a handsome share of the world's money will be coming their way to buy their good beef. It is the object of this article to encourage our farmers generally to engage in the business of breeding, raising, and feeding cattle for beef, and also to outline, as well as we can, the present state of knowledge of cattle feeding. We do not know so much yet about beef making that anyone need be discouraged about learning what is known about it. However, the less we know, the more important is it that prospective cattle feeders know the little that is known. THE THREE-YEAK-OLD STEER MUST GO Injudicious and wasteful methods of handling and feeding cattle should be promptly discarded. Our lands are now high priced, but not nearly so high as we believe they will be in the not distant future. In the days of cheap lands and cheap feed, half a bushel of com a day to a steer and two or three acres to graze him on, and three to three and a half years to prepare him for market, might go for cattle business, but not now. With the passing of cheap lands the three-year-old steer must go, too. The Corn Belt beef must be made, if made with profit, in thirty months and under. Prime Beeves at Twenty to Thirty Moutlis — It is entirely prac- ticable by simple, natural, economical methods to produce prime beeves of 1,400 to 1,600 pounds weight at twenty to thirty months old. We have produced them in carloads weighing over 1,700 pounds at about thirty-one months old. But this implies that they be fed continuously and fed properly from calves to ripe beeves. I am confident this will become the general practice with beef producers in the Corn Belt. High-priced land makes intensified farming necessary. It will also make inten- sified beef making, i. e., constant good feeding from calf to beef, equally necessary. The greatest weight of beef can be made with a given amount of feed during the first twenty or twenty-four months of a steer's life. Why not then let him have the FEEDING FOR MARBLED FLESH 285 feed during that period ? The whole mission of a steer is to convert our feed into beef. Why not keep him busy every day at his proper work ? If we let him go a month or a day with less feed than he can make into beef, that month or day he fails to make us the money he might be making. Best Beef by Early, Constant Feeding — It is my opinion that not only the greatest weight of beef for the amount of food consumed, but also the best beef, is made by supplying a steer liberally and constantly with the riglit kind of feed during the first twenty or twenty-four months of his life. It stands to reason, and our experience points to the fact, that the thickest red meat, so desirable and valuable, with the richest intermingling of fat, must be made during the period of the steer's most rapid growth. If a steer be permitted to run until two or two and a half years old on barely living rations, we suspect his red meat can hardly be thickened or increased very much after that, by any kind of feeding. The fat may be put on him and put inside of him after he is two years old, and the quality of his red meat may be improved by good feeding. But I believe he has missed his chance to make the greatest thickness and best quality of red meat that he was capable of making. FEEDING FOR MARBLED FLESH The steers represented in Figs. 162 and 163 were fed a grain ration continuously from five to six months of age until they went to market. They ran with their dams on blue grass pasture until weaned. About five weeks before weaning we began to teach them to eat a little corn meal and ground oats mixed. At the first, very little — in fact, but a taste — was spread in their troughs. When finally taken off the cows they knew as well as older steers how to eat. For the next six or seven months they were fed all they could safely take of a mixed ration of corn in some form; oats, ground or whole; oil meal; and wheat bran. Not all of these different feeds are given all the time, hut two or three at each feed. Corn is our principal and constant feed from start to finish. Four-fifths of all concentrated feed used is corn — sometimes ground, again soaked; sometimes broken and sometimes whole corn fodder, shuck corn and all, just as it comes from the shock. Full Feed at Twelve Months — Until twelve months old we feed our steers cautiously. It is not so bad to give them somewhat less than they can safely take up to that age, as it is to give them more. When about a year old they go on full feed, i.e., all they will clean up and digest well. Steers will readily learn (286) HIGH-GRADE BEEVES IN CARLOAD LOTS 287 to eat up clean much more than they can digest and assimihite. The point to make in good feeding is to keep steers eating up to the amount they can assimihite and make into good beef. The feeder must be the judge of what that amount is, and not the steer. I conclude that a peck of good sound dry corn, or at the most, one-third of a bushel, with two or three pounds of old process oil meal or the same quantity of gluten meal, and a pound or so of wheat bi'an wilh suitable roughage, will make as much beef on a steer twenty to twenty-four months old as any larger ration. And it will make a better quality of beef. Younger steers will need a proportionately smaller amount. At this time we have on full feed sixty-four high-grade Angus steers. Their average age is about twenty-five months. They are fed twenty pounds of good sound ear corn soaked, one and one-fourth pounds oil meal, and one pound of wheat bran for every steer daily in two feeds, morning and evening. We will increase the oil meal to about two and a half pounds. They have mixed clover and timothy hay in quite moderate quantity, and the run of about twenty-six acres of blue grass pasture. These steers are preparing for the Christmas market. At this time, September 20th, they are making entirely satisfactory gains. By the first of December they will be finished, ripe, prime beeves, heavy enough and fat enough and not too fat to meet the highest market demand. These steers and all the steers we have fed for many years are raised and fed in the open. They are never closely housed. They have sheds open to the south, to which they may go for protection' from storms. Sometimes, in the height of fly time, we have arranged for a cool, darkened place into which a load or more of steers which are receiving special fitting may retreat from the flies and extreme heat. Importance of Roughage — All our steers are fed in open troughs out of doors ; never less than a carload and sometimes three or four carloads eating together. It is of the utmost importance in full-feeding cattle to have them con- sume a proper amount of roughage. If steers are given all they v ill eat of concen- trated feed they are likely to acquire a morbid appetite for it and a capacity for making away with an extravagant amount of it, while they lose the natural appetite for more bulky food. In order to compel our cattle on full feed to consume a due proportion of rough- age, we often '"bed" the feeding bunks or troughs with mixed clover and timothy hay, or shredded fodder. Over this laver or bedding of roughage we carefully dis- tribute the concentrated feeds — corn, oil meal, etc. In this simple way, roughage and concentrated feeds are so mingled that the steers are obliged to take both at 288 L. H. KERRICK ON BEEF MAKING the same time. It should never be forgotten that a steer is a ruminant. His digestion will suffer and assimilation will be imperfect if there is failure to main- tain some just proportion between the concentrated feeds and roughage which he consumes. Without doubt much larger gains will be secured for the corn and other concentrates consumed by judicious mingling with suitable roughage. Beef or Tallow : Which ? — Referring again to the pictures of the "Babes in the Wood" and the "Grand Champions," their great thickness is apparent. Which is it, beef or tallow ? Buyers and judges are prone to believe that such cattle are excessively fat — "overdone." It is true that the majority of steers showing such great thickness are too fat ; but not these. The majority of steers do not go on full feed till past two years old. They are then generally fed an excessive amount of corn — a fat-making food, without the protein-bearing oil meal or gluten meal to supplement it; and the result is, frequently, overdone and overfat cattle. Not so with steers fed during tlieir rapid-growing period with corn, properly balanced by the addition of oats and bran and some oil meal or gluten meal. The steers represented in the figures showed a great development of red meat richly mottled with fat ; but there was no excessive percentage of fat. And none need be feared from such feeding as they had. On this point we can speak from many years of experience. CONCLUSION Summing up, we advise farmers generally throughout the Corn Belt to breed and feed cattle for beef. Feed liberally, feed for beef all the time, from calves to finished ripe beeves. Instead of growing a steer to be afterward "fattened," grow a beef, ripe, finished, fat, and prime, in twenty to twenty-four months. You will thus make better beef, and make it in less time, and make more of it with a given amount of feed than by the old method of growing a steer to be afterward fat- tened. Aim to maintain good variety in the feed. Supplement the coin with oats, bran, oil meal, or gluten meal. Supply good roughage, and feed in such a way as to secure the consumption of a due amount of it. Breed for the early maturing type. Handle your cattle gently, always; treat them humanely, kindly; the very best results may not be expected without such treatment and handling, Feeding^ Native Cattle for Beef By John P. Stevenson, Tarkio, Mo. Practical farming, in a nutshell, is the farming that is planned and carried out, 3'ear by year, with a view to making the most of every natural advantage, and turning even what might seem to be disadvantages to profitable account. The practical farmer is the. farmer who studies and solves his own problem, taking whatever he can get, to be sure, in the way of side-light from the experience and research of others, but never forgetting that bushels can not be measured with yard- sticks, and that what is gospel truth in one part of the country may be rank heresy in another. Many an Eastern farmer, for instance, seeing hundreds of bushels of ear corn hauled out daily to the steers in an Atchison County feed lot, doubtless would exclaim at what he would consider a willful waste. Willful waste it might, indeed, be for him ; but for us, it is the most profitable way of marketing our staple crop. The hogs that follow the steers see to it that scarcely a kernel, scattered, tramped in, or undigested, goes to waste. Natives vs. Rangers — The feeders of the Missouri Valley who make it their business to put six months of beef-and-fat-growing on to the steers other farmers and ranchers have raised, have merely adapted themselves to the circum- stance that their acres lie in the richest part of the Corn Belt, and convenient both to stocker markets and to beef markets. When it comes to choosing what sort of stockers they shall feed — whether natives or rangers — they must again accom- modate themselves to circumstances. A large feeder — and by that I mean one who turns out beeves by the thousand annually — can scarcely obtain for his feed lots native cattle of desired quality exclusively. Nor can one whose feeding operations extend to no more than 500 or 600 head a year be always sure of getting them. My own preference, however, is for Kansas feeders — any fairly well-bred cattle, regardless of breed. If native cattle of proper form and even condition are not obtainable, Westerns must be used ; but with me they are a second choice. The best time of year for buying feeders in the stocker markets of the Missouri River is between the middle of August and the middle of November. To buy them at that time means carrying the bunch through the winter, but at the age I buy them — two years or more — there is growth in the steers still, and the fieshing-up they get is not simply a matter of laying on fat where there is room for it. (289) J. p. STEVENSON ON NATIVE CATTLE FEEDING 291 Suniiner Feeding of Young" Steers — I have obtained my best results with summer feeding of steers that will weigh, when bought, about 900 pounds. For from four to six months before putting in the feed lot, I run them on stalk- fields and pasture (blue grass preferred, because of the way it withstands frost). In the stalk-fields I give them a light ration of corn in extremely cold and stormy weather. They are turned on to grass in early spring, and in from two to four weeks, by slowly increasing their ration, they are safely got onto full feed of corn — half a bushel per head, salt being kept where they can always get at it. The feed- ing period lasts for about 180 days. There is profit, in my experience, in winter fattening, but not so much as in summer feeding. In the case of winter feeding, the steers are fed — under sheds, with free access to the open feed lot — all the hay or corn fodder they will eat, with a full ration of corn — snapped, husked, or shelled, the shelled corn being used especially at finishing time. In the winter I have fed up to 4 pounds per day of cotton-seed meal with excellent results, and either bran or linseed meal, or both, in moderate quantities, has proved beneficial, though one can not count on the hogs receiving any appreciable share in the"benefit from these feeding-stuffs. On the other hand, in the case of corn, when we run a shoat after every steer, as I do, we figure that the hogs get 15 per cent of the grain fed, and while the steers are making an average daily gain of about 3 pounds (on full feed of corn, with grass in summer) the hogs are laying on profits at the rate of from f to 1 pound a day. In winter, on full feed of corn with drj roughness, we count on average daily gain, for the steers, of from 2 to 3^ pounds. Results — The cattle thus fed are shipped to the Chicago and Missouri Eiver markets at from 3 to 3 j years, when they weigh from 1,300 to 1,350 pounds, the aim being to turn out beef steers of the market grade known as good.^ The year 1902 has been one of exceptional prices, for which the state of the beef-cattle supply has furnished sufficient explanation, without need of any allegation that a "^corner" in the finished product was responsible. Under ordinary circumstances, in ordinary years, however, I should consider that a difference of from 11.50 to $1.75 between buying and selling piices gave an ample margin of profit on feeding, wliile a difference of only II would let me out without loss. iPrime beef comes from about one year's full-feeding of balanced rations, and is a higher grade than we make. a e3 1.-W O a S iJ) 43 ^. Qt H y (292) Feeding" Raiige Cattle for Beef By David Rankin, Tarkio, Mo. The feeding of beef cattle with me is, to all intents and purposes, a manufactur- ing business. Where my farm practice is in harmony with scientific theory, it is because I have found that the theory brings profit in practice. Where I depart from theoretical practice, or stop short of following out an accepted theory to its extreme, it is because I can make more money the other way. Circumstaiices Govern Methods — You can not get away wholly from local conditions. I do not mean to imply by that that for the sake of present returns one is justified in misusing his land. The man who feeds all he raises and sells the concentrated product — beef — is not misusing his land; for the fertility is returned to the soil. The man who feeds all he raises and buys more feed besides is doing even better by his land, even if he may not be doing so well by his pocketbook. I should make more money if I could raise all the corn I want to feed; but I do not begrudge the $100,000 or such a matter that it costs a year for extra feeding-stuffs. The point I make is simply this: The feeding of farm stock is a science, but it's a science that we follow for profit. To lose sight of the practical side is as bad as to ignore what the experiment stations are finding out for us. A man can not afford to sell cheap corn and buy dear cotton-seed meal just because he will get a better- balanced ration out of the combination; whereas, on the other hand, when corn is high, he can better afford to make his rations "narrower "by the purchase of nitrog- enous concentrates. Very likely anyone who feeds range steers on a similar scale and under like con- ditions might be interested in my way of doing things ; but if the general run of farmers and feeders find what I have to say helpful, it will be because my experi- ence emphasizes the need of sound business management on the farm, instead of a reckless running after every new thing. Sometimes the farmer can afford to try experiments; sometimes he can't. Sometimes, he can afford to do exactly the scientific thing — and can not afford not to do it ; sometimes he can't. He must be the judge, and not afraid to stand by his own judgment — not afraid to be in a (293) 20 294 DAVID RANKIN ON RANGE CATTLE FEEDING measure unscientific, if he finds that in all the circumstances it will pay him ; not slow to adopt new, scientific methods, if they commend themselves to his business sense. All that is j)recisely what the agricultural colleges and experiment stations are careful to tell the farmer : That no general rule can be followed blindly ; that every man must think for himself, feed as well-compounded a ration as he can afford, and keep his eye all the time on the profit. Shredded Fodder for Winter Feeding — In buying my range stock- ers, grown chiefly in Texas and on the Northwestern plains, I necessarily take what I can get in the way of breed — any good breed, well bred up and in fair flesh, not less than three-year-olds and weighing generally 1,000 pounds or over. If I were able to take my choice, I probably should prefer white-faces — Herefords. Fig. 166. Plowing and planting on David Rankin's ranch No 12. S'il ii.inlitions in Northwestern Missouri make it possible to list in the seed-corn, combining the preparation of the seed-bed and the planting in one operation. I used to say that summer feeding was the thing to follow, but I am not so sure of it now that we are using shredded fodder. I believe that with shredded fodder the steers do as well as on grass. So I lay in my stockers according to my needs and the state of the range cattle market, but generally between August and October, and get them on full feed as quickly as possible, frequently in as short a time as ten days or two weeks. This sort of feeding is a wholesale matter. Labor must be economized. I never have a man do for a bunch of steers what the steers can Just as well do for themselves; so they are fed husked corn from behind the shredded- fodder stacks during the winter, the shredded fodder giving them all the roughage they need; for they have all they will eat. METHODS AND RESULTS 295 Feeding Method and Rate of Gain — For pasture, I have dropped blue grass in favor of clover and timothy, and I run my cattle on it the year round, whenever the grass gets good. With the grass, in summer, I feed ear corn. From 150 to 200 steers are as many as I find it desirable to run in the feed lot together, and from 200 to 300 will get pasturage, if they have plenty of corn, after the grass gets well up, from every 160 acres. The heavy feeding begins about the first of March, and when corn is dear, each steer has from 5 to G pounds of cotton-seed meal daily. The salt is kept before them all tiie.time. Feeding in that way, the bulk of the steers are finished during the summer months, when prices are best, and before fall poultry comes into competition with beef. The selection for shipping goes on daily during the shipping season, the weights of the beeves ranging from 1,200 to 1,400 or 1,500 pounds. A steer well bred up and in fair flesh at the start ought to be a beef in four months' time, though some take as much as six months to be fit for market. I figure on an average daily gain per head, for the feeding period, of from 2 to 2| pounds ; and with average conditions ( say corn at 35 cents, hay at 18, and other feeding stuifs in proportion ) I should want $1.50 margin over cost price in order to make a satisfactory profit. 296 HOW FARMING PAYS BUSINESS METHODS ON THE FARM David Rankin's ranches are situated near Tarkio, Northwestern Missouri, and comprise between 33,000 and 33,000 acres of kind, most of which is valued in the neighborhood of 1100 an acre. As a practical illustration of the profit farming may be made to yield by the application of business principles to all its details, the following summary statement of Mr. Rankin's operations for the year 1900 will be found of interest : Statement of Farming Operations for 1900 Foremen Ross.. Kenney Ramey New Mullen Hanna Sunderland Kendall Smithson Wreath Town Rankin toins — The disease comes on very quickly, the fever is high, and the pulse and respirations rapid. The visible mucous membranes are red, the animal does not eat and acts stupid. Frequently chills are observed. If we place our ear along under the neck or at the side of the chest, we can hear the respiratory sounds, which are rough and louder than normal. The cough is at first dry, then moist. The general symptoms subside in a few days, generally in about a day, but unless the animal is cared for may become complicated. In the horse bronchitis is not a serious disease, but in other domestic animals is more apt to run a longer course and become complicated. If the causes continue to act the disease may then become chronic. In this form the secretions are abundant, whitish curdled matter being discharged. This discharge is more abundant when the horse is first exercised than at any other time. Symptoms of broken wind are usually noticed, the animal is weak and unfit for work, and runs down in flesh quite rapidly. Treatment — Good care and comfortable, well- ventilated quarters are all that are necessary in mild cases. The animal must be protected with warm blankets, and, if chilling, it is best to rub the legs and then bandage them with woolen bandages. A laxative and easily digested diet should be given. Fumigations with steam every four or five hours are useful in allaying the inflammation. Liquor ammonia acetate in 2-ounce doses eveiy three hours till the temperature falls to the normal, then three times a day for a few days, is very useful. If the animal coughs and has some difiiculty in swallowing, a liniment should be rubbed on the throat and the follow- ing mixture given: Tincture aconite (6 drams), tincture belladonna (1 ounce), syrup of squills (add enough to make 8 ounces) ; give one tablespoonful three times a day. Animals affected with chronic bronchitis should not be worked. We should guard against their taking cold, give them good nourishing foods, and tonics if necessary. The following mixture may be given : Fluid extract of gentian (2 ounces). Fowler's solution (6 ounces) ; mix and give half an ounce in the feed or as a drench three times a day. Alkalies and strong alteratives may be given. HEMORRHAGE FROM THE LUNGS Causes — Pulmonary hemorrhage is generally due to overexertion and excite- ment. It may occur if the animal is forced to do severe work or exercised when sick or exhausted. It may accompany severe pulmonary congestion and pneumonia. 328 DISEASES OF THE EESPIRATORY TEACT Symptoms — The characteristic symptom is a discharge from the nostrils or mouth of red frothy blood. The discharge is usually intermittent and may occur in large quantities. The mucous membranes are generally pale, the animal trembles, looks anxious, is restless, coughs, and has a weak pulse and a high fever. Difficult breathing is a prominent symptom. Death may occur in a short time. Treatment — The animal must be kept as quiet as possible. The quarters should be com- fortable and well ventilated. By using good judgment in handling the animal serious pulmonary hemorrhage can be largely avoided. In severe cases treatment is of little use. CROUPOUS PNEUMONIA PNEUMONIA OF THE HORSE Causes — The causes are very much the same as in other respiratory affec- tions. During the cold weather it is more common than at any other time of the year. It may be due to contagious causes. If the animal is already suffering from some respiratory disease, such conditions as exposure to cold and wet, drafts in the stable, chilling suddenly after perspiring freely, washing with cold water, and neg- lecting the proper protection of clipped horses during cold weather, are very likely to cause pneumonia. Symptoms — When the disease first affects some other part of the respiratory tract and the lungs are affected secondarily, the earliest symptoms are confounded with those of the first disease and will vary according to the severity of the attack. At first we notice chilling, the temperature of the surface of the body is uneven, and -the animal has a high fever. The mucous membranes are reddened, the nostrils dilated, the respirations quickened and difiicult, the expired air hot, the appetite diminished, and the pulse accelerated. We may hear the animal cough, and generally a rustji discharge accumulates around the margins of the nostrils. The horse is inclined to be con- stipated and remains standing. If it lies down at all it is on the diseased side. In severe cases the expression is anxious, the respirations labored, the general symptoms aggravated and the horse stands with elbows turned out and the front feet spread apart. The course of pneumonia is typical, and unless it terminates fatally in the first stages, the periods of congestion, JiepaUzation (con- solidation), and resohUion will generally follow each other in a regular manner. Auscultation and percussion are valuable aids in diagnosing and watching the progress of the disease. During the period of congestion, which lasts about one day, one can hear sounds in the diseased lung tissue. Consolidation follows, the lung tissue becoming red or reddish-gray in color, and dense, like liver. In the latter stage of the hepatization the dissolution and absorption of the matter in the air cells begins. In this period, which lasts several days, the respiratory sounds are suppressed. In the last period, resolution, the exudates undergo liquefaction and are absorbed or expelled with cough- ing. The disease is at its height, as a rule, in a little less than a week, but the convalescent period may extend over several weeks. In subacute cases the symptoms are mild and may terminate favorably in a short time. In serious cases death by asphyxia occurs. In some cases abscesses may form in the lung tissue. The disease may be the cause of broken wind. pneumo:n^ia, pleurisy 329 Treatment — Good quarters and careful nursing are highly important in treating pneumonia. A comfortable, well ventilated, and clean box stall, free from drafts, should be provided. As the animal can use only a limited portion of the lungs, the air that he breathes should be pure. The droppings and wet bedding should be removed from the stall several times a day The body of the horse during cold weather should be well protected with woolen blankets and the limbs ban- daged. A laxative, easily digested diet should be given. Such measures, if taken early in the disease, may greatly modify it. In the early stage, when the animal is chilling, alcoholic stimu- lants and quinine can be given. In cases where the temperature runs high the following febrifuge may be given : Acetanilid (1^ ounces), quinine sulphate (1 ounce), bicarbonate of soda (1 ounce), and powdered nux vomica ( i ounce); mix and divide into eight powders ; give one powder every three or four hours. In mild cases liquor ammonia acetate may be given, and when the heart action is weak, digitalis. In most cases mustard paste rubbed into the hair and covered with oil cloth or brown paper will give material relief. Ground mustard ( about 1 pound ) is mixed with enough warm water to form a paste and applied to the walls of the chest. In about half an hour it must be thoroughly washed off with hot water and a mild stimulating liniment applied to the skin. This should be repeated as often as necessary. In the latter convalescent stage iodide of potassium and bitter tonics should be given. PKEtJMONIA IN CATTLE Causes — This is not a common disease in cattle. It may follow other respira- tory diseases. The causes are very much the same as in the horse. Traumatic pneimi07iia may result from the food entering the trachea, as it sometimes does in paralytic diseases. Symptoms — The disease is usually subacute. The general symptoms are much the same as in the horse. The mouth is often dry and the tongue protruded to facilitate breathing. In severe cases the animal usually remains standing. In mild cases it often lies down. Treatment — The treatment does not differ much from that used in the horse. A cathartic of Epsom salts (1 pound) may be given in the early stage of the disease, and repeated if the animal becomes constipated. PLEURISY {Inflammation of the Pleura) Causes — Pleurisy is more common in the horse than in any of the other domestic animals. The causes are the same as in pneumonia. In many cases it is due to exposure and cold (rheumatismal form). It frequently develops as a compli- cation of pneumonia. , Symptoms — Pleurisy generally starts with chills. The body temperature is quite high; the pulse accelerated and the respirations quick, labored, and abdominal, the abdominal muscles forming a ridge along the lower ends of the ribs. The animal does not stand still as in pneu- monia, but changes its position occasionally, its movements in many cases being accompanied by a grunt. Pressure on the walls of the chest causes pain and the animal rarely lies down. The 330 DISEASES OF THE NEEVOUS SYSTEM cough is short and painful. The appetite is impaired or absent and the patient is weak. By auscultation we recognize friction sounds. In a day or two effusion takes place in the pleural cavities and the pain is greatly relieved, but this relief is only temporary in most cases. If the fluid collects in large quantities there is pressure on the heart and lungs, the pulse is weak, the respirations labored, and the countenance has a haggard appearance. Dropsical swellings are noticed beneath the breast and abdomen and there is an absence of respiratory sounds over the lower region of the chest; instead a splashing gurgling sound may be heard. Suffocation may take place ; the animal moves unsteadily, and finally dies. In favorable cases improvement begins in from four days to a week, the appetite returning, the effusion gradually disappearing, and the respirations becoming normal. Convalescence takes place very slowly. In severe cases the animal may continue weak and may have defective wind. Treatment — As in pneumonia, careful nursing and good quarters are important in the treat- ment of pleurisy. Mustard drafts should be applied to the walls of the chest and febrifuges given to reduce the fever. When the effusion occurs in the chest cavity we should give drugs that will stimulate the action of the heart and help in getting rid of the effusion. Such drugs as iodide of potassium, or acetate of potassivim in combination with digitalis, are especially valuable for this purpose. Nitrate of potassium can be given in the drinking water. DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM CONGESTION AND ANEMIA OF THE BRAIN Cciuses — Congestion of the brain is more frequent in the horse than in any of the other domestic animals. In this disease tlie blood-vessels of the brain be- come engorged with blood. It may be either active or passive. Horses that are overfed and receive too little exercise are predisposed to it. It may be due to changing stables, shipping in poorly ventilated cars, poorly ventilated stables, im- proper feeding and foods hard to digest, excitement and excessive exertion. Con- gestion may occur in some of the contagious diseases and is sometimes caused by organic heart troubles. Extremely fat animals having short, thick necks are said to be predisposed to it. Passive congestion of the brain may be due to a narrow collar pressing on the jugular vein and obsti'ucting the flow of blood from the brain. Pressure on the jugular vein from other causes may cause the same condition. Anemia of the brain is due to an insufficient amount of blood in the brain and is caused by abundant hemorrhage, obstruction of blood going to the brain, and cardiac weakness. Symptoins — The congestion in most cases comes on very suddenly, in others it develops slowly. The disease may manifest itself as soon as the animal is moved out of the stall, or it may com.e on while it is feeding. In the latter case, the horse stops suddenly, becomes restless, and later quite violent. The pulse is quick and hard, the animal is nervous, respirations hurried, and eyes INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN 331 staring. It braces itself, raves, or staggers and falls. It may regain its feet or have convulsions and pass into a comatose condition. Death may occur in a very short time. We will sometimes tiiid the animal with its fore feet in the manger, or pressing the head hard against objects. Grinding the teeth, neighing, and shaking the head are some of the other symptoms that may be seen in this disease. Cattle leave the feed suddenly, are restless and excited, bellow, rotate the eyes in their sockets, butt the head against objects, and, if they fall, have convulsions. Coma is manifested by the animal becoming sleepy, stupid, not eating, without expression in the face, taking unusual positions, and staggering in its gait. It may take a recumbent position and appear as if dead. In cerebral anemia the gait is staggering and the pulse weak. The same symptoms as described in congestion may be manifested. In some cases congestion of the brain leads to an inflammation of the organ. Apoplexy due to rupture of capillaries may occur, or it may lead to vertigo or "staggers." Treatment — Preventive treatment is very important in this disease. Bleeding at the begin- ning will give good results. Cold applications to the head also are useful. A cathartic of linseed oil should be given. In anemia we must give stimulants. Recovery from the attack should be followed for at least a few days by a careful diet and rest. INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES {Encephalitu) Causes — These are very much the same as in congestion of the brain. Unhygienic conditions, as unsanitary and poorly ventilated stables, are common causes. It is more common in the spring and fall than at any other time of the year. It is sometimes seen in acute infectious diseases. Feeding too rich or con- sti])ating a diet, overfeeding, changes in diet, changes in climate, high temperature, excessive exertion, excitement, and injuries to the head may cause it. Syiuptoiiis — The symptoms vary in different individuals, but in a general way are the same, and at the beginning similar to those seen in congestion of the brain. The animal is extremely nervous at first, is very sensitive to sounds, and the eyes are staring. The pupil of the eye is dilated, the pulse quick and hard, and the respirations more rapid than normal. The body temperature is elevated. In some cases the attack comes on so quickly that these symptoms are not noticed. The gait is uncertain, the animal does violence to itself and goes through uncontrol- lable movements. Recovery may take place gradually, or a partial paralysis may follow. Some- times the animal becomes comatose. The disease may run a course of a week or more to a fatal termination, or death may be very sudden. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Excitement is the most prominent symptom in cattle. They bellow, eyes are prominent, they tremble, shake the head, butt with the horns, climb into manger, and run against objects. Saliva dribbles from the mouth. The disease will very often pursue a very rapid course. The patient may live for several days and show the usual symptoms of inflammation of the brain. The prog- nosis in cattle is even more unfavorable than in horses. Treatment — The preventive treatment is the same as in congestion of the brain. When the animal becomes diseased it must have quiet, well- ventilated quarters and be made as comfortable 332 DISEASES OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM as possible. If partly paralyzed slings can be used to good advantage. If violent we should try to prevent its injuring itself. Bleeding, as in congestion, is useful during the early stages. The following ball may be given to the horse : Powdered aloes (6 drams), powdered ginger (1 dram), and extract of belladonna (I dram). Cattle should receive full doses of Glauber's salts. If necessary a cathartic should be given often enough to keep the bowels open. The diet should be light and easily digested. Blisters may be applied along the side of the neck and to the poll of the head. If the weather is cold the animal must be protected and made comfortable. Large doses of powdered nux vomica or strychnine should be given if paralysis is present. CEREBRO-SPINAL MENINGITIS IN THE HORSE Spasm of the neck, as this disease is sometimes called, is an inflammation of the membranes covering the brain and the anterior part of the spinal cord. It is more common in horses and sheep than in any of the other domestic animals and may occur in isolated cases, but usually as an enzoStic disease in a certain stable or country district. Causes — This disease has been attributed to a variety of different causes. Poorly ventilated, unsanitary stables, impure food and water, and undrained lands are said to cause it. As in human pathology, the cause is said to be a specific one and the history of many outbreaks seems to point to this as a fact. SyinptoiilS — In its acute and rapidly fatal form it is difficult to distinguish this disease from inflammation of the brain. The animal is at first weak, staggers, swallows with difficulty, saliva dribbles from the mouth and there are twitching and cramps of the different sets of muscles. The animal is soon unable to stand, and becomes violent and delirious. The temperature may be high in some cases and the pulse small and accelerated. When the symptoms come on gradually we notice a weakness or partial paralysis of the different sets of muscles. The animal is unable to switch its tail, becomes sleepy or comatose, snores, is delirious, and has cramps of the muscles of the neck and jaw. Sometime^ death takes place without the development of violent symptoms, the animal passing Ilio a deep sleep. The duration of the disease is from one to fifteen days. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Treatment — If the disease appears as an enzootic in a stable, the animals should be removed to other quarters and the stable cleaned and disinfected. If in an unsanitary condition, this should be remedied. A change in the food and water supply is to be recommended. Treatment is seldom followed by success. The medicinal treatment is similar to that used in inflammation of the brain. CEREBRO-SPINAIi MENINGITIS IN SHEEP The symptoms are generally acute. The sheep are very sensitive ; weak ; saliva dribbles from the mouth; they fall to the ground; the shoulders are bent upward and backward ; they grind the teeth, and have spasms and convulsions. Deatli may ECZEMATOUS DISEASES 333 take place in a short time. In mild cases the disease may persist for a few weeks. The prognosis is unfavorable. INFLAMMATION OF THE SPINAL CORD AND ITS COVERINGS {Myelitis and Spinal Meningitis) Causes — Blows and injuries to the back, fracture of the spine, exhaustion, and exposure are common causes. It may occur in such diseases as blood poisoning, influenza, and rheumatism. Symptoms — The disease may be ushered ia with a chill and the temperature may be higher than normal. The gait is stiff and back rigid ; the animal may stagger, fall, and become partially or wholly paralyzed. The animal seems to suffer pain and is sometimes extremely sensi- tive. Small animals drag their hind parts, large animals are very often unable to stand at all and remain in a recumbent position. The disease is generally chronic, and the animal loses control of its hind parts. Treatment — The animal should be given comfortable quarters and kept as free from excite- ment as possible. If it will eat, easily digested food should be given. If constipated a cathartic must be administered. Cold applications along the spine are recommended. The paralysis can be combated with nux vomica or strychnine. Chronic cases should be destroyed. ECZEMATOUS DISEASES PRICKLY HEAT (Heat Pimples, Summer Eruption) Tliis is an eruption of the skin and occurs in nearly all domestic animals, and generally during the warm weather. Causes — Young and thin-skinned animals at the time of shedding are espe- cially predisposed to this affection. Local irritation to the skin from sweat, harness, and dirt is the common cause. Heating food, high feeding, and diseases of the digestive tract are the internal causes. Heat pimples sometimes occur during the course of strangles. Symptoms — Eruption is usually limited to the region of the neck, withers, back, thighs, and shoulders, but it may invade most of the surface of the body. At the beginning the little elevations or papules may be found by passing the hand over the surface of the skin. The papule vary in size and may be as large as a pea. In some cases they become confluent and cover quite an area of the skin. They soon dry and harden and the hair becomes erect Scabs or crusts form and adhere to the hair, and then drop out, carrying the hair along with them. Spots denuded of hair then remain. If the inflammation has not been severe this is replaced with hair of the same color. It is sometimes accompanied by a severe itching. Treatment — When due to high feeding or overheating food the diet should be corrected. Diseases of the digestive tract should be treated, and if the papules occur in poorly cared for horses 334 ECZEMATOUS DISEASES they should be given shelter, a good diet, and groomed every day. As an alterative, Fowler's solution (liquor arsenitis) may be given in teaspoonful or tablespoonful doses in the hoi'se's feed three times a day. Two or three weeks is generally a long enough period to give it. Horses in high condition should be given two or three doses of Glauber's salts {i pound at a dose) at intervals of three or four days. Unthrifty animals should be given bitter tonics and the skin thoroughly washed with a 2 per cent water solution of a creolin preparation. This should be repeated if necessary. URTICARIA This is an eruption of flattened, well-defined nodules, or elevations in the skin, caused by an infiltration of the deeper layers of the skin with fluid from the capil- laries. Causes — Urticaria is more common in the spring and fall than at any other time of the year and is frequently seen in fat, plethoric animals or those that are rapidly gaining in flesh. Sudden changes in the weather or food and abrupt chilling of the skin may cause it. It may occur in animals having digestive troubles. Irrita- tion to the skin from the bites of insects will cause it. Urticaria is not attended as a rule by any marked symptoms. Treatment — This consists in giving a cathartic of powdered aloes or Glauber's salts, following this for a week or more with artificial Carlsbad salts in the feed. SCRATCHES ON THE HORSE {Cracked Heel) This is a7i eczema of the flexor surfaces of the limbs ; its most common seat is the back part of the pasterns, in the hollow of the heel. Causes — The causes are overfeeding, dirty stables, irritation from urine, manure, wind, dust, cold, snow, and freezing mud. Any condition leading to the filling of the limbs may cause it. Symptoms — At first the part is hot, swollen, and tender and the animal may go lame. The part soon becomes moist, cracks from across its surface, and the skin becomes thick and rigid. In some cases portions of the skin become gangrenous and drop off. Some animals are predis- posed to scratches. Treatment — The first step is, if possible, to remove the cause. In overfed animals it is well to give a cathartic (Glauber's salts) and feed a laxative, easily digested diet. It is best in the ma- jority of cases to rest the animal. The part must be kept as clean as possible. The following lotion may be applied to the part twice a day: Sulphate of zinc (f part), acetate of lead (1 part), water (30 parts), or, the following ointment maybe used : Oxide of zinc (1 part), vaseline (8 parts); this may be applied once or twice a day. Cases that do not respond to this treatment may be washed with a 1 to 1,000 water solution of corrosive sublimate once a day, and a flaxseed poultice may be applied every evening, until improvement begins. DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTOE ORGANS 335 GREASE IN THE HORSE This disease affects the extremities of horses and is due to a parasitic fungus. One can distinguish it from scratches by the disagreeable odor, the discharge, and the formation of thick fokls and crevices in the skin, and red, raw granulation ("grapes"). It is generally due to filthy stables and is treated by washing the parts with a strong water solution of creolin or other antiseptic. When hot and tender a poultice may be applied. It is necessary to clean and disinfect the floors of the stable. DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTOR ORGANS MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM Causes — This disease is more common in the horse than in any of the other domestic animals. Cold seems to be the exciting cause. It maybe caused by cold, damp, chilly weather ; drafts in the stable ; cold, damp stables ; damp pastures or yards ; sudden chilling when the animal is heated, and allowing it to stand without blanketing in cold weather. A first attack always predisposes an animal to a second. Symptoms — The disease is usually local in the horse. In ruminants it may be generalized. The regions most commonly affected are the muscles of the shoulder and back. The disease may shift from one part to another. When generalized the animal moves about and gets up with great difficulty, and the affected muscles are sore and sensitive. In these cases general symptoms are present. When the rheumatism is located in the muscles of the shoulder the limbs are not moved freely, there is a tendency to step short with the lame member and to drag the toe. When the muscles of the back are affected there is great difficulty in getting up and down and cattle fre- quently take the recumbent position. In ruminants it is usually complicated with the articular form. In localized rheumatism the prognosis is favorable. In order to prevent its recurrence the exciting causes must be removed. Treatment — When the disease is localized the principal treatment is rubbing the part for several minutes with the hand every day and the application of some mild liniment. The follow- ing liniment may be used : Spirits of camphor (10 parts), turpentine (3 parts). The following mixture may be used internally : Salicylate of soda (2 ounces), fluid extract of gentian (1 ounce), and water (enough to make an 8-ounce mixture); half an ounce can be given three times a day to horses and cattle. A febrifuge should also be given in the generalized form. Warm, comfortable quarters must be provided and the animal should not be driven or worked until the lameness is gone. ARTICULAR RHEUMATISM Causes — Cold and dampness seem to be the predisposing factors in this as well as in muscular rheumatism. It is very probable that the cause is of an infectious nature. 336 DISEASES OF THE LOCOMOTOE ORGANS Symptoms — Articular rheumatism is a common form in cattle. It appears very abruptly and is accompanied by certain general symptoms. One or more of the articulations of the extrem- ities becomes greatly enlarged in a very short time. The animal is lame, or stiff, feverish, and in severe pain. Where several of the articulations are involved the disease may last for several months, the animal becoming badly emaciated. Sometimes the lameness disappears, but the enlargement is permanent. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Treatment — This is similar to that used in the muscular form. Blisters may be applied to the enlarged joints. AZOTURIA {Monday Morning Disease) Azoturia occurs solely in solipeds and is especially common at certain seasons of the year. Plethoric horses and mules seem to be predisposed to it. In work ani- mals it usually follows a short rest. It rarely occurs when the animal is running in the pasture or while standing in the stall. Causes — Some investigators attribute the disease to irritation of the muscles from cold, and classify it among rheumatismal diseases. The cause advanced by most American veterinarians is an excess of proteid matter in the system, due to feeding the animal a strong ration during rest following a period of regular work. When suddenly put to work, this material, along with poisonous substances from the portal circulation, is thrown onto the system. Syniptoms — When the animal is put to work it is usually full of life ; suddenly it begins to lag, goes lame, usually in the hind limbs, trembles, breaks out in a sweat, looks around toward the flanks, staggers, knuckles over in the hind pasterns, and may fall down and be unable to get up. The expression is anxious and the animal shows evidence of suffering severe pain. The symptoms may become manifest when the horse is first led out of his stall, or when first turned in the pasture. The muscles of the fore quarters are sometimes affected, but it is usually the heavy muscles of the hind quarters that are involved. The respirations and pulse are quickened and the affected muscles are hard, sensitive, and swollen. If the animal goes down it may be quite restless and have spasms. The urine is dark or coffee-colored. In most cases it is necessary to remove the urine, as the animal is unable to pass it. The paralytic symptoms may continue for several days and the animal be quite violent. In this class of cases the prognosis is not favorable. In the mild form, paralytic symptoms are not manifested and recovery takes place in a very short time. Atrophy of the affected muscles may follow. One attack predisposes the animal to a second. Treatment — The curative treatment of azoturia is frequently unsatisfactory. The pre- ventive treatment will give better results than the medicinal. At the seasons of the year when the animal is being worked steadily, if rested, the ration must be reduced. Horses should have access to plenty of salt and be watered regularly. As soon as the first symptoms of the disease become manifest, we must stop working the animal, blanket it if necessary, and allow it to stand until it is in fit condition to go to the stable. This precaution will often prevent the disease from becoming serious. Plenty of bedding and a good box stall are best for the sick animal. AZOTUKIA, FOUNDER 337 especially if unable to get up. If the urine has not been passed it must be removed, and if the horse-is violent it should be given a sedative ; fluid extract of gelsemium (2 to 4 drams) may be given every few hours if necessary. Nitrate of potassium (i ounce) may be given in a ball or in the drinking water three times a day. The animal should be encouraged to drink plenty of water. To physic it, raw linseed oil may be given. If the horse will eat, it must be fed nothing but bran mashes for a few days. The paralytic symptoms must be combated with tincture nux vomica (2 drams) three times a day, or strychnine, given hypodermically. Unless the patient can stand fairly well, it is useless to keep it in slings. We must make the patient as comfortable as possible, keep the bed dry and turn it over two or three times a day. Azoturia patients often require very careful nursing. FOUNDER (Laminitis) Laminitis is an inflammation of the sensitive and very vascular laminas of the foot. This structure lies within the horny walls of the foot ; when the laminae become inflamed the walls do not yield to the swelling and, hence, cause severe pressure on these very sensitive tissues. Causes — Laminitis may be due to various causes. The most common are: Overfeeding, feeding grain and allowing the horse to drink large quantities of water when in an overheated condition; heavy foods as wheat, rye, etc., especially if animal is not accustomed to it ; chilling of the body by cold winds ; overexertion, and exhaustion. Laminitis may be associated with other diseases, as colic, influenza, rheumatism, or pneumonia. Symptoms — The disease appears suddenly, usually in the front feet, rarely in all four feet. The pain is generally severe and the animal will try to avoid throwing weight on the affected feet. To avoid doing this, the front limbs are thrust well forward, moved very rapidly, and the hind limbs placed well under the body and most of the weight thrown on them. The animal may refuse to stand on his feet at all, or frequently they remain standing nearly all the time in order to avoid the pain caused by lying down and getting up again. The general symptoms are rapid, hard pulse, accelerated respirations, high body temperatui'e and loss of appetite. The affected feet are hot, dry, and very sensitive to pressure. In mild cases the sensitive condition of the feet and the peculiarity of the gait, which is especially noticed when the animal is first moved or when turned, are about the only symptoms manifested. With the proper attention the disease usually terminates favorably in from four days to a week. When the inflammation becomes chronic, which it sometimes does, changes may occur in the shape and in the nutrition to the foot and the animal goes lame. One attack of laminitis will predispose the animal to a second. Treatment — The preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions that may cause the disease. If the horse should become affected, it must have a comfortable stall, free from drafts, and deeply bedded with straw. In cold weather the body should be covered with heavy blankets ; in warm weather a light stable blanket is suflScient ; the stall should be darkened, the animal protected from flies, and kept as quiet as possible. It is best to -remove the shoes. Large flaxseed 338 INFECTIOUS DISEASES poultices may be applied to the feet and renewed once or twice a day. Nitrate of potassium may be given in from 2 to 4 ounce doses three times a day in a ball or drench. Hot or cold water fomentations are sometimes preferred to poultices ; if used they must be kept up continually until the inflammation subsides. In mild cases, standing the animal in a running stream will stop the inflammation. When convalescence begins the shoes should be replaced. Iodide of potassium (in dram or 2 dram doses) in the feed is useful in this stage. A light diet should be given, a blister applied to the coronet, and in a few days the animal may be turned out to pasture. In chronic cases the feet may need careful attention. In shoeing it is best to raise the heel and slightly shorten the toe. INFECTIOUS DISEASES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS STRANGLES {Colt Distemper) Strangles is an acute infectious disease associated with a catarrhal condition of the air passages and suppuration of the lymphatic glands in the region of the throat. It is most common in young horses, as one attack confers considerable immunity for the future. Causes — The specific cause is a germ, the infection taking place by bringing a susceptible animal in contact with the diseased one, or allowing it to run in the same pasture or stable. When the disease is once introduced into a stable of horses, it will affect every susceptible animal. The predisposing causes are cold and sudden changes in the weather ; for this reason the disease is more common during the cold, changeable seasons than at any other time in the year. The period of incubation (the time between the exposure and the development of the first syniptoms) is from four to eight days. Syniptoms — At the beginning of the attack the body temperature is elevated several degrees and the appetite is partially lost. The respirations and pulse may be accelerated and the animal appears quite stupid. The nasal mucous membranes are at first red and dry ; the animal sneezes and frequently coughs. The secretory stage soon begins, the secretions are first watery, but become heavy, purulent, and abundant, especially in young horses. The glands in the region of the jaw become hot, swollen, and painful ; the animal may be unable to eat and the respirations are difficult. In a few days the abscesses that form will bi-eak, sometimes on the inside of the throat, and the symptoms may then become easier and the temperature fall to about normal. If other abscesses form the temperature may again rise. The disease may be accompanied by an eruption of nodules or vesicles on the skin. In old horses the symptoms are generally mild. In severe cases abscesses mny form in different parts of the body and the animal becomes weak and emaciated and finally dies. Treatment — The disease will run a definite course and can not be abated. A comfortable stall, nourishing feed, and good care constitute the principal part of the treatment. When the abscesses mature they must be opened and the cavity washed out with some antiseptic solution. IXFLUENZA 339 Steaming the animal will modify the inflammation of the mucous membranes. If the abscesses are tardy in forming or the glands remain thickened, a blistering ointment (powdered cantharides 1 part, vaseline 8 parts) may be applied to the region. If necessary, bitter tonics may be admin- istered, or artificial Carlsbad salts given in the feed. We should avoid exposing susceptible animals to the disease. INFLUENZA {Pink-eye, Catarrhal Fever) INFLUENZA IN THE HORSE This is a well-known infections disease of the horse, and generally rages as an epidemic in certain years. One of the most serious epidemics in this country was in the early part of the 70's, when the disease received the name of "pink-eye." The last epidemic in this country was in 1900. The disease is present at all times in the horse centers of the country. Causes — The cause of the disease is a specific one, but the exact nature of the germ is not known. When an epidemic appears in a country it is first present in the large cities, whence it is scattered to the outlying districts. The germs are present in the breath, nasal secretions, and the excreta. Close jiroximity to an affected animal is not necessary in spreading the disease, as it may be carried by the harness, blankets, etc., or by the air. The predisposing causes ai'e cold, exposure, and changes in climate. The interval between exposure to the disease and its development is from four days to a week. Sy iiiptoiiis — At the beginning of the disease the temperature is high, the appetite is partially or entirely lost and the animal is greatly depressed. The horse holds his head down and acts sleepy. In different epidemics certain organs are more likely to be involved than others, so that the symptoms may differ. The respiratory mucous membranes are generally affected by a catarrhal inflammation, the respirations are quickened, and the animal coughs. The submaxillary glands may become swollen and the influenza be complicated by a pneumonia, pleurisy, or bronchitis. The eyes are frequently affected, the lids are swollen, hot, and painful and are kept closed. The secretions are at first watery, but may become purulent and the cornea and deeper tissues of the eye become inflamed. The digestive tract is commonly affected, the animal yawns, the lining membrane of the mouth is hot and dry. At the beginning colicky pains are sometimes present. The animal is sometimes constipated or may have a diarrhea. The legs and sheath usually become swollen or filled, this disappearing when the animal begins to improve. Complications frequently occur in influenza. The death rate is higher at the beginning of an epidemic than at the close. But a small proportion of the cases will prove fatal. Treatment — When the disease is present in a locality we should avoid exposing susceptible animals to it. Horses that are bought in the market should be kept apart from the other horses for a week or two. When influenza is present in a stable the stalls, mangers, floors, and walls should be cleaned and disinfected. The treatment required for sick animals is largely good 340 IXFECTIOUS DISEASES nursing and care. A comfortable, clean, and well ventilated stall should be provided and the animal fed a laxative and easily digested diet. If the eyes are affected the stall must be darkened and the following lotion injected into the eye . Zinc sulphate (8 grains), boric acid (13 grains), and distilled water (2 ounces). In most cases this is all the treatment required. If the stable is cold the horse must be well blanketed and bandages rolled on the limbs as high as the knees. In the catarrhal form inhalation of steam is very beneficial. Stimulants are indicated when the animal is greatly depressed. We may be able, by careful nursing at the beginning, to shorten the course of the disease. Colicky symptoms can be treated with tincture of opium (from 2 to 4 drams in a little linseed oil every three or four hours). If the horse is constipated a cathartic of linseed oil (1 pint) can be given.- Complications are common even in mild cases. INFIuUENZA IN CATTLE This disease resembles influenza in the horse and is apparently due to a specific cause. It generally occurs during the cold, changeable seasons and in cattle that are not provided with proper shelter. It usually afl'ects several cattle in the herd and in a considerable proportion of cases proves fatal. Symptoms — The respiratory passages are primarily affected. At the beginning the tem- perature is high, the animal is depressed and ceases to eat or ruminate. In milch cows there is a falling off in the milk. We may frequently^hear the animal grinding its teeth. Complica- tions are common and if the disease continues for several weeks the animal becomes weak and emaciated. It may terminate fatally in a few days by becoming complicated with congestion of the brain. Treatment — Prevention is the principal treatment and consists in providing good quarters for the herd and isolating the sick animals. Inhalations of steam are useful in helping to allay the inflammation in the respiratory membranes. Mild liniments should be applied to the throat. The following mixture may be given : Tincture of aconite (1 ounce), tincture of belladonna (4 ounces), and water (enough to make an 8-ounce mixture) ; half an ounce may be given three times a day. When the animal becomes weak, stimulants may be given. LOCKJAW ( Tetanus ) This is an infectious disease and is caused by a small club-shaped germ. This organism is very common in some localities and is present in the soil, dust, and stable litter. This disease occurs in all domestic animals excepting the dog, and is more common in warm than in cold countries. Causes— The disease is due to the germs entering the body by way of a wound, generally a punctured wound, as the conditions here are very favorable for its development. In some cases the wound is so small that it is not noticed and the symptoms may manifest themselves after the wound has healed. Infection may take place through some wound in the mucous membrane lining the digestive LOCKJAW, BLOOD POISONING 341 tract. It may follow a surgical operation. The period of incubation varies from a few days to a few weeks. Symptoms — The first symptom observed is a stiffness of the muscles. Those of the neck, back, and loins are affected at first, and when pressed on with the fingers feel hard and rigid. In breathing the ribs show less movement than normal, the head is held higher than usual and the ears are stiff or pricked, the nostrils dilated, the lips rigid or drawn back, the eyes retracted, and the third eyelid protrudes over a portion of it. The tail is slightly elevated. In most cases the muscles of mastication and swallowing are involved and the animal is unable to open its mouth and swallows with difliculty. It is usually very nervous and sensitive to noises. The gait is stiff and it stands with the limbs spread out so as to increase the base of support. Constipation usually occurs and the abdomen is tucked up. When the disease is about to terminate fatally the animal falls down, the pulse is quick and small, it breathes with difliculty, sweats profusely, the body temperature may be elevated, it struggles and has spasms. The disease may take on a subacute form with the symptoms mild. When the diet is not looked after carefully colic may occur as a complication. When recovery begins the muscles gradually relax. The course of the disease will vary. In the acute form it may terminate fatally in from one to three days. In the subacute form it may last several weeks. In sheep the disease is very acute. Treatment — The preventive treatment consists in the careful disinfection of wounds, especially punctured wounds, and observing the proper antiseptic precautions in the various sur- gical operations. In countries where tetanus is a common disease as a result of wounds, tetanus autitoxine should be used as a preventive. The sick animal should have a comfortable box stall where it may be least annoyed by the noises about the stable. If the animal can eat, easily digested food should be given and but little roughage allowed. If the jaws are set, gruels can sometimes be given. A fresh pail of water must be left in the stall. We must avoid, so far as possible, annoying the animal with drenches. One may give bromide of potassium (1 dram every three or four hours), or chloral hydrate (2 drams every three hours) in the drinking water or feed. Fluid extract of gelsemium or cannabis indica may be given in half ounce doses three times a day. Hypodermic injections of a water solution of carbolic acid may also be used. Tetanus antitoxine is sometimes used as a curative agent. BLOOD POISONING {PycBinia and Septicmmia) In surgery, simple septicaemia and pytemia are called blood poisoning. This is an infectious disease and may be due to several different kinds of organisms that gain entrance to the system by way of an extensive or badly cared for wound. The germs of pyaemia may, if conditions are favorable, give rise to abscesses in different parts of the body. In septicaemia the pathological symptoms may be due to the poisons elaborated by the germs. In most cases the two diseases exist together. Symptoms — The body temperature is high, the animal acts stupid and sleepy and does 23 342 INFEGTIOUS DISEASES not eat. The pulse may be small and weak. Marked nervous disturbances may be pi'esent. The local lesions are extensive doughy swellings and the wound may slough considerably and have a characteristic disagreeable, sweetish odor. If the injury is on the extremities the animal is very lame. The blood is thin, coagulates imperfectly and changes in color. Toward the latter stage of the disease the swelling may disappear quite rapidly. Fatalities are much more frequent some years than others. Treatment — Preventive treatment consists in thoroughly cleansing and disinfecting all wounds and, if necessary (if the bottom of the wound is lower than its mouth), making an opening at the lowest point in order that the secretions from the cut surfaces may have an opportunity to escape. It is usually best not to close extensive lacerated wounds with sutures. Salicylate of soda or quinine may be given (in 1 or 2-dram doses) three times a day. Calomel may be given (in dram doses) once a day. BLACK LEG {Symptomatic Anthrax) This is a rapidly fatal, infectious disease of young cattle, and is characterized by external swellings that give a crackling sound when pressed on with the fingers. The most common age at which young cattle are affected is around six months. Cattle are seldom affected after they reach the age of four years. One attack confers immunity to the animal. Cause — Black leg is caused by a specific germ, rod-shaped and called a bacillus. It has the power of forming spores which enable it to withstand any ordinary condition, and therefore prolong the life of the germ. It is especially common on lowlands or in seasons that are warm and moist. When the disease once develops among the cattle grazing in a pasture it is apt to again develop in following years if the season is a favorable one. The germ enters the body by way of a wound in the skin or the mucous membrane of the mouth or intestines. The period of incubation for this disease is from one to five days. Symptoms — The disease runs a very short course and is attended by a very high mor- tality. The fever is high, there is a loss bf appetite, the animal becomes stupid, and exhaustion rapidly follows. Swellings may develop on different parts of the body. Their outline is very distinct and the swelling seldom goes below the knee or hock. The animal is lame in the affected quarter. At first these swellings are very sensitive, but become cold, insensitive, and gangrenous toward their centers, and when cut into are dark colored and contain gas. The blood is black, tarry, and slow to coagulate readily. Treatment — Medicinal treatment is of little benefit. Prevention is the only satisfactory treatment. In localities where the disease is common, the black leg vaccine should be used on all the younger animals each yeai'. "When this is practiced, the loss is insignificant. Dead animals should be'burned, or buried so deeply with unslaked lime that there will be no chance of infec- tion from the cadaver. ANTHRAX 343 ANTHRAX ( Charbon) This is an infectious disease that, no doubt, has existed for many centuries and is very widely distributed. It may occur in any part of this country, but it is only in the soutliern section of the United States (lower Mississippi Valley) that it occurs from year to year. The disease is more apt to occur in sheep and cattle than in any of the other domestic animals. Cause — Anthrax is caused by a rod-shaped germ which in the presence of oxygen forms spores. It is called the Bacillus anthracis, and sometimes several are arranged together so as to form chains. The germ itself is readily destroyed, but the spores are highly resistant to outside conditions. The organisms gain entrance to the body by the intestinal tract, the skin, and the lungs and air passages. The most common route is by way of the intestines, the animal becoming affected by eating forage grown on infected fields, the spores on the surface of the ground becoming attached to the grass or grain; if by way of the skin, the germ enters through a wound or bites of insects ; if by way of the lungs, it is due to the inhala- tion of dust containing spores. Man may become affected by handling the carcasses of animals that have died from this disease. Syniptoiiis — This disease may take on several forms. In the apoplectic form the symp- toms are acute, and the animal, in a short time, dies in a convulsion, from cerebral apoplexy. There is generally a bloody discharge from the mouth, nose, and anus. This form is common among sheep and cattle. In the acute form the disease lasts somewhat longer. The animal has a high temperature, is restless, has convulsions, grinds the teeth, staggers, becomes insensible, and dies. The respirations may be accelerated and difficult, the heart palpitates, and the animal pants and groans. The mucous membranes of the head become dark colored, the animal has convul- sions and dies from suffocation. Bloody discharges may occur from the body openings. In the subacute form the course of the disease is longer and the symptoms are about the same as in the acute form, but more clearly marked. It may run an intermittent course and last from one to three days. The carbuncles or swellings of the skin that sometimes appear are at first hard and painful, but later become cold and painless. The diagnosis of the disease is based on the symptoms, autopsy, and bacteriological examination. The death rate is from 70 to 100 per cent. Treatment — It is not advisable to attempt curative treatment. Preventive treatment is important. As soon as the disease occurs in a herd all the animals should be vaccinated with the anthrax vaccine. We must avoid scattering the disease over pastures and roads by dragging the anthrax carcasses over them. They should be burned as near the spot where they died as possible. If buried there is a danger of the spores working to the top of the ground. The spot on which the animal lies must be thoroughly disinfected. 