ELEMENTS OP UNIVERSAL HISTORY, NEW AND SYSTEMATIC PLAN ; THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE TREATY OF VIENNA. TO WHICH IS ADDED, A SUMMARY OF THE LEADING EVENTS SINCE THAT PERIOD. FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND OF PRIVATE STUDENTS, BY H. WHITE, B.A., ii Trinity College, Cambridge. SEVENTH AMERICA N E D I T 1 O N , WITH ADDITIONS AND UUESTIONS, BY JOHN S. HART, A.M. Principal of the Philadelphia High School, and Professor of Moral and Mental Science, Member of the American Philosophical Society, &c. PHJ7- a i? e l p h r a : LEA & BLANCHARD, 1847. Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1844, by LEA AND BLANCHARD, in the clerk'.' office of the district court of the United States in and for the the eastern district of Pennsylvania. 3 ^ H °i J 0ves before them ; they passed through dryshod ; while the returning waters buried Pharaoh's host, so that none remained to tell the dreadful tale. In the space of 215 years, God had so favoured the I descendants of Abraham, that from about 70 persons, the family of Jacob had increased to 600,000 fighting men, or a gross population of more than two millions. The Wandering. — The whole period of forty years spent in the desert was signalized by miracles. A deficiency of bread was made up by the manna which lay on the ground covered with the morning dew, — the bitter waters were purified, — a flight of quails furnished the people with meat, — the hard rock, at the touch of Moses' rod, gave forth a clear and copious stream of water, the earth opened and swal- lowed up Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, 1471, — fire from heaven de- stroyed part of the camp., — and a destructive pestilence carried off nearly 3 26 ANCIENT HISTORY. 15,000 of the murmurers. Three months after the departure from Egypt, the God of Jacob appeared on mount Sinai,"* and, clothed in majesty, made known the law of the two tables, comprehending the ten commandments. Being unwilling to trust the report of the spies whom Moses had sent to view the Land of Promise, the Israelites were all condemned to perish in the desert, with the exception of Joshua and Caleb, and those who had not yet reached the age of twenty years. In vain did Moab and Midian unite against them, — in vain did the hostile nations seek the aid and purchase the imprecations of Balaam : his curses were converted into blessings. After forty years, their wan- derings drew to an end. Moses assembled the tribes ; committed the Book of the Law to the priests ; and for the last time publicly addressed the people. When his exhortation was concluded, he went to the top of Mount Pisgah (ten miles north-east of the Dead Sea,) and there died in sight of the promised inheritance, 1451 b. c. Character of Moses. Considered in a merely human light, Moses is not less celebrated as a poli- tician than as a historian and poet. Pagan antiquity, while denying his divine mission, has represented him as a man of profound learning, who rescued the Jews from debasement and slavery, and taught them the knowledge of the one true God. The five books of the Pentateuch are the most ancient writings in the world, and no history presents a stronger character of authenticity. His legislation was promulgated at a time when the word law was unknown to other nations. This code has been divided into five parts : namely, religion, morals, and civil, military, and political affairs. Its real wisdom is proved by its existing still at the end of forty centuries, while the more recent institutes of Minos, Lycurgus, Numa, and Solon have fallen into desuetude. It is worth while to observe what progress the arts had made, even among the nomad Jews, while Greece was yet barbarous. In the description of the building of the Tabernacle we read of the founding and working of metals ; of cutting and engraving precious stones ; of the trades of the cabinet-maker, embroiderer, and perfumer. Entry into Canaan, — 1461 b. c. — Moses, as the civil and religious head of the Wandering Tribes, strictly speaking had no successor. Joshua was appointed military leader to subdue the Land of Canaan, and portion it out among the victors. On the 10th Nisan, he crossed the frontier river, the submissive waters of the Jordan yielding a passage to the Ark of the Covenant which led the way. The ramparts of Jericho miraculously fell before them, — a warning to the devoted nations, and an encouragement to the Israelites. Ai was taken by stratagem ; the five allied kings of the xVmorites were defeated, the sun itself stopping in its course to aid the chosen people, while a terrible storm of hailstones killed more than had fallen by the sword. f Joshua now divided the portion of the land which he had conquered, and renewed the Covenant with God. The tribe of Levi, which formed a literary and wealthy counterpoise to the aristocratic and democratic part of the state, was not included in this partition, but forty-eight cities were allotted them from * Ancient tradition and locality seem to identify Sinai with Mount Serbnl (above 8000 feet high), the first peak of the chain to those coming from Suez. t The Chinese preserve a tradition, that in the time of the Emperor Yao, whom they make contemporary with Joshua, the sun did not set for ten days. The Egyptian priests told Herodotus, that within the period of 34] generations about 11.000 years! the sun had deviated four times from his usual course. FIFTEENTH CENTURY B.C. 27 the other tribes ; a regulation, however, which circumstances prevented being carried into full effect. On Joshua's death, 1443 B.C., Caleb succeeded to the government; but the people soon after turned to the idols of the Canaanites, and drew down upon themselves the anger of God. The formation of the Jewish republic was the work of Moses in the desert. Its polity was evidently intended for a season only ; its theology was the simplest of the age. The unity and individuality of the Deity were acknow- ledged, while the absence of all direct revelation of a future state was in some measure compensated by blending moral precepts with ritual observances, and the infliction of temporal punishments for personal or national disobedience. All possible means were exerted to isolate the Jews from the surrounding nations, by prohibiting commerce, emigration, and travelling. But their attachment to external circumstances was so strong, that in spite of the gor- geous ceremonies of their own ritual, they were soon found adopting the blood- stained idolatry of the Canaanites or the gross superstitions of Egypt. This would probably not have happened if the whole of the ancient inhabitants had been exterminated, according to the intention of Moses, as the worship of the true God would have been thereby rendered the sole religion of the country. EGYPT. Sesostris. — Sesostris or Rhamses III. the Great, is the hero of early Egyptian history, the founder of a new dynasty (19th,) and the liberator of his country from the Hyksos, who had renewed their invasions in the reign of his father, Amenophis III. Great difference of opinion prevails as to the age of Sesostris, but it seems very probable that he flourished during the wandering of the Israelites in the desert. His conquests extended over Libya, Ethiopia, Media, Persia, Bactria, Scythia, and Asia Minor, from all which countries he levied tribute. The trophies of his victories, in the form of pillars, were found from the Danube to the Ganges, and southward to Ethiopia; and a hundred famous temples were raised from the spoils of his enemies. He divided the country into 36 nomes, at the head of which he placed officers to collect the taxes. He intersected the provinces with canals, and was the first Egyptian monarch who was powerful at sea. Becoming blind, he committed suicide in the 33d year of his reign. The traveller may yet see his names and titles, wars and triumphs, depicted on the walls of palaces and temples at Luxor, Karnac, Thebes, and Nubia. PHCENICIA. The name Phoenicia is applied to that narrow strip of the Syrian coast (150 miles long, and 24 broad,) which extends from Tyre to Aradus. Sidon was its oldest city, built by the eldest son of Canaan. The inhabitants applied themselves at an early period to commerce, navigation, and manufactures ; and first communicated to the people of the West the sciences of Asia. They visited and planted colonies on all the shores of the Mediterranean; ventured as far as the British Isles in search of tin, and navigated the Baltic to procure amber. They embarked at Elath to make the circumnavigation of Africa, and formed settlements eastward of the Persian Gulf. They seem to have disco- vered islands beyond the western shore of Africa. They excelled in the manufacture of glass, and the now forgotten art of dyeing purple 28 ANCfiRfrT HISTORY. To this people is also attributed the invention of alphabetical characters, and their introduction into Europe. Our knowledge of their history is very slender, for Tyre fell before literature had taken root in the West, and iis writers perished with it. This city is said to have been founded nor, an African prince, about 1255 B.C., and its line of kings begins with Abical, the contemporary of David, about the year 1050. The prosperous period of their history extends from 1000 to 332 b. c. I hcenicia did not constitute one empire, but was formed of several indc- | i tident states, united as fear or interest prompted them; and hence arose the supremacy of Tyre, the most powerful of their number. Consult : Rollin's Ancient History. GREECE. Athens was founded by Cecrops in the 16th century, but Theseus formed the state by gathering together the twelve districts or boroughs, which had formerly been independent; by uniting their senates into one- body, which met at the capital ; and by establishing a common religious festival (Panathencea) in honour of Minerva. The court of Areopagus, although it has been attributed to Cecrops, was only now instituted ; a body not more celebrated for its antiquity, than for the justice of its decisions. The number of its members, who were selected on account of their age, merit, and birth, appears to have varied from 31 to 51, and even to 500. Thebes was built by the Phoenician Cadmus, 1493 b. c. He intro- duced the fifteen letters of the Grecian alphabet, which go under his name ; they were probably the same as those used in Syria. The oracle of Delphi was the work of his countrymen; and its temple, causing the neglect of the prophetic oak of Dodona, became a central point of union for the different tribes. History of the Greek Language. The ultimate root of the Greek language is Pelasgic, or a dialect closely allied to the Sanscrit, modified by time and the exigencies of society. The descendants of Hellen, the son of Deucalion, having made themselves masters of the country, introduced their language, which differed from the old tongue only by its inflections, and which became the common speech of Greece. This Hellenic dialect was probably a stronger, as it was also a later, mixture of the Japetic or Western, as the Pelasgic appears to be purer Semitic or Eastern. The inland inhabitants of Greece spoke the rough and broad old Doric, from which the language of the JEolians in Bceotia and Peloponnesus did not greatly differ. The progress of civilisation and commerce softened these dialects. The Doric was gradually refined into the beautiful language of Theocritus. The Ionian* from Attica settled on the coast of Asia Minor, where, by a close intercourse with their Asiatic neighbours, their language was softened into the harmonious sweetness we admire in Herodotus. The Attic passed through many gradations until it became the polished and elegant medium of com- munication adopted by all literary men throughout Greece. The following genealogical table of languages will serve at once to assist the memory, and to explain the history which the Greeks themselves credited. Deucalion. Hellen. Dorus. Xuthus. CEolus. 1 AcHiEUs. Ion. FOURTEENTH CENTURY B. C. 29 Dialects. .j rOid — Thucydides; the Tragic poets. r n Middle. — Aristophanes, Lycias, Fiato, Xenophon. < (.New. — iEschines, Demosthenes, Isocrates, Menander. ■gfOld. — Epicharmus, Sophron. c "i New. — Bion, Moschus, Callimachus, Pindar, Theocritus. 4 ("Old.— Homer, Hesiod. 3 "2 New. — Anacreon, Herodotus, Hippocrates. JEolic. — Alcteus, Sappho, Corinna. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. Judaea. — 1285, Deborah judges Israel— Sisera — 1312, Ruth. Greece. — Minos. JUD.EA. Judges, 1443. — After the death of Joshua, a council of judges (sho- phetim,) with nearly the same authority as the consuls at Rome, the kings at Sparta, and the Carthaginian suffetes, wis established to govern the people of Israel. Each city had its peculiar magistrates (shoterim) and ministers of justice, to the number of twenty-three. Their place of audience was at the gales of the cities, as being the most frequented spots. On Joshua's death the weak tribes became jealous of the stronger, and, as the high-priests had little political influence, the dread of foreign power alone kept them together. The history of Judaea, under its new government, presents a long catalogue of wars and captivities, brought on the nation by its wicked- ness and idolatry. Seven periods of servitude to the Philistines and others are recorded between the death of Joshua and the election of Saul, 1095 b. c. When Deborah judged Israel, dwelling under a palm- tree on Mount Ephraim, Sisera, the Canaanitish general, was put to death by a woman in whose tent he had sought refuge, 1285 B.C. This signal deliverance from a powerful enemy called forth the fine specimen of lyric poetry which is inserted in the Book of Judges. Ruth, 1312. — To this period belongs the pastoral narrative of Ruth. A famine dbliged Elimelech to quit Bethlehem, with his wife Naomi; who, becoming a widow in the country of Moab, eagerly desired to return to her native land. Ruth, one of her daughters-in-law, who loved her most affectionately, followed her home ; when want compelling her to glean in the fields of Boaz, he, attracted by the charms and modesty of the fair stranger, married her, and became the father of Obed, from whom descended Jesse, the father of David, the royal progenitor of the Messiah. GREECE. Crete. — Minos, who, according to the Parian chronicle, began to reign 1431 b. c, about a century after Amphictyon, is regarded as the first legislator of the Cretans, and his laws are supposed to have been adopted by Lycur, as Hoshea king of Israel, forty-five years before, had been led to Nineveh. After a captivity of one year (or of seven years, according to some critics), he was restored to his throne, to become the perfect model of a penitent king ; for he purified the temple, destroyed all idols, and re-established the worship of the true God. In 656 Nebuchadnezzar I. gave Holofernes the com- mand of a numerous army, destined to punish the Jews for refusing their assistance against the Medes. But his conquests were arrested by the hand of a woman; for while blockading the small hill-fortress of Bethulia, he was slain by the enthusiastic Judith. Amon, the wicked son of Manasseh, perished by assassination, 641, after a reign of two years, and was succeeded by Josiah at the age of eight. Even in child- hood this monarch was an example of piety, and he had scarcely com- pleted his sixteenth year, when he assumed the government which had been administered by his mother Idida. In his time the high-priest 5* ft 4 A1VC1ENT HISTORY. Hilkiah discovered the original manuscript of the Iiaw, written by the hand of the great legislator himself. To fulfil the engagements he made with his people at the public reading of this book, he destroyed every vestige of idolatry both in Israel and Judah ; and when he had thus purified his land," he celebrated the Passover with great solemnity, 623 b.c. The misfortunes of the country recommenced with the death of Josiah, who was killed in battle at Megiddo while opposing Nechoking of Egypt, who being at war with the Assyrians, resolved to pass through Palestine. The prophet Jeremiah composed a funeral elegy on his death, which continued long afterwards to be sung by the choir in certain religious ceremonies. With this prince terminated the glory and happiness of the Jewish nation. The people raised Jehoahaz, one of his younger sons, to the throne ; but he was deposed by the victorious Necho, anoMed prisoner into Egypt. Eliakim, who was appointed in his stead, under the name of Jehoiakim, 610, was a weak and irreligious ruler; his only virtue being the fidelity with which he paid a heavy tribute to the sovereign from whom he had received the crown. Deaf to the warnings of Jeremiah and Habakkuk, who announced to Judaea the coming danger, he threw the prophecy of the former into the fire, and condemned both to die. They escaped his fury by taking refuge in a cavern. In 60b' Nebuchadnezzar II. took Jerusalem for the first time, and imprisoned, but afterwards released, its monarch. He plundered the temple of great part of its sacred vessels, and among his captives we read the names of Daniel, Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego. This year, 606, is the first of the Seventy Years' Captivity announced by Jeremiah. ASSYRIA. Second Empire of Nineveh. — Esarhaddon, the third son of Senna- cherib, ascended the throne on the murder of his father, 707 b. c. ; and he restored to the Assyrian monarchy the strength and glory which it had lost during- the misfortunes of the previous reigns. Taking advan- tage of the. civil troubles which divided the Babylonians, he reunited them to his empire in 680, and until 647 they were governed by Nine- vite viceroys. Pie reduced Judaea, and led Manasseh into captivity ; but, as already mentioned, after twelve months he restored him to liberty and to a kingdom now nearly depopulated. After a reign of forty- two years, marked by glorious conquests over Palestine, Syria, Egypt, and Ethiopia, he left the sceptre to his son Saosduchin, the Nebuchadnezzar or Nabuchodonosor of the book of Judith. In the twelfth year of his reign he was attacked by Phraortes, king of the Medes, whom he defeated and slew with his own hand, 655. He sent an army of 130,000 men into Judaea, under the command of Holofernes, who, we have seen, perished by the hand of Judith. From this time Saosduchin experienced nothing but reverses, and the } r ear preceding his death, he was besieged in Nineveh by Oyaxares. He died in the twenty-second year of his reign, leaving a tottering throne to his son and successor. The vices and cowardice of Saracus (Chynaladanus) produced greater trouble and confusion in his dominions. Nabopolassar made himself independent at Babylon, where he reigned twenty-one years, and to pre- serve his pow r er he formed an alliance with the Medes. The united SEVENTH CENTURY B. C. 55 armies besieged Nineveh, and completely destroyed it, upon which Babylon became the sole capital of the Assyrian empire, 625 b. c. Second Empire of Babylon. — On the death of Mesessi Mordacus, the last of the five obscure successors of Merodach Baladan, the metro- polis was, for eight years, a prey to all the evils of anarchy. This opportunity was not neglected by the victorious Esarhaddon, and in 680 he reunited the Babylonian monarchy to that of Nineveh, which had now become the most formidable in all Asia. But this preponderance, founded on the humiliation of Babylon, was net of long duration; for thirty-three years after, Nabopolassar the Chaldean, aided by Cyaxares the Mede, vindicated the honour of his country on the smoking ruins of Nineveh, and his empire became in its turn the queen of the east. The conqueror (625), after the death of Saracus, reunited under his govern- ment all the provinces with most of the satrapies that had been depend- ent on Nineveh. Such prosperity excited the jealousy of Necho, who marched toward the Euphrates with the design of wresting from the Assyrian monarch all the country situated on the western bank of that river. He was particularly successful, and took the important city of Carchemish, with several ether strong places. This encouraged the Syrians and the Jews in their attempts to throw off the Babylonian yoke ; when Nabopolassar, too far advanced in years to take the field in person against the rebels, committed the important charge to his son Nebuchadnezzar the Great, whom he had already associated with him in the government. This young prince, who had received from nature all the qualities of a conqueror, justified the confidence of his father. Proceeding against the Egyptian king, he gained a complete victory, and recovered all that the other had reduced in the preceding years. While laying siege to Jerusalem, which he was destined to capture thrice in the course of his reign, he was informed of his parent's death. He returned to Babylon to assume the crown, carrying with him a numerous train of Jewish captives. MEDIA. J •Deioces, 733 b.c. — Media is a fertile though mountainous country, lying between Persia, the Caspian Sea, Assyria, Parthia, and Armenia. Its capital was Ecbatana (now Hamadan). Powerful monarchies appear to have existed in those parts, but, owing to an inconsistent and arbitrary chronology, they can scarcely enter into general history. Bactria, by its geographical position, appears marked out for the great emporium of south-eastern Asia, and in proportion as we penetrate into ancient times, we become convinced that, like Babylon, it was one of thjl earliest seats of international commerce, and one of the cradles of civilisation. The term Media comprehended this country as it was applied generally to the nations between the Tigris and the Indus. From the earliest period the Medes had been subject to Assyria, when, in 759, under the command of Arbaces, they revolted against Sardana- palus, and recovered their independence. But their liberty degenerated into anarchy, until a sense of the necessity of public order induced them, in the year 733, to place Deioces on the throne. During his glorious reign of fifty-three years, he united the six tribes, of which the Magi were the chief, and founded an independent sovereignty. Phraortes 56 ANCIENT HISTORY. (probably the Arphaxad of the book of Judith), who succeeded him in 680, reduced Persia, and conquered all the country north of the Taurus as far as the river Halys. He was defeated and killed by Nebuchad- nezzar I. (Saosduchin) in his war against Assyria, 655. Cyaxares I. undertook to avenge his father's death, and was on the point of captur- ing Nineveh, when he was obliged to turn his arms against a more terrible enemy, the Scythians, who, having overrun Asia, had reached the borders of Egypt, 648. It took twenty-eight years to expel them, after which he declared war against the Lydian Alyattes, for having received and protected some of the chiefs who had escaped from the general massacre of their comrades. A battle fought on the banks of the Halys, was terminated by an eclipse of the sun, 601 b. c* The Medes had now regained their importance, for, united with the Baby- lonian Nabopolassar, they had destroyed Nineveh, 625, and reduced the Persians to subjection. Cyaxares I. died in 595, in the sixty-first year of his reign, leaving to his son Astyages the greatest and most powerful monarchy in Asia. In his time the history of Media becomes confused with that of Persia and of Cyrus. We may here observe that the frequent revolutions in Asia, both of ancient and modern times, were never beneficial to the people. Governments often changed hands, but the form was always the same ; and all except that effected by Alexander were the work of powerful nomad tribes. Impelled by fortui- tous circumstances or by necessity, they quitted their wild abodes to subjugate the fertile plains of Southern Asia, until, enervated by the luxury and effe- minacy of their new subjects, they were themselves conquered in the same manner. This consideration on the common origin of the great empires of the East, accounts for their vast extent, their rapid increase, and brief duration. The internal constitution of these states was everywhere the same : an unlimited despotism which, springing from the rights of conquest, was per- petuated, because the very extent of the empire required, for the interests of the prince at least, a similar government to preserve the unity of the state. PERSIA. Persia, called Elam in the Scriptures, received its name from the eldest son of Shem. Its history is a blank down to the reign of Che- dorlaomer, who, about a century before the presumed time in which Ninus laid the foundations of Assyrian greatness, had already carried his victorious arms towards the Mediterranean, in the western provinces of Asia. The power of the Elamites yielded to that of Ninus and Semiramis, and the country became a province of the vast empire of Assyria. They aided the Medians and Babylonians in their attempts to overthrow the government of Sardanapalus, but were still dependent on the two newly-formed monarchies. The ten tribes of Israel were distributed among the Persians and Medes ; and although the extensive dominion of Nebuchadnezzar II. embraced the former people within its limits, the bonds of subjection do not appear to have been very oppres- sive. Under the rule of the Medes the condition of Persia was very little changed. Eastern writers have endeavoured to fill up the void in * The period of this eclipse is by no means a settled point, and the compiler had to select from six different dates: 607; 603; HOI, the date assigned by Usher ; 597, very often given ; 585, total over the whole Hellespont, and not improbably that mentioned by Herodotus- and 581 b. c. SEVENTH CENTUIIY B. C. 57 its early history ; but their works, composed in the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries a. n., are little more than a web of fabulous traditions. Their testimony can have no weight in the balance of historical criti- cism, and in all their annals the only personage who appears to be really historical is Jemsheed o'r Giamschid, probably the Achaemenes whom the Greeks counted among the ancestors of Cyrus. At the epoch of their