344 INFECTIOUS DISEASES HYDROPHOBIA {Rabies) This is one of the oldest known diseases. Erroneous opinions about the cause of the disease are held by some people, and by others it is not considered a specific disease. It does occur, however, and its true character should be better known. Dogs, cats, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are the domestic animals chiefly affected, and man, when bitten by a rabid animal, generally a dog, may develop the disease. Causes — The specific cause of rabies is not yet known. The virus is con- tained in the brain, spinal cord, nerves, glands, and their secretions, and is trans- mitted by the bite of a rabid animal. The time that may elapse from the bite to the development of the disease varies in the different species of animals. It may vary from seven days to one year, but the usual time is from twenty to seventy days. Symptoms — Rabies occurs in two forms, the dumb and the furious. The furious form is the more common. The symptoms differ somewhat in the different species. In the dog the symptoms are divided into three stages : melancholy, rabid or violent, and para- lytic. The first stage.lasts from twelve to fort5^-eight hours, the behavior of the animal is altered, it becomes swollen, irritable, and nervous. Sometimes it is quite friendly. It may have a tendency to gnaw or swallow indigestible objects. Frequently the bite seems to itch and it will bite and lick it. Slight difficulty in swallowing, labored respirations, fever and constipation are sometimes noticed. The second stage may last four days. The violent or rabid symptoms are manifested, and the dog will leave home and take long journeys. It may move quite rapidly and generally does not return home. It acts strangely and shows an inclination to bite, snapping at persons, animals, and imaginary objects, and biting sticks or anything held toward it. The bark is peculiar, the appetite is lost, and the patient very rapidly becomes emaciated. In the third, or paralytic stage the dog is usually greatly emaciated and disfigured. The lower jaw drops, the tongue is lolled, and the eyes are sunken and glassy. Paralysis of the hind parts may be present. Death takes place in a short time. In the dumb form the first two stages are absent and the paralytic one predominates. Death occurs in a few days, usually during a convulsion. In the horse the symptoms come on quite rapidly and the course of the disease is short. Some animals become aggressive, and lacerate and mutilate their bodies. They are nervous and look about as if attracted by strange sounds. The bite is often the seat of an intense itching. The efforts to bite and kick are well directed and the animal may at times try to drink or eat. The dumb form may occur in the horse. Cattle butt with the horns and sometimes show a tendency to bite. They bellow more than usual and the sexual desire is increased. They are not very aggressive. The course is longer than in the horse. Finally the paralytic symptoms manifest themselves and the animal frequently falls down and is unable to rise for a few minutes. Patient usually becomes greatly emaciated. HYDROPHOBIA, GLANDERS 345 Pigs are restless, squeal, dig up the litter, and exhibit a desire to bite. Other symptoms are about the same as those already given. The diagnosis is determined by the character of the symptoms shown by the affected animals and the inoculation of susceptible animals (rabbits, usually) with a portion of the spinal cord of the dead animal. The disease is incurable and the affected animals should be destroyed. When rabies appears in a neighborhood all the dogs in that section should be tied up until all danger is over. In the human patient the disease is amenable to the Pasteur system of treatment. Madstones are con- demned as worthless, in so far as any curative effects are concerned, by all medical authorities. GLANDERS {Farcy) Glanders of the horse has been known since ancient time and has long been regarded as a contagious disease. It is present in all parts of the United States, but has grown less common within recent years. All solipeds are susceptible. Men, when exposed to infection, may contract the disease. Cause — The specific cause of glanders, Bacillus mallei, was not known until 1883. The germs are present in the secretions from the nostrils and the ulcers that may be present on different parts of the body. These dischai-ges may become deposited upon the feed tronghs, mangers, stalls, harness, buckets, watering troughs, and feed. It may be conveyed in this way to other animals or by direct contact. Frequently, however, the healthy animals escape infection for months. It is usually the diseased animal's mate or the one that stands in an adjoining stall that is first affected. Catarrhal diseases predispose horses to glanders, as the normal resistance of the mucous membranes is thereby in part overcome. The most common route by wliich the germs enter the body is by way of the respiratory tract. The germs may enter the body by inoculation through a wound in the skin, or through the digestive tract. Symptoms — There are two forms of the disease, the chronic and the acute. Acute glanders rapidly ends in death. The chronic form develops slowly, may last for years, and sometimes becomes acute. This is the more common type. The most frequent seat of the disease is in the respiratory organs, lymph glands, and skin. The early stage of the disease usually escapes notice. The first symptom is a nasal discharge of a dirty-white color from one nostril or from both. This is usually small at first, and sometimes intermittent, but becomes quite abundant. The discharge is very sticky, and adheres to the hair and skin. Nodules and ulcers appear on the nasal mem- brane. These may be high up and escape observation. The ulcers are very characteristic, are angry looking, with ragged raised margins and, when they heal, leave a puckered scar. The sub- maxillary glands are enlarged and, at first, more or less hard and painful, but they become nodular and adhere to the jaw or skin. Nodules and ulcers, known as ' ' farcy buds,-^' may form on the 34^ INFECTIOUS DISEASES skin, usually on the hind limbs and under part of the abdomen ; the lymphatic vessels are swollen and hard. The animal loses flesh rapidly, does not stand hard work, and the limbs usually swell. When the disease is acute, tbe animal has a fever, is stupid, does not eat, and may have a diarrhea. In this form the lymphatic glands suppurate, and the animal becomes emaciated. Mules usually have the acute form of the disease. In the chronic form it is sometimes diflScult to diagnose the disease. The ulcers on the nasal mucous membrane and elsewhere are very characteristic and, when present, enable one to form a diagnosis. A bacteriological examination of the nasal discharge also may be made. Mallein, a product of the germ when grown artificially, is a help in diagnosing obscure cases. When injected beneath the skin of a suspected animal, it causes a rise in temperature and a hot, charac- teristic swelling at the point of injection. Treatment — Curative treatment is not to be recommended. The protective treatment is to stamp out the disease wherever found by killing all affected animals and disinfecting the stables, harness, or anything else that has been used around the affected animals. TUBERCULOSIS ( Consumption) Tuberculosis is a very widespread disease and is of great concern to the stock- man. Cattle are by far the most susceptible to the disease. Pigs, sheep, and horses are only occasionally affected. The disease exists in all parts of the United States, but is more common in the Eastern States than in any other section. In European countries and in Canada a larger proportion of the cattle are affected than in this country. Tuberculosis has been known to exist in cattle for centuries, hiws restricting the use of the flesh of such animals for food having been included in the Jewish code. It was not until 1882 that Koch discovered the germ that I'auses the disease. Causes — The specific cause of the disease is the Bacillus tuberculosis. Unsanitary conditions favor the spread of the disease in a herd, so that we would expect to find fewer animals affected where these sanitary conditions are perfect or nearly so. Animals having a low resisting power are predisposed to it. This is noticed in the different breeds of dairy cattle. Infection takes place by healthy animals herding or stabling with diseased ones, and frequently the disease is intro- duced by the purchase of a single diseased animal. The tubercle bacillus may enter the body by four different routes : By way of the respiratory tract, the diges- tive tract, or the genital passages and through a wound in the skin. The most common modes of infection are by inhalation and taking the germs in with the food. The disease is frequently transmitted to the calves through the milk of tuberculous cows. In adults infection probably takes place by their licking each TUBEECULOSIS 347 other, by taking in the germs with the food and water, and by inhalation of dust containing the dried virus. In pigs infection is due to drinking the milk of tuber- culous cattle, Syiiiptoiiis — Tuberculosis usually runs a chronic course lasting for years and frequently ■without visible symptoms. At other times it takes on the acute form, the symptoms are marked, and death may occur in a few months or weeks. The symptoms vary with the different organs that are affected and the species of animal. In advanced pulmonary tuberculosis there is a short, dry cough, especially noticeable when the animal moves around, and when it drinks ; the respirations are quickened and the mouth is sometimes held partly open ; chronic indigestion may be manifested, the appetite decreases, the coat is rough, the eyes sunken, and the animal is weak and emaciated. By auscultating one gets no sounds over the solidified areas of lung tissue. If we hear a decided blow we suspect a cavity. Friction sounds are frequently heard. If the lym- phatic glands are affected we may find enlargements under the throat and at various points under the skin. If the udder is affected there is a gradual enlargement and hardening of the quarters, but this condition is not painful. Abscesses may form and discharge through the teats or break on the outside. If there is tuberculosis of the genital organs of the cow she will come in heat more frequently, will not become pregnant so readily, and in some instances will be sterile. Abortion may be common in a dairy herd having tuberculosis. There may be some nasal discharge in tuberculous cattle. In cold weather they may chill after drinking cold water ; in hot weather, when moved about, they may pant. Usually they become very thin, the neck becoming wedge- shaped and clean-cut and the space back of the shoulders depressed. Cattle frequently maintain a good appetite and stay in good flesh if well cared for. The extent to which the disease may progress without producing more profound symptoms Is astonishing. During the first stages, the disease can not be detected by a physical examination. Certain symptoms may be manifested, but they are like those seen in other diseases. In the latter stages of the disease we can express an opinion with some certainty. A physical diagnosis then must be based upon a number of definite symptoms and a general history of the disease. The most certain and only practical method of diagnosing is by the application of the tuber- culin test. Tuberculin is a product of the tubercle bacillus and is obtained by growing the germ on bouillon. When this is injected into the tissue beneath the skin in tuberculous animals it causes a characteristic rise in temperature. Tuberculin is germ-free and can not produce tuberculosis. The post-mortem lesions are very characteristic. Scattered through the diseased tissues are the tubercles, which may vary in size from that of a mustard seed to that of a grape, and when cut into usually contain soft, yellow, cheesy matter. When several of these nodules are close together they may unite, break down and form abscesses. Sometimes the tubercles contain a gray pus, or if of long standing become infiltrated with lime salts and are gritty. Masses of tuberculous material weighing many pounds may be found in the lungs and liver of advanced cases. No tissue of the body is exempt from the disease. Suppression op Tuberculosis Among Cattle — In foreign countries, since the application of the tuberculin test, tuberculosis has been found to be more widespread than one would formerly have believed. In well kept herds it may appear as an innocent disease at first, but it is sui-e in the end to cause serious financial losses, as well as a continual menace to public health. The greatest 348 INFECTIOUS DISEASES loss falls on the farmer and stock raiser, but until these classes become educated to this fact they presumably will continue to take no interest in the suppression of the disease. Sick or suspected animals should be isolated or slaughtered; stables should be disinfected and kept as sanitary as possible. The milk of diseased animals should not be fed unless it is boiled; only those cattle that have been proved by the tuberculin test to be free from tuberculosis should be retained on the farm. HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE PLAGUE Hog cholera is not an old disease in the sense of having been known and described for a long time, as have glanders and anthrax, nor is it a new disease, as outbreaks occurred as long ago as 1833-1840 in the Middle and Southern States. Swine plague was not recognized as a separate disease until about 1890. The total loss to the swine industry from the two diseases has been enormous. Causes — There is a specific germ for each disease. Hog cholera is caused by the bacillus of hog cholera, and swine plague by the bacillus of swine plague. The two germs differ in size, shape, activity, method of growth, resistance to outside conditions, and their effect on the body. The hog cholera germ is larger, more active, and is better able to resist outside conditions than the swine plague germ. When a hog is inoculated with cholera germs the intestines are affected; if inocu- lated with swine plague the lungs are aff'ected. There are other differences one might mention, but these are sufficient to satisfy the general reader. Swine plague germs are widely distributed, but are not harmful unless their virulence is increased or the resistance of the animal diminished by certain conditions. The gerin may become virulent, if conditions are favorable, spreading to other farms the same as the germ of hog cholera. This latter organism is not usually present and must be introduced from diseased herds. There are secondary or predisposing causes that are of great importance. Injudicious management and unsanitary conditions are factors of the same importance here as in some of the other infectious diseases. Among the agents which may carry the germs are streams, wind, birds, dogs, persons walking from one farm to another, buying hogs from infected cars, and exhibiting at fairs. The time that elapses between the infection of the herd and the appearance of the first symptoms of the disease varies from four to twenty days. In hog cholera the 'virus is taken into the system with the food, by inhaling it along with the air and dust, and sometimes through the surface of a fresh wound. The swine plague virus is generally inhaled along with the air. SyiiiptOiiiS — Cholera assumes several different forms and, therefore, one is frequently unable to recognize any specific set of symptoms. In the acute form the course is rapid ; running HOG CHOLEKA AND SWINE PLAGUE 349 from a few hours lo two or three days ; in the subacute form the course is from three days to a week, and in the chronic form from a week to a month or longer. The symptoms as here described are for the more common cases, that live from three to seven days. About the first symptom to be observed is a general droopy condition; the eyes are more or less closed and dimmed, the ears drop more than usual, there is a certain amount of sluggishness, and, although the hog eats, it is not with the greediness that is customary. The appetite becomes depraved and the animal will eat clay, earthy substances, and the droppings from other hogs or from chickens. The hog lies about more than usual, hiding in fence corners, under litter, and in out-of-the-way places. If he should have access to a manure pile, that will be a favorite place. During the hot days he will prefer to lie in the scorching sun rather than in the shade. At first he will respond to calling for feed, but later he will not get up unless urged to do so. During the progress of the disease and sometimes from the very beginning, there will be pronounced rheumatic symptoms. The hog will be lame first in one leg and then in another. The back will be arched. Diarrhea usually makes its appearance with the onset and is almost always present at some time during the course of the disease. The discharge at fii'st is thinner than normal, but very rapidly becomes tarry and has a characteristic odor. Constipation may occur and is almost sure to be present in those animals that eat earth. Vomiting is also present. There is rapid emaciation. The fever is high and the breathing rapid, but not labored. In acute cases death occurs so suddenly that the symptoms may not be developed. In the chronic type, the ears and tail swell and crack, and sometimes drop off. Ulcers and sores may form on various parts of the body. Portions of the skin may become dry and gangrenous, and crack, the hair dropping off. In swine plague the cough may be the first symptom. It is noticed when the pig first gets up or after exercise. The breathing is short and rapid, with a jerking of the flanks. It soon becomes more labored, the throat swells, and the nose may bleed. Pressure on the ribs causes pain. The eyes are inflamed and watery, and constipation may be present. Swine plague is particularly common among old hogs. The course is usually longer than in hog cholera. Both diseases may be present in the same animal. Diagnosis — The history of the outbreak will help in making a correct diagnosis. We may be able to differentiate between the two diseases, hog cholera and swine plague, by noting the symp- toms, and by making an autopsy. In nearly all cases of cholera the post-mortem lesions are so characteristic that one should be able to recognize the disease. Red blotches are seen on the skin. The spleen may be enlarged. The intestines show inflammatory changes. Ulcers varying in size from that of a millet seed to that of a dime are seen in the caecum and other parts of the digestive tract. These ulcers are especially common in the region of the opening from the small intestine into the caecum (ileo-caecal valve), and are quite characteristic in appearance. The edges project above the surface of the membrane, the ulcer may be irregular in shape and is of a reddish, brownish, or yellowish color. Hemorrhagic spots may appear in the different organs The lymph glands are hemorrhagic, red, or enlarged. Swine plague germs may cause red patches 350 INFECTIOUS ■ DISEASES also. The primary organs affected are the lungs and a bronchitis, pneumonia, or pleurisy may be present. In hog cholera the lungs are not usually affected. Treatment — The preventive treatment is to admit no hogs to the general herd that have been purchased from unknown sources, at sales, or from stockyards, or exhibited at fairs, without quarantining for twenty days. Keep the hogs in comparatively small pens, so that the disease may not be distributed over the whole farm. Separate the well from the sick and not the sick from the well. Give plenty of comfortable shelter and room to prevent crowding. Above all secure good well water, from a driven well, and allow no wallows. Give the hogs plenty of water to drink and withhold all feed for a few days to a week. They will not starve. When beginning feed again use only sloppy food, as bran and meal mashes. Allow only small quantities at a time. Avoid green corn or wheat. If the bowels are constipated use calomel to move them. With these attentions to care and diet, as much can be accomplished as by elaborate medicinal treatment. All litter should be kept cleaned up, all carcasses promptly burned or buried with quicklime in order to limit the duration of the infection. It is to be hoped that some method of prevention and cure will soon be discovered, but iu the meantime cleanliness is the essential. LUMPY JAW {Actinomycosis) This is an infectious disease and may affect cattle, horses, and swine. It is generally local in character, affecting the bones or soft parts of the head, but may involve other parts, as the lungs or intestinal tract. It. is very widely distributed. Causes — Actinomycosis is produced by a vegetable organism of a somewhat higher order of life than the bacteria and called the ray-fungus. The germs grow iu colonies and can be seen in the diseased tissues or the pus from an actinomycotic abscess as spherical bodies about the size of a grain of sand, yellow, white or dark in color. They are made up of a large number of filaments that branch out around a central portion like tlie spokes of a wheel. The fungus is found originally on plants and enters the body in various ways, supposedly, as a general thing, through an abrasion of the liniug membrane of the mouth, or of the skin, through diseased teeth or ducts of glands, and by inlialation. Syniptonis — The disease is characterized by tumors or abscesses, usually in the region of the jaw The tumor may involve only the softer tissues, or affect the jawbone, causing enlarge- ment and later honey-combing, finally breaking down and discharging pus. When the tongue is affected it is swollen and painful, and prehension and mastication of the food are frequently impossible. When the larynx or pharynx is the seat of the disease, breathing and swallowing are difficult and painful. Actinomycosis of the lungs may present the appearance of a chronic affec- tion of those organs. Other internal organs may become affected, but these cases are rare. In generalized cases the usual course is slow emaciation and death. These tumors are quite common PARASITES OF THE HORSE AND MULE 351 in cattle, and one has little difficulty in diagnosing the disease. In doubtful cases a microscopic examination of the pus or of a section of the tumor may be necessary. Treatment — When the tumor is small and external, it maybe dissected out or laid open and tincture of iodine or Lugol's solution injected into it. From one to two drams of iodide of potas- sium should be given internally in the feed or drinking water every day for two or three weeks. One should not be sparing in the use of the drug if improvement does not follow. This treatment is a specific and, unless the disease is general and the animal weak, will result in a cure. In the large abattoirs, unless the disease is generalized, the carcass is not condemned, only the affected part being rejected. PARASITES PARASITES OF SOLIPEDS INTESTINAL, WORMS OF THE HORSE AND MULE Intestinal worms are generally seen in young or weak and debilitated animals. Horses running in pasture are frequently affected by them. The following varieties may be found in the intestines of the horse: Large Round Worm {Ascaris megalocephala) — This is a large round worm, yellowish white in color, and from 4 to 12 inches in length, sometimes much longer, and varying in thickness from that of a straw to that of a lead pencil. They are rigid-looking worms, tapering toward the ends; at the anterior extremity one can see three well-developed lips. They are common in the small intestines of the horse. Pill Worms {Oxyuris curvula) — These parasites are slender worms from 1 to 2 inches in length, and partly transparent or white in color. They are very common parasites of -the horse, and are present in the posterior part of the intestinal tract. They are often seen projecting from the anus or fixed to its margins. Varieties of the flat or tape worms may be found in the intestines, but are not common. Other varieties of round worms may also be present. Symptoms — When large numbers of round or pin worms are present in the intestines they may give rise to certain symptoms, such as colicky pains, itching, unthrifty condition, constipation, diarrhea, and depraved appetite. In thrifty, well ^ared for animals they do but little harm. Pin worms in particular may cause some annoyance by their irritation to the walls of the rectum or anus. Treatment — In poorly cared for, unthrifty animals better care and bitter tonics constitute part of the treatment. Injections of soapsuds will assist in removing the pin worms. EXTERNAL PARASITES OF THE HORSE AND MULE Biting" Lice {Trichodectodes) — The biting louse is the most common external parasite of the horse. It is most troublesome during the winter, and in colts and 352 PARASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS horses that are roughing it or running out in i>asture. In poorly cared for, unthrifty animals it may do considerable harm. Symptoms — Animals infested with this parasite have a very rough, ragged looliing coat, and on the neck and around the base of the tail, or wherever the lice are abundant, the hair may be rubbed off in their attempts to rid themselves of the annoyance. Treatment — It is very easy to rid an animal of lice. A thorough washing with a 2 per cent water solution of some of the coal tar products is generally sufficient. It is best, however, to repeat the bath in about a week. During the cold weather one must guard against the animal catching cold. The stalls and walls of the stable in which the animal is kept should be whitewashed or sprayed with an antiseptic wash in order to prevent infection. Sucking Louse [Hcematojnnus) — This is not so common a louse as the preceding variety. Its principal seat is at the mane and near the base of the tail. It gives rise to very much the same symptoms as the biting louse. The treatment is the same as for the former variety. Mange in Horses, Texas Itch {Sarcoptic Scabies) — Mange is not a common disease of the horse and occurs principally on the range. Native horses may become infected with this parasite by coming in contact with animals brought from infected herds. Itch is due to a mite that burrows into the skin forming galleries in which it deposits its eggs. The disease exists in both the warm and cold weather. The itching is greatest at night. Symptoms — The principal symptom at first is an intense itching, to allay which the animal rubs himself against posts or the sides of the stall. Little papules appear on the skin, in small patches at first, but gradually spread ; crusts form at the base of the hairs and cause matting. The hair finally drops out and large dry patches are formed, covered with debris and crusts. Sores may be seen on different parts of the body, due to the animal rubbing and scraping itself in trying to relieve the itching. One may find the mites in the crusts on the affected parts. Treatment — Washing the infected animals with a strong solution of any of the coal tar products will destroy the parasites. About a 4 per cent watery solution is sufficient. It is usually best to repeat the wash in about one or two weeks after the first application. We must take certain precautions against reinfecting the animals by washing the harness, stalls, mangers, and walls of the stable with an antiseptic wash. PARASITES OF CATTLE INTESTINAL ^VORMS Cattle are seldom affected with intestinal parasites. Several varieties may be found, including varieties of tape and round worms. The large round worm, the ascaride, is found in calves. It is reddish white and from 5 to 10 inches in length. This parasite causes some irritation in the intestines and may give rise to symptoms of indigestion. PARASITES OF CATTLE 353 Treatment — One teaspoonful of turpentine may be given in the milk for a few days. To large calves a tablespoonful may be given. LiUiig^ Worms (Vertninous Bronchitis) — Verminous bronchitis in calves is not uncommon. It is due to a small thread-like worm, Strongylus micrurus, from 1| to 2 inches in length. This disease may exist as an enzootic in a drove of calves. Symptoms— If the parasites in the bronchial tubes are not present in large numbers the symptoms are mild and develop slowly. The cough is broken and husky and may come on in paroxysms, in one of which the animal may die. In coughing the animal may expel mucus con- taining worms. The animal presents a very unthrifty appearance, the appetite is impaired or lost, the eyes are sunken, and the animal is weak and may become greatly emaciated. The disease is most severe during the cold weather and usually runs a long course, the calf gradually becoming weaker, or it may finally become strong enough to throw off the disease. In poorly cared for animals the prognosis is unfavorable. Treatment — Infection takes place by the calves running on infected pastures, especially during the spring and early summer. We must keep the diseased calves separate from the healthy ones and avoid turning the latter into infected stables or pastures. The lungs of animals dying from the disease must be destroyed and we should try to limit the infection to as few pastures as possible. The principal treatment for sick animals is summed up in good quarters, good care, and plenty of nourishing food. Bitter tonics may be given if necessary. EXTERNAL, PARASITES OF CATTLE Long and Short Nosed Cattle Lice — These are the two common varieties of lice found on cattle. By irritating the skin they impair the thriftiness of the animal, especially when poorly cared for. They are most noticeable in the winter. Treatment — Lice on cattle are hard to destroy, and if found must receive prompt and thorough treatment, which is the same as recommended for the horse. Ring Worm, Barn Itch — This is an affection of the skin caused by a vegetable parasite, Tinea tonsurans, and is a common skin affection among young cattle in the winter and spring. It is readily transmitted from one animal to another. Symptoms — Patches of the skin on the head and neck are most commonly affected. The skin is first slightly inflamed, vesicles may form, followed by the formation of scaly, brittle crusts. The affected areas are gray in color and denuded of hair. The part itches, and the animal is frequently seen scratching it. In a few months the affection may disappear without any treat- ment. Treatment — The stables and sheds should be whitewashed or disinfected in order to destroy the spores scattered around by the crusts. The affected skin areas should be washed thoroughly and the scales removed. Sulphur ointment may then be rubbed on the part once a day. 354 PAEASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS PARASITES OF SHEEP PARASITES IN THE STOMACH AND INTESTINES Twisted. Stomach Worms {Strongylus contortus) — This is a very com- mon parasite of sheep, found in the fourth stomach. It is a very small, thread-like worm about f inch in length, usually reddish in color and present in large numbers. This parasite is widely distributed and is especially common on low, wet pastures and in wet years. SyniptoniS — The symptoms are first manifest in the lambs and it is not until early summer that they begin to show evidence of the disease. The animal acts dull and lags behind the flock- The ears drop and the animal looks unthrifty. Later it is affected with scours, becomes badly emaciated and weak, stands with arched back, and walks with stiff gait. The skin is pale and dropsical swellings appear under the jaw or on the neck. The usual termination is death. Treatment — The sheep usually becomes infested with stomach worms by grazing on infected pastures. Permanent sheep pastures are common sources of infection. The preventive treatment consists in changing pastures and destroying the parasites in the old sheep by administering a vermicide. If this is practiced the number of lambs lost from this cause will be greatly lessened. One should begin the treatment early in the disease. The cause can be determined by destroying a sick lamb and examining it carefully. Various remedies are proposed. The most common drench is turpentine (1 ounce to 16 ounces of milk, the dose being 2 to 4 ounces, repeated once a day for three days). Better results have been obtained with the following recipe: Coal tar creo- sote (1 part), water (99 parts); the dose is from 2 to 4 ounces. It need not be repeated as in the turpentine treatment. In drenching, some advantage results from keeping the sheep in the standing position. Intestinal Parasites — Two forms of tape worm and several varieties of round worms are commonly fotmd in sheep. These intestinal round worms gen- erally seem to cause but little harm, but no doubt they add to the unthriftiness of the animal when it is affected by the stomach worm. The tapeworms cause heavy losses in the Western States, but are seldom seen east of the Mississippi River, except in animals shipped in from the West. Treatment — The treatment for the stomach worm is usually sufficient to drive them out. If a water solution of coal tar creosote is used, the effect on the intestinal worms will be greater if from 30 to 80 grains of thymol are added to each dose after it is measured out. Nodular Disease — Nodular disease of sheep is caused by a very small worm {GH.sophagostoma colnnihlannm). In the larval stage it becomes lodged beneath the lining membrane of the intestines in tumors varying in size from that of a millet seed to that of a hazel nut. It is one of the most common intestinal parasites of sheep. Symptoms — These are not characteristic. Usually the sheep are debilitated and have PARASITES OF SHEEP 355 diariluii, or the opposite condition, constipation, may be present. The disease is easily diagnosed by making a post-mortem examination. Small tumors are found in the mucous membrane of the intestines. The contents of the largest are cheesy in character and of a greenish color. The affection is most noticeable in yearling sheep while on dry feed in the winter. Treatment — The treatment is wholly preventive. It consists in avoiding, if possible, the pasturing of sheep on undrained and permanent pastures, and destroying the adult worms by administering a vermifuge. As soon as possible put the sheep on rye or wheat pasture, or feed roots. The nodules will disappear the following spring and summer. EXTERNAL, PARASITES OF SHEEP The Sheep Tick {Melophagiis ovina) — This is a very common external par- asite of sheep. It is about ^ inch in length, of a reddish or gray brown color and easily detected if present in any number on sheep. Ticks, abundant on sheep, cause unthriftiness. Upon lambs the damage is greater, and if not I'elieved, may result in death. The immature form of the tick is seedlike and brown, nnd adheres to the wool or skin. Treatment — Ticks are easily destroyed by dipping. This should be done as soon after shearing as possible, as it is then that the ticks leave the old sheep and attack the lambs. Any of the coal tar preparations make effective dips, as this parasite is easily destroyed. Cominoii Scab — This disease is caused by a small animal parasite, the itch- mite [Psoroptes communis). These mites are sm;ill, almost wliite in color, and about the same size as the dot over the letter i. If scabs and wool from an infested sheep are placed upon a black surface and in the warm sunlight one may see the mites crawling about. The scab mites live on the exudations from the skin caused by their bites. The bite causes irritation and considerable exudation, which dries, forming crusts. The parasites live under the crusts and scabs thus formed. The female deposits her eggs on the surface of the skin, to which they readily stick. Each female lays from fifteen to twenty eggs, which become mature parasites in about a week. This period may be longer under unfavorable conditions. Symptoms — The first symptom noticed is the uneasiness of the animal. The presence of the mite causes an intense itching, which the sheep attempts to relieve b}^ scratching, biting, and rubbing itself. The fleece soon becomes "taggy," owing to the loose locks of wool that have been pulled out of the affected areas on the back and sides of the sheep. If we examine the sur- face in these regions the infested spots are seen to be covered with little elevations that give the skin a whitish or yellowish appearance. These patches gradually increase in size, the wool drops out, and the skin becomes thickly covered with scales and scabs. The mites soon abandon the center of the scabs, which gradually heal and the disease slowly progresses on the margins of the spots. When badly infested the sheep becomes weak and emaciated, and if much of the fleece is lost the animal is unable to withstand cold weather. 356 PAEASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS Tkeatment — The treatment is both preventive and curative. The preventive measures consist in guarding against infesting the flock by quarantining all newly purchased animals unless satisfied that they are free from scab. The curative treatment consists in using some good dip, allowing the sheep to stay in the bath a sufficient time for it to soak through the crusts and destroy the parasites, and again dipping in about ten days in ord^r to kill those that have hatched from the eggs. The tobacco dips are to be preferred. After dipping, the sheep should be put into fresh quarters, and the old quarters cleaned and disinfected by spraying the floors and walls with the dip. The old quarters should not be used again for sheep for at least six weeks. PARASITES OF SWINE INTESTINATL, PARASITES Thorn-lieaded Worm {EcJiinorJiy^ichns gigas) — This is a large worm, from 2 to 8 inches in length. Its body is cylindrical, wrinkled, curved, and about the thickness of a lead pencil. The anterior extremity is armed with a proboscis surrounded with several rows of hooks. It is by means of this proboscis that the parasite attaches itself to the walls of the intestines. The home of tliis parasite is in the small intestines but it may migrate to other parts of tlie alimentary tract. Large Round Worm {Ascaris suilla) — This worm is from 3 to 5 inches in length, the body is white, smooth, and tajjeriiig toward the extremities. It is a very common parasite of swine and inhabits the small intestines. It may be found on other parts of the tract. Pin and Wliii> Worms {CEsophagostoma dentatum and Trichocejyhalus cre- natus) — These parasites inhabit the large intestine, especially toward its anterior extremity. The pin worm is small, about -^ inch in length, white, straight, and pointed at both ends. The whip worm is very slen,der and hair-like at the anterior portion, posteriorly it is thicker. It is about 1^ inches long and white in color. The habits of swine are such that they are predisposed to all forms of intestinal parasites. In pigs these parasites are more common than in older animals. In unthrifty pigs they are usually present in large numbers. From half a dozen to a dozen of the thorn-headed worms may be present in one animal. The round worms are usually present in larger numbers. Symptoms — Thorn-headed worms are said to cause loss of appetite, constipation, diarrhea, restlessness, emaciation, weakness of the loins, and in young pigs convulsions and death. The symptoms attributed to the round worm are depraved appetite, unthriftiness, and restlessness. When present in large numbers they may cause obstruction of the intestmal canal. Treatment — This is the same for all varieties of intestinal worms. One teaspoonful of turpentine per hundred pounds of body weight may be given in the milk. This may be ir-veated PARASITES OF SWINE 357 the following day. One teaspoonful of a mixture of equal parts of powdered worm seed and areca nut maybe mixed with a little corn meal and fed to the animal. Santonine (5 grains) and calomel (2 grains) may be given in the swill or feed. This dose should be repeated. KIDNEY WORM IN SWINE This worm is from f to 1^ inches m length, dark colored, and pointed at both ends. It is fonnd principally in the tissues around the kidneys, but it may be found in other parts of the abdominal cavity. Swine breeders attribute a weak back or paralysis of the hind parts of swine to this parasite. Post-mortem exami- nations do not bear out this theory, as it is seldom found in animals in this condition. BRONCHITIS IN SAVINE The parasite causing this trouble is the Strongylus paradoxus. It is from f to 1^ inches long, very slender and whitish or brown in color. It is rather a common panisite in pigs. The female lays a number of eggs, which may be expelled by coughing and undergo a part of their development outside of the animal body. The pig probably becomes infested by drinking surface water or I'ooting in the mud. Symptoms — The bronchial tubes may become more or less inflamed and the inflammation may extend to the lung tissue and cause small patches of pneumonia. In some cases a large portion of the lung tissue may become affected. The first symptom is a cough that may occur upon leav- ing the bed, after exercise, and after eating. In badly infected cases the paroxysms of coughing are quite severe, and the condition may be such as to be mistaken for swine plague. In most cases the pig is unthrifty, but is usually able to overcome the disease. Treatment — The treatment is preventive. The pigs should be removed from the infected pasture and should have pure water Nourishing food and good care will help the pig to overcome the disease. EXTERNAL. PARASITES OF SW^INE Hog" Louse {Hcematopinnus stiis) — This is the largest member of the louse family. The favorite points of attack are along the lower part of the neck, under and behind the forelegs, and on the belly. The itching is often severe, especially in young hogs, and may cause urticaria. Treatment — The louse is easily killed and at little expense. The method of treatment should depend on the number of hogs to be treated. Where the drove is small, the hogs can be driven into a pen and sprinkled or sprayed with a 2 per cent solution of some of the coal tar products or a little kerosene. If a large number are to be ti'eated, crude petroleum, a cheaper material, can be used. If a dipping vat is used, an inch or two of the crude petroleum may be poured ou the surface of the water and the pigs driven through it. The hog houses and pens must be cleaned or the hogs will become reinfested from them. 24 358 PAEASITES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS BOT-FLIES The bot-fly is important because the hirval form is a parasite in tbe different species of domestic animals. The bot-flies form a distinct family and are easily recognized both in the larval and adult stages. The body of the fly is heavy and usually hairy, the head large and the eyes prominent. During the warm, bright, sunny days they can be seen flying around the animals and depositing their eggs or larvae in places whence they can readily gain access to the proper part. The body of the larvge is segmented, thick, and fleshy. It is found in various parts of the body of its host — in the digestive tract, under the skin, in the sinuses of the head, and sometimes on the surface of the brain. BOT-FLY OF THE HORSE This fly {Gastrophilus equi) is about f inch in length, the body is hairy, and its general color brown, with black or yellowish spots. The female fly is the one gen- erally seen. It hovers near the horse and when ready to deposit its egg, it darts toward the animal and fastens the Qgg to the hair. These eggs are yellow and in horses running in pasture may be so plentiful that the entire part takes on a yel- lowish tinge. The eggs hatch in from two to four weeks. The hatching of the larvae is aided by the animal licking the part. At the same time the larvae are transferred to the mouth and thence they pass to the stomach. As soon as the larva reaches the stomach it fixes itself on the walls of that organ, remains there until late the following spring, and when fully developed loosens its hold and passes out with the excrement. The next stage, the pupa, lasts for several weeks and is passed in the ground ; then the pupa is transformed into the fly, ready to deposit its egg. Syiiiptoms — Unless the "bots" are present in large numbers in the stomach, they cause no appreciable symptoms. It is only in old, unthrifty, poorly cared for horses or in colts running in the pasture that they are at all numerous. They cause injury to the horse by irritating the walls of the stomach and obstructing the free passage of food; by drifting along the intestines and becoming attached to the walls of the rectum, they may cause great irritation. The symptoms shown by the hoi'se are those seen in indigestion. Irritation to the rectum is manifested in the usual way. Treatment — The treatment is principally preventive. This consists in destroying the eggs before the escape of the larvae by washing the infested parts with a 2 or 3 per cent water solution of carbolic acid, or rubbing the hair lightly with kerosene. Other methods by which the eggs can be destroyed are by clipping the hair from the part or scraping off the eggs with a sharp knife. This should be done every two weeks during the time the fly is about. Remedies for the BOT-FLIES OF THE HOESE, OX, AND SHEEP 359 destruction of bots in the stomach should be used with considerable care. Prevention is the most successful method of treating them. There are other species of the horse bot-fly, but the one just described is the common bot-fly of this country, BOT-FLY OF THE OX This species {Hypoderma Ihieata) is tlie common bot-fly of cattle in this country. It resembles a honey bee in appearance, is about ^ inch long, and its general color is black. A portion of the front part of tlie body is covered with long, whitish hairs, and the upper part of the head, the thorax, and a portion of the abdomen, together with the legs, are 'covered with brownish black hairs. The fly appears during the warm months of the year and deposits its eggs on the lower portions of the body and the extremities. The act of depositing the eggs causes a great deal of annoyance and sometimes terror to the cattle. Nature of the Injury and Symptoms — On the large ranges, during the spring and summer months, these flies annoy and excite the cattle and interfere with their fattening. The annoyance from the larvae must be greater than that caused by the adult fly, as the former produce a great amount of inflammation in the surrounding tissues during their development within the animal's body. The larvae reach the mouth in the same manner as in the horse, by the animal licking the part. It then penetrates through the walls of the anterior part of the alimentary tract, and wanders through the tissues of the body until finally it reaches a point beneath the skin of the back. Here it develops rapidly, and can be felt as a small tumor. Finally it works its way out through the hole that it has made in the skin, drops to the ground, and in from three to six weeks develops into the adult fly. Besides the damage caused by the annoyance to the animal, the loss every year in the hides amounts to a very large sum. Treatment — Some of the preventive measures recommended are not practical when applied to cattle in general, such as housing the cattle or applying substances to the surface of the body that will prevent the female from depositing the eggs. A better way is to destroy the grubs either by closing the opening in the skin through which they breathe with mercurial ointment or a little kerosene, or by pressing on the skin in such a way as to squeeze the "grub " out and destroy it. This may be done as early as January or as late as March. BOT-FL,T OF THE SHEEP This fly ( CEstrns ovis) is greatly dreaded by sheep. It resembles an overgrown house fly and has a brown appearance. It is quite lazy, flying about but little. Symptoms — The fly makes its appearance in June or July and deposits live larvae in the nostrils of the sheep. The larva works up the nostrils and finally reaches the sinuses of the head. Here it attaches itself to the lining membrane until developed. It then passes down to the nostrils, drops to the ground, buries itself, and in forty or fifty days becomes a mature fly. During its stay in the sinuses of the head it causes great annoyance to the animal. A catarrhal inflammation of the membranes is generally present. Nervous symptoms may be manifested, the appetite lost, and the animal quite weak. Frequently the animals die. teO WOUNDS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS Treatment — The most practical method of treating this disease is by using preventive »ea8ures. First, by providing shade in the pastures, and, second, by tarring the noses of the sheep livery few days during the summer months to prevent the fly from depositing the larvse. Valuable toimals may be treated by trephining into the sinuses and so removing the grubs. WOUNDS CLASSIFICATION AND MODES OF HEALING Classes of Wounds — Whenever any part of the body is injured by a ««iechanical cause to such an extent as to cause the severing of the tissues it is called a wound. If the injury is of such a character as to cut tJie parts clean, as with a sharp knife, it is called a cut or incised wound. If the parts are severed but the edges of the wound more or less ragged or torn, as when cut with a barb wire, it is called a torn or lacerated wound. If the wound be produced by some pointed object, as a nail, sharp splinter or fork tine, the opening small and deep, it is known as a punctured tvound. If the object causing the injury is large and blunt and the tissues are injured but not torn, it is a bruise or contused wound. In the latter variety there may be no injury to the skin or even to the superficial tissues, but the contusion may be deep seated, at a point where the tissues meet with the greatest resistance from the bone. ' Sometimes wounds are given special names, as gunshot or poisoned, but these only indicate the manner in which they were inflicted, or some special character. They may also receive a special name from the region involved, as open joint. For all practical purposes wounds may be considered as cut or incised, torn or lacerated, bruised or contused, and punctured. Method of Healing — No matter how clean-cut a wound may be, there is always some destruction of tissue and the parts do not return to exactly the original place. In a clean-cut wound this destruction of tissue is small and the tissues when brought together may unite at once. Healing under such conditions is said to be hy primary union. This form of union rarely occurs in the lower animals. Practically, it never occurs excepting after a surgical operation and then only when the greatest care has been used to secure cleanliness and the exact bringing together of the parts. The common method of union is known as healing hy granulation. In this case nature throws out small granulations between the gaping edges of a wound or over MODES OF HEALING 361 its surface, and these granulations finally develop into the same kind of tissue as that from which tliey originated, grow together, and thus make the necessary repair. At times the weak granulations on the surface and the exudations thrown out may coagulate and a hard surface is formed known as a scab. Healing then takes place under the scab. Other methods of healing may occur, but practicaHy all wounds heal by the methods just described. Where wounds heal by the first method, or primary union, there is no appre- ciable scar, for the reason that so little new tissue has been formed. Where wounds heal by granulation there is a scar of greater or less magnitude, as the new tissue which replaces that destroyed is not the same in character as the original. The rapidity with which wounds heal will depend upon the kind of tissue injured, the amount to be replaced, the degree of motion in the part, the infection and irritation, and the general condition of the animal. In general, skin and muscles heal rapidly, tendons often quite slowly, cartilage poorly, and nerve tissue very slowly. Healing is interfered with by motion. The more nearly absolute rest the better the result. Healing by primary union is seen only when no pus is present ; the more pus, the slower the healing process. Irritation by biting, lick- ing, bandages, or dirt retards rapid union. Finally, an animal in poor condition physically, or one kept under unfavorable conditions, can not make a rapid recovery from an injury. Treatment — Wounds iu domestic animals may heal without attention. It is fortunate that such is the case, but this does not make it less desirable that one administer proper treatment and thus decrease the chance of a bad result or lessened value of the animal. The time to begin treatment is as soon after the accident as possible, but the method of treatment will vary accord- ing to the character of the wound. . If there is serious hemorrhage, the first step in the treatment is to check it. Serious bleeding ordinarily does not occur, owing to the fact that the ends of the vessels are so injured that a clot quickly forms. Stockmen often become alarmed, without sufficient reason, when an animal is cut. It requires the loss of a very considerable quantity of blood in the larger animals to consti- tute a serious hemorrhage. For bleeding from small blood-vessels, the wound may be bathed with hot water (from 115° to 120° Fahr.) Cold water may be used in the same manner, but is not so useful as when hot. The better method of stopping a hemorrhage is by the compress bandage, wherever it can be applied. A good one can be made by cutting cheese-cloth into strips about 4 or 5 inches wide and 20 feet long. A pack of jute or oakum should be applied directly to the surface of the wound and the bandage applied over this. It may be necessary, where the bleeding is from a good-sized vein or artery, to bandage the part heavily, allowing the bandage to extend some distance above and below the injury. Physicians and veterinarians have forceps, needles, and thread for the purpose of checking hemorrhage from medium-sized and large-sized vessels, but they are not always available. Other methods that can be used are the actual cautery 362 WOUNDS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS and medicines which, when applied to a cut surface, constrict the vessels. What should be avoided in all cases is the use of road dust, puff-balls, cobwebs, and dirty rags. These all contain germs which may infect the wound, retarding healing and even causing blood poisoning. It is well for every stockman to prepare for accidents of this kind and keep on hand some clean, soft material that can be torn into bandages when needed. The cleansing of the wound is ^ important step in the treatment. Pure boiled water is to be preferred for this purpose. The hair should be clipped along the margins of the wound, the detached or torn shreds of skin or tissue cut off, and the wound cleansed with a 3 per cent water solution of carbolic acid, creolin, or any of the other antiseptics or disinfectants. If necessary, the parts around the injury should be washed with soap and water, and if we suspect the presence of a foreign body (splinters, etc. ) they should be looked for and removed. If the secretions that after- ward form do not drain off properly, but pocket on the inside of the wound, an incision in the tissues should be made, lower down if possible, and proper drainage secured. A wound having a deep non-draining pocket on the inside may permit the escape of pus along the muscular sheath and cause extensive suppuration or death. In domestic animals healing is impeded by a bandage, and it is better to leave the wound uncovered. If a bandage is used it must be changed twice a day, a clean one being used each time, and the wound dressed. Deep (ind gaping wounds may be drawn together with stitches or sutures. In clean-cut wounds, parallel to the muscular fibers, this is indicated. In lacerated wounds, if the direction is across the muscular fibers, or if one can not control the motion in the part, stitches are apt to tear out and may do far more harm than good. la the after treatment of the wound we must resort to agents that wi]l destroy or retard the growth of the germs and at the same time not irritate the tissues. There are any number of such agents, but the two liquid disinfectants that are most satisfactory for general use are carbolic acid and creolin. Crude preparations resembling creolin are sold as sheep dips and are quite cheap. In general the strength of the wash for wounds should be 2 parts of the disinfectant to 98 parts water. The best dry antiseptic dressings are boric acid, calomel, and acetanilid. Equal parts by weight of boric acid and calomel makes a good dressing. The best means of applying powders to the surface of a wound is with a small insect-powder blower. In dressing the wound we should first wash it with the antiseptic wash, taking care not to injure the granulations, and remove all the pus and foreign matter that may have collected on its surface. A syringe or small piece of cotton may be used in applying the wash. A fresh piece of cotton should be used each time the wound is dressed. After cleansing it, the dry dressing may be applied. The length of time that may elapse between the dressings will depend on the condition of the wound. At first it may be necessary to treat it once or twice a day. Later, when healing begins, it will require less attention. If the hair and skin around the wound become soiled with the discharge, it should be washed off with soap and water and vaseline rubbed on the part. When a scab forms and no pus is discharged, ^ cease dressing it. Sometimes, as soon as healing begins, the animal will lick and bite the part. If this is the case the horse must be confined in such a way that he can not get at the wound. In poorly cared for wounds granulations may pile up and form immense, hard, easily bleeding liumors. The whole limb may swell and become two or three times the natural size. Excessive or HAENESS IXJUMES 363 unhealthy granulations must be kept in check from the very beginning, as later they are difBcult to control. Pure carbolic acid applied with a small swab is sufBcient to destroy them if not too advanced. A good wash for a wound that is not granulating as it should, is zinc sulphate and lead acetate (\ ounce of each) in water (1 quart). In some cases it is necessary to cut off the granulations with a sharp knife, down to a level with the surrounding skin. A red hot iron may also be used. The general treatment of punctured wounds does not differ from that of other wounds. The opening should be enlarged and the proper drainage secured. It is impossible to judge the extent or the probable consequence of this kind of injury. We must examine the wound carefully for foreign bodies and if present remove them. Punctured wounds most often occur in the foot. The tissues here are hard, yielding but little to swelling, and the pain is severe. The opening of such wounds should be enlarged, taking care not to remove too much of the horn, and washed once or twice a day with an antiseptic wash. This will insure the proper cleansing and drainage and thus tend to a speedy repair and greatly diminish the dangers of tetanus and blood poisoning. ^Vounds of the joints are always serious and are usually punctured. At the earliest possible moment the wound should be cleansed and a blister applied at once to cause swelling and thus check the escape of the synovia. If the joint becomes infected, inflammation will follow, the part becomes badly swollen, the pain is severe and the articulation may be destroyed. It is very neces- sary that the part should be kept quiet even if a cast or splint needs to be applied. The swelling that may occur sometimes remains for months. It may be reduced and sometimes driven away by the frequent application of blisters. HARNESS INJURIES Causes — In horses not accustomed to heavy work the skin over the parts having to bear most of the weight is tender and easily irritated. The colt suffers worst. A large proportion of the injuries are due to ill-fitting harness. A harness, when not adjusted properly, may distribute the load unevenly, thereby injuring the parts on which the most of the weight is thrown. If the surface of the leather coming in contact with the skin becomes covered with sweat and dirt, making it rough and hard, it will act as an irritant to the part. The character of tbe work, too, is a factor; heavy work over rough ground, or fast work, especially if the animal goes about it awkwardly, is likely to cause sprains and bruises. SORE NECKS AND GALLING These are the simplest forms of injuries and are quite common on the farm when the rush of work begins in the spring. When horses are not hardened into work, we must keep in mind the fact that the skin on tbe shoulders and back is tender and easily inflamed. Especially is this true of tbe colt, but the older animals are not exempt from it and preventive measures should be used until the animal becomes accustomed to the Avork. The harness for each animal should be properly 364 INJURIES OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS adjusted, cleaned, and oiled. One set should not be made to serve for several dif- ferent horses, and especially is this true of the collars. Galling may be prevented to a certain extent by stopping and lifting the collar or saddle every hour or oftener and rubbing the skin with the hand. Bathing the skin every noon and evening will also do much toward preventing galling. If the animal is cared for in this manner until the skin becomes hardened to the work, it will keep in better condi- tion and be able to do more work throughout the season. A green horse should not be worked steadily or made to do heavy work at first. Treatment — Zinc and smooth leather pads will not only prevent but often cure sore necks or saddle galls. Felt pads are useful, but should always be made dry and soft before putting them on in the morning. Sometimes a pad may be so adjusted as not to rest on the sore spot. Such adjustment should be made with care and judgment, lest the misfit cause strain or undue pres- sure on some muscle. Bathing the inflamed skin with the following lotion will harden it and reduce the inflammation : Lead acetate (4 ounces), zinc sulphate (3 ounces), water (1 gallon) ; the parts should be well sponged with this lotion on coming in from work at noon and in the evening. If sores are present the following preparations are useful: Tannic acid (1 ounce), carbolic acid (1 dram), glycerine (4 ounces) ; mix well and apply to the sore once a day ; or, calomel (4 drams), boric acid (4 ounces), tannic acid (1 ounce), mix and dust on the part once or twice a day. "SIT-rASTS" A sit-fast is generally due to wearing a collar that is too short and too tight at the top. Too much weight on top of the neck may cause it. Treatment — The treatment consists in removing the cause and cutting out the sit- fast. If this is not done the neck may continue sore and the horse will sometimes become disagreeable to handle. To encourage the separation of the sit-fast or ' ' core " from the healthy tissue and to reduce the inflammation, a hot flaxseed poultice should be applied to the top of the neck. It is well to renew the poultice every three or four hours during the day by dipping it in hot water. In a day or two the sit-fast can be removed. The after treatment is to keep the part clean and use dry dressing. - ABSCESSES Abscesses on the shoulder are due to an unequal distribution of weight by the collars, the parts becoming bruised and the abscesses developing as a result. Treatment — Abscesses must be promptly opened and the contents allowed to escape. The opening must be large — at the lowest part and well to one side, so that the collar will not rest on the small scar that will result. The abscess should be washed out every day with an antiseptic wash, until healing begins, and after that at less frequent intervals. The opening should not be permitted to close until the abscess has filled in from the bottom. The animal should not be worked, at least not in a collar until the healing is complete. A breast harness may be used temporarily and the horse made to do light work. SPRAINS 365 TUMORS Tumors of the skin a,nd muscles of the shoulders are caused in the same manner as the abscesses and sometimes result from abscesses that are not cared for properly. Tumors should be dissected out and the resulting wound treated in an antiseptic manner. SPRAINS Sprains are common in horses doing heavy work. Green horses, when made to do heavy work over rough ground soon become tired, pull awkwardly, and are very liable to a strain. When an animal has a sore shoulder, he may pull sidewise to avoid pressure on the part ; thus, the weight will be distributed unevenly, and a sprain will often result. Unequal distribution of weight from an ill-fitting harness may also cause it. Sprains of the shoulder are frequently serious. The animal may not be very lame, but the muscles of the shoulder become atrophied, or ''sweenied," in the more common expression. Treatment — Sometimes the animal is lame as well as "sweenied." In this case it should be placed in a warm stall as long as the lameness continues. In bad cases it is best not to take the animal out for any purpose, but to carry all water and feed to him. Sometimes it is good policy to tie the animal so that he can not lie down in the stall, as the getting up and down may be such an effort as to retard recovery. Nervous animals do better when turned out in a yard or in a small pasture by themselves, ' SHOULDER SLiIP This is nothing more than a sprain of the shoulder muscles and should be treated in the same way. Treatment — The following liniment should be used : Oil of turpentine, aqua ammonia, and linseed oil (equal parts) ; or, spirits of camphor (10 parts), oil of turpentine (2 parts) ; apply to the part once a day. The latter liniment is a mild one, and considerable friction should be used in applying it. To help fill out atrophied muscles and treat a sprain of long standing, a blistering ointment (1 part powdered cantharides to 8 parts vaseline) should be used. SPRAINS OF TENDONS AND JOINTS These are treated in about the same manner as sprains of muscular tissue. Repair does not take place so rapidly, however, and sometimes will require very careful treatment. Treatment — Rest is essential. When in a region where a plaster cast can be applied, great benefit is derived from it. Other lines of treatment are hot and cold applications. These should be used until the inflammatory stage is passed, and then counter irritation from a blister or the firing iron can be applied. 366 DISEASES OF THE KEPEODUCTIVE ORGANS CHOKING Foreign bodies in the pharynx or oesophagus of animals may be due to penetra- tion of the mucous membrane by sharp objects swallowed, to the attempt to swallow objects too large to pass down, or to foreign bodies becoming crossed in the gullet. If the animal eats greedily and swallows the food hastily it may choke. Sometimes choking results from -a paralysis of a portion of the gullet or a constriction in its walls that will not allow the food to pass along the canal. Frequently a dilation or sac-like distention occurs just in front of the constriction. Syniptonis — The animal stops feeding, may cough and salivate, and has an anxious look. If the choke is complete it is unable to drink water, and if it tries, the water will be discharged from the nostrils. The respirations may be hurried and difficult. In ruminants bloating may occur. Foreign bodies in the neck portion of the gullet may be detected with the hand, by pressing on the part. In cattle death may take place in a few hours. In horses the symptoms usually develop more slowly. When the choke is incomplete the symptoms may not be marked. Treatment — Foreign bodies in the upper part of the gullet and in the pharynx in cattle can be removed with the hand. In the larger domestic animals one may be able to gradually force the body back into the mouth by pressure with the hands just below the object. Mucilaginous drinks, as flaxseed tea, oil, etc., may be given. These may prove a source of danger, however, by passmg into the air passages, causing a pneumonia. In most cases it will be necessary to resort to the probaug. This instrument is for the purpose of pushing the obstruction on down the oesophagus and into the stomach. The probaug is easily passed in the ox, but in the horse the operation is more difficult and will require tlie assistance of the veterinarian. Broomsticks, rakes, or fork handles should never be substituted for the probang. The injury to the parts as a result of their use will often prove fatal. As a substitute for a probang in cattle a piece of ordinary garden hose, well oiled, may be used. The head should be well extended on the neck and held as quiet as possible. In cattle it may be necessary to puncture the rumen with the trocar and cannula and remove the gas. DISEASES OF THE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS INFLAMMATION OF THE WOMB {Metritis) Causes — This may be caused from injuries to the womb at the time of par- turition, dirty instruments or hands used in assisting in delivery, and from reten- tion of the foetal membranes. Unless antiseptics are used, this complication is of frequent occurrence in difficult cases of parturition. Symptoms — The inflammation will vary in intensity, depending upon its extent. If all the coats including the peritoneum are involved the symptoms are quite severe. The temperature becomes eleva-ted, pulse small and quick and the respirations hurried and shallow. The pain is VAGINITIS, STERILITY 867 often severe, the animal grinding the teeth and showing evidence of coliclvy pains. Constipation is present at first, but gives way to diarrhea. There is abundant foul smelling discharge from the vulva The larger animals remain standing but finally become weak and lie down. Death usually occurs in from two to six days in fatal cases. It may t«^rminate in a chronic inflamma- tion {leucorrhea). Prevention — The preventioii consists in using the utmost care in securing cleanliness in all obstetrical operations. In difficult birth and in all cases where it is necessary to remove a dead foetus or membranes, the womb should be washed out with an antiseptic solution (creolin 3 parts and boiled water 98 parts). The same antiseptic wash twice a day should be used in any case of inflammation of the womb. The following may be given to reduce the fever: Acetanilid (3 ounces) and quinine sulphate (1 ounce); mix and divide into eight powders. Give one powder every three or four hours. If the animal is constipated a cathartic may be given. Tonics and good food must be allowed until recovery takes place. INFLAMMATION OF THE VAGINA Causes — Vaginitis generally accompanies inflammation of the womb. It 'may follow difficult parturition, owing to injury of the parts by manipulation with the hands or instruments. Symptoms — When the vagina alone is inflamed the symptoms are not well marked. The parts are redder than normal, more or less swollen, and when the animal passes water there is evidence of pain. Ulceration and sloughing sometimes follow. The general symptoms are simi- lar to those of metritis. In mild cases recovery takes place without treatment. It may become chronic and a discharge be kept up continuously. Treatment — The treatment consists in washing the parts with an antiseptic solution, the same as used in inflammation of the womb. STERILITY Causes — Sterility may be temporary or permanent, and may be due to either the male or female. In the male it may be a functional trouble due to some con- dition that prevents copulation, or to an absence of spermatozoa. In the female it may be due to obstruction at the os uteri or neck of the womb, to failure to ovulate, or to a chronic diseased condition of the uterus, causing secretions that destroy the vitality of the male element. Other causes in both are abuse of the generative organs, bad hygiene, insufficient exercise, and overfeeding. Hybrids are nearly always sterile. Treatment — The treatment will depend upon the cause. If due to unhygienic conditions or to overfattening, as is often the case with show stock, these should be corrected. All animals should have a reasonable amount of exercise, but should not be overworked. The male should not be permitted to copulate too frequently. If the trouble be due to obstruction at the mouth of the womb, this should be dilated. This operation is usually not very difficult. The intro- 368 DISEASES OF THE REPEODUCTIVE ORGANS diiction of the oiled hand will nearly always suffice. Occasionally surgical means are necessary. If there is chronic disease, this must be treated as already indicated for inflammation of the womb. Stimulating drugs are of less service than is usually attributed to them. LEUCORRHEA This is a chronic iufiammation of tlie mucous membrane of the vagina or womb, and associated with a whitish discharge. Symptoms — The discharge may be white, glutinous, and odorless, or it may be chocolate colored and foul smelling. The tail and hind parts are usually soiled with it. The discharge may be continuous or intermittent. In mild cases the health is not impaired, but the animal is usually barren, or if it does become impregnated is quite likely to abort. Loss of appetite and unthrifti- ness occur in severe cases. Treatment — The disease, if not of too long standing, will yield to treatment quite readily. The use of the following wash is advisable : Permanganate of potash (3 parts) and boiled water (98 parts). Inject twice a day and keep up the treatment for several weeks or until the secretions become normal. The 2 per cent creolin solution will answer very well. CONGESTION AND INFLAMMATION OF THE UDDER Congestion of the udder is more common in the cow than in any of the other domestic animals. The most common cause is incomplete milking or milking at irregular times. It may be due to obstruction pf the milk duct. Other causes are injuries, as from running or being stepped upon by the stable mate ; infection from germs ; and cold. Congestion may lead to active inflammation. Symptoms — The udder is swollen, tense, and hard This may be limited to one-quarter or a half, or may involve the whole gland. The secretion is diminished and may be streaked with blood. At times it may be lumpy or coagulated. This condition will pass away in a short time or may go on to inflammation, the symptoms becoming more intense. The udder becomes swollen, hard, and painful. The milk from the affected quarters is changed. The general symptoms are loss of appetite, dullness, increase in temperature, and rapid pulse. The udder is hard and pits on pressure. Recovery takes place very quickly in the mild form, but in the severe cases abscesses sometimes form and a portion of the gland is destroyed. Treatment — Milk out the gland at frequent intervals. Apply a camphorated ointment over the affected part twice a day, and in mild cases this will be all that is necessary. In the more severe cases hot applications to the udder for several hours, or until the inflammation has sub- sided, will be found the best treatment. If the milk becomes mixed with pus it is advisable to wash out the udder with a weak solution of creolin, using a milking tube to which is attached a syringe, or a few feet of rubber tubing carrying a funnel at one end. If abscesses form they must be opened and drained the same as in any other part of the body. The following mixture is very good in relieving a sore, hardened condition: Vaseline (4 ounces), camphorated ointment (3 ounces), extract of belladonna (i ounce); mix and rub on the gland for about five minutes daily. MILK FEVER, RETENTION OF THE PLACENTA 869 Another preparation is linseed oil (4 ounces) and spirits of turpentine (4 ounces) rubbed x)n in the same manner. SOKE TEATS, SCABBY TEATS Causes — Any irritation of the teats will cause them to become sore and scabby. During cold weather the wetting of the teat in milking is a common cause. Filth also may cause it. - Treatment — An ointment of vaseline (10 parts) and acetate of lead (1 part), rubbed on the sores after milking, will give good results. One or two drams acetate of lead to a pint of water also will answer. MILK FEVER {Parturient Paresis) This affection occurs in the cow, especially in heavy milkers in good condition. It occurs most often after the third, fourth, and fifth calving. There are many theories to account for the disease, the latest being that it is a form of self-poison- ing as a result of unusual work thrown on the milk-secreting cells. Syinptoins — This affection generally sets in between six hours and three days after calv- ing. The cow stops eating or ruminating, becomes uneasj', switches the tail, stamps the feet, and sometimes strikes the abdomen with the feet. There is more or less trembling at first and finally the animal will go down. Attempts will be made to rise, and at first with partial success. The paralytic symptoms become more prominent, the animal becomes stupid, throws the head from side to side in a half conscious manner, and finally draws the head up to one flank and remains unconscious. There is no movement of the bowels or from the bladder. The temper- ature is not increased, or only slightly. In the natural course the animal may make a sudden recovery after a few days or may linger along for five days or a week and die. The cases occur- ring shortly after calving are more unfavorable than those occurring the second or third day. Treatment — The treatment is much more successful now than formerly. The udder must be emptied and washed clean. A dram of iodide of potassium is dissolved in a quart of boiled water, and by means of a milking tube and a piece of rubber tubing and funnel it is introduced into each of the four quarters of the udder. The urine should be drawn with a catheter. Along with this treatment we may administer tincture of nux vomica (about 2 drams) three times a day. No attempt should be made to give large drenches. In emergency the udder may be injected with sterile water alone. If improvement is not noticed within twelve hours the operation should be repeated. Unless the udder and teats be carefully washed, the milking tube clean, and the water boiled, the udder may become inflamed. RETENTION OF AFTERBIRTH OR FCETAL MEMBRANES This accident is more common in the cow than in any of the other domestic animals. In ruminants the membranes are firmly attached to the walls of the uterus by a large number of cotyledons. In the mare the attachment is uniform and not nearly so firm, so that it comes away shortly after birth. Retention is 870 DISEASES O^ THE REPEODUCTIVE ORGANS most frequent after abortion, esiDecially after contagious abortion. Abnormal adhesions between the maternal and fajtal membranes may occur, or occasionally a lack of sufficient expulsive energy may cause its retention. Syniptoms — The symptoms are so marked that a mistaken diagnosis is seldom made. Usually more or less of the membranes hang from the vulva, the tail and hind parts are more or less soiled, and decomposition begins early, causing an offensive characteristic odor If only a portion of the membranes have been retained, decomposition will begin in a few days and a shreddy discharge will occur. In many cases the membranes will all be discharged in about a week, and but little harm will result. In the more serious cases there is loss of appetite, with weakness, and the animal is generally sick. When retention occurs in the mare the condition is more serious than when it occurs in the cow. Treatment — The most successful method of removing the afterbirth is with the hands. The objection to other methods is that they are too slow, that a part may be left behind and give rise to trouble. One should not wait longer than one or two days in the cow, and in the mare but a short time after birth before removing the membranes, as the mouth of the womb may contract and imprison them. The operator should take special precautions to thoroughly wash off the parts with antiseptics (as a solution of creolin) and to use plenty of antiseptics and oil on the hand and arm. Loosen and remove the membranes with as little manipulation as possible, and work quickly. After the membranes are removed the uterus should be well washed out with a 2 per cent watery solution of creolin. llie operator must learn by experience not to mistake the large cotyledons on the walls of the uterus for a part of the afterbirth. PROLAPSUS OF THE VAGINA This accident occurs in pregnant animals, especially cows, toward the latter part of pregnancy or after parturition. The exciting cause is usually standing or lying in stalls that are lower behind than in front. Pasturing on hilly ground may also have the same effect. The tissue connecting the walls of the vagina with the walls of the pelvis may be lax and the heavy uterus, pressing back, displaces the vagina. Pro- lapse of the uterus may also occur after a difficult parturition. Syinptonis — In slight cases the prolapsus occurs only when the animal lies down. At first it appears as a small, round tumor the size of an egg within the lips of the vulva, and afterward may become the size of the fist. At first the parts do not protrude outside the vulva, but as the ligaments relax more and more the protrusion becomes greater. When the animal rises the parts return to the normal. In aggravated cases they do not return, but gradually protrude more and more, become irritated, and the surface denuded. Voiding the urine is interfered with and if the condition has been present for many hours the bladder will be greatly distended. This is an acci- dent that is likely to recur after apparent recovery. Treatment — The first essential in preventing this accident is to have level floors for the cows and shallow gutters to receive the manure. Replacement treatment should follow the accident as early as possible. Draw the urine with a catheter and replace the protruding part by careful, ABORTION 371 direct pressure. If the case is of moderate degree, tie the animal in a narrow stall and place suffi- cient litter under the hind feet to raise her at least six inches above the forefeet. Keeping the animal in such a stable for a few days may suffice. In animals that strain badly it is advisable to place several strong deep sutures in the skin on each side of the vulva and across it after the vagina has been replaced. A cord tied tightly around the body just in front of the udder will tend to prevent straining. ABORTION When pregnancy is terminated by an early delivery, so that the young is unable to live, it is termed an abortion. If delivery occurs at too early a date, but the young is alive and can live, it is called a miscarriage. Causes — Abortion may be due to improper methods of handling or feeding, to too severe work, to accidents, and to acute and general diseases. Some females seem to have a predisposition to abort. There is also a form of abortion that is infectious or contagious and due to a specific germ. When introduced into a herd it usually causes a large proportion to abort, and it requires considerable time to stamp it ont. Mares are also subject to an infectious form of abortion. Syiiiptoins — The symptoms of abortion vary and depend upon the period at which the accident occurs as well as on the cause. If occurring in the later period of pregnancy and caused by an accident, the symptoms are well marked; if due to contagion or occurring in the early period of gestation, there may l)e little to indicate that anything is amiss. When due to contagion abor- tion nearly always takes place between the third and the seventh month, in the cow, and from the fourth to the ninth month in the mare. In the contagious form the act is usually easy, the fcEtus slipping away with so little evidence of labor that the cow often pays no attention to it. If the membranes do not come away with the foetus they soon disintegrate and are discharged a little at a time, keeping the hind parts soiled. If the accident occurs on pasture, the recurrence of heat may be the first intimation of its occurrence. After abortion from contagion the cow may have an unnatural rutting of a very exciting or violent character. Abortion due to accident is nearly always accompanied by more or less labor pain, as the parts are unprepared and rigid. The animal gives evidence of sickness. The foetal membranes are more often retained until they pass away as a discharge. Leucorrhea is a common complication. Treatment — The prevention consists in not exposing animals to conditions that will cause abortion. Cows should be excluded from pastures where there are steers, or where there are deep ditches ; they should have reasonable protection ; and spoiled ensilage or moldy food should be avoided. When the disease has been determined to be of a contagious nature, all aborting animals should be separated from the healthy and a rigid course of disinfection should follow. The foetus and placental membranes should be burned, the buttocks and tail washed free of all soiled material, using a strong carbolic or creolin solution. The vagina should be washed out with an injection of a 3 per cent creolin solution. This should be repeated daily for two weeks. The cows should not be permitted to breed for at least three months and then should be given a treatment a few days before breeding as a precautionary measure. The male should be washed 372 LAMENESS OF HOESES out to avoid carrying the infection from one animal to another. This treatment has proved suc- cessful in our hands in a number of herds. Of the untreated non-aborting cows in a herd, a large proportion aborted the second year, while of those treated only a few aborted. LAMENESS Good legs are essential in a good horse, and the value of the animal depends largely on the condition of his extremities and their ability to do the work for which they are intended. This fact is frequently overlooked by experienced hoi-se- men, who pay more attention to general form and action than to sound legs. Im- perfect conformation may not interfere with a horse's usefulness, but if he be unsound in one or more of his limbs his capacity for work is greatly diminished, the degree depending upon the degree of the lameness or defect and the character of the work. Locating the Seat of the Lameness — Lameness is not a disease but a symptom, and greatly assists us in diagnosing the injury. The seat of the injury may be in a muscle, tendon, bone, or ligament. The degree of the lameness will vary, depending on the location and the character of the injury. When slight or hidden more skill may be required in diagnosing or locating it than the average horse owner possesses. Such cases require the services of a competent veterinarian. Two points are involved in the diagnosis : (a) the identification of the lame leg and (b) the locating of the disease. When there are local lesions, as a bony enlarge- ment, swelling, or inflammation, or if the action be characteristic, diagnosis is not difficult. The majority of cases are not so simple, but require systematic examina- tion in order to determine accurately the point involved. Exaniiuation — It is usually best to examine the animal under as many different condi- tions as possible ; while standing, at rest in the stall or on level ground, when moved at a walk, at a brisk and at a slow trot, when resting after exercise, or when moved after a brief period of rest. While the horse is being subjected to these different conditions the examiner should observe very closely every movement of the animal, and at the same time remember that negative symptoms of lameness in a part are almost as valuable in forming a diagnosis as are the positive symptoms. If a horse rests either front foot when standing at ease, it indicates some soreness in the_rested member. It is not uncommon, however, for a horse when standing quietly to rest a front and a hind foot of opposite sides, or rest the hind feet alternately. This is natural. "When a front foot is carried forward in a position of " pointing" or is held more or less sus- pended, the front or the toe of the foot resting on the floor, a soreness in some part of the limb is indicated. When a hind limb is affected it may be flexed or extended, the weight resting on the toe or the front part of the wall of the foot ; sometimes it is held clear of the ground. MODE OF EXAMINATION 873 If both front feet are affected the animal may stand with the front feet forward, "pointing," and the hind ones well under the body. After observing the horse when at rest we should next examine him while in motion. This is the more important part of the examination, and is best done when the harness or blanket is removed and the animal is led with a loose halter and at a slow trot over a level road. The attendant should allow the animal full freedom of his head and trot him toward the observer as well as away from him. After making observations from these two positions the horse's movements should l)e studied from the sides. The effort of the animal to ' ' favor " the lame member enables us to detect the one in which the lameness exists. The pain suffered every time weight is thrown on the diseased limb causes him to step quickly with it and shift as much weight as possible to the well one. Injuries in various parts of the limb cause the horse to "favor" the limb differently, but in general the movements are much the same. When the foot of the injured extremity comes in contact with the grpund it is jerked up rather quickly, and, if a front one, gives the head a decided upward movement. When the foot of the sound limb comes to the ground more weight is thrown on it. If the lameness is in front the movement of the head is downward, or, using the common expression, the animal "nods." If the seat of the lameness is in the posterior extremity the haunch settles downward when weight is thrown on the sound leg, and when thrown on the diseased one the horse "nods," and there may be a decided upward movement of the hip. When lame in both front feet locomotion may be difficult, and in order to throw the weight on the limbs better able to bear it, the hind extremities are placed well under the body and the animal takes short, quick steps with the feet of the sore extremities, and vice versa, if the pos- terior ones are affected. If all four are affected, as is sometimes the case in laminitis or founder, the animal may lie down most of the time and generally refuses to move, or, when standing, shifts his weight from one foot to the other and changes as little as possible. The examiner should observe the animal very closely when it turns to the right or left, as the reluctancy with which it throws weight on the affected limb and the manner of "favoring" the part may point out the seat of the trouble. In some forms of lameness manipulating the limb with the hand may reveal the seat of the pain. This should be done by subjecting the affected region more or less forcibly to the different varieties of natural movement : extension, flexing the joints, drawing the limb out, or pulling it in. SHOULDER LAMENESS Causes — Heavy work, rapid driving, or work on rough roads or icy streets may cause the animal to sprain or wrench the softer structures in the region of the shoulder. In addition to these, rheumatism is a common cause of shoulder lameness. Symptoms — The animal may point with the foot of the lame extremity, holding it forward but squarely on the floor. Sometimes the limb is suspended from the side. When moved, the 26 374 LAMENESS OF HOESES motion in the upper part of the lame limb is more or less limited, the member being swimg out- ward and not lifted so high from the ground as the well one. Other peculiarities in the gait may be shown, as difficulty in stepping over moderately high objects. Manipulating the limb by mov- ing the shoulder joint through the different natural movements may help in locating the soreness. In hidden forms of shoulder lameaess a diagnosis is difficult and may be confounded with lame- ness in the region of the foot. Treatment — Rest is a very important part of the treatment. It is best to tie the patient in a single stall and keep it as quiet as possible. For a week or two it may be best to restrict his movements by tying him in such a way that he can not lie down, and by watering and feeding him in his stall. If nervous or restless, better results will follow if the horse is allowed to run in a small yard. Mild liniments or blisters may be applied to the affected region The following recipe may be used : Oil of turpentine, aqua ammonia, linseed oil (equal parts) ; mix and apply to the part once a day ; or, powdered cantharides (1 part), vaseline (8 parts) ; make into an ointment and rub on. Tie the animal up so that he can not rub or bite the part. SPLINTS Causes — The seat of the splint is between and on the sides of the splint and cannon bones. This is a very common blemish or nnsoundness and is generally located on the splint bones of the front foot, especially the inner one. The inflam- mation which is due to a sprain or a blow begins in that part of the covering of the bone and tissue that fixes the splint to the cannon bone and leads to a swelling and growth of bone varying in size according to the extent of the inflammation. Young horses are predisposed to splints. Symptoms — The lameness will vary and is seldom absent during the time the splint is developing. "High" splints are more apt to cause a lameness than a "low" one, and there is danger of the lameness continuing for a longer time. The knee is sometimes held stiffly and the animal limps worst when trotted over a hard road. The observer has such local symptoms as heat, swelling, and pain to guide him in forming a diagnosis. The lameness usually lasts about three weeks. Treatment — Rest and cold applications to the part are indicated during the inflammatory period. Following this a water solution of iodine can be used ; iodine crystals (2 parts), iodide of potassium (1 part), water (30 parts) ; mix and apply to the part with a stiff brush once a day. In obstinate cases the firing-iron should be used. SPRAINS OF TENDONS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE FOOT The structures most commonly injured here are the large tendons just back of the cannon bone and the large ligament, the suspensory, that lies along the face of this bone, and the back and sides of the fetlock. Causes — The character of the work and the condition of the road predispose horses to this form of lameness. Trotting and running horses more often suffer SPKAINS, RING-BONE 375 from injuries to tendons and ligaments than draft horses. Catching the foot in a rut, car track, etc., may also cause it. Symptoms — The symptoms will vary with the severity of the' injury. The lameness appears suddenly. When at ease the fetlock joint is flexed and the foot is rested on the toe. The lameness is sometimes very severe and the animal refuses to use the affected foot. The injured tissues are usually warm and swollen, and when the tendon is ruptured it has a bowed appearance. Soreness in the fetlock region may cause the animal to knuckle over. Treatment — If the injury is slight, rest and cold bandages will remove the soreness in about a week. When the lameness is severe complete rest to the part can be obtained by the application of a plaster-of-paris bandage. The bandage can be made by cutting cheese-cloth into strips about four or five inches wide and about fifteen or twenty feet long. The plaster of paris can be rubbed on the bandage as it is being rolled. It is then placed in warm water in which a little salt has been dissolved, until wet through, and then rolled on the part. The cast should reach as high as the knee and as low as the hoof, and in the majority of cases should remain on from two to four weeks. To protect the skin it is best before applying the plaster bandage to use a light cheese- cloth bandage. When removed a cantharides blister can be applied. Good results sometimes follow a period of rest and the application of a mild liniment. RING-BONE A ring-bone is a bony enlargement in the region of the coronary joint. The size of the enlargement or exostosis will vary and may be seen on the back, front, or the sides of the region, sometimes forming a thick ring encircling the foot just above the hoof. In the articular form of ring-bone the articulation between the first two bones of the digit is involved. In the periarticular form the thickening is on the outside of the articulation and on the faces of the two fii'st bones of the digit. Causes — Bruises, sprains, blows, or any injury to the region of the coronet may cause it. A predisposition to ring-bones may be transmitted to the offspring and may be traced to small, badly shaped joints and faulty conformation of the limbs of the sire or dam. Symptoms — There may be difficulty in locating this form of lameness unless the enlarge- ment is well developed. Lameness is nearly always present. It may disappear after a long rest or when the animal is exercised. The degree of soreness will vary and does not always depend upon the size of the enlargement, and is more marked when the weight is thrown on the foot. In chronic cases of lameness, and when the enlargement is large and low down, the prognosis is unfavorable. Treatment — Proper attention given to the foot of young animals, keeping the walls of the aoof pared and in balance, and the careful selection of breeding animals, are useful preventive precautions. The treatment consists in resting the animal, balancing the foot, and counter-irrita- tion over the diseased region by means of blisters or the firing-iron. The latter is to be preferred. 376 LAMENESS OF HORSES SIDEBONES This is a disease of the lateral cartilages of the foot and is especially common in draft horses and peculiar to the fore feet. Occasionally sidebones appear in the hind feet, but seldom cause lameness. These cartilages are attached to the heel of the pedal bone and can be detected by pressing on the side of the heel just above the coronary band. They form part of the elastic apparatus of the loot and when inflamed, lime salts may be deposited in the cartilaginous tissue and it is trans- formed to bone. Causes — Weak, poorly formed feet predispose a horse to sidebones. Certain conditions, such as heavy work over paved streets, high-heeled shoes or high calk- ings may excite their growth. Injuries to the cartilages may set nj) an inflammatory process and result in the formation of the bony groAvths. Symptoms — A sidebone develops slowly and may not cause lameness at first. The animal may have a "stilty" action, step short with the affected feet and its movements lack the normal elasticity. After exercise the gait may be more nearly natural. When the animal is lame the toe of the foot touches the ground first and it steps short with the diseased feet. Instead of the cartilage feeling elastic when pressed on, it is rigid and may form a prominent enlargement. Treatment — The growth of the sidebone may be arrested by rest and counter-irritation from a blister or the firing-iron and the soreness partially removed. Animals with sidebones should generally be discarded for breeding purposes. NAVICULAR DISEASE (Coffin Joint Lameness) This is a chronic inflammation of the structures in the region of the "coffin joint," the gliding surface of the navicular bone, and th« navicular bone with the flexor tendon of the foot at this point. Causes ^ — Well bred horses are more commonly affected with this form of lame- ness than roughly bred ones. Narrow, high heels, long pasterns and too long a toe may predispose a horse to the disease. The character of the work is also a predis- posing factor. Hurried, rapid movements throw considerable strain on this region and may result in injury to the part. This is one of the reasons why it is more common in driving and running horses than in slow-going work animals. Bad shoeing and punctured wounds in the region of the articulation "may also cause it. One or both front feet may be affected. Symptoms — The lameness begins gradually and at first the soreness may disappear with exercise or after a long rest. The character of the gait is stiff and the horse frequently stumbles ; this is especially noticeable when trotted over rough ground. When the disease is well advanced CORNS, SANDCRACKS 377 the animal may suffer severe pain wlien weight is thrown on the diseased foot. When standing in the stable it will " point" with the diseased foot, resting it on the toe, sometimes on the front of the opposite foot. The articulation is so hidden that it is difficult to detect the local inflam- mation or cause the animal to flinch by applying pressure over the region. In time, as but little weight is thrown on the foot it becomes smaller, contracted at the heel, more upright, the frog atrophies, and the wall frequently appears uneven. One or both front feet may be affected. The prognosis is very unfavorable. Treatment — Allowing the animal to run on pasture, keeping the feet moist, and blisters applied to the coronet, may check the disease in its first stages. In shoeing the horse it is best to shorten the toe and raise the heel. The lameness can be removed by performing neurectomy (cutting the nerve supply to the foot and destroying the sensation in the part). CORNS A corn is an injui-y to the sensitive tissue of the sole, quarters, or bars of the foot. It consists in a bleeding from capillary blood-vessels that are pressed on or ruptured, and the surface of the horny tissue becomes stained a reddish color. If the part is infected by pus germs and matter forms it is termed a moist corn. If the injflammation is absent and the tissue dry it is called a dry corn. Causes — Weak, badly formed feet are predisposed to corns. The principal external causes are faulty shoeing and allowing the shoes to stay on for too long a time. Symptoms — Corns sometimes cause considerable lameness. Suppurative corns are the most troublesome and require immediate attention. The foot is inflamed and may be swollen at the coronet. Treatment — In badly formed feet it is impossible to stop the development of corns. The shoeing should receive the nefcessary attention. In bad cases removing the shoes and turning the horse on pasture is the best line of treatment. In dry corns little more is required. If the foot is inflamed a flaxseed poultice should be applied, and when pus is formed an exit should be provided for it, the foot kept clean, and the corn washed daily with an antiseptic wash (creolin, 3 parts, to 98 parts of water). SANDCRACKS, QUARTERCRACKS A sandcrack or quartercrack is a fissure in the wall of the foot running in the same direction as the horny fibers. Its position and extent varies and may occur at the toe, quarter, heel, or bar, and may be deep and extend from the lower margin of the wall to the coronary band, or only a portion of the distance. When deep and complete it may cause the animal to go lame. The pain is caused by the crack opening up when weight is thrown on the foot, and when the weight is removed it will close, pinching and injuring the sensitive laminse that lie just beneath the horny wall. Cracks of long standing usually have thick rough margins. 378 LAMENESS OF HORSES Causes — The horny wall is secreted by the coronary band. Any injury to this secreting tissue may cause a fissure in the wall. This is one of the most common causes of sandcrack. If the bearing surface of the hoof is not properly trimmed, or the bearing surface of the shoe is uneven, a fissure may form. Weak walls and excessive drying of the feet may also cause it. Contracted upright feet are predis- posed to sandcracks. Treatment — Preventive treatment is very important and consists in avoiding conditions favorable for their development. Recovery can be assisted by preventing motion between the mar- gins of the crack. This can be done by thinning the wall along the margins of the fissure and cut- ting out the bearing margin of the wall on each side of the fissure. If the sandcrack is at the toe extra nail holes should be made in the shoe and a nail driven in the wall a little to each side of the crack. If on the quarter, that portion of the wall lying back of the crack and below it should be pared down till quite thin and the wall shortened so that it does not rest on the shoe. A bar shoe that does not give frog pressure is better in quartercrack than a common shoe, as it limits the expansion of the foot at the heel. To stimulate the secretion of horn a cantharides blister can be applied just above the coronary band, every two or three weeks. "STIFLE OUT" {Luxation of the Patella) This is a common accident in horses and mules. Young, immature animals are more apt to suffer from a luxation or displacement of the patella than when mature. The displacement is usually upward or outward; Causes — The patella is applied to a pully-like surface at the lower extremity of the thigh bone, the outer lip of the pully being small. It is held here by liga- ments below that attach it to the leg bone and by tendons above. If these tendons or ligaments become relaxed or weak, it may permit of a slipj)ing out of the patella. Strains of the ligaments, or a rupture of the internal lateral one, may also cause it. Upright limbs and oblique quarters are said to predispose an animal to it. Symptoms — The animal stands quietly as a rule, the affected leg held stiffly and extended backward. If both hind limbs are affected the animal can not move. When the animal moves forward, it hops on the well leg and carries the affected one or drags it on the toe. The symptoms are so characteristic in luxation of the patella that it can be diagnosed from a distance. In com- plete or incomplete lateral displacement of the patella the joints may be flexed and the animal is very lame when weight is thrown on the affected leg. In most cases of luxation of the patella the prognosis is favorable. The condition may return to the normal without any assistance, but is apt to return again when the animal takes a few steps, and finally disappears after the animal has been worked a short time. When due to a rupture of the internal ligament or to weakness, it may terminate less favorably. It is not uncommon for the accident to recur. Treatment — It is not difficult to return the patella to its natural position, but its retention SPAVIN 379 is more difficult. The animal snould be rested and prevented from throwing weight on the affected leg. This can be done by tying the animal in a single stall, putting a collar on the neck, tying one end of a rope about 13 feet long to it, and running the other end back between the front legs to a ring in a strap buckled around the pastern of the affected leg, then back to the collar. The leg can then be pulled forward and the luxation reduced. After this has been done the rope can be tied and the toe allowed to touch the ground. The animal should be confined in this manner for at least one week. A blister (1 part cantharides to 8 parts vaseline) should be applied to the front and the outside of the joint. SPAVIN A spavin is a chronic inflammation of the hock, involving tlie articular surfaces of the small bones, the ligaments, and synovial membranes. The upper extremities of the cannon or splint bones may be involved as well, and in advanced cases the articulations between the smaller hock bones are entirely obliterated. Causes — A predisposition to spavin depends on the conformation of the hind limb and body. Heavily muscled hind quarters and straight hind legs predispose an animal to strains or injuries to the hock. The external causes are sprains caused by slipping, turning quickly, rearing, rapid work, and pulling heavy loads. Kicks on the hock may also cause it. Spavin is more common in young than in old horses, due to the incomplete development of the bones, ligaments, etc. Syniptonis — When no enlargement is present on the hock, the diagnosis is sometimes diffi- cult and uncertain. The enlargement is usually toward the front and side of the hock and when small will require considerable knowledge of the appearance of the normal hock joint in order to detect it. The best position to observe a spavin is from the front or a little to one side in order to compare the two hock joints, and note their differences in shape. Coarse hocks, however, should not be mistaken for a spavin. Both hocks may be enlarged and the animal go lame in both, or an enlargement may be present and not be accompanied by lameness. The lameness usually begins gradually and disappears shortly after exercise but will reappear if the horse is rested and again exercised. In old cases the lameness persists. The extension of the hock is incomplete, the step is short and quick, there is an extra movement of the quarter and the animal goes on the toe. When the animal is turned toward the well side the soreness may be increased The "spavin test" may be of value in diagnosing an "occult" spavin, and consists in picking up the foot, flex- ing the limb and keeping it flexed for several minutes, then letting the foot down quickly and moving the animal in a trot. This will increase the soreness and the animal will limp badly. The prognosis is always uncertain and should be guided by the conformation of the limb, character of the work required of the animal, position of the enlargement, and the degree of the lameness. The enlargement usually remains about the same. Treatment — The object of the treatment is to bring about a union between the smaller bones. This may require weeks or months. To do this it is necessary to rest the horse, and the more complete the rest the better are the chances for recovery. He should be kept in a single stall and must not be led out for the purpose of feeding or watering. To promote a secondary 380 lame:n'ess of hoeses inflammation in the part and favor the bony union, counter-irritation from a blister or the firing- iron should be used. Blisters, unless in the very first stages of the disease, are too superficial in their action to cause a permanent recovery. The firing-iron is to be preferred. In all cases the horse should be rested at least four weeks and in some cases it is necessary to repeat the irritation. BOG SPAVIN This consists in a distention of the capsular ligament and synovial membrane of the hock joint. Bog spavins are more commonly seen in young horses and in upright or " fleshy " hocks. The exciting cause is frequently a sprain, causing an inflammation of the synovial membrane and an abundant secretion of synovia. Unless the part is inflamed the horse does not go lame. The most noticeable symp- tom is the swelling toward the anterior and inner part, sometimes the posterior part of the joint. In mature animals the swelling is generally permanent, but in immature, growing animals may disappear, sometimes without treatment. Treatment — When lame and if the inflammation is acute, rest and cooling applications (cold bandages) are necessary. Following this treatment the hock should be blistered or cauterized with the firing-iron. In colts it is well to blister the spavin every few weeks with a blistering ointment (powdered cantharides 1 part, vaseline 8 parts). CAPPED HOCK All swellings on the point of the hock are called '' capped hock." This injury is generally due to a bruise caused by the animal kicking against the side of the stall or when in harness. The swelling may be due to an injury to the skin and subcutaneous tissue alone, or more important structures may be involved, as the tendinous cap over the point of the hock and the synovial bursa. When the skin is involved it pits on pressure ; if the tendon, it is hard, and if the bursa, soft and elastic. When the injury is of recent origin the part is warm and tender. In some cases the swelling is very large. Unless badly inflamed it does not cause lameness. Treatment — When of recent origin cold applications should be used. This must be followed by blisters. If the swelling feels soft it should be opened and the fluid allowed to escape. The operation requires skill and should be attempted only by an experienced veterinarian. CURB This term is applied to all swellings on the posterior part of the hock: In some individuals an excessive development of the bones in this region gives to the hock the appearance of being curbed. Horses with " cow hocks " are predisposed to this form of unsoundness, due to the fact that its extreme length gives the powerful muscles attached to its summit a greater strain on tlie ligaments at the back part BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES 381 of the hock. " Tied in " hocks are weak at this point. The exciting causes of curbs are jumping, rearing, heavy pulling, and kicks or blows on this region. Symptoiiis — The shape of the back part of the hock is changed and when observed from the side, instead of a straight line from the point of the hock to the upper end of the cannon region, a swelling that bulges backward is seen toward the lower part. The thickening in the part may be due to a disease of the tendon, its sheath or the skin. It may also be due to an inflammation of the bone and the resulting long enlargement. A careful examination with the lingers will enable us to detect the different tissues involved. It is only when the parts are sore and inflamed, as a result of the injury, that the animal goes lame. The lameness will resemble that caused by a sprain, and will disappear in a few weeks. The enlargement usually persists. Treatment — At the beginning, if the ligament and surrounding tissues are inflamed, cold bandages should be used, together with rubbing of the part. After the inflammation has subsided a water solution of iodine or blisters can be applied. Rest is a necessary part of the treatment during the inflammatory stage, and one should not be in too much of a hurry to put the animal to work, as the part may again become injured. If the curb does not respond to the ordinary treat- ment, cauterization with the flring-iron should be resorted to. PUBLICATIONS ON THE DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALS Abortion, Contagious. ByC.E. Marsh. Bulletin 13. Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station, Agricultural College, Mich Actinomycosis or Lumpy-Jaw. Circular ,7, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture : Animal Castration. By A. Liautard. Wm. E. Je7ikins, m. Y $2.00 A clearly written work upon the subject. Cattle, Diseases of. Special Report, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Depart- ment of Agriculture 65 Probably the best work in popular form upon the diseases of cattle. Cattle, Hydrophobia in. By J. B. Paige. Bulletin 27. Massachusetts Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Amherst, Mass Cattle, Nitrate of Soda Poisoning of. By J. B. Paige. Bulletin 27. MassacJiusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass — — Cattle, Nitrate op Soda Poisoning of. By N. S. Mayo. Bulletin 49. Kansas Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kan Cattle, Scabies in. Farmers' Bulletin 152. United States Department of Agriculture 382 BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES Comparative Anatomy of the Domesticated Animals. By A Chaveau and G. Flem ing. D. Appletond^ Co.,'N. Y $7.00 Technical. Comparative Physiology. By Wesley Mills. W^n. R. Jenkins, N. Y Dehorning Cattle. By J. F. Hickman. Report, OJiio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio (1896) Dehorning, Effects on Milk. By C D Smith and T. L. Haecker. Bulletin 19. Min- nesota Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn Dehorning with Chemicals. By L. H. Adams. Report, Wisconsin Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Madison, Wis. (1891) Dental Surgery, Veterinary. By T. D. Hinebauch. TFm. E. Jenkins, N. Y. . . 2.00 An exhaustive treatise. Dog, Diseases of the. Translated by A. Glass from George Miiller. W. E. Hoskins. Philadelphia 5.00 Eye Diseases ofJ)omestic Animals. By C. A. Gary. Bulletin 43. College Agriculturni Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala Farmer's Veterinary Adviser. By James Law. James Laic, Ithaca, N. Y. . . . 3.00 Written in popular style. Glanders. By T.Butler. Bulletin 16. Mississippi Agricultural Experiment Station Kgv\- cultural College, Miss Glanders. By C. A. Gary. Bulletin 35. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station, Auburn, Ala Glanders. By E. A. A. Grange. Bulletin 78. Michigan Agricultural Bxp&t'iment Station,^ Agricultural College, Mich Glanders. By W. L. Williams. Bulletin 4. Montaiui Agricultural Exjjeriment Station, Bozeman, Mont Hog Cholera. Report, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agri- culture .*.... Hog Cholera and Swine Plague. By A. W. Bitting. Bulletin of the Indiana Agricul- tural Experiment Station, LaFayette, Ind Hog, Diseases of the. By A. W. Bitting and R. A Craig. Report, Indiana Depart- ment of Agriculture, Indianapolis, Ind. (1900) Hogs, Soaps as a Cause of Death Among. By V. A. Moore. Bulletin 141. Cornell Agncultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y. Horse, Diseases of the. Report, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture 65 A very clearly written popular work on the diseases of the horse. Horse, The Clinical Diagnosis of Lameness in the. By W. E. A. Wyman. Wm. - R. Jenkins, N. Y • • 2.50 A work intended for veterinarians. Horse, The Exterior op the. Translated from A. Gobaux and G. Barrier by S. Har- ger. J. B. Lippincott & Co., Philadelphia 5.00 The best work upon conformation and soundness. BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES 383 Horse, The Foot of the. By David Roberge. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y $5.00 An exhaustive treiatise with special reference to correcting lameness by shoeing. Horses, Enzootic Cerebritis of. By N. S. Mayo. Bulletin 24. Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kan Horses, Influenza in. By T. D. Hinebauch. Bulletin 27. Indiana Agricultural Ex- periment Station, LaFayette, Ind Horses, Lameness op. By A. Liautard. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y 2.50 A technical work. Horses, Millet Disease in. By T. D. Hinebauch. Bulletin 27. North Dakota Agri- cultural Experiment Station, Fargo, N, D Horses: Sound and Unsound. By J. Irvine Lupton. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. . . . 1.35 a somewhat popular treatise. Horses, The Examination op, as to Soundness and Selection as to Purchase. By Edward Sewell. Wm. B. Jenkins, '^.Y 1.50 Useful to buyers and handlers. Horses and Mules, Colic in. By W. E. A. Wyman. Bulletin 22. Smth Carolina Ex- periment Station, Clemson, S. C Horses and Mules, Lameness in. By W. E. A. Wyman. Bulletin-23. Soutli Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, Clemson, S. C Horseshoeing. By E. P. Niles. Bulletins 46 and 54. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va Horseshoeing, A Hand-Book of. By J. A. W. Dollar. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. . . 4.75 a practical treatise on general shoeing and shoeing for lameness. Meat Inspection. By C. A. Gary. Bulletin 81. Alabama Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion, Auburn, Ala Obstetrics, Bovine. Translated from M. G. DeBruin by W. E. A. Wyman. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y 5.00 Technical. Obstetrics, Veterinary. By George Fleming .... 6 . 25 Technical. Operative Veterinary Surgery. By H. Moller. Wm. B. Jenkins, N, Y. . . . . 5.25 Technical. Operative Veterinary Surgery, Manual op. By A. Liautard. Wm. B. Jenkins, N. Y. 6.00 Technical. Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Domestic Animals. Translated by George Fleming from L. G. Neumann 7.50 Technical. Pathology and Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals. Translated by M. H. Hayes from Friedberg and Frohner(Vol. I.) W. T. Keener (& Co 3.75 An exhaustive treatise. English translation. Pathology and Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals. By Friedberg and Frohner. W. J. Dornan, Philadelphia 6.00 An exhaustive treatise. American translation. Sheep, Diseases of. By J. H. Steel. Longmans, Green <& Co., N. Y 4.50 An English work. 384 BOOKS ON ANIMAL DISEASES Sheep, Foot-bot of. By E. A. A. Grange. Bulletin 74. MicMc/an Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Agricultural College, Mich Sheep Scab. By C. P. Gillett. Bulletin 38. Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colo . . . Sheep Scab. Bulletin 21, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agri- culture $0.15 Sheep Scab. By A. W. Bitting. Bulletin 80. Indiana Agricultural Experiment Station, LaFayette, Ind Swine Plague and Hog Cholera, Serum Treatment of. Bulletin 23, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture 05 Tuberculin Test, The. By C. E. Marshall. Bulletin 159. Michigan Agricultural Ex- periment Station, Agricultural College, Mich Tuberculosis, Legislation with Regard to Bovine. Bulletin 28. Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture 10 Tuberculosis and the Tuberculin Test. By B. Bang. Bulletin 41. Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, Amherst, Mass Tuberculosis and the Tuberculin Test. By M. H. Reynolds. Bulletin 51. Minne- sota Agricultural Experiment Station, St. Anthony Park, Minn Tuberculosis in Relation to Animal Industry and Public Health. By J. B. Law. Bulletin 65. Cornell Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, N. Y Veterinary Anatomy. By Vaughan and Strangeway 5.00 a technical work. Veterinary Hygiene, A Manual of. By F. Smith. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y. . .3.35 Easily understood by laynian as well as veterinarian. Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics. By K. Winslow. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y 6.00 A work for the profession. Veterinary Medicine. By James Law. (Vols. I. to III. published.) James Law, Ithaca, N. Y. H-OO The best work of the kind in the English language. Veterinary Medicine and Surgery, Clinical. By J. A. W. Dollar. Wm. R. Jenkins, jq^ Y ^'^iS a work for the profession. Veterinary Medicines. By Finlay Dun. Wm. R. Jenkins, l^.Y 8.75 Deals with the action of drugs. Veterinary Physiology, A Manual of. By F. Smith. Wm.. R. Jenkins, N. Y. . . 3.75 a very complete treatise upon the physiology of the domestic animals. Veterinary Therapeutics and Pharmacology. By E. W. Hoare. Wm. R. Jenkins, N. Y 3.7S A work for veterinarians. Water Supply for Animals. By A. W. Bitting. Bulletin 70. Indiana Agricultural Evperiment Station, LaFayette, Ind Wounds, Antiseptic Treatment op. By E. P. Niles. Bulletins 13 and 18. Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station, Blacksburg, Va The Silo in Modern Agriculture By F. W. WoLL Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry, University of Wisconsin WHY BUILD A SILO? Economy of Nutrients — The silo enables us to preserve a greater quantity of the food materials of the original fodder, for the feeding of farm animals, than is possible by any other system of preservation now known. The necessary losses of nutrients incurred in the siloing process need not exceed 10 per cent, and by beginning to feed from the silo soon after it has beBn filled, the loss will be reduced to a minimum which may not be far from 5 per cent. In haymak- ing or field-curing of coarse fodders, there is an unavoidable loss of leaves and other tender parts, and in curing fodder corn there will be a fermentative loss of toward 10 per cent under the best of conditions, or about as much as is lost in the silo. The loss of dry matter will approach 25 per cent in ordinary farm practice, and will even exceed this figure unless special precautions are taken in the handling of the fodder. Economy of Material — Crops unfit for haymaking may be preserved in the silo and changed into a palatable food. In case of fodder famine the silo may thus help the farmer to carry his cattle through the winter. Where haymaking is precluded, as is sometimes the case with second-crop clover, rowen, etc., on account of rainy weather late in the season, the silo will preserve the crop. Economy of Land — More cattle can be kept on a given area of land when silage is fed than is otherwise the case. The silo in this respect furnishes a similar advantage over field-curing fodders as does the soiling system over that of pastur- ing cattle. Pasturing cattle is an expensive method of feeding, as far as the use of the land goes, and can only be practiced to advantage where this is cheap. As the land increases in value, more stock must be kept on the same area in order to cor- respondingly increase the profits from the land. (385) 386 WHY BUILD A SILO ? Economy of Time and Storage Space — Eainy weather is a disad- vantage in filling silos as in most other farm operations, but when the silo is once filled, the farmer is independent of the weather throughout the season. Less room is required for the storage in a silo of the product from an acre of land than in cured condition in a barn. Economy of Labor — An acre of corn can be placed in the silo at less cost than the same quantity can be put up as cured fodder. To derive full benefit from the food materials in the field-cured fodder corn, it must be run through a feed cutter in small portions at a time ; the corn must, in most cases, be husked, cribbed, and either ground, cob and all, or shelled and ground. In siloing the whole corn plant, the cutting is all done at once. Uniformity of Feed — The silo furnishes a feed of uniform quality, avail- able at any time during the whole winter or year. This is of advantage perhaps particularly in case of dairy cows and sheep, since these animals are especially sensi- tive to sudden changes in the feed. Silage as a Preparatory Ration — Silage is of special value for feed- ing preparatory to turning cattle on to the watery pasture grass in the spring. When turned out in the spring, steers will be apt to lose weight, no matter whether silage or dry feed has been fed, unless they are fed some grain during the first week or two after they are let out. Silage as a Bowel Regulator — Succulent food is nature's food. The influence of well-preserved silage on the digestion and general health of animals is very beneficial, according to the unanimous testimony of good authorities. It is a mild laxative, and acts in this way very similarly to green fodders. By filling the silo with clover or other green summer crops early in the season, a valuable succulent feed will be at hand at a time when pastures in most regions are apt to give out ; then again, the silo may be filled with corn when this is in the roasting stage, and the land thus entirely cleared earlier than when the corn is left to mature and the corn fodder shocked on the land, making it possible to finish the fall plowing sooner and to seed the land down to grass or to winter grain. THE FEEDIIVG OF SILAGE Silage may be fed with advantage to all classes of farm animals — milch cows, steers, horses, mules, sheep, swine, and even poultry — but always in connection with some dry roughage. The nearer maturity the corn is when cut for the silo, the more silage may safely be fed at a time, but it is always well to avoid feeding it excessively. SILAGE KATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS 387 SILAGE FOR MILCH COWS Silage is par excellence a cow feed. As with other farm animals, cows fed silage should receive other roughage^ in the shape of corn stalks, hay, etc. 1 To illustrate the quantities and combinations in which silage may be fed to milch cows, we give here- with a number of practical feed rations published in two bulletins by the author, viz. : Nos. 33 and 38, of the Wisconsin Experiment Station (October, 1892, and Jan- uary, 1894): American Silage Rations for Dairy Cows 1. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; hay, 6% lbs.; corn and cob meal, 5 lbs.; ground oats, 5 lbs.; linseed meal, 3 lbs. 2. Corn silage, 27 lbs.; dry fodder corn, 8 lbs.; clover hay, 6 lbs. ; oat straw, 1% lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; linseed meal, 4 lbs. 3. Com silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, 5 lbs. ; malt sprouts, 4 lbs.; wheat bran, 2^4 'bs.; cotton-seed meal, 11/2 lbs. 4. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; cut sheaf oats, 6 lbs. ; mixed meadow hay, 10 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; linseed meal, 2 lbs. 5. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; cut cornstalks, 12 lbs.; wheat bran, 3% lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs. ; oats, 314 lbs., with a sprinkling of peas. 6. Corn silage, 32 lbs. ; clover silage, 22 lbs. ; clover and timothy hay mixed, 5 lbs.; wheat bran, 6 lbs.; ground oats, 4 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 3 lbs. 7. Corn silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, about 11 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3% lbs. ; ground oats, 2V& lbs. ; linseed meal (O. P.) 21/3 lbs. 8. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; hay, 8 lbs. ; corn fodder, 6 lbs. ; ground oats, 4 lbs. • pea meal, 2 lbs. 9. Com silage, 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; wheat bran, 6 lbs. ; pea meal, 2 lbs. 10. Whole com silage, 25 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs. ; wheat bran, 10 lbs. 11. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; clover hay, 5 lbs.; timothy hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4^^ lbs.; middlings, 4t.^ lbs. 12. Corn silage, 45 lbs. ; clover hay, 12 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 8 lbs. ; corn meal, 4 lbs. 13. Corn silage, 24 lbs. ; corn fodder, 15 lbs. ; clover hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 5 lbs. 14. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; alfalfa hay, 15 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; corn chop, 4 lbs. 15. Corn silage, 35 lbs. ; hay, 10 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3 lbs. ; corn and cob meal, 3 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. 16. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 4 lbs. ; grano- gluten feed, 4 lbs. 17. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; clover hay, 5 lbs.; corn fodder, 3 lbs.; straw, 2 lbs.; wheat bran, 5 lbs.; linseed meal, 2 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. 18. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; timothy and clover hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran or shorts, 7 lbs. 19. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; English hay, 5 lbs. ; clover hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 2 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. ; cot- ton-seed meal, 1 lb.; linseed meal, 1 lb. 20. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; hay, G lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. ; corn and cob meal, 2 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 2 lbs. 21. Corn silage, 50 lbs.; hay, 8 lbs.; wheat bran, 3 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 2 lbs. ; ground rye and oats, 3 lbs. ; barley, 2 lbs. 22. Corn silage, 35 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs. ; oat straw, 2 lbs.; corn meal, 5 lbs.; wheat bran, 5 lbs.; oats, 5 lbs. 23. Corn silage, 35 lbs.; hay, 7 lbs.; brewers' grains, 20 lbs.; gluten meal, li/^ lbs.; cotton-seed meal, IVi lbs.; wheat shorts, 1% lbs.; linseed meal, li/^ lbs. 24. Corn silage, 24 lbs.; corn meal, 8 lbs.; wheat bran, 2 lbs. ; oats, 4 lbs. ; linseed meal, 2 lbs. 25. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; corn fodder, 10 lbs.; cot- ton-seed meal, 21/^ lbs.; N. P. linseed meal. 2 lbs.; wheat bran, 4 lbs. 26. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; timothy hay, 10 lbs.; wheat bran, 5 lbs. ; corn meal, 3 lbs ; linseed meal, 2 lbs. 27. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; hay, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4 lbs. ; linseed meal, 2 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 1 lb. ; ground rye, 1 lb. 28. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; cotton-seed meal, 3 lbs.; corn starch feed, 18 lbs. 29. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; clover hay, 12 lbs. ; wheat middlings, 8 lbs. ; linseed meal, I'lb. 30. Corn silage, 43 lbs. ; clover and timothy hay, 5 lbs.; com and cob meal, 8 lbs.; dried brewers' grains, 11/2 lbs. 31. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; fodder corn, 8 lbs.; corn meal, 3 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3 lbs ; cotton-seed meal, 1 lb. 32. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; wheat shorts, 5 lbs. 33. Corn silage, 30 lbs. : corn stover, 8 lbs. ; wheat bran, 5 lbs.; malt sprouts, 4 lbs.; linseed meal, 1 lb. 34. Corn silage. 50 lbs. ; clover hay, 9 lbs. 35. Corn silage, 45 lbs.; mixed hay, 7 lbs.; wheat bran, 6 lbs. ; cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. 36. Corn silage, 15 lbs. ; sugar beets, 22 lbs. ; hay, 10 lbs.; oats, 5^o lbs.; corn meal, 7 lbs. 37. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; coarse linseed meal, 6 lbs. 38. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; sorghum hay, 13% lbs.; corn meal, l%o lbs.; cotton-seed meal, 2%o lbs. ; cotton- seed, 2%o lbs.; wheat bran, l^ip lbs. 39. Corn silage, 35 lbs.; mixed hay, 10 lbs.; wheat bran, 2 lbs.; corn meal, 3%olbs.; linseed meal, lib.; cotton-seed meal, 8/^^ lbs. 40. Corn silage, 20 lbs. ; hay, 14 lbs. ; wheat bran, 3 lbs. ; gluten meal, 2 lbs. 41. Corn silage, 30 lbs.; hay, 10 lbs.; corn meal, 2 lbs.; gluten meal, 2 lbs.; wheat bran, 2 lbs. ■ 42. Corn silage, 48 lbs. ; corn and cob meal, 2^^ lbs. ; ground wheat, 2% lbs. ; oats, 2i/^ lbs. ; barley meal, 21/2 lbs. 43. Corn silage, 40 lbs. ; hay, 5 lbs. ; straw, 5 lbs. ; wheat bran, 4l^ lbs.; oats, 4I/2 lbs. 44. Corn silage, 15 lbs.; turnips, 45 lbs.; wheat chaff, 7 lbs.; oats, 2i^ lbs.; pea meal, 2y2 lbs. 45. Corn silage, 30 lbs. ; hay, 12 lbs. ; ground oats, 10 lbs. 46. Corn silage, 40 lbs.; turnips, 30 lbs.; clover hay, 8 lbs. ; straw, 1^ lb. ; oats, 2 lbs. ; wheat bran, 2 lbs. 47. Corn silage, 50 lbs. ; clover hay, 10 lbs. ; straw, 3 lbs.; pea meal, 5 lbs.; oats, 2 lbs. The rations given were fed in the following States: Nos. 1-13, Wisconsin; No. 14, Colorado; No. 15, Con- necticut; No. 16, Illinois: No. 17, Indiana; No. 18, Iowa; Nos. 19, 20, Massachusetts; No. 21, Minnesota; No. 22, Nebraska; No. 23, New Hampshire; No. 24, New Jersey; Nos. 25-30, New York; No. 31, North Carohna; Nos. 32-34, Ohio; Nos. 35-37, Pennsylvania; No. 38, Texas; Nos. 39-41, Vermont; No. 42, West Virginia; and Nos. 43-47, Canada. 388 " THE FEEDING OF SILAGE How Much to Feed — The quantities of silage fed should not exceed 40 or, at the out- side, 50 pounds per day per head. It is possible that a maximum allowance of only 25 to 30 pounds per head daily is to be preferred where the keeping quality of the milk is an important consider- ation. The silage may be given in one or two feeds daily, and, in case of cows in milk, always after milking, and not before or during the same, as the peculiar silage odor will, in the latter case, be apt to reappear in the milk. EflPect on Milk Secretiou — Silage exerts a very beneficial influence on the secretion of milk. Where winter dairying is practiced, cows will usually drop considerably in milk toward spring, if fed on dry feed, causing a loss of milk through the whole remaining portion of the lac- tation period. If silage is fed there will be no such marked decrease in the flow of milk before turning out to grass, and the cows will be able to keep up well in milk until late in the summer, or early in the fall, when they are to be dried up preparatory to calving. Silage has a similar effect on the milk secretion as green fodder or pasture, and if made from well-matured corn, so as not to contain an excessive amount of acid, is more like these feeds than any other at the disposal of the . farmer. There is an abundance of evidence at hand showing that ffood'sUage fed in moderate quantities will produce an excellent quality of both butter and cheese. According to the testimony of butter experts, silage not only in no way injures the flavor of butter, but better-flavored butter is pro- duced by judicious silage feeding than can be made from dry feed. The combinations in which corn silage will be used in feeding milch cows will depend a good deal on local conditions ; it may be said in general that it should be supplemented by a fair pro- portion of nitrogenous feeds like clover hay, wheat bran, ground oats, linseed meal, and cotton- seed meal. SILAGE FOR STEERS Silage may be fed with advantage to steers, in quantities up to forty or fifty pounds a day. The health of the animals and the quality of the beef produced on moderate silage feeding leave nothing to be wished for. If the silage is made from immature corn, care must be taken not to feed too large quantities at the start and to feed carefully, so as not to produce scouring in the animals. Young stock may be fed half as much silage as full-grown ones, with the same restrictions and precautions as given for steers. Experience obtained at the Kansas Experiment Station suggests that corn silage is not a fit food for breeding bulls, unless fed only as a relish ; fed heavily on silage, bulls lose virility and become slow and uncertain breeders. SILAGE FOR HORSES When fed in moderate quantities, not to exceed twenty pounds a day, silage is a good food for horses. It should be fed twice a day, a light feed being given at first and gradually increased as the animals become accustomed to the food. Some farmers feed it mixed with cut straw, two-thirds of straw, and one-third of silage, and feed all the horses will eat of this mixed feed. Some horses object to silage at first on account of its peculiar odor, but by sprinkling some oats or bran on top SILAGE FOR SHEEP AND SWINE 38-9 of the silage and feeding only very small amounts to begin with, they soon learn to eat and relish it. Some horses take it willingly from the beginning. Horses not working may be fed larger quantities than work horses, but in neither case should the silage form more than a portion of the coarse feed fed to the horses. Silage-fed horses will look well and come out in the spring in better condition than when fed almost any other food. What has been said about silage as a food for horses will most likely apply equally well to mules, although only very limited experience has thus far been gained with silage for this class of farm animals. SILAGE FOR SHEEP Silage is looked upon with great favor among sheep men ; sheep do well on it, and silage-fed ewes drop their lambs in the spring without trouble, the lambs being strong and vigorous. Silage containing a good deal of corn is not well adapted for breeding stock, as it is too fattening ; for fattening stock, on the other hand, much corn in the silage is an advantage. Sheep may be fed a couple of pounds of silage a day and not to exceed five or six pounds per head. Professor Cook reports as follows in regard to the value of silage for sheep : " I have fed ensilage liberally to sheep for three winters and am remarkably pleased with the results. I make ensilage half the daily ration, the other half being corn stalks, or timothy hay, with bran or oats. The sheep do exceedingly well. Formerly I was much troubled to raise lambs from grade Merino ewes. Of late this trouble has almost ceased. Last spring I hardly lost a lamb. While ensilage may not be the entire cause of the change, I believe it is the main cause." Mr. J. S. Woodward, the well-known New York farmer who has made a specialty of early lamb raising, says regarding silage as a feed for lambs : "In order to be successful in raising fine lambs, it is imperative that the ewes and lambs both should have plenty of succulent food. Nothing can supply the deficiency. For this purpose roots of almost any kind are good. Turnips, ruta- bagas, and mangolds are all good. Corn silage is excellent. Could I have my choice I would prefer both silage and roots. If I were depending on silage alone for succulent food, I would give four pounds per hundred pounds live weight of sheep, all at one feed, at the forenoon feed ; but when feeding both silage and roots, I would feed silage in the morning and roots in the afternoon." SILAGE FOR SWINE The testimony concerning the value of silage as a food for swine is conflicting, both favorable and unfavorable reports being at hand. Many farmers have tried feeding it to their hogs, but without success. On the other hand, a number of hog raisers have had good success with silage, and feed it regularly to their swine. It is possible that the differences in the quality of the silage and of the methods of feeding practiced explain the diversity of opinions formed. According to Professor Cook, Col. F. D. Curtiss, the great American authority on the swine industry, states that silage is valuable to add to the winter rations of swine. 26 390 THE BUILDING OF A SILO Mr. J. W. Pierce of Indiana writes in regard to silage for hogs: "We have fed our sows, about twenty-five in number, for four winters, equal parts of ensilage and corn meal put into a cooker, and brought up to a steaming state. It has proved to be very beneficial to them. It keeps up the flow of milk of the sows that are nursing the young, equal to when they are running on clover. We find, too, when the pigs are farrowed, they become more robust, and take to nursing much sooner and better.than they did in winters when fed on an exclusively dry diet." In feeding silage to hogs, care should be taken to feed only very little, a pound or so, at the start, mixing it with corn meal, shorts, or other concentrated feeds. The diet of the hog should be largely made up of easily digested grain food ; bulky, coarse feeds like silage can only be fed to advantage in small quantities, not to exceed three or four pounds per head, per day. As in the case of breeding ewes, silage will give good results when fed with cai'e to brood sows, keeping the system in order and producing a good flow of milk. THE BUILDING OF A SILO GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS Several important points have to be observed in building silos. First of all, the silo must be air-tight, and the fodder well packed in it, so as to exclude the air as far as practicable. In the second place, the silo must have smooth, peiyendicular avails, which will allow the mass to settle without forming cavities along the walls. In a deep silo the fodder will settle several feet during the first few days after filling. Any unevenness in the wall will prevent the mass from settling uniformly, and air spaces in the mass thus formed will cause the surrounding silage to spoil. The walls 7yiust furthei-more he rigid, so as not to spring when the siloed fodder settles, on account of the lateral pressure in the silo, as air would thereby be admit- ted along the silo walls, causing decay and loss of silage. Size — In planning a silo the first point to be decided is how large it shall be made. We will suppose that the fai'mer has a herd of twenty-five cows, to which he wishes to feed silage during the winter season, e. g., for 180 days. As a rule, it will not be well to feed over forty pounds of silage daily per head. If this quantity be fed daily, on an average for a season of 180 days, we have for the twenty-five cows 180,000 pounds, or ninety tons. If ninety tons of silage is wanted, about one hundred tons of fodder corn must be placed in the silo. We may take forty pounds as the average weight of one cubic foot of corn silage. One ton of silage will accordingly take up fifty cubic feet ; and 100 tons, 5,000 cubic feet. If a rectangular one-hundred-ton silo is to be built, say 12x14 feet, it must then have a height of 30 feet. If a square silo is wanted it might be given dimensions 12 x 12 x 35 feet, or 13 x 13 x 30 feet. (See also under "Handy Kules.") GENEKAL CONSIDEkATIONS 391 Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical, Silos for Well-matured Corn Silage, in Tons Depth op Silo, Inside Diameter of Silo, Feet Feet 10 12 14 15 16 18 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 20 21 26 28 80 32 34 36 38 40 42 45 47 49 51 38 40 43 46 49 53 55 58 61 64 68 70 73 51 55 59 62 66 70 74 78 83 88 93 96 101 59 63 67 72 76 81 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 67 72 77 82 87 90 97 103 108 114 119 125 131 85 91 97 103 110 116 123 130 137 144 151 158 166 105 112 l-.'O 128 135 143 152 160 169 178 187 195 205 115 12;^ 132 141 149 158 168 177 186 196 206 215 226 127 135 145 154 164 173 184 194 204 215 226 236 248 138 148 158 169 179 190 201 212 223 235 247 258 271 151 161 172 184 195 206 219 231 243 256 269 282 295 163 175 187 199 212 224 2.37 251 264 278 292 305 320 177 189 22 202 23 . 216 24 229 25 9.49. 86 . 257 27 279 28 - 281 29 - 305 30 310 31 a35 32.. 340 The silo should always be emptied from the top in horizontal layers, and the surface kept level, so as to expose as little of the silage as possible to the air. It should be fed out rapidly enough to avoid spoiling of the silage ; in ordinary northern winter weather a layer of a couple of inches should be fed off daily. Professor King estimates that there should be a feeding surface in the silo of about five square feet per cow in the herd ; a herd of thirty cows will then require 150 square feet of feeding surface, or the inside diameter of the silo should be 14 feet ; for a hei-d of forty cows a silo with a diameter of 16 feet will be required ; for fifty cows, a diameter of 18 feet ; for one hundred cows, a diameter of 25i feet, etc. These considerations are at the foundation of the following table : Size of Silo Needed — {Harder) Number of Cows. Estimated Consump- tion of Silage. Tons. Size of Silo Needed Diam. Height. Average Acres of Corn Needed. Number of Cows. Estimated Consump- tion of Silage. Tons. Size of Silo Needed Diam. Height. Average Acres of Corn Needed. 6 20 30 45 74 90 9 X 20 1 10 X 16 f 10 X 22 1 11 X 20 f 10 X 291 11 X 25 1 12 X 22 f 13 X 20 J 11 X 371 12 X 32 1 13 X 29 ^ 15 X 24 1 16 X 22J 12 X 381 13 X 33 14 X 30 15x27 16 X 25 1 to 2 2 to 3 3 to 4 5 to 6 6 to 7 30 108 126 144 162 180 la X 381 14!^ 34 15 X 30 16 X 28 17 X 25J 15 X 35 ) 16 X 31 V 17 X 29 i 16 X 35) 17 X 31 V 18 X 29 ) 18 X 32 t 19 X 29 ) 17 X 38 1 18 X 34 i" 8 to 9 13 35 9 to 10 21 - 10 to 11 11 to 12 45 25 - 50 12 to 13 392 THE BUILDING OF A SILO Form of Silos — One of the essentials in silo building is that there shall be a minimum of surface and wall exposure of the silage, as both the cost and the danger from losses through spoil- ing are thereby reduced. The round silos are superior to all other forms in regard to this point, the cylindrical form being also the most economical to build of the three types, because lighter material and less of it may be used in their construction. Silage of all kinds will usually begin to spoil after a few days, if left exposed to the air ; hence the necessity of considering the extent of surface exposure of silage in the silo while it is being fed out. ■ In a deep silo there is less silage exposed in the surface layer in proportion to the con- tents than in shallow silos. Location — The feeding of the silage is an every-day job during the whole winter and spring, and twice a-day at that. The silo should be as handy to get at from the barn as possible. If the ground is dry outside the barn, the best plan is to build the silo there, in connection with the barn, going 4 to 6 feet below the surface, and providing for doors opening directly into the barn. The bottom of the silo should be on or below the level where the cattle stand, and, if prac- ticable, the silage should be moved out and placed before the cows at a single handling. While it is important to have the silo near at hand, it should be so located, in case the silage is used for milk production, that silage odors do not penetrate the whole stable, at milking or at other times. Bottom of Silo — The bottom of the silo may be clay, or, preferably, a layer of small stones covered with cement. In some silos considerable damage has been done by rats burrowing their way into the silo ffom below, and destroying a great deal of silage, both directly and indirectly, by admitting air into the silo. The silo may be built 4 to 6 feet down into the ground, if this IS dry. Stave silos are built entirely above ground. Foundation and Wall — The silo should rest on a substantial stone foundation, to prevent the bot- tom of the silo from rotting and to guard against spread- ing of the silo wall. The foundation wall should be 18 to 2l inches thick. Professor Cook recommends mak- ing the bottom of the silo one foot below the ground, so that the stone wall on which it rests may be sustained by the earth on the outside, as shown in Fig. 167. In building rectangular silos sills made by two 2 x 10 planks (P) rest on the inside ten inches of the foundation wall ; one of these projects at each corner. The stud- dings (S), which are 2x10 planks, and as long as the silo is high, or two lengths toe-nailed together, are placed 12 to 16 inches apart, large silos requiring the smaller . _..