subjection to the Medes, the Persians were a mountain race, divided into ten castes or tribes. The mrst considerable were the Pasargadae, the Maraphians, and Maspians, all composed of nobles and warriors ; and the first, of whom the Acheemenidse were a branch, were always in possession of the government. Of the other tribes, three were composed of labourers and four of shepherds. Being descended from Shem, the Elamites preserved longer their ancient religion. They built no temples, but worshipped, in the open air and on the tops of mountainsAthe sun {Mithras) or fire, as an emblem of the Supreme Being. /Fhey also venerated the stars and planets. The adoration of the heavenly bodies (Sabaism) is supposed to have been a corruption of the Magian doctrines : both however appear to have been known to Job. The former is perpetuated in Asia by the Parsees and Ghebers. The Magian doctrine endeavoured to account for the existence of evil, by the notion (afterwards adopted by the Manichees) of two first causes, principles or gods, of Good and Evil. The name is derived from the Magi, a sacerdotal caste of the Medes, who introduced their peculiar opinions into Persia. This doctrine was reformed by Zoroaster or Zer- dusht. Four persons of this name are mentioned in ancient authors ; but the best known, and perhaps the only one who ever existed, was born in Media about the same time as Cyrus. Sent in early life to Judaea, he studied the books of Moses and Solomon, and became acquainted with the prophecies concerning Cyrus. Returning to his own country, he retired to a lonely cavern, in which he wrote the jSvesta, or as it is generally called, the Zendavesta, from being written in the Zend language, the sacred dialect of the Parsees. In this work, which contains tenets of the highest wisdom and the purest morals, the Two Principles are reduced to the rank of subordinate angels, and the exist- ence of one independent and self-existing deity is acknowledged, as also the salvation of man by faith from the power of Arimanes or Satan. These doctrines appear to have been adopted in Persia by the nobler tribes alone. The magi preserved the sacred fire which Zoroaster brought to Media, and which he is said to have received from heaven. His favourite maxim was, that evil followed good, as the shadow the substance. EGYPT. Psammetichus. — The period between the sixteenth and tenth centu- ries, although disturbed by anarchy, was the most prosperous in the history of this kingdom. In the Holy Scriptures we find a few scattered notices of Egyptian affairs, such as the marriage of Solomon with the king's daughter, and the invasion of Judaea by Shishak in 971, B.C. The tide of conquest now rolled down the Nile, the Ethiopians under Sabacus '•ose to great power, 770, and a dynasty of three kings reigned ir succession en the united throne of Egypt and Ethiopia. Various 58 A.NCIKXT HISTORY. revolutions followed, until Psammetiehus of Sais obtained the supreme power, about 656 b. c. He had been a member of the dodccarchy, or government of twelve sovereign princes, among whom the country had been divided, 671. Quarrels springing up among them, they expelled him, but lie soon after returned, and, aided by Greek mercenaries, put his rivals to flight. In consideration of the fidelity and military services of the strangers who had helped' him to his throne, he kept many of them about him as a standing army, and honoured them with his confi- dence. At this the warrior-caste took umbrage, and, to the number of 200,000, retired into Ethiopia. In his reign commerce flourished, and strangers were allowed freely to visit the Egyptian ports. The accession of Psammetiehus to the sole sovereignty of Egypt is an im- portant epoch, and the termination of historical uncertainty. Greek writers now furnish us with a detailed history of the country, no ionger founded on figurative inscriptions or allegorical traditions; and henceforward the Scriptures also give us the names and characters ofthe Egyptian princes, whom we easily recognise in the Greek narratives. In this reign the interpreters became a distinct class, alphabetical writing came into general use, and the science of hieroglyphics was gradually forgotten. Egypt now became and continued a single empire, with its seat of government at Memphis. Down to this time v no Egyptian king, with the exception of Sesostris, had appeared animated with a military spirit ; but after Psammetiehus, the various princes felt the necessity of becoming warriors and creating a maritime power. The enlightened administration of Psammetiehus made Egypt flourish without overloading the people with taxes. He was partial to the Greeks, and formed an alliance with the Athenians. Although his subjects, blinded by prejudice, did not second his extended views, he is not the less one ofthe most estimable sovereigns that ever governed the nation. Pharaoh-Necho, 617-601. — The son and successor of Psammetiehus would have been an extraordinary ruler in any age. He formed exten- sive plans of conquest; subdued all Asia, as far as the Euphrates ; took Catchemish (Circesium,) the key of Syria and Palestine, and placed in it a strong garrison (610.) His march through Judah was opposed by Josiah, who was slain in battle, and his kingdom treated as a subject country. He attempted to join the Nile to the Red Sea by a canal, ninety-six miles in length ; in which unsuccessful labour 120,000 work- men are said to have perished.* At his command a Phoenician fleet sailed from the Arabian Gulf, circumnavigated Africa, and returned in three years by the Straits of Gibraltar, twenty-one centuries before Yasco de Gama doubled the Cape of Good Hope (1497 a. d.) In 606 Nebuchadnezzar II. defeated and pursued the Egyptian monarch, when all his conquests beyond the frontiers were lost. Necho died after a reign of sixteen years, leaving the throne to his son Psammis, 601 b. c GREECE. Draco. — The example of Sparta, and their own internal dissensions inspired the Athenians with a desire for a regular constitution, the framing of which was committed to the hands of Draco, chief archon *This work was completed by the Persians, but turned out to be of little practical benefit. Many learned men have doubted the existence of a communication by water between the two seas; but the testimony of ancient writers is too positive against them. Attempts have been made, at various times, down to the present day, to eleae out the bed of the canal, which is still visible. SEVENTH CENTURY B. C. 59 that year (624,) a man as rigidly severe as he was inflexibly just. The code he drew up was said to be written in blood, death being the penalty of the lowest as well as of the highest crimes. It naturally fell into contempt and desuetude, when at length the contests of the aristocratic parties, and the better regulation of the religious worship by the Cretan Epimenides, prepared the way for Solon. From the three classes, which existed in the time of Theseus, the nobles, labourers, and artizans, appear to have been derived the same number of political factions which now divided Athens. The mountaineers or Diacrians advocated an absolute democracy ; the rich inhabitants of the plains, or Pedians, desired an aristocracy ; while the Paralians, who dwelt along the shores, favoured a mixed government, in which the people had the right of suffrage, and the executive power was placed in the hands of a few individuals. The intolerable abuses of the magistracy, and the rapacity of their own creditors, drove the people at last into insurrection. They elected a chief, threw open the prisons, and with arms in their hands demanded a partition of the land, the abolition of all debts, and a new order of government. Civil war was on the point of breaking out, when Solon was chosen archon, and appointed supreme arbiter and legislator of the republic, 594 b. c. Messenian Wars. — A trifling quarrel between the Spartans and Messenians, who had been long at variance with each other, gave rise in 743 to the First War of twenty years, which ended to the disadvan- tage of the latter. Messenia, lying in the south-west of the Pelopon- nesus, was a fertile country with great maritime advantages. The wise Nestor is supposed to have ruled in one of its cities ; and his descendants were driven from the throne by the Dorian followers of the Heraclidse. The people were a simple, agricultural race, but not defi- cient in warlike virtues. In the year 773, an insult offered to a band of Spartan virgins by some Messenian youths, led to the first serious misunderstanding between the respective states. Hostilities did not break out until thirty years after, when Polychares, indignant that punishment had not been inflicted on the murderer of his son, in a wild spirit of retaliation killed several Lacedaemonians, 743. In the early part of the war, fortune was on the side of Messenia, Aristodemus hav- ing restored the fainting spirits of his countrymen by the sacrifice of his daughter. Shortly after the battle of Ithome, 730, he was elected to the vacant throne, and made frequent and destructive incursions into the Laconian territory. In 725, the Spartans prepared for a decisive strug- gle, but it was prolonged until 723, when Aristodemus had fallen by his own hand on the tomb of his immolated child. Ithome was taken and rased to the ground ; the Messenians were condemned to a yearly tribute of half their crops, and to be present in deep mourning at the interment of the Spartan kings. For thirty-nine years they remained in subjection, when the Second War broke out, 685, under the conduct of the famous Aristomenes, whose adventures are so romantic as to throw doubt upon the whole history of his campaigns. The Spartans, headed by the lame Athenian schoolmaster Tyrtaeus, and cheered by his songs, were eventually successful, after besieging the stronghold of Ira during eleven years ; and the Messenians who did not abandon their country, made a numerous addition to the Helots or Laconian slaves. Aristo- menes escaped, and died at Rhodes. He was the worthy precursor of 60 ANCIENT HISTORY. Epaminondas, and we can scarcely find in history two nobler and purer characters than these two great men. The Third Messenian war occurred in the fifth century b. c, and was terminated by the surrender of Ithome. Read : Buhver's Athens, book. I. chap. vi. § 16 ; and Travels of Anacharsis, ch. xi. The colony of Tarentum in Italy was founded shortly after the first Mes- senian war, by the Parihenias from Sparta, 707, a mixed race of Spartan and Lacedaemonian blood, who had revolted because their legal illegitimacy excluded them from citizenship. In Lacedaemon, during these wars, the Ephori had been created as vicegerents of the kings, and it is worthy of note, that while the sove- reignties of Judah and Israel were falling into ruin, the states of Greece were gradually preparing for their glorious course of mental and physi- cal greatness. At this time Massilia (Marseilles), Byzantium, and Cyrene, were founded ; and the Gauls established themselves in Northern Italy. ROME. Horatii and Curiatii, b. c. 667. — Numa was succeeded by Tullus Hostilius (672), who sought to rival the military glory of Romulus. In a war against the Albans took place the celebrated combat between the champions of Rome and those of Alba, the three Horatii and the three Curiatii. The former were victorious, the city of Alba was laid waste, and the population transferred to Rome, which thus became the capital of the united nations. On the death of Hostilius, which was occasioned by lightning, Ancus Martius was elected king, 640 b. c. He was the grandson of Numa, whose religious institutions he attempted to revive ; and although not unsuccessful in war, he derived the title of " the Good" from his works of peace. He raised temples, instituted the fetial law, fortified the city, enlarged its territorial possessions, dug quarries, formed salt-works, built the port of Ostia at the mouth of the Tiber, and laid the foundations of the Roman commerce and maritime power. Tarquin the Elder, or Prisms, 616 e. c, was an Etrurian of Greek extraction; and his genius, education, and wealth, were the cause of his election to the throne of Ancus. He defeated the Latins and Sabines, the inveterate enemies of early Rome, and first assumed the regal fasces and purple robe. He also increased the number of the senate to 300. Among his public works are the vast sewers, which exist uninjured to the present day. He laid out the Circus and the Forum, and began to surround the city with a wall of massy stones. He died a violent death, 578 b. c. Observation. — Although the personal existence of Romulus may be rejected, and the history of Numa doubted, there are some things in that of Tullus Hostilius which bear the mark of truth, however disguised by their legendary form. Alba was destroyed by the Latins, with whom the Romans, as living in the Latin territory, may have been allied. The tribe Luceres was added to the patrician body, as distinct from the plebeian estate. With Ancus, a new order of citizens, the Plebs, appears — a class of men personally inde- pendent, but not sharing in the government. SIXTH CENTURY B.C. 61 SIXTH CENTURY. Judaea. — 536, End of the Captivity.