--.v-. - ... - distance. ^~ *' „ As there is a considerable lateral pressure in the silo Fig. 167. Foundation of silo. Bottom , „ .,/.,,, ^^-y ■> -^ ■ ■ ^ ,. ^ of silo one foot below ground. (Cooli.) before the fodder has settled, it is very important to STONE OR BEICK SILOS 393 make the walls rigid and to place the studding sufficiently close together to prevent spreading of the wall. Mr. James M. Turner states that it was found necessary to use 2x12 studding, 22, 24, or 26 feet in length for the outside wall, as well as for the cross-partitions in his first silo. In addition to this, three courses of bridging in each side-wall were inserted. When the silage has settled there is no lateral pressure in the silo. While silos provided with partitions must be filled simultaneously on both sides of the partition to avoid bulging or even breaking of the partition, the silage in one compartment can be completely removed before that in the other is uncovered, without causing the partition to spring. To insure ventilation in rectangular wooden silos, the sills may be two inches narrower than the studding, so as to leave air spaces between the sills and the lining ; in the same way the plate is made narrower than the studding to provide for an escape at the top. The same end may be reached by boring a series of holes at the bottom of the outside wall between every two studs, leaving an open space of about two inches on the inside at the top of the plate. Wire nettings should be nailed over ventilation openings to keep outs rats and mice. Koof — Where the silo is built in the bay of a barn, there will be no need of making any sep- arate roof, which otherwise generally will be the case. The roof may be either board or shingle, and should be provided with a cupola, so as to allow free ventilation in the silo. In extreme cold weather this should be shut, to prevent freezing of the silage. Material — Silos are at the present built almost exclusively of wood, stone, or concrete, or partly of one, partly of another of these materials. STONE OR BRICK SILOS These silos are usually more expensive than wooden ones, but, in return, they will last longer when carefully built. Stone silos are easily built, being just like a cellar wall, if possible without any opening except the door, and provided with a roof like any other silo. The walls should be at least 16 inches thick, and should be jacketed with wood on the outside, to prevent injury from frost, and to form dead-air spaces, which will insure perfect preservation of the silage clear up to the silo wall. This applies still more to brick than to stone walls. With the outside covering nailed to studdiugs, 2x4, no trouble will, however, be experienced in either case. Ventilation of the silo frame must be provided for as in the case of wooden silos. The following mode of constructing stone silos has proved very convenient, and will make good, substantial silos : The silo is built 5 to 6 feet into the ground, if it can safely be done ; the foundation wall is made two feet thick, and at the level of the ground a 4 x 6 sill is laid on the outer edge of the wall and bedded in mortar ; a wooden frame is then erected of 2x6 studding, sheeted on the inside with common flooring, and on the outside with ship lap boarding, with or without building paper on the studding. The stone wall is then continued on the inside of this wooden frame up to the plate, the corners well rounded off, and the whole inside cemented. The stone or brick wall must be made smooth by means of a heavy coat of a first-class cement. Since the acid juices of silage are apt to gradually soften the cement, it may be found necessary to protect the coating by a whitewash with pure cement every other year before the silo is filled. If this precaution is taken, the silo will last for generations ; some of the earliest stone silos built in 394 THE BUILDINCt OF A SILO this country have now been filled every season for over twenty years without deteriorating per- ceptibly. Like the wooden silos, stone silos may be rectangular, square, or circular ; if built according to either of the first two forms, the corners should be rounded off so as to assist the settling of the siloed mass, and avoid loss through insufficient packing of the mass in the corners. The construction of a round, all-stone silo given by Professor King is shown in Fig. 168. A .shows a section of the silo, with conical roof, and the arrange- ment of filling and feeding doors ; B and C are ground plans of circular and rectangu- lar stone silos ; .D, E, F show construction of feeding doors. The construction of the door jambs, to make them air-tight, will be seen in the illustration. The doors are made from two layers of 4- inch matched flooring, with a layer of 2-ply saturated acid and alkali-proof paper, and are held in place with large screws or lag bolts, as shown in E and F. The face of the jambs should be lined with 2-ply P. and B. "Ruberoid" paper or its equal ; this will act as a gasket to make the door perfectly air-tight. Fig. 168. Construction of circular, all-stone silo. (King.) GROUT SILOS Where stone is scarce, and lumber high, the best silo is made of gront. Clrout silos may be made according to the following directions : Having excavated for the silo, dig a trench all around the bottom, and fill it with cobble- stone, and from one corner lead a drain, if possible, so as to carry off all water. The trench under the proposed walls of the silo being filled with cobblestones, place standards of scantling long enough to extend 13 inches higher than the top of the wall when it is finished. Place these stan- dards on each side of the proposed wall, and if you desire the walls to be 20 inches thick, place the standards 23 inches apart, a pair of standards being placed every 5 or 6 feet around the entire foundation ; be particular to have the standards exactly plumb, and in line ; fasten the bottoms of standards firmly in the ground, or by nailing a strip of wood across at the bottom of the stan- GEOUT SILOS, STAVE SILOS 395 dards, and a little below where the floor of the silo will be ; fasten the tops of the standards by a heavy cross-piece securely nailed, and fasten the pairs of standards in their plumb portions by shores reaching the bank outside. Planks li inches thick and 14 inches wide are now placed edgewise inside the standards, 20 inches apart, thus forming a box, 14 inches deep, and running all along and around the entire foundation of the proposed wall. Fill this box with alternate layers of cobblestone or any rough stone, etc., and mortar or concrete . First a layer of mortar, and then a layer of stones, not allowing the stones to come quite out to the box- ing plank, but having con- crete over the edges : the con- crete must be tamped down solid. The concrete is prepared as follows : One part of good cement is mixed thoroughly with four parts of dry sand, and then with six parts of clear gravel ; make into a thin mortar, sprinkling vdth water over the same by means of a sprinkler, and use at once. Put an inch or two of this mortar into the box, and then bed in cobblestones ; fill in with mortar, again covering the stones, and again put in a layer of stone. When the box is filled, and the mortar "set" so that the wall is firm, raise the box one foot, leaving two inches lap of plank on wall below, and go around again, raising the wall one foot each day, or every second day, according to the amount of labor on hand. If no gravel is obtainable, use five barrels of sand to one of cement, and bed in all the cobblestones possible. Stones with rough edges are better than smooth ones, as they bind the wall more thoroughly, but any flat stones found about the fields will do as well. A layer of loose cobblestones should be placed against the outside wall before the earth is brought against it, so as to have an air space, and a free passage for water. As in case of the stone silos, the inside walls of grout silos must be made perfectly smooth, and preserved from softening by means of occasional whitewashings with pure cement ; tkey must also be protected from frost by an outside wooden lining nailed on the 2x4 studding. STAVE SILOS The stave silo is the simplest type of the various separate silo buildings. Stave silos are, generally speaking, similar to large railroad or fermentation tanks, and to make satisfactory silos should be built at all events as well as a No. 1 water tank. Fig. 169. Stave silo, 12 feet diameter, 24 feet high; capacity, 50 tons. (Elias.1 396 THE BUILDING OF A SILO Fig. 170. Base of stave silo. (Harder.) The stave silos sent out by manufacturing firms wilP generally be more expensive than such as a farmer can build himself, because they are built better. The writer believes that it does not pay to build a poor silo ex- cept to bridge over an emergency, yet if a farmer can not afford to build a good silo, he is not necessarily barred from the advantage of having silage for his stock, since a tem- porary silo may be built at a very small cash outlay. We can therefore consistently, in most cases, recommend that persons intending to build stave silos patronize the manufacturers who have made silo construction a special business ; their advertisements will be found in any of the standard dairy or agricultural papers. These firms furnish all necessary silo fittings, with com- plete directions for setting up the silos, and, if desired, also skilled help to superintend their build- ing. Perhaps a large majority of the farmers of the country can not patronize manufacturers of stave silos because the expense of shipping the lumber and fixtures would be prohibitory. For the convenience of such persons and others who may prefer to build their own stave silos, direc- tions for their construction are given in the following. The specifications for a 100-ton stave silo, printed below, were furnished at the request of the author by Claude & Starck, architects, Madison, Wis. : Specifications for a 100-ton Stave Silo Masonry — Excavate the entire area to be occupied by the silo to a depth of 6 inches ; excavate for foundation wall to a depth (A 16 inches ; in this trench build wall 18 inches wide and 20 inches high, of field stone laid in rich lime mortar. Level oflf top and plaster inside, outside, and on top with cement mortar, one part cement to one part sand. Fill inside area with 4 inches of good gravel, thoroughly tamped down ; after the woodwork is in place, coat this with 1 inch of cement mortar, one part cement to one part clean sand. Cement shall be smoothly finished, dished well to the center and brought up at least 2 inches all i aroimd inside and outside walls. Carpentry — All staves shall be 26 feet long in two pieces, breaking joints, and made from clear, straight-grained cypress 2x6 inches, beveled on edges to an outside radius of 8 feet, mill-sized to the exact dimensions, and dressed on all sides. There shall be three doors in the fifth, eighth, and tenth spaces between hoops, made by cutting out from staves 28 inches long cut to a 45-degree bevel sloping to the inside. (See Fig. 174.) The staves shall then be fas- tened together with two 2x4-inch battens cut on inside to an 8 -foot radius and bolted to each stave with two J4-inch diameter carriage bolts, with round head sunk on inside and nut on outside. The staves between the doors shall be fastened together, top and bottom, CEMENT COVE "■ "•^*'*"' EARTH SECTION SCALE /4- IN TO FOOT. Fig. 171. Foundation of stave silo. (Harder.) STAVE SILOS 397 c- . . - A fj c- € e jt_ f «5. W : /5 ■^\> Fig. 1"2. Cross-section of stave silo. The dotted lines are to show how scaffold- ing may be put up. (Clinton.) % with %-inch diameter hardwood dowel pins, and abutting ends of ,1^, staves shall be squared and toe-nailed together. ^ -,_ j' Bottom Plates — Bottom plates shall be made of 2 x 4-inch pieces about 2 feet long, cut to a curve of 7 feet 10 inches radius out- side. They shall be bedded in cement mortar and the staves shall then be set on the foundation and well spiked to these plates. Hoops — Hoops shall be made from two pieces of 5^-inch diam- eter round iron with upset ends, threaded 8 inches, with nut and washer at each end ; as a support for the hoops a piece of 4 x 6-inch Ya shall be substituted for a stave on opposite sides and holes bored in it and the ends of hoops passed through these holes and tightened against the sides of the 4x6-iiich. The hoops shall be twelve in number, starting at the bottom 6 inches apart and increasing in distance 6 inches between each hoop, until a space of 3 feet inches is reached ; from this point up this distance shall be preserved as near as possible to the top. Roof --Roof shall be made to a half-pitch of 6 inches clear siding, lapping joint, nailed to 2 x 4-inch rafters, 2-foot centers, 1-foot by 4-inch ridge, and 2x4- inch plates. These plates to be supported on two 4 X 4-inch pieces resting on top of hoops. (See Fig. 178.) Three 1 x 4-inch collar beams shall be spiked to end and middle rafters to tie side of roof together. Painting — The entire outside of the silo, including roof, shall be painted two coats of good mineral paint ; the entire inside surface of staves and doors shall be thoroughly coated with hot coal tar. Note — Before filling silo, tarred paper should be tacked tightly over doors and the entire inside of silo examined and all cracks tightly calked. Notes on Construction — The method of making the foundation of a stave silo recommended by a New Yorlc manufacturer is shown in Figs. 170 and 171. A good way of sta/ting the building of a stave silo is illustrated in Figs. 173 and 175. Some manufacturers of stave silos furnish such silo fronts, all joined together and ready to set in place, at a small extra charge, with battens D, D, bolted on, and dowel-pinned together ; after the front is up and braced, so that it stands perfectly perpendicular every way, the silo is built by adding a stave at a time to this front, each stave being firmly fastened by cleats on the inside, one near the top, one in the middle, and one near the bottom. (Fig. 176.) Before tilling the silo the hoops should be drawn somewhat tight, but not perfectly so, so as to allow for the swelling of the staves from the moisture which they will take up from the corn. The hoops should be watched closely for some days after the silo has been filled, and if the strain becomes very intense the nuts should be slightly loosened so that Fig. 173. Six- stave ^ i lo front, ready to be put up : A, A, A, doors; C, C, C, dowel pins ; D, D, D, door battens (Cap.Lbr.Co.) the hoops will not be broken or the thread stripped. Fig. 174. Appearance of door in stave silo after being sawed out, and side view of door in place. (Clinton.) 398 THE BUILDING OF A SILO Fig. 175. tiOES. Setting up the stave silo in see- (Harder.) In order to prevent the collapse of the silo during the summer when it is empty and the staves have be- come thoroughly dried out, the hoops should be fas- tened with numerous staples ; these will prevent the hoops from sagging or dropping down, and will also hold the staves in place. SQUARE OR RECTANGULAR WOODEN SILOS Bays of the barn may be easily changed into silos according to the following directions given by Professor Whitcher : "Remove floors, and if there is a barn cellar, place sills on the bottom of this and set 2x8 scantling verti- cally, bringing up the inside edges even with the sills of the barn. The bottom may or may not be cemented, according as the ground is wet or dry. If to be cemented, three casks of cement and an equal amount of sharp sand or gravel will cover a bottom 16x 16 and turn up on the sides two feet, which will give a tight silo. Common spruce or hemlock boards, square-edged and planed on one side, are best for boarding the inside of the silo ; these are to be put on in two courses. breaking joints, and, if thoroughly nailed, will give a tight silo. No tonguing or matching is needed. Tarred paper may be put between the boarding, if desired, but I doubt if it is of great utility. "At some point most easily accessible, an opening extending nearly the height of the silo must be made, to put in the corn and take out the silage. The courses of boards should be cut shorter than the opening, to allow loose boards to be set in, lapping on the door- studding and making an air-tight joint. For all this work medium lumber is good enough, and a very lim- ited amount of mechanical skill and a few tools, which all farms should have, will enable most farmers to build their own silo. "A few iron rods, one-half inch in diameter, may be necessary to prevent spreading by side pressure, but this will depend upon the strength of the original frame of the barn. Narrow boards, from 5 to 8 inches wide. Fig. 176. Use of barrel staves in setting up a stave silo ; they should be removed before the silo is^led. CROPS FOR THE SILO 399 Fig. 177. Door of stave silo. (Elias.) are better than wide ones, as they are not likely to swell and split. Eight-penny nails for the first board- ing and twelve-penny nails for the second course will hold the boards in place. ' 'A silo constructed as above outlined will cost from 50 cents to $1 for each ton of its capacity, according as all materials, including lumber and stone, are charged, or only labor and nails, rods, and cement." CROPS FOR THE SILO CORN SILAGE The varieties of corn to be planted for the silo must differ according to local conditions, as of climate and soil. Ideal Varieties— The ideal silage corn, accord- ing to Shelton, is a variety having a tall, slender, short- jointed stalk, well eared, and bearing an abundance of foliage. The leaves and ears should make up a large percentage of the total weight, and the yield per acre should be heavy. The lower leaves should keep green until the crop is ready to harvest,, and it is desirable to have the plant stool well and throw out tall, grain-bearing suckers. A silage variety should mature late, the later the better, so long as it only matures, as a long-grow- ing, late-maturing sort will furnish much more feed from a given area than one that ripens early. Thickness of Planting — In planting corn for the silo we want the largest quantities of food materials that the land is capable of producing. This, evidently, can be obtained by a medium thickness of planting. If too thin or too thick planting be practiced, the total yields of food materials obtained will be decreased — in the for- mer case, because of the small stand of plants ; in the latter, because of insufficiency of light, moisture, and other conditions necessary to bring the plants forward to full growth. Corn should be planted in hills or drills, and not broadcast. The objection to sowing corn broadcast is that the land can not be kept free from weeds in this case, except by hand labor ; that more seed is required, and that plants will shade one another, and therefore not reach full development, from lack of sufficient sunshine and mois- FiG. 178. A cheap roof of stave silo. . . i,. tu • u -n u ^i i- • • i. j (Clinton.) ture. As a result, the yield will be greatly oimmished. 400 CEOPS FOE THE SILO When to Harvest — The largest amount of food materials in the corn crop is not obtained until the corn is well ripened. When a corn plant has reached its total growth in height, it has attained only one- third to one-half the weight of dry matter it will gain if left to grow to maturity ; and although there is a slight decrease in the digestibility of the dry matter and a marked decrease in that of the crude protein and crude fiber with the greater maturity of the fodder, we nevertheless find that the general practice of cutting corn for the silo at the time when the fruit has reached the roasting-ear stage, is good science, and in accord with our best knowledge on the subject. CLOVER AND ALFALFA SILAGE When properly made, clover silage is an ideal feed, for nearly all kinds of stock. Aside from its higher protein content it has an advantage over corn silage in point of lower cost of production. The late A. F. Noyes of Dodge County, Wisconsin, who siloed 1,200 tons of clover during his last eight years, estimated the cost of one ton of clover silage at 70 cents to II, against $1 to 11.25 per ton of corn silage. When to Cut — The common practice of farmers is to cut clover for the silo when in full bloom, or when the first single heads are beginning to wilt, that is, when right for haymaking, and we notice that the teachings of the investigations made are in conformity with this practice. What has been said in regard to the siloing of clover refers to alfalfa as well. Alfalfa silage compares favorably with clover silage, both in chemical composition and in feeding value. It is richer in flesh-forming substances (protein) than clover silage, or any other kind of silage, and makes a most valuable feed for farm animals, especially young stock and dairy cows. OTHER SILAGE CROPS Sorghviiii is sometimes siloed in the Western and Middle States. Sorghum for silage is sown in drills, three and one-half inches apart, with a stalk every six to ten inches in the row, and is cut when the kernels are in the dough stage, or before. Accord- ing to Shelton, the medium-growing saccharine and non-saccharine sorghums are all excellent silage materials. The sorghums are less liable to damage by insects than corn, and they remain green far into the fall, so that the work of filling the silo may be carried on long after the corn is ripe and the stalks all dried up. The yield per acre of green sorghum will often reach twenty tons, or one-half as much again as a good crop of corn. Cow-pea Silage is greatly relished by farm animals after they once become accustomed to its peculiar flavor ; farmers who have had considerable practical experience in feeding this silage are of the opinion that cow-pea silage has no equal as a food for cows and sheep. It is also a good hog food, and for all these animals is considered greatly superior to pea-vine hay. Soja Beans {soy beans) are another valuable silage crop. The vigorous late varieties are well adapted for silage. The crop is frequently siloed with corn (two fillinct the silo 401 parts of the latter to cue of the former), and like other legumes it improves the silage by tending to counteract the acid reaction of corn silage. Mixed Silage — Professor Robertson of Canada has recommended the Rohertson Ensilage Mixture for the silo. The mixture is made up of cut Indian corn, sunflower seed heads, and horse beans in the pro- portion of one acre corn, one-half acre horse beans, and one-quarter acre sunflowers. The princi- ple back of this practice is to furnish a feed richer in flesh-forming substances (protein) than corn, and thus avoid the purchase of large quantities of expensive protein foods, like bran, oil meal, etc. Feeding experiments conducted with the Robertson Silage Mixture for cows at several of our experiment stations have given very satisfactory results, and have shown that this silage mixture can be partly substituted for the grain ration of milch cows, without causing loss of flesh or less- ening the production of milk or fat. Fifteen pounds of this silage may be considered equivalent to three to four pounds of grain feeds. Beet Pulp Silage — In districts near sugar beet factories, where sugar beet pulp can be obtained in large quantities and at a trifling cost, stock feeders and dairymen have a most valuable aid in preserving the pulp in the silo. As the pulp is taken from the factory it contains about 90 per cent of water. The pulp packs well in the silo, being heavy, finely divided and homogeneous, and a more shallow silo can therefore be safely used in making pulp silage than is required in siloing corn, and especially clover and other crops of similar character. If pulp is siloed with other fodder crops, it is preferably placed uppermost, for the reason stated. Beet tops and pulp may also be siloed in alternate layers in pits three to four feet deep, and covered with boards and a layer of dirt. Beet pulp silage is relatively rich in protein and low in ash and carbohydrates (nutritive ratio 1:5.7). Its feeding value is equal to about half that of corn silage. FILLING THE SILO If the corn is to be cut before being filled into the silo, it is unloaded on the table of the fodder-cutter and run through the cutter, after which the carrier elevates it to the silo window and delivers it into the silo. Fine vs. Coarse-ciit Silage — The length of cutting practiced differs somewhat with different farmers, and according to variety of corn to be siloed. The general practice is to cut the corn in one-half to one-inch lengths, a few cut in two-inch lengths. The corn will pack better in the silo the finer it is cut, and cattle will eat the larger varieties cleaner if cut into inch lengths or less. On the other hand, it is possible that fine cuttings implies larger losses through fermentations in the silo ; fine-cut silage may, furthermore, not keep as long as silage cut longer after having been taken out of the silo. There is, however, not sufficient experimental evidence at hand to establish either of these points ; the majority of farmers filling silos, at any rate, prac- tice cutting corn fine for the silo. 402 FILLING THE SILO Spreading and Packing — The carrier should deliver the corn as nearly in the middle of the silo as possible ; by means of a chute attached to the carrier, the cut corn may be delivered to any part of the silo desired ; and the labor of distributing and leveling the corn thus facilitated. If the corn is siloed "ears and all," it is necessary to keep a man or a boy in the silo while it is being filled, to level the surface and tramp down the sides and corners ; if left to itself, the heavier pieces of ears will be thrown farthest away and the light leaves and tops will all come nearest the discharge ; as a result, the corn will not settle evenly, and the feeding value of different layers of silage will differ greatly. To assist in the distribution of the corn it is recom- mended that a pyramidal box be hung in front and below the top of the carrier ; this may be made about three feet square at the base and tapering to a point, at which a rope is attached for hanging to rafters. The descending mass of cut corn will strike the top of the box and be divided so as to distribute to all parts of the silo. Another simple device is to place a board vertically, or nearly so, in front of the top of the carrier, against which the cut corn will strike; or, to tie a bag, open at the bottom, over the top of the carrier. Rapid vs. Slow Filling — Generally speaking, rapid filling has the advantage in point of economy, both of labor and of food materials. The fermentations are left to proceed farther in case of slow filling than when the silo is filled rapidly, being greatly aided by the oxygen of the air, which then has better access to the separate layers ; this is plainly shown by the higher temperature reached in slowly filled silos. The rise in the temperature is due to the activity of bacteria, and a high temperature, therefore, means greater losses of food constituents. More silage can be obtained in the same silo by slow than by rapid filling, as the fodder will settle more in the former case than when the silo is filled at once, and refilled after a few days. As there may be some farmers who still hold slow filling to be preferable, we give the directions for filling the silo in this way : When enough corn has been added to fill three to six feet of the silo, the filling is discontinued and the mass allowed to heat up to 120° to 140° Fahrenheit. This may take a day or two; the filling is then continued, and another layer of three feet or more filled in, which is left to heat as before. This method of intermittent filling is continued until the silo is full. Carbon Dioxide' Poisoning — As soon as the corn in the silo begins to heat, carbon dioxide is evolved, and if the silo is shut up tight, the gas will gradually accumulate directly above the fodder, since it is heavier than air and does not mix with it under the conditions given. If a man or an animal goes down into this atmosphere, there is great danger of asphyxiation, as is the case under similar conditions in a deep cistern or well. Poisoning cases from this cause have occurred in filling silos where the filling has been interrupted for one or more days, the carbonic acid generated in the meantime having replaced the layer of air immediately above the corn, and men who have gone into the silo to tramp down the cut corn have been asphyxiated. If the doors above the siloed mass are left open when the filling is stopped, or at least the first door above the surface of the corn, and the silo thus ventilated, the gas will slowly diffuse into the air. Carbon dioxide being without odor or color, to all appearances like ordinary air, it 6an not be directly observed, but may be readily detected by means of a lighted lantern or candle. If the light goes out when lowered into the silo, there is an accumulation of this gas in it, and a person should open feed doors and fan the air in the silo before going down into it. 1 Popularly called "carbonic acid gas." BOOKS ON THE SILO 403 After the silage is made and the temperature in the silo has gone down considerably, there is no further evolution of carbon dioxide and therefore no danger in entering the silo, even if this has been shut up tight. Covering- the Siloed Fodder — Straw, marsh hay, sawdust, finely cut corn stalks or green husked fodder, cotton-seed hulls, etc., are used in various localities to cover the siloed fod- der, but none of the materials recommended for the purpose can perfectly preserve the uppermost layer of silage, as far as my experience goes, some six to eight inches of the top layer usually being spoiled. The wet or green materials are better for cover than dry substances, since they prevent evaporation of water from the top layer. The practice of applying water to the fodder in the silo has been followed in a large number of cases. The surface is tramped thoroughly and a considerable amount of water added. By this method a sticky, almost impervious layer of rotten silage, a couple of inches thick, will form on the top, which will prevent evaporation of water from the corn below, and will preserve all but a few inches of the top. None of the different methods foregoing will preserve all of the silage intact, and the author knows of only one way in which this can be accomplished, viz. : by beginning to feed the silage within a few days after the silo has been filled. This method is now practiced by many farmers, especially dairymen, who in this manner supplement scant fall pastures. ^^ PUBLICATIONS ON THE CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT OF SILOS Note — In addition to the few publications on the sub^ject of Silos and Silage here listed, many of the State agricultural experiment statlon.s have issued bulletins which are sent free to residents of the respective States. For convenience in ordering these and other bulletins, a directory of the experiment stations is given in this con- nection. Directors should be addressed in their official capacity, and not personally, to obviate the possibility of delay in the supplying of bulletins in their absence from their stations. A Book ON Silage. By F. W. Woll. Band, McNally <& Co., Chicago $0.75 Physics OF Agricultuee. By Franklin H. King. F. H. King, Madison, Wis. . . . 2.00 Thirty -four pages of this work are given over to a treatment of mechanical considerations in silo-building. SiLOs, Ensilage, and Silage. By Manley Miles. Orange Judd Co., '^.Y 50 Silos and Silage. By C. S. Plumb. Farmers' Bulletin 82. United States Department of Agriculture 404 AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS DIRECTORY OF AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES Director Post-office Address State Director Post-office Address State P. H. Mell . Auburn i Uniontown 2 Tuskegees Tucson Fayetteville Berkeley Alabama Alabama Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana Louisiana Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri J. T. Otinson .... S. Fortier E. A. Burnett.... J. E. Stubbs W. D. Gibbs E. B. Voorhees .. E. B. Voorhees .. Luther Foster _ . . W. H.Jordan.... L P. Roberts B. W. Kilgore.... J. H. Worst C. E. Thorne John Fields J. Withycombe.. H. P. Armsby H.J. Wheeler ... H. S. Hartzog . . . J. W. Heston A. M. Soule J. H. Connell.... J. A. Widtsoe.... J. L. Hills J. M. McBryde... E. A. Bryan J. H. Stewart... W. A. Henry E. E. Smiley Mountain Grove 9 Bozeman Lincoln J. M. Richeson G. W. Carver Montana Nebraska R. H. Forbes Reno Nevada R. L. Bennett Durham New Hampshire New Jersey New Jersey New Mexico E. W. Hilgard-... New Brunswickio NewBrunswickii Mesilla Park Genevai2 Ithaca 13 L. G. Carpenter. . . E. H. Jenkins W. O. Atwater Fort Collins New Haven * Storrss A. T. Neale Newark New York T. H. Taliaferro . . E. J. Redding Lake City Experiment Moscow Raleigh Fargo North Carolina North Dakota J. A. McLean Ohio E. Davenport C.S. Plumb Urbana.. Lafayette Stillwater Corvallis Oklahoma Oregon C. F. Curtiss. State College.... Kingston Clemson College. Brookings Knoxville College Station . . Logan Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah J. T.Willard M. A. Scovell W.C. Stubbs W.C. Stubbs W.C. Stubbs CLas. D. Woods. . . Manhattan Lexington Baton Rouges... New Orleans 7 . . . Calhoun » Orono H. J Patterson . . . H. H. Goodell C. D. Smith College Park Amherst Agricult. College. St. Anthony Park Agricult. College- Columbia Burlington Blacksburg Pullman Vermont Virginia Washington W. M. Liggett.... W. L. Hutchinson Morgantown Madison West Virginia Wisconsin H. J. Waters Wyoming 1 College Station. 2 Canebrake Station. sTuskegee Station. estate Station. 5 Storrs Station. 6 State Station. 7 Sugar Station. 8 North Station. 9 Fruit Station. 10 State Station. 11 College Station. 12 State Station. 13 Cornell Station. Making Poultry Pay Clarence Hewes, Editor Inlaml Poultry Journal. BEGINNING. The first step toward a venture in poultry raising is the selection of a breed. On most farms there will be found already flocks of thorough-bred fowls or grades. A flock of well selected barn-yard fowls will prove a satisfactory foundation for a practical venture and if thorough-bred birds are found the condition is better yet. If the fowls on hand are not thorough-bred a definite plan of procedure should be adopted toward the end of breeding them up to a uniform type. Kill all males and select the best of the females and purchase thorough-bred males of the breed you favor and mate them with the females. In only one season the result will be surprising. The chicks reared the very first year will be uniform in size and the difference in color will be much lessened. By the end of the third season, by using strong, vigorous males of the same breed each season, a breeder can have his flock almost as unif-orm for all practical purposes as if he had always bred thorough-bred birds. If no fowls are on hand or if they are of a variety not desired it is necessary to make a decision as to what variety shall be adopted. Within certain limits the buyer should make his own decision. It is assumed that this is a venture in practical poultry raising, although it will be developed later that even in the most practical poultry undertaking there is an added revenue to be obtained from standard bred fowls. The commonly recognized utility breeds are the Plymouth Rocks, the Wyandottes, the Rhode Island Reds, the Orpingtons, the Leghorns and the Langshans. Of late the Anconas and Campines have made claims for popular favor with the Leghorns. The Light Brahma, in cases where large size is wanted or where caponizing is contemplated, has great practical value. However on combination plants where egg production is depended upon for the major revenue the Light Brahma is not given serious consideration Within the confines of common sense the breeder should make his choice 405 406 STANDARD BEEEDS OF POULTRY. Figure Barred Plymouth Rocks in this matter largely on his own judgment, for this is one of those cases where too much advice only tends to confuse. The different general purpose varieties vary little as to actual worth and one's fancy may safely be allowed free range among them without practical consideration receiving a set-back. Success with poultry depends so much on personal care that it is worth much to have a flock that really appeals to one's affections, for the care of such a flock will be easy and spontaneous, where under different cir- cumstances it would be tedious work and drudgery. The purchase of the stock itself is a problem indeed ; for not one beginner in ten realizes that he is laying the foundation of a future enterprise with which he may concern himself the re- mainder of his days. It must be remem- bered that if a beginning is made with cheap stock that only cheap stock will be raised, while if high quality stock be used for a foundation the very first season will find the breeder's yards filled with a flock of high class fowls. The selection of a breed is but the first step for a beginner. Success depends upon the loyalty that the new breeder shows to the variety of his choice and the energy and determination he possesses and exerts in bringing his flock Figure White Plymouth Rocks. COMPARATIVE MERITS. 407 to the highest state of perfection and production. THE PLYMOUTH ROCK. There are six varieties of Plymouth Rocks, the Barred, White, Buff, Colum- bian, Partridge and Silver Penciled. In size, type and economic qualities they are all the same and differ only in color. The Plymouth Rock has long been a farm favorite, the Barred variety having been much more commonly seen. They are good layers of medium sized eggs which vary in color though, different shades of brown. From Plymouth Rocks as large a winter egg production can be obtained as from any breed. The stan- dard weights for this breed are cocks, 91/4 lbs. ; cockerels, 8 lbs. ; hens, 71/2 lbs. ; pullets, 6 lbs. Among the general purpose breeds Plymouth Rocks are excelled in size only by the Orpington and Langshan. Plymouth Rocks are good foragers but stand confinement well; they grow rapidly and make both excellent breeders and roasters. This is one of the best breeds for caponizing. WYANDOTTES. The eight varieties of Wyandottes are the Silver, Golden, White, Buff, Black, Partridge, Silver Penciled and Columbian. The Silver was the original variety ; the White is the most popular. Figure 4. Buff Orpingtons. "^^ all practical purposes the different Figure White Wyandottes. 408 STANDARD BREEDS OF POULTRY. varieties differ only in color. Wyandottes are slightly smaller than Plymouth Rocks and in shape are plumper and shorter bodied. Their economic qualities are the same as those of the Plymouth Rock. By some they are claimed to make better broilers and to be more economically kept. The standard weights for Wyan- dottes are as follows, cocks, Sy^ lbs. ; cockerels, 7I/2 lbs. ; hens, 6I/2 lbs. ; pullets, 51/2 lbs. Wyandottes have low, close-fitting, %^"'' Rose combs which seldom suffer from Figure 5. White Orpingtons. frOSting. Cockcrcls make gOOd CapOUS. ORPINGTONS. This is the largest of the clean-legged breeds of poultry as well as the largest of the admitted general purpose breeds. Only three varieties — the Buff, White and Black — are recognized by the American Poultry Association, although the Blue and Diamond Jubilee varieties are bred in some number, particularly in England where they have received a fuller recognition. They are good layers the year round, make excel- lent broilers and roasters and as capons rank with the very best. Their standard weights are, cocks, 10 lbs. ; cockerels^ Syo lbs. ; hens, 8 lbs. ; pullets, 7 lbs. Figure 6. Blaclc Langshans. Tlie Orpingtons are of English origin and have the white skin and legs which in that country are preferred to yellow. COMPARATIVE MERITS. 409 LANGSHANS. Langshans are bred in two varieties — Black and White, but the Black variety is much the more popular and the description given here is meant to apply particularly to that variety. The Langshan is the most active of all the feffther-legged breeds and is the only one that deserves practical recog- nition as a general purpose fowl. It has obtained much favor as a practical farm fowl and in activity and economic quali- ties ranks with the Plymouth Rock and Wyandotte. The eggs of the Langshan are slightly larger and are of a more decided brown tint than those of the Figure 7 Snigie Comb uhoac inland Reds. American varieties. ,. o. ^ t • , - fetandard weights are: cocks, 91/2 lbs.; cockerels, 8 lbs. ; hens, 71/2 lbs.; pullets, 6 1/2 lbs. Langshans have a white skin and make excellent capons, broilers and roasters, although their black plumage is by some considered a handicap as a market fowl. Figure 8. Single Comb White Leghorns. RHODE ISLAND REDS. Rhode Island Reds are bred in tw^o varie- 410 STANDARD BREEDS OF POULTRY. ties — the Single Comb and Rose Comib. They differ in no other respect save comb. They are of the same siize as the Wyandottes but differ from them very much in shape, 'being longer in back and having a much rangier appearance throughout. Of recent years they have be- come very popular as a farm fowl, being the only breed that ever threatened the Barred Plymouth Rock's standing in this respect. They are good year round layers ; mature quickly and make good broilers or roasters, also good capons. They are admittedly one of the most valuable of general purpose fowls. They are good rangers and stand confinement without Figure 9. Light Brahmas. channg. LEGHORNS. We have five varieties of Leghorns according to color — the Brown, White, Buff, Black and Silver. Of these the first three are further subdivided according to comb, there being both Rose and Single comb varieties in the Brown, White and Buff. Leghorns are non-sitters, lay white eggs of good size and are generally accredited with being one of the best laying breeds. As foragers they are un- excelled, but stand confinement well. They are more nervous than the larger breeds and are more easily excited. They are small in size and mature early. The chicks make profitable broilers but as roasters they harden too quickly. Caponizing is not profitable with this breed. Figure 10. Pekin Ducks. COMPARATIVE MERITS. 411 THE LIGHT BRAHMAS. The Light Brahma is the largest of all breeds of poultry recognized in this country. It is not commonly classed among general purpose breeds of poultry. In districts where caponizing is much practiced the Brahma rises to its greatest economic value. Brahmas and Brahma crosses are most desired for caponizing purposes as they attain to the largest size and possess an excellent quality of tlesh. As layers many other breeds are superior. As broilers the Brahma is good and as roasters excellent. Standard weights are ; cocks, 12 lbs.; cockerels, 10 lbs.; hens, 9i/^ lbs. ; pullets, 8 lbs. The Dark Brahma is smaller in size than the Light; does not equal it in value for capons or soft roasters and does not rank any better as a layer. FijTuic 11 Indian Runnci Uuciv PEKIN DUCKS. The Pekin Duck is the leading market duck of America. It is a rapid grower and the ducklings are ready for market at from eight to ten weeks of age, when they will weigh six pounds or more per pair. With ducks as with cockerels the greatest profit is made by marketing them as soon after they reach a profitable age as possible. Adult ducks seldom bring a price on the market that offers any profit for their rearing, while the eight and ten week old duckling will be a money maker. Ducks make rapid Figure 12. iEmbden Geese. growth and are voracious eaters. The 412 STANDARD BREEDS OF POULTRY. Figure 13. Bronze Turkeys. most profitable method of feeding ducks is to make a large part of their ration a mash in which vegetables are cooked and containing a good percentage of meat food. Grain of course is relished by ducks and should be supplied in moderate quantities; the greater part of the food supplied, however, for economical results should be soft feed and mash. An ample supply of drinking water must be kept close to the feeding place. The duck does not drink a greater amount of water than the hen but when eating soft feed will make frequent trips to the water pan for the purpose of cleaning and rinsing the mouth and nostrils. Have the watering vessel sufficiently deep for the duck to immerse its bill up to the eyes. Ducks are not subject to vermin and are afflicted with few diseases. The most common trouble among adult ducks is a rheumatic leg weakness which strangely enough is caused by keeping them in damp sleep- ing quarters. If the floors and litter in the house are kept dry this trouble will not appear. The Pekin Duck will lay almost daily during the late winter and early summer and the fertility of the eggs is usually high. Hens or incubators make the best hatchers for duck eggs. Ducklings are easily reared by artificial means. Ducklings should be fed six or eight times daily with a wet mash of bran, com meal, shorts, beef scrap and pj^^j.^ ^^ .^^ite Holland Turkeys. COMPARATIVE MERITS. 413 cooked vegetables. Young ducks need no water for swimming purposes but drinking water must be supplied as for adult ducks. Young ducks must be kept out of the sun during warm weather. Feathers are a considerable source of revenue where ducks are kept; they are not plucked annually like geese but when dressing all the soft body feathers should be saved and are worth from fifty to seventy-five cents per pound. INDIAN RUNNER DUCKS. The Indian Runner Duck is called the Leghorn of the duck family and is reputed to be the heaviest laying of all ducks. Indian Runners are bred in three varieties, the White, Fawn and White and English Penciled. The three varieties have the same economic qualities and differ only in color. This duck gets its name from its erect carriage and the fact that it does not waddle like other breeds. Although the Indian Runner Duck is not as large as the Pekin it nevertheless is an excellent market duck but is kept by many for egg production. The friends of the Indian Runner claim for it that it will lay as many eggs per year as the average hen and that in localities where there is a ready market for duck eggs it is a most profitable fowl to keep. GEESE. The popular varieties of the goose family are the Toulouse, the Embden and the African. These are the largest varieties of geese and of these three the Toulouse are the largest. The goose receives and really requires little attention on the farm. The adults are capable of taking care of themselves under almost any conditions. The goose is a great forager and when available grass is a large part of its food. The ganders are apt to prove pugnacious and are something of a nuisance in the poultry yard. Some keepers of geese pluck them annually for their feathers but for the most part they are kept to supply a feast for the big holiday dinners. The goslings make rapid growth and are hardy. They should be fed frequently when young or until they can forage in the fields. Geese are seldom seen in large flocks. They are not as prolific as the hen or duck. Commercial ventures in goose raising have not proved tempting. 414 INCUBATORS AND BROODERS. TURKEYS. The Bronze, White Holland and Bourbon Red turkeys are the popular varieties. The former is the largest and most commonly seen. The two latter varieties, while smaller, are none the less profitable. The adult turkey is one of the hardiest of all domesticated fowls. For the first six or eight weeks of their lives young turkeys require the closest of attention and must be kept up during wet days and dewy mornings. After that age, however, when they begin to "shoot the red," as it is called, they may be permitted the range of the fields where they will find most of their food until fall. Turkeys are profitable because of their fondness for range which keeps them away from the granary and when marketed their carcasses have cost the farmer little in foods. Turkeys are commonly marketed alive prior to the Thanksgiving or Christmas holidays and prices are invariably such as to bring a considerable profit into the hands of him or her who has a good flock to sell. ARTIFICIAL INCUBATION AND BROODING. It is not practicable to produce any considerable number of chicks without the aid of artificial incubation. The question is not whether incubators are superior to hens as hatchers but is one of getting good results from the! incubator because it must be accepted as a necessity. The best incubator is the cheapest — it will give larger hatches of better chicks and will prove more durable. Have faith in the machine, follow the direction of the manufacturer for operating it and above all exercise every care as to the fertility of the eggs you entrust to it — this is to be your task — the providing of hatchable eggs, and if attended to satisfactory hatches will doubtless be the result. Do not expect 100 per cent, hatches. Many poultrymen who have for years conducted successful practical poultry farms coimt sixty to seventy per cent, a good average. Any location where good ventilation and an equable temperature are found will prove a satisfactory location for the incubator. It is by no means necessary that it should be placed in a cellar, although such is an excellent place if well ventilated and free from bad odors. Observe religiously the instructions for turning and airing the eggs because on these largely FEEDING THE CHICKS. 415 depends the quality of the hatch and if neglected cripples and weaklings will be numerous. Leave the chicks in the incubator for forty-eight hours after the first liave hatched, open the doors only when necessary to remove shells, which should be done to prevent the telescoping of eggs. Have the brooder warmed up to the required point before transferring the chicks to it and if the weather is cold take care that the chicks are not exposed in the transfer. Bear in mind that a sudden though brief change from the 100 degree temperature of the incubator to an outdoor temperature of 30 degrees or less can do a lot of harm. For the first twelve or twenty-four hours in the brooder the chicks should be confined in the warmer section until they locate the warmer and cooler places. If this is not done they are likely to crowd into comers distant from the heat and become chilled. After they have located the source of heat they may be allowed the run of the entire brooder and will run into the cooler compartment where they will scratch and exercise lustily only to hurry back to the warmer compartment when they become cold. There is only one way to regulate the temperature of the brooder and that is by watching the chicks. If they are too hot or too cold their actions will plainly show it. If they crowd together and cheep dismally they are cold; if too hot they are not so noisy but nevertheless you will detect a note of discontent in their voices and will find the more robust ones panting with beaks open and wings distended. When everything is all right the voices of the chicks express supreme satisfaction — a pleasing little talking is going on while the little fellows scratch in the litter and scurry about. FEEDING THE CHICKS. If the chicks have been kept in the incubator 48 hours they should have their first meal soon after being removed to the brooder. The dry-feeding which is the safest is presented here first. Let the first feed be of grit. A white or light colored grit is preferable because this is the chick's first meal and something bright is needed to attract his attention. It is not intended of course that the chick shall be allowed to fill his crop wdth grit, but as the subsequent meal is to be of grain it is desired to get some grit into the crop so that grinding material will be on duty when the first food reaches the 416 FEEDING THE CHICKS. gizzard. Some of the chicks will prove surprisingly indifferent to the first m^al but by tapping lightly on the floor of the brooder practically all can be induced to eat. When all have taken grit then the real meal begins. On the floor of the brooder or better on a paper spread for that purpose scatter prepared chick food. This is a mixture of cracked grain and seeds and can be obtained from almost any feed store. If not obtainable in your vicinity a mixture of finely cracked corn, crushed wheat, cut or clipped oats, millet seed, etc., will make a good substitute. Look carefully to the quality of the grains in the feed. If they smell sour or mouldy do not use them under any circumstances. Allow the chicks to eat plentifully of their first meal and provide water with the chill removed in some receptacle which prevents them wetting themselves. After fifteen or twenty minutes remove all food and tuck the chicks into the warm brooder compartment where, like a man after a full meal, they will show the perfect comfort they feel by taking a nap. The chicks have now learned to eat and henceforth for several weeks should be fed five times daily. Provide plenty of fine soft litter, clover chaff preferred, and scatter the chick feed in this and let the little fellows scratch for it which they will do readily enough. In this way you keep them busy and provide the exercise needed while confined in the brooder. Fine grit and charcoal should be kept constantly before the chicks in boxes or hoppers and after the third day a small quantity of beef scrap should be supplied. It will result in increased growth and may be kept in hoppers if the chicks do not take too great a liking to it. If consumed in too large quantities, however, it causes scours and diarrhoea. Water must be supplied constantly and the vessels should be cleaned frequently and scalded. Fountains with tops, of the inverted can t5T)e, are best as they keep the chicks from getting in the water. Green foods in the form of lettuce, onion tops, steamed- cut clover are valuable relishes and the chicks will eat them greedily. After several weeks the time between meals may be made longer, feeding first four and then three times daily. At the end of four weeks of age scratch feed may be substituted for chick feed. It is cheaper and has almost the same constituents only the grains are larger. In mild weather the chicks may be permitted to run outside the brooder when four or five days old. If the weather is cold or inclement they should be kept in, A runway should be provided so that the chicks will not wander FEEDING THE CHICKS. 417 away. Later this can be removed unless other brooders are located near, in which case peraianent runways are necessary because chicks even after they have become accustomed to one brooder will sometimes all of one accord crowTl into another brooder, completely congesting it and leaving others empty. The dry feeding method for chicks above described is recommended for beginners as one that is probably more widely used than any other and moreover is an extremely safe method for beginners, as the dry grains fed remain clean and wholesome even if not eaten immediately, whereas wet foods must be guarded carefully against souring and fermentation. The method given below is used by one of the most successful chick growers in the country and in tribute to him we will call it the Hockings' Method. The first meal should be well-baked white bread about a week old, wet wdth sweet milk and squeezed out until it crumbles nicely. Feed only twice the first day, about 9 : 30 a. m. and 4 : 00 p. m., and keep fresh water before them all the time, from the first time you feed. The best way to fee'd the first two or three times is to spread a dark cloth over the floor in the exercising room of the brooder and put all the chicks on it, then scatter feed and they will begin at once to eat. Only leave them out ten minutes, then put them all back in the nursery and shut them in and put drinking fountains in with them; take up the cloth and shake it and it will be ready for the next time. Don't ever leave feed before them; if you do you can expect trouble. At 4:00 p. m., feed again, same way, and give fresh water every time with the chill off. It is a good practice to scald out the drinking fountains at least every other day. Run hover temperature in cold weather at 90 to 95 degrees, and in warm weather at 80 to 85 degrees, reducing to 80 as soon as chicks are two weeks old. For the second day feed three times — morning, noon and night — bread and milk the same as first day, putting them back in the nursery each time and shutting them in. Most of them have learned to eat by this time. Don't leave any feed before them. For the third day feed four times — morning, 10 : 30 a. ni., 2 : 30 p. m. and evening. Now they are getting lively and most of them will come into the exercising room themselves if you knock on the floor with your fingers. Eight minutes will be long enough to leave feed before them now, as they eat 418 FEEDING THE CHICKS. faster. You can leave the door of the exercising room open during the middle of the day now, shutting them in at night again. Of course, in real warm weather you do not have to be so particular about shutting them in the nursery. The main thing is not to chill them or get them too warm either. Now this is the day for their first grit. Scatter a little before them just before you feed at 10 : 30 so that each one can get only a few particles. Be careful, not too much grit, but any sharp, coarse sand will do. Feed nothing but good bread wet with milk (or water ocoasionally is about as good as milk) always squeezing out until it crumbles. On the fourth day be careful as they are crazy to eat. Feed four times a day from now on; fill them full but do not leave any food before them. Give them one feed of grit a day from now until they are two weeks old, when you can leave grit before them all the time. Do not forget to scald out drinking fountains. On the fifth day feed bread and milk three times and for the night feed give {hem a meal mixture, wet with water aud squeezed out the same as the bread. Do not forget grit and fresh water and always clean up the feed should you give them more than they can eat in eight minutes. The meal mixture above referred to is composed of forty per cent, corn meal, 25 per cent, shorts, 25 per cent, bran and 10 per cent, beef scrap by weight. Use yellow corn ground fine and sweet bran and shorts fresh from the mill. For the sixth day feed bread in the morning, meal mixture at 10:30, bread at 2 : 30, and meal mixture at night. Now you can let them out of the brooder into the room if it isn't too cold. Have the floor covered with litter; barn chaff is best. They know the difference now between dirt and feed. You can also scatter a little pin head oat meal in the chaff and teach them to scratch. Have litter about one inch deep and a very small handful of oat meal is plenty for the first few days. For the seventh day feed meal mixture in morning, bread and milk at 10 : 30, meal mixture at 2 : 30 and at night, not forgetting grit and fresh water. For the eighth day the chicks are now ''on their feed," feed the meal mixture four times from now on, as regular as possible, with a feed of bread occasionally instead of the meal. Clean the brooder at least every other day after they are four days old; CABE AND MANAGEMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 419 fill and trim brooder lamp every day, always being careful that it is pat) back right and not turned too high. Always call your chicks when you go to feed them, and always feed near brooder when outside, then if a storm comes up suddenly you can call them in quickly. If at any time your chicks get dumpish and don't care to eat, just let them go without one feed; they will l)e ready to eat next time all right. Don't show your friends how nicely they eat unless they call at feeding time. Don't use any patent chick feed. Don't feed sour feed; feed a small handful of feed at a time. Feed only at feeding time no matter how many times you go to look at them. They are crazy for four or five days; the temptation is great. Danger lies in feeding too often or in leaving feed before them. Get the brooder ready two or three days before the hatch is coming off. Bed brooder with clean straw cut four to six inches long; no chaff or fine litter in brooder for first week. Put the chicks in brooder the next morning after hatch is over and do not feed until the oldest is 60 hours old. Do not keep the eggs for incubation in a cold cellar. Keep them in an ordinary living room. Do not let your eggs chill at any time. Brooder must be thoroughly warmed up before putting the chicks in, in early spring especially. These two methods of feeding baby chicks are radically different. The dry feeding method is more commonly used, yet users of the wet feed method insist that when their method is used and used carefully that results are better as regards the growth of the chicks and that losses are reduced to the minimum. It will be noticed that in using the wet feeding method the great mistakes to be avoided are over feeding and leaving feed before the chicks. Undoubtedly anyone who will exercise care can have success with either method. CARE AND MANAGEMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION. The logical time for penning pullets in their winter quarters is November first and to be ready for laying at that time they should have been hatched in March or early April if of the middle weight breeds and from four to six weeks later if of the non-weight varieties. Late hatched birds cannot be made to lay in early winter because they are not mature and their substance 420 CARE AND MANAGEMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION. must go to growth if they are to develop into fowls of standard size and weight. There is no season of the year when eggs are scarcer on the average farm than in November — the old hens have not yet completed moult and the pullets have not yet begun laying. The period of high prices is beginning and an egg has several times the value that it will have in the late spring and summer months. Do not place birds of mixed ages in the laying pens. Select only those that are fully matured and in perfect health. The procuring of eggs during the winter months depends upon the success with which the conditions that prevail during the natural laying season as to food and environment are imitated. The diet of the hen is more varied than that of any other farm animal and consists of cereals as repre- sented by grains, whole or cracked and seeds ; vegetables as represented by beets, cabbage, potatoes, turnips, onions, etc. ; green foods as represented by grass, steamed alfalfa, sprouted oats, etc. ; meat foods which when supplied must take the form of cut bone, beef scrap, beef meal, etc. ; grit and oyster shell. Individual hens vary in their preferences for different foods and as it is not possible to cater to the wants of each individual hen that ration is best which most nearly accords with the demands of the appetite of the average hen. Care and methods of feeding are so closely connected with the foods used that they should be considered correlatively. The methods of different successful poultrymen differ in details but are much alike in the food^ supplied and the methods of feeding. A mixed grain ration fed in deep litter that will induce exercise is the basis of approved feeding methods. This grain mixture is frequently the commercial scratch feed composed af cracked corn, kaffir corn, wheat, oats, barley, buckwheat, sunflower, etc. The farmer, however, can compound his ow^n mixture at a considerable saving in cost and will find that results are not appreciably different even when the variety of grains is much less than given above. Cracked corn, wheat and oats are available on any farm and make a very suitable scratching mixture. If located where kaffir corn is a crop it may be used with excellent results either to supplement Indian corn or as a substitute. Scratch feed should be fed in the litter twice or three times daily. "Wheat or oat straw makes excellent litter for poultry houses and should be scattered over the floors of the house to a depth of six inches or more. The value of the method ^of CARE AND MANAGEMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION. 421 feeding grain in litter rests upon the food and upon the fact that the fowls are literally forced to scratch for a living, The exercise obtained in scratching for the grains keeps the fowls busy, contented and warm. The last feed of the day given in the litter should be scattered early enough to allow the fowls to scratch out a good feed before dark. Busyness contributes to contentment among fowls just as among men and he who keeps his fowls hustling throughout the day will find his returns in the egg basket. When fowls are found on the roosts or huddled in the corners of the house on wintry days conditions are wrong and results will be poor. To supplement the grain ration fed in the litter a mash composed of bran, com meal, ground oats and beef scrap is necessary for best results. If a low grade flour can be secured tOf^dd to the ingredients of the mash at not too great a cost it is advisable to include it. Linseed meal, cottonseed meal and gluten meal, frequently recommended as components of laying mashes, give a better ration theoretically but their necessity is not borne out in practical experience, and as they are sometimes difficult to procure and almost invariably increase the cost of the mash unless one is particularly fortunate in location with reference to the sources of manufacture of these meals, it is not advisable to include them in a ration recommended for average farm use. A mash compounded of two parts bran, one part corn meal, one part ground oats, one part shorts or low grade flour and one part beef scrap is excellent. In beef scrap always demand the very best quality. This is a product which if of poor quality will cause diarrhoea or scours in adult fowls and wall sometimes cause large mortalities in chicks. A good beef scrap should be smooth and soft to the hand and should have an odor much like ground cracklings. Refuse any scrap that smells like decayed meat or contains any evidence of mould or rot. It is important, of course, to look well to the quality of all foods used but exercise the greatest caution when buying scrap. The feeding value of a mash is of the same value whether fed wet or dry. Wet mashes, however, if fed in greater quantities than are consumed at the time are liable to become foul or sour unless the caretaker is willing to take the time to return to the houses and rem'ove all that is left after each feeding. A dry mash can be placed in self feeding hoppers containing a supply sufficient for a week or more and it will be found that the fowls will 422 CARE AND MANAGEMENT FOR EGG PRODUCTION. not gorge themselves as they would do with a wet mash. On the whole the dry feeding method is much more saving of time and laboi- and has come to be the favored method of feeding mash. Grit, oyster shell and charcoal should be kept in hoppers constantly before all fowls. They are inexpensive and are necessities. The keen relish which fowls show in winter for green foods and vegetables is evidence enough of their value and their cost is little. Potatoes, field beets, cabbage, rutabagas, etc., when split and impaled on spikes will be eagerly devoured to the very last bit and an occasional feeding of chopped onions will be eaten with avidity. Sprouted oats have recently become a favored article for winter green food. Oat sprouters are manufactured by many concerns who manufacture poultry supplies and justify their cost in the rapidity with which they enable the farmer or poultryman to grow a supply of this succulent winter food. Oats can, however, be sprouted more slowly by placing a quantity of oats (only oats capable of germination can be used) in shallow boxes with bottoms which contain small cracks and holes for drainage and by keeping them in a place sufficiently warm to induce germination. The oats must be kept constantly wet without permitting water to gather in the boxes, as such an occurrence will cause mildew and kill the germinating properties of the oats. The boxes in which the oats are placed should be about three inches in depth and to prevent the top layer of oats from drying out a heavy wet cloth or burlap sack should be placed over each box. If properly cared for the oats will be ready to feed in from one to two weeks, depending upon the warmth of the room in which they are kept. The fine fibrous-like roots and the' heavier sprouts will penetrate the whole mass, making of each box a solid mat which will come from the box in one section. A flock of one hundred hens will consume at one feeding a section of four to six square feet and it can be fed every other day with good results. A constant and clean supply of water should of course be kept before the fowls at all times. If supplied often enough during cold weather to have a supply always before the fowls with the chill removed the good effect will be noticed. The type of vessel used should be such as to permit of easy and thorough cleaning and should be placed where litter and dirt can not be scratched into it. PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES. 423 Feeding periods should be regular and at the same time each day. When the ^owls are listless and seem indifferent to their feed cut down the amount fed. If on the other hand they seem constantly hungry and seem reluctant to go to roost at night increase the supply. If you achieve the result of keeping the birds constantly busy and contented you are on the right track and good results are inevitable. PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES. Poultry houses should be dry, well ventilated, without draughts and well lighted. If possible they should face the south and if such an exposure can not be provided an eastern frontage is next to be preferred. Too much glass is not an advantage as it permits of too great a loss of heat at night. Floors may be of cement, boards or dirt. Cement is permanent and gives a smooth surface for cleaning but is cold to the feet of the fowls and must be covered with several inches of sand or litter. Board floors are easily cleaned and Figure 15. End Elevation of Main Curtain from Poultry House. 424 PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES. warm but must be laid sufficiently high to permit of the dog or eat getting under them and the side walls of the house must extend entirely to the ground to keep the wind from under the floor. Dirt floors are most economical in original cost and are satisfactory for the fowls' comfort; however, they must be frequently renewed and are kept clean with more difficulty than floors presenting a smooth surface to the shovel or broom. Where dirt is used for a floor it should be filled in until six or eight inches higher than the level of the surrounding soil. Although double walled houses are advocated by some the consensus of opinion is that the extra cost of such houses is not justified and few such j_r TTT TTX ,11 .1, 1 ,1 cfe , I I I . 1 , m^ wm I'l'l'l' I' I'.'ll' 1.1 I 'l.l.'l. 'I 'II' I'l'. 'I'l I 'I 'I' I'M I ' ii' , i ' .. i ' , i ' i' i !i ! i I I I r I ' ' I ' I ' I 'il^ 1 , 1 .1 nil I . I .11 .1 . Ill I. I r 11 I. I I I .1.1 I I rrri ' i i ' ii 'iVi'n'V ' I 'i' i ' i 'i i V' l'i' ffl 1 1. 1. Ill I I II ij. ij. r. I. .1.1 .1 r I I III r i-"-T I.I I 11 I i'l 'l' l"i ' ". 'l' 'l'll'l'.'l"l'l'l " l " l ." . r I r I 111 I I I r I l l V l'l ' l .' l'l'l' . ' I' Vl T^ XT tnr rm fe .1.1. I I. '=^ ^^^F I I • i~^ rro nn &■ I , , 1 ,.i r TTT I 'i' i' i'i' i' . ' i Figure 16. Front Elevation of One Unit of the Maine Curtain Front Poultry House are found. A single walled house made of matched lumber or of plain! material with the joints well battened and lined with heavy building paper inside will prove warm enough for all practical purposes. Small holes and cracks should be stopped to prevent draughts. Either shingles or roofing paper make satisfactory roofs, the paper being preferred on roofs with small slope. Here more particularly than anywhere else in the house good material should be used. On many farms will be found houses that possess all the requisites of a good poultry house and it is folly to think that a beginning cannot be made with poultry without first investing in new buildings. Existing poultry PRACTICAL POULTRY • HOUSES. 425 buildings on the average farm are likely to possess some of the following faults : wrong exposure, too much glass, too little provision for ventilation, inconvenient arrangements of roosts and dropping boards, exposure to draughts or too small for the number of fowls kept. Any of these faults can be remedied with little expense in most cases. Practically all of the fowls on the average farm are kept in one house Figure 17. Floor Plan of One Unit of the Maine Curtain Front Poultry House. In this and the following two figures the significance of the letters is as follows: A^trap nests; B — runways to yards; C — dry mash trough; D — roosts; E — walk; F — front opening; G — coop for broody hens; H — spikes to hang green food on; I — grit trough; J — curtain front. and if the num'ber is large the house is almost invariably overcrowded. The only remedy for this is the building of an additional or new house. The most approved practice in management for winter egg production con- templates the confinement of the fowls to the house on many days and the 426 PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES. house must provide sufficient room for scratching and exercise, and no more serious a mistake could be made than to crowd together in one lot more fowls than the house will provide with room and ventilation. At least six square feet of floor space should be provided for every fowl to be wintered in the house and if such space cannot be provided the extra hens should be disposed of. If it is considered necessary to build a new house none is more deserving of recommendation than some form of the curtain front house of which a Figure 18. Interior of Maine Curtain Front Poultry House. popular type is illustrated herewith. This house was developed in pursuit of "fresh air" ideas at the Maine Experiment Station and is favored there over all the varied styles and types of houses that have been used at that station. This house is ideal for farm poultry raising as it contemplates the liousing of fowls in colonies of the size that will incorporate the average farm flock of hens kept through the winter. In arrangements it is convenient and can be enlarged upon by simply building on new units as they are needed. PRACTICAL POULTRY HOUSES. 427 Considering the fact that many will doubt the worth of the curtain front house for cold weather service and that the type described here has been tested thoroughly at the Maine Experiment Station, which is located in the Northernmost latitudes of our country, their testimony with reference to this point may put many minds at rest : "Maine is subject to long spells of severe cold weather, with the temperature considerably below zero at night, and about zero during the day, and with a good deal of high wind. During such rough weather the bedding on the floor has been kept comparatively dry. The yields of eggs during the severe weather and immediately following it are rarely below those immediately preceding it. It should be borne in mind that had the weather remained mild all the time the hens probably would have increased in production rather than remained stationary. They are doubtless affected by the severe weather, but not seriously, as they uniformly begin to increase in production very soon after the weather becomes normal for midwinter. "These curtain front houses have all proved eminently satisfactory. The egg yields per bird 'have been better in these houses than in warmed ones." LUMBER REQUIRED FOR MAINE CURTAIN FRONT HOUSE. Spruce is specified because it is the material actually used in the houses described and illustrated. Any other equally strong lumber will do. Amounts are given in board feet unless otherwise specified. The following estimates do not allow for waste in cutting: Nine cedar posts, 6 feet long, 6-inch butts; 270 feet 2x4 inch spruce for studs, door, window and coop frames; 550 feet 2x6 inch plank for floor joists, outside walk, etc. ; 370 feet 6x6 inch spruce for sills ; 40 feet 4x4 inch spruce for corner studs and wall stringers ; 70 feet 2x3 inch spruce for roosts, etc. ; 235 feet 2x5 inch spruce for rafters ; 115 feet 1x7 inch spruce for rafter braces ; 33 feet 1x9 inch spruce for doors ; IOI/2 feet 1x6 inch spruce for door braces ; 3200 feet boards for outside, floor, nests, etc. ; 20 linear feet 2x2 inch planed to l%xl%^ inch ; 12 linear feet 2x% inch ; 65 board feet 1-in. spruce for feed and grit troughs; 35 linear feet spruce for curtain frames; 20 latlis ; 12,000 shingles ; 11 feet boards, spruce, for roost frames. 428 POSSIBLE PROFITS AND EXPENSE. HARDWARE. Four pair heavy 6-in. T hinges with screws ; 4 pair light 3-iii. hinges with .screws ; 2 pair 3x3-in. butts with screws ; 60 pair 2x2-in. butts with screws ; 40 lbs. 3-penny shingle nails ; 100 lbs. 8-penny common nails ; 35 lbs. 10-penny common nails; 15 lbs. 20-penny common nails; 2 lbs. 3-penny common nails; 1 lb. 3-inch staples ; 2 thumb latches complete with screws. MISCELLANEOUS. Two storm windows, 12 lights 10x12 inches; 6 squares building paper; 10 feet 42-inch poultry netting ; 141/2 feet 42-inch 10-ounce duck. From the above anyone can compute from prices prevailing in his own locality the cost of constructing one unit on the Maine curtain front house. The expense incurred would not be more than for any other well-constructed house of the same capacity. It is not advisable to endeavor to save by using cheap lumber or lighter construction. A house -built on these specifications will last for years. The cloth fronts must of course be renewed from time to time but will last a season at least. BREEDING HOUSES. Houses for breeders need not be more than ten or twelve feet square or in that proportion, as one mating cannot contain more than ten or twelve birds. For breeding houses the same features are desirable as in laying- houses. Ventilation and freedom from moisture are particularly desirable as tending to keep the health of the breeding stock good. It is not beyond the ingenuity of anyone to construct a smaller house with general features of the curtain front house preserved in its structure. POSSIBLE PROFITS AND EXPENSE, The building of a poultry house or the preparation of pens and equip- ment are tangible things and the cost can be estimated to a point sufficiently accurate for most of us. But when it comes to anticipating the profits or expense that will be enjoyed or incurred in a venture in poultry raising a woeful lack of dependable data is noticed. Few poultrymen are a;ble to tell POSSIBLE PROFITS AND EXPENSE. 429 just what the cost of food per hen per year has been and fewer yet can show any accurate and trustworthy statement based on actual carefully kept figures as to the profits that can be made. Mr. T. E. Quisenberry, director of the Mountain Grove, Mo., Experiment Station at- which during the past two years egg laying contests have been held has given in some particulars the most dependable information on many points. In the contests conducted by Mr. Quisenberry under state supervi- sion and therefore official and undoubtedly accurate he procured during the first year's contest an average of 134 eggs per hen from all hens in the contest. For the second year the average was 143 eggs per hen. The birds in thei contest included pens of practically all the standard breeds from Bralimas to Leghorns. The fowls came from dozens of different breeders in a dozen or more states. It seems that the results secured by Mr. Quisenberry may be accepted as that which can be obtained from any well bred flock of standard bred fowls. It will be noted that in the first year's contest conducted that an average egg. production, of just a little over eleven dozen eggs was secured in the year. In the second year's contest an average of one less than twelve dozen eggs was secured. Taking the average production for the two years at eleven and one-half dozen it is easy to compute for any locality the value of those eggs per hen for the year. In the vicinity of Indianapolis these eggs would have brought without any recourse to private marketing approximately $3.00 per hen. Says Mr. Quisenberry — "These results are valuable because they are average results the same as any one can obtain with a Avell selected flock of thoroughbred fowls." Bear in mind that he had among the birds in these contests many fowls of the breeds not commonly recognized as heavy layers and that they reduced the average results in egg production by a not inconsiderable amount. During the second year's contest closing November 15, 1913, the average grain consumption per hen was 36 lbs. The consumption of mash was about the same. The composition of the grain and mash mixtures did not vary materially from those recommended elsewhere in this section and any man can compute the cost of* feeding a hen per year with the above figures and the prices of food stuffs in his own particular locality. To make money with poultry one must learn to get results. He must be able to so care for his breeding stock as to get fertile, hatchable eggs. He 430 CAPONIZING AND ITS PROFITS. must be able to get out good percentage hatches; he must be able to rear a large percentage of the chicks hatched, and he must be able to get eggs from his pullets when they have reached a laying age. Briefly stated these are the points of knowledge that must be acquired. There is money and good money in poultry raising for the man that acquires the ability to do these things. THE VALUE OF THE THOROUGH-BRED HEN. Mr. Quisenberry, the man referred to above, is authority for the statement that the average annual egg production of the farm hen is less than seventy- five per hen. The egg yield procured in the Mountain Grove contests from thorough-bred fowls was more than twice this average. The conclusion is obvious. The scrub has no place on the successful poultry farm as it has none on the successful stock or dairy farm. Even though the thorough-bred hen laid no more eggs than the scrub still it would be decidedly advisable to use only thorough-breds. The thorough-bred is uniform in type ; the requirements of the different individuals in the flock are more nearly alike ; the character of the offspring can be more closely anticipated ; and an added market is secured. No matter how practical may be the basis of any venture in poultry raising it should be borne in mind that there is always an added income to be realized by the breeder of thorough-bred fowls aside from all practical advantages. There is a demand in any locality for thorough-bred stock— whether poultry, horses, sheep or cattle. In suppljdng this demand an added income is received. The farm poultryman, even though breeding for eggs and meat, should endeavor to keep his birds as close to standard requirements as possible without interference with their utility qualities. It will b6 found profitable to do so as many opportunities will come to dispose of birds at prices that offer several times the profit that could otherwise be procured. v CAPONIZING AND ITS PROFITS. Caponizing is not by any means a new practice, being as old probably as the Christian Era, although it is only recently that it has taken on any ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 431 commercial importance. Our European cousins being ever more alert for appetizing edibles, have taken hold of the practice more quickly and more extensively, and the knowledge of the capon's superior flesh is known among them by every poulterer and marketma^. The American poultrymen have taken up the practice particularly in the East, with uniformly satisfactory results, and from them it is gradually spreading throughout the West and even our ever conservative farmers and small poultrymen are taking it up, THE OPERATION IS NOT DIFFICULT. The operation is not at all difficult, even inexperienced persons being successful with their first efforts, although their losses are of course greater than those of experienced operators ; the danger is not so much in the possible fatality of the operation as in the possibility of incompleteness, thereby producing slips. The beginner should take his time with his first experiment, and if he feels that he is inflicting too much pain on the fowl he should kill it and proceed with the operation on the dead bird. Make yourself familiar with the operation on the first fowl and proceed the same thereafter with live ones. If at any time you think that you have fatally injured a bird kill it at once and bleed it and it will be as fit for the table as any other fowl. THE ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. The impression seems to have taken hold with many that the greatest advantage of the capon over the cockerel is in its superior size. In truth a capon is only a trifle larger than a well cared for cockerel, but when a large number of cockerels are carried through the winter and all housed together they are in fact much inferior to the capon in weight as in every other respect. However, the real advantages of caponizing lie in the superior quality of the flesh that the capon carries and in the docility and peaceful disposition of the fowl. Fifty to one hundred capons may be housed together with as much safety as so many hens, but that num])er of cockerels would be in a perpetual state of turmoil. Any one who has tried to carry a considerable number of cockerels through the winter will understand -this condition. The 4i{2 ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. flesh of the capon is of superior grain and flavor and is tender. The markei; prices range from twelve to twenty-five cents per pound and the market is never glutted. The great advantage of caponizing on the farm is that it offers a profitable means of disposing of late hatched cockerels and those that may have for any reason been kept after reaching the age of broilers or fries. Such birds represent one of the largest sources of loss to be experienced on the average farm. Almost all chickens raised on the farm are disposed of as springers; for the early hatches this is a profitable method but for the later ones it is not. Late chicks hatched during May and June reach the market when springers are plentiful and cheap. It would prove much more profitable to the farmer to keep these cockerels and caponize them. After a cockerel reaches the broiler stage every week that he is kept makes him more expensive and of less value, so that as a yearling fowl he will have cost much in feed and care and wull actually be worth less than when ten weeks of age. The capon is simply an unsexed cockerel and caponizing has just the same effect on the cockerel that castration has on the bull or boar — tames the disposition and permits the fowl to make growth without the flesh becoming tough or stringy. LOSSES IN THE OPERATION. With experienced operators the losses attendant upon the operation are less than five per cent. This includes all that die from the operation either immediately or afterwards. The percentage grows more as one's experience is less. Some operators lose as high as fifty per cent, of their first batch. Such losses as this are due to bunglesomeness and if such a person does not find his efficiency increasing rapidly he had best induce some one else to do his caponizing for him. PROFITS AND MARKETS. A yearling cockerel Avhen sold on the market brings from twenty to fifty cents. A capon of the same age will bring from $1.20 to $2.00. The food cost has been the same and the capon has undoubtedly been the less trouble. The above are market prices and can be obtained in any market ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 433 center. Our village and towns are not good market places for capons and one would have trouble in obtaining market quotations there. In our larger cities, however, the market has never been half way supplied. The managers of wholesale poultry houses and fashionable butchers of Indianapolis state that they are ready at all times to pay market quotations and that the demand has never been met. CAPONIZING NOT A CRUEL PRACTICE. No doubt many persons who realize the advantages of caponizing are deterred from practising the operation out of tender-heartedness, disliking to inflict pain on any dumb creature. In fact, the operation is far from being cruel and is not extremely painful. It is seldom indeed that the bird gives voice to any outcry during the operation and even during the most critical stage will peck at the flies that light near him. The most pain seems to be caused by the original incision and the subsequent probing among the viscera and the severing of the seminal cord causes no evident pain whatever. When released the fowls will eat greedily from the long fast that preceded the operation. It must be remembered too, that the birds escape much suffering through the operation. Their pugnacious dispositions are changed and that period of nagging attended with bloody combs and sometimes blinded eyes that all cockerels experience, is escaped by the capon on account of its altered nature. THE INSTRUMENTS. Caponizing instruments are manufactured by several companies, but the different sets do not vary much either in style or price. The description given herewith includes all necessary instruments. All sets include the following : a knife for making the incision, a spreader for holding the ribs apart and the incision open, a hook for tearing away the inside membrane, a probe for pushing aside the entrails should they be in the way, an instrument for catching and removing the testicles and a pair of forceps. The accompanying illustration shows the instruments with several differ- ent styles of spreaders and removing instruments. Figure C shows the knife 434 ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. Figure 19. Showing Instruments used in Caponizing. Letters a, b and i show instruments for removing testicles; d, e and k show spring spreaders; g is a probe; h a hook and f the forceps. ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 435 which is merely a piece of well tempered steel capable of being brought to a very fine edge. The shape or style of the knife is of little consequence, but the quality of the steel is of supreme importance. Figures D, E and K show three different styles of spring spreaders. They differ little in the manner of use, all being designed for holding the incision open and are self retaining when properly inserted in the incision. Figure G shows the probe and H the hook for tearing away the membrane. Figure F represents the forceps. Figures A, B and I show different styles of instruments for the removal of the testicle. The ihstrument A is commonly called the canula and consists of a hollow tube through which a wire loop is threaded. The loop is slipped over the testicle and then tightened by pulling on the free ends of the wires and the testicle is removed by twisting the tube. The instrument B is the slotted scoop. The testicle is gathered into it in such a way that the cord is caught in the slot and severed by the sharp edges. Efficiency with this in- strument depends on keeping the edge of the slot very sharp. Figure I shows an instrument having a slotted lip on which the testicle is caught, then by pulling on the attached sliding lever the lips of the slot close over one an- other, severing the cord and permitting the removal of the testicle. Aside from the above instruments it is necessary to have a basin of water to which has been added a slight portion of carbolic acid for antiseptic purposes and some bits of sponge or antiseptic cotton for absorbing such blood as may be split in the abdominal cavity. THE CAPONIZING TABLE. The operator should be supplied with some sort of a stand upon which to place the bird. Many operators use a barrel. This does very well if holes are made in the bottom to permit of the use of cords and weights to hold the fowl's legs and wings. It is best, however, to construct a table for the pur- pose on the following lines : it should be somewhat higher than the waist so as not to require much stooping. The top should be about two feet in di- ameter and should be so arranged that it may be tilted and fastened securely in any position. This makes it possible to get the sunlight where you want it. The stand should be also fitted with holes through which the cords for holding the fowl may be inserted. A box or bench should, be placed near the 436 ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. stand to hold the instruments and other paraphernalia. The cords and weights referred to are cords with weights of about a pound each tied to each end. These are passed through the openings in the stand and then over the fowl's legs and wings and keep them from kicking or flopping while on the table. THE BEST BREEDS— AGE AND SIZE. The American and Asiatic breeds of poultry make the best capons. The Orpingtons, too, are excellent. The operation should be performed just before the combs of the oockerels begin to "shoot." At this period the birds are about three months old and weigh from one and a half to two pounds each. Never caponize birds over five months old or weighing more than three pounds as the operation would result fatally in so many instances as to prove unprofitable. Leghorns do not make good capons. They reach the age of caponizing before they are large enough to withstand the opera- tion and even when successfully caponized they do not attain the weight demanded in the markets. THE OPERATION. The cockerels for the operation should be caught up and confined with- out food for twenty-four hours before the time of the operation. This empties the bowels and causes them to be much less in the way. If the day set proves dark or cloudy, postpone operations for a day. Bright sunlight is absolutely essen- tial to enable the operator to see the in- terior of the fowl and the danger of any germ infection is much less on a bright, sunny day than on a dark, cloudy one. If the day proves bright and clear get out your instruments and table and ar- range them so as to be handy and catch your first fowl. Place the bird on the table on its side and place the cords for holding the wings and legs securely in position. Locate the last two ribs by feeling with the fingers and locate the place pretty well up towards the back as shown by the dotted lines in Figure 20. Figure 20. Dotted Line Shows Point where Incision Should be Made when Caponizing. ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. 437 Pull out any feathers that are in the way and wet the surrounding ones and paste them to one side. Pull the loose skin to one side away from the point for the incision. Now take the knife for the initial incision, hold the blade upright and stick the point between the ribs and through the flesh and then pull it down, keeping it between the ribs all the time until you have an in- cision about one inch long. Care must be taken not to thrust the knife in so far as to endanger the bowels. Take the spring spreaders and compress them, then insert them in the cut and release them, making sure that they are firmly fixed so that they will not fly out at some critical moment. You can now see a thin filmy membrane covering the intestines. This must be torn away with the hook, care being taken not to injure the intestines. Now if the incision has been made in the right place the testicles can be seen almost directly under the opening, being fastened up close to the back. The mak- ing of the incision is the real test of the success of the operation ; when it is made in the right place the testicles can easily be seen but when it is made too far down or too far forward it is very difficult if not impossible to locate them and proportionately harder to remove' them. When the testicle is seen take the canula (if your set of instruments includes it), adjust the wire loop and insert the loop carrying end into the incision and slip the loop around the testicle onto the attacking cord. Now tighten the loop by drawing on the ends of the wire projecting from the free end of the tube. Sometimes the cord can be severed by merely pulling on the wires, but this is not often the case. Do not try to break the cord by pulling wath the canula, but twist it slowly from side to side, and after several motions it will come loose and may be removed. If it should fall from the canula when severed remove it with the forceps. If your capon- izing set includes the slotted scoop instead of the canula the method of pro- cedure is just the same except as to the actual removing of the testicles. With the scoop the testicle is caught in the scoop so as to catch the cord in the slot. If the edges of the slot are well sharpened they will sever the cord and the testicle will be free in the scoop. If, however, the scoop slots are not sharp it will require some twisting the same as with the canula before the testicle will be loose. To pull on the testicle in an effort to break the cord is a dangerous practice as the cord will pull loose at the back, fre- quently rupturing a blood vessel and causing the fowl to bleed to death. 438 ADVANTAGES OF CAPONIZING. The operation given thus far is for the removal of one testicle from each side, requiring two incisions to caponize one fowl. After having removed one testicle as above detailed it is only necessary to turn the bird over and re- peat the operation on the other side. Many operators, however, remove both testicles from one side, removing the lower one first. This is a slightly more difficult operation than the former, but as it requires only one incision is easier on the fowl. However, the common practice even among experts is to make two incisions. The simplicity of the operation by this method more than compensates for any advantages that may be possessed by the one incision operation. If at any time any blood is spilled in the abdominal cavity it should be absorbed by bits of sponge first wet in water containing some antiseptic, such as carbolic acid in weak solution. After having removed the testicles make sure that there are no particles of any kind in the cavity; if such are seen remove them with the forceps; then remove the spring spreaders from the incision and. permit the skin to slip over it as it will do if it has been properly pulled aside before making the incision. The capon should be put in a quiet place for a few days and should be given food and water immediately. He will eat greedily from the long fast that preceded the operation. In a few days he may be released and should be treated as any other growing chicken. Sometimes shortly after the operation wind puffs will develop, which give the fowl a grotesque appearance or may even affect the gait of the fowl by expanding between the legs. These are caused by the presence of air under the skin and are rarely serious and may be relieved by making a pin hole perforation of the skin to permit of the escape of the air. SLIPS. Slips are the result of an incomplete operation where the testicles have not been completely removed. If the least portion is left it grows and al- though the fowl never has any value as a breeder he causes almost as much trouble about the yards as an uncaponized cockerel and is of as little value when sold. Slips are avoided by carefulness in the operation. Make sure that the entire testicle is removed .and you will have no slips. HEALTH AND DISEASfe. 439 MARKETING. In localities where collectors make frequent trips and are willing to pay reasonable prices it will undoubtedly prove best for the farmer to sell his capons alive, thus escaping the responsibilities of dressing and shipping. It is not always possible to sell alive, however, as when one desires to sell to private or retail trade. Dry picking is the favored method for capons and Figure 21. Capons as They Appear Dressed for Market. in picking the feathers are left on the head and neck, on the wings from the elbow out and half way up the legs. The large stiff feathers of the tail are also left. This style of picking is considered characteristic of the capon and to send them to the market picked in any other manner would cause them to be confused with soft roasters or even hens. HEALTH AND DISEASE. Health and vigor are of paramount importance in breeding stock. Always select all birds for the breeding pens with this as the first requirement. Birds that are strong, well matured and free from any suggestion of phy?.' 440 SOME CAUSES OF DISEASE. eal weakness or disease will when used as breeders do much to keep up the general standard of health in the flock. The first evidences of disease in a flock are always among the weak and anemic members. Their constitutions do not enable them to ward off contagion and when through their own weak- ness they permit disease to lodge in the flock soon the stronger members are affected by the contagion thus brought into their midst and the whole flock is jeopardized. Vigor and health in a fowl are evidenced by a clean, bright plumage, an active disposition, a bright red comb, and a clear eye, and in the males by gallantry to the other sex and a rather pugnacious tendency to- wards their own. No matter how vigorous and robust a bird may appear do not use it for breeding purposes if it has ever been seriously sick of any disease. Cured birds possess a susceptibility to disease that may result in new contractions and are not likely to show as breeders the same good results as birds never affected by disease. SOME CAUSES OF DISEASE. Many of the commoner diseases that affect poultry can be traced directly to improper care, poor food, filthy or ill-ventilated quarters or to the pres- ence of vermin. Feeding in dirty troughs or litter, watering in vessels tainted or polluted force the fowls to take their food and drink from sources that may be contaminated with the germs of almost any infectious or contagious disease. The remedy for this is strict cleanliness about all food and water vessels. Sour, fermented grains or putrid meat food invariably cause some serious disturbances of the digestive organs. Since the very discovery of germ association with disease it has been known that the breeding places of these agents of death are in filth and manure. To permit houses and roosts to become foul with droppings is but to extend an invitation to disease. Scarcely less^ important than cleanliness is ventilation ; just as the roosts and floors of the poultry house become filthy when droppings and soiled litter are not removed so does the air become polluted and devitalized when it remains for hours unchanged. Poultrymen of authority say that no step in poultry rearing progress has done so much for the prevention of disease as the adoption of the open front and curtain front poultry houses. Lice and mites will take control of any poultry house if permitted. The constant irritation to which DISEASES OF POULTRY. 441 they subject the fowls keep them in a continual condition of nervousness that exhausts their vitality, and the blood-sucMng mites still further add to the debility of their victims by nocturnal, vampire-like habits. When thus weak- ened the poor fowl is open to any attacks that may be made upon him by the germs of disease. Sunshine is one of the best preventatives of disease; before the rays of a bright sun the disease germs tiee to more secluded places. It is for this reason that it is advisable to give the poultry house a southern exposure if it can possibly be done and the windows should be set so that the low hung winter sun can penetrate clear to the back walls of the house. Moreover, sunshine aids in keeping the poultry house dry. Dampness in the poultry house must not be tolerated as good results can not be obtained under such conditions. By locating the poultry house on high, dry ground surface, dampness will be prevented and by providing proper ventilation the sweating of the wall and ceiling, which sometimes drips onto the floor, wetting the litter to a serious extent, will be prevented. From the day of his first meal until he meets the axe the chicken should be made to hustle for his living. Under natural conditions he had to do it and Nature has so constituted him that he cannot attain his fullest physical development without exercise. Fowls must not be allowed to mope about. When confined they should be kept busy scratching in the litter of the house and when weather permits they should be allowed the exercise of the range. Their health will be all the better for it. COLDS. Fowls are subject to colds just as are human beings and the colds bf themselves are not serious ailments. Even the most robust birds will during blustery winter weather contract small colds' from which they frequently recover without any medical aid. The danger of colds is not in the cold itself but by irritating the membranes of the throat, mouth and eyes it makes these parts sore and tender so that the germs of some of the many diseases that affect these parts may find a lodging place prepared for them. Draughty houses and poor ventilation are common causes of colds. When birds on range are first housed in the fall, colds are very likely to develop because 442 DISEASES OF POULTRY. the birds, being used to roost in the open, sweat in the house and when liber- ated in the morning, cool too quickly and colds result. AVhen first transferring the fowls to winter quarters do not close the houses too tightly but at the same time avoid any draught that would strike the roosting birds. If any bird is noticed with a cold remove it from the flock and administer night and morning a one-grain pill of quinine. This will effect a cure in two or three days in most cases. If a slight watery discharge is found in the eye or nostrils clean them with dioxogen. There is always a cause for colds. Locate and remove it. ROUP. In its early stages roup is likely to be confounded with colds or other ailments. It is one of the commonest of poultry diseases and may be found at any season of the year although it is most common during the early fall months. Young and immature birds are particularly liable to contract roup at this time. Roup can be distinguished by a peculiar odor that once smelled will never be forgotten. This odor serves with the experienced pouJtryman to differentiate roup from any other disease affecting poultry. Roup begins frequently with a cold and the first symptoms are much the same. At first a thin watery discharge from the eyes and nostrils will be seen. This thickens and soon becomes yellow and develops into a hard cheesy growth, which will in even a few days destroy the sight of the eye. As these cheesy growths occur in the mouth and throat also the bird breathes with difficulty and at intervals will endeavor to throw the growth from the mouth. Roup in the early stages can be cured without great difficulty, but when a case is well developed the 'best course is to kill the bird. Even when a complete cure is apparently effected the fowl will always possess an added susceptibility to the disease and will acquire it again on slight ex- posure. Sick birds should be removed from the flock at once. If the case is one where killing is advisable, do so at once and burn the body immediately. A thorough disinfection of the premises is next in order and a small pinch of potassium permanganate crystals put in the water (just enough to give it a slight reddish color) will serve as a preventative for the flock. Put the sick DISEASES OF POULTRY. 443 birds in comfortable quarters and begin treatment at once. Remove the yellow scabs in the mouth and throat and do not be alarmed if they bleed rather freely. Apply dioxogen until it ceases to foam and then apply pure creolin with a swab. If the scabs reappear remove them and repeat the treatment. Boracic acid applied to the nostrils and throat twice daily is an excellent remedy. A mixture of nine parts of chlorate of potash and one part potassium permanganate and placed in the drinking water (one teaspoonful to a gal- lon) is a much recommended remedy. The birds under treatment should have the best of care and disinfection should never be neglected. If after a few days of treatment the bird does not show improvement it should be killed and burned. GAPES. This is one of the most exasperating and serious of all the ailments of poultry. Gapes is caused by a small parasitic worm, Synganas Trachealis, which lodges itself in the windpipe of the fowl. While gapes doubtless attacks chickens of all ages it is seldom noticed save in young chicks. The older birds are able to withstand the ravages of these parasites without showing the symptoms that call attention to the presence of the gape worms. Young chicks, however, quickly show the effect of the presence of the worms and their condition soon becomes critical. The severity of the affection is dependent upon the number of worms that lodge themselves in any individual bird's windpipe. The worms weaken the bird by sucking the blood from it and their presence in the windpipe is a continual source of keen irritation. When present in large numbers the worms almost completely block the wind- pipe and cause the bird to gape for breath — hence the name given this af- fliction. Just what is the origin of the gape worm is a disputed question but many incline to the belief that they are carried by earth worms. As they multi- ply rapidly if the soil is once infested with them opportunities for the spread of the trouble increase rapidly. When gapes makes its appearance isolate all affected chicks at once. 444 DISEASES OF POULTRY. Lime dust is recommended as a simple and sure material for forcing the fowls to expel the worms. A box is made with a covering of burlap or coai'&ely woven cloth, air slaked lime is then sifted over the chicks and being inhaled into the air passages, irritates them and causes the chick to cough and sneeze violently, thus dislodging the worms and expelling them. As this method is slightly painful and if prolonged may be fatal to the chicks it must be done carefully and the chicks must not be made to remain in the box too long. The worms may be extracted by using wire or horse hair extractors which are inserted in the windpipe, twisted so as to scrape the worms from the walls and then withdrawn. Persons inexperienced in the operation of removing worms in this manner may kill some before they acquire the ability of inserting the wire or hair loop into the windpipe properly. But as the accomplishment is a valuable one to acquire it is worth the lives of a few chicks to learn. Camphor is recommmended for ridding chicks of gape worms and the method of administering is easy. Take each chick and drop down its throat a piece of camphor about the size of a grain of wheat. This is said to be a satisfactory cure. To rid the premises of gape worms is a difficult undertaking. The most satisfactory methods are to spray the ground in the runs with a strong dis- infectant and to scatter air slaked lime. Wliile this will no doubt lessen the evil to some extent it will not completely eliminate it as the surface to be covered, particularly where the chicks have free range, renders it imprac- ticable to do a thorough job. CHOLERA. Cholera is a most disastrous disease that breaks out sometimes almost without warning and decimates a flock before the owner has had time to collect his faculties. The course of this disease is very rapid. The infection is generally acquired through water or food, although at times it seems to have been transmitted when no tangible connection could be traced to a source of infection, encouraging the belief that the germs may be carried considerable distances through the air. Cholera is one of the most virulent DISEASES OF POULTRY. 445 of contagious diseases and the eating of any food stuffs that have come in contact with affected conditions will almost invariably result in the ac- quiring of the disease. If well fowls eat the flesh of affected birds they will almost surely be affected themselves and it is well to reiterate here what has already been said, that dead fowls, no matter what the cause of their death, should always be burned or buried deep. A feverish condition and loss of appetite is one of the first symptoms of cholera. A slight diarrhoea will appear at the same time. The bird is lifeless and mopes about with ruffled feathers and a general appearance of ill feeling. Owing to the high fever the fowl will be very thirsty. The comb will lose itvS color and will after the disease is well developed become purple or almost black. The discharge from the bowels grows thinner and with the development of the disease becomes streaked with blood. The greenish or yellowish diarrhoea which attends this disease is one of the distinguishing symptoms. This with the high fever and the dark color of the comb mil enable one to identify the complaint. As cholera develops rapidly and soon has its victim beyond the reach of help any means taken to stop it must be taken promptly. As a matter of fact, however, the best method of getting rid of cholera is to kill all in- fected birds and start a rigid and thorough disinfection of all poultry houses and yards and scald out all food and water vessels. If the source of the contagion can be located spare no pains to cut it off. If the food supply is suspected, use no more of it. Birds affected with cholera weaken rapidly and if any treatment is un- dertaken toward curing the affected ones the first course is to induce them to eat some nourishing food. As they have lost all appetite they can only be fed by hand and in such case bread soaked in beef juice or the beef juice itself can be pushed or poured down the throat. When the disease is first detected give the afflicted fowl a spoonful of castor oil and follow in a few minutes with a tablet containing 1-200 of a grain of arsenate of copper. Re- peat the arsenate of copper every three or four hours and administer a 1-1000 grain tablet of corrosive sublimate every three hours. Improvement should be evident in three or four days, and when the bird recovers its appetite, will be rapid. 446 DISEASES OF POULTRY. WHITE DIARRHOEA. The best authorities do not hesitate to class White Diarrhoea as a parasitic disease, yet there seems no question that bowel troubles so closely resembling White Diarrhoea as to offer the layman no means of discrim- ination are caused by accidents of hatching or carelessness in care and feed- ing that do not indicate any infection either from external sources or in- herent. Chicks hatched in incubators where the temperature is not kept under control or where some untoward occurrence is allowed to happen during the period of incubation will, while hatching out in such numbers as to make the operator think that the incidents above referred to did no harm, develop an epidemic of bowel trouble and become pasted up just as chicks suffering from White Diarrhoea. It is evident that chicks so affected owe their misfortune to the vicissitudes they have undergone while in the embryo stage and not to any inherent infection, because other chicks of the same parentage hatched either by hens or incubators and not subjected to the same trying conditions while still in the egg will show no trace of the disease. The intestinal parasite responsible for White Diarrhoea has been isolated and is called Coccidium tenellium. Regardless of whether the ailments classed as White Diarrhoea are of parasitic origin or not the fact remains that chicks subjected to any extreme conditions while in the embryo stage or after will develop in many instances a serious bowel complaint. There seems no doubt that in some instances or at least in some forms of bowel trouble the affection is inherited and such being the case it is necessary to go back to the parent stock before preventative remedies can be applied. If you know that your methods of incubation are at fault or that you have been subjecting the chicks to extremes of heat or cold in the brooder the method of stopping this evil is evident. If, however, it seems that conditions are all that could be required for health and vigor in the young chicks then sus- picion should be turned to the parent stock. Obviously the method of treat- ment would be to discard the breeding stock or give them a thorough clean- ing out by using strong purgatives. If you are loth to let your breeding birds go, administer epsom salts in the drinking water every week or so during the breeding season. A mild disinfectant placed in the drinking DISEASES OF POULTRY. 447 water would have its effect in destroying these parasites. As the droppings will contain the minute worms they should be removed quickly and often. LIMBER NECK. Limber neck is caused by ptomaine poisoning of which the source will almost invariably be found to be decayed or poisoned meats, usually dead fowls which the others have been eating after they have reached an advanced stage of decay. Dead fowls on which maggots are working present a great menace in this regard, as the fowls will devour the maggots and they in turn are filled with the poisoned flesh of the decayed fowl. Beef scrap which has been permitted to become wet or mouldy wall also cause this disease when eaten by the fowls. The name limber neck indicates thoroughly the symptoms of this trouble. The fowl will stand with its head hanging almost to the floor as if it had no control of the neck at all as indeed it hasn't. Sometimes the neck will be twisted back over the shoulders of the fowl and the peculiar positions of the neck are due to a more or less complete paralysis of its muscles. When a bird is found suffering from limber neck immediately search the premises until you find the source of the trouble and get it out of the way. Then administer to the fowl a small dose of turpentine and sweet oil. About thirty minutes later give the fowl all the sweet milk you can induce it to take. It will be necessary to support the head of the fowl and administer these remedies, as the fowl can not eat unassisted. The object is to get the poison out of the bird's system or to counteract it and when this is done recovery will be a matter of hours. Limber neck is not contagious but usually several cases develop simultaneously because the fowls all have been to the same source of acquisition. BUMBLE FOOT AND CORNS. A bird suffering from bumble foot will show its affliction by its gait. It will hobble on one foot and when standing will lift the sore foot from the ground. An examination will reveal that the bottom of the foot is sore and swollen. The cause of the trouble is injured or bruised tissues caused most frequently by jumping from high roosts onto hard floors. As the swelling us DISEASES OF POULTRY. occurs imderneath the tough skin ou the bottom of the loot the pus or matter forming cannot tind an outlet and the injury becomes more and more pain- ful until the fowl cannot bear its weight on the injured member. Where the swelling is large it is evident that there has been a considerable formation of pus and the remedy is to open up the foot with a sharp knife and let the pus out. Then wash the wound with lukewarm water and apply dioxogen to the wound until it ceases to foam and then wash again with a solution containing a small portion of carbolic acid. The wound should be tied up to prevent infection and should be inspected from time to time and dressed Math some good healing salve. Again when fowls show symptoms similar to those of bumble foot they will when examined be found to have huge corns on the bottom of the feet. By working around the edges of these with a dull knife they can be lifted out, leaving a hole large enough sometimes for the insertion of the end of the thumb. The flesh will be found very tender under the corn and if bandaged for a few days will save the fowl much pain. These corns like the corns that affect man are likely to return but their removal is not difficult. Bruises of the feet are the causes of corns and like bumble foot are caused by high roosts located over hard floors. SCALY LEG. Scaly leg is a scurfy, scaly condition of the legs caused by the presence of a minute parasite which by accumulating under the scales of the legs raises them from the skin and fills in the interstices with a whitish lime-like appearing growth that sometimes adds an inch or more to the circumference of the leg. While the disease does not seem to be painful to the fowl and is not fatal it is very unsightly and yields readily to treatment. If -the legs are soaked for some time in warm water much of the loose limey growth can be taken from between the scales with a hair pin or tooth pick. When the growth is heavy it should not be removed all at one time as to do so will cause bleeding. After the first soaking and the removal of such particles as come ofi" easily rub the legs freely with a mixture of lard and coal oil. Do not make the amount of coal oil too great and do not get it on the skin of the thighs. Now release the bird for one day and on the DISEASES OF POULTRY. 449 next take liim up again aud you will find that much more of the growth under the scales is ready for removal. Repeat tliis process several times and all of the foreign growth will be removed. It will require a few days after all particles have been removed for the leg to again acquire its natural smooth appearance, as the growth under the scales has caused them to stand out almost at right angles to the legs, but they will soon return to their natural condition. Infection is likely to recur but if watched one application of lard and coal oil will stop it. CROP BOUND. Dry grass, straw, coarse particles of any kind and even sometimes whole corn will so pack the crop of a fowl that the outlet is closed and the con- tents of the crop cannot pass on their way to the digestive tracts. The plain- est evidence of this condition is, of course, the distended crop. A slight dis- charge, thin and watery, will soon develop and the ])ird will appear listless "When the bird is handled an offensive liquid will run from the mouth. Give the bird a dose of castor oil, then with the fingers manipulate the crop, holding tlie head of the fowl downward. Try to work the contents of the crop out through the mouth. Do not try to do this in a hurry, but proceed slowly and work the particles out one at a time. If successful in emptying the crop in this manner give the bird a light feed of soft food and if not too weak he can be returned to his regular quarters. If, however, it is found impossible to remove the contents of the crop by manipulation it will be necessary to open the crop and remove the con- tents. First pluck the feathers from over the crop at the point where the incision is to be made and with a sharp knife cut through the skin, but do not cut at this incision the flesh. Then pull the skin with the incision over an inch or more from its usual position and working through the incision in the skin make through the fleshy wall of the crop an incision about one inch long. Now begin to emptj^ the crop. It it is filled with grain or fine particles you can remove them easily ; if, however, the contents are grass or straw, it will be necessary to use some instrument with which to pull the material out. After having thoroughly emptied the crop wash it out and make sure that you are leaving no obstruction in the outlet. Sew up the wall of the crop first with silk thread. Do not sew the flesh and skin together or 450 DISEASES OF POULTRY. at the same time. Now if you have made the incision right in opening the crop the skin will slip back to its natural place and the incision made in the flesh of the crop and the one made in the skin will not coincide. Feed the bird sparingly for a week or more on soft or liquid food. If it has been crop bound for a considerable time it will be very weak, for it has had virtually nothing to eat all the time it was affected. It will recover strength rapidly however and in a week or ten days should be sufficiently recovered to be returned to the run. ' EGG BOUND. This trouble is confined for the most part to old hens of the heavier breeds. It seems to be caused by an over fat condition of the hen. A hen affected with this trouble will show signs of her distress by her crouching attitude and lowered wings and will seek the nest frequently and will strain to discharge the egg. Often the hen requires no more assistance than the lubrication of the oviduct with sweet or castor oil. If this is unsuccessful hold the bird with the vent over a vessel of boiling water and let the steam strike against the vent. This will induce a relaxation of the muscles that will sometimes per- mit the passage of the egg. If the egg can be touched it can be broken and the contents removed, but this is a last resort as a broken egg in the oviduct is sometimes as serious a matter as a whole one. If the walls of the oviduct are torn the fowl might as well be killed, as death is inevitable. LICE AND MITES. These are the poultryman's worst enemies. They require his constant vigilance lest they absorb his profits and destroy all hopes of a successful undertaking. Lice are not blood suckers. They live on the fowl among the feathers and are armed with claws and keep the fowl in a constant state oi irritation and this constant irritation keeps the fowl in a worried, nervous condition that prevents well-being and interferes with growth or egg production. DISEASES OF POULTRY. 451 Mites are the blood suckers. They are nocturnal in their habits, hiding among the cracks and crevices of the roosts and houses during the day and coming forth at night to find their victims and fix themselves on him for a night's feast. Mites will be found by a careful inspection of the roosts. Normally the mite is gray in color but when filled with the blood of its victim it is red. They will be found frequently in numbers so great as to look like dust among which those that are filled with blood will stand out in tiny red particles. Mites since they infest the houses are more easily dealt with than lice. If every crack and cranny of the poultry house and dropping board is thoroughly sprayed with a liquid lice killer or strong disinfectant solution, every mite can be killed. Some lice will be killed by this process also as the odor of the disinfectant will penetrate the feathers of the hen when on the roost. However, to thoroughly rid the fowls of lice, individual treatment is advisable and this consists of dusting them with a strong louse powder. For this purpose, time and labor can be saved by constructing a cloth covered cylinder eighteen or more inches in diameter and two feet or more in length with an opening with a draw string sufficiently large for putting fowls into and for removing them from the cylinder. Then by- placing half a pound of louse powder in the cylinder and two or three fowls the machine is ready. Rotate the cylinder rather rapidly for ten or fifteen seconds. As it is turned the fowls within lose their footing and are turned over and over with feathers loose and the louse powder pouring over them. This method of administering louse powder is more rapid than any other method, is also more thorough and more economical. The soft canvas walls prevent any injury to the fowls and they never show any evidence of having gotten the powder in their eyes. Do not think that one application of disinfecting spray will long keep the poultry house free from mites or that one administering of louse powder will give the birds long relief from the lice. The work must be done over and over again. No matter how carefully the work may be done always a few vermin are left and these soon multiply and the fight must be kept up. Young chicks are frequently infested with lice which fasten the*nselves on the head. Whenever the chicks appear dumpy or out of condition look first for these lice. Greasing the heads liberally with lard will destroy the pests. 452 DISEASES OF POULTRY. Sometimes the feathers of the fowls will show ragged witli edges cut and the skin bare in places. This is the work of the depluming mite. Treat the injured sections with carbolated vaseline and keep the houses thoroughly disinfected and the fowls well dusted with louse powder and you will be rid of these as well as other lice and mites. BOOKS ON POULTKY AND PIGEONS 453 PUBLICATIONS ON POULTRY AND PIGEONS American Breeds op Fowls: I. The Plymouth Rock. Bulletin 29, Bureau of Animal Husbandry. United States Dejmrtment of Agriculture $0 15 American Standard of Perfection, The. Supplied by Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 Gives detailed descriptious of the various breeds, and sets forth also the points of excellence for the show-room. Broilers for Profit. By M. K. Beyer. /. t>. Johmon tk Co., Boston, Mass 50 Designed for the beginner in artificial hatching. Business Hen, The. By J. Collingwood. Rural Publishing Co., N. Y 75 Capons for Profit. By T. Greiner. Fai'm and Fireside, Springfield, Ohio 30 Chickens, Apoplectiform Septicemia in. Bulletin 86. Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Department of Agriculture 10 Chickens, Gapes of. By H. Carman. Bulletins 70 and 74. Kentucky Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Lexington, Ky Chickens, Standard Varieties of. Farmers' Bulletin 51. United States Department of Agriculture ....... Diseases of Poultry, The. By D. E. Salmon. Orange Judd Co., NY 50 Duck Culture. By James Rankin. James Rankin, South Easton, Mass 25 Mr. Rankin speaks with the authority of a poultryman who hatches and markets 10,000 ducklings annually. Ducks AND Geese. Farmers' Bulletin 64. U nited States Department of Agriculture . Eggs and Their Uses as Food. Farmers' Bulletin 128. United States Department of Agriculture Farm Poultry. By George C. Watson. The Macmillan Co., N. Y 1.25 Fowls : Care and Feeding. Farmers' Bulletin 41. United States Department of Agri- culture Fowls, Roup in. By J. B. Barlow. Report, Rhode Island Agricidtural Experiment Sta- tion, Kingston, R. I. (1898) Investigations Concerning Infectious Diseases Among Poultry. Bulletin 8, Bureau of Animal Industry. United States Dejyartment of Agriculture 15 Pigeon Keeper, Practical. By Lewis Wright. Cassell db Co., 'N. Y 1.50 Pigeon Queries. By E. E. Quick. Orange Judd Co., l!i. Y 25 Poultry, Profits in. Orange Judd C7o., N. Y 1.00 Poultry: The Illustrated Book of. By Lewis Wright. Cassell & Co., N. Y. . 5.00 An English publication, profusely illustrated. Poultry Appliances and Handicraft. Compiled by G. B. Fiske. Orange Judd Co., NY. . 50 454 BOOKS ON POULTRY AND PIGEONS Poultry Architecture. Compiled by G. B. Fiske. Orarajc Judd Co., N. Y. . . . $0.50 Poultry Book, Revised Complete. Farm and Fireside, Springfield, Ohio 50 Poultry Culture. By I. K. Felch. American Agriculturist, N. Y 1.50 Includes matter on show-room judging. Poultry Culture, Practical. Eintomist Publishing Co 5.00 Poultry Keeper, Practical. By L. Wright. Cassell <& Co., "N. Y 2.00 -' • • An English work. Poultry Keeper, Profitable. By Stephen Beal. Orange Judd Co., l^.Y 1.25 An English work. Poultry Raising, Five Hundred Questions and Answers in. Practical Poultryman, Whitney's Point, N. Y 25 Poultry Raising on the Farm. Farmers' Bulletin 141. United States Department of Agriculture Poultry Record Book, Money in. Orange Judd Co., N. Y 25 Turkeys and How to Grow Them. By Herbert Myrick. Orange Judd Co., N. Y. . 1.00 Turkeys, Black-head of. By S. Cushman. Report, Rhode Island Agricultural Experi- ment Station, Kingston, R. I. (1894) 29 /CALENDAR FOR 1902-1952 1 , And for 150 Years Previous to 1902, V-is Hogsheads Tierces BUS. Gals. Quarts Pints Gills 1 = 2 = 3 = 4 = 6 = 8 = 252 = 1,008 = 2,016 = 8,064 1 = u = 2 = 3 = 4 = 126 = 504 = 1,008 = 4,032 1 = u = 2 = 21 = 84 = 336 = 672 = 2,688 1 = U =: 2 = 63 = 252 = 504 = 2,016 1 = li = 42 = 168 = 336 = 1,344 1 = 31i= 126 = 252 = 1,008 - 1 = 4 = 1 = 8 = 32 2 = 8 Apothecaries' Fluid Measure — 1 = 4 Gallon Pints Fluid Ounces Fluid Drams Minims {Drops) 1 = 8 128 = 1,024 = 61,440 1 = 16 = 128 = 7,680 * 1 = 8 = 480 Dry Measure — 1 = 60 U. S. Struck Bushel Pecks Qua7'ts Pints 1 = 4 = 32 = 64 1 = 8 =: 16 1 =: 2 The U. iS. heaped bushel is a cylinder 18i inches in diameter and 8 inches deep, heaped to a cone 6 inches high. It is equal approximately to H struck bushels. MEASURES OF WEIGHT Avoirdupois, or Commercial Weight — Net or Short Ion Hundrediceifjht Pounds 1 = 20 = 1 = 2,000 100 1 Ounces = '32,000 = 1,600 = 16 1 into 20 cwt. Drams = 512,000 = 25,600 = 256 = 16 of 112 lbs.. Grains 7,000 437.5 The original "long ton" of 2,240 lbs., divided into 20 cwt. of 112 lbs., and these into 4 quarters of 28 lbs., is still used. The hundredweight of 100 lbs. is also known as a cental, or- quintal. The metric ton contains 2,204.6 lbs. A stone is 14" lbs. Troy, or Jewelers' Weight — Pound Ounces 1 = 12 = 1 = PennyweigJits = 240 = 20 1 The carat, used in weighing diamonds = 3.168 grains. Grains 5,760 480 24 458 NUMBEES FOE EAPID CONVEESIONS Apothecaries* Weight — Pound Ounces Drams Scruples Qrains 1 = 12 = 96 1=8 = 1 ^ The grain, in the three tables of weight, is identical. 288 ' 24 3 1 = ' 5,760 480 60 20 CIRCULAR MEASURE Circumference Quadrants Signs Degrees Minutes Seconds 1 = 4 = 12 = 360 = 21,600 = 1,296,000 1 = 8 = 90 = 5,400 = 324,000 1 = 30 = 1,800 = 108,000 1 = 60 = 3,600 1 = 60 NUMBERS FOR RAPID CONVERSIONS Inasmuch as multiplication is easier than division, the following table of decimal multipliers will be found useful for rapid conversions. In case no high degree of accuracy is desired, the multiplier may be abridged by omitting one or more figures at the extreme riglit, adding 1 to the last figure of the decimal fraction remaining if tlie omitted figure is 5 or greater than 5. Thus, Pounds Avoirdupois multiplied by 0.00-454 equal Quintals, appioximately. Relations of Comnioii Weights ami Measures Feet. multiplied by 0.0001894 equal miles. Yards . " 0.0005682 " miles. Links " 0.2202 " yards. Yards... " 4.5454 " links. Links " 0.66 " feet. Feet .- ■• 1.515 •' links. Square Inches .- •• 0.00694 " square feet. Square Feet-. " 0.11111 " square yards. Square Yards... " 0.0002066 " acres. Acres •■ 0.4840 " square yards. Cubic Inches " 0.000466 " U. S. struck bushels. Cubic Inches •■ 0.004329 " U. S. gallons. CubicFeet_... " 7.4805 •' U. S. gallons. U. S. Struck Bushels " 2,150.42 " cubic inches. U. S. Gallons " 231.0 " cubic inches. U. S. Gallons •■ 0.13368 " cubic feet. Cubic Inches -. " 0.000364 " U. S. heaped bushels. U. S. Heaped Bushels . •• 2,747.7 " cubic inches Cubic feet of Water (at 62' Fahr.) " 62.355 " pounds avoirdupois. U. S. Gallons Water (at 62" Fahr.) " 8.3356 " pounds avoirdupois. Cubic Feet of Water (at 62" Fahr.) ^' 0.031177 " short tons. Diameter of Circle " 3.14159 " circumference. Circumference... . " 0.31831 " diameter. Pounds Avoirdupois " 0.0089285 " hundredweight (112 lbs.) Pounds Avoirdupois " 0.00044643 " long tons. Pounda Avoirdupois.. " 0.0005 " short tons. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 459 Metric and Gonmion Equivalents Inches multiplied by 25.4001 equal millimeters. Millimeters " 0.08937 inches. Inches... " 2.54001 centimeters. Centimeters " 0.3937 inches. Feet 0.304801 meters. Meters " 3.28083 feet. Yards .;.... " 0.914402 meters. Meters. .~ . . " 1.093611 yards. Miles " 1.60935 kilometers. Kilometers " 0.62137 miles. Square Inches 6.452 square centimeters. Square Centimeters " 0.155 ' square inches. Square Feet " 9.250 square decimeters. Square Decimeters " 0.108108 square feet. Square Yards " 0.836 square meters. Square Meters " 1.196 square yards. Acres .'...-. " 0.4047 hectares. Hectares " 2.471 acres. Square Miles " 259.0 hectares. Hectares 0.003861 square miles. Cubic Inches 16.387 cubic centimeters. Cubic Centimeters " 0.061023 cubic inches. Cubic Feet - " 0.02832 ' cubic meters. Cubic Meters " 85.314 ' cubic feet. Cubic Yards " 0.765 cubic meters. Cubic Meters " 1.308 cubic yards, hectoliters. Bushels " 0.35242 Hectoliters 2.8375 bushels. Fluid Drams " 8.70 milliliters, or cubic centimeters Milliliters . 0.27 fluid drams. Fluid Ounces " 29.57 ' milliliters. Milliliters " 0.033818 ' fluid ounces. Quarts " 0.94686 liters. Liters " 1.0567 quarts. Gallons " 8.78544 liters. Liters " 0.2641 gallons. Grains " 64.7989 milligrams. Milligrams _ " 0.01548 grains. Ounces Avoirdupois ' 28.8495 grams. Grams " 0.08527 ounces avoirdupois. Pounds Avoirdupois " 458.59242 grams. Grams " 0.0022045 ' pounds avoirdupois. Pounds Avoirdupois . " 45859 ' kilograms. Kilograms 2.20462 pounds avoirdupois. Ounces Troy " 81.10848 grams. Grams " 0.08215 ounces troy. Pounds Avoirdupois " 0.0045859 ' quintals. Quintals 220.46 ' pounds avoirdupois. 460 METRIC AND DECIMAL SYSTEMS THE METRIC SYSTEM AT A GLANCE Number op Length. Surface. Units. Name. Equal to Name. Equal to Volume. 10,000 Myriameter Kilometer Hectometer - Dekameter METER Decimeter Centimeter - Millimeter 6.2137 mi. 0.12137 mi. 328 ft. 1 in. 32.8 ft. 39..37 in. 3.9.37 in. 0.3937 in. 0.03937 in. 1,000 100 10 Hectare 2.471 acres Hectoster Dekaster UNIT 1-lOth ARE 119.6 sq. yds. STER=1 cubic meter MOOth Centare 1,550.0 sq. yds. 1-lOOOth Number of Weight. Capacity. Units. Name. Equal to Name. Equal to 1,000,000 Millier or Tonneau Quintal - - - Myriagram _ Kilogram or Kilo Hectogram Dekagram GRAM Decigram Centigram Milligram 2,204.6 lbs. 220.46 22.046 " 2.2046 " 3.5274 oz. 0.3527 " 15.432 grain.s 1.5432 - 0.1543 " 0.0154 " 100,000 10,000 1,000 100 Kiloliter or Stere 264.17 gals. 26.417 " 10 2.6417 " UNIT LITER 1 0567 qts. 0.845 gill 0.338 fl. oz. 1-lOth Deciliter ... 1-lOOth 1-lOOOth Milliliter 0.27 fl. dr. PRINCIPLES OF THE DECIMAL, SYSTEM The decimal system, on which the United States currency is subdivided, is so widely used, especially in scientific work, in this country, that familiarity with its notation is indispensable. Under the decimal system, every fraction is represented with 10, or some multiple of 10 (as, 100, 1,000, 10,000) for its denominator. Integers and fractions are written on the same line, the whole number to the left, and the fractional to the right, of a point called the decimal point. Thus, 87.1 = 87y1o. a decimal nwnber is a number which includes a decimal fraction. In a decimal fraction, the denominator never is written. The denominator is always understood to be 1 with as many ciphers annexed as there are figures (called decimal 2il(ices) in the fraction {i. e., to the right of tlie decimal point). Thus, 0.7 = yV ; for as there is only one decimal place, the denominator is 1 with one cipher, or 10. 0.879 = iV/^. PKINCIPLES OF THE DECIMAL SYSTEM 461 Annexing cijjhers to a whole number multiplies it by 10 ; annexing ciphers to a decimal fraction does not change its value. Moving the decimal point one place to the left divides a decimal number by 10 ; moving the decimal point one place to the right multiplies it by 10. To Add Decimals — Arrange so that one decimal point falls 2l!236 under another, and proceed as in adding integers. 0.008 » to 840.307 To Subtract Decimals — Write as for adding, and proceed ^*>?*2^r as in ordinary subtraction. 797'827 21.236 To Multiply Decimals — Proceed as in ordinary multipli- cation ; then point off as many figures from the right of the product as there are decimal places in both the multiplicand and the mul- .7)018 tiplier. In the example given, the multiplicand has 3 decimal places, 169888 and the multiplier 4. The product, therefore, must have 7, and we ^ ^^^ prefix a cipher to make the required number before setting down the ' " decimal point. To Divide Decimals — Proceed as in ordinary division ; then point off from the right of the quotient as many decimal places as the number of decimal places 21.9)819.003(37.4: in the dividend exceeds the number of decimal places in ^^^ the divisor. Ciphers must be annexed to the dividend, 1533 if necessary, so that its decimal places shall at least equal 870^ in number those of the divisor. If the dividend and ^76 divisor contain the same number of decimal places, the quotient is a whole number. To Reduce a Common Fraction to 72 )6.0000( .0833 etc. o.7o Decimal Form — Annex ciphers to the nume- — 240 rator, and divide by the denominator. In the ex- 216 ample given, -^ is reduced to its equivalent decimal. ^i'a 2l 462 INTEREST TABLE, HANDY RULES TO COMPUTE INTEREST In some banks interest is calculated on a basis of 12 months of 30 days each (360 days to the year) ; in others the 365-day year is used as a basis. The following table provides for either usage : RULE : Multiply principal by number of days, and divide product, for rate of: 1 per cent by 2 per cent- by 3 per cent - by 4 per cent by 5 per cent by 6 per cent --by 7 per cent - --by 8 per cent- - - by 9 per cent by 10 per cent --- by 13 per cent - by 15 per cent. -- by 18 per cent by 20 per cent - - - by 24 per cent by 365 Days to 360 Days to Year. Year. 36,500 36,000 18,250 18,000 12,166.66' 12,000 9,125 9,000 7,800 7,200 6,083.33 6,000 5,214.29 5,142.85 4,562.50 4,500 4,055.55 4,000 3,650 3,600 3,041.67 3,000 2,433.33 2,400 2,027.77 2,000 1,825 1,800 1,520.83 1,500 RULES, TABLES, AND DEFINITIONS LUMBERING, CARPENTRY, ETC. Height of Standing Tree, to compute: Set a stick of known length vertically in the ground. Measure length of its shadow. Multiply length of shadow of tree by length of stick above ground, and divide product by length of stick's shadow. All dimensions in feet. Volume of Standing Tree, in cubic feet: Divide circumference (in feet) at breast height by 3.14, to get diameter. Multiply square of half the diam- eter by 3.14 and the product by half the height of the tree. Round Timber, volume in cubic feet: Multiply length by one-quarter of product of average girth and average diameter, all dimensions feet. If only length is in feet, divide result by 144. If all dimensions are in inches, divide result by 1,728. Square Timber, to compute contents in board measure (linear feet of equivalent board 1 inch thick and 12 inches wide) : Multiply together length and breadth in feet and thickness in inches. RULES, TABLES, AND DEFINITIONS Value and Weight of Various Woods 463 VARIETY. Weight of 1 Cord. Equivalent in Coal (lbs.) Hickory 4.500 3,850 3,250 3,250 3,250 2,350 2.350 2,350 2,000 2,000 White Oak 1,715 Beech - - 1,450 Red Oak 1,450 Black Oak 1,450 Poplar 1,050 1,050 Elm --- 1,050 Pine 925 Fencing — One mile of fence requires, for each board in height, 3,640 linear feet of 1 X 6-inch stuff. Length of Rafters for given pitch of roof, to compute: .559, or .6 .625 .71 nearly. 1.12 I, nearly. 4 S 1^, nearly. If pitch is i, multiply span by If " i, If " f. If " i, If " i If " full, " and in each case add length to which rafters project at eaves. Span is the horizontal distance between studdings on which roof rests at eaves. A roof has ^ pitch when the height of the ridgepole above level of roof-plates is i of the span ; full pitch, when height and span are equal. Siding — One bundle of clapboards, laid 3^ inches to the weather, will cover 36 square feet. Shingles: Required for Roof, to compute: Multiply tfrea of roof in square feet by 9, if shingles are exposed 4 inches ; by 8 if exposed 4^ inches, and by 7| if exposed 5 inches to the weather. For hip-roofs add one-twentieth to result. Paint, to estimate amount necessary for given surface: Divide number of square feet of surface to be covered by 200: quotient is approximate number of gallons required for two coats; to obtain approximate number of pounds of pure ground white lead required for three coats, divide by 18. Nails Required for various purposes: To case and hang door, 1 lb.; to case and hang tvindotv, f lb.; base, per 100 linear feet, 1 lb.; to put up rafters, stud- ding, joists, etc., per 1,000 feet, 3 lbs.; to lay 6-inch pine floor, per 1,000 feet, 15 lbs.; for bundle of lath, f lb. 3-penny nails; shingles, per 1,000, 6 lbs. 4-pennies. 464 CARPENTRY, MA80NW0RK Cut Nails, Lengtli and Number to the Pound o ■^ a Length. Common. o .9 O 6 o a a '3 fab o 1 "fab a CD 1 8 o CO Mi ■ft CO "3 o 4 incli 800 500 376 224 180 i inch ... 2d 3d 4d 1 inch. 800 464 296 224 168 120 88 70 60 48 36 24 17 13 9i 8 .... .... 1100 720 523 410 268 188 146 130 102 76 62 54 1000 800 368 li" inch 14^ inch .... .... 398 224' 5d 1 J inch - 178 126' 98 75 65 55 40 27 130 96 82 68 6d 2 inch . -- 95 74 62 53 46 42 38 33 20 84 64 48 36 30 24 20 16 7d 8d 2J- inch 2i inch - - - .... 128 110 91 71 54 40 33 27 74 60 52 9d lOd 3 inch -- 28 12d Si inch - 16d 20d 3i inch -- 4 inch ?,9, 14* 30d 40d 50d 60d 12* 9* 8 6 inch •- 6i inch . 6 5* - • - - 7 inch 4* 8 inch -- 2* Steel-wire nails run about one-half more to the pound. MASON WORK, LATHING, AND PLASTERING Brick — Common brick measure about 2x4.x8j inches and contain G6 cubic inches, 26 occupying the space of a cubic foot, or 706 a cubic yard. Brickwork is estimated by the thousand. A brickhiyer, supplied with materials by a tender, will average from 1,500 to 2,000 bricks a day. Work is estimated thus : Wall 1 brick ( Sk inches) thick, 14 bricks per square foot of surface. •' li bricks (12f " ) " 21 " " 2 '• (17 '• ) " 28 " " 2i " (2H ' ) " 35 " Paving brick run 36 to the square yard, if laid flat ; 82 if on edge. Lime, Sand, and Cement — To lay 1,000 brick, 1^ barrels of lime and I yard of sand. To lay 100 feet of rubble stone, li barrels lime and 1 yard sand, or li barrels of cement and | yard sand (150 feet is a day's work for one man and tender). RULES, TABLES,- AND DEFINITIONS 465 Chiiniieys — Eor 1 foot in height, 5 courses of brick. For flue 4x 12 inches, 8 bricks in a course. For flue 8x16 inches, 16 in a course. To find inside sec- tional area, in square inches, of smallest point in chimney for stationary engine, multiply pounds of coal consumed per hour by 13, and divide product by square root of height of chimney in feet. Cement — One bushel of cement and 2 bushels of sand will cover 3^ square yards 1 inch thick. With 1 bushel of sand, 1 bushel of cement will cover 2^ square yards 1 inch thick. Lathing and Plastering — Onebundleof (100) lath, dimensions :^x 1^x60 inches, will cover 5 square yards ; 2 barrels of lime, 1^ yards of good sand, and 1^ bushels of hair will lay one coat of plaster on 100 square yards of lathing; 3^ bar- rels of lime are required for two coats. MISCELLANEOUS COMPUTATIONS Capacity of Cylindrical Tank, Silo, etc., to compute: Multiply to- gether the square of the diameter (inches) and the height (inches). Multiply product for U. 8. gallons, by 0.0034; /or U. S. struck bushels, by 0.0003652; for tons of silage (averaging 50 cubic feet to the ton), by 0.00000909. Calculation of Staves Reqviired for Stave Silos — The following table will be found useful in calculating the number of staves required for silos of different diameters, and the feeding areas which these will give: Circvimferences and Areas of Circles Diameter, Feet. Circum- ference, Feet. Area, Square Feet. Diameter, Feet. Circum- ference, Feet. Area, Square Feet. Diameter, Feet. Circum- ference, Feet. Area, Square Feet. 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 25.1 28.3 31.4 34.6 37.7 40.8 44.0 47.1 50.3 50.3 63.6 78.5 95.0 113.1 132.7 153.9 176.7 201.1 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 34 53.4 56.5 59.7 62.8 66.0 69.1 72.3 75.4 227.0 254.5 283.5 314.2 346.4 380.1 415.5 452.4 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 78.5 81.7 84.8 88.0 91.1 94.2 97.4 100.5 490.9 530.9 572.6 615.8 660.5 706.9 754.8 804.2 To find the circumference of a circle, multiply the diameter by 3.14159. To find the area of a circle, multiply the square of the diameter by 0.7854. To find the cubical content of a cylinder, multiply the area of the base by the heigrht. 4:66 MISCELLANEOUS COMPUTATIONS Capacity of Boxes, Square Silos, Cisterns, and Hay Mows, to compute: Multiply together the inside length, breadth, and height, in inches, and multiply, for struck bushels, by 0.0004G6; /or gallons, by 0.004329; for tons of silage (averaging 40 lbs. to the cubic foot), by 0.00001157; /or to7is of hay (roughly, assuming 400 cubic feet to the ton, which is about the minimum), by 0.000001447. Quantity of Hay in Stack, to estimate : Multiply together the length, breadth, and height to eaves jjIus one-half the vertical distance from level of eaves to crest — all in feet. Divide product by number of cubic feet allowed for a ton. Or, if slope from ground to crest is uniform, multiply together the length, breadth, and one-half the vertical height, all in feet, and divide by number of cubic feet to the ton (see above). The space occupied by a ton of hay will vary with the depth of the mow or stack and the kind of hay, whether coarse and hollow-stemmed or fine and compact. Corn in Crib, to estimate amount: If sides of crib are vertical, divide product of length, breadth, and height (in inches) by 2,748. Quotient is contents in heaped bushels. If crib has inclining sides, multiply half the sum of the top and bottom widths by the vertical height, and the product by the length (all in inches). Divide the product by 2,748. For amount of shelled corn ears will yield, take one-half the number of bushels of ears. Grain in Bin, to estimate amount: Find capacity in cubic inches as above, and multiply, for small grain or shelled corn, by 0.000463; for corn in the ear, by 0.000232. The result will be United States bushels. Small grains run about 1;^ cubic feet, and ear corn about 2^ cubic feet to the bushel, the figures varying some- what with the condition and quality of grain, the depth of the bin, and the length of time grain has been allowed to settle. Coal in Bin, to estimate quantity: Multiply together length, breadth, and thickness (in feet) and multij)ly product by .024. Eesult will be tons. Contents of Hopi^er, in U. S. bushels: Multiply together the length, breadth, and one-third the depth (measured vertically to the point), all in inches. Multiply the product by 0.000466. Cost of Mixed Feeds, Fertilizers, etc., to compute : Multiply the quantity of each ingredient (in pounds) by its price per pound ; add the products, and divide their sum by the total quantity (in pounds). Quotient will be average price per pound. KULES, TABLES, AND DEEINITIONS 467 Dimensions of an Acre — A square 13.649 rods, or 69.57 yards, or 208.72 feet, on a side, contains an acre. An acre is contained, also, in a rectangle having any of the following dimensions (in rods) : 1 X 160 4 X 40 7 X 22f 10 X 16 U X 1061 a X 35f 7* X 21i lOi X ISgSj 2 X 80 5 X 32 8 X 20 11 X 14A 2ix 64 5i X 29i«i 8i X 181^ Hi X 13U 3 X 53i 6 X 26| 9 X Hi 12 X 13i Six 45f 6i X 24jB3 9i X 16[| 12i X 12| Therinometer Scales Freezing Point. Boiling Point. Intermediate Divisions. Fahrenheit Centigrade 32° 0° 0° 212° 100° 80° 180° 100° Reaumur 80° To convert Centigrade degrees into Fahrenheit, multiply by | and add 32. To convert Eeaumur degrees into Fahrenheit, multijily by f and add 32. Remem- ber that degrees below zero are minus quantities, and that adding minus quan- tities to positive quantities diminishes the latter by the amount of the former. Weights of Various Substances for Given Volumes MATERIAL. Volume. Weight. Bituminous Coal Bituminous Coal... . Anthracite Coal Charcoal (hardwood) Charcoal ( standard) . Gravel (in bank) Gravel (dry)... Sand _..... Earth (in bank) Earth (dry) Clay Cement (Portland).. Cement (Rosendale). Lime 1 bushel. 1 cubic foot. 1 cubic foot. 1 cubic foot. 1 bushel. 18 cubic feet. 27 cubic feet. 25 cubic feet. 18 cubic feet. 27 cubic feet. 17 cubic feet. 1 barrel. 1 struck bushel. 1 struck bushel. 76 lbs. 50-55 lbs. 55-66 lbs. 18.5 lbs. 20 lbs. 1 1 1 1 1 1 400-430 62- 70 72- 75 ton. ton. ton. ton. ton. ton. lbs. lbs. lbs. 468 LEGAL WEIGHTS PER BUSHEL Legal and Customary Weights, per Bushel, iu various States STATE. "5 a s 1 a < 03 a ft < •c .2 P ft ft PQ CO a 01 P3 i EC i be 0) 3 S 03 CD 02 33 > o o 1 a o a o 1 03 a o O "5 a a ■6 2 O a o c O 1 s ^ CO •V o o 2 1 1 o .1 a u 3 H 1 Alabama 80 80 80 24 24 24 25 24 24 24 22 28 24 -. 25 22 26 26 28 28 47 48 50 48 48 47 48 47 48 48 48 48 48 47 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 46 47 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 48 60 60 60 60 62 60 60 60 60 60 60 62 62 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 62 62 60 60 60 60 60 60 62 60 60 60 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 i4 14 14 14 14 48 52 40 52 48 48 48 52 42 52 50 52 50 56 48 48 48 50 52 52 52 50 48 50 42 50 42 42 48 56 42 50 42 48 52 42 52 48 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 64 60 64 60 60 60 60 62 60 60 60 60 60 64 60 60 70 70 70 68 70 70 * 70 70 70 72 70 70 56 56 52 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 58 54 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 48 48 50 50 48 48 48 48 48 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 48 50 50 50 46 48 50 50 50 50 50 56 56 56 56 54 56 56 56 55 55 5t5 44 56 56 56 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 36 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 26 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 30 32 30 32 32 32 36 30 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 57 57 50 57 57 57 57 48 57 57 57 52 52 54 57 57 57 52 57 57 55 52 50 50 57 52 56 57 52 57 57 38 33 33 33 33 39 40 28 28 33 33 48 50 40 33 28 46 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 50 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 56 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 56 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 CO 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 50 55 55 46 50 55 56 56 54 50 50 50 56 56 56 54 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 50 50 56 50 50 50 50 50 56 56 50 50 • 85 50 70 60 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 44 42 45 42 42 45 45 45 45 40 45 45 55 57 50 55 55 55 55 55 60 60 58 52 42 50 55 60 60 60 60 50 55 60 56 42 60 fiO Calif oruia Colorado . _ _ Connecticut Delaware District of Columbia Florida Georgia 60 60 60 60 60 60 60 Idaho Illinois -_ 60 60 Indiana 60 Iowa .