— 515, Second Temple built. Assyfia P 504 ' Nebuchadnezzar. — 570, Loses his Reason. — 538, Belshazzar — i j End of the kingdom of Babylon. Persia I 561 ' Cyrus e ^ ec[e ^ King. — 559, Aids Cyaxares. — 538, Babylon taken. — 529, Cambyses. — 521, Darius. Egypt. — 594, Apries. — 569, Amasis. — 525, Psammenitus, last native king. Greece. — 594, Solon, archon. — 560, Pisistratus. — 514, Harmodius and Aris- togiton. Rome. — 578, Servius Tullius. — 534, Tarquin II. — 509, Consuls — Constitution of Rome. China. — 550, Confucius born. Literature.— The Seven Wise Men ; Mimnermus, Thespis, iEsop, Theog- nis, Pythagoras, Anacreon. Discoveries. — Geographical Maps ; Terrestrial Globes, by Anaximander. — 560, Marble employed (at Athens) for Statues. — 540, Monochord, Terrestrial Revolution, by Pythagoras. — 552, Corinthian Capital, by Callimachus. — 520, Sun-dials, by Anaximenes of Miletus. JUDAEA. . In 603, Jehoiakim, relying upon the support of the Egyptian monarch, revolted against Nebuchadnezzar, who immediately sent an army into Judaea. He followed in person in 599, when he killed the king as a rebel, and threw his body into the fields unburied ; thus fulfilling the prediction of Jeremiah, xxii. 19. Jehoiachin was then placed on the throne, from which he was dragged at the end of three months, and led captive to Babylon, together with more than 10,000 companions in mis- fortune, the strength and the hope of the nation. Ezekiel was now a second time carried away into bondage ; Jeremiah remained behind to console, but in vain, the remnant of the people. Zedekiah, the uncle of the deposed prince, was chosen to fill his place, but he proved more wicked than his predecessors. In 590, being the ninth year of his reign, he revolted against Nebuchadnezzar, and refused to pay the tribute imposed by this conqueror. His alliance with Pharaoh-Hophra proved of no avail : the Egyptian ruler retired before the Assyrian army, which immediately blockaded Jerusalem. The denunciations of Jere- miah, which had filled the city with consternation, could not ward off the impending fate; and after the city had endured the worst calamities of hunger, it was taken in a night-attack, and given up to fire and sword, 588 b. c. The degraded king, having seen his wives and children slain before his face, had his eyes put out, and in that miserable condition was sent to a foreign prison, to be a living testimony of the truth of prophecy. [Jerem. xxiv. 8; xxvii. 12. Ezekiel, xii. 13.] All the Jewish people were transported to Babylon, the poorest class alone being left to cultivate the land. During fifty-two years, the sacred metropolis remained in the state in which Nebuzar-adan had left it; that is, until it was rebuilt by the Jews, who were allowed to return under the decree of Cyrus, 53G. 62 ANCIENT HISTORY. Second Temple. — In the first year of his reign, the Persian con- queror allowed a colony of Jews, under Zerubbabel, of the family of David, to return to the land of their forefathers, 53G b. c. They did not exceed 50,000, the more wealthy portion preferring to remain in tran- quillity and ease in Babylon, where they had become very numerous. The building of the temple, which occupied many years, was violently opposed by the Samaritans, to whom the colony was a source 01 expense. But it was completed in the reign of Darius Hystaspes, 515. The Babylonian captivity entirely cured the descendants of Jacob of their idolatrous propensities, and they never after swerved from the worship of the true God. From this period Hebrew ceased to be the spoken language of the Jews, having been displaced by the Chaldee, varying little from it, and in which part of the Book of Daniel is written. This gradually changed into the Syro-Chaldaic, the Jewish tongue mentioned in the New Testament. Remarks. — In examining the conduct of God towards his chosen people, we shall find continually fresh subjects of admiration. After having renewed to Abraham the promise which he had made to our general father Adam ; after having announced to the holy patriarch, as the recompense of his faith and virtue, that from him and his son Isaac should one day be born that holy Being —the expectation of his posterity and the Saviour of the World ; after having multiplied the race of Israel, God selected from the tribe of Judah the house of Jesse, the father of David, as that from which the Messiah was to spring. In spite of the deplorable revolution which separated the ten rebel tribes from that of Judah ; in spite of the backslidings of most of the kings who succeeded Rehoboam ; in spite of the calamities which God inflicted upon them, and which seemed to threaten the complete extinction of their house, the family of David still survived on the throne, while that of Israel was continually occu- pied by new families. A still more admirable sight is that alternation of glory and humiliation, of rewards and punishments, the almost invariable accompani- ments of the 'good or bad conduct of the monarch and people of Judah. Thus the proceedings of that Providence which, often with profound and secret views, is hidden from our eyes, are made a continual proof of the watchfulness of God over his people, an ever-visible manifestation of his designs toward them and the surrounding nations, and the most striking demonstration of his sovereign power, wisdom, and justice. Mordecai and Esther. — Ahasuerus, king of Persia (either Xerxes or Artaxerxes Longimanus), divorced his wife Vashti, and supplied her place by the pious and amiable Esther, niece of Mordecai the Jew. As the fortune and credit of the uncle increased, that of Haman the favourite and chief minister declined. He therefore meditated the total destruc- tion of the Jewish nation ; and their happy deliverance, by the firmness of Esther, is still yearly commemorated by the feast of Purim. Haman fell into the snare he had laid for his enemies, and was hung on the gibbet which he had prepared for Mordecai. ASSYRIA. Nebuchadnezzar, 604-561 b. c. — This monarch's reign comprehends the most brilliant period of the Chaldaeo-Babylonian empire. This golden head of the prophetic image conquered Palestine, Idumea, Ammon, and Moab, utterly destroyed the Syrian power, and subjugated Persia. He had already taken most of the Phoenician towns, when the Tyrians retired from their city on the mainland to the adjoining islet, on SIXTH CENTUKY B. C. 63 which their more modern capital was built. Among other changes, this oeople altered their form of government, and appointed judges in the place of a king. Egypt suffered next at the hand of the conqueror ; he spread fire and sword from Palestine to the borders of Ethiopia. Re- turning to Babylon, he patronised the arts, commerce, and industry ; and completed those masterpieces of gigantic architecture, which may with greater probability be attributed to him than to any of his ances- tors. During his reign, Daniel prophesied, and acquired great renown by the interpretation of the king's dream, which the Chaldean astrolo- gers could not explain. In accordance with the prediction, for seven years he was afflicted with hypochondriacal madness (lycanthropy) ; fancying himself transformed into an ox, he fed on grass in the manner of cattle. His reason returning to him, 563 b. c, he remounted the throne, when, for a short time, he became more powerful than ever; and dying after a reign of forty-three years, he was regarded by the Assy- rians as one of the greatest of their kings. But Evil-Merodach, his son, who was weak and tyrannical, soon rendered himself odious by his cruelty and debauchery. While regent during his father's madness, he committed so many excesses, that the latter, on his recovery, was compelled to imprison him, although without any hope of his being corrected by such chastisement. He was not without some good quali- ties, and history records with pleasure one trait of humanity in him — he liberated Jehoiachin from the prison in which he had been confined thirty-seven years. Neriglissar ascended a throne which he had stained by the murder of his brother-in-law, 559. This warlike prince infused new vigour into the Assyrian monarchy. He subdued Hyrcania ; carried his victorious arms into Syria and Arabia ; and formed an alli- ance with Croesus against the rising power of Media. He fell in a battle which he waged with Cyrus, and was succeeded by his son, Laborasoarchad, 555, who was slain by his subjects after a reign of nine months. The royal line was restored in the person of Labynetus, known also as Nabonadius, Naboandel, and Belshazzar. While the king gave himself up to luxury and pleasure, his mother, the wise Nitoeris, the true Semiramis, held the reins of government with a firm nand. By her management, Babylon was fortified against the attacks of the Medes, and an alliance renewed with the king of Lydia against the menacing progress of the Persian prince. They collected an army of 420,000 men, which was defeated at Thymbra, 545. About five vears later, Babylon was invested by Cyrus, and taken by a remarkable stratagem, on that fatal night when the mysterious writing on the wall told that the "kingdom was divided and given to the Medes and Per- sians," fifty years after the destruction of Jerusalem. The history of the last of the Babylonian kings is not without difficulty. The name of Belshazzar not occurring in profane history, it has been applied to many different sovereigns. Evil-Merodach, and not Neriglissar, is said to have fallen in battle against the Medes ; and Belshazzar was his immediate successor. Hales disputes the statement which makes Babylon to have been taken by the Medes and Persians on the same night that Belshazzar was slain, and considers that he fell in a conspiracy ; and that, on the death of his son Laborasoarchad, nine months after, the dynasty became extinct, and Darius the Mede (Cyaxares) peaceably succeeded. Nabonadius had been appointed viceroy ; he revolted against Cyrus, 551, who, otherwise occupied, deferred his attack on Babylon until 536, which he then took by a remarkable stratagem. 64 ANCIENT HISTORVT. PERSIA. Cyrus the Great. — After the taking of Babylon,* Cyaxares II. (Darius the Mede|) divided his vast states into a hundred and twenty satrapies, and made them accountable to three ministers, of whom Daniel was one. The Persian and Median nobles, jealous of the eleva- tion of a foreigner, endeavoured to destroy him by that plot which ended by his being thrown into the lions' den, and his miraculous deliverance from the fury of the hungry beasts. This striking testimony of Al- mighty power was followed by a decree, in which the monarch acknow- ledged the God of the prophet. This act was the precursor of the edict which his successor published in favour of the Jews, in the first year of his reign. Cyaxares died in 536, leaving all his dominions to his nephew Cyrus, who inherited about the same time the sceptre of his father Cambyses, king of Persia. The first year of his reign was marked by the termination of the Jewish captivity, when Zerubbabel, as prince of Judah, returned to Palestine, accompanied with about 50,000 of the tribes of Judah, Ben- jamin, and Levi. Cyrus reigned seven years over all Asia, and died 530 b. c. His military and political career began about 560, when he first quitted Persia with the command of an army. — Thus far the testi- mony of Scripture has been followed ; the blanks remain to be filled up from the contradictory accounts of the Greek historians Astyages, the son and successor of Cyaxares I., king of the Medes, was an indolent, superstitious, and cruel prince. His grandson Cyrus, by his. daughter Mandane, was ordered to be exposed, to prevent the fulfilment of an oracle ; but the future monarch of Asia was, like another Paris or QEdipus, preserved by the humanity of a shepherd. Arrived at maturity, he threw off the Median yoke and defeated Crcesus, who had taken up arms in behalf of the dethroned prince. He afterwards made rapid conquests in Upper Asia, and took Babylon after a siege of two years, by turning the current of the river, and entering by its exhausted channel. £ Previously to his marching against the Scythians, he nomi- * [On that fatal night in which the mysterious writing appeared on the wall, Belshazzar was killed according to the general account, by Cyrus, who then succeeded by his famous stratagem in entering Babylon. There is. however, another account of the matter supported by the authority of Dr. Hales, and followed apparently by this author. According to this theory, Belshazzar, on that night, was slain in a domestic conspiracy, and was succeeded by his son. His son died after a reign of nine months, and with him the dynasty became extinct. Cyaxares I., or Darius the Mede, suc- ceeded peaceably to the throne. He was succeeded by Astyages, and Astyages by Cyaxares II., also called Darius the Mede, under whose reign Daniel continued to flourish. This Cyaxares II., on his death, willed his dominions to his nephew Cyrus, but appointed a viceroy to administer affairs until Cyrus should himself take possession of the throne. The viceroy revolted, and it was in reducing him to subjection that Cyrus executed his famous stratagem for entering Babylon. — Am. Ed.] f Darius, in Hebrew, Dara?nesh, is not a proper name, but, like Pharaoh, a title of dignity. It is derived from Dara, which in Persian signifies a king. | The walls of Babylon were 87 feet broad, 350 feet high, and 60 miles in circumfer ence. To reconcile the accounts of sacred and profane history of the foundation and improvement of this wonder of the world, we may suppose that it was founded by Nnnrod and enlarged by Belus ; that Semiramis improved and adorned it with beautiful buildings ; and that Nebuchadnezzar the Great raised it to its latter state of astonishing magnificence. SIXTH CENTURY B.C. 65 nated his son Cambyses to succeed him, and admitted him to a share of the regal power. After a few partial successes, he perished in battle, and his dead body was mutilated by order of the Scythian queen, Tomyris. Three Greek historians have furnished us with the particulars of the life of the Great Cyrus, namely, Herodotus, born about 484 b. c. ; Ctesias, who was, during seventeen years, the chief physician of the mother of Artaxerxes Mnemon; and Xenophon, who fought at Cunaxa under Cyrus the younger. Next to the Scripture narration that of Herodotus has been preferred, from the impossibility of combining their several histories in one complete whole. For instance, Herodotus and Ctesias entirely omit the reign of Cyaxares II., son of Astyages, who is spoken of in Xenophon, and attested by Scripture ; Ctesias makes no mention of the taking of Babylon, confirmed by Herodotus, Xenophon, and the Old Testament. 