-: 80 80 76 48 24 44 48 48 60 Kansas 60 Kentucky 60 Louisiana Maine 60 Maryland Massachusetts Michigan 60 60 Minnesota 60 Mississippi Missouri 48 50 48 45 50 46 45 57 60 60 Montana _.. Nebraska New Hampshire New Jersey 60 60 60 60 New York i North Carolina North Dakota Ohio 60 60 60 60 Oklahoma Oregon 60 60 Pennsylvania Rhode'Islaud South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee 60 60 60 60 60 Texas Vermont 60 60 Virginia 80 60 Washington 60 West Virginia Wisconsin 60 60 November 1 to May 1, 70 lbs.; remainder of year, 68 lbs. RULE8, TABLES, AND DEFINITIONS 469 Milk, quarts and pounds: To convert quarts of milk into pounds, multiply by 2.15; to convert pounds into quarts, multiply by 0.47. Dried Fruit and Cider — A bushel of average apples will make from 6 to 74- lbs. of di'ied fruit ; 7 to 17 bushels of apples make 1 bbl. of cider. Strength of Ropes, in Pounds Circumference 1 in. liin. 2 in. 2iin. Sin. 4 in. 5 in. Bin. Manila. . 100 200 2,500 225 450 5,625 400 800 10,000 625 1,250 15,625 900 1,800 22,500 1,600 3,200 40,000 2,500 5,000 62,500 3,600 Hemp Steel Wire 7,200 90.000 The breaking weights greatly exceed the foregoing, which are considered safe strains. Strength of Chains Diameter Weight per ft. Strength Diameter Weight per ft. Strength inches. lbs. lbs. inches. lbs. lbs. J. 4 0.875 1,288 n 5.000 9.660 i^e 1.000 1.932 i 5.875 11,592 1 1.700 2,790 i 8.000 14,989 1^ 2.000 3,864 1 10.700 19.712 i 2.500 5,182 li 12.500 25,050 ^ 3.200 6,440 n 16.000 30,800 i 4.125 7.942 If 18.400 37.165 Hydraulic Rams — Used for pumping, where considerable flow of water, but only moderate fall (from 2 to 30 feet) can be obtained. With drive pipe 25 to 50 feet long, set in bed of stream, water can be conveyed half a mile and elevated 200 feet. Inexpensive after first cost, which is moderate. Windmills and Pumicing — One horsepower will raise 59 gals, water 56 ft. per minute. A windmill with 8^-ft. wheel, wind at 16 miles per hour, will raise 3 gals, water per minute to a height of 56 ft.; 10-ft. wheel, 9.5 gals, per minute; 12-ft. wheel, 18 gals. ; 14-ft. wheel, 22.5 gals.; 16^ft. wheel,' 32 gals.; 18-ft. wheel, 52 gals.; 20-ft. wheel, 64 gals.; 25-ft. wheel, 107 gals. Waterpowers — Overshot Wheels. — With fall of 10 feet from water-level in penstock to level in wheel-pit (wheel running) the flow of a body of water 2 inches deep over weir 5 feet wide will produce about 1 H. P. For greater depths the power increases more rapidly than the depth. Wholesome Cooking Without Waste . Adapted from Francois Tanty INDEX The Family Dinner : Its Elements 472 Setting the Table 472 Service of Wines 472 SOUPS Asparagus, cream of (Creme d'asperges) 475 Barley (Potage a I'orge) 474 Bean, white kidney (Potage conde) 475 Beet (Creme de betteraves a la polonaise) 474 Bouillon 475 Carrot (Puree crecy) 475 Cauliflower, cream of (Creme de choux fleiirs)... .47 5 Celery, cream of (Crime de celeri) 475 Consomme 474 Consomme with rice (Consomme au riz) 474 Fowl, cream of (Potage a la reine) 474 Green pea (Potage St. Germain) 475 Julienne 474 Macaroni (Consomme au macaroni) 474 Oxtail (Potage "oxtail") 474 Oyster (Soupe aiix huttres) 474 Potato (Potage parmentier) 475 Pumpkin, cream of (Creme de potirons) 475 Puree or cream 473 Stock 474 Tomato (Potage andaloux) 474 Vegetable .(Potage paysanne) 475 Velvet (Potage velour) 475 RELISHES Cucumber salad (Salade de concombres) 475 Fowl, croquettes of (Croquettes de volaille) 476 Fowl, fillets of (Filets de volaille) 476 Olives (Olives) 475 Oysters (Huitres) 476 Oysters, fried (Huitres frittes) 476 Radishes (Radis).._ 475 Ramkins (Ramequins) 476 Sardines (Sardines) 475 Smoked or dried meat or fish 475 Tomatoes, fried (Tomates frittes) 476 FISH AND SHELL, PISH Sauces for Fish 476, 478 Bass, baked (Bass au four) 476 Black bass, boiled (Black bass au.r fines herbes)..477 Black bass, broiled (Black bass grille).. 477 Brook trout, fried (Petites truites frittes) 477 Clams, escalioped 478 Cod, baked (Cabillaud au four) 476 Crabs, deviled (Crabes farcis) '. 478 Crabs, soft shell, fried (Crabes mous frits) 478 Eels, broiled (.4nguilles grilles) 477 Frog's legs, fried (Grenouilles frittes) 477 Lobster, broiled (Homard grille) 478 Lobster, cold boiled (Homard froid) 478 Oysters, escalioped (Escalope d'liuitres) 477 Oysters, fried (Huitres frittes) 477 Perch, fried (Perches frittes) .-. 477 Pickerel, Jewish style (Brocket a la juive) 477 "Pigs in Blankets" (Huitres au lard) 477 Pike, boiled (Pike au court bouillon) 476 Salmon, boiled (Saumon au court bouillon) 476 Salmon, broiled (Sattmon grille) 476 Salt cod (Morue sale bouilli) 477 Salt mackerel, boiled (Maquercau sale bouilli). ...477 Shad, baked (.-ilose au four) 476 Shadroe, broiled (Oeufs d'alose grilles) 477 Trout, broiled (Truite au court bouillon) 476 Whitefish, broiled (Whitefish grille) r477 EGGS A la tzarine (Oeufs a la tzarinc) 478 Deviled (Oeufs farcis) 479 Escalioped (Escalope d' Oeufs) 479 Hard boiled (Oeufs durs) 478 Omelet, plain, with hashed parsley (Omelette aux fines herbes) 479 Scotch (Oeufs a I'ccessaise) 479 Scrambled, with cheese (Oeufs brouilles au from- age) ^ 479 Scrambled with toast (Oeufs brouilles aux crou- tons) 479 Shirred (Oeufs sur le plat) 479 With cream (Oeufs a la creme) 478 MEATS Releves, Entrees, and Roasts 479 General Notes on Cooking Meats 480 Sauces for Meats 484 Garnishes for Meats 484 Beefsteak, broiled (Entrecote maitre d'hotel) 480 Beef, corned — New England boiled dinner (Petit sale aux chou.r) 483 Beef, creamed, dried (Boeuf sec a la creme) 481 Beef croquettes (Croquettes de boeuf)....- 481 Beef heart, stuffed (Coeur de boeuf farci) 481 Beef loaf 481 Beef, minced (Emince de boeuf a la bourgeoise) ..4Sl Beef "Mock duck" (Entrecote farcie) 481 Beef, pot-roast of (Boeuf a la mode) 481 Beef, roasiJRosbif a I'Anglaise) 480 Beef saute '(Boeuf saute a la strogonoff) 480 Beefsteak, smothered in onions (Entrecote au.r oignons) 481 Beef tenderloin, braised (Filet braise jardiniere). .4S0 Beef tenderloin, roast (Filet roti) , 480 Beef tenderloin steak a I'Americaine (Filet saute a r.4mericaine) 481 Beef tenderloin steak, with mushrooms (Filet saute au.v champignons) 481 Beef tenderloin, with green peas (Fi7al potpie (Ragout de veau) 482 \'eal — Small Parisian patties (Petites pates a la parisienne) 482 POULTRY AND GAME General Remarks 484 Chicken, broiled (Poulet grille).. 485 Chicken fricassee (Fricassee de poulet) 485 Chicken, fried (Poulet frit a I'ltalienne) 485 Chicken pie (Poulet saute) 485 Chicket, roast (Poulet roti) 485 Chicken, spring, saute (Jeune poulet saute fer- inicre) 485 Duck, roast (Canard roti) 485 Goose, roast (Oie roti) 485 Partridge, roast (Perdrix roties) 486 Pigeons, broiled (Pigeons a la Crapaudine) 486 Quail, roast (Caillcs roties) 486 Snipe, roast (Bccassines roties) 486 Turkey giblets (Abatis de Dinde) 485 Turkey, roast (Dinde rotie) 485 \'enison, saddle of, roast (Selle de Cltevreuil rotie) : 486 Woodcock, roast (Becasses rotis) 486 SALADS Sai.ad Dressings 487 Cabbage — Cold slaw (Salade de chou) 487 Chicken salad (Salade de foule) 486 Egg salad (Salade d'Ocufs) 487 Fish salad (Salade de poisson) 486 Lettuce salad (Salade de laitue) 487 Lobster salad (Salade de hontard) 487 Pig's feet salad (Salade de pieds de cochon) 487 Potato salad (Salade de pom-mcs de terre) 487 Veal salad (Salade de veau) 486 VEGETABLES Asparagus with white sauce (Asperges sauce blanche) 488 Beans, baked (Haricots ati four) 488 Beans, Boston baked (Haricots au four a la Boston) ..488 Beans, Lima, with butter (Gros Soissons au Betirre) : 488 Beans, string (Haricots a la Bonne Fentme) 488 Beans, string, English style (Haricots verts a I'Anglaise) 487 Beets, boiled (Betteraves bouillies) 489 Carrots fried in butter (Carottes nouvelles sau- tecs au Beurre) 488 Cauliflower au gratin (Choux fleurs au Gratin)..A%9 Cauliflower with white sauce (Choux fleurs sauce blanche) 489 Celery with gravy (Ceteris au jus) >. 488 Corn, escalloped (Escalope de ma'is) 488 Corn fritters (Croquettes de mats) 488 Corn, sweet, broiled (Mais grille) 488 Corn, sweet, with butter (Mais a I' Americaine).. 4S8 Cucumbers, creamed (Concombres d la ere me). ...4S9 Egg plant, fried (Aubergines frittes) 489 Macaroni a I'ltalienne 490 Macaroni au gratin (Macaroni au gratin) 490 Macaroni with tomato sauce (Macaroni satice tomate) 490 Mushrooms on toast (Croutcs aux champignons) . .4^9 Mushrooms with cream (Champignons a la creme)489 Oatmeal (Farine d'Ai'oine a I'Americaine) 490 Onions, creamed (Oignons a la creme) 489 Parsnip croquettes (Croquettes de panets) 489 Parsnips, fried (Panets frits) 489 Peas, French (Petits pois a la Francaise) .*.... 487 Peas, green, English style (Petits pois a la Ang- laise) 487 Peas, green, with bacon (Petits pois au lard) 487 Potato croquettes {Croquettes de pommes de terre), ..490 Potatoes au gratin (Pommes de terre ati gratin). .490 Potatoes duchesse (Pommes de terre duchcsse) ....490 Potatoes, fried (Pommes de terre frittes) 490 Potatoes, puff'ed (Pommes de terres sou f flees). ...490 Potatoes with cream (Pommes de terre a la creme) 490 Rice a la Georgienne (Ris a la Georgienne) 490 Salsify, boiled (Salsihs bouillis) 490 Spaghetti with tomato sauce (Spaghetti sauce to- mate) 490 Spinach with cream (Epinards a la creme) 488 Spinach with poached egg (Epinards aux oeufs pochcs) 488 Squash, baked (Citrottilles au four) 489 Squash, boiled (Citronillcs bouillies) 489 Succotash (Haricots au mats) 488 Sweet potatoes, boiled (Pommes de terre sticrees en robe de chambrc) 490 Tomatoes, fried (Tomates frittes) 489 Tomatoes, stuff^ed (Tomates farcies) 489 Turnips, boiled (Navets bouillis) 489 \'egetable oysters (Salsifis bouillis) 490 BREADS General Notes on Bread Making 491 Yeast, soft 491 Miscellaneous Breads 491, 493 PASTRY AND PUDDINGS Remarks on Pastry 493 French Puff Paste ; 493 Plain Pie-crust 493 Miscellaneous Pies 493, 494 General Remarks on Puddings 494 Miscellaneous Puddings 494, 496 Sauces for Puddings 496 Ice Creams and Ices 496 CAKES General Remarks on Cake Making 497 Miscellaneous Cakes 497, 499 Small Cakes, Crullers, and Cookies 499 Icings for Cakes ». 499 Wholesome Cooking- Without Waste Adapted from FRAN901S Tanty 1 The best cooking is as easily accomplished as is that of inferior sort. Assuming that the housewife is well grounded in the fundamentals of her art, there is none who may not gather, £j'om the experience of the chefs of a nation that has made gastronomy a fine art, suggestions for making dainty dishes even daintier, and for enlarging the variety of the daily menus. In the following cooking rules, most of which have been selected from among the recipes worked out for American use by the late M. Tanty, there is no departure from the essential principles he 'ays down, but the extreme of simplicity has been sought, lest the reader be needlessly appalled by elaborate and oft-repeated admonition. The recipes for sweet cakes herein given, however, are not M. Tanty's, and such other additions and modifications have been made as have seemed expedient. Tlie question of usiiigr wines and spirits in cooking and as beverages is witli some a matter of choice ; Avitli others, of conscience. The preferences of the one class, and the scruples of the other, are entitled to respect, and although wines and spirits are included in some few of the recipes that follow, they may quite as w^ell be omitted, if the housewife prefers. A Family Dinner is essentially composed of : A Soup A Fish or Meat, with sauce and vegetable — called an "entree" A Roast — meat, poultry, or game A Vegetable of the season, or one dried or canned, called an "entremet" (side dish) A Sweet Dish — ice cream or pastry Cheese and Fruit Provided the dinner becomes more fashionable, one should serve two kinds of soup, a clear one and a puree or cream, from which the guest may choose; and should increase the number of entrees and entremets. Setting the Table —As regards the setting of the table, we will give only practical hints, taking for example a quite fashionable dinner, leaving to the housewife the simplifying of the scheme to serve for family dinners. The table should be spacious enough to avoid the crowding of dishes or covers and the too close seating of guests. Around a centerpiece of flowers may be disposed (if the size of the table will permit) smaller pieces, with fruits, bonbons, etc., and also the "hors d'oeuvres," served in special small dishes. Candlelight being more fashionable than gas, candelabra should be placed in sufficient number. Before each plate place the necessary number of glasses, according to the wines that are to be served. This number will not exceed five, viz. : A glass for water; a glass for white wine, claret, (472) WHOLESOME COOKING: SOUPS 478 and Burgundy; a glass for Madeira, sherry, and sweet dessert wines; a glass (usually green or amber, for Rhine wine (if served); a glass for champagne. Do not fill the water glass before the dinner, but place decanters and crystal bowls filled with pieces of ice within easy reach of the guests. At the right of each cover place the knife, fork, and spoon (the knife having a sharp steel blade). These should be changed with each course. Before the cover place a smaller knife, fork, and spoon (the knife with a silver blade) for the sweet dishes and dessert. The napkin should be of good size, placed on the plate, folded, with a small roll between the folds. Between each two covers should be pepper and salt. Before each cover, and supported by the glass, should be a menu, printed or hand written. For menu use, where desired, the French name of each dish is given hereafter (See Index). On each card one may write the name of the particular guest who is to occupy the place. Service of Wines — In every dinner " a la Fran9aise " wine is served ; the number, kinds, and quality varying, of course, according to the importance of the dinner. The general order in which they are served is as follows : After the soup — a strong, dry wine, such as Madeira or Sherry; with the fish — a white, dry wine, such as the Sauternes, Chablis, Chateau d'Yquem, Rhine wine, etc. ; after the fish and until the roast — Claret; with the roast — Burgundy; with sweet dishes — champagne or dessert wines, such as Tokay, Malaga, or Constance. A word as to the manner of serving wine is necessary. White wine ought to be chilled and is placed in cold water for one hour before serving. It is the same with ordinary claret. Fine wines, as clai'et of good quality. Burgundy, Madeira, sherry, and port wine, ought to be taken from the cellar at least one hour before serving, so as to take the temperature of the air. Do not disturb the dust which with age has accumulated on the bottle. Draw the cork with great care, so as not to mix the dregs with the wine, and pour into the glasses without shaking the bottle. In the case of champagne, break the wires that hold the cork, but preserve the threads ; place in a tub or pail, and pack around the bottles cracked ice mixed with salt (5 pounds ice to 2 pounds salt). Stop freezing as soon as the champagne begins to be a little cloudy. As a last admonition, remember the old adage : "'The dinner never should await the guests, but the guests the dinner ; because, however well cooked, a dish can not be warmed over." SOUPS By modifying some of the recipes that follow — for instance, by replacing one kind of vege- table in a puree with another, by using game instead of fowl, or by varying the garnishing — the housewife will have an infinite number of soups at her disposal. She should always be careful, however, to follow closely the general rules, and especially in those essential points emphasized by heavy type. PUREE OR CREAM: GENERAL NOTE "liaison"' (binding), to unite all the parts. This is The puree, or creaui, is quite a thick soup, very made with yolks, cream, and butter, sometimes flour palatable and substantial. It is made out of fowl, or starch. One must never forget that this game, vegetables, or fish. In every case one must first liaison should be added only when ready to cook the particular materials until tender, and then serve ; that the saucepan must be placed on strain them, to obtain a reasonably clear liquor, to a corner of the range ; that one should add which must be added what the French cooks call a some of the hot liquor to the liaison before 474 SOUPS pouring the latter into the saucepan ; and that never, under any circumstances, should a soup be permitted to boil after pouring in a liaison. BOUILtON, STOCK SOUP Stock being the foundation of many soups, and serving also for the basis of many sauces and dishes, it would prove advantageous for a housewife always to have some stock on hand. Stock may be kept fresh for several days in an earthen jar in an icebox, the only precaution necessary being to let it boil awhile, in case of a very hot or stormy day, to prevent souring. For 1 gallon, wash thoroughly 5 pounds cheap beef and bones and 2 pounds hock veal. Put in kettle and cover with cold water. Boil slowly, skimming until clear, and adding from time to time a tablespoonful of cold water, to hasten separation of scum. When clear, add 2 carrots, i^ turnip, 1 onion, and some celery, and boil for 2 hours. Remove the veal, add 1 old fowl (cut in pieces), and boil slowly 3 hours more. Skim off float- ing grease and strain soup. Bouillon should be only lightly salted. Half of the onion should have been browned on the stove, to give color and taste. CONSOMME Consomme is the name given to a stock stronger and more palatable than the common one. It forms the foundation of the soups for the more fashionable dinners, or is served in cups at ball suppers or lunch- eons. Cut in pieces 1 old fowl and 2 pounds veal hock ; let them brown lightly in butter; then put them in a kettle with 3 to 4 quarts of stock. Cook slowly for 2 hours, skimming from time to time. Remove floating grease and pass through strainer, or, better, a cloth. JULIENNE Slice 1 carrot, J^ turnip, Yio cabbage, and J^ leek (or onion) into thin strips; put them in saucepan with a little butter and a teaspoonful of sugar, and let cook awhile. Pour over them 2 quarts stock or consomme and cook for IJ^ hours. CONSOMME WITH RICE Wash 1 tablespoonful rice and boil in water until soft; let drip, and cool with cold w^ater; then let drip again. Warm 2 quarts stock or consomme, and when ready to serve put rice in soup, which must not be allowed to boil again. MACARONI Break 2 ounces macaroni in J^-inch pieces, cook in boiling water, and proceed as for consomme with rice. OXTAIt SOUP Cut 1 oxtail in 1-inch pieces; boil in water until tender; let drip, and remove grease and small bones. Put in a saucepan with 2 or 3 quarts bouillon. 14 glass Madeira, 1 onion, 1 carrot, and some thyme and laurel; let the whole cook for 3 hours. Pour the bouillon through a strainer into another saucepan; take off floating grease; add ]/^ glass Madeira and a little red pepper; • cook awhile, and when ready to serve, add while stir- ring, 1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed with 1 glas.s cold bouillon. Serve in tureen in which the pieces of tail have been placed. BARLEY SOUP Wash3tablespoonfuls barley, and let .stand 54 hour in cold water ; let drip, drop into boiling water, and cook until soft. Let drip, cool with cold water, and drip again. Put the barley in a saucepan with 2 quarts stock and cook for 1 hour. When ready to serve, beat together 1 yolk, 1 glassful cream, 1 tablespoonful but- ter ; add little by little, while stirring, some of the soup ; then pour the mixture in, all the time stirring, but do not let the soup boil again. TOMATO SOUP Put in a saucepan 1 quart can (or 3 pounds fresh) tomatoes (first scalded, if fresh), with 1 carrot and 1 onion minced, and some thyme and laurel; cook 1 hour. Pass the whole through a strainer, add 1 quart stock or water, salt, and white and cayenne pepper. Pour in 1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed in a little cold water and add 1 tablespoonful butter. When ready to serve add 1 '/4 tablespoonf uls cooked rice. BEET SOUP Clean and mince 2 red beets, 1 onion, Ya cabbage ; put the whole in a saucepan with some butter, cook awhile, then add '/2 tablespoonful flour and 2 to 3 quarts stock ; cook 1 hour. Grate 1 red beet, press through a cloth, and when ready to serve pour the juice into the soup and add a glass of milk. CREAM OF FOWL Take 1 hen or chicken and cook for 2 hours in 2 quarts of water with Yi veal or beef knuckle, 1 onion, 1 carrot, and 1 stalk of celery. When the chicken is very tender, let it drip and strain the stock through a cloth. Remove chicken meat from bones, set the fillets (ten- derloins) aside, and pound the remainder of the flesh in a chopping bowl. To the pounded flesh add the stock little by little, while beating, and pass the resulting pulp through a strainer, to obtain a rich liquor. Melt in a saucepan 2 tablespoonf uls butter with I54 tablespoon- WHOLESOME COOKING: COLD RELISHES 475 f uls flour, into which pour the liquor ; let it become hot, but not boiUng. When ready to serve, add the chicken fillets, cut into small dices. CREAM OF CELERY Wash 5 stalks of celery, and let them boil in water 5 minutes ; let drip, cool with cold water and let drip again. Chop the celery stalk», put them in saucepan with 2 tablespoonf uls butter and 3 tablespoonf uls flour, cook awhile, and add 2 to 3 quarts stock ; cook all to- getner fori hour; pass through strainer and heat liquor in saucepan. When ready to serve add a liaison made of 3 yolks, 1 glass cream, and 2 tablespoonfuls butter, taking care not to let it boil again. CREAM OF ASPARAGUS Proceed as for Cream of Celery, but use 3 bunches asparagus instead of celery. CREAM OF CAUI.IFl.OWER As for Cream of Celery, but use the white part of 1 cauliflower. CARROT SOUP Cut 6 carrots in small dices and cook in saucepan with some butter and a chopped onion. Add, while stir- ring, 1 tablespoonful flour and 2 to 3 quarts stock or water, and cook slowly for 1 hour. Pass through a strainer, and when ready to serve add 1 tablespoonful butter and 1 !4 tablespoonfuls cooked rice. GREEN PEA SOUP As for White Kidney Bean Soup, but take fresh or dried peas instead of beans. Serve with fried dices of bread sprmkled over it. WHITE KIDNEY BEAN SOUP Cook 1 pint white kidney beans in salted water with 1 sliced onion. When well cooked, strain. Heat in saucepan with 2 or 3 quarts stock or water, and when ready to serve add 2 tablespoonfuls butter. Serve hot with small pieces of dry toast. VEGETABLE SOUP Mince % cabbage, 1 carrot, 1 potato, J^ turnip, % onion and some celery ; wash and let drip. Put the minced vegetables in saucepan with 2 to 3 quarts water and a little salt ; boil for 1% hours. When ready to serve add 1 glass milk, 1 tablespoonful butter, and some pieces of toast. VELVET SOUP Boil 2 to 3 quarts of milk or stock, and add 1 table- spoonful cornstarch mixed with a glass of cold water, milk, or stock. Boil for 5 minutes; then add 2 whole eggs, beaten with 1 glass milk, and 2 tablespoonfuls butter. POTATO SOUP Fry 1^ minced onion until light brown, add 2 ito 4 minced potatoes, and fry a little more. Add 2 quarts bouillon or water and boil for 20 minutes; strain, and put the puree back in the saucepan. When ready to serve, add 1 glass cream, mixed with 1 tablespoonful butter, not allowing the soup to boil again. CREAM OF PUMPKINS Cut in dices 1 inch square 3 to 4 pounds pumpkin; boil in water till tender; strain, and put the liquor in a saucepan with 4 tablespoonfuls butter, 1 teaspoonful sugar, and a little salt; heat, then add 2 quarts boiling water. Stir well, and serve with some fried toast. OYSTER SOUP Pour into kettle 1 quart boiling water; then 1 quart good rich milk; stir in 1 teacupful rolled cracker crumbs, seasoned with pepper and salt to taste. When all comes to aboil, add 1 quart good fresh oysters; stir well, so as to keep from scorching; lastly add butter the size of an egg; let it boil up once, remove from fire immediately, and serve. . RELISHES — COLD The relishes {hors d'ceuvres) are to be served more often at luucheons than at dinners, although a fashionable dinner must not lack some of them — or at least some of the cold ones Usually the cold relishes are placed on the table in advance. They should always be served in special and appropriate dishes of china or glass. (See also Salads, page 469.) SARDINES These should be taken from the box just before serving and laid gently on relish dish, with some of their own oil poured over them. RADISHES Radishes should be young and fresh. Trim off the end of the root and leave only enough of the leaves to permit of taking them easily with the fingers. OLIVES Olives should be very green, and served on relish dish. SMOKED OR DRIED MEAT OR FISH Should be sliced very thin, and the slices disposed in a circle, with some parsley in the middle. 476 WARM EELISHES, FISH CUCUMBER ,SAL,AD Pare and slice the cucumbers, sprinkling a little salt over them. After 10 minutes let drip, and mix with olive oil, pepper, and vinegar. OYSTERS Oysters should be opened just before serving and placed on the hollow shell, not on the flat one. Serve with lemons, cut in halves or quarters, not with vinegar. RELISHES — WARM The warm relishes belong rather to the restaurant than to the family dinner, but some are quite simple of preparation and are desirable for a fashionable dinner. They should be served when the guests are finishing their soup, and should be cooked just before serving; from which it follows that they are served with difficulty to more than eight or ten guests and are to be recommended for luncheon and tea parties rather than for regular dinners. CROQUETTES OF FOWL The flesh of fowls used to make soup stock may be utilized for croquettes. Remove the flesh of one fowl and chop fine, chopping also a few mushrooms and truffles (if obtainable) and a little parsley, and mix all together. Melt in saucepan 2 tablespoonfuls butter, mixed with 2 tablespoonfuls flour; add, little by little, while stirring, 2 glassfuls of stock. Boil, stirring con- stantly, until stock thickens a little ; then add the chopped fowl, stir and add two yolks, stirring until well mixed. Pour into a dish a layer 1 inch thick, and let cool, taking care to cover with buttered paper, to prevent drying and darkening of .surface. When cold, cut in squares 1x2 inches, roll in flour, and dip in beaten egg; roll again in bread or cracker crumbs ; fry in butter. FILLETS OF FOWL Remove the fillets and legs of 2 young chickens; cut the fillets in 3 and the legs in 3 pieces; dip them in milk, roll in flour or fine bread crumbs, and fry in butter. (The bodies of the chickens may be used in making stock, page 457.) FRIED OYSTERS Remove oysters from shell, dip in beaten egg, roll in bread or ci-acker crumbs, and fry in butter to a golden brown. RAMKINS Put in saucepan 1 glass water and .3 tablespoonfuls butter, let boil and while stirring add, little by little, 3 tablespoonfuls flour. When thick enough, let cool a little on corner of range, and add, one by one, 4 eggs, beating mixture all the while. Add 6 ounces grated cheese, stir well and drop on a pie plate in the form of small cakes about I inch apart. Sprinkle over the little cakes 3 ounces cheese, cut into small dices; bake in hot oven until a light brown. FRIED TOMATOES Select smooth, large, green tomatoes, wash, but do not peel, and slice % inch thick. Roll in cracker dust or flour and fry in butter, salting and peppering well. Must be well browned on both sides and served hot. FISH (For Fish Sauces, see Page 461) Do not forget that the first requisite in a fish is absolute freshness, and that the tests of fresh- ness are bright scales and gills, full and prominent eyes, and firm, unyielding flesh. BOILED SALMON, TROUT, PIKE, ETC. Clean and wash fish, removing gills and fins, but leaving on tail and head ; place in fish kettle (having grate at bottom to remove without breaking) with 3 carrots and 1 onion, sliced, some thyme and laurel, 6 grains whole pepper, and enough water to cover. Bring to a boil and immediately place kettle on corner of range ; let simmer for 1 hour, without letting boil. Serve in long dish, on folded napkin, with whole boiled potatoes as garnish, or separate. Serve any desired fish sauce separately. STUFFED AND BAKED BASS, SHAD, FRESH COD, ETC. Mix bread, softened in boiling water, with 1 or 2 tablespoonfuls of butter, salt, pepper and 3 raw eggs. Stuff and sew up fish, and place in dripping pan with water and a little butter. Bake 45 minutes. BROILED SALMON Sprinkle the steaks with salt, pepper, and a little olive oil; turn them two or three times, and broil over a moderate fire, taking care to turn from time to WHOLESOME COOKING : FISH, SHELL FISH 477 time. Sprinkle with the juice of Ve lemon, garnish with sixths of lemon, serving a maitre d'hotel or other fish sauce separately. FRIED BROOK TROUT Clean and wash the fish, dip in milk, roll in flour, and fry in butter slowly for about 15 minutes, turning often to prevent burning of butter or fish. Serve on a warm dish, sprinkle with hashed parsley, squeeze a lemon over the flsh and pour over them the butter in which they have been fried. PICKEREL, JEWISH STYLE Clean and wash a 5 or 6-pound fish and place in a kettle of ample size, with 3 or 4 sliced onions, 1 handful parsley, J4 pound butter, 1 pint white wine, 1 glassful stock, and some salt and pepper. Cover and cook slowly, while basting, for about 30 minutes. Take the flsh with care from the kettle and place on a warm dish ; then add, while stirring, about ]4 pound butter to the liquor, and pour it over the flsh. FRIED PERCH Clean and wash the flsh, dip whole in milk, and roll in flour. Bring fat or lard in skillet to such a heat that a little piece of bread dropped into it will brown instantly ; yet fat must not burn. In this fiy perch until well col- ored, and serve garnished with parsley and lemon. BOILED BLACK BASS WITH CHOPPED PARSLEY Clean and wash a 5 or 6-pound flsh; place on lower grate of flsh kettle, plunge in boiling salted water and keep boiling for 10 or 15 minutes, according to size; drip and place on warm dish; sprinkle with juice of a lemon and 2 tablespoonfuls melted butter, mixed with 1 tablespoonful chopped parsley. Serve with boiled potatoes as garnish, or separate. BROILED BLACK BASS OR WHITEFISH Clean and wash the fish, divide lengthwise into two parts, place on dish and sprinkle with salt and pepper; also with 2 tablespoonfuls olive oil, to pre- vent sticking to broiler. Broil on moderate fire, turning from time to time. Sprinkle with a little lemon juice and serve with tartar sauce and sixths of lemon, or with maitre d'hotel sauce. BROILED EELS Clean and wash 3 or 4 pounds eels, remove skin, and cut in 3-inch lengths; put in saucepan with 2 quarts cold water, 1 glassful vinegar, 1 onion and 1 carrot sHced, some thyme, laurel, salt, and pepper. Bring to a boil; then let simmer for 15 minutes on corner of range. Let the pieces drip on cloth, dip in melted butter, roll in bread crumbs, and broil on light fire, turning from time to time. Serve with tartar sauce. BROILED SHAD ROE Handle carefully, so as not to break membrane containing roe; broil as for black bass, and serve with a maitre d'hotel sauce. FRIED FROGS' LEGS Skin the frogs, saving only the hind legs and quar- ters; let stand for 1 hour in cold water to whiten the flesh. Dip in milk, roll in flour, and fry in butter until well colored. Serve with quarters of lemon. SALT COD Freshen cod for 24 hours, changing water 4 or 5 times; 1 hour before time to serve, place in a kettle with cold water; as soon as it boils remove to back of range and let simmer for 45 minutes. Serve on a warm dish, with caper sauce or generous lumps of butter (melted by heat of flsh) , and always with boiled potatoes. BOILED SALT MACKEREL Freshen over night, let drip, place in boiling water, and let cook 15 or 20 minutes, according to size; let drip, place in baking pan with pepper and lumps of butter, and bake in hot oven 10 or 15 minutes. Garnish with parsley. SHELL FISH FRIED OYSTERS (Entree) Drip oysters and dry on a cloth ; dip in beaten egg and roll in cracker dust; fry until a golden brown in butter or equal parts of butter and lard. Serve with garnish of peppergrass or cress, with a quarter of lemon for each guest. ESCALLOPED OYSTERS {Entree) Drip oysters and spread on a layer of bread crumbs in bottom of baking pan, pepper and salt, adding lumps of butter; spread another layer of crumbs and another of oysters, seasoning as before, and so continue, sprin- kling bread crumbs over the top. Cover with oyster liquor or milk (cream is better), and bake not more than 30 minutes. A glass of sherry, just before serving, improves the flavor for some palates. Serve hot in baking dish. "PIGS IN BLANKETS" (Entree) Choose large oysters, roll each in a very thin slice of bacon and pin with tiny wooden skewers ; fry brown 478 SAUCES FOU FI81I, EGGS on both sides in fat of bacon, and serve on small tri- angles of toast, with garnish of parsley. ESCAI.L,OPED CLAMS (Entree) Same as for Escalloped Oysters, only that clams should be chopped, and a suspicion of mace or nutmeg should be added to other seasoning. DEVILED CRABS (Entree) Remove meat from as many boiled crabs as there are guests, carefully preserving shells intact; mix meat with bread crumbs (1 cup to 6 crabs), mustard (1 tea- spoonful to 6) , butter (1 rounding tablespoonf ul to 6), and strong vinegar (2 teaspoonfuls to 6); salt and pepper to taste; mix well, fill shells with the forcemeat, and bake 10 minutes. Serve with garnish of lettuce. FRIED SOFT SHELL CRABS Crabs should be cooked immediately, and by no means should be kept over night after being taken from the water. Pull oft spongy substance from sides and remove mouth and eyes; wash thoroughly and fry until brown in hot butter and lard (half and half). If preferred, dip in beaten eggs and roll in bread or cracker crumbs. BROILED LOBSTER Cut lobster in two lengthwise; place halves on a dish; pour over it 2 tablespoonf uls olive oil, salted and peppered; broil on moderate fire for about 30 minutes, turning from time to time; serve with green parsley garnish, and sauce (tartar or mayonnaise) separate. COLD BOILED LOBSTER Choose heavy live lobster, wash and brush thor- oughly, tie claws and tail with twine, and plunge into kettle of boiling salted water. Let boil awhile; then let simmer for 30 minutes on corner of range. Drip and cool. Serve with tartar or mayonnaise sauce. SAUCES FOR FISH Hollandaise Sauce — Place in saucepan on back of range J4 pound butter, into which 2 tablespoonfuls flour have been mixed with wooden spoon ; add juice of 1 lemon, a little salt and pepper (and a little nutmeg, if liked), and 1 glass water ; stir until liquor becomes uniform, and while stirring add 3 yolks, and then, in small pieces, about 14 pound butter. At no time permit sauce to boil. Serve apart. Caper Sauce — As for Hollandaise Sauce, with the addition of 2 tablespoonfuls pickled capers when ready \ to serve. Butter and Parsley Sawce (Maitre d' Hotel) — . Mix chopped parsley thoroughly with cold, unmelted butter. Lay this in lumps over fish or meat, to he melted l)y the heat of same. Mayonnaise Sauce — Beat 2 yolks with some salt and pepper ; then add, drop by drop, while stirring, about % pint olive oil ; still stirring, add, little by little, 1 tablespoonful white or cider vinegar. If this sauce is made as it should be, in a cold dish (preferably set in cracked ice) and a cold room, the vinegar will form a ci'eamy emulsion with the oil ; yet its compounding will require practice. Tartar Sauce — As for Mayonnaise Sauce, but when ready to serve add 2 tablespoonfuls chopped green onion and gherkins. Mustard Sauce — Melt in saucepan 2 tablespoon- fuls butter mixed with 1 tablespoonful flour, and while stirring add 1 glass warm water, 2 tablespoonfuls mus- tard, and some salt and pepper. Boil until quite thick and serve apart. Tomato Sauce — Chop 1 onion and let brown in 1 tablespoonful butter; add 3 tablespoonfuls tomato catsup and 2 tablespoonfuls butter and hashed parsley ; stir well and pour over the fish. Vinegar Sauce — Chop J4 handful parsley and the same amount of onion, cut 12 gherkins in small dices, and put all in a bowl with 1 small glass each of olive oil and vinegar ; salt and pepper to taste and mix thoroughly. Horse-radish Sauce — Grate 2 or 3 roots horse- radish ; put in a bowl with a little salt and white pep- per, and pour over it 1 glassful vinegar. EGGS HARD-BOILED EGGS Cook the eggs for 10 minutes in boiling water, then dip in cold water. EGGS WITH CREAM Slice or cut in quarters 10 hard-boiled eggs and place in saucepan. In another saucepan brown lightly in a little butter 1 chopped onion ; sprinkle over it 2 table- spoonfuls flour, add 1 pint milk, and cook, while stirring. for about 5 minutes. Pour this cream over the eggs, warm the whole without allowing to boil, and when ready to serve, place in deep di.sh and sprinkle with hashed parsley EGGS A LA TZARINE Cut pieces of bread from which the crust has been removed into cylinders 3 inches in diameter and 3 inches in height. Make in the middle of each a hole 1 Vi inches in WHOLESOME COOKING : EGGS, MEATS 479 diameter and 3 inches deep. Brown cylinders in butter ; when crisp, break an egg in every hole, sprinkle with salt and pepper, place 1 teaspoonf ul butter on each egg, and bake for 5 minutes in a buttered dish. SHIRRED EGGS Butter as many small dishes as there are guests; break eggs, one at a time, in a saucer; slip them into the small dishes, sprinkle with salt and pepper, cook 5 min- utes in a hot oven, and serve on the same dishes. SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH TOAST Break 10 eggs, one at a time, and slip them into a saucepan; beat up with J4 pound butter, and salt and pepper to taste; then cook over a light fire, stirring constantly, for 5 minutes. When batter becomes quite thick, serve in shallow dish, with fried toast on and around the eggs. SCRAMBLED EGGS WITH CHEESE As for Scrambled Eggs with Toast, but add %i pound grated cheese while mixing the eggs with butter. SCRAMBLED ASPARAGUS EGGS WITH TOPS Cut the tender tops of asparagus in V2-inch pieces, cook in salted water for 10 minutes, and let drip. Pre- pare the eggs as to serve with toast; when quite cooked add the asparagus and mix well with a wooden spoon. Serve in a shallow dish with toast. OMELETS In making an omelet, care should be taken that the pan Is clean, smooth, and hot, as otherwise the omelet will stick. If one has had no experience in making this dish, it would be well to experiment on small omelets. PLAIN OMELET WITH HASHED PARSLEY Break 10 eggs, one at a time, slipping into a salad dish as soon as each is ascertained to be fresh; beat well, together with salt, pepper, and ]4 handful of hashed parsley, also 1 glass milk, if wished. Melt 14 pound butter in frying pan on hot flre, and when butter is hot, pour in eggs and stir with fork until mixture becomes quite thick. Tip the pan, holding it by the handle and shaking, so as to bring the omelet near one of the edges and begin to fold it. If necessary, use a knife or pancake turner to finish folding it double, but properly, tlie omelet should not be touched, but should be folded in the act of turning the frying pan over the warm dish in which it is to be served. A good omelet should be long, thick in the middle, and soft inside. DEVILED EGGS Boil eggs hard and cut lengthwise, remove the yolks and mash them with salt, pepper, celery salt, a little butter, and a little mixed mustard, adding enough vinegar to make the mixture stick together. Return this paste to the cavities in the whites and serve cold, with garnish of parsley. ESCALLOPED EGGS Chop fine some ham and bread, adding salt and pepper to taste; add 1 tablespoonful melted butter and reduce to the consistency of soft paste by addition of milk; half fill individual baking dishes with forcemeat and carefully slip an egg from the dish into which it was broken on the top of each ; sprinkle with cracker dust, add salt and pepper for egg, bake 10 minutes, and serve hot with Maitre d'Hotel sauce (page 461). SCOTCH EGGS Boil the eggs as lightly as will permit of removing shells without breaking whites ; remove shells and cover eggs (which will flatten out somewhat as they lie on their sides) with forcemeat made of minced ham or bacon, bread crumbs, and parsley, bound together with the yolk of an egg. Fry to a golden brown and serve hot, garnished with parsley or cress. MEATS (For Meat Sauces, see Page 467) The meats are ordinarily classified as Releves, Entrees, and Roasts. Releves, which usually appear only at a great dinner (after the fish), are highly seasoned meat dishes, intended to sharpen the appetite. They consist of rather large pieces of meat, roasted or baked, brought to the table or sideboard entire, garnished and accompanied by a sauce, and carved immediately before the individual portions are served. In all particulars except sea- soning the releve is similar to a roast. Entrees are meats reduced to serving size before being cooked ; they may be broiled, roasted, boiled, or stewed, but always are served with a sauce (or gravy) and some vegetable as a 480 NOTES ON MEATS, BEEF garnish. They are essentially family dishes, but are also served at most dinners, however fashion- able, being presented after the releve (if there is one). Roasts are whole roasted pieces of meat, served with a salad after the entree and its accom- panying side dishes (vegetables), and before the sweet dishes. The meats should be carved in the kitchen, but the parts put together in a way to represent the whole piece ; they should be distributed by the host or hostess, or, better, the dish should be presented at the left of every guest, so that each may serve himself, with the right hand, according to his taste. GENERAL NOTES ON MEATS The quick application of a high degree of heat sears over the cut surfaces of the meat-pores and prevents the loss of the juices. Therefore : Meats roasted, should be popped into a hot oven. Meats broiled should be held at first as close as is safe to a hot bed of coals. Meats boiled should be plunged into boiling' water. Contrariwise, to extract the juices, as for soups, meat must be placed in cold water and grad- ually brought to a boil. Meats should boil gently, if they are to be tender and of even flavor. The addition of a couple of tablespoonfuls of vinegar in the pot will go far to make tender a tough piece of meat boiled. A large ham requires at least four hours' boiling ; a small one, two hours. Meats fried or broiled (or even roasted) are better for searing over before salting. Sticking a fork in meat already seared over permits the escape of the juices. Meats should be fried always in butter; never in lard. All fillets (tenderloins) should be cut across the grain, set on end (cut fibers setting on the block), and smashed with the flat of the cleaver. Otherwise they will be leathery. ROAST BEEF {Releve or Roast) Place the meat (loin or foreribs of beef) in roasting pan; sprinkle with salt; add a cup of water and roast in hot oven, allowing 15 minutes to the pound. Baste frequently. When well cooked, roast will be firm when pressed with the finger. After removing roast from pan, add 1 cup stock or water; boil, while stirring, for a minute or two; skim off floating grease and pass the gravy through a strainer. This gravy is considered best to serve with roast beef, but if thickened gravy is desired, see page 467. Roast beef, when served as a releve, should be accompanied by a vegetable as a garnish, preferably potatoes fried in butter, stuffed tomatoes, or others similarly cooked. If served as a roast, it should be accompanied by a salad. BOAST TENDERLOIN (Roast) As for Roast Beef, but roast not quite so long in proportion to weight. BRAISED TENDERLOIN. JARDINIERE (Releve) Lard the tenderloin with bacon strips J4 inch thick ; place in roasting pan and sprinkle with salt; add, in pan, 2 onions and 1 carrot, sliced, 3 cupfuls stock, and 1 cupful Madeira; baste frequently, allowing 15 minutes to the pound. Make gravy same as for roast beef; serve with Jardiniere Garnish (page 467). BROILED STEAK (Entree) Have steaks cut 1 inch thick, and divide into indi- vidual portions before cooking. Broil on bright fire 5 minutes; then turn and broil other side about 5 min- utes; put them on warm dish, and place on each 1 tea- spoonful butter mixed with chopped parsley. BEEF SAUTE (Entree) Slice tenderloin or other steak in pieces the size of a half-dollar, but twice as thick ; brown 1 chopped onion in butter ; add sliced meat and fry for about 5 minutes ; sprinkle with a little flour and add a cupful of cream WHOLESOME COOKING : MEATS 481 and a tablespoonful of Worcestershire sauce to the pound of meat. Add some chopped parsley, cook awhile, and serve in a warm shallow dish. TENDERLOIN WITH GREEN PEAS (Entree) Slice tenderloin about 1 inch thick, brown in butter in shallow stewpan 5 to 10 minutes ; place on dish and keep in warm place. Add in the pan 1 scant tablespoon- ful flour and i4 glassful stock or water; boil awhile and pour this sauce over the tenderloin ; serve with French peas (page 410) in separate dish. TENDERLOIN STEAK WITH MUSHROOMS (Entree) Same as for Tenderloin with Green Peas, but add in the pan ^-pound can of mushrooms, sliced in their own juice, and 1 tablespoonful tlour. Brown awhile and pour over tenderloin. TENDERLOIN STEAK A L'AMERICAINE (Entree) Same as for Tenderloin with Green Peas, but pour into the same pan 4 tablespoonfuls tomato catsup, 2 tablespoonfuls Worcestershire sauce, and 1 cupful stock ; boil for 5 minutes and pour over tenderloin steak. MINCED BEEF (Entree) Slice 2 pounds boiled beef quite fine ; place in shal- low dish ; fiy 1 chopped onion in butter 5 minutes, sprinkle over it some chopped parsley and 1 tablespoon- ful tlour ; stir, and add 1 glassful white wine and 1 glassful stock. Boil awhile and pour over the beef. Sprinkle with bread crumbs and bake 15 minutes. BEEFSTEAK SMOTHERED IN ONIONS (Entree) Put a generous piece of butter in a hot frying pan ; then a thick layer of sliced onions; when these are slightly browned, add the steak, and cover with more sliced onions; turn often until done, seasoning to taste. POT ROAST OF BEEF (Family Roast) Fry a generous piece of suet in a kettle for a few minutes; sprinkle a lean piece of beef with fiour, salt, and pepper (a cheap cut of meat may be used for this purpose) ; put in the pot and fry until brown on all sides; pour in water to half cover the beef; cover tightly and cook until tender, adding a little water at intervals to prevent burning. Thicken the gravy with flour and serve apart. Or, put good-sized piece of suet in kettle and add enough water to half cover roast when it shall be put in; salt the water, add 2 tablespoonfuls vinegar, and bring to aboil. When boiling, drop in the beef. Let boil 10 minutes to the pound; then remove cover and boil down until beef is sizzling in the grease; let fry, turning over and over, until brown on all sides; make gravy in kettle, and serve it apart. By learning the proper time to remove cover and boil down, beef may be pot-roasted as rarely or as thoroughly as desired. COLD SALTED OR SMOKED TONGUE (Entree) Freshen a beef tongue in cold water for about 4 hours, changing water at least 4 times; place in kettle with enough cold water to cover; add 3 carrots, 2 onions, and 1 stalk of celery, all sliced; cook 4 hours; dip in cold water, skin it, and serve cold for breakfast, luncheon, or picnic. CREAMED DRIED BEEF (Entree) Brown 1 tablespoonful butter in frying pan; put in Vt pound chipped beef and heat thoroughly; pour in about 1 cup of milk and thicken with a little flour and water; scrambled eggs around the dish make an excel- lent addition. BEEF CROQUETTES (Entree) Chop 2 pounds boiled beef very fine; brown 3 chopped onions in 2 tablespoonfuls butter; mix with the chopped meat 6 chopped boiled potatoes, 3 raw eggs, salt, and pepper, and divide into croquettes about. 4 inches long and I'/i inches in diameter; roll in flour and fry. Serve with tomato sauce apart. MOCK DUCK (Entree) Salt and pepper both sides of a round steak; pre- pare stuffing as for duck and spread upon the steak; roll it up and tie; roast for J^ hour; serve with Maitre d'Hotel sauce (page 461) poi,. ' over it. STUFFED BEEF HEART (Fcimily Roast) Boil heart 3 hours over slow Are; make dressing by mixing 3 cups bread cruml^s, ^ cup minced salt pork; pepper, sage, and onion to taste; enlarge cavity in cooked heart, fill w-ith dressing, and place in roasting pan with liquor in which boiled; bake 30 or 25 minutes. Make rich gravy, which serve apart. BEEF LOAF— VEAL LOAF (Entrees) Chop fine 3 pounds rare beef or veal (left over from roast), with Vs pound salt pork; add small cupful cracker crumbs, 3 tablespoonfuls milk, and 3 beaten eggs; salt and pepper to taste, mix well, form into a loaf, over which pour Vj pint water; bake about 1 hour and set aside to cool; serve sliced, with garnish of parsley. ROAST LOIN OF A EAL (Roast) Remove kidney and kidney fat, unless kidney roast is preferred; stuff if desired, roll lengthwise and tie 482 VEAL, MUTTON, LAMB with twine. Place in a pan with 1 onion and 1 carrot sliced; sprinkle with salt, add 1 glassful water, and bake in hot oven, allowing 18 or 30 minutes to the pound and basting frequently. Cut off the twine and serve in a warm dish, with thick gravy made the same as for roast beef. VEAL, POTPIE (Entree) Cut 2 pounds veal ribs in pieces 1 inch square, and place in pot (upon a small plate, to prevent burning) with 2 quarts cold water; boil for 1 labours; then make biscuit dough of 3 cups flour, and half an hour before serving drop small lumps of the dough into the pot, which must still contain sufficient water to entirely cover the meat; cover and boil for 20 or 25 minutes. Serve with mashed potatoes apart. VEAIi A LA BOURGEOISE (Entree) Place 3 or 4 pounds chump end of veal in a stewpan with 2 tablespoonfuls butter ; brown awhile and add 2 glassfuls stock or water, 6 carrots cut in quarters, and 12 small onions. Cook slowly, basting occasionally, for l'/4 hours. Serve with a vegetable as garnish, skimming floating grease from gravy and serving latter apart. BROILED VEAL, CHOP.S (Entree) Dip the chops in melted butter, roll in bread crumbs, and let them brown over a slow fire. Serve on warm dish, placing on each chop a little .chopped parsley mixed with butter. VEAL CHOPS WITH FRENCH PEAS (Entree) Melt 54 pound butter in shallow stewpan, and fry the chops about 20 minutes, turninf frequently. Serve on warm dish, pouring over " ps the gravy in which they were fried, with Freucu peas (page 4V0) served apart. Spinach (page 471) may be served instead of peas. VEAL CHOPS WITH MUSHROOMS {Eiiirt'e) Same as foregoing, but after placing chops in warm dish, add in saucepan 2 tablespoonfuls flour, stir well, add Yi glass white wine, and 14-pound can mushrooms (minced) with their juice; boil awhile, and pour over the chops. SMALL PARISIAN PATTIES Chop X pound veal trimmings and Vt pound kidney fat, first separately and then together; mix with 2 eggs and %^ handful chopped parsley ; salt to taste. Roll puff- paste (see page 476) quite thin and cut with circular cutter 3 inches in diameter; roll the paste trimmings thinner than before and cut same number of pieces with same cutter. Place the thicker pieces on baking dish, and on each some of the chopped veal (pieces the size of a walnut), cover with the thinner pieces of paste. moistening the edges of under and upper crust; brush with beaten egg and bake until well colored. CALF'S LIVER WITH PARSLEY (Entree) Slice liver in pieces the size of the hand and % inch thick; fry in butter or bacon fat; when ready to serve, sprinkle with chopped parsley and serve in a warm dish, pouring over slices gravy in which they have been fried. SWEETBREADS WITH SPINACH (Entree) Freshen sweetbreads for 1 hour in cold water; dip 5 minutes in boiling water, and then in cold water; let drip well; place in shallow stewpan, adding for each pound of sweetbreads '/2 onion, 54 carrot, both sliced, and Vi glassful stock; bake 1 hour in hot oven, basting frequently; serve in warm dish, pouring over the sweet- breads the sauce in which they have been baked, having first skimmed off grease and strained it. Serve spinach (page 471) separately. Instead of the spinach, tomato sauce (page 467) may be served separately. SADDLE OF MUTTON ROASTED (Roast) Trim off the fat and remove the membranous skin that covers the back of the saddle; place in baking pan, sprinkle with salt, add 1 glassful water and roast in hot oven, allowing 18 to 20 minutes to the pound. Serve with potatoes fried in butter as garnish, and gravy in gravy dish. LEG OF MUTTON A LA FRANCAISE (Roast) Remove outer skin and place in roasting pan; sprinkle with salt, add 1 glass water, and roast in hot oven, allowing 18 to 20 minutes to the pound; baste frequently. Serve with potatoes fried in butter, or a BOILED LEG OF MUTTON (Entree) Prepare the same as for foregoing; then tie leg in napkin and place in kettle of boiling salted water; let boil steadily 15 minutes for each pound; serve with boiled potatoes in a dish apart. Leg may also be served with caper sauce (page 461). IRISH STEW (Entree) Cut mutton brisket in pieces one-half the size of the hand; place in a stewpan, add water to cover well, and skim while boiling, having added a few small onions and a small bunch of parsley, tied. Cook half an hour; add 3 tablespoonfuls flour beaten with 2 glassfuls stock or water, and some potatoes cut in halves or quarters; then cook again for half an hour. LEG OF LAMB WITH MINT SAUCE (Roast) Roast same as Leg of Mutton a la Franpaise and serve with mint sauce (page 467) in a separate «*ish. WHOLESOME COOKING: MEATS 483 STUFFED SHOULDER OF MUTTON (Roast or Entree) Remove bones, and stuff with dressing made as follows: Brown 1 chopped onion in butter, mix with H pint bread crumbs wet with Vs pint millf , add )i hand- ful chopped parsley and 1 pound sausage meat chopped fine; mix well. Roast the same as roast beef; serve with potatoes fried in butter or mashed. FRENCH MUTTON CHOPS BROILED (Entree) ENGLISH MUTTON CHOPS BROILED (Entree) French chops are small rib chops, the end of the bone having been trimmed off, and the fat cut away from the end, leaving the round piece of meat attached to one end of the bone. English chops are thicker than the French, and are cut from the loin or tenderloin and trimmed into good shape. Bi'oil the chops on a bright fire, turning frequently. Serve with potatoes fried in butter, mashed potatoes, or French peas (page 470). ROAST PORK (Roast) Prepared and I'oasted the same as for roast beef (page 463), but add a little pepper and season with sage if desired. PORK CHOPS BROILED, WITH TOMATO SAUCE (Entree) Dip the chops in melted butter or beaten egg, roll in bread or cracker crumbs and fry until well done (pork chops grilled, owing to the necessity for thorough cook- ing, being " broiled " only in name). Salt and pepper to taste, and serve with tomato sauce in separate dish. BOILED PIGS' FEET (Entree) Clean feet thoroughly and cook until bones will slip out, using cold water if salted feet are used, hot water if fresh ; boil down, remove bones, and cut in 2-inch lengths ; salt and pepper to taste, and pour with liquor into shallow dish ; let cool to jelly and cut in slices ; serve with garnish of cress, peppergrass, or parsley. BROILED PIGS' FEET (Entree) Wash and clean 6 to 8 feet; place in kettle with 2 onions, 2 carrots, and 1 celery stalk, sliced, and some thyme and laurel. Cover with cold water and cook for about 4 hours, or until tender; cut them in two length- wise (after cooking), dip in butter, roU in bread crumbs, and broil 10 to 15 minutes. Serve with mustard and mashed potatoes for breakfast or luncheon. SUGAR-ROAST OF HAM (Roast) Freshen ham for 10 hours, entirely cover with water in kettle, and boil until tender. Let drip, remove rind, and sprinkle well with flour and coffee sugar or brown sugar (equal parts) ; stick full of cloves, about an inch apart, and roast until a coffee brown; garnish with parsley and serve either hot or cold. ROAST SPARERIB (Family Roast) Trim ribs closely and chop in Cinch lengths; place in roasting pan, dredge with flour, sprinkle with pepper, salt, and sage, add 1 cup water, and roast, basting fre- quently, until tender and brown. Thicken gravy with flour, and serve with baked apple or apple sauce and nnistard .sauce (which .see). Mashed potato and mashed turnips should be served in side di.shes. FRIED SALT PORK WITH CREAM SAUCE (Entree) Slice thin fat salt pork, drop into boiling water in skillet and allow to freshen for 3 minutes ; pour off water, let drip and roll in flour ; fry in skillet to a golden brown ; lay on hot platter. Into fat in skillet pour }^ pint cream or milk, stir in flour and water to thicken ; let come to a boil, and pour over pork. Serve with baked potatoes for breakfast. NEW^ ENGLAND BOILED DINNER (Entree) Take a good-sized piece of corned beef and smaller pieces of salt pork and ham, cover with cold water, and cook over a moderately slow fire until nearly done; add potatoes, onions, turnips, and carrots, and continue to cook until vegetables are done. Have cooking in sepa- rate stewpans a cabbage, quartered, and beets. Gar- nish the meats with all the vegetables except the cab- bage, which serve as side dish. Provide sharp cider vinegar and sour, sharp mustard. HEAD CHEESE (Entree) Take 1 pig's head, clean and wash thoroughly, re- moving eyes, and digging out internal ears and nostrils; singe, wash again, and cut in pieces as small as possible, removing tongue, which should be left whole. Put in pot with 4 pig's feet, well cleaned, and 3 pounds neck beef. Boil all together until bones slip out. Remove bones, salt and pepper to taste, and chop very coarsely. Place in molds, or deep, square tin pans, into one of which the whole tongue, after skinning, should be put. Cover, with weights to give pressure, and when cold slice and serve with garnish of cress, peppergrass, or parsley. , RABBIT SAUTE (Entree) Skin and clean the rabbit, and cut in pieces the size of an egg; melt in a saucepan 3 tablespoonfuls butter; add the rabbit, with 2 onions, chopped, X handful parsley, chopped; sprinkle with salt and pepper and cook covered for about 50 minutes. Add juice of % lemon and serve for breakfast or luncheon. 484 SAUCES AND GARNISHES FOR MEATS KIDNEY SAUTE (Entree) Slice kidneys, place in cold water, bring to a boil, place again in cold water, bring again to a boil, pour off water and rinse in hot water ; let fry in butter in skillet, dredging with flour ; when browned, add J^ glassful stock and (if desired) J^ glassful Madeira, boil awhile, sprinkle with hashed parsley and serve in warm, shal- low dish. VEAL, KIDNEYS BROILED (Entree) Cut each kidney lengthwise in such a way as to open it but not to divide entirely ; pass two wooden skew- ers through them to keep them flat ; sprinkle with salt and pepper, dip in melted butter, and broil on bright fire ; serve with Maitre d'Hotel sauce, page 461 (to which add a little lemon juice) or mustard sauce. SAUCES FOB MEATS Gravy— After removing meat from pan, skim off any excess of fat, and set pan on range; scrape sides and bottom of pan, and after browning as much as may be without burning, add a little water and let boil up. Thicken, by gradually pouring in, while stirring, a cold paste of flour and water. For boiled meats, make drawn butter sauce, thus: Melt 2 tablespoonf uls butter in saucepan ; pour in 1 y^ cups boiling water, or equal parts boiling water and milk; mix 1 tablespoonf ul flour in a little cold milk, which add, stirring constantly. To this sauce add capers, parsley, etc., if desired, according to kind of meat with which sauce is to be served. Bearnaise Sauce (Yelloic) — Place in saucepan X glass white vinegar, witli 1 tablespoonful butter, 1 onion, and a little pepper; boil on bright fire until vine- gar is half boiled down ; set on back of range, and add, while stirring, a little butter and 3 yolks; place sauce- pan in another larger one, half full of boiling water, and add, little by little, while stirring, 2 tablespoonfuls butter; cook until quite thick. Soubise Sauce (White) — Feel and slice 12 on- ions, and cook for 15 minutes in boiling water; drip; dip in cold water; drip again; melt in saucepan 2 table- spoonfuls butter mixed with 2 tablespoonfuls flour, and add, while stirring, 1 pint water; as soon as it boils, add onions and cook whole slowly 30 minutes; strain, and serve separately with steaks and chops. Tomato Sauce (Red) — Slice 2 onions and 2 car- rots quite fine ; cut in dices about 1 pound cold boiled ham (or omit if wished), cook 5 minutes with 1 tablespoonful butter in saucepan; clean and slice 12 ripe tomatoes, add them in saucepan with 1 glassful stock, some thyme, laurel, salt, and pepper, and cook about 1 hour; strain into another saucepan with 2 tablespoonfuls but- ter; warm, and when ready to serve add, while stirring, 2 tablespoonfuls cornstarch, mixed with a little stock or water; add a little cayenne pepper and serve sepa- rately. Pepper Sauce (Bn-own) — Melt in saucepan 1 tablespoonful butter; add 1 onion and 1 carrot finely chopped; cook 5 minutes, sprinkle with 1 tablespoon- ful flour, stir well, and add 1 glassful vinegar, 1 of stock, and high seasoning of thyme, laurel, salt, and pepper; cook slowly Vi hour; strain, add cayenne pepper, and serve separately, or pour over meat. For Sauce Piquant (brown) add 6 gherkins, sliced fine. Mint Sauce (Green) — Chop 1 handful mint leaves, mix with '/2 glassful vinegar and 1 tablespoonful sugar ; serve with leg of mutton or lamb. GARNISHES FOR MEATS Jardiniere Garnish — Fry from 2 to 4 potatoes in butter, and cook a number of other vegetables (as green peas, green beans, small carrots, cauliflower, cut in pieces the size of a hazel nut, etc.) separately in boiling water, afterward frying separately in butter. Place tenderloin or loin on platter, a potato at each end and on each side, and the other vegetables arranged around the meat according to color effect. Nivernaise Garnish — This garnish serves for veal loin, tenderloin, or saddle of mutton. Wash anf* pare 1 quart small carrots; place in saucepan withl glassful stock and 2 tablespoonfuls butter; cook until tender and when ready to serve, add 2 tablespoonfuls butter. Brfetonne Garnish — This garnish serves for leg or shoulder of mutton. Soak 1 pound kidney beans in cold water about 4 hours. Drip, and cook in salted water until tender; when ready to serve, chop 1 onion and brown in 1 tablespoonful butter; add the beans, dripped ; stir, and add 2 tablespoonfuls butter ; sprinkle with some chopped parsley, and serve with individual portions of meat. POULTRY GENERAL REMARKS Select youug fowls, as a rule, for roasting. Older birds .should be .served only in fricassee oi boiled. Remove feathers carefully, without scalding ; clean and wash the inside thoroughly; WHOLESOME COOKING: POULTRY 485 singe with a burning newspaper on top of the range, and tie legs and wings to the body before roasting. In removing giblets care must be talien not to break the gall-bladder in cutting it away from the liver. ROAST TURKEY (Roast) Place turkey in roasting pan, rub it with about 2 tablespoon fuls butter, add 1 glassful water, and i-oast, allowing 15 minutes to the pound. Make gravy same as for roast beef. Instead of rubbing with butter, if desired, a few thin slices of bacon may be bound with twine on breast. If desired, before placing in roasting pan, stuff with dressing made of bread crumbs moistened with scalding water, adding a lump of butter the size of a walnut, salting and peppering, and seasoning with a chopped onion and sage to taste; or, with thyme, sweet marjoram, summer savory, mace, or nutmeg. With salt and pepper alone for seasoning, oysters, chopped or whole, may be added, and in any case, dressing should be mixed up with a beaten egg TURKEY GIBLETS (Entree) Brown giblets (wings, gizzard, liver, etc.) in sauce- pan with 1 pound bacon cut in dices; sprinkle with 1 tablespoonful flour, and add 1 glassful water and 1 glassful stock, or 1 pint water, some salt and pepper, 1^ handful parsley tied, 10 or 12 small onions, 3 carrots cut in quarters lengthwise and then in thirds crosswise; cook slowl3' 1 34 hours ; skim off floating grease, and serve in shallow dish for breakfast only. ROAST CHICKEN (Roast) Prepare and roast the same as for turkey. BROILED CHICKEN (Entree) Cut chicken in two lengthwise, dip in melted butter, and broil on both sides over bright fire until thoroughly cooked. Serve for breakfast or luncheon. FRIED CHICKEN (Entree) Cut each chicken in about 8 pieces; sprinkle with salt and pepper, dip the pieces in milk, roll in flour, and fry in fat until well colored. Serve with parsley fried in same fat, and a lemon cut in fifths, lengthwise. CHICKEN PIE (Entree) Cut 1- chicken in pieces, place in stewpan. cover with water, and boil until tender ; when half cooked, add 1 teaspoonful salt. Remove chicken, placing in warming oven, and thicken gravy with 1 tablespoonful flour ; salt and pepper to taste, add lump of butter the size of a walnut, and boil 5 minutes. While chicken is cooking for the first time, following paste should be prepared : Mix, as for biscuit, 3 cups flour, 2 teaspoon- fuls baking powder, a dash of salt, and M cup butter ; roll out half of this to a thickness of H inch, and with it line a baking dish, letting crust hang over the edge: enough to turn up over top crust ; put in chicken and gravj ; roll remainder of paste for top crust ; slash in the center to permit escape of steam, moisten top crust around edge, turn up overhanging lower crust, and pinch tightly ; butter the top, and bake until a light brown. SPRING CHICKEN SAUTE (Entree) Remove legs and cut them in two; take off wings, but not the fillets; cut body in two lengthwise, between back and breast; then each half in two crosswise, and again the breast in two lengthwise. Brown one chopped onion in J4 pound butter, and add chicken; sprinkle with salt and pepper, and fry on bright fire 15 to 20 minutes; sprinkle with chopped parsley and serve hot. CHICKEN FRICASSEE (Entree) Prepare and cut chicken same as for preceding; soak in cold water 15 minutes; place in stewpan with 2 sliced onions, 2 carrots cut in 4, and Vi handful parsley tied; cover with water and cook slowly until tender, 1 or 2 hours. Let drip, and place in saucepan in which have been melted 2 tablespoonfuls butter, mixed with same quantity of flour; stir, and add through strainer liquor in which chickens have been boiled; when ready to serve, place saucepan on corner of range and add 2 beaten yolks, with 2 tablespoonfuls milk; serve in shallow dish, with Rice a la Georgienne (page 473) in separate dish. ROAST GOOSE (Roast) Select a goose with clean white skin, plump breast, and yellow feet, red feet denote age. Hanging a few days improves the flavor. Pluck, singe, draw, and carefully wipe the fowl; cut off neck close to back, leaving skin long enough to turn over; cut off feet and beat breastbone flat; put a skewer across the back, through under part of each wing; draw legs up closely and tie. Make stuffing of bread crumbs, 1 or 2 onions, a little sage, butter, and salt and pepper to taste, the whole mixed with a beaten egg. Baste frequently while roasting. Serve with its own gravy, and with apple sauce if desired. ROAST DUCK (Roast) Draw legs as closely as possible to body and tie. If cooking a pair, stuff only one (making dressing as directed in case of turkey), as flavor is not relished by everyone. Another excellent dressing is made of 486 GAME, SALADS mashed potatoes, seasoned with chopped onions, pep- per, and salt, and with just enough bread crusts stirred in to give body. Sage may be added if desired. Roast in hot oven, basting often. Slcim off any floating grease, and serve gravy (thickened if desired), to which may be added giblets, previously stewed in water with a lump of butter. Peas and currant jelly should accompany this roast. BROILKD PIGEONS (Entree) Prepare pigeons as indicated in "General Re- marks" ; cut in two lengthwise, flatten, dip in melted butter, roll in bread crumbs, and fry on a not too bright fire; serve with Maitre d'Hotel (page 461), to which has been added a little lemon juice ; garnish with a lemon cut in 6 slices. GAME GENERAL REMARKS Game birds should not be plucked until a day or two after they are killed, and, if the weather will allow, they are better flavored for hanging three or four days in a cool place before cooking. Tastes vary, however, as to the length of hanging. To remove the fishy taste which waterfowl sometimes have, baste them for a few minutes while roasting with hot water, to which an onion and a little salt have been added ; after that baste with butter only. Snipe, woodcock, and quail usually are not drawn, but are eaten, like oysters, clams, lobsters, and some small fish, entrails and all. ROAST SNIPE (Roast) Snipe may be drawn if preferred. If left undrawn, they should be wiped on the outside after plucking. Skin head and neck and truss them with head under wing; twist legs at first joint, press feet upon thighs, and pass a skewer through feet and body. Roast in quick oven, in pan with butter or bacon cut in dices. Serve on toast, with own gravy poured around. Should be sent to table very hot. . Undersized snipe are best grilled over a hot fire, and served on toast, with butter spread over the birds, which are set in the oven for a few moments before sending to table. ROAST TVOODCOCK (Roast) Woodcock should not be drawn; pluck and wipe well; truss with legs close to body; skin neck and head and bring beak under wing; set each bird on a piece of toast in dripping pan, and roast twenty to twenty-five minutes, basting frequently. Serve on same toast on which roasted, pouring some of the gravy over them, and serving remainder apart. ROAST PARTRIDGE (Roast) Let the birds hang as long as the weather will per- mit; then pluck and draw; wijje, but do not wash them inside or out; truss them without the head, same as for roast fowl; roast in hot oven, basting frequently; serve on buttered toast soaked in dripping pan, with own gravy or mustard sauce (page 461), apart. ROAST QUAIL (Roast) Precisely the same as for woodcock. ROAST SADDLE OF VENISON (Roast) Soak in water over night; then with a knife remove the three skins ; in taking off the inner skin, begin at the lower side and go upward to the top of the bone; then lard with small pieces of .salt smoked pork and wrap the roasting piece in a cloth saturated in vinegar, in which let it remain until the next day. Place in roasting pan a few slices of pork and dry bread crusts; salt meat well, put it into the pan with a little water and pour over it Vt cup cream; baste frequently, roasting 15 minutes to the pound. Serve with potato croquettes (page 473). CHICKEN SALAD (Eiitree) VEAL SALAD (Entree) Chop finely and mix desired quantity of chicken or veal and one-third to one-half as much celery. Cover the bottom of salad dish with large, bright lettuce leaves, on which heap up the salad daintily, and pour over it a mayonnaise dressing ; may be garnished also with hard-boiled eggs, cut in halves lengthwise. 31 SALADS FISH SALAD (Entree) Remove skin and bones from 1 can salmon, or any cold fish, either boiled or baked, mixing in 3 large boiled potatoes, chopped. Serve on lettuce leaves, or garnished with parsley, pouring over the salad a dress- ing made by seasoning 3 hard-boiled yolks with pepper, salt, and mustard, mashing flue, adding J^ cup vinegar and a wineglassful cream, and stirring thoroughly. WHOLESOME COOKING : SALADS, VEGETABLES 487 EGG SALAD (Entree) Slice 10 hard-boiled eggs, place in salad dish, and pour over them 4 tablespoonfuls olive oil, mixed with 3 tablespoonfuls vinegar, some hashed parsley, and a little salt and pepper. Garnish with parsley. PIGS' FEKT SALAD (Entree) After cooking feet as in preparation for broiling, cut in pieces about 2 inches long and place in salad dish ; pour over them a dressing made by mixing 1 table- spoonful mustard, 3 tablespoonfuls oil, 14 handful chopped parsley, the same quantity of chopped young onion tops, and 4 tablespoonfuls vinegar, salted and peppered to taste. Serve for luncheon or picnic party. POTATO SALAD (Cold Relish:) Place in chopping bowl 1 small onion and a stalk of celery, chop fine; slice thin 10 or 13 cold boiled potatoes into the salad dish, in which lettuce leaves have been placed. Mix onion and celery thoroughly with 1 wine- glassful olive oil, 1 tablespoonful mixed mustard, 3 tablespoonfuls vinegar, and pepper and salt to taste. Pour this dressing over the potato. COLD SLAW (Cold Relish) Shred, slice, or chop very fine desired amount of cabbage, and place in salad dish ; pour over the cab- bage a sauce made thus : Bring 1 cup vinegar to a boil ; add mixture of 1 teaspoonful mustard, 3 tablespoon- fuls sugar, and 1 teaspoonful salt, scalded together with }/2 cup boiling water; add ]4 cup milk or cream and a limip of butter ; let boil again, stirring constantly, and stir in the beaten yolks of 3 eggs ; pour hot over cab- bage as soon as sauce is stirred to an even cor-sistency ; let cool, place in ice-box, and serve cold. LOBSTER SALAD (Entree) Remove shell from boiled lobster, being careful to remove vein in back : chop meat, or pick it fine ; chop together some celery, lettuce, or endive, with hard- boiled eggs, mix with lobster meat, saving the larger, reddest slices of meat for garnish ; place on lettuce leaves in salad dish, using 12 olives for additional gar- nish; pour over it 1 pint mayonnaise dressing; let cool awhile, and serve. LETTUCE SALAD (Cold Relish) Take 1 head of lettuce, separate leaves and dispose in salad dish, spreading over them 1 cold boiled potato, cut in dices, and 2 hard-boiled eggs, sliced ; pour over salad either a mayonnaise or a vinegar dressing. SALAD DRESSINGS Mayonnaise Dressing— See page 461. Vinegar Dressing Without Oil — Mix 1 cupful hot vinegar, 1 teaspoonful salt, 1 tablespoonful sugar, a pinch of pepper, and a rounding tablespoonful butter; when cool, pour over salad. French Dressing — For lettuce, potato salad, or cold slaw: Grate J^ onion; mix with }4 teaspoonful salt, a pinch of pepper, 2 tablespoonfuls olive oil, and 1 tablespoonful vinegar; stir to a creamy consistency. Cream Dressing W^ithout Oil — For cabbage, lettuce, tomato, or other vegetable salad: See Cold Slaw (page 470). Drawn Butter Dressing — Put 2 cupfuls boiling water iu saucepan and stir in 2 tablespoonfuls flour into which an equal amount of butter has been thoroughly mixed ; let melt, stirring constantly ; stir in 14 handful hashed parsley, pepper and salt to taste, and serve immediately. VEGETABLES FRENCH PEAS Melt in stewpan 2 tablespoonfuls butter, add 1 quart shelled peas, 1 glassful water, 1 whole onion; J,^ handful parsley, tied, and some salt and pepper; cook slowly for % hour; when ready to serve, take out onion and parsley, add 2 tablespoonfuls butter, mixed with 1 tablespoonful flour, stirring until thickened, and serve in warm shallow dish as side dish, or as a garnish (2 tea- spoonfuls sugar may be added while cooking). GREEN PEAS WITH BACON Cut 1 pound bacon in dices, and brown in saucepan ; sprinkle with 1 tablespoonful of flour, add 1 glassful water, 1 quart peas, 1 whole onion, 1^ handful parsley, tied, and some salt and pepper; cook 1 hour; when ready to serve, remove onion and parsley, and serve in warm shallow dish as side dish. GREEN PEAS, ENGLISH STYLE Pour peas into boiling water; cook quickly 15 minutes, salt, and drip; place in warm shallow dish and over them 14 pound butter, divided into small slices; serve as side dish. STRING BEANS, ENGLISH STYLE Clean green beans; break off stem ends, at the same time stringing them on one side; break off blos- som ends also, stringing them on the other; if too long, break in two; cook quickly in a quantity of boiling water, salt, let drip, and serve as preceding. 488 VEGETABLES STRING BEANS Prepare as for preceding; melt in saucepan 2 table- spoonfuls butter; add 1 quart beans, }4 glassful water, 1 whole onion, J^ handful parsley, tied, and some salt and pepper; cook slowly 15 minutes; when ready to serve, add 2 tablespoonfuls butter and 2 eggs beaten with 1^ glassful milk; stir, but do not allow to boil; serve in warm dish as side dish. LIMA BEANS WITH BUTTER Same as for preceding. BAKED BEANS Soak 1 quart white beans, well picked over, over night; drip and cover well with fresh water; add 1 pound lean salt pork; boil until beans are tender; place in baking dish with meat, its rind slashed ready to slice, in the center; sprinkle with pepper and bake until a light brown. To serve, cut meat in slices, dispose in center of platter, and garnish with beans. BOSTON BAKED BEANS Soak 1 quart picked-over beans over night ; place in kettle with J^ pound salt pork and 3 quarts water; boil slowly 1 hour, adding y^ teaspoonful saleratus just before taking them up; strain beans into an earthen- ware jar, adding 3 tablespoonfuls molasses and 1 tea- spoonful salt; place pork in middle, leaving rind even with top; add just enough of the liquor in which beans were cooked to cover them ; bake 5 or 6 hours in slow oven, adding more of the liquor if required; when cooked, remove dried beans from top. SUCCOTASH Stew in least possible quantity of water equal parts green corn and Lima or string beans, until tender; add % cupful cream or milk, a lump of butter, pepper and salt. Serve in warm dish as side dish. ESCALLOPED CORN Cut the tops of the kernels from 6 ears tender sweet corn ; then scrape carefully, so as to get out all the juice with but little of the hull; add a dash of pepper and salt, 1 teaspoonful sugar, a lump of butter, 2 eggs beaten shghtly, and a little milk to mix; beat all together and bake 10 minutes; add i^ cup cream, stir well, and bake another 10 minutes; serve hot or cold as a side dish. CORN FRITTERS Cut from the cob the kernels of 3 ears cooked sweet corn; beat thoroughly 1 egg; mix }4 teaspoonful baking powder in }^ cup flour, stir into the egg, salt to taste, and add the corn, stirring thoroughly; add flour, if more is needed to form a moderately stiff batter. Have ready in skillet hot lard or bacon drippings % inch deep. Into this drop batter, a spoonful in a place, and fry a few fritters at a time, serving when a golden brown Be careful to cook thoroughly. SWEET CORN W^ITH BUTTER Husk and wash the corn, and cook (on the cob) for V4 hour in boiling salted water, to which has been added 1 glassful of milk; serve on folded napkin with butter in dish at side. BROIEED SW^EET CORN Broil (on cob) over bright fire, and serve with butter, salt, and pepper. SPINACH WITH CREAM Clean and wash 3 or 4 times about Vt peck spinach; cook 10 minutes in quite large quantity salted water, pour off water, let drip, cover with cold water, drip again, and chop fine; 10 minutes before serving place in saucepan with 4 tablespoonfuls butter, 1 tablespoonful flour, a little sugar and some salt ; cook awhile, and add, while stirring, 1 glass milk; serve as a side dish or garnish, or may be served with pieces of toast fried in butter. SPINACH WITH POACHED EGGS Same as with cream, but place on spinach 6 poached eggs. CELERY W^ITH GRAVY Take lower part of 8 small stalks celery, clean and cut in pieces 5 inches long, place in saucepan, cover with stock, add a little salt, and cook slowly 1 hour; drip and place in shallow dish, and keep in warm place; boil down stock in which cooked; when ready to serve, thicken with 1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed with a little cold stock and 2 tablespoonfuls butter; pour on celery and serve as side dish. CARROTS FRIED IN BUTTER Pare 3 bunches small carrots, sUce crosswise as thick as a half-dollar, and cook in boiling water until tender; melt in saucepan 2 tablespoonfuls butter, add carrots, carefully dripped, sprinkle with a little sugar and fry about 10 minutes; serve as side dish. Carrots are excellent also cut in quarters lengthwise, stewed until tender in salt water, and served with drawn butter dressing (pag^470). ASPARAGUS WITH WHITE SAUCE Clean and wash 3 bunches asparagus, cook in boil- ing salted water until tender, and serve on folded nap- kin with Hollandaise Sauce (page 461) separate. WHOLESOME COOKING : VEGETABLES 489 CAULIFLOWER WITH AVHITK SAUCE Clean 2 cauliflowers, cut in quarters and wash care- fully; cook in boiling salted water until tender; drip and place in shallow dish, in original shape; serve with Hollandaise sauce. CAULIFLOWER AU GRATIN Prepare and cook same as foregoing; melt in sauce- pan 2 tablespoonfuls butter, mixed with 3 tablespoon- fuls flour; add, while stirring, 1 pint milk or cream, boil, stirring, until sauce becomes quite thick; add 2 tablespoonfuls butter; pour some of sauce in bottom of shallow dish, add cauliflower, cut in 4 or 5 pieces, pour over remainder of cream sauce, sprinkle with bread crumbs and grated cheese, brush with melted butter, and bake until well colored. STUFFED TOMATOES Cut out a small core at top of tomato and squeeze slightly, so as to remove some of seeds ; then stuff with mixture of 1 chopped onion, 2 tablespoonfuls flour, 4 ounces chopped cooked meat, 3 ounces white bread (dipped in milk or stock), and a little chopped parsley, all of which is put in saucepan and cooked awhile; sprinkle stuffed tomatoes with bread crumbs, grated cheest>, and small lumps of butter. Bake 15 minutes. FRIED TOMATOES Wash firm green tomatoes and slice (without peel- ing) % inch thick; roll in flour, sprinkle with salt and pepper, and fry in butter or bacon fat until a cinnamon brown. Serve 3 slices to a guest, on square or triangle of daintily browned toast. For breakfast or luncheon. Cucumbers (peeled and sliced) may be fried and served in the same fashion. CREAMED CUCUMBERS Peel 6 cucumbers, cut in quarters, remove seeds, and cut in pieces 2 inches long; melt ^ pound butter in shallow stewpan, and when warm add cucumbers; cook on bright Are 10 minutes; add 2 glassfuls cream and a little salt and sugar; boil awhile and serve as side dish. FRIED PARSNIPS Cut boiled parsnips in thick slices lengthwise, roll in flour, and fry in butter or bacon fat to a deep brown. Salt and pepper befoi'e removing from skillet, and serve hot. MUSHROOMS WITH CREAM Pour 2 pounds mushrooms (fresh or canned) into saucepan and boil awhile in their juice, if canned, in a very little salted water, if fresh; place saucepan on corner of range and add 8 yolks, mixed with 1 tftble- spoonful cornstarch, 1 tablespoonful cream, and some chopped parsley ; serve on toast, or as garnish for fash- ionable dinners. MUSHROOMS ON TOAST Prepare nmshrooms as in foregoing, meanwhile frying in butter, for each guest, a piece of bread 1 H x 3x5 inches, in which a hole 2x4 inches and 1 inch deep has been cut. Place on buttered dish, the holes in the toast fllled with mushrooms and their cream, sprinkle with grated cheese and a little butter and bake for 10 minutes. PARSNIP CROQUETTES Boil parsnips, well scraped and washed, in salted water until very tender (in which state they may be served, if desu-ed, with lumps of butter melting over them); mash and season with butter, pepper, and salt; stir in 2 beaten eggs to which a little flour has been added ; mold into croquettes and f i-y in butter or bacon fat until a golden brown. BOILED BEETS Beets require especial care in preparation, lest they bleed, and come to the table pale and unappetiz- ing, the stalk must not be cut down closely or the root broken off. Boil until tender; rub off skins while hot, and serve sliced, with lumps of butter melting over, peppered, and salted; or, sliced in vinegar, with pepper and salt. CREAMED ONIONS Boil 6 onions in ample water for 1 hour; let drip, cut in small pieces, salt and pepper, and serve hot, with drawn butter dressing (page 470) poured over. FRIED EGG PLANT Peel egg plant and slice % inch thick; soak VA hours in salted water; let drip, wet on both sides in beaten egg, roll in bread or cracker crumbs, and fry to a golden brown. Pepper to taste, salt lightly, and serve hot. BOILED TURNIPS Peel and slice turnips, and pour over them cold water; cook until quite tender, remembering that more time must be allowed than to most other vegetables; let drip thoroughly, mash with a little milk or cream, and serve as side dish, with lumps of butter melting over, pepper, and salt. SQUASH (Hiibbard, Marrow, Summer; Baked or Boiled) Hubbard squashes are generally preferred baked, as their rinds are too hard to be removed easily , remove all seeds and pith, cut in halves, put a teaspoonful of sugar in each hollow, and bake an hour or until tender; 490 VEGETABLES when done, remove hard crust, scrape from shell with spoon, and mash, sweetening, peppering, and salting to taste, and serving as side dish with melting lumps of butter. Any of the marrows or summer squashes may be simply pared and cooked, seeds and all, if very young; in any case they should be cut in small pieces and steamed or boiled until tender, peppered, and salted to taste, mashed vi'ith a small quantity of rich cream, and served as side dish with melting lumps of butter. BOII>ED SALSIFY (Vegetable Oystem) Scrape well, cut in thin slices, boil an hour or until tender, and when done add a little salt codfish picked very fine, having previously let the water boil nearly away; add plenty of milk or cream to make gravy, and season with salt, pepper, and butter; thicken slightly with flour and serve with small bits of toast. S^VEET POTATOES, BOILED Wash, cut off the ends, and boil in salted water until tender (about .30 minutes). Serve with butter. When cold, may be peeled and sliced lengthwise and fried in butter. POTATOES WITH CREAM Slice 8 or 10 boiled potatoes, place them in sauce- pan with 2 tablespoonfuls butter and 1 cup cream; sprinkle with salt and pepper, and chopped parsley, and boil 10 minutes. POTATOES AU GRATIN Prepare and cook potatoes already boiled same as foregoing; place in baking dish, sprinkle with grated cheese, bread crumbs, and small lumps of butter; bake to a light brown. POTATOES DUCHESSE Peel, slice, and cook until tender in just enough water to cover; let drip and place in warm saucepan; mash with .3 yolks and a little flour; roll out on board sprinkled with flour, and divide into oblong cakes 5^x1^x3 inches; fry on both sides in butter to golden brown and serve as garnish for roasts. POTATO CROQUETTES Prepare, cook, and mash the same as for the fore- going, but add a little butter while mashing; roll in form of small cylinder \14 by 3 inches; dip in beaten egg, roll in bread and cracker crumbs, and fry in butter ; serve for luncheon or as a garnish. FRIED POTATOES Heat well enough fat or lard to cover potato slices; peel raw potatoes, slice, and fry until well colored. Fat must be extremely hot, or it will soak into potatoes, making them sodden and unpala- table. PUFFED POTATOES Peel the potatoes, cut them lengthwise in slice' about 14 inch thick, put them in warm, but not hot fat, and cook until tender (about ten minutes). Remove from fat and drip, heat the fat very hot, place pota- toes in it again, and fry quickly. MACARONI A L' ITALIENNE Cook 1 pound macaroni in salted water (with no fear of using too much water) until quite soft; drip, throw away water, and replace macaroni in the same warm kettle; add 4 tablespoonfuls butter, 14 pound grated cheese, salt, and pepper; allow butter and cheese to half melt while stirring, but do not replace kettle on range. MACARONI WITH TOMATO SAUCE Same as for foregoing, but add 3 tablespoonfuls tomato catsup. MACARONI AU GRATIN Cook as for " Macaroni a V Italienne." Place macaroni in baking dish, pour over it some bread or cracker crumbs, grated cheese and lumps of butter, and bake until well colored. SPAGHETTI WITH TOMATO SAUCE Cook 54 package spaghetti .30 minutes in kettle with 4 cupfuls boiling water and 3 or 4 (or !4 can) tomatoes; stir frequently, add lump of butter the size of a walnut and pepper and salt to taste, with H salt- spoonful cayenne pepper. RICE A LA GEORGIENNE Wash }4 pound rice several times in cold water (ceasing when water is clear); cook in boiling water until quite soft; let drip, cool, and drip again; melt in saucepan, Jr^ pound of butter, add the rice and some salt and pepper, mix well, cover saucepan, and bake a hour; serve as side dish or garnish. OATMEAL A LA AMERICAINE Mix in saucepan 1 pound of oatmeal with 1 table- spoonful butter, 1 pint water, and a pinch of salt; bake in hot oven for 15 minutes, and serve with butter and milk or cream. WHOLESOME COOKING: BREAD MAKING 491 BREADS GENERAL NOTES ON BREAO MAKING How to Choose the Flour — A good flour will be dry, heavy, and very soft to the touch ; it should have a clear white color, sometimes a little yellowish ; it should be adhesive to the dry fingers, and when pressed between the hands it should form a kind of ball, which will not immediately scatter. The "Rising-"— Peel, slice, and boil 3 large potatoes ; when tender, mash, and add 1 cupful soft yeast or 1 cake dried yeast dissolved in a little lukewarm water, 1 cup flour, 2 teaspoonfuls sugar, and a saUspoonful of salt. Mix with the water (cooled) in which the i)otatoes were boiled. Set in moderately warm place (not a hot one) and let rise until light. The "rising " is best mixed up toward midday, as it recjuires about 2 or 3 hours to become light. The Sjiong-e — Mix in bread pan, in evening, 2 tablespoonfuls sugar, i tablespoonful salt, 1 tablespoonful lard or drippings, and 1 heaping kitchenspoonful flour, to which add 1 small cup- ful boiling water, stirring well to cook flour. Add 1 quart cool water or (better) milk, mix thoroughly and add "rising." Stir again, adding flour until batter can only just be stirred; stir for 5 minutes, and set in a warm, but not liot, place until morning. In the morning add flour sufficient to make a dough that can be kneaded on the board ; knead 20 minutes and replace lump in bread pan (which has been floured to prevent sticking) ; cover with towel and let rise ; when light, make into loaves and let rise in baking pans. When light, bake from 30 minutes to 1 hour, according to size of loaves. The Oven — Success or failure in bread making depends in large measure on the fire. The oven, when bread is put in, should be hot enough to bake, but not so hot as is needed for pie-crust. To insure even heat, the fire must be planned beforehand, with enough fuel burning to last throughout the baking of the bread. The housewife must understand her range, knowing precisely when fire must be checked or drafts opened, in order to keep an even heat. Adding fuel during baking first checks fire, then intensifies it. Too hot a fire makes dense, sodden bread ; too slow a fire makes bread light, dry, and crumbly. If baking is done with wood, heavy, well-dried sticks (that will form lasting bed of hot coals) must be used, lest fire flash out during the baking. Cooling — When taken from oven, loaves should be turned from the pan and laid on sides, not touching one another. The crusts will be rendered soft by brushing with a cloth dipped in melted butter. When thoroughly cool, put away in bread boxes. Bread that is "sweated" by cooling while wrapped in a cloth is no better for it, and will mold much more quickly. SOFT YEAST will keep a long time, and has the advantage of not Take 2 quarts water to 1 ounce hops ; boil 15 requiring any yeast to start it. It rises so quickly that minutes; add 1 quart cold water, and let boil a few » '^ss quantity than of ordinary yeast must be put ia. minutes; strain, and add l^ pound flour, putting the RYE BREAD latter into a pan and pouring the water on slowly to Put 2 quarts rye flour into a stone jar; stir into it 1 prevent its getting lumpy. Add 14 pound brown sugar, cup yeast (or 1 cake, dissolved in water), 2 teaspoonfuls and a handful of fine salt ; let stand 3 days, stirring salt, and enough water to moisten well; let rise over occasionally; when it ferments well, add 6 potatoes night in warm place; in the morning stir it down well; which have been boiled, mashed, and run through a do not add more flour, but put into well-buttered pans colander, making as smooth as possible. This yeast as soon as light. Bake in slow oven. 492 BREADS BOSTON BROWN BREAD Sift together 3 cups cornmeal, 2 cups rye flour, and 1 cup wheat flour; mix 3 cups sour milli and 1 cup New Orleans molasses, 2 even teaspoonfuls salt, and 1>^ tea- spoonfuls soda, the soda having been dissolved in a little warm water. While mixture is effervescing, pour it into the flour, beating until smooth. Grease a pud- ding boiler (or 1-pound baking powder cans), pour in the batter, flUing only to within 2 inches of the top ; cover closely and place in kettle of boiling water; let steam 4 or 5 hours. CREAM BISCUIT Mix 2 heaping teaspoonfuls baking powder with 4 cups flour and 1 level teaspoonful salt; add a lump of butter the size of an egg and enough cream to make soft dough; roll thin, cut out, and bake in hot oven. SODA BISCUIT Mix 2 teaspoonfuls cream of tartar with 1 tea- spoonful soda, stir it well into 4 cupfuls flour; add a heaping tablespoonful butter or lard and a little salt, mixing all together quickly with enough milk, or milk and water, to make a soft dough ; roll out, cut, and bake quickly. FRENCH ROLLS Mix 2 heaping teaspoonfuls baking powder with 4 cups sifted flour and !4 teaspoonful salt, adding sweet milk, or milk and water, to make a soft dough; roll, and cut out in round pieces, placing a small lump of butter in the center of each, and folding dough over in form of half circle; bake in quick oven. BREAKFAST ROLLS Mix at evening 4 cups flour with 1 cup warm milk, 2 beaten eggs, \ cake yeast, and a little salt; work over thoroughly and set in warm place to rise over night; knead in butter the size of an egg, make into rolls, and bake. DROPPED BISCUIT Make a stiff batter of 2 cups warm (but not hot) milk, 2 tablespoonfuls butter, a pinch of salt, 1 cup of soft yeast (or 1 cake dry, dissolved in water), and white flour. When light, drop from spoon on to buttered pans to bake, being careful not to agitate batter. PARKER HOUSE ROLLS Mix in bowl 1 heaping tablespoonful butter, 1 table- spoonful sugar, and V2 teaspoonful salt, with 8 cups flour; make hole in flour and pour in 1 pint scalded milk, still warm, and Vt yeast cake dissolved in a little water; stir in part of the flour, mixing thoroughly, and let rise over night; knead again, using remainder of flour, and let rise until afternoon ; roll out, cut, butter, and fold as for French rolls; set in warm place and when light enough, bake. GRAHAM MUFFINS Mix 1 beaten egg, 4 cupfuls graham flour, 2 heap- ing teaspoonfuls baking powder, Yj teaspoonful salt, 2 tablespoonfuls butter, and milk enough to make soft batter; bake in muffin or gem tins. CORN MUFFINS Mix 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder with 1 cup flour, 1 cup cornmeal, a little sugar, and some salt ; add 2 beaten eggs and milk enough to make soft batter ; bake quickly. CURRANT BUNS To be served hot from the oven. Mix 2 heaping teaspoonfuls baking powder and y^ teaspoonful salt with 4 cups flour ; mix in well butter the size of an egg, and add enough milk to make a soft dough ; roll out Yi inch thick, spread with sugar, then with English currants, then with another sprinkling of sugar and a dusting of cinnamon ; roll up as for jelly roll ; cut in 2-inch lengths, and bake on end, in buttered pans, in quick oven. JOHNNY CAKE Scald 4 cups cornmeal with 2 cuj)s boiling water ; while hot, add 2 tablespoonfuls butter or lard, 1 table- spoonful sugar, and 1 teaspoonful salt ; when cool add 1 pint sour milk or cream, mixed with 1 teasi oonful soda and 1 beaten egg ; mix well and bake in well- buttered, shallow pans. Serve hot. CORN WAFFLES Mix 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder with 2 coffee cups cornmeal and some salt ; add 1 tablespoonful melted butter, 2 yolks beaten in 1 pint of milk ; stir, then add the beaten whites of the eggs, and bake quickly in very hot, buttered waffle iron. RAISED WAFFLES Mix 2 cups flour with one pint scalded milk, cool ; add y^ yeast cake dissolved in water, and a little salt ; let rise over night ; then add the whites and yolks of 2 eggs beaten separately and 1 tablespoonful melted butter ; bake in very hot waffle iron. WHEAT CAKES Mix 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder with about 3 cups flour and a little salt ; beat I or 2 eggs and add, with enough milk to make batter. BUCKWHEAT CAKES WHOLESOME COOKING : BREADS, PASTRY 493 CORN PANCAKES a thin batter; add yeast and a pinch of salt; let rise Mix 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder with 1 pint corn- o^^r night; in the morning add ]/^ teaspoonful soda to meal, M pint flour, and a little salt; add 2 beaten eggs sweeten, and bake on hot griddle. A little wheat flour and enough sweet milk to make a batter. Or, put 1 tea- "i^y be added when mixing batter, and the addition of spoonful soda in 1 pint sour cream, add a beaten egg, ^ tablespoonful syrup will make cakes brown nicely, a little salt, 4 tablespoonf uls flour, and enough cornmeal For three or four days a little of the left-over batter to make soft batter. »nay be used instead of yeast, stirring in buckwheat, water, and salt each night, letting rise till morning, and adding soda before baking. Left-over cakes may Dissolve Yi yeast cake in a little water, mix enough be broken up and stirred into the next day's batter in buckwheat flour with 1 quart lukewarm water to make which they will dissolve. PASTRY REMARKS ON PASTRY In making pastry always sift the flour. Rub the butter or lard into it before adding the water, which should be as cold as possible. If lard is used add salt ; mix quickly. Many prefer cutting with a knife instead of rubbing in shortening with the hands. French Pull" Paste — Take equal quantities of flour and butter, say 1 pound of each, % saltspoonful of salt, the yolks of 2 eggs, and rather more than % pint of water ; sift the flour, and press all the water from the butter. Put the flour on the paste board, work lightly into it 2 ounces of the butter ; then make a hole in the flour, and into it put the yolks of 2 eggs, the salt, and about \i pi^it of water ; knead quickly, and, when smooth, roll it out into a square ^ inch thick. Put the remainder of the butter in a ball on the paste, and fold the paste securely over it ; roll it lightly with the rolling-pin, but not thin enough to allow the butter to break through ; keep the board well dredged. This rolling gives it the first turn ; now fold the paste in three and roll again ; if weather is warm, cool paste between each two rollings, for unless butter is kept cool, paste will not answer at all. Continue this process until paste has had six rollings. If properly made and baked, this crust should rise in the oven 5 or 6 inches. Paste or pie-crust never must be squeezed up, for squeezing consolidates the laminae that give it flakiness. The trimmings from pies, or the waste after cutting out patties or tarts, must be laid flat, one on another, and rolled together. Plain Pie-crnst — Work 1 cup lard, or lard and butter together, into 3 cups flour, to which has been added 1 teaspoonful salt ; add enough cold water to make a stiff dough ; turn dough on floured paste board, sprinkle with flour, and roll out ; spread thickly with butter, sprinkle with flour, fold three-ply, and roll again ,• repeat three times (or a few times more, if a puffy crust is desired), spreading with butter each time. This makes enough crust for two large pies. LEMON CREAM PIE fuls white sugar, a pinch of salt, and the juice and Stir into 1 teacupful boiling water 1 tablespoonful grated rind of 2 large lemons; bake slowly until set. cornstarch dissolved in cold water ; add 1 tablespoon- Meanwhile beat white of 2 eggs, and beat in 6 table- ful butter and 1 teacupful powdered sugar ; let cool ; spoonfuls powdered sugar; spread this meringue over then add juice and grated rind of 1 lemon and 1 beaten Pies, and bake to a light brown, egg. Bake in tai-t without upper crust. APPLE PIE LEMON MERINGUE PIE Fill pie-crust with juicy apples, pared and sliced For filling, dissolve 3 tablespoonf uls cornstarch in 1 thin. To each pie take ]/^ teacupful sugar, butter the cup sweet milk; add 6 yolks and 4 whites, beaten, 2 cup- size of a walnut, 1 teaspoonful flour, and % nutmeg 494 PASTRY, PUDDINGS grated; strew this seasoning over apples, and add 2 or 3 tablespoonfuls water, according to the juiciness of the apples. Pinch close the edges of upper crust, and bake at once. COCOANUT PIE Mix 1 cupful grated cocoanut, 1 cup sugar, 1 quart milk, 1 tablespoonful butter, and 3 eggs. Flavor with nutmeg, and bake in deep pie plate, lined with pie-crust. CUSTAKD PIE For 1 pie, beat 2 or 3 eggs, add 1 pint milk, sweeten to taste, and flavor with nutmeg; line pie plate with crust, pour in custard, and bake. RHUBARB PIE Peel and cut stalks in Vt inch pieces and cook in saucepan with very little water; when done, sweeten to taste, pour into crusts and sprinkle with cornstarch or a little flour; cover with crust or meringue and bake in quick oven. Serve as soon as cold. MINCE PIE To 3 pounds finely chopped boiled beef add 6 pounds apples, 1 pound suet, 2 pounds raisins. 2 pounds cur- rants, 1 pound citron, 2 ounces candied lemon, 1 ounce mace, 1 ounce cinnamon, 1 ounce nutmeg, 1 pound sugar, 1 pint molasses or syrup, and 1 quart boiled cider. Seed raisins, and chop half of them; chop apples, thoroughly wash currants, and slice citron very thin; mix well, put on fire, and cook slowly until apples are done. Increase amovmt of cider, if too stiff; add sugar, if desired. To each pie, 1 tablespoonful brandy may be added. PUMPKIN PIE Stew pumpkin with just enough water to prevent burning; when soft, rub through colander, and to each coffee-cupful add 1 pint milk or cream, 2 eggs, 1 cup sugar, and flavoring to taste (ginger or mixed spices). GOOSEBERRY PIE Fill crust-lined pie dish with ripe or canned goose- berries, sweeten to taste, dredge with flour or corn- starch, cover, and bake; when ready to serve, dredge with powdered sugar CHERRY PIE Same as for Gooseberry Pie, but omit dredging with flour or cornstarch. APPLE TARTS Cook soft 6 tart apples, rub them through a colan- der, and add 1 well-beaten egg, grated rind and juice of 1 lemon, butter the size of a walnut, and 1 cup sugar; mix well. Line tart pans with French puff paste, fill with the sauce, and bake quickly. PUDDINGS The pudding bag, in the case of boiled puddings, must be scalded before each using, then wrung out and allowed to cool. The bag must be liberally dredged with flour, to prevent sticking, and the pudding must not completely fill the bag, which must be securely tied. If a boiled pud- ding is to be a success, care must be taken that the water is boiling so briskly that dropping in the pudding will not bring it below the boiling point. A teakettle should be kept boiling on another hole of the range, so that none l)ut boiling water need be added, for if the water stops boiling at any time, a soggy pudding will result. FRUIT PUDDING Mix 1 pint sugar with 4 beaten eggs ; add ]/^ pint sour cream mixed with }^ teaspoonf ul soda, a little salt, and 3 cups flour ; stir in 1 quart fruit (blackberries, raspberries, huckleberries, blueberries, or sweet cooked elderberries); place in baking dish and bake. Serve hot, with any pudding sauce preferred. If no sour milk is at hand, use the same quantity sweet milk, stirring 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder into the dry flour, and omitting the soda. APPLE DUMPLING Pare and core medium-sized, juicy, tart apples. Make dough same as for soda biscuit, cut into thick biscuits, roll out, and wrap each piece around an apple, which must first be liberally sugared and dusted with powdered cinnamon or nutmeg. Place in a steamer over kettle of boiling water, and cook until apples are soft. These dumplings, if preferred, may be baked until a deep golden brown, in which case, apples should be sliced. Serve with sweetened cream or hard sauce, the latter, if used, flavored with cinnamon or nutmeg. STRAWBERRY SHORTCAKE Mix 1 good half-teaspoonful soda with 1 large cup- ful sour milk or sour cream ; add 1 beaten egg, 1 table- spoonful sugar, and a little salt ; rub 3 tablespoonfuls butter into 4 cupfuls flour, and mix with the other in- WHOLESOME COOKING : PUDDINGS 495 gredients, Handling as little as possible (as in case of pie-crust, to avoid toughening). Roll into two J^^-inch layers, place one layer on top of the other, and bake in buttered pans. When done, separate the layers while warm, spread with butter, and place strawberries (or peaches, raspberries, or other fruit) thickly sprinkled with powdered sugar, between them. Cover top layer with fruit (if with strawberries, small ends up). Serve hot, dusting with powdered sugar just before bringing to the table. BOrY-POLY PUDDING Roll soda-biscuit dough J^ inch thick and spread to about the same thickness with preserves or ripe fruit, cut fine; roll up like a jelly roll, pinching the ends to keep fruit in, and pinching up the outer edge. Tie tightly in pudding bag and boil for about 1 hour. Serve hot, in slices crosswise, with wine sauce (or other liquid sauce) poured over individual portions. ENGLISH PLUM PUDDING Mix ]4 pound bread crumbs, y^ pound flour, 1 pound each of currants, seedless raisins, brown sugar, and mixed candied peel, 1 teaspoonful salt, 1 tablespoonful mixed spices, and 1 cup chopped suet. When thor- oughly mixed, add 8 eggs, beat for 25 minutes, and stir in 14 pint brandy (if desired). Butter a mold and fill it, and place in pudding bag ; tie rather loosely over top of mold, and boil for 13 hours. BREAD PUDDING Pour 1 quart boiling milk into a dish lilled with bread crumbs; stir in 2 beaten eggs and J^ cup sugar; sprinkle with cinnamon and bake 20 minutes, serve with cream and sugar. The pudding may be improved by the addition of any kind of fruit before baking. RICE PUDDING To 1 cupful boiled rice add 4 beaten eggs, 1 cupful each of sugar and seedless or seeded raisins, a little nut- meg, and 11^ pints milk; bake until milk is like custard, and brown on top. RICE PUDDING WITHOUT EGGS Wash ]4 teacupful rice, and stir, with a little less than a teacupful sugar, the same quantity of raisins, and a teaspoonful of cinnamon or allspice, into 2 quarts milk; bake rather slowly from 2 to 3 hours; stir 2 or 3 times the first hour of baking. APPLE TAPIOCA PUDDING Peel 1^ dozen sour apples; if perfect, simply core, otherwise cut in halves, core, and place halves together; place in buttered pudding dish, sprinkle with sugar, cover with a plate, and bake until well done. Then over them pour 1 cupful tapioca which has been softened by soaking 3 hours in 3 pints water on back of range. Hard tapioca is an abomination; the proper degree of softness can only be obtained by applying a gentle heat for a long time, or soaking over night. The tapioca should be sweetened slightly and flavored with lemon extract. Return to oven and bake until browned on top. Let cool to a jelly, and serve with cream and sugar. BOILED CUSTARD Boil 1 pint cream or rich milk, strain, and when cold mix well with 6 beaten eggs, and sugar and nut- meg to taste. Pour into cups and bake in slow oven for about half an hour. BAKED INDIAN PUDDING Scald 1 quart milk; stir into a little cold milk 1 tea- cupful yellow cornmeal, and add to the boiling milk, stirring until it thickens, but 110 longer, or it will not bake well. When nearly cold, add 2 well-beaten eggs, a pinch of salt, a pint of cold milk, and sweeten with half sugar and half molasses; flavor with nutmeg, if at all; bake about 1 hour, or until water bubbles from the top. Serve hot. STEAMED SUET PUDDING Mix 3 cups flour with 2 cups sweet milk, 1 cup mo- lasses (into which 1 teaspoonful soda has been stirred), and 1 cup each of seeded raisins, currants, and chopped suet. Put in 2-quart basin or individual cups, and steam for 2 hours. Serve with any liquid sauce pre- ferred. CHOCOLATE PUDDING Pour 1 pint boiling milk over 4 ounces grated choc- olate (bitter or sweet). Dissolve 3 tablespoonf uls corn- starch in 1 pint milk, add 3 beaten eggs, 1 teaspoonful vanilla extract, and sweeten to taste. Mix and pour into the milk and chocolate. Boil 1 minute, stirring briskly; pour into cups or molds and set away in a cold place until wanted. This pudding may be improved by the addition of a meringue ( see page 476). VANILLA SOUFFLE Break 3 eggs, put whites aside, and yolks in sauce- pan with % pound sugar, 3 tablespoonf uls flour, some vanilla, the grated rind of a lemon, and 1 pint milk. Cook, while beating, about 10 minutes, until thick. Beat the whites stiff and pour, little by little, into the saucepan, stirring constantly. Pour into a buttered cake mold, and bake in oven not too warm, until it swells and has an attractive yellow color. Serve with granulated sugar sprinkled over, or with a little green- grape or currant jelly on each individual plate. 496 PUDDINGS, SAUCES, ICE CREAM, ICES SNOW EGGS -FLOATING ISLAND Place the yolks of 10 eggs in a saucepan and whip the whites separately. Poach the whites, spoonful after spoonful, in boiling milk (1 quart of milk, with 4 tablespoonfuls sugar and a little lemon or vanilla extract added, boiling quickly in a somewhat shallow pan); lift out carefully the poached spoonfuls of egg, and let drip on a platter. Mix j^olks with 4 tablespoon- fuls sugar, and pour into the same pan of hot milk, stirring constantly until somewhat thickened. Pour into a shallow dish and over the top carefully dispose the poached whites. When cool, place on each " island " a small piece of any preferred jelly. CHARLOTTE BUSSE Take 18 ladyfingers (or oblongs of sponge c°Me V4 X 1 X 3 inches) ; brush edges with white of egg, and with these line the bottom of a plain round mold (placing cakes in form of star, or rosette), likewise standing cakes upright around the edge, placing so closely that the white of egg will cement them. Place in oven for 5 minutes to dry the egg; whip % pint of cream to stiff froth, add 1 tablespoonful powdered sugar, Yi ounce melted gelatin, and 1 teaspoonful vanilla; beat thoroughly and pour into mold, covering top with circular slice of sponge cake. Place on ice. When cold, turn upside down on dish, remove mold, and serve. PICK-UP PUDDING Place in steamer slices of dry cake; while steam- ing, rub together V2 tablespoonful butter and 3 table- spoonfuls sugar, flavor with cinnamon and pour into a Uttle boiling water; thicken with a little cornstarch wet in cold water. Serve 1 or 2 slices to a person, with sauce poured over. SAUCES FOR PUDDINGS Cream Sauce — Beat together 1 yolk and 1 tea- spoonful flour, sweeten to taste, and stir into 1^ cups boiling milk; cool and flavor; may be used in place of cream. Hard Sauce — Cream together 1 cup sugar and 34 pound butter; flavor with nutmeg and add the juice and grated rind of a lemon (for which, if desired, 2 or 3 table- spoonfuls sherry may be substituted). Serve in small individual dish apart, or place a lump on top of each individual service of hot pudding. Vanilla Sauce — Mix 3 beaten eggs, 14 pound butter, and % pound sugar; flavor with vanilla and add a little boiling vvater to thicken. Sherry (or Madeira) Wine Sauce — Place in saucepan 2 tablespoonfuls butter and 1 teaspoonful flour; stir over fire until it thickens, then mix in beaten yolks of 4 eggs, 2 tablespoonfuls sugar, a pinch of salt, and 14 piiit sherry or Madeira, stirring wine in briskly. Let remain on flre until on point of simmering, but ds not let it boil, or it will curdle. For plum, suet, and bread puddings. Brandy Sauce — Warm (but do not melt) 14 pound butter and rub in 1 pound powdered sugar and flavor with a saltspoonful ground cinnamon (and same quan- tity of nutmeg if desired). Beat in 4 tablespoonfuls brandy, and place on ice. White Sauce —Rub to a cream 1^ cup butter and 1 cup sugar; add the beaten white of an egg, ]4 teaspoon- ful extract lemon or rose, and 1 cup boiling water, into which has been stirred 1 teaspoonful cornstarch (in a little cold water). Liemon Sauce — Prepare as for Sherry Wine Sauce above, but grate into the sugar the rind of 1 lemon, sub- stituting for the larger amount of sherry (or Madeira) 1 large wineglassful each of sherry and water and the juice of 1 lemon, strained. ICE CREAMS AND ICES VANILLA ICE CBEAM Place in saucepan 6 to 8 yolks, well mixed with 1^ cups sugar; add 2 teaspoonfuls vanilla, and also add, little by little, while stirring, 1 quart cream. Place saucepan on corner of range, allowing mixture to warm, but not to boil. Cream will be ready when it sticks to the spoon. Cool and freeze. CHOCOLATE ICE CBEAM Same as for Vanilla, but add 14 pound shaved chocolate. STRAWBEBBY ICE Clean 1 quart strawberries and press through sieve (or potato "ricer")- Pour into bowl with % pound sugar, l]/i pints water, and juice of 4 lemons. Mix all and put aside, stirring from time to time until sugar is dissolved. Then freeze. BASPBEBBY ICE Same as foregoing, but use raspberries. LEMON, OBANGE ICE Same as foregoing, but instead of other fruit use grated rind of a lemon or orange, and the juice of 6. STBAWBEBBY, PEACH ICE CBEAM Same as for Vanilla, but when partly frozen, add in freezer whole strawberries or peaches cut up, and revolve briskly to distribute fruit. WHOLESOME COOKIXG : CAKE MAKING 497 CAKES GENERAI. REMARKS The prime essentials for good cake, as for good pastry, are good flour and good butter. Some cooks prefer unsalted b-utter, some butter from which the salt has been washed, some salted butter, and some butter and lard mixed. Always sift the baking powder with the flour (or, in a soda cake, soda must first be dissolved - in warm water or sour cream). Always rub butter and sugar to a cream, adding next the well-beaten yolks of the eggs, then the milk and flour by degrees, and, lastly, the whites, beaten to a stifi' froth. After these are added batter should be beaten as little as possible, on which success in cake making- largely depends. Fruit must always be dredged with flour before adding to batter, or it will settle to bottom. Raisins should be seeded (unless the seedless are used) and chopped (except for fruit cakes, when some should be left whole). Currants, as bought, are full of grit and dirt. They must be washed in many waters in a col- ander, spread on tins to dry, and put away in bulk for future use. Almonds may be quickly blanched by scalding with water, after which skins may be rubbed off. The economical housewife economizes, first of all, her time. There is no need to waste time and risk failure in experimenting with new recipes for plain cakes, when a few standard cakes of all the various sorts needed so readily lend themselves to all possible combinations. STANDARD CAKES sugar and hot water, beating quickly; then add 2 cups 1. Gold Cake -One and one-half cups sugar; ^ Ao"''' '" ''■^'^'^ ^^ teaspoonfuls baking powder have cup butter; 1 cup sweet milk; 2 teaspoonfuls baking been sifted; add small pinch of salt and 1 teaspoonful powder, mixed with 3 cups flour; beaten yolks of 6 eggs. lemon extract; lastly, add whites of eggs, mixing as Flavor with nutmeg or vanilla, or other flavoring if "gbtly as possible. Bake m quick oven, needed for combination. 3. Silver Cake — One and one-half cups sugar; J^ cup butter; 1 cup sweet milk ; 2 teaspoonfuls baking powder; 3 cups flour ; whites of 6 eggs beaten to a froth Cream Cake — Bake desired number of layers of and added last. Flavor with bitter almond or lemon, Silver Cake (No. 2 or 3) and put together with the fol- or as desired. lowing fllling: Place in saucepan 1 pint milk, sweetened 3. Plain (Cup ) Cake -Three eggs ; 1)4 cups to taste; bring to a boil, and stir in 2 beaten eggs, add sugar; i^ cup melted butter; 1 cup water (or milk, in 1 tablespoonful cornstarch mixed with a little cold which case reducing butter by i^); 3 cups flour; 3 tea- water. Let boil up once and flavor with lemon or spoonfuls baking powder ; flavor with vanilla, or as vanilla. Frost with desired icing, or sprinkle upper desired. layer with powdered sugar. 4. Fruit Spice Cake — One cup sugar; 1 cup Orange Cake — Bake desired number of layers of molasses; % cup butter; 1 cup sour milk; 3 cups flour; Plain Cake (No. 3), (using, however, the yolks of 5 eggs 3 eggs; 1 teaspoonful each of soda, nutmeg, and cloves. and the whites of 3. and flavoring with orange extract). (Mix soda with molasses and sour milk.) One-half tea- Put together and frost with cooked icing, in which are spoonful cinnamon; ^cupful citron, chopped; 1 cupful used the other two whites, and to which is added (when each of raisins and currants. a little cool) the grated rind and juice of one orange. 5. Sponge Cake - Pour 1 cup boiling water over Between the layers dispose thin slices of orange, seeded. 2 cups sugar; separate yolks and whites of 4 eggs, and Nougat Cake — Bake desired number of layers of beat both well, the whites to a stiff froth ; add yolks to Silver Cake (No. 2). Put together and frost with cookei COMBINATION CAKES Based upon Standard Cakes as Above 498 CAKES icing to which are added chopped nuts of various sorts. Flavor iciug with a suspicion of bitter almond. Chocolate Nut Cake — This cake has layers of two colors. For light layers, bake from Silver Cake batter (No. 2) ; for dark layers, stir into same batter 1 ounce finely grated chocolate; or, better, use Gold Cake batter (No. 1), adding chocolate. Put together with filling made of 4 ounces melted chocolate, to which are added 2 tablespoonfuls butter, J^ pound sugar, and i^ cupful cream, boil until it forms a soft cake when " tried " in ice water, and stir in 1 cupful finely chopped English walnuts. Frost with same icing, or, better, with a plain chocolate icing, over which are disposed the halves of walnuts. Cocoamit Cake — Bake desired number of layers of Plain Cake (No. 3) and put together and frost with plain uncooked icing to which has been added all of 1 grated cocoanut except enough to sprinkle dry over top and sides. Fig Cake — Bake desired number of layers of Silver Cake (No. 2) and put together with 1 pound chopped figs cooked to a paste with }^ cup sugar and 1 cup water, stirring to make smooth. If desired, only two layers may be baked, and these split to make four. Frost top and sides with plain white icing, cooked or uncooked. L.oaf Cocoanut Cake — Use Plain Cake batter (No. 3), stirring in, the last thing before baking, 1 grated cocoanut. Leave plain, or ice as for cocoanut layer cake. Cliocolate Cake — Use recipe for Silver Cake (No. 2) or Plain Cake (No. 3), the former being daintier, putting together and frosting with plain chocolate icing, or with cooked white icing into which 4 table- spoonfuls grated chocolate have been stirred. Flavor both cake and frosting with vanilla. Hickory Nut Cake — Employ recipe for Plain Cake (No. 3). but if desired use 4 eggs, 2 cups sugar, and 1 cup butter. The last thing before baking, stir through batter 2 cups chopped hickory nut meats, dredged with flour. Flavor to taste and bake in loaf, sprinkling with powdered sugar, or icing if desired. Ribbon Cake has layers of two colors ; if a quantity of cake is being baked, use recipes for Silver and Fruit Spice Cakes (Nos. 2 and 4); for a single cake, fill two layer tins with Silver Cake batter (No. 2), then for the middle layer stir into the remainder of the bat- ter }^ cupful chapped raisins, 14 cupful citron, a little ground cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. Put together and frost top and sides with generous quantity of fruit icing. Rolled Jelly Cake — Bake Sponge Cake (No. 5) in thin sheets in oblong tins. Turn from tin onto a double towel wrung out of cold water; spread the bot- tom with any preferred jelly or jam, roll, and dust out- side with powdered sugar. SPECIAL CAKES Angel Cake — This is a very delicate cake, every condition prescribed for the making of which must be observed, or it will prove a failure. Take 1J4 tum- blers pulverized sugar, or the very fine granulated, 1 tumbler flour, whites of 10 eggs, 1 teaspoonful cream of tartar, and 1 teaspoonful extract lemon or vanilla. Beat whites to a stiff froth; then sift sugar, flour, and cream of tartar together four tintes, so as to make it extremely Hght. Stir in quickly the whites, and with as little beating as possible; put batter in an unbut- terecl tin (one with a pipe in the center to insure even baking is preferable), and bake 40 minutes in a slow oven. Turn upside down to cool, but put something under the edges to prevent its lying on a flat surface and becoming heavy. Tin used for Angel Cake should be used, from the first, for nothing else. Pound Cake — Beat the whites and yolks of 8 eggs separately ; cream together 1 poimd sugar and 1 poimd butter, add the beaten eggs, and stir in 1 pound flour. Flavor to taste and bake in moderate oven, preferably in small pans. Fruit Pound Cake — Same as foregoing, but stir in 1 cup citron and 1 cup raisins (seeded but unchopped), dredged with flour. Rich Fruit Cake — Cream together 1% pounds butter and 2 pounds sugar; add 6 beaten eggs, 1 grated nutmeg, 1 teaspoonful cloves, and 1 teaspoonful cinna- mon, i4 cup milk, and 3 teaspoonfuls baking powder mixed with 2J^ pounds flour. Stir in 2 pounds each of raisins and currants and % pound citron. Bake in a slow oven. Black Fruit Cake— Cream together 1 pound each of brown sugar and butter; add 10 beaten eggs, 2 tea- spoonfuls each of nutmeg and cinnamon, 1 teaspoonful of cloves, and 1 pound browned flour into which 1 tea- spoonful baking powder has been stirred. Stir in 2 pounds each currants and raisins, and Yi pound citron. Bake in slow oven, 2 or 3 days before using. Old - fashioned Pork Fruit Cake — Put in mixing bowl B cups sifted flour, and sift in 4 cups more which have been well browned, mixing well. Chop 1 pound fat salt pork very fine, pour over it 2 cups boiling water, and set to cool. Into a hole in the flour pour 6 beaten eggs, mixed with 1 pound dark brown sugar and 1 teaspoonful each of allspice, cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. Then stir in 1 cupful molasses and 1 pint sour milk, into which 1 level teaspoonful soda hgs been WHOLESOME COOKIXG: CAKES 499 stirred; add the inineed pork and water, and stir in the rtour, adding more if batter is too thin. Lastly, add 1 pound chopped raisins, 1 jjound whole seeded raisins, 1 pound currants, and ^ pound citron, all well dredged with flour. Stir gently through the batter, and bake in a slow oven. When done set away in stone jars, and do not use for four weeks, or more. This cake will keep a year. Quick Sponge Cake — Beat 2 eggs, add 1 cup sugar and 1 teaspoonf ul baking powder mixed in 1 cup flour; add 2 tablespoonfuls boiling water; stir well, but do not beat. Bake in a loaf in shallow tin, or in gem tin. Soft Molasses Cake — Mix 1 cup butter, 1 pint molasses into which 2 teaspoonfuls soda have been stirred, 1 pint flour, M pint milk, 2 eggs, 1 tablespoonful ginger, and enough more flour to make somewhat less stiff batter than for Cup Cake. Bake in moderate oven. Soft Gingerbread — Pour 1 cup boiling water over 1^ cup butter and 1 cup molasses, into which 1 teaspoonf ul soda has been stirred; add 1 teaspoonf ul ginger, a small pinch of cloves, 1 egg, and 2 cups flour. ICINGS FOR CAKES Boiled White Icing — Allow 1 cup of granulated sugar to the white of 1 egg; put sugar in saucepan with 1^ cupful water and boil without stirring until syrup hairs; beat the whites of eggs in bowl to a stiff froth, and when syrup is done, pour it, boiling hot, in a thin stream into the egg, beating vigorously meanwhile, lest the egg cook in lumps. If desired, a pinch of cream of tartar may be added; flavor to taste. Uncooked White Icing — Beat whites of eggs in bowl to stiff froth; then pour in pulverized sugar gradually, beating until smooth, and allowing "4 pound sugar to each egg. Add more sugar if needed, and flavor as desired. Lemon Icing — Beat together the juice and rinds of 1 or 2 lemons, 3 beaten eggs, 1 teaspoonful butter, 1^ glass water, and 2 cupfuls sugar. Boil to a creamy consistency. Chocolate Icing — Mix together 1 cup sugar, 1 tablespoonful butter, }4 cake shaved chocolate, and 4 tablespoonfuls boiling water. Stir until dissolved, boil a little, and flavor with vanilla. Fruit Icing — Add to Boiled White Icing, 1 cup- ful chopped raisins or figs (or both) to each egg used. Chopped blanched almonds may be added if desired. Almond Cream Filling — Whip 1 pint thick cream to the stiffest possible froth; sweeten well, flavor with vanilla, and add 2 cupfuls chopped blanched almonds. Spread thickly between layers very shortly before serving. SMAtl. CAKES, CRULLERS, ANI> COOKIES Spice Cakes — Mix 6 beaten eggs with 4 cups brown sugar and 2 large cups flour; add cinnamon and cloves to taste and 2 level teaspoonfuls baking powder. Drop from spoon onto buttered tin in cakes the size of a hickory nut. Bake quickly. Cocoanut Drops — Mix together the beaten white of 1 egg and 1 cup sugar; add 1 tablespoonful flour and 1 large cup cocoanut; line tin with buttered paper, drop from spoon in balls the size of a hickory nut, sprinkle w-ith powdered sugai-, and bake 20 minutes in slow oven. Macaroons — Mix ^ pound blanched almonds, pounded fine, with a little rosewater to moisten, and Jg pound sugar; add the whites of 2 eggs, beaten to a stiff froth; then, with a little flour on the hands, mold into little cakes, and bake in a moderately hot oven. Walnut Wafers — Mix 3 even tablespoonfuls flour with }4 teaspoonful baking powder, a little salt, 2 beaten eggs, J^ pound brown sugar, and 1 cupful walnut meats broken into small pieces. Drop onto buttered paper and bake slowly to a light brown. Doughnuts — Mix i}4 cups sugar with 2 beaten eggs, 2 cups milk or cream, and flour enough to roll out, mixing 1 teaspoonful baking powder with each cup of flour. Flavor with nutmeg. Roll quite thin and cut out in rings. Fry in a kettle of hot lard to a reddish brown, and roll while hot in powdered sugar. German Crullers — Mix 2 cups sugar with butter the size of an egg, 2 cups milk, 3 beaten eggs, and enough flour to roll out without sticking, allowing 1 tea- spoonful baking powder to each cup of flour. Flavor with nutmeg and cinnamon. Fry in hot lard and dust with powdered sugar. English Wine Cakes — Work 2 pounds leaf lard in the hands on molding board until all the strings are removed; add 2 pounds sugar, a little salt, and flour enough to roll out in a stiff dough. Cut 14 inch thick with small cake cutter, and bake in a moderately quick oven. These cookies should be kept in a stone jar from a fortnight to a month before using. Sugar Cookies — Mix 1^ cup butter with 1 cup sugar, 2 beaten eggs, 3 tablespoonfuls sweet milk, and flour enough to make a soft dough, in which is mixed 1 teaspoonful of baking powder to the cup of flour. Flavor with a suspicion of nutmeg, mix expeditiously, roll thin, sprinkle with coarse gi-anulated sugar (rolling it in lightly), cut out, and bake in a quick oven to a light brown. Molasses Cookies — Mix 1 cup brown sugar with 1 cup lard; add 1 cup molasses and 1 cup boiling water, with 1 teaspoonful soda, 1 teaspoonful ginger, and 14 teaspoonful powdered alum, put in last. Mix as soft as can be rolled and bake in a quick oven. Index NoTE-Publications listed in the various Bibliographies are here indexed by title and author and are indicated by italics. Abdominal breathing, defined. ...298 Aberdeen-Angus cattle 210 grades, as feeders 255 Abortion, Contagious 381 Abortion, defined 371 Abscesses 364 Acre, dimensions of 467 Actinomycosis 350 Actinomycosis, or Lumpy jaw .29,1 Adams, J. H 382 Aeration, see Ventilation. Afforestation 133 African geese 413 Agricultural experiment sta- tions, directory of 404 Agriculture and Chemistry 45 Agriculture, general publica- tions on 45 Aikman, C. M .-....'.'.'48, 280 Air as an element of fertility.... 18 lack of, in soil H Albuminoid nitrogen !.! 10 Alfalfa gQ Alfalfa and the Soil ^"."^ 45 Alfalfa as green manure 34 for the silo 400 Alfalfa, or Lucerne 80 Alkali Lands 46 Alkali lands, amendment of 35 corrected by underdrainage. .. 37 Alkali spots g Alkaline soils, macaroni wheat on 55 salt-bushes for 68 Allen, C. L 108, 134 Allen, George Edward 280 Almond, attacked by crown-gall 182 Amendments to soil 35 American Merino, The 280 American saddler 219 American Standard of Perfec- tion, The 453 American trotter, carriage ^ breed 218 Ammonia, nitrogen as 10 Ammoniacal copper-carbonate solution, fungicide 143 Anconas, fowls 405 Angers quince, stock for dwarf pears 113 Angora Goat, Information Con- cerning the 280 Angora Goat, The 280 Angora Goats, American 280 Angoumois grain-moth, attack- ing stored grain 164 Angus, polled, as feeders 255 Animal Breeding 279 Animal Castration !!!!!!.'..'!381 Animal diseases, see Diseases of Farm Animals. Animal reproduction, laws of....229 Animals, feeding of 238 Anjou pear, heading back for the 124 Annuals for dry forage 65 Anthracnose of grape 195 of raspberry ..196 Anthrax 343 Apiary, Manual of the 281 Aphis black, of peach 182 of cherry 185 of beet 159 woolly, of apple 167 Appetite, depraved, in rumi- nants 306 Apple Culture 134 Apple, diseases of 175 French crab , 112 fruit maggot of 174 fruit black rot of 178 heading back of 123 Apple, How to Grow the 134 Apple, insects injurious to — apple-fruit maggot 1 74 apple-leaf bucculatrix 174 apple leaf-hoppers 168 apple-leaf plant-lice... 167 apple-tree tent-caterpillar... 169 apple twig-borer 1 69 apple-worm 171 bud moth 1 74 buffalo tree-hopper 175 canker-worms, spring 1 72 fall 172 cigar-case bearer 173 codling-moth 171 fall webworm 170 flat-headed apple-tree borer 169 green fruit worms 172 leaf-crumpler 1 70 pistol-case bearer 1 73 plum-curculio 183 red spider 175 round-headed apple-t r e e borer 169 scale insects 186 seventeen-year locust 174 woolly aphis 167 yellow-necked caterpillar.... 170 Apple, leaf-blight of 176 leaf spot of 176 low heads for the 123 pruning the 123 Apple, ripe rot of 178 root-rot of 178 Apple Rots of Illinois 202 Apple rust 176 scab 177 (500) Apple seedlings, nursery for 113 size to plant 123 spraying calendar for 166 stocks, where obtained 112 strong loam for 112 thinning fruit of the...^. 131 tree canker I7g twig blight .....!l78 when injured by cultivation.. 129 Apricot, attacked by crown gall 182 attacked by peach fruit-spot. 183 -^rid climates, emmer for 57 macaroni wheat in 55 meadow, seed mixture for 70 Armsby, H. P 280 Army-worm 147 , fall "";;;;""i47 Army-worm, Fall, and Varie- gated Cutworm 203 Arsenical poisons for biting in- sects 140 Arsenite of lead ......"^141 of lime 141 Artichokes, culture 62 for hogs 62 Ashes, Application of.... 46 Ash, defined 6, 241 taken up by roots 6 Asparagus log Asparagus, culture of ! 99 Asparagus Culture ,,202 Asparagus, insects injuriousto — common asparagus-beetle.. .157 12-spotted asparagus-beetle. 157 rust 162 varieties 100 best varieties 100 Atkinson, G. F 109 Ayrshire cattle, origin Z..!.!213 Ayrshire cattle 213 Azoturia 336 Bach, F. W 279 Bacon hogs 224 characteristics of 259 Bacteria in soil 10 Bacterial rot of onions 163 of legumes 9 Bagworm 199 Bailev. L. H 45, 108, 109, no, i34, iSs, 136 Bailey, L. H., Jr 134 Baits, poisoned 141 Balanced rations, compounding „ of 243 Balls, for medication 301 Bang, B 3g4 Barred Plymouth Rock 409 Bark-beetle, fruit-tree 181 INDEX 501 Barley, culture of 56 smuts 155 varieties 56 Barlow, J. B 453 Barnes and Robinson 108 Barn itch of cattle 353 Barnyard Manure 46 Barnyard manure, best for fruits ......130 effect on rate of evaporation 27 for alkali spots 8 for old orchards 132 for soil ventilation 19 mode of application 29 to add humus 26 with commercial fertilizers... . 32, 33,225 Barrv. P 134 Battersby, J. C 279 Bav. Cleveland 218 Be'al, Stephen.............. 454 Beans, insects injurious to — bean ladybird 158 bean leaf-beetle 158 Nuttall's blister-beetle 158 variegated cutworm 156 western bean-beetle 158 woolly bear 157 Beans, bush 94 pole 93 soy 51 velvet, for dry forage 68 Beans, pole, varieties 94 Beardman, Samuel L 279 Bee Culture, ABC of 281 Beef and Dairy Cattle, Confor- mation of 280 Beef cattle, breeds of 209 cattle, points of 251 condition, ideal 250 form, ideal 249 making, L. H. Kerrick on. ...283 Beef Production, Some Essen- tials in 280 Beef quality, conditions influ- encing 251 Beef quality, ideal 250 Beekeeping 281 Beetles, May 149 Beet pulp silage 401 root-rot 162 Beets, culture 59 for trucking 97 sugar 60 varieties 59 Beets, insects injurious to — beet aphis 1 59 pale-striped flea-beetle 158 red-headed flea-beetle 158 sugar-beet webworm 159 Beeves, judging, on the hoof. .251 Behavior of animals, in diag- nosis 300 Belgian, draft breed 216 Belgian Hare Breeding 281 Berkshire, cross with Poland China ^. 235 fat-hog breed 223 Berry Book, Biggie 134 Italicized titles Bibliographies: Classified and annotated lists of publica- tions on agricultural topics — agriculture, general; till- age, fertilization, irriga- tion, and drainage 45 animal husbandry 279 bees, fish, and miscellaneous animals 281 cattle and dairying 280 construction and manage- ment of silos 403 diseases of farm animals.. ..381 field and forage crops, seed selection, and the eradi- cation of weeds 80 fruit culture and forestry.... 134 injurious insects and plant diseases 202 poultry and pigeons 453 specific vegetable crops, truck farming, and the marketing of produce.... 108 sheep and Angora goats. ...280 swine 281 the horse 279 Biggie. J 134 Bill-bug, corn 146 Bin, contents of, to estimate.. ..466 Birds, beneficial and injurious. 140 Birds, Some Common, in Their Relations to Agriculture. ...205 "Bird's-eye rot" of grape 195 Bisulphide of carbon fumigation. 142 Biting insects, poisons for 140 Bitter-rot of apple 175 Bitting, A. W 382, 384 Bitting, A. W. and R. A. Craig 382 Blackberry, anthracnose of 196 attacked by rose seals 191 pruning the 126 See also Bush Fruits. Black Langshares 409 Black-knot, attacking plum and cherry 184 Black leg 342 Black peach-aphis 182 rot, apple- fruit 178 Black Rot of Cabbage 202 Black rot of grape 195 of quince 185 Black Orpington desirable for caponizing 436 fowls 408 Black, William 280 Bladder, inflammation of 323 Blanching celery 103 Blight, apple-twig 178 Blister-beetle, Nuttall's 158 striped 162 Blister-mites, pear-leaf ....1 79 Blisters for animals 302 Bloating from rape 64 Bloating, see Tympanitis. Blood poisoning 341 Blotch of apple 176 Blue grass, injured by bill-Bugs 146 in mowing land 69 pastures 291 Board measure contents of square timber 462 Boar, for breeding bacon hogs.. 259 for breeding fat hogs 258 Bog spavin 380 Boll worm, cotton 154 Boll Worm of Cotton 202 Book lists, see Bibliographies. Bordeaux mixture, fungicide. ...143 Paris green with 141 Bordeaux wash, fungicide 144 Borer, apple-tree 169 apple twig 169, 193 Cottonwood .:?. 200 grai)e cane 193 hop- vine 155 peach-tree 180 I)oplar 200 cane, of bush fruits 196 currant stem 196 sinuate pear-tree 1 79 squash- vine 161 Bot-flies 358 Bowels, inflammation of 312 Boxes, to compute capacity of.. 466 Boyce, S. S 81 Boyer, M. K 453 Brahma Light, The 411 Brahma fowls 41 1 Braiding wools, defined 273 Brain, anemia of 330 congestion of 330 inflammation of 331 Breed and type distinguished.. .227 choice of a .207 Breeding, advantage of pedi- gree in .- ..232 age to begin, for various ani- mals 237 "Breeding back," or reversion. .232 Breeding boar, selection of 258 crossing in 234 fecundity as factor in.... 233 good foundation stock in 236 good, in mutton sheep 261 grading-up system of.... 234 important data regarding 237 in-and-in ._. 235 law of correlation in 233 law of heredity in 229 line - -■ 236 management of sires in 237 of immature stock 230 of mules 23 1 of seed 74 phenomenon of reversion in. .232 prepotency a factor in 229 relative influence of parents in .230, 231 return for, after parturition. 237 rules for selection in 227 stallion and mare for 257 sterility 367 Usefulness, period of, in va- rious animals 237 variation in 236 Breeds of live stock — cattle 208 horses 215 sheep 219 swine 223 of steers for feeding 255 a>id navies re;fer to publications on ag-ticultural topics 502 PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING Breeds, The Study of 279 Brick, how laid 464 Bridle Bits 279 Brill. Francis 80 Broilers for Profit 453 Broilers, capons 432 profits in raising 432 Bronchitis 327 in swine 357 Brooder chicks, care of 415 Brooding artificial, poultry 414 Brooks, Professor, on feeding of animals 239 Broom Corn and Brooms 108 Brown Swiss cattle 215 Brussels sprouts 101 Bucculatrix, apple-leaf 174 Buckwheat, as orchard cover crop 129 culture of 58 Budded seedlings, pruning of. 114 trees, transplanting 115 Budding, mechanical process ofll8 use in fruit-tree propagation. 114 when performed 114 Bud moth of apple 174 worm, tobacco 153 Buffalo tree-hopper 175 Buff Orpington fowls 408 Buhach (pyrethrum) 143 Bulbs a n d Tuberons-rooted Plants 134 Bumble foot in fowls 447 Burberry, H. A 135 Burpee. W. A 279 Bush beans 94 Bushel, legal weights of 468 Bush Fruits 134 Bush fruits, anthracnose ofl9S, 196 attacked by four-lined leaf- bug 196 attacked by rose scale. 191 cane-borers of 196 cane maggots of 196 pruning of 126, 127 saw-fly of 196 scale insects of 186 thinning of 131 Business Hen. The 453 Butcher's ideal in steer form. .249 of fat and bacon hogs 258 of mutton sheep 259 Butler, T 382 Butterflies and Moths Injurious to Fruit-producing Plants. .202 Butterfly Book. The 202 Butterfly, cabbage 159 C Cabbage, culture of 101 black rot of 202 brown rot of _.163 insects injurious to — cabbage butterfly 159 cabbage flea-beetle 160 harlequin cabbage-bug 159 Cabbages, Cauliflowers, etc 108 Calculi, intestinal 317 Calendar, perpetual 455 California Fruits, The, and Hoiv to Groiv Them 134 Italicized titles "California wash" 142 Calves, diseases of — diarrhea 314 licking disease 306 mouth, ulcers in 304 stomatitis, ulcerative 304 See also Cattle, Diseases of. Canada peas, as orchard green- manure 112 Cane-borers, grape 193 of bush fruits 196 Cane-maggots of bush fruits 196 Canker, apple-tree 178 treatment 178 Canker-worms 172, 200 Capacity of various receptacles, to compute 465, 466 Capillarity, defined 12 Capillary capacity increased by humus 18 movement, retarded by low temperature 19 water, capacity of soils for 12, 22 water supply, effect of un- der-drainage on 16, 36 Caponizing, advantages of 431 care of birds after 438 care of birds before 436 instruments for 433 Capons for Profit 453 Capped hock, in horses 380 Capsules, for medication 301 Carbohydrates, defined 241 Carbolic acid wash 142 Carbon Bisulphide as an Insec- ticide .- 202 Carbon bisulphide fumigation. ...142 Carbon dioxide, poisoning by.. ..402 taken in through leaves 6 Card. F. W 134 Carman, H 453 Carp Culture, ABC of 281 Carpentry, handy rules in 462 Carriage horses, breeds of 218 Carrots, culture 60 for trucking 97 Cary, C. A 382, 383 Catarrh, acute 325 causes 325 gastro-intestinal 306 Catarrhal fever 339 Caterpillar, apple-tree tent 169 attacking cotton 154 forest tent 199 yellow-necked, of apple 170 zebra 159 Cattle, Disease of 381 Cattle, diseases of — - anthrax 343 black leg 342 bot-flies 359 bowels, inflammation of 313 catarrh, gastro-intestinal. ...307 congestion and anemia of the brain 330 croupous pneumonia 329 diarrhea 315 foreign bodies in stomachs 311 gastro-enteritis 313 heart, inflammation of 324,325 Cattle, diseases of — hydrophobia 344 indigestion 307 inflammation of the brain. .331 influenza 340 jaundice 318 licking disease 306 lockjaw 340 lumpy jaw 350 mouth, inflammation of! 304 omasum, infection of 311 parasites 352, 359 peritonitis 319 pneumonia 329 reproductive organs, dis- eases of 366 retention of urine 322 rheumatism 335 stomach and intestines, in- flammation of 313 stomatitis 304 tuberculosis 346 tympanitis 308, 310 wounds 360 Cattle, beef, points of 251 Cattle Breeding 280 Cattle, breeds of — beef 209 dairy 212 dual purpose 215 breeds of, for feeding 255 dairy, points of 256 drenching of 301 Cattle Feeding. Manual of 280 Cattle, growing, feeding of285,289 Cattle, Hydrophobia in 381 Cattle, Market Classes and Grades of 280 Cattle market quotations, sug- gestions for interpreting. ..277 native, feeding of 289 Cattle, Nitrate of Soda Poison- ing of 381 Cattle, normal temperature in. .299 pulse of, how taken 298 Cattle Ranges of the Southwest 80 Cattle, Scabies in 381 Cattle, silage for 387 Cauliflower, culture 102 brown rot of 163 causes of 163 Cecropia 201 Cedar fungus of apple 176 Celery culture 102 Celery for Profit 108 Cement for various uses. ...464, 465 Centigrade thermometer scale. .467 Chains, strength of 469 Chamberlain, W. 1 48 Chaveau, A., and G. Fleming. .3S2 Cheese Making 280 Cheese Making, ABC in 280 Cheese Making in Switserland 280 Chemistry, Agriculture and 45 Chemistry, Elementary 46 Chemistry of Soils and Ferti- lisers 46 Chemistry of the Farm 46 Cherry, attacked by black-knot.. 184 attacked by fruit rot of pluml85 arid names refer to fubhcations on agricultural topics. INDEX 503 Cherry attacked by leaf-spot, see under Apple 176 heading back the 124 heavy sandy loam for 112 insects injurious to — cherry aphis 185 cherry maggot 185 fruit-tree bark-beetle 181 pear-slug 179 plum-curculio 183 scale insects 186 et seq low heads for the 124 Mahaleb stocks for 112 pruning the 124 scab 183 scale 189 seedlings, nursery for 113 stocks, where obtained 112 sweet, Mazzard stocks for. .112 sweet, when injured by Culti- vation : 129 Cheshire swine 224 Chester White swine 224 Cheviot breed of sheep 222 crossed with Leicester 235 Chickens, Apoplectiform Septi- caemia in 453 Chickens, Gapes of 453 Chickens, feeding of 415 standard varieties of 453 Chimneys, computations re- garding 465 Chinch-bug 148 Chinch-bug, The 202 Chlorosis of grape 195 Choking 366 "Cholera," hen 444 Chorlton, William 135 Cicada 174 Cider, apples required for bar- rel of 469 Cider-maker's Handbook 134 Cigar-case bearer 173 Cigarette beetle 153 Cjrcle, area of 465 Circulatory system, diseases of 323 Cistern, contents of 466 Citron, culture 96 Clapboards required for given area 463 Clay, flocculated by lime 35 soils, deep plowing of 14 soils, pore space in 22 to improve sandy roads 45 waterholding capacity of 13 Cleft grafting 117 Cleveland Bay horses 218 Click-beetles 145 Clinton, G. P 202 Close-breeding, a general term 235 Clothing wools, defined 273 Clover as orchard cover crop.. 129 as orchard green-manure 112 for the silo 400 Clover, inoculation of land for 9 nitrogen, contents of 9 plowed under 26 with timothy in rotation 26 Clover Seed. Red 81 Clydesdale horses 216 Italicized titles Clyster, how administered 302 Coach horses, breeds of 217 Coal in bin, to estimate 466 Coarse wools, defined 27i Coburn, F. D 80, 281 Coccidium tenellium 446 prevention of 446 Cockerels, operation of capon- izing 437 Codling-moth 171 Coffin-joint lameness 376 Cold in the head in animals. ...325 Cold soil, wilting of jilants in.. 19 Cole crops, for trucking 105 Coleoptera or Beetles 203 Colics in the horse 315 Collingwood. J 453 Colorado potato-beetle 162 Colt distemper 338 gastro-enteritis of 314 Combination roads 44 Combing wools, defined 273 Commercial fertilizers 33 for orchards 130 with barnyard manure 225 Comparative Anatomy of the Domestic Animals 382 Comparative Physiology 382 Complete fertilizer, defined 130 Comstock. J. H 204, 205 Concrete, cement for 465 Condition of animal in diag- nosis 299 Confused flour-beetle 165 Conservation of moisture 14 method for .^ 14 Consumption 346 symptoms of 347 Cook, A. J 135, 281 Cooking index 470 Cooking, wholesome, without waste 472 Copperas, to kill weeds 78 Copper-sulphate solution, fungi- cide 143 to kill weeds 78 Corn, as fed by L. H. Kerrick..285 blowing over of, due to root- worms , 144 due to stalk-borers 146 Corn, Book of 80 Corn, culture 50 for dry forage 66 for soiling 64 Corn Culture, Indian 80 Corn Culture in the South 80 Corn, dwarfed by root-worms .144 dwarfed, yellowed, and red- dened_ by root-lice 146 evil of injudicious feeding. ...288 for silage, planting and har- vesting of 399 in crib, to estimate 466 insects injurious to — chinch-bug 148 corn bill-bugs 146 corn ear- worm 146 corn root-louse 146 corn root webworm 145 larger cornstalk-borer 146 Corn, insects injurious to — northern corn root-worm.... 144 in storage, attacked by beetle 165 marketing in form of beef, 283, 289, 293 points in selection of seed... 76 selection and breeding of 49 shredding or cutting 67 smut 156 sown with rape 64 sweet, for trucking 106 sweet, injured by ear-worm. .147 temperature for germination 19 Corns, in fowls 447 in the horse 377 Correlation, in breeding, de- fined 233 Corrosive sublimate, fungicide. 144 Cotswold sheep 222 Cotton Boll, Worm of the 202 Cotton, insects injurious to — ■ caterpillars 154 cotton boll-worm 154 cotton-worm 1 53 cutworms 154 grasshoppers 1 54 leaf-hoppers ("sharp-sTioot- ers") ...154 Mexican cotton-boll weevil 154 plant-lice 1 54 Cotton, The Manuring of 81 Cottonseed meal, as fed by Da- vid Rankin 295 as fed by J. P. Stevenson. ...291 Cottonwood borer 200 Cottony maple scale 201 Coughs, cause and classifica- tion 299 Country Homes, Beautifying. ...134 Cover crops for orchards 129 Cow, for dairy, how to judge. .256 Cow-peas 80 Cow-peas as green-manure 33 as orchard cover crop 129 as orchard green-manure 112 culture S3 culture for dry forage 68 culture for soiling : 65 for the silo 400 inoculation of soil for 52 Cow-pea- weevil 166 Craig, R. A., A. W. Bitting and 382 Cranberries, Cape Cod 134 Cranberry Culture 134 Cranberry insects and diseases 196. Cresses 10? Crib, corn in, to estimate 466 Crop diseases in fowls 449 Crops, annual root, for truck- ing : 96 cole, for trucking 101 elements removed from soil by various 24 field, planting table for 73 for the silo 399 grain 49 hoed, in orchards 128 main-season, partial-season.... 84 perennial garden ._. 84 perennial root, for trucking.. 99 and names refer to /•u/>ltcatio7ts on agricultural toprcs. 504 PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING Crops, pulse, for trucking 92 root 58 salad, for trucking 102 soiling 62 solanaceous, for trucking 104 tuber and bulb for trucking 88 vine, for trucking 94 Cross-Breeding and Hybridis- ing 134 Cross-breeding, defined 234 Crown-borer, strawberry 197 Crown-gall of apple 177 of peach 182 Crosier, Henderson and 47 Cucumber, culture 94 dodder of 163 downy mildew of 163 insects injurious to — pickle- worm 161 southern corn-root-worm.... 145 squash-bug 160 striped cucumber-beetle 160 varieties '■ 95 wilt diseases of 163 Cultivation for orchards.. ..128, 132 frequency of 15 necessity for decreased by humus ■.•.-■ 18 Culture, clean, to prevent in- sect ravages 137 "Cuniculus" 281 curb, in the horse 380 Curculio, of plum 183 Currant, diseases of the 196 insects injurious to — currant saw-fly 195 currant stem-borers 196 four-lined leaf-bug 196 pruning the.. 127 thinning fruit of 131 Curtis, D. S 82 Curtis, George W 279 Cushman, S 454 Cutting fodder for silo 401 Cuttings, fruit propagation by.. 119 Cutworm, variegated 156 Cut'cvonn, Variegated, Fall Army Worm and 203 Cutworms 151 attacking cotton 154 Cyclopedia of Horticulture 108 Cylindrical tank, capacity of....465 Cystitis 323 D Dadd, G. H 279 Dahlia, Cultivation of the 134 Dairy Bacteriology, Outlines of2SQ Dairy Calf, The 280 Dairy Cattle, breeds of 213 cattle, points of 256 silage relations for 387 Dairying, American 280 Dairying, The Chemistry of. ...29,0 Dairyman's Manual 280 Darrow, J. W 281 Darwin, Charles 48 DeBruin, M. G 383 Decimal system, principles of the 460, 461 Italicized titles Decker, John W 280 Decomposition promoted by underdrainage 36 warming soil 21 Dehorning Cattle 382 Dehorning ivith Chemicals 382 Delaine merino 220 wools, defined 273 Denitrification 11 Dental Surgery, Veterinary 382 Depraved appetite in ruminants306 Destructive green pea-louse 158 Destructive Locusts 203 Devon cattle 215 Diagnosis of animal diseases.. ..297 Diaphragm, spasms of 299 Diarrhea 314, 315 ordinary, in fowls 446 Digestibility of feeding-stulTs, importance of 242 Digestible nutrients per pound of various feeding-stuffs (table) 244 Digestion and growth 242 processes of 242 Digestive tract, diseases of the.303 Dimon, John 279 Directory of experiment sta- tions 404 Diseases of crops and fruits; See under several food- plants and trees. Diseases of Cultivated Plants in Ohio 203 Diseases of farm animals, clas- sified according to animals affected; See several ani- mals in index. Diseases of farm animals- behavior of animal, in diag- nosis 300 blisters - 302 circulatory system, diseases of the-^ endocarditis 325 palpitation 323 pericarditis 324 clyster, how administered condition in diagnosis 299 coughs, cause and classifica- tion 299 diagnosis, notes on 297 digestive tract, diseases of the— bloating, see Tympanitis, bowels, inflammation of....312 calculi, intestinal 317 catarrh, gastro-intestinal....306 colics in the horse 315 depraved appetite 306 diarrhea 314, 315 enteritis 312 foreign bodies in stomach. .311 gastro-enteritis 312 hair balls, causing colic 317 hernia 318 hoven, see Tympanitis. indigestion ._. 306-8 invagination of the intes- tines 318 lampas of horse 305 Diseases of farm animals — lickii.g disease 306 mouth, ^ inflammation of, see Stomatitis, omasum, infection of, in cattle 311 palate, hard, congestion of. 305 rumen, overloading of 310 rupture 318 salivation 305 scours 314 stomach, inflammation of.. 3 12 stomatitis 303, 304 tympanitis 308, 310 volvulus 317 doses 303 drenching 301 eczematous diseases — grease 335 prickly heat 333 scratches 334 urticaria 334 enemas, how administered. ...302 excretions, character of, in diagnosis , 300 friction, medication by 302 hypodermic injections ....301 infectious diseases — anthrax 343 black leg 342 blood poisoning 341 glanders 345 hog cholera 348 hydrophobia 344 influenza 339 inhalation, medication by. .302 lockjaw 340 lumpy jaw 350 strangles 336 swine plague 348 tuberculosis 346 lameness — causes, symptoms, and treatment of 373 examination for 372 liniments for 302 liver, disease of the — jaundice 318 locomotor organs, diseases of the — articular rheumatism 335 azoturia 336 founder (laminitis) 337 muscular rheumatism .... ...335 medicine, administration of.. 301 mucous membranes, state of, in diagnosis 300 nervousness, as a symptom. .300 nervous system, diseases of the — brain, congestion and ane- mia of 330 cerebro-spinal meningitis. ...332 inflammation of ......331 spinal cord, inflammation of ^.......333 parasites of domestifc ani- mals — bot-flies 358 cattle, parasites of 352, 359 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. INDEX 505 Diseases of farm animals — horses, parasites of 3S1, 358 mules, parasites of 351 sheep, parasites of ....354, 359 swine, parasites of 356 peritoneum, disease of the — • peritonitis 319 poultices 302 pulse, in diagnosis 298 recognizing various diseases. 297 rectal injections 302 rectum, medication per 302 reproductive organs, diseases of the — abortion 371 afterbirth, retention of 369 leucorrhea 368 milk fever 369 sterility 367 teats, sore, scabby 369 udder, congestion and in- flammation of 368 vagina, inflammation of. ...367 vagina, prolapsus of 370 womb, inflammation of 366 respirations, in diagnosis 298 respiratory tract, diseases of the — bronchitis 327 catarrh, acute 325 cold in the head 325 croupous pneumonia 328 lungs, hemorrhage from the 327 pleurisy 329 respiratory organs, exam- ination of, in disease 325 skin, condition of, as symp- tom 299 spasms of diaphragm, breath- ing in 299 stupidity, as a symptom 300 swellings, in diagnosis 300 syringe, fountain, use of 302 temperature, in diagnosis 299 "thumps," breathing in 299 urinary organs, diseases of the — bladder, inflammation of. ...323 kidneys, aff'ections of the.. 331 purulent nephritis 322 urination, frequent 321 urine, examination of 320 urine, retention of 322 wool, condition of 299 wounds — • classification 360 general treatment 361 harness injuries 363 Diseases of Field and Garden Crops 203 Diseases of poultry, see Poul- try Diseases. Diseases of Poultry, The 453 Disk, use of 14 Disking of meadows 69 of pastures 71 Ditches, filling, in underdrain- age 41 location of 37 Ditching for underdrainage 40 Dodder of cucumbers 163 Dog, Diseases of the 382 Dog, how drenched 301 hydrophobia in '. 344 normal temperature in 299 peritonitis in the 319 pulse of, how taken 298 Dollar, J. A. W 383, 384 Dorset horned sheep for lamb production 223 wool production ,..222 Dorset horned sheep 222 Doucin stocks for dwarf applesll3 Downing, A. J 135 Downy mildew of cucumber....! 63 of grape 195 of squash 163 Draft horses, breeds of 216 Drainage of highways 43 natural for orchard Ill system, planning 37 Drainage for Profit and Health 46 Drains, depth of 38 frequency of 41 Draws, drainage of 37 Dreer, H. A 80, 109, 110 Drenching 301 Drilling, advantage over broad- casting 55 Dropsical swellings, in diagno- sis 300 Drought, conservation of moist- ure in 27 quick-growing crops against time of 62 meadows killed by 69 Dry forage, annuals for 66 matter iu foodstuffs, defined. .240 season, utility of underdrain- agi; in 17 Drugs, volatile, how adminis- tered 302 Dual purpose cattle, breeds of.. 215 Duck Culture 453 Ducks and Geese 453 Ducks, breeds of, see Poultry. notes on care of 411 Ducklings, feeding of 412 DuHays. Weld and 279 Dxm, Finlay 384 Duroc-Jersey swine 224 Dust-mulch, see Soil-mulch. Dutch Belter cattle 214 Dwarf trees, stocks for 113 Earth and stone roads 44 roads, construction of 43 Ear- worm, corn 147 Eczematous diseases 333 Egg plant, culture 105 potato flea-beetle injurious to. 162 Eggs and Their Uses as Foods 453 Eggs, feeding for 420 Eight-spotted forester 194 F.lcmcntary Chemistry 46 - Elevation, desirable for or- chard Ill Elhvanger, H. B 136 Elm leaf-beetle 200 Elm scale 201 Embanking Lands from River Floods, Principles and Practice of 46 Embden geese 413 Emerson and Flint 45 Emmer, culture 58 for arid climates 57 Emulsion, kerosene 142 Endocarditis 325 Energy, food sources of 241 English Shire horses 216 English Thoroughbred horses.219 Enteritis 312 Entomology for Beginners 203 Eradication of weeds 77 Eruptions, summer .> 333 Ether extract, defined 241 European fruit-scale 188 Evaporation a cooling process.. 21 checking by tilage 14, 15, 16 in too open soil 18 rate of, reduced by manure 18, 27 Evolution of Our Natii'e Fruits, The 134 Excretions, character of, in diagnosis 300 Experiment stations, agricul- tural, directory of 404 Exporters, demands of, in prime steers 252 Eye Diseases of Domestic Ani- mals 382 P Fahrenheit thermometer scale.. 467 Falconer, William 109 Fall Army Worm and Varie- gated Cutworm 203 Fall canker-worms 172, 200 plowing for corn 50 webworm of apple 170 Familiar Fish and How to , Catch Them 281 Family Horse, The 279 Farcy 345 Farm animals, breeding of 225 diseases of, see Diseases of Farm Aanimals. feeding of 238 leading breeds of 207 selection of 249 Farm Boy, Letters to the 279 Farm Buildings, Practical Sug- gestions for 46 Farm Drainage 46 Farm garden, the 83 Farm Gardening and Seed Grozving 80 Farm Poultry 453 Farm wood lot, care of 132 Farmer's Veterinary Adviser, The 382 Farming, literature of 1 Fat, food-sources of 241 in foodstuffs, defined 241 Fat hogs, breeds of 223 characteristics of 258 points for judging 259 weight- 223 Italicised titles and names refer t-o publications on agricultural topics. 506 PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING Fecundity, conditions affecting..233 Feeders, buying of 289 choice, characteristics of 253 native, preferred by J. P. Stevenson 289 Feeding, Professor Brooks on. .239 See also Stock Feeding. Feeding Animals 279 Feeding, breeds of cattle for.. ..255 Feeding, brooder chicks 415 live stock, business of 227 Feeding of Animals, The 279 Feeding of ducklings 412 Feeding of Farm Animals, The279 Feeding of goslings 413 of poultry 420 of poultry, injudicious....419-423 of young turkeys 414 poultry for eggs 419 standards, German 246 tables, how to use 247 Feeds and Feeding 279 Feeds, mixed, to compute cost of 466 Felch, I. K 454 Felting wools, defined 274 Fencing, stuff required for 463 Fertility, air as an element of 18 a relative term 24 Fertility, Loss of 46 Fertility reduced by loss of humus 25 Fertilization, economy in 33 F^ertilizer, complete, defined 130 commercial vs. natural 32 for orchards 130 mixed, to compute cost of.. 466 Fertilisers, Availability of 46 Fertilisers, Composition and Use of 46 Fertilisers for Market-Garden Crops 45 Fertilisers, Home-Mixing of... 46 Fertilisers, Mixing of 46 Fertilizing constituents of food- stuffs (table) 244 removed from soil by various crops (table) 24 Fevers, infection of amosum in 311 inflammation of mouth in....303 Field crops and grasses, plant- ing table for 7i cultural directions for 49 diseases of 155 insects injurious to 144 Field peas, culture 53 Fine soils, advantage of hu- mus in 28 Finley, Root and 281 l-'ire blight of pear 180 Fires in timber 133 Fire-worm, cranberry 197 Fish Culture, American 453 Fiske, G. B 109, 454 Fiske, Mosse and 109 Fits, James 110 Fixative, for poisons 141 Flat-headed apple-tree borer. ...169 Flatulent colic 315 Flax, culture 58 Italicised- titles Flax Culture 80 Flax for Seed and Fiber 80 Flax-sick soil 58 Flea-beetle, cabbage 160 grape-vine 192 pale-striped 158 potato 162 red-headed 158 tobacco 153 Fleece, condition of in disease. .299 in various breeds 272 Fleece, tags in 275 Fleming, George 383 Flies, lace-winged, beneficial... 138 syrphus, beneficial 138 Flint, Emerson and 45 Flocculation, defined 35 Floriculture, Practical 134 Florida Fruits 134 Flour beetle, confused 165 moth, Mediterranean 164 Flower Garden, The Beautiful....\Z^ Fodder and Forage Plants 80 Fodder, cutting for silo 401 Fcetal membranes, retention of. 369 Foodstuffs, choice of 240 composition of 240 fertilizing constituents of (table) 244 various, digestible nutrients in (table) 244 Forage, dry, annuals for 65 Forage Plants 80 Forage Plants Other Than Grasses 80 Forage Plants, Southern 80 Forbes scale 189 Forbes, S. A 203 Forcing Book, The 108 Forcing boxes, use in trucking ot rhubarb 100 Foreign bodies, causingchoking.366 causing indigestion 306 causing salivation < 305 in stomach of cattle 311 Forest Nursery, The 134 Forest Planting 134 Forest tent-caterpillar 199 Forester, eight-spotted 194 Forestry for Farmers 134 Forestry hints 132 Forestry, Outlines of 134 Forestry, Practical 134 Forestry, Piimer of 134 Formalin fungicide 144 treatment for grain smuts... 155 Foul Brood, Lazvs Relative to..2S\ Founder 337 Four-lined leaf-bug 196 Four-spotted bean-beetle 166 Fowls; Care and Feeding 453 Fowls, Roup in 453 Fowls, see also Poultry. various, period of incuba- tion in 237 Free water, defined 12 removal by underdrainage.... 16 French coach horse 217 crab apple 112 pear stocks 112 Freezing, effect of, on soil 22 Friction, medication by 302 Friedberg and Frohner 383 Frost, effecting orchards Ill danger from, on low land..lll Fruit Culture 134 Fruit Culture and Forestry....! 11 Fruit Culturist, The Americanize Fruit, dried, quantity of fresh fruit for 469 Fruit Garden, The 134 Fruit gardens, cultivation for.. 128 Fruit Grower, The Practical. Ai'^ Fruit Growing, The Princi- ples of 135 Fruit-maggot of apple 174 Fruit Packages 135 Fruit-scales 186 Fruit-spot of peach 183 of quince 180, 186 Fruit, thinning of 130 worms, green 172 Fruit-tree bark-beetle 181 Fruit trees, budded, transplant- ing of 115 diseases of 166 insects injurious to 166 low heads for certain 114 number to acre 120 planting of 128 pruning of 121 seedlings of 112, 113 wounds in 120 Fruits and Fruit Trees of America 135 Fruits, propagation and plant: ing, table for 120 cuttings and layering .....119 Fruits, Recommended, Ameri- can Pomological Society's Catalogue of 136 Fruits, spraying of 166 Fuller, Andrezv S 134, 135, 136 Full feed, caution in approach- ing 291 Fulton, A. W 281 Fulton, J. A 136 Fumigation for insects 142 Fumigation Methods 203 Fungicides — ammoniacal copper-carbon- ate solution 143 Bordeaux mixture 143 Bordeaux wash 144 copper-sulphate solution 143 corrosive sublimate 144 formalin 144 Fungi, how injurious to plants 138 mode of reproduction ..131 Fungi, Some Edible and Poi- sonous .,. 1 10 Fvingous diseases, immunity of orchards from, on hillsideslll Fungus, shot-hole of plum 184 G Galling by harness 363 Galloway cattle 211 cross with Shorthorn 235 Galloways, as feeders 255 age for feeding 255 condition for feeding 255 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. INDEX 507 Gapes in fowls 443 Garden, arrangement of 84 Garden crops, diseases of 162 insects injurious to 156 Garden Making 108, 135 Garden webworm 159 Gardening, essentials in 83 Gardening for Pleasure 135 Gardening for Profit 108 Gardening, see also Trucking. Gas insecticides 142 Gastro-enteritis 312 Gastro-intestinal catarrh 306 Geese, breeds of, see Poultry. Geese, notes on care of 413 German coach horse 218 German feeding standards 246 Germination, hastened by roll- ing 16 temperature for 19 Germination of Seeds as Af- fected bv Commercial Fer- tilisers .'. 80 Germs in soil ^.... 10 Gestation calendar, for various animals 238 period of, in various animals. .237 Gillet, C. P 384 Ginseng 108 Gipsy moth 198 Gipsy Moth in America 203 Glanders 345 Glanders 382 Glcason. Oscar R 279 (jluten meal, as fed by L. H. Kerrick 287 Goat, normal temperature in. ...299 pulse of, how taken 298 Gobaux, A., and G. Barrier. ...3S2 Gaff. E. S 48, 136 Good roads, how made 42 importance of 42 Good Seed, The Farmer's In- terest in 80 Gooseberry, pruning the 127 red-headed, flea-beetle of ...158 Goslings, feeding of 413 Government agricultural pub- lications, how to obtain.... 1 Grade animals, importance of pedigree in 232 Grade for tile laying, to es- tablish 39 Grading-up, defined 234 Grafting, mechanical process of.116 months for 117 season for 116 uses in fruit-tree propaga- tion 115 wax for 119 Grain-beetle, saw-toothed 165 square-necked 165 Grain-cropping, continuous 26 Grain crops 49 Grain in bin, to estimate 466 Grain-moth, Angoumois 164 Grain smuts, general treat- ment for 155 Grain Smuts, The 203 Grains and seeds in storage, insects injurious to 164 Italicized titles Grains, insects injurious to — army- worm 147 cutworms 151 fall army-worm 147 grasshoppers 1 49 wire worms 145 See also Various Crops. (jrains. weeds in 78 Granary weevil 165 Grange, E. A. A 382, 384 Granulation, healing by 360 Grape, anthracnose of 195 "bird's-eye rot" of 195 black rot of 195 chlorosis of 195 Grape Ciiltiirist, The •. 135 tirape, diseases of the 194 downy mildew of the 195 form for planting 125 Grape Grower's Guide, The. ...135 Grape-g rolling in the South 135 Grape-groxnng and M'ine-mak- ing 135 (irape, insects injurious to — apple twig-borer 169, 193 eight-spotted forester 194 grape-berry moth 194 grape cane-borer 169. 193 grape leaf-folder 194 grape leaf-hopper 193 grape root-worm 192 grape-vine flea-beetle 192 grape-vine phylloxera 193 grape-vine saw-fly 194 red-headed flea-beetle 158 rose-chafer 194 scale insects 186 et seq Grape, Kniffin system of train- ing 125 powdery mildew of the 195 pruning and training the....l25 spraying of the 195 thinning fruit of the 131 trellises for the 125 "yellow leaf" of 195 Grape-training, American 135 Grasses, American 80 Grasses and Clover 80 Grasses, field crops and, plant- ing table for 73 insects injurious to — army- worm 147 beet aphis 159 corn bill-bugs 146 cutworms 151 fall army-worm 147 grasshoppers 149 white grubs 149 wire worms 145 Grasses, The True 80 Grasshoppers 149 attacking cotton 154 Gravel roads 44 Gray African geese 413 Grease in the horse 335 Green arsenoid 140 bait, for insects 141 Green, fruit-worms 172 Greenhouse Construction 108 Greenhouse Management 109 Green-manure, cow-peas as 33 Green-manuring 26 for soil ventilation 19 Green, S. B 110 Green, Seth 281 Greinier, T 108, 109, 453 Griffiths. A. B 48 Gross, Emanuel 81 Ground-beetles, beneficial to farmer 138 Grout silos 394 Grubs, strawberry 197 white 149 Guernsey cattle 213 Curler, H. B 280 Gypsum for alkali lands 8, 35 H Hackel, Edward 80 Hackney horses 218 Hair balls, causing colic 317 Hair for plastering 465 amount required for barrel of lime 465 hundred yards lathing 465 Hampshire sheep 221 Hand, Thomas J 280 Handy rules and useful infor- mation 456 Harcourf, Helen 134 "Hardening off" before trans- planting 86 Hardin, L. S 280 Harlequin cabbage-bug 159 Harness injuries 363 Harris, Joseph 281 Harrow, for orchards 129 use of 14 Harrowing to ventilate soil 18 Hart, C. A ._, 203 Hatton, IV. J : 136 Hay in stack, to estimate 466 mow, capacity of 466 Heading back, to hasten fruit- fulness 124 Pleads, low. for pears, cher- ries, and plums 114 Healing of wounds, modes of.. 360 Heart, inflammation of 324 palpitation of ....323 Heat, food sources of 242 generation of, in soil by de- composition ..; 21 pimples 333 Heats, duration of, in various animals 237 Hedges. Windbreaks, and Live Shelters 135 Heinrich, Julius J 136 Hellebore 143 Hemiptcra, or Bugs 203 Hemorrhage from the lungs....327 Hemp 81 Hen "cholera" 444 Henderson and Crosier 47 Henderson, PeferAOS, 134, 135,136 Henry, W. A 279 Herbert, Henry William 279 Heredity, defined 229 Hereford cattle 210 Herefords, as feeders 255 Hernia 318 J- a}id names refer to fiitblicatiovs on agricultural tp/>ics. 508 PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING Hessian fly 148 Hessian Fly, The 203 Hessian fly, wheats resistant to 54 Hewson, William 46 Hexamer, F. M 108 Hickman, J. F 382 Hilgard, E. W 81 Hillhouse, Lizzie Page 135 Hillsides, boggy, drainage of.. 38 Hinebauch, T. D 382, 383 Hive and Honey Bee 281 Hoare, E. W 384 Hocks, "tied in" 381 Hog cholera 348 Hog Cholera 382 Hog Cholera and Swine Plague.3S2 Hog, Diseases of the 382 Hog-raising in the South 281 Hogs, artichokes for 62 bacon, selection of boar 259 breeds of 223 fat, selection of boar 258 following steers „ 291 Hogs. Soaps as a Cause of Death Among 382 Holland turkeys, white 414 Holland, W. J 202 Holstein-Friesian cattle 214 Home Fishing and Home Waters 281 Home Pork Making 281 Honey Bee, The 281 Hop Culture in California 81 Hop plant-house 155 Hop. The 81 Hopkins and Rumsey 204 Hopper, contents of 466 Hopperdozer, use of 150 Hops 81 Hop-vine borer 155 Horn worm 152 Horse-radish 100 Horse Book, American Re- formed ^79 Horse Book, The American Farmers' 279 Horse Breeding 279 Horse, Diseases of the 382 Horse, diseases of the — azoturia 336 bog-spavin 380 bot-flies 358 bronchitis, acute 327 capped hock 380 catarrh, acute 325 catarrh, gastro-intestinal....306 catarrhal fever 339 cerebro-spinal meningitis.. ..332 coffin joint lameness 376 colics 315 colt distemper 338 congestion and anemia of the brain 330 corns 377 croupous pneumonia 328 curb 380 diarrhea 315 founder frequent urination 321 gastro-enteritis 312 Italicized titles Horse, diseases of the — glanders 345 grease 335 harness injuries 363 heart, inflammation of 324, 325 hydrophobia 344 indigestion 306 inflammation of the brain. .331 influenza 339 jaundice 318 lameness, examination for.. 372 laminitis Zil lampas 305 lockjaw 340 lumpy jaw 350 Monday morning disease. .336 mouth, inflammation of 303 muscular rheiimatism 330 navicular disease 376 palpitation of the heart 323 parasites 351, 358 patella, luxation of 378 peritonitis 319 pink-eye 339 prickly heat 333 quartercracks 377 reproductive organs, dis- eases of 366 retention of urine 322 ring-bone 375 sandcracks Till scratches 334 shoulder lameness 373 sidebones 376 sore throat 325 spavin 379 splints 374 sprains 365, 374 "stifle out" 378 stomach and intestines, in- flammation of 312 stomatitis 303 stomatitis, ulcerative 303 strangles 338 teething 305 "thumps" 323 wounds 360 Horse, How to Judge a 279 Horse, Influenza in 383 Horse Keepers, Hints to 279 Horse, Lameness of 383 Horse, normal temperature in. 299 points of 257 pulse of, how taken 298 selection of 257 Horse, Sound and Unsound 383 Horse, Stonehenge on the 279 Horse. The 279 Horse, The Clinical Diagnosis of Lameness in the 382 Horse, The Exterior of the 382 Horse, The Foot of the 383 Horse, The, Hozv to Buy and Sell 279 Horses and Horse Breeding, American 279 Horses and Mules, Colic in 383 Horses and Mules. Lameness »m..383 Horses, breeds of 216 carrots for 60 Horses, Cattle, Sheep and Szvine 279 Horses, Enzootic Cercbritis of. .393 Horses, how drenched 301 silage for 388 Horses. Millet Disease in 383 Horses, The Examination of, as to Soundness and Se- lection as to Purchase 383 Horseshoeing 383 Horseshoeing, A Hand Book of3S3 Horticulture, Annals of 135 Horticulture, Cyclopedia of 108 Horticulture, General, Hand Book of 136 Horticulturist's Rule Book 135 Hotbeds, location and construc- tion of 86 Hot-water treatment for grain smuts 155 how used 155 when used 155 Household Insects 203 House Plants and How to Suc- ceed with Them 135 Houston, E. H 134 Hoven, see Tympanitis. Howard, L. 204 Howden, Peter 279 How to Make the Garden Pay. .109 Humid climates, meadow seed mixture for 70 pasture seed mixtures for 72 Humus 46 Humus, as conserver of moisture 18 contents of soils, how in- creased 29 defined 6 effect of, on soil conditions.. 19, 21, 25-29 Hunt, Morrow and 48 Husmann, George 135 Hydraulic rams 469 Hydrocyanic-acid gas 143 Hydrophobia 344 Hygroscopic water, defined...... 1 2 Hypodermic injections 301 Icterus 318 Immature stock, breeding of.. ..230 Implements for gardening 85 for orchard tillage 129 In-and-in-breeding, defined 235 Incubation, period of, in vari- ous fowls 237 Incubators 414 Indian-meal moth 164 Indigestion in animals 306 causes of 306 Infectious diseases of domestic animals 338 Influenza 339 Inhalation, medication by 302 Injections, rectal 302 Injurious Insects, Laws Con- cerning 205 Inoculation for black leg 342 for lockjaw 341 for tuberculosis 347 of soil 9, 52 and flames refer to pttblications on agrictdtural topics. INDEX 509 Insecticides against biting in- sects 140 against sucking insects 142 gases and other 142 Insect Book, The 204 Insect Enemies of the Grape... .204 Insect Life 204 Insects Affecting Domestic Ani- mals 204 Insects Affecting the Cotton Plant 204 Insects .Affecting the Tobacco Plant 204 Insects, beneficial 138 gnawing and sucking distin- guished 138 injurious, parasites of 138 Insects Injurious to Farm and Garden Grot's 204 Insects Injurious to Fruits 204 Insects Injurious to Garden Crops 204 Insects Injurious to Garden and Orchard Crops 204 Insects Injurious to Ornamen- tal Plants 204 Insects Injurious to Staple Crops 205 Insects Injurious to Stored Grain 164 Insects injurious to various crops and fruits. See un- der several food-plants and trees. Insects Liable to be Distribut- ed on Nursery Stock 205 Insects, Study of 205 Intensified farming on high- priced lands 284 Interest, to compute 462 Intestinal worms. .351, 352, 354, 356 Intestines, function in digest- ive process 243 invaprination of 318 Investigations Concerning In- fectious Diseases Among Poultry 453 Iron essential in soil 7 Irrigation for the Farm. Gar- den, and Orchard 135 Irrigation in humid climates... 13 Irrigation, Winter Orchard 46 Itch, barn, of cattle 353 Texas, in horses 352 J Japanese pear stocks 112 Jarchow, H. N 134 Jaundice 318 symptoms of 319 Jersey cattle 212 Johnson, S. W _ 47 Johnson. W. G 203 Jones, B. IV 81 Jordan, IV. H 279 Judging Live Stock ....279 Judging of live stock — choice feeders, characteris- tics of 253 dairy cow, how to judge... .256 hogs, bacon 259 Italicized titles Judging of livestock- hogs, fat 258 horse, how to judge 257 judging beeves on the hoof251 points of beef cattle 251 points of dairy cattle 256 points of the horse 257 points of the pig 259 points of the sheep 259 prime steers, characteris- tics of 249 sheep, mutton, characteris- tics of 259 sheep, mutton, selecting ram to breed 261-267 June bugs 149 Juniper, harboring apple-rust.... 176 K Kafir-corn 81 Kafir-corn, culture 51 for soiling 63 Kains, Maurice G 108 Kerosene emulsion 142 Kerrick, L. H., on beef making283 Kidneys, diseases of 321 Kidney worm in swine 357 Killebrczv and Myrick 82 King, Franklin H 45, 47 Kitchen Garden of One Acre. .109 Kniffin system of grape-train- ing 125 Kohlrabi culture 61, 102 Lace-vvinged flies, beneficial 138 Ladybird, bean 158 Ladybirds, beneficial 138 Lambs, diseases of — licking disease 306 mouth, ulcers in 304 See also Sheep. Lameness, coffin joint 376 examination for 372 locating 372 shoulder 373 Laminitis 337 Lampas of the horse 305 Landrcth, Burnett 109 Landscape Gardening 135 Langshan crosses for caponiz- ing 409 fowls 409 Langstroth. L. L 281 Larger Applc-Tree Borers 205 Lathing, materials for 465 Law, James 382, 384 Lawns, injured by fall army- worm 147 by white grubs 149 making and care of 106 seeding of 107 Laxative, root crops as a 58 Layering, fruit propagation bv..ll9 Lead, arsenite of 141 Leaf-beetle, bean 158 elm 200 Leaf-blight of apple 176 of seedlings, prevention of.... 114 Leaf-crnmpler of apple 171 and names refer to publications on agricultural t»pics. Leaf-curl of peach 182 Leaf-folder, grape 194 Leaf-hopper, grape 193 apple 168 attacking cotton 154 Leaf-spot of apple 176 of quince 180, 186 Lecanium of the peach.... 186, 191 Leeks 92 Legal weights per bushel 468 Leghorn, undesirable for ca- ponizing 410 fowls 416 Legumes as green manure 33 as nitrogen-gatherers 9 as orchard cover crop 129 in rotations 30 roots of, in soils 23 Leguminosae 92 Leguminous Plants 81 Leicester sheep 222 cross with Cheviot 235 Lettuce 102 Leucorrhea J..368 Level culture, to conserve moisture 16 land, drainage of 37 Liautard, A 381, 385 Lice, on cattle 353 on hogs 357 on horse and mule 351 on poultry r.450 Licking disease in ruminants. 306 Lilac, attacked by stem-borers. .196 Lime, Application of 46 Lime, arsenite of 141 for masonry 464 for plastering ,465 sulphur, and salt wash 142 to amend soils 35 Lincoln sheep 223 Line-breeding, defined 236 Liniments 302 Literature of farming 1 Little peach disease 183 "Little Turk" 183 Liver, diseases of the 318 Live-stock, breeds of 207 feeding, business of 227 judging of 249 Lockjaw 340 Locomotor organs, diseases of the 335 Locust, attacked by walnut scale 202 seventeen-year 174 Lodeman, E. G 136, 205 Lodging of oats, remedy for.... 56 London purple 140 Long, Elias A 136 Loose smut of oats and wheat.. 156 Lowland, danger from frost on 111 Lugger, Otto 202, 203, 205 Lumbering, handy rules in 462 Lumpy jaw 350 Lungs, hemorrhage from the.... 327 Lung worms 353 Lupton, J. Irvine 383 Luxation of the patella 378 510 PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING M Macadam roads '^4 Macaroni wheat, culture 3S Maggot, of cherry. ...^ l»^ cane, of bush fruits jvo Mahaleb cherry stocks H- Main-season crops o^ Mange in horses •'^^ Mangel beets - ^^ Mangel-wurzels, see Beets. Mangolds, see Beets. Manual of Agriculture -.- ^3 Manure, barnyard, best loi" fruits '"^^ liquid, absorbents for 31 See also Barnyard Manure. Manurial values of various feeding-stuffs (table) 244 Manuring of Cotton, The 81 Maple scale, cottony ^ -^^i Maple Sugar and the Sugar jBiish ^^^ Mare for breeding, selection of.257 Marianna plum stock ;— H, Market animals, breeding of.-..^^/ Market Gardener, The i oung.Wi Market Gardening and Farm Notes - ^09 Market quotations, cattle, "ow to interpret 277 Marketing broilers , 4^/ Marketing Farm Produce 109 Marsh, C. E 384 Marshall, C. E 381 Martin, George A ^^^ Marvin, Charles ^'^ Masonwork, handy rules for. ...404 Mastication, function in digest- ive process 24J Mathews, F. S J34 May beetles Maynard, S. T ""ViV Mayo, N. S 381 McCarthy, E McClure, Robert 279 Meadoivs and Pastures in the Middle Eastern States 81 Meadows, nurse crops for 70 Meadows, seed mixtures for.... 70 Meal-moth, Indian -;•--.,■ 1°; Measure, apothecaries fluid 4i/ circular ^^° cubic y/- dry 457 linear - 456 Melons, insects injurious to— southern corn-root-worm.... 145 squash-bug - ■ J°0 striped cucumber-beetle loU Melons, wilt diseases of 163 Meningitis, cerebro-spinal i^^ Merino. American ^i^ Delaine -■ /■^" grades, common stock °* _ America ^68 Rambouillet .2-0 Metric and common weights and measures, equivalents.. 459 system at a glance 460 Metritis ..-.. .- fo^ Mexican cotton-bol weevil. l34 Mexican Cotton-boll Weevil 205 Milch Cows, Guenon on -■— ,^, Mildew, downy |oJ powdery, of grape i^s Miles E P ^ Miles', Manley 48, 279, 403 Milk and its Derivatives, Ex- amination of -80 Milk and its Products 2S0 Milk fever ■■■■- --^^^ Milk, Its Nature and Compo- sition 280 Milk, quarts and pounds of 469 Miller, H. H 28 Miller, H. O. ■- 281 Millet, culture for dry forage.. 67 Millets. The ,°l Mills, Wesley • .---^s^ Milo Maize, culture for dry Miiller, George -. 382 Mushrooms, Edible and Poison- ous ]na^' Mushrooms, Hoiv to Grow JOS' Muskmelons -. =«^^ Mutton and wool-growing com- bined, profit in - 268 Mutton. Raising Sheep for ^m Mutton ram, selecting....... .261-26/ sheep, characteristics of 259 Myrabolan plum stocks 112 Myrick, Herbert 80, 81. 454 Myrick, Killebrezv and 82 N Nails required for various pur- poses . to the pound. 4b4 kinds and sizes •— i "Narrow" nutritive ratio, de- fined ■■■■■■ Native cattle, feeding of ( 463 .464 243 289 disease 376 .300 Navicular Nephritis, purulent Nervousness, symptoms ease of dis- forage 67 .149 .134 383 .281 Mineral elements of plant food 6 Minnesota experiment station, humus tests at .- 26 Minnesota. Orthoptera of 205 Miscarriage, causes of ■i'J- defined -/''I Mixed farming, advantages ot 31, 225, 2oo feeds, to compute cost of 466 Moisture, conservation o{.A4 et scq in soil, effect of humus on... 27 eflfect of underdramage on 36 Mo Her H ^^^ Monday morning disease 336 Monrad, J. H 280 Moore, V. A 38^ Morris, Thaddeus 2»i Morrow and Hunt 48 Morton, Scott and 48 Mosse and Fiske 1^^ Nervous system, diseases of the330 Neumann, L. G... 38J New Industry, A - 280 Niles, E. P 384 Nitrates, defined '" nitrogen as j" "Nitre farming" J" Nitric acid, nitrogen as jU Nitrification, defined 1" Nitrogen, forms in soil 9 free ^" gathered by legumes..... -. 9 lack of in soil, how indicated 11 Nitrous acid, nitrogen as 10 Nodular disease ^^^ Noils, defined 274 Northern corn-root-worm .144 linear ;■_- j^ji/jji >."" - '" ., " j lOQ liquid 457 Moth, brown-tailed --1^^ 456 square .- y" surveyor's, or chain 450 surveyor's surface -456 Measures of length, occasional 456 of surface, occasional 456 of weight, see Weight. Meat Inspection •■ .•-383 Mechanical structure of soil... -J Medicine, administration of 301 Mediterranean flour-moth 164 Melons, How to Grow for Market 10^ Melons, insects injurious to pickle-worm grape-berry Nubbins of corn, due to root- worms ■ ^Zl Nurse crops for meadows /u Nursery Book, The .....U5 Nursery for fruits, preparation of 113 Nut Culture in the United States 135 Nut Culturist. The ,;; Nutrients, disgestible, per lb. of various feeding-stutts (table) .^.-.. .- 244 Nutritive ratio, defined 24^ Nuttall's blister beetle 15» .IS .161 white-marked tussock .._. -.-.197 Mouth, sore, in various animals. 30J Mows, capacity of 466 Mucous membranes, state oi- in diagnosis 300 Muffle-heads, of hops 155 Mulch, to check evaporation 14, 15, 16 Mules, breeding of -•.-■231 diseases of, see Horses, Dis- eases of. parasites of 351 O culture Oats and field peas, for dry forage , o8 as orchard cover crop l^o chinch-bug, injurious to..; 148 culture ^^■ lodging of ^° loose smut of .- i^" varieties compared 53 vetches with «» Obstetrics. Bovine ^°^ Obstetrics. Veterinary oxii "italicized titles and names refer to fuhlications on agrictdUtral tofics. INDEX 511 Obstructions in intestines, col- ics due to...., 317 Oestrum, duration of, in vari- our animals 237 Oil meal, as fed by L. H. Ker- rick ; 287 Omasum, infection of, in cattle311 Onion, bacterial rot of 163 culture 91 sets 92 Onion Culture 109 Onions for Profit 109 Onions, Hozv to Raise Them Profitably ; ,..109 Onions, slippery ..163 varieties 92 Operative Veterinary Surgery, Manual of 383 Orange, pruning the 127 Orchard, nursery for 113 care after maturity 130 cover crops for 129 cultivation for 128 fertilizers for 130 hoed crops in 128 old, renovation of 132 planting and tilling the 128 preparation of soil for 112 site for Ill, 138 soil for Ill spraying in 131, 166 tillage implements 129 Orchid Cultivator's Guide Book, The Amateur 135 Organic matter in foodstuffs, defined 241 nitrogen , 10 Ornamental Gardening for Americans 136 Orpington fowls, Buff 408 Orthoptera. or Grasshoppers, etc., of Minnesota 205 Osier Culture 136 Osmosis 7, 19 Outlet for drain, selecting 37 "Overdone" cattle, cause of condition 288 Overflow on lands, prevented by underdrainage 37 Overloaded stomach, colic due to 316 rumen 310 Oxford breed, result of cross. .235 Oxford sheep 221 t)xygen, necessary in soil 18 taken in through leaves 6 Oyster-shell scale 189, 202 P Packard, A. S 203 I'ackers, demands of, in prime steers 252 Paige, J. B 381 Paint for given area 463 Palate, hard, congestion of, in horse 305 Pale-striped fiea-beetle 158 Palmer, J. A _...109 Palpitation of the heart 323 Paradise stocks for dwarf ap- ples 113 Italicized titles Paragrene 1-40 Parasites and Parasitic Diseases of Domestic Animals 383 Parasites, external, of domes- tic animals. .351, 353, 355, 357 intestinal, of domestic ani- mals 351, 352, 354, 356 of injurious insects 138 Parents, relative influence of, in breeding 230 Paris green 140 Bordeaux mixture with 141 Parsnips 98 Parsons, Samuel B 136 Partial-season crops 84 Parturient paresis 369 Parturition, return for breed- ing after 237 Pasteurisation 28G Pasteur treatment for hydro- phobia 345 Pastures, permanent 71 seed mixtures for 72 Patella, luxation of 378 Pathology and Therapeutics of the Domestic Animals 383 Peach, brown rot of 183 crown gall of 182 Peach Culture 136 Peach, diseases of 182 fruit-spot 183 Peach Gro7ci:ig for Market 136 Peach, heading back the 124 Peach, heavy .sandy loam for.... 112 insects injurious to — ■ black peach-aphis 182 bud moth 174 fruit-tree bark-beetle 181 green fruit-worms 172 peach-tree borer 180 plum-curculio 183 s:ale insects IS6 et seg Peach Leaf-curl 205 Peach, leaf-curl of 182 lecanium 186, 191 little-peach disease of 183 low heads for the 124 pits, planting of 113 pruning the 124 seedings, nursery for 113 size to plant 124 spraying calendar for 180 stocks 112, 113 thinning fruit of the 131 Peach Twig-borer 205 Peach-yellows 182 Peach Yellows and Peach Ros- ette 205 Peacock, Laurence K 134 Peanut Plant. The :.. 81 Peanuts: Their Culture and Uses 81 Pear, attacked by apple-fruit black rot 178 by apple-twig blight 180 by leaf-spot 176 blight 180 clay loam for 112 Pear Culture for Profit 136 Pear, diseases of 180 fire-blight of 180 Pear, heading' back the 124 insects injurious to — apple-tree tent-caterpillar.... 169 cigar-case bearer 173 codling-moth 171 green fruit worms 172 pear-leaf blister 179 pear-slug 197 pistol-case bearer 173 plum-curculio 183 red-headed flea-beetle 158 scale insects 186 et seq sinuate pear-tree borer 179 low heads for the 123 pruning the 123 seedlings, nursery for 113 stocks, where obtained 112 thinning fruit of the 131 when injured by cultivation.. 129 Peas, Canada, as orchard green- manure 1 12 cow, as orchard green-ma- nure 112 cow, culture 52 field 53 for trucking 92 insects injurious to — destructive green pea-louse 158 Nuttall's blister-beetle 158 variegated cutworm 156 woolly bear 157 Peas-and-oats for soiling 64 for dry forage \ 68 Pea-weevil igs Pedigree in grade animals 232 what constitutes a good 233 Pekin ducks 411 Peppers 105 Perch er on Horse, The, in Amer- ica and France 279 Perennial crops 84 Pericarditis 324 Periodical Cicada ......205 Peritonitis 319 Perpetual calendar 455 Persian insect powder 143 Persimmons 136 Phosphates 46 Phylloxera, grape-vine 193 Physical defects in soils, how remedied 22 Physics of Agriculture 45 Pickle- worm 161 Picklock wools, defined 273 Pig, points of the 259 Pig, The 281 Pigeon Keeper, Practical 453 Pigeon Queries 453 Pigs, breeds of 223 selection of boar 258 Pineapple Growing 136 Pink-eye 339 Pin worms 251, 356 treatment for 356 Pistol-case bearer 173 Pitch of roof, defined 463 Placenta, retention of 369 Plant Breeding 109 Plant Culture, Principles of. ...136 Plant-feeding, retarded by low temperature 19 and na)nes refer to pulilicatiovs on agricttlturOt topics. 512 PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING Plant food, abundance neces- sary 7 early availability 8 elements of 6 potential and available 7 Plant tissue, building of 7 Planting, of timber 133 preparation of seed for 76 table for field crops and grasses •. li table, for fruits 120 the orchard 128 Plant-lice, ajiple-leaf 167 attacking cotton 154 hop 155 Plants and General Horticul- ture, Handbook of 136 Plants, number to acre 120 propagation of 112 Plants, The Propagation of 136 Plastering, materials for 465 Pleurisy 329 Plowing, deen, to increase water-holding capacity ^4 for corn 50 for potatoes 88 to conserve moisture IS to ventilate soil 18 Plum, attacked by peach-vel- lows 182 by shot-hole fungus 184 Plum, diseases of 184 heading back the 124 heavy soil for 112 insects injurious to — ■ bud worms, see Bud Moth. .174 Plum — insects injurious to — case-bearers 173 fruit-tree bark-beetle 181 green fruit worms 172 plum - curculio ("L i 1 1 1 e Turk") 183 scale insects 186 et seq Marianna stocks for 113 peach stocks for 112, 113 pockets, fruit disease of 185 pruning the 124 ripe fruit rot of 185 scab 183 seedlings, nursery for 113 spraying calendar for 183 yellows of 184 Plums and Plum Culture 136 Plumb, C. S.. 80, 403 Plymouth Rock for caponizing.-407 fowls 407 varieties of 407 Plymouth^ Rock, The 453 Pneumonia 328 Points of beef cattle 251 dairy cattle 256 the horse 257 the pig 259 the sheen 259 Poisoned baits 141 Poison fixative 141 Poisoning from sorghum 63 Pciisoneus Plants in the United States, Principal 81 Poisonous Plants of the South.. 81 Ital'ci^?d tides Poisonous Plants, Thirty 81 Poland-China, cross with Berk- shire 235 swine 223 Pole beans 93 culture of 93 rules for planting 93 support for 94 Polled Durham, cattle 212 Popcorn 106 Popular borer ■. 200 Potato Culture 109 Potato Culture. ABC of 108 Potato Diseases 205 Potato, insects injurious to — Colorado potato-beetle 162 flea-beetle 162 stalk-borer 161 striped blister-beetle 162 wireworms 145 Potato Scab 46 Potato scab 163 Potatoes for Profit 109 Potatoes, Irish, culture 61, 88 sprouting in storage 90 sweet, propagation and cul- ture 90 varieties of 88 Poultices for animals 302 Poultry Appliances and Handi- craft 436 Poultry Architecture 437 Poultry Book,. Revised Com- plete 1.437 Poultry Culture .'.437 Poultry Culture, Practical 437 Poultry Keeper, Profitable 437 Poultry, Profits in 436 Poultry Raising, Five Hun- dred Questions and An- swers in 437 Poultry Raising on the Farm. .437 Poultry Record Book, Money in 437 Poultry, The Illustrated Book of 436 Poultry, beginning 405 Poultry, breeding houses 428 Poultry, breeds of — chickens 405 ducks 41 1 geese 413 turkeys 414 caponizing — age and size for 436 advantages of 431 best breeds for 436 care of, after oneration....438 cockerels, oreration on 437 imperfect — slips '. 438 incision, where made 436 instruments for ^ 433 losses in operation 432 not cruel 433 not difficult 431 operation, the 436 profits of 432 table for 435 care for egg production 419 causes of disease 440 Poultry, diseases of — bumble foo^ 447 cholera 444 colds 441 corns 447 crop bound 449 diarrhea, white 446 egg bound 450 gapes 443 lice 450 limberneck 447 mites 450 roup 442 scaly leg 448 feeding — brooder chicks 415 of ducklings 412 for eggs 420 of goslings 412 sprouted oats 422 health and disease of 439 houses 423 end, elevation of 423 front, elevation of 424 hardvyare for 428 lumber required -. 427 miscellaneous supplies 428 practical 423 Poultry (illustrations of) — Black Langshan 408 Bronze Turkeys 412 Buff Orpingtons 407 Embden Geese 411 Indian Rvmner Ducks 411 Light Brahmas 410 Pekin Ducks 410 Plymouth Rock 406, 407 Rhode Island Reds 409 White Leghorns 409 White Holland Turkeys.. ..41 2 White Orpingtons :...408 Wyandottes 407 Poviltry, possible profits and ex- pense of ._ 428 Poultry, selection for breeding.. 439 Poultry, value of thorough- bred 430 warmth as an egg-producer....408 Powdery mildew of grape 195 Potvell. E. C 135 Poivell. E. P 135 Powers, Stephen 280 Prairie soil, humus content of.. 26 Prepotency, defined 229 Prickly heat 333 Primary union, healing by 360 Prime steers, characteristics of. 249 market dem'ands in 252 Principles of Agriculture 45 Prize Gardening 109 Prolapsus of the vagina 370 Propagation and planting table for fruits 120 Propagation of fruits 112 Protein in foodstuffs 241 Pruning Book, The 136 Pruning, general method of 122 object of 121 of budded seedlings 114 old orchards 132 •season for ,.„,„...<... ••!..... ...121 and names refer to fiiblwaUo'S on agrieuliural topies* INDEX 513 Pruning the apple 123 tlic blackberry 126 the cherry 124 the currant 127 the gooseberry .• 127 the grape 125 the orange 127 the peach 124 the pear 123 the plum ,.124 the quince 127 the raspberry 126 to produce low heading 114 Publications, government agri- cultural, how to obtain 1 on agricultural topics, see Bibliographies. Puddling, defined 14 prevented by humus 18 prevented by underdrainage.. 17 prevented by vegetation 23 Pullets, penning of 419 Pulse crops, for trucking 92 Pulse, in diagnosis 298 Pumpkins, as field crop 62 for trucking 96 Pure bred animals, breeding of.227 Putnam's scale 188 . Pyaemia 341 Pyrethrum powder .....143 a Ouartercracks 377 treatment '. 377 Quick, E. E 436 Quicksand, increasing cost of tiling 42 Q nimby' s New Bee Keeping. ...2%\ Quince, attacked bv apple rust.. 176 by black rot....'. 178, 185 by leaf-blight 176 by pear-blight 180 by shot-hole fungus 184 Quince Culture 136 Quince, fruit-spot of 180, 186 attacked by plum-curcuIio....l83 leaf-spot of 180, 186 pruning the 127 Tust 176, 186 scale insects of l?>6 et scq Quinn, P. T 136 Quotations, cattle market, how to interpret 277 R Rabbit Keeper. Practical 281 Rabies 344 Radishes 99 cabbage flea-beetle, injurious to 160 Rafters, length of, to compute.. 463 Rambouillet Merino 220 Ram. mutton, selection of.. 261-267 Rams, hydraulic 469 Range cattle, feeding of 293 Rankin. David, farm operations of (financial statement). ...296 on range cattle feeding 293 Rankin, James 453 Rape, bloating from 64 culture for soiling 64 Italicized titles Raspberry, thinning fruit of 131 anthracnose 196 insects and diseases of the.. ..196 pruning the 126 scale 191 Rations, compounding of 243 daily, German standards for. .246 Reaumur thermometer scale....467 Rectal injections 302 Rectum, medication for 302 how administered 302 Red Clover Seed 81 Red-headed flea-beetle 158 Red Polled cattle 215 Red spider 175 Refrigeration and Cold Stor- age 279 Registry, no criterion of excel- lence 233 Remsen, Ira J 46 Renovating old orchards 132 Reproductive organs, diseases of the 366 Respirations, in diagnosis 298 Respiratory organs, examina- tion of, in disease 325 Reversion, defined 232 Reynolds. M. H 384 Rheumatism 335 Rheumatismal pleurisy 329 Rhode Island Red fowls 409 Rhubarb 100 Rhubarb Culture 109 Rhubarb Culture, The New 109 Rice- weevil 165 Ridged culture 16 Ring-bone 375 Ring worm of cattle 353 Ripe-rot of plum 184 of apnle 178 Roads and road making 42 Roadster, selection of 257 Roberge, David 383 Roberts, I. P 47 Robinson, Barnes and 108 Roller, use of 16 Rolling, effect on soil ventila- tion 18 Rolling land, for orchard Ill Roof, span and pitch of 463 .shingles for 463 Root. A. I „ 281 Root and Finley 281 Root crops, annual, for truck- ing 96 artichokes 62 as stock food 58 beets .-. 59 carrots 60 Root Crops for Stock 279 Root crops, kohlrabi 61 perennial, for trucking 99 potatoes 61 rutabagas 61 turnips 60 See also Tuber and Bulb Crops. Root development, enlarged by underdrainage 16, 17, 36 Root grafting 116 Root, L. C 281 Root-louse, corn 146 Root penetration, depth of 17 Root-rot of apple 178 of beets 163 Roots, obstruction in tile 41 office in ventilating soi| 19 of fruit trees, care in hand- ling 128 physical effect on soil 23 Root-worm of grape 192 corn 144, 145 Ropes, strength of 469 Rose-chafer 194 Rose Culture, Secrets of 136 Rose scale 191 Rose. The 136 Rotation of crops 26. 29, 30 best time for manure in 50 factor in insect control 137 for flax-sick soil 58 in gardening 84 made profitable by animal production 226 Rot. bacterial, of onions 163 black, apple-fruit 178 of grape 195 of quince 185 brown, of cabbage, etc 163 of peach 183 ripe, of plum 185 of apple 178 of root 178 Roughage, evils of sale from farm 29 importance of in beef-makir.CT.287 Rough lands, loss of heat from 20 Round-headed apple-tree borer. .169 Round worms 351, 354, 356 Roup, in fowls 442 Rumen, overloading of 310 symptoms of 310 Rumsev, Hopkins and 204 Rupture 318 Ruslncorth. IVilliam A 280 Russell. H. L 280 Rust of apple 176 of asparagus 162 of quince 186, 176 of wheat -. 156 Rutabagas, culture 61, 98 Rye, culture of „.57, 64 smut of 156 Saddle Horse, Tlic 279 Saddle horses, breeds of 219 Salad crops, for trucking 102 Salivation 305 Salmon, D. E 453 Salsify 98 Salt-bushes, culture for dry for- age 68 Salt, for steers 291, 295 Salts, e.xcess of, remedied by underdrainage 37 soluble, importance of 7 Sandcracks 377 Sanders, A. H 280 Sanders, J. H 279 Senders, William 204 Sanderson, E. Dwight 204 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics. 514 PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING Sand, fine, waterliolding capac- ity 13 for masonry 464 for plastering 465 Sandy roads, how improved 45 San Jose scale 186, 187 San Jose Scale 205 San Jose Scale, Experiments •with Insecticides for the. ...203 Saw-fly, attacking bush fruits.. 196 currant 195 grape-vine 194 Saw-toothed grain-beetle 165 Scabby legs in fowls 448 Scab of the apple 177 of the cherry 183 of the plum 183 of potatoes 88, 163 of sheep 355 Scale insects 186, 201 Scheele's green 140 Schreiner, S. C. C 280 Scientific farming, David Ran- kin on 293 Scions, cutting and storing 117 Scott and Morton 48 Scours 314 Scratches 334 Scurfy scale 190 Seed-bed, early preparation of 20 Seed, breeding and selection of 74 corn, selection of 76 development, drain on vital- ity 130 for lawns 107 Seed, Good, The Farmer's In- terest in 80 Seed Growing, Farm Garden- ing and 80 Seed, home-grown 74 improvement and modifica- tion of 74 mixtures for meadows 70 for pastures 72 Seed, potatoes, cutting 89 preparation for planting 76 "running-out" of 76 selection, requisites in 76 Seedlings, care of before and after budding 114 growing of 112, 113 leaf-blight of 114 Selby, A. D 203 Selection in breeding, rules for.227 Semi-arid climates, pasture seed mixtures for 72 Semj^ers. Frank W 48 Septicaemia 341 Septicaemia, Apoplectiform, in Chickens 453 Sewell, Edward 383 Shade trees, insects injurious to— bagworm 199 brown-tailed moth 199 canker-worms 1 72 canker-worms, fall and spring 200 cecropia, attacking walnut 201 Cottonwood borer 200 cottony maple scale 201 Italicized titles Shade trees, insects injurious to — elm leaf-beetle 200 elm scale 201 fall webworm 170 forest tent-caterpillar 199 gipsy moth 198 oyster-shell scale 202 poplar borer 200 pruning of 121 scale insects, see alsol86 et seq walnut scale 202 white-marked tussock-moth. 197 Shade Trees, Three Insect En- emies of 206 Shaler, N. S 47 "Sharp-shooters," attacking cot- ton 154 Shaw. Thomas....47, 80, 81, 82, 279 Shearing of sheep 275 Sheep, breeds of 222 and their fleeces 272 condition of wool in disease. .299 continuous care of, requisite. 270 Sheep, Diseases of 383 Sheep, diseases of — anthrax 343 bot-flies 359 catarrh, gastro-intestinal....308 cerebro-spinal meningitis....332 gastro-enteritis 313 indigestion 308 jaundice 318 licking disease 306 lockjaw 340 mouth, inflammation of 304 parasites 354, 359 peritonitis 319 reproductive organs, dis- eases of 366 retention of urine 322 stomach and intestines, in- flammation of 313 stomatitis 304 tympanitis 309, 310 wounds 360 Sheep Feeding 280 Sheep, Foot Rot of 384 Sheep, how drenched 301 Sheep Industry, History and Present Condition of the. ...2Sl Sheep, manure of .j,... 31 mutton, characteristics of 259 normal temperature in 299 points of 259 pulse of, how taken 298 rape for 64 Sheep Scab 384 Sheep-shearing 275 Sheep, silage for 389 Sheep, The ._ 280 Sheep, The Domestic 280 Sheep, ticks infesting 35 turnips for 60 washing of, injurious 274 well-bred, most profitable for mutton 261 Shingles required for roof 463 Shippers of prime steers, de- mands of 252 Shire, English, draft breed 216 Shocking corn for dry forage.. 66 Shorthorn Cattle 280 Shorthorn cattle 209 cross with Galloway 235 Shorthorns, as feeders 255 Shot-hole fungus of plum 184 Shoulder slip 365 lameness 373 Shredding corn for dry forage.. 67 Shropshire sheep 221 Sidebones in the horse 376 Side grafting 117 Siding, clapboards for 463 Silage, A Book on 403 Silage, as a bowel regulator....386 beet-pulp 401 for horses 388 for sheep .- 389 for steers 388 for swine 389 mixed 401 rations for dairy cows 387 Silo, alfalfa for the 400 best form of 392 bottom of 392 brick 393 building, general considera- tions in 390 capacity of 390, 391 clover for the 400 corn for the 399 cow-peas for the 400 cylindrical, to compute ca- pacity of 465 economies effected by means of 385 filling the 401 foundation of 392 grout 394 location of 392 material for 393 rectangular wooden 398 sorghum for the 400 soy beans for the 400 specifications for .....396 square, to compute capacity of 466 stave ; 395 stave, to find staves required for 465 stone 393 wall of 392 Silos and Silage 403 Silos. Ensilage, and Silage 403 Sinuate pear-tree borer ...179 Sire and dam, influence of, in breeding 231 Sires, management of 237 "Sit-fasts" 364 Skin, conditions of, in disease. .299 Slingerland. M. V 206 Slippery onions 163 Sloughs, drainage of 37 Slug, of pear 179 Small Fruit Culturist 136 Small fruits and vines, diseases of 192 insects injurious to 192 Smith. F 384 Smith, I. B 203 Smith. IV. G 203 and names refer to publications 07i agricultural topics. INDEX 515 Smuts of grain, general treat- ment for 155 Snapping-beetles 1 45 Snyder, Harry 46, 280 Sod-bound condition 69, 71 Sodding, for lawns 107 Soil, aerated by underdrainage 35 amendments 35 capillary capacity increased by humus 18 color of 20 elements removed by various crops 24 fertility, determining factors 7 maintained by stock 225 flax-sick - 58 for gardening and trucking.. 83 forms of nitrogen in 9 inoculation of 52 may be too open 18 moisture, effect of humus on 27 effect of underdrainage on 36 mulch, to check evaporation 14, 15 native prairie — 26 origin of 5 particles, size of 21 porosity due to humus 18 preparation of, for lawns 106 preparation of, for orchard. .128 temperature 19 ventilation of 18 warmed by agency of hu- mus 21, 29 warmed by underdrainage.... 36 water, an element of fertility 11 water, conservation of 14 waterlogged 11 Soiling crops 62 Soiling Crofts and the Silo 81 Soils, alkaline, macaroni wheat on SS salt-bushes for 68 capacity for capillary water.. 12 fine, advantage of humus in.. 28 for orchards Ill liming of 35 physical defects in, how rem- edied 22 pore space in 22 waterholding capacity in- ' creased by underdrainage.. 17 Soja beans, see Soy Beans. Solanaceous crops, for truck- ing 104 Sore mouth, in various animals303 Sore necks 363 Sore throat in horses and swine 325, 326 Sorghum as a Forage Plant 81 Sorghum, culture 63, 67 for the silo 400 poisoning 63 Sorghum Syrup Manufacture.. 81 Southdown sheep 220 Southern corn-root-worm 145 South slope, advantage of 20 Soy Bean, The 81 Soy beans, benefit to crops fol- lowing 51 culture 52, 65, 68 Italicized titles Soy beans, for the silo 400 ground, for feed 51 Span of roof, defined 463 Spreading of disease, in poul- try 440 Spasmodic colic 316 Spasms of diaphragm 299, 323 Spavin 379 Speltz, not the same as emmer.. 57 Spider, red 175 Spinal cord, inflammation of. ...333 Splints in the horse 374 Spooner, Youatt and 279 Sprains 365, 374 Spraying, arsenical jjoisons for.140 of fruits — the apple 166 the cherry 185 the grape 195 the peach 180 the pear 178 the plum 183 the quince 185 Spraying of Plants 205 Spraying old orchards 132 proper method of 132 utility of, in orchard 131 Spring-beetles 145 Spring canker-worms 172, 200 Spring wheat, culture 54 plowing for corn 50 Square-necked grain-beetle 1 65 Squash 96 downy mildew of 163 insects injurious to — Southern corn-root-worm.... 145 squash-bug 160 squash-vine borer 161 striped cucumber-beetle ....160 wilt diseases of V63 Stable Guide, The American Gentlemen's 279 Stack, hay in, to estimate 466 Stalk-borer, larger corn 146 potato 161 Stalk-worm, tobacco 145, 151 Stallion for breeding, selection of 257 Stand of grain, poor, due to cold soil 20 Stave silos 395 Steele, J. H 383 Steers, breeds of, for feeding.255 followed by hogs 291 growing, feeding of 285, 289 native, feeding of 289 on full feed at twelve months28S prime, characteristics of 249 reasons for fattening 251 salt for 291, 295 silage for 388 summer feeding of 291 winter feeding of 294 Stem-borers, currant 196 Sterility 367 Stevenson, T. P., on native cat- tle feeding 289 Stezi'art, Elliott W 279 Stewart, Hevrv 47, 135, 280 Stezvart. Robert 279 "Stifle out" : 378 and names refer to publications on agriculturat topics. Stinking smut of wheat 156 Stock Breeding 279 Stockers, see Feeders. Stock farming, kinds distin- guished 227 Stock feeding — • balanced rations, com- pounding of 243 breeds of steers for feed- ing 255 cattle, silage for 387 chemistry of 239 close housing not desirable283 Corn Belt facilities for beef-making 283 corn, marketing in form of beef 283, 289, 293 digestibility, importance of.242 digestible nutrients per pound of various feed- ing-stuffs (table) 244 digestion and growth 242 early feeding for best beef.285 energy, heat, and fat, food- sources of 241 feeding tables, how to use. .247 fertilizing constituents of various foodstuffs (table) 244 flesh-forming foods 241 foodstuffs, composition of. .240 choice of 240 full feed, caution in ap- proaching ^ 291 future of 239 German feeding standards. .246 hogs, following steers 291 horses, silage for 388 manurial values of various feeding-stuffs ....244 marbled flesh, feeding for.. 285 native cattle feeding, J. P. Stevenson on 289 "overdone" cattle, cause of condition 288 range cattle feeding, Da- vid Rankin on 293 rate of gain in hogs 291 rate of gain in steers.. 291, 295 rations, daily, German standards for 246 rations fed by L. H. Kerrick..287 roughage, importance of 287 salting of steers 291, 295 sheep, silage for 389 shredded fodder for steers... .294 silage, feeding of 386 steers, age and condition of, for feeding 255 steers on full feed at 12 months 285 steers, silage for 388 summer feeding 291 swine, silage for 389 winter feeding 294 Stock, injury to timber by 133 judging of, see Judging of Live Stock. raising, advantages of 31, 225, 283 516 PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING Stocks for budding or gi'aft- ing, growing of 112 Stomach, function in digestive process 243 inflammation of 312 worms 354 Stomatitis 303 Stone, Livingston 281 Stone silos .....393 Stored grains and seeds, ni- sects injurious to 164 Store,; F. H 45 Strangles ■ 338 Strawberry crown-borer 1^/ Strati'bcrry Culture, ABC of.\36 Strawberry Cultiirist ....136 Strawberry, insects and dis- eases of the 196 Straw, evil of burning 29 Striped blister-beetle 16- cucumber-beetle 160 Strong, W. C ..-.■■ 134 Stupidity, symptom of disease.30U Subsoiling, to increase water- holding capacity 14 to ventilate soil 18 Succulent foods, causing bloat- ing 309 Suck-fly, tobacco 153 Suffolk Punch, draft breed 217 Sugar Beet, Economic , Ento- mology of the 203 Sugar-beet machinery, for plant- ing soy beans 52 Sugar beets, culture 60 Sugar Beet Seed, Selection in Grozving 81 Sugar Beet, The 81 Sugar-beet webworm 159 Sugar Industry, American 81 Sunlight, agency in plant growth 6 Surface water, removal by drainage 38 Survival of the Unlike ....^ 136 Swedish turnips, see Rutabagas. STveet Potato Culture 110 Sweet Potatoes ....110 Swellings, symptomatic of dis- ease 300 Swine, breeds of 223 diseases of — catarrh and sore throat 326 catarrh, gastro-intestinal 308 gastro-enteritis 313 hog cholera 348 hydrophobia 344 indigestion 308 lockjaw 340 lumpy jaw 350 mouth, inflammation of 304 parasites 3^6 peritonitis ....319 reproductive organs, dis- eases of .....366 stomach and intestines, in- flammation of 313 stomatitis 304 swine plague 348 wounds 360 Itahiized titles Swine Husbandry 281 Swine, judging of 258 normal pulse in 298 normal temperature in 299 Swine Plague and Hog Chol- era, Serum Treatment of...-3S4 Swine, points of 259 rape for 64 silage for 389 Symbiosis, defined 9 Symptomatic anthrax ..342 Syringe, fountain, use for ani- mals 302 Syrphus-flies, beneficial 138 T Taft, L. R 108, 109, 135 Tags in fleeces 275 Tamworth swine 225 Tapeworms 354 Teats, sore, scabby 369 Teeth, uneven 305 Teething, in horses 305 Temperature as afi'ecting fer- tility 19 in diagnosis 299 of soil, affected by under- drainage 36 Tent-caterpillar, apple-tree 169 forest 199 Teosinte, for soiling 65 Terry, T. B 108, 136, 279 Tetanus 340 Texas itch in horses 352 Texture of soil, improved by lime 35 Thermometer scales 467 Thinning of fruit on trees 130 of timber 133 Thomas and Wood 134 Thomf'son. Fred S 109 Thoracic breathing, defined 299 Thorn-headed worm 356 Thoroughbred, English 219 "Throwing back." or reversion. 232 "Thumi's," breathing in ._ 299 distinguished from palpita- tion 323 Ticks on sheep 355 Tile drainage, what it does 35 Tiling, cost of 41 method of 40 Tillage, implements for 14 for orchards 129 to aerate soil 18 to conserve moisture 14 to remedy physical defects... 22 Tilth, affecting temperature.... 20 Timber and Its Diseases 136 Timber on the farm, care of... 132 round, to compute volume of.462 square, to compute board- measure contents of 462 Timothy and clover in rotation 26 Tobacco bud worm 153 Tobacco Culture 82 Tobacco, insects injurious to — cigarette beetle 153 horn worm ...152 potato flea-be»tle 162 and names refer to publications on agricultural topics Tobacco, insects injurious to — tobacco bud-worm 153 tobacco flea-beetle 153 tobacco stalk-worm 151 tobacco suck-fly 153 Tobacco Leaf 82 Tobacco, Methods of Curing.... 82 Tobacco Soils 82 Tomatoes, culture 104 insects injurious to — corn ear-worm 147 potato flea-beetle 162 striped blister-beetle 162 varieties 105 Tomato Growing 110 Topography, affecting soil tem- jicrature 20 Toulouse geese 413 Transplanting, directions for... 85 of budded trees 115 Trap^lantcrns or Moth-watch- ers 206 Tree-hopjier, buft'alo 175 Tree Planting, Practical 136 Tree, standing, to estimate vol- ume of 462 to estimate height of 462 Trees, number to acre 120 Trees of the Northern United States 136 Trees, wounds in 120 Trellis, forms for the grape. ...125 Trocar and cannula, use for bloating 309, 310 danger in use on sheep 311 Trotter, American 218 Trotting Horse, Training the.279 Trout, Domesticated: How to Breed and Grozv 281 Trowbridge, J. N 134 Trucking — annual root crops for 96 cole crops for 101 corn for 106 perennial root crops for 99 pulse crops for 92 salad crops for 102 soil for 83 solanaceous crops for 104 tuber and bulb crops for 88 vine crops for 94 Tuber and bulb crops, see also Root Crops. Tuberculin, inoculation with. ...347 Tuberculin Test, The 384 Tuberculosis 346 Tuberculosis and the Tubercu- lin Test 384 Tuberculosis in Relation to Animal Industry and Pub- lic Health ..-384 Tuberculosis, Legislation with Regard to Bovine 384 Tumors 365 Turf, Handbook of the 279 Turf, transnlanting of 107 Turkexs and How to Grow Them 454 Turkeys ^\^ Turkeys, Black-Head of 454 INDEX 517 Turkeys, see also Poultry. notes on care of 414 young, require attention 414 Turnip, brown rot of the 163 culture 61 Turnips, for sheep 60 for trucking 97 cabbage flea-beetle injurious to 160 Turnips Swedish, see Rutaba- gas. Tussock-moth, white-marked... .197 Twelve-spotted asparagus bee- tle 1,S7 Twig-borer, apple 169, 193 Twine, for tying fleeces 276 Tympanitis 308 Type and breed distinguisher..227 U Udder, congestion and inflam- mation of 368 Ulcers in mouth 303 ct seq Underdrainage, object and method of 35 cost of tiling in 41 for alkali spots 9, i7 to conserve moisture 16 to remedy physical defects.. 22 to ventilate soil 19 when beneficial 37 Up-grading, defined ...234 Urinary organs, diseases of the320 Urination, frequent 321 Urine, examination of 320 retention of 322 Urticaria 334 \'agina, inflammation of 367 prolapsus of 370 J'flu Ornain 109 Van Slyke, L. L 46 Variation, law of 236 Variegated cut-worm 156 Vaughan and Strangeway 384 Vegetable Gardening 110 Vegetable Gardening, Princi- ples of 110 N'egetable garden and trucking crops, cultural directions for 83 l^cgetable Garden, The 110 N'egetable matter, see Humus. Vegetables. Opcn-Air 109 Vegetables Under Glass 110 Vegetation, sickly, what it indi- cates 11, 18 Veneer grafting 116 Ventilation of poultry houses. .425 of soil 18, 19, 28. 35 Vetch, as orchard cover crop... 129 hairy, culture for dry forage 68 Veterinary Anatomy 384 Veterinary Hygiene, A Manu- al of 384 Veterinary Materia Medica and Therapeutics 384 Veterinary Medicine 384 Veterinary Medicine and Sur- gery, Clinical 384 Itahcized iitlcs Veterinary Physiology, A Man- ual of ; 384 Veterinary Therapeutics and Pharmacology 384 Vicious Horses, How to Han- dle and Educate 279 X'ictoria swine 224 \'ine crops, for trucking 94 N'itriol, blue, to kill weeds.... 78 X'olvulus of the intestines 317 Voorhees, E. B 47 W Walker, Ernst 135 Wallace, H 279 Wallis-Taylor, A. J 279 Walnut, attacked by cecropia.201 Walnut scale 202 PValsh, J. H 279 Wanklvn, J. A 280 Ward, H. M 136 Ware, Lewis S 81 Warfield, William 280 Waring, George E 46, 47 Warming of soil 20, 21, 36 Warm soil in spring, necessity of 20 Warrington, R 46 Washing of sheep, injurious....27^ Water, amount required by crops 12 capillary, defined 12 in fine soils 22 cress 103 free, defined 12 in foodstuffs 240 in soils, kinds of 12 not all available to crops 13 office in soil 11 JVater Supply for Animals 384 Water-hojding capacity affected by size of soil grains 22 Waterlogged soil 11 Water;iielons 95 Waterpowers 469 Waterspouts, defined 123 Water-table, defined 12 how to find 37 lowering of, by underdrain- age 16 Watson, George C 453 Waugh, F. A 135, 136 Wax, for grafting ,119 Webb, James 134 Web'worm, corn-root 145, 151 fall, of apple 170 garden 159 sugar-beet 159 Weeds and Hozv to Kill Them 82 Weeds and their eradication.... 77 Weeds, annuals 77 Weeds, Hoiv to Eradicate Them 82 Weeds, Legislation Against 82 Weeds, poisonous ..; 79 seeding and sprouting peren- nials 79 seeding perennials 78 Weevil, cow-pea 166 bean 166 granary 165 Alexican cotton-boll 154 Weevil, pea 165 rice 1 6S strawberry 197 Wcidenmann, J 134 Weight, afjothecaries' 45^ avoirdupois, or commercial. .457 troy, or jewelers' 457 Weights and measures — circular measures 458 decimal numbers for rapid conversion 458, 459 length, measures of 4S6 metric system 459, 460 surface, measures of" 456 weight, measures of 457 volume, measures of 457 Weights, legal, per bushel 468 Weights of various substances for given volumes 467 Weld and Du Hays 279 Western bean-beetle 158 Wet seasons, buckwheat in Wet soil a cold one 21 Wet spring, followed by dry summer 17 Whale-oil soap for spraying 142 Wheat bran, as fed by L. H. Kerrick 287 Wheat chinch-bug, injurious to.l48 Hessian fly, injurious to 148 late sowing of, to escape fly.. 148 loose smut of 156 macaroni 55 rust 156 spring, culture 54 stinking smut of 156 stooling out, yellowing and dying of 148 winter, culture S3 varieties resistant to Hes- sian fly 54 vetches with 68 Wheat Culture 82 Wheat Growing, Jnsect Ene- mies of 204 Wheel-hoe, essential in garden- ing 85 Whip grafting 116 worms 356 White grubs 149 White. Joseph J 134 White-marked tussock-moth ....197 Wicks»n, Edward J 134 "Wide" nutritive ratio, de- fined 243 inicox, L. M 47 Williams. W. L 382 Wilt diseases 163 Wind colic 315 Windmills 469 Window Flower Garden, The .136 Wing, E 281 Wing. Henry H 280 Winslow, K 384 Winter Care of Horses and Cattle 279 IJ 'inter Lamb, The 281 \\'inter-killing of fruits 121 of meadows 69 Well. F. W 403 Womb, inflammation of 366 tjfid names refer to fiiblications on agricultural topics. 518 PRACTICAL FARMING AND GARDENING Wooden silos 398 Wood lot, care of 132 Wood, Thomas and 134 Woods, various, value^ and weight of .' 463 Wool-boxes, tight 276 Wool, breeds of sheep and their ........272 condition of, as affecting value 27 1 condition of, in disease 299 grading of 2V industry, outlook for future of 269 marketing of 275 sheep-shearing 275 tags in fleeces 275 tight wool-boxes an injury. ...276 twine for tying fleeces 276 United States wool produc- tion 269 value of, as affected by flock management 270 Italicized titles Wool, washing of sheep injurious to 274 wool-growers, ten points for. 277 wool-growing alone unprofit- able 267 world's wool production 269 Woolly bear 157 aphis of the apple 167 Work-horse, selection of 257 Worms, causing bronchitis in swine 357 treatment 357 kidney, in swine 357 large round, in horse and mule 351 in swine 356 lung, in cattle 353 ])in, in horse and mule 351 in swine 356 round, in sheep 354 tape, in sheep 354 thorn-head, in swine 356 twisted stomach, in sheep 354 Worms, whip, in swine 356 Wounds, Antiseptic Treat- ment of ;...384 Wounds, treatment of 361 Wright, Lewis 453, 454 Wyandotte for caponizing 407 fowls 407 Wyman. W. E. A 382, 383 Yellow bear 157 "Yellow leaf" of grape 195 Yellow-necked caterpillar, of apiile 1 70 Yellows in plums 113 of peach 182 of plum 185 Yorkshire, large, swine ....' 224 Youatt and Spooner 279 Z Zebra caterpillar 159 ajid names refer to publicatiofis on agricultural topics. CATALOG OF THE SHANNON BOOKS Sex Hygiene, Personal and Social Purity, Eugenics TITLES: PERFECT MANHOOD PERFECT WOMANHOOD PERFECT BOYHOOD PERFECT GIRLHOOD GUIDE TO SEX INSTRUCTION HEREDITY EXPLAINED STORY OF LIFE SPOONING THE S. A. MULLIKIN COMPANY Omcial Publishers : : : MARIETTA, OHIO PERFECT WOMANHOOD A book for every young woman. Just from the press, illustrated. A com- panion volume to Per- fect Manhood It contains vital information, counsel, inspiration and revelation for women. It is sane, safe, simple, scientific and practical. Women have their problems as well as men. The author has for many years, lectured to mass audiences of women, and annually to many thousands of school and college girls. Many come to him with their problems, personally or by confidential correspondence. This book presents the information that should be given during the years of growing girlhood, developing womanhood and early wifehood and motherhood. It contains an illustrated chapter on Physical Exercises, by one of the leading physical culture directors of the country, that can be easily learned and practiced in the home. No longer is a premium placed on the frail body of a woman. She can and should possess a well-formed, strong and healthy body. The chapter on "Beauty by Bathing," by Miss Annette Kellerman, tells in a simple and charming manner the many methods she has successfully employed in developing health, strength and beauty. The book is appropriately illustrated. The incidental announcement by the author of his purpose _ to write Perfect Womanhood, brought many advanced and un- solicited orders. The second edition of 15,000 copies, now ready — ^first edition sold in advance of press notices. Hundreds of thousands will be sold. Every woman over fifteen years of age should have a copy of this book. Bound in fine clott, postpaid, 75c PERFECT MANHOOD A book for every man, single or married. Over 100,000 copies ordered in advance of press notices Recently revised, greatly enlarged and appropriately illustrated Every sentence of this greatest of all books for men 's a chaste, practical, scientific explanation of man's sexual nature. One college president said of the book, "If I were sixteen years of age and could know what I now know, and _ the cost of Perfect Manhood were fifty times the price, I'd rather beat rock at 50 cents per day, to pay for it, than to be without this book." A man of wealth and influence in Texas said to the author, following a lecture to men: "If I could recall twenty years and begin married life over with the information I have gained from Perfect Manhood, I'd gladly give up all my wealth and start over." Perhaps no living man has interviewed, lectured to and cor- responded with more men, single and married, than the author of this book. This personal touch with men, added to his life of study and research, has enabled him to write a book for men which is pronounced by the highest authorities in the world to be the most practical in its field. While scientific, the book is as simple as it is practical. Three-fourths of all men, single and married, are said by authorities on the subject, to have either an imag- inary or real sex problem. The latest edition of Perfect IManhood has a chapter devoted exclusively to questions and answers covering every phase of the problems of men. These are among the most important ques- tions asked by thousands of men seeking the author's counsel, and his safe, sane, chaste, practical and scientific answers. Employers have ordered this book by the hundreds, to present to their employees. Lecturers, evangeUsts, ministers and social workers sell them by the thousands, in connection with their work. Parents buy them for their sons; men of all ages pur- chase them at sight; each volume sold brings two new orders from friends. Bound xa fine cloth, postpaid, 75c PERFECT BOYHOOD For Every Boy From Ten to Fifteen Years of Age. Contains Wiiat Boys Ought to Know and No More. Just to the extent that prevention is better than restoration or reformation, it is wiser to place Perfect Boyhood in the hand of a twelve-year-old boy than to wait until he is a young man, and then give him Perfect Manhood. Safeguard your boy with a knowledge of himself, and, when he is a man, he will possess self-control. Since few boys have been told in a safe and truthful way about their origin, the author tells the stories of life in the first chapters of the book. When the boy is only four to seven years old, the parents can use the book in telling him the stories of ' life. When he is ten he may be given the book and requested to read it. Will a boy read the took? All normal boys will eagerly read it with great profit to themselves. The stupid and indifferent boy will read it, where he would read no other book. A boy has a natural interest in knowing the facts. contained in this volume. He usually gets them in half truths from wrong sources. In Perfect Boyhood he will get the infor- mation he should have and he will get it in the right way. Bound in paper, 20c; cloth, postpaid, 40c PERFECT GIRLHOOD For Every Girl From Ten to Fifteen Years of Age. Contains What Girls Ought to Know and No More. A Companion Volume to Perfect Boyhood. This book was taken from the first division of Perfect Womanhood. Few young women have ever received this information in the right way, and they should form their ideals of child-training before they are mar- ried. It is published in this convenient form for the reason that Perfect Womanhood is too advanced for a small girl. Where the girl is four, six or eight years old, the mother can use the book in telling her daughter the story of life. When she is eleven or twelve, the book can be placed safely in her hand to read. Many mothers do not realize the social dangers to which small girls are exposed. It is wiser to place Perfect Girlhood in the hand of a twelve-year-old girl than to wait and give her Perfect Womanhood when she is sixteen. Bound in paper, 20c; cloth, postpaid, 40c HOW TO TELL THE STORY OF LIFE Recently Revised, Greatly Enlarged and Illustra- ted—Simple, Practical, Charming The book contains the following chapters : "The Right of a Child to a Knowledge of Sex," "The Old Way and the Results," "Who Should Give This Knowledge?" "When and What Knowl- edge Should be Given?" "How Should this Knowledge be Given?" "A Talk About Baby Plants," "A Talk About Baby Oysters and Fish," "A Talk About Baby Insects and Birds," "A Talk About Animal and Human Babies." This book does rot censure parents for not giving their children the instruction they should, but tells parents and teachers how to perform this duty. The author not only told these stories to his own children, but he has told them to many hundred audiences. He has not only learned how to tell them, but he has learned how to teach others to tell them. This valuable little book is uniform in size and style with Perfect Boyhood and Perfect Girlhood, and sells at same low price. Postpaid, paper, 20c; cloth, 40c SPOONING NEW— NOTHING LIKE IT — JUST FROM THE PRESS What is spooning? Has it a function in the economy of nature? H so, what is that function? Do the opposite sex among the lower animals spoon? If so, when and why? Has it a function in human society? If so, does it belong to single or married life? What is the relation of spooning to our social problems? Is it a natural expression of love between lovers? Has it any relation to sex? In a strictly scientific and ethical manner these questions are frankly and fully discussed. Millions of people, single and married, will want to read it. Aside from a natural curiosity, there will be a sincere and intelligent interest in the author's views on this social problem. The original and startling revelations in this book will hold the reader spellbound from start to finish. Order a copy at once, read it, then you will want more of them for your neighbors. Paper binding, postpaid to any address, only ISc GUIDE TO SEX INSTRUCTION Vital Facts of Life For All Ages. A Priceless Book For Every Home. EVERY FATHER AND MOTHER, EVERY MATURED MAN AND WOMAN, EVERY TEACHER AND MINISTER, SHOULD HAVE THIS GREAT BOOK. This book is a complete and comprehensive gu'de for parents, showing them, how to tell the story of life to a child, for parents and teachers, showing them how to give timely instruction, advice and warning to boys and girls at the ages of greatest suscepti- bility and danger. It contains vital information for young men and women during the latter years of adolescence, ?nd for ma- tured men and women, married or single. The best way of imparting personal purity and sex instruction to children, to youths and to young people, has been a most difficult problem. The author was for nine years a teacher of biology, has made a life study on social problems, has lectured to thousands of audiences, mixed and segregated, on every topic contained in this book. Scholars marvel at his scientific accuracy, while the masses appreciate his childlike simplicity. The first aim and guiding purpose of the author in writing this book has been to use plain words and to give easily understood directions to parents and teachers. The contents of this book are shown on opposite page. CONTENTS OF Guide To Sex Instruction OR How To Teach Personal Purity FIVE BOOKS IN ONE VOLUME— EACH A PRICELESS GEM Book 1 — Childhood The Right of a Child to the Knowledge of Sex. First Story — Baby Plants. Second Story — Baby Oysters and Fish. Book 2 — Boyhood A Talk to Fathers. Father's First Talk — Boys Make Men. Father's Second Talk — Perfect Boys Make Perfect Men. Father's Third Talk — Imper- fect Boys Become Imperfect Men. Father's Fourth Talk — How to Live a Pure Life. Book 4 Young Manhood The Deeper Significance of Sex. Continence. Prostitution. Venereal Diseases. A Young Man's Ethics. ]\Ianhood Wrecked and Re- gained. Practical Questions Answered. Third Story — Baby Birds. Fourth Story — Baby Animals and Man. Practical Questions Answered. Books— Girlhood A Talk to ]\Iothers. Mother's First Talk — The Fe- male Form. Mother's Second Talk — Dawn- ing of Womanhood. Mother's Third Talk— Choos- ing a Chum. ]\lother's Fourth Talk — Confi- dential Advice. IMother's Fifth Talk— A Small Girl's Ethics. Books Young Womanhood The Real Significance of Sex. The Vicious Novel. The Public Dance. A Young Woman's Ethics. The Miracle of Motherhood. Practical Questions Answered. This book contains manv beautiful Wafer Color Illustrations and Half Tones, and has 270 pages of matter. The five volumes, bound singly, sell at $2.45. All bound in this one large and beautiful volume, in fine Vellum Deluxe cloth, postpaid, $1.25. HEREDITY EXPLAINED Every Child Has An Incon- trovertible Right to Be Weil-Born NO ®NE HAS A MORAL RIGHT TO FOREDOOM HIS UNBORN CHILD TO A LIFE OF UNDEVELOPMENT ON THE EARTH PLANE, BEFORE IT SEES THE LIGHT OF DAY. Forests are Protected, Swine are Inspected and Children are Neglected Heredity and environment are the agencies used by intelli- gent men in developing and perfecting vegetables, fruits and domestic animals. Heredity, environment and the grace of God are the three agencies to be used in man's development. More interest has been taken in the study of heredity and the application of its principles during the past five years than during the previous ninety-five years. This book should be read by all marriageable and young married people. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter. 1. Heredity, a Fact. 2. Heredity Explained. 3. Choosing a Companion. 4. Physical, Mental and Moral Preparation for Parent- hood. 6. Prenatal Training. Chapter. 6. Delinquencies, Causes and Cures. 7. Birth Marks. 8. Heredity, Environment and Redemption. 9. Courtship, Marriage and Divorce. Price, postpaid, Kne clotL, only 75c; bound in paper, postpaid, 30c THE S. A. MULLIKIN COMPANY Official Publishers :: :: MARIETTA, OHIO