1 he biography by Xenophon is generally supposed to be a work of fiction, not unlike the modern historical romance, in which Cyrus is made the vehicle of the lessons of morality intended to be con- veyed by the writer. The dominions of this remarkable king extended from the Mediterranean and Egypt to the Indian Ocean, and from Ethiopia to the Euxine and Caspian Seas Brerewood estimates the wealth he acquired by his conquests at 126^ millions sterling. The extraordinary prophecies con- cerning him contained in the holy Scriptures, and which were not unknown to him, may not unreasonably be supposed to have had a powerful effect on his mind; and Dr. Hales concludes, that he lived and died the death of the righteous. Cambyses (529), the eldest son of Cyrus, succeeded to his father's throne ; Smerdis, the younger, became governor of Bactria. The former invaded and subjugated Egypt in the space of six months. He formed the project of subduing Carthage, conquering Ethiopia, and seizing upon the Temple of Jupiter Amnion ; but his expeditions were unfor- tunate, and his armies perished in the sand of the deserts. These dis- asters irritated a character naturally impetuous; and hence, regardless of the feelings of the Egyptians, he killed with his own hand the bull Apis, scourged the priests, caused his brother to be assassinated, and inflicted a blow upon his sister, who was also his wife, which proved fatal. The end of his reign was menaced by a singular conspiracy. While on his return from Egypt, he heard that the Magi had elevated an impostor, Smerdis, to the throne, as the brother of Cambyses, who bore the same name. Leaping hastily upon his horse as the news was told him, the scabbard fell from his sword, whereby he received a wound in the thigh, of which he died, 521 b. c. The imposture was speedily discovered, the pretender was put to death, and an indiscriminate mas- sacre of the Magi took place. We must be careful how we give credit to all that is related of Cambyses, since our information is derived chiefly from his enemies, the Egyptian priests. Darius I. Hystaspes, 521. — When this member of the family of the Achaemenides succeeded to the throne, his seven coadjutors, in the destruction of Smerdis, the usurping magian, received the most dis- tinguished honours. They were allowed free access to the king; they wore distinctive caps, and had the priority of speeech in council. Darius, who was a prince of great political wisdom, inferior to Cyrus alone of all the Persian kings, favoured the Jews, and allowed the Tem- ple to be completed, 515. Babylon, which had revolted, was recovered after a long siege by the devotion of Zopyrus. He broke up the Ionian confederation, established his sovereignty over Thrace and Macedonia, 6* 66 ANCIENT HISTORY. in Western India, and in Africa, but was defeated in his Scythian inva- sion, 513. In Greece, his troops were overthrown on the celebrated field of Marathon, 490. During- this reign, the Persians forsook their nomad life, and con- tinued the building of the Persepolitan palace, which was begun by Cyrus and completed by Xerxes. Although Darius weakened the empire by his foreign wars, he improved its internal organisation by dividing it into twenty satrapies, corresponding with the various tribu- tary races, and by imposing a regular tax instead of the voluntary gifts which each province had hitherto contributed.* He expired 485 b. r., after nominating for his successor, Xerxes I., grandson of Cyrus, and son of his second wife, the celebrated Atossa. EGYPT. Psammis, who had ascended the throne on the death of Necho (601), perished in the sixth year of his reign, immediately after an expedition into Ethiopia. His successor Apries, the Pharaoh-Hophra of Scripture, planned the conquest of Asia, besieged Sidon, fought a naval battle with the Tyrians, reduced nearly all Phoenicia and Palestine, but failed in his expedition against Cyrene. His subjects being averse to foreign wars carried on by mercenary troops, revolted against him, and offered the crown to Amasis, an officer alike popular with the people and the army. The king retired to Upper Egypt, where he long maintained his power, while the usurper was acknowledged by the rest of the country. Availing himself of this civil war, Nebuchadnezzar II. invaded and devastated Egypt, which did not recover from the effects of his ravages during the next forty years. Apries was at last defeated, and taken prisoner, when he was strangled by order of the conqueror. With him terminated the family of Psammetiehus, 569 b. c. [See Ezekiel, xxix.] Amasis contrived by conciliating the priests to strengthen him- self on the throne. He married a Greek woman, and permitted her countrymen to establish a factory at Naucratis, on the Canopic branch of the Nile. He contributed largely to the rebuilding of the Temple of Delphi, and was the only Egyptian king who subdued Cyprus. Pythagoras, Solon, and Thales, are supposed to have visited the banks of the Nile during this reign; and assuredly, that country was never more happy than under his government. He restored the division into names „• revived many ancient regulations, which had fallen into neglect during the preceding troubles ; and instituted a yearly census of all his subjects. He reigned forty-four years, and died just as Cambyses was preparing to invade his kingdom. Six months after Psammenitus ha 1 ascended the throne, 525, a Per- sian army invaded the districts on both sides of the Nile. A single battle before Pelusium decided the fate of Egypt, and the king shortly after falling into the hands of the conqueror, was put to death. With * The taxes paid in money, and collected by the satraps for the king's privy-purse, amounted to nearly three millions and a half of sterling money. Besides which, the pro- vinces had to pay the king's household, maintain the troops, and all the expenses of the government. The royal treasures were deposited in various cities, called Oazm ; such wen- Fersepolis, Susa, and Pasargada. The gold and silver amassed in the form of ingots, were coined as occasion required. The principal gold piece was the Daric from the name of the first king, Darius, who had caused it to be struck. SIXTH CENTUKY K. c. 67 him perished the 26th royal race that had governed the country since Menes. ]t remained subject to Persia, with few exceptions, until the conquests of Alexander, on whose death a new monarchy arose, founded by Ptolemy, son of Lagus, 323 e. c, which subsisted until the death of Cleopatra, 30 b. c, when Egypt was made a Roman province. Thus was the prophecy of Ezekiel fulfilled — there shall be no more a prince of the kind of Egypt. It has ever since been governed by foreign rulers, — Romans, Saracens, Mamelukes, and Turks. GREECE. Solon of Salamis, who was elected archon of Athens, 594 b. c, had the difficult task of reconciling opposing factions, and of restoring tran- quillity to the state. He divided the people into four classes, accord- ing to their property, and laid the foundations of that democracy which was afterwards the cause of so much unmingled evil. The thetes, or lowest class, occupy a more conspicuous station in history than the higher ones, for the sovereignty of the state resided in their assemblies, and they filled nearly every office in the courts of justice. The checks on the mischief incidental to all popular meetings were the Senate of 400 (afterwards 500), and the court of Areopagus ; the first consisting of aged, wealthy, and respectable citizens ; the other forming the true aristocracy of Athens, whose degradation by Ephialtes, in the time of Pericles, was considered by Isocrates as the principal cause of all the demoralization which subsequently tcok place in the state. Solon began with the abolition of all debts, the reduction of the rate of interest to 12 per cent., and by enacting that the insolvent debtor should neither be reduced to slavery by his creditors, nor be compelled to sell his children. He next declared the sovereign power to reside in the assemblies of the people, which alone had the power of declaring war and making peace, of forming alliances, of electing generals and magistrates, and of controlling them in the execution of their respective duties. — The citizens were divided into four classes: the first comprehended those whose estates were of the yearly value of about ,£500 (pe7itakos iomedit/mi) ; the second were the knights who possessed a yearly revenue of £300; the zeugitce, who had a yoke of oxen, formed the third class; the fourth, and most numerous, comprised all of inferior property. The seventy-four cantons (demi) were still united into six tribes, and each tribe into three curice, to one of which every Athenian must belong. The popula- tion of Athens, though scarcely exceeding 60,000, contained nearly 10,000 strangers, who, like the citizens, were called upon for military service, and paid an annual tribute. The slaves were better treated in Attica than in any other part of Greece, in consequence of which, although their number exceeded 40,000, they never revolted, as in Sparta, to recover their liberty. The hatred which the lower classes of Greece and Rome bore to the rich, must, in a great measure, be attributed to the existence of slavery, which prevented these two extremes in the social scale from having common interests. The wealthy pos- sessor of slaves could dispense with the labour of the poor, who derived no advantage from the fortune of their fellow-citizen. Together with the aboli- tion of slavery, Christianity has extinguished the hatred between the different orders of society. Consult : Gillies's History of Greece ; — Travels of Anacharsis ; — Boeckh's Economy of Athens. Pisjstratus. — When Solon returned to Athens, after an absence of twenty years, he found it still agitated by its former dissensions, which did not cease until Pisistratus, a descendant of Codrus, fund himself 68 ANCIENT HISTORY. able to seize upon the chief power, 560 b. c. He had previously dis- tinguished himself at the taking of Salamis ; and by his eloquence and affability he gained all hearts, in despite of the violent opposition of the lawgiver. He increased the body-guard which the confiding people had granted him, got possession of the citadel, and drove out his antagonists. After five or six years, this leader of the mountain-faction was expelled ny Lycurgus, the head of the wealthy nobles of the plains, in union with the exiled Alcmaeonidae. But he returned about 554 b. c, more powerful than before, having formed an alliance with Megacles, the chief of the moderate party on the coast. His second tyranny lasted scarcely a year, when he was again compelled to flee by the insulted family of his wife, 553 ; but making a second appearance about 54*2, he strengthened himself by alliances, money, and auxiliary troops. He was a good ruler, and Athens flourished under his government; hence Solon remarked of him, that he wa? the best of tyrants,* and without a vice, save ambition, He ended his days peaceably in the thirty-third year of his power, 5-27, after having patronised letters, founded a library for the use of the public, laid out tne gardens of the Lyceum, and pub- lished the scattered poems of Homer. Thespis first exhibited his rude tragedies in 535. Harmodius and Aristogiton -Pisistratus left three sons, Hippar- chus, Hippias, and Thessalus. The first was a virtuous ruler ; he pro- tected the arts, and entertained Anacreon and Simonides at his court. Private revenge stimulated the political feelings of Harmodius and Aristogiton ; and Hipparchus, who, as Plato said, recalled the days of Saturn, fell beneath their daggers at a public festival, 514. Hippias, the second brother, now reigned by terror; and the Athenians, applying to the Spartans for assistance, succeeded in restoring the exiled Alc- masonidae, 510. The tyrant was deposed, and fled to Persia, which event was the proximate cause of a war with that nation. Remarks. — The Athenians paid the greatest honours to the memory of Harmodius and Aristogiton ; they were revered as demigods ; and at all public festivals, songs were sung in their honour. But religion and morality unite in condemning the exaggerated eulogiums which have been passed on these two " victims of tyranny and martyrs of liberty," as they have been called, for neither of these honourable titles belongs to them. A personal insu't, an infamous jealousy, armed these two friends against Hipparchus; it was in the legitimate exercise of the right of self-defence that Harmodius was slain by the guards of the unfortunate Hipparchus ; and it was as an avenger of his mur dered brother, and a vindicator of the laws that Aristogiton was put to death. If we descend to the details of this transaction, we shall see the sword of the assassin perfidiously concealed with wreaths of myrtle, and Aristogiton denounc- ing innocent persons. These are acts which we must in justice denominate crimes, in spite of the eloquent commendations of so many ancient and modern authors. Thucydides forms almost the only exception to this inconsiderate enthusiasm. Athens was now threatened with a fresh servitude from the ambition of Clisthenes and Isagoras. The former having prevailed, 508, the * The name of tyrant was applied by the ancient Greeks to those kings who had usurped the throne or the supreme power, to the prejudice of the legitimate heir, or contrary to the will of the people. In modern ages it is appropriated to cruel and unjust monarchs, and is become a term of the greatest ignominy and detestation. Richard III. of England was a tyrant in both the ancient and modern signiticat ons of the word. SIXTH CENTURY B.C. 69 state was laid at the mercy of an unprincipled populace, by dividing the original four tribes into ten, which were again subdivided into 100 (or 170) demes. The number of the Senate was also increased to 500; many new citizens were made ; aliens were admitted ; and slaves were freed. By Clisthenes, the vote by ostracism was introduced. Isagoras appealed to Sparta, but without success, and the Assembly remained triumphant, — a democracy, not composed of sober, simple-minded hus- band men, as Solon contemplated, but of uninstructed and desperate masses of men, ready at the beck of every seditious demagogue to indulge in violence and tumult. In the space of a few years, Athens, freed from the yoke of its tyrants, humbled the pride of Thebes, punished the insolence of the Chalcidians, contended not ingloriously with the people of iEgina, and braved the jealousy of Lacedaemon, at the same time that, enriched by the spoils of its enemies, the city was embellished with new monu- ments, and preserved in the northern parts of Greece the influence which the Pisistratidae had begun to enjoy there by means of the establish- ments on the Hellespont. The family of Miltiades reigned at Cardia, in the Thracian Chersonese, and taught the barbarians to respect the name of his country. Lacedeemon during this period was far from acting so great a parj. The brave but unscrupulous Cleomenes, at the beginning of his reign, 515, conquered the Argives in a bloody battle, and set on fire a sacred wood in which the fugitives had taken refuge. The capital of Argos was saved by the skilful defence of Telesilla, not less celebrated for her courage than for her poetical talents. The different campaigns which Cleomenes conducted in Attica, at one time as the ally, at another as the enemy of the Pisistratidae, are some years posterior to the disgraceful expedition against Argos. Seven Wise Men. — Solon, the legislator, was one of the famous wise men of Greece. The rest were Thales of Miletus, 586 ; Bias of Priene, 586 • Chilo of Lacedaemon, 586; Pittacus of Mitylene, 569 ; Cleobulus of Rhodes. 586 ; Periander of Corinth, 585. The last of these had no claim to th.it honourable title, except the merit of having patronised men of genius and virtue. The number is sometimes increased by the addition of the Scythian Anacharsis, and the Cretan Epimenides. Read: Bulwer's Athens, book I. ch. viii. ROME. Servius Tullius (578 b. c), an Etrurian captain of mercenaries, was successful in several battles against his native country. He was in many respects the most deserving of the kings, and placed Rome at the head of the Latin confederacy, confirming her position by common religious ceremonies. He extended and completed the stone walls of the city, divided the territory into districts, each with its proper magis- trate, instituted the census, and arranged the people into five great classes, according to their wealth, which were again subdivided into centuries. The necessity of this measure demonstrates the increasing power of the citizens, and by it the frame-work of the republic was completed. He fell a victim to the ambition of his daughter, Tullia, and her husband. Tarquin the Proud seized upon the kingdom without waiting for the approbation of the senate, 534 b. c. He enacted many oppressive 70 ANCIENT HISTORY. laws against the plebeians, and, protected by a strong body-guard, tyrannized also over the patricians ; he nevertheless upheld the dignity of the Roman state, and all Latium acknowledged its supremacy. He built a temple to Jupiter, Juno, and .Minerva, on the summit of the Capitoline hill, in which were deposited the sacred treasures with the mysterious books of the Sibyl. The unbridled passions of his son Sext'is caused the expulsion of the dynasty and the abolition of the kingly power, at about the same period in which the Pisistratidae were driven from Athens, 509 b. c. Note.— The history of the last Tarquin is by no means free from difficulty. The story of Lucretia's misfortune, and the consequent expulsion of the royal family, is not confirmed by other facts in history, and is in direct opposition to the account of the Treaty of the first Consuls with Carthage. The circum- stances attending the change of government at Athens, on the death of Codrus, may throw some light on the present events. The list of Roman kings is evidently imperfect. It is not likely that seven kings, four of whom met with a violent death, should reign on an average more than thirty-four years. Ro- mulus and Numa are probably mythical ; the five others, the remnants of a longer list, presenting the most remarkable names. The stupendous sewers still existing in their pristine strength, " and the building of the Capitol, attest with unquestionable evidence, that the Rome of the later kings was the chief of a great state." Consult : Niebuhr's Roman History, vol. i. CONSTITUTION OF ROME. The municipal constitution of Rome was doubtless copied from the mother city. The senate was a deliberative body of 300, the heads of the ten gentes (houses) into which each of the thirty curia was divided. The patricians were a hereditary nobility, who alone had the privilege of administering the sacred affairs, and who formed a strong political party in opposition to the plebeians, not unlike the state of freemen and ordinary residents in a close city. Besides the original division into tribes and curies, another, according to property, was subsequently introduced, the classes and centuries, out of which arose the two assemblies {comitia) called acuriata and centuriata. The religious institutions were closely connected with the state, and few important undertakings were ever begun without first having the sanction of the gods. The discipline and subordination so remarkable in the Roman people, partly originated in the mutual relations of patron and client, a mitigated form of feudalism ; in the regulations about marriage ; and in the unlimited authority of the parent. To these things, and to the spirit which they generated, they were indebted for all the glories which they subsequently obtained. Consult: Heeren's Manual of Ancient History. CHINA. Confucius ot Con-fu-tsee was born about 550 b. c. ; and from this celebrated man was descended the only hereditary Chinese nobility. He successively passed through all the ranks and honours of the state, and was not less celebrated as a reformer than as a philosopher. He supposed that men were naturally good and possessed of celestial rea- son, but that its place, when lost, was supplied by a worldly substitute. Pythagoras, Zoroaster, and Confucius, flourished at nearly the same period. FIFTH CENTURY B. C 71 FIFTH CENTURY. Judjea. — 457, Ezra. — 415, Nehemiah. — 420, Malachi, d. Persia. — 499, Sardis burnt. — 401, Retreat of the Ten Thousand. Greece.— 490, Marathon.— 480, Salamis.— 471, Themistocles exiled.— 466 Victory at the Eurymedon. — 449, Pericles. — 440, Samian War ; 431, Pelo- ponnesian War. — 429, The Plague; Death of Pericles. — 415, Sicilian Expedition.— 405, Victory at 7Egos,-Potamos.— 404, Death of Alcibiades.— 403, Thrasybulus. Rome.— 509, Consuls.— 498, Dictator, Titus Lartius. —493, Tribunes of the People. — 486, Agrarian Law. — 452, Decemvirs — Laws of the Twelve Tables — Volscian and Veintine Wars. Carthage. — 509, Treaty with Rome.— 480, Defeat at Himera. — 410, Sicilian Wars. Literature. — 490, Pindar ; 480, iEschylus and Sophocles ; 444, Euripides, Herodotus ; 429, Hippocrates, Lysias, Aristophanes, Thucydides, Socrates. Discoveries. — 479, Mnemonics by Simonides ; 441, Catapult, &c. ; 437, Anatomy and Medicine by Hippocrates. JUD^A. Ezra. — The affairs of the Jews were still in a perplexed state. The rebuilding 1 of the temple was completed under Darius Hystaspes, but the Samaritans and others persevered in their opposition to the restora- tion of the city walls, during the reigns of Xerxes and Artaxerxes. In the seventh year of the reign of the latter prince, 457, Ezra was sent to Jerusalem, with full civil and ecclesiastical powers, and in 445 Nehe- miah w T as appointed governor. During his twelve years' administra- tion, the walls were completed, and the feast of Tabernacles again celebrated. With Malachi, who died 420 b. c, closes the prophetic roll of the Old Testament, the canon of the history terminating with the death of Nehemiah. Bossuet says, that " God owed it to the majesty of his Son to silence the voices of the prophets during- the next 400 years, that the nations might hold themselves in expectation of him who was to be the fullfilment of all oracles. Judsea was governed by a Persian satrap, but by slow degrees the high priests became the virtual rulers of the nation. GREECE. Persian Invasion. — The revolt of the Ionian colonies under Histiaeus was supported by the Athenians, and the flames of Sardis (499) gave rise to the great war. Having subdued the rebellious colonists, Darius, at the instigation of the fugitive Hippias, sent into Greece a powerful army of 120,000 men. The invaders were met at Marathon, a small town of Attica, immortalized by a battle in which the Athenians, almost unassisted, routed the Persian host, 29th September, 490 b. c. A long high barrow covers the remains of those who fell, and the peasant still fancies he hears their spectral cavalry sweeping by night across the plain. Miltiades, on whom his fellow- generals had conferred the 72 ANCIENT HISTORY. supreme command, was wounded, and Hippias is by some reported to have perished. By this victory the power of Miltiades was raised to its height. He directed the Athenian arms against Paros, having formed the design of rendering his country the mistress of the sea ; and on the failure of his expedition, he was capitally impeached by Xantippus, the chief of the Alcmaeonid faction. His principal defence and answer were the names of Marathon and Lemnos ; but he was found guilty, and being unable to pay the fine of fifty talents, was thrown into prison, where he died. ThermopyLjE and Salamis. — The history of Athens now becomes, in some measure, that of individuals. Themistocles and Aristides took the reins of government, and were the real authors of the power and glory of the Athenian republic. The former, connected with noble families, united in a remarkable degree all the most brilliant qualities of a statesman ; the latter, of distinguished birth, was proverbial for integrity. During the administration of these two great men, a more formidable invasion was headed by Xerxes, the successor of Darius, in person. This monarch, with his numerous host, which had gradually swelled to two millions and a half of warriors, met with no check until he reached the celebrated pass of Thermopylae, where, about 12,000 men were collected under the Spartan king, Leonidas. After two days' successful fighting, patriotism was overcome by treason. A Greek named Ephialtes led the Persians across a mountain-path, by which they got to the rear of the opposing army. Dismissing the greater part of his troops, that they might not uselessly perish, he retained only 300 Spartans, 400 volunteer Thespians, 100 Thebans, and 80 warriors from Mycenae. These with the Helots, as at Plataea, raised the number to about 2000. All this determined band, save the Thebans, were cut to pieces — non victi sed vincendo fatigati — and the victor marched to Athens, which he plundered and burnt (b. c. 480), the inhabitants, by advice of Themistocles, having taken refuge in the adjoining islands. From the top of a lofty cliff, the Persian ruler had the mortification of behold- ing his numerous fleet of 1000 galleys, each carrying 230 men, defeated by the Greeks with only 380 sail, between the mainland and Salamis. Xerxes fled hastily, leaving Mardonius behind with an army of 300,000 men, which was routed the next year at Plataea, by the allied Greeks under Pausanias and Aristides. On the same day (20th October), the remnant of the Persian fleet was utterly destroyed off Mycale, in Asia Minor. The day of Thermopylae (4th August) had also been rendered doubly illustrious by a seafight with the same enemy, near Artemisium, a promontory of Eubcea. It is a pithy remark made by the historian Justin, that the troops of the eastern king wanted nothing but a leader. The victory of Salamis operated an entire change in the position of the Greeks, both abroad and at home. From being attacked, they became the assailants, and the liberation of their Asiatic compatriots was the motive or the pretext by which they justified the continuance of an advantageous war, in which Sparta preserved the administration. But the treason and fall of Pausa- nias, vvho died of famine in the temple to which he had tied for refuge, changed the situation of affairs. The supreme influence passed from the Spartans to the Athenians, who profited by it to form a kind of military confederation of the interior states. From this epoch dates the jealousy of the two republics, previous to which the numerous petty governments were incessantly armed against each other. Separated thus by mistaken interests, they could perform FIFTH CENTURY B.C. 73 nothing great, and external pressure was necessary to develop their forces in behalf ot the common safety of Greece. The Persian wars laid the foundation of Grecian, and particularly of Athenian grandeur. While Athens was rising to an ascendancy over her neighbours, she was extending a silent but more certain and beneficial influence by her literary men. ^schylus fought at Salamis ; Euripides was born on the very day of the battle, and Sophocles was seventeen years old. Exile of Themistocles. — Themistocles, vanquisher of the Persians at Salamis, used his influence to persuade the Athenians of the necessity of maintaining- their superiority by means of a powerful navy. In spite of the jealous opposition of the Spartans, the walls of Athens were raised, the Piraeus was built, and funds were voted for the yearly con- struction of new vessels. These services of the patriotic leader were badly requited. He was accused of participating in the conspiracy of Pausanias ; and although nothing was proved against him, he was, by the popular ballot, condemned to exile, in 471. He took refuge at the court of Artaxerxes Longimanus, where he died, whether by poison or disease is uncertain. Cimon, the son of Miltiades, now became the prominent actor in the affairs of Greece. This great man was said to unite the courage of his father with the prudence of Themistocles and the integrity of Aristides. He had already acquired renown by his conquests in Thrace, and his successes over the Persians in Asia Minor. At the battles of the Eury- inedon, in 466, he utterly defeated the troops of Artaxerxes, both by land and sea ; whereby he struck such a blow at the power of that sovereign, that a treaty was concluded, by which the freedom of the -Ionian cities was guarantied, and no Persian horseman allowed to approach within a day's journey of the sea. In a subsequent expedition, Cimon recovered the Thracian Chersonese; and by the surrender of Thasos in 463, the Athenians obtained the gold-mines on the opposite coasts ot Thrace. Pericles, son of Xantippus, the conqueror at Mycale, now appeared on the stage of Athenian politics. He joined the popular faction in order to oppose Cimon, who was at the head of the aristocracy ; and the third Messenian war, which led to the exile of that chief, left him without a rival, 461. Thebes and Argos, which, during the struggle with Persia, had deserted and betrayed the Gr,eek party, became the cause of a severe contest between Athens and Sparta ; the latter declar- ing for the Thebans, the former for the Argives. On the field of Tanagra, in Bceotia, victory favoured the Spartans (457), but the suc- cesses of Myronides shortly after turned the scale. Nearly all the states of Bceotia were revolutionized, and garrisons of friends everywhere established. Faction was not, however, quieted, and to preserve the state from ruin, Pericles himself solicited the recall of the banished Cimon, 456. By his intercession, the two republics were united in a common expedition against Persia, during which this pacificator died, though not until he had seen the conclusion of the war, 449 b. c. Revolt of the Helots — Third Messenian War. — While Athens was steadily pursuing her career of aggrandizement, Sparta was almost entirely destroyed by an earthquake, unequalled in horrors, except by that of Lisbon in 1755 a. d. The earth opened into immense chasms, the tops of mountains were cleft, and enormous fragments rolled down 7 74 am ir.vr iiisroitv. into the plains, destroying every thing in their course. In the oity, five hon iet only were lefl itariding, and 20,000 of its inhabitants perished in the ruins, Hi i it. c The rlelots, taking advantage of this awful rophe, i" '■ in rebellion) hoping to emancipate themselves and • their wrongt. The prudence of kino Archidamus saved Lace* deem »n ; the I [elote were gradually dispei led, and at Last blockaded in [thome, the capital of Mes ene, which they had fortifiedi Prom 'his circumstance the insurrection is known by the name of the third Mes- ii Him wan At the outbreak of the, revolt, the assi itance of Athens licited, and granted at the suggestion of Cimon, for which aot be was afterwards bamshed< Ammim i i: LT10B OF PjERIOLBSi — After the death of <'inion, Pericles became the leading man at Athens. I { < > 1 « 1 and artful, eloquent and rich, he managed the fickle populace al his will, and principally hy flattering them that each individual knew something of the affairs of the Abroad he was everywhere triumphant, particularly in the Samian war, -1 10 ; and Athens became the Queen of llir Km. During forty years he governed with kingly power, and his reign was one of the most brilliant epochs in the history of civilisation. 'The arts and sciences, with commerce, made rapid advances; schools of philosophers and orators were formed; and to express one's thoughts with elegance ami perspicuity became an enviable distinction, it is to the patronage of Pericles that Vthens owes the glory of being the country of literature and the arts. Mow greal the contrast offered by Lacedasmon, where gTO miss of manners and severe laws prevented ail moral development | ./// Sparta, it was said, men /.urn to die for their country f at Jtthentf to live for it. War became inevitable between the rival states. PSLOPONNESIAM \V.\k. — The assistance furnished hy the Athenians to the ( JorcyreanS, who were at war with ( 'orinth the mother eil\ , was the pretext Of a war Which lasted twenty-seven years. The real cause was the mutual dislike of the Athenian del -racy and the Spartan aristo- cracy. Fortune alternately favoured each party ; Athens, the mistress of lie mi, was supported hy tributary confederates, whom fear attached to her, while Sparta, as a land-power, and seconded hy the greater part Of Greece, seemed tO represent the cause of liherly. Thus the whole nation was divided into two parties — the Lacedemonian and Athenian^ or the Doric and Ionian. I »n the Athenian side were — IhIch — The a rchipelsgo (excepi There, Sainos, and MedOS) i Ihioa ( loreyrs I .csbos ' lephallenia Zacynthus, with Vfessenis ('ana Thrace, &Q, I )n the side of Sparta were imbrecia \ nactorium Bceotia 'except Plates) Leuca Megan Peloponne Phocia ilv, in part. The greal events of this war are: — The dtvaetation ofMtiea; (he battle of Jir^inus.r ; the tlrfrnrc of l'lttinvt; tin: Sicilian expedition ; tht battle of Jx!go$'Potanioi ; the tiege <""/ taking of Athene* FIFTH CENTURY B. C 75 The remarkable persons are : — I ' , . , ,. „,, C Pericles, Alcibiades, Oleon, Nicias, Conon, On the side <> Jlihem< T ,Lu«- J (_ Ijarnachus. ., .. ., . .. . r Callicratidas, Brasidas, Gylippus, Lysander, On the side of Sparta^ Mi|1(|; , ms . Consequence. — The defeat of the Athenians, and the supremacy of Laced sem on. Plaque of Athens. — During the two first years of the contest, victory seemed to incline to the side of Sparta. Attica, a prey to the horrors of war, was devastated still more by the scourge of pestilence, Which carried off many of the principal men. Pericles, who was con- sidered the author of their evils, was deposed and fined ; but he was soon besought by the common voice to resume the cares of government, lie (lid riot long enjoy his triumph ; he caught the dreadful infection, of which he died, lamented alike by friends and enemies, 429. Read: Account of the Plague of Athens, in Anacharsis. Sicilian Expedition. — Cleon, a currier, succeeded the great Pericles, and an umegulated democracy was preparing the most lamentable con- sequences. Sparta, in her young and valorous general l.rasidas, threatened a dangerous rivalry to Athens; but be perished too early, before Amphipolis, a victim to his own courage, 422. A short time previous to this event, Laced »m on had been the theatre of a terrible domestic tragedy. Under the pretence of enrolling the Helots among the troops destined for the Thraeian expedition, 2000 of the flower of the slave population were selected, and while enjoying the festival of their newly gained liberty, with the garlands of freedom still encircling their heads, in the emphatic and significant language of the historian, they disappeared. A truce of fifty years was now concluded by the management of Nicias, but as it displeased all the allies, it could not last. Almost within a year the war was revived by the ambition of Alcibiades. This young man united the advantages of extreme beauty, wealth, and noble birth, with the most eminent talents. He was the pupil of Socrates, and the ward of Pericles, whom be endeavoured to imitate, but without his maturity of judgment. Embracing the popular side, by his well- timed flattery and florid descriptions, he persuaded his countrymen to undertake the fatal expedition to Sicily. Grecian colonies had long been settled in that island ; the principal town, Syracuse, was built by Corinthians in the eighth century. The Carthaginians had endeavoured to obtain its mastery, but they wen; utterly defeated at Panormus on the day of the battle of Thermopylae. The oppressions exercised by Syra- cuse over the weaker towns compelled them to look abroad for aid ; Egesta applied to Athens for help, which was readily granted, in despite of the warning voice of Nicias. A fleet was equipped, and intrusted to the command, of Alcibiades, with Lamachus and Nicias for his associates, 415 B.C. But scarcely had the armament sailed, when he was accused of sacrilege; and fearing to obey the orders of recall, be tied to Sparta, where be became the enemy of his country. During this time, the fleet and army of the Athe- nians were destroyed after the fatal siege of Syracuse, by the counsels and the aid furnished by (Jylippus, 413 b. 0. 76 ANCIENT HISTORY- This rash expedition was a blow to the power of Athens, from which it never recovered. Alcibiades was forthwith recalled, and the period of his second government was the most brilliant of the whole war (411-107). The repeated victories of his countrymen over the Spar- tans, commanded by Mindarus (who in his distrust of Tissaphernes, had formed an alliance with Pharnabazus, satrap of Northern Asia Minor), obliged the Lacedaemonians themselves to sue for a peace, which the haughty Athenians unhappily refused. Another great navai victory was gained at Arginusae, between Mitylene and Asia, in which Callicratidas, the admiral, was killed, 406. For not picking up the dead bodies in the stormy weather after the battle, six of the com- manders were unjustly put to death, Socrates alone venturing to raise an opposing voice. Victory of Lysander. — In the following year, Lysander detached Ephesus from the Athenian party, and made an alliance with Cyrus the younger, governor of Western Asia. Being reinforced by this prince, in 405, he destroyed the enemy's fleet at iEgos-Potamos, in theThracian Chersonese, and killed 3000 men, Conon alone, with eight vessels and the sacred ship Paralus, escaping the general havoc. The fate of Athens was now sealed. Lysander proceeded with his victorious squadron to the Piraeus, when the city, closely pressed by land and sea, was com- pelled to surrender, 404. Peace was granted on the following hard con- ditions : — that the fortifications should be demolished ; that all the men- of-war, save twelve, should be given up ; that the tributary cities should be emancipated ; that the exiles should be recalled ; and that no war should be carried on except under the orders of the Lacedaemonians. Athens, to complete its misfortunes, beheld its government violently changed. The democracy was destroyed, and all authority placed in the hands of thirty archons, known as the Thirty Tyrants. Thus ended the Peloponnesian war. "The victory of y£gos-Potamos," says Muller, "destroyed only the dominion, not the greatness of Athens; an enlightened nation, which does not forget itself, secures a dignity which is independent of the vicissitudes of events." The consequences of the Peloponnesian war were more injurious to the morals than to the policy of the Greeks. A factious spirit usurped the name of patriotism, and each nation saw a rival or an enemy in the other. Athens lost her preponderance, and was replaced by Sparta; but the bond of unity was broken, and the despotism of the Thirty Tyrants was more burden- some to the tributary slates than that of independent Athens. It was easy to foresee that Greece would fall a prey to the first foreign power that ventured to attack it. It is some feeble consolation, that during this dark and stormy period, Athens was laying the foundation of an empire which Sparta could not destroy, and which the lapse of years has rendered more powerful. Literature and the fine arts attained their highest eminence. JEschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes, still delight and form our taste. The ruins of the Parthenon are yet an object of veneration, and from the mutilated sculptures of Phidias the best modern artists have drawn their inspiration. After the battle of iEgos-Potamos, Lysander placed a Lacedaemonian governor, with ten archons, in all the cities of Caria, Ionia, the Hellespont, and Thrace. He returned in triumph to Sparta with immense riches, the fruits of his conquests. His ambition was not satisfied with his success ; he endeavour- ed to seize upon the crown, but on finding himself deserted by his partisans, he was compelled to abandon his pretensions. Thrasybulus. — This illustrious Athenian, in company with othei FIFTH CEMIRY B.C. 77 exiles, had taken refuge at Thebes from the cruelty of the Thirty Tyrants. Putting himself at the head of 500 soldiers, raised at the expense of the orator Lysias, he succeeded in taking the Piraeus, and in defeating the Thirty, who had hastened thither with their troops, 403. Thus by the wisdom and moderation of a single man, Athens recovered liberty and peace, while the ancient form of government was renewed, in defiance of all the exertions of Lacedaemon. The despots had been replaced by a council of Ten members, not less absolute than their pre- decessors. By this body the aid of Lysander and his mercenary army was invoked, but the victory remained with king Pausanias, who had come to the support of Thrasybulus and his adherents. On the deposi- tion of the Ten, the democratic government was restored, and a general amnesty proclaimed. Forms may be easily re-established, but the departed spirit of a nation can never be recalled. Death of Alcibiades. — Alcibiades, accused by Thrasybulus of hav- ing ruined the Athenian commonwealth, was a second time deprived of the chief command. He at first retired to his Thracian estates, but was compelled to leave them to avoid the machinations of his enemies, and to seek an asylum in Bithynia. The people, in their distress, again turned their thoughts towards him, and agitated his recall ; but the Thirty Tyrants counselled Lysander to demand him alive or dead, from the satrap, who was base enough to comply with their wishes; and he accordingly perished beneath the weapons of the barbarians, at the age of forty, 404 b. c. Read : Life of Alcibiades, in Anacharsis. Ostracism. — In this extraordinary proceeding, each citizen wrote upon a shell or piece of broken ware, the name of the person he desired to banish. Whenever the number amounted to 6000, they were sorted, the man was exiled for ten years whose name was found on the majority, although no crime might have been alleged, and no defence was allowed. A similar custom existed at Argos, and also in Sicily, under the name of Petalism. Athens spared neither the lives nor fortunes of her heroes. Miltiades, the conqueror at Marathon, died in prison ; Aristides the Just, and the benevolent Cimon, who fought at Eurymedon, were banished Paches, the conqueror of Mitylene, committed suicide to avoid the results of an unjust accusation. Themistocles saved his life by fleeing to Persia ; Herodotus the historian found an asylum in Southern Italy ; Thucydides fled from the jealousy of the demagogue Cleon; the amiable Xenophon was driven into exile ; Socrates was poisoned ; Timo- theus the son of Conon, who had rebuilt the walls of Athens, died of extreme want ; Iphicrates and Chabrias withdrew to avoid a similar fate ; Phocion was condemned to die at the advanced age of eighty-four ; Demetrius of Phalerae sought refuge in Egypt ; and even in more recent days, the father of the his torian Chalcondylas, met with no return for his services but ingratitude. N. B. Let the student give the particulars from Plutarch's Lives, Lempriere's Dictionary, or any other authentic source. PERSIA. Xerxes I., 485. — The last days of Darius were embittered by dis- putes between his sons about the succession ; until at length Xerxes, born to him by his second wife, Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, was declared heir. He marched against the Egyptian rebels, and placed the subject country under the severe treatment of his brother, the Satrap Achajmenes. He is the Ahasuerus — a title, not a proper name — who 7* 78 ANCIENT HISTORY. confirmed the Jews in all the privileges granted by his father, and forced the Samaritans to contribute to the building- of the temple. His cruel- ties and dissolute life were terminated by assassination; his murderers gave out that he fell by the hands of his son Darius, 465, who shortly afterwards perished in a similar manner. The results of the invasion of Greece have been mentioned in another place. Artaxerxes I, Longimanus, on his accession, 465, found the pro- vinces in rebellion. His brother Hystaspes, in Bactria, was subdued after two battles; and Egypt, whose submission was neither certain nor durable, was recovered, though not without difficulty, in 455. The Greeks, meanwhile, retaliated upon Persia the evils inflicted by Mar- donius. The kindred cities of Ionia were re-established, and Cimon, having in one day destroyed both ships and army at the Eurymedon, 466, compelled the great king to accede to an inglorious peace. No Persian governor was to reside within three days' journey of the Medi- terranean, and none of his war-vessels were to sail between Palestine and the Chersonese. Retreat of the Tex Thousand, 401. — Rapid and violent revolutions, with rebellions in the provinces, particularly in Egypt, 414, under Darius II. Nothus, led to the reign of Artaxerxes II. Mnemon, 405. He had scarcely ascended the throne when he was compelled to defend it against his brother Cyrus the younger, governor of Asia Minor, who claimed the throne from being the first bom after his father's accession. His army of 100,000 barbarians under Ariseus was reinforced by 13,000 Grecian volunteers, commanded hy Clearchus. The hostile armies met at Cunaxa, about twenty leagues from Babylon, where Cyrus, engaging in battle with his brother, who had 120,000 men under his command, lost his life, 401. The Greeks maintained the reputation of their coun- try not only in this fight, but in that memorable retreat, in which, at the end of fifteen months, after having overcome every obstacle of nature, and triumphed over all the attacks of the nations on their route, they again beheld their native shores. The Anabasis of Xenophon, their general, has immortalized this unexampled march. Sketch a Map of the March to Cunaxa and of the Retreat. Read : Retreat of the Ten Thousand, in Rollin or in Anachar. ; ; . ROME. The Consuls. — On the abolition of royalty, the power of the kings was transferred to two consuls, annually elected, of whom Brutus and Collatinus were the first, 509. A conspiracy was formed to restore the exiled sovereign, and among its members were two sons of Brutus ; but the plot being discovered, the criminals were apprehended. The father himself presided on the trial, and condemned his children to the scourge and the axe. Such heartlessness and cruelty, not required by any state of society, is too frequently held out as an example worthy of imitation. Ambition and stoical pride could alone have excited a parent to pursue a line of conduct which would now meet with universal execration. Tarquin's only remaining resource was arms; and, assisted by the Etruscan Porsenna, he overran the country, defeated the Romans, com- pelled them to surrender a third part of their territory, and to give bos- FIFTH CENTURY B. C. 79 tages from their noblest families. The deposed dynasty was not, how- ever, restored, and the king, after many adventures, and having outlived all his children, died at Cumae, b. c. 494. The most important monu- ment of the authenticity of early Roman history is the first commercial treaty with Carthage, 509, in which Rome, although a free state, does not appear as the head of Latium. The first consuls were of the family of Tarquin, the name and not the power of the supreme ruler being changed. They were first called praetors, the name of consul being given after the decemvirate. Dictator. — Scarcely had Rome been freed from the regal yoke, when the people began to suffer from patrician tyranny. The equitable con- stitution of Servius being laid aside, the office of dictator was created, 498, and Lartius was the first who filled this office. The law of appectt established by Valerius Poplicola was by this means evaded, and unlimited authority was exercised over the commonalty. The oppres- sion of the nobles was principally manifested in withdrawing the elec- tion of the consuls from the centuries, and by reducing their unfortunate debtors to the rank of slaves (next). An accident drove the commons (plebs) into sedition ; the legions deserted their generals and retired to the Sacred Mount, while the plebeians occupied the Aventine and Esquiline Hills. After long resistance, the Valerian laws were restored, and all debtors set at liberty. The fable of Menenius Agrippa (the belly and the members) refers to this period, 493 b. c. Tribunes. — The sole purpose of these officers (who owe their creation to the preceding disturbances) was to uphold the Valerian laws and check the consular power. At first they were a plebeian, afterwards a national magistracy, and their number was increased from two to ten. CoRiOLANUs,whohad distinguished himselfagainstthe Volsci, obstinately resisted the right they claimed of summoning patricians before the tribu- nal of the commons. Being driven into exile (475), he headed a band of Romans in a like situation with himself, and nearly endangered the existence of his native city. The tears of a mother availed more than the entreaties of the Senate. He concluded a glorious peace, and when he died, at an advanced age, among the Volscians, the Roman matrons mourned him during a whole year, and he was justly honoured as an upright patriot. — In acknowledgment of the service rendered by Veturia, a temple was erected at Rome to Female Fortune. Agrarian Laws. — These famous laws concerned the public lands alone, setting no limit to the landed property of any class or individual. When a hostile territory was subdued, one-third was appropriated for the benefit of the people generally ; and the quantity to be held by each man was limited, the commons having generally five acres, subject to all assessments. The patricians managed to hold much larger portions, and as these lands were the only pay of the legionary soldiers, the con- querors w r ere not (infrequently compelled to give up their booty to the public treasury. The dispute, in which the commonalty finally prevailed, was, whether they should have an equitable share, or the aristocracy possess the whole. Spurius Cassias, one of the wisest of Roman states- men, in his third consulate proposed an Agrarian law, by which he hoped to attach the plebeians firmly to the state; but means were taken to evade the execution of this statute, and he himself suffered death as a 80 ANCIENT HISTORY. traitor, 484. The call for these laws, however, did not cease : the people refused to serve in the legions, and when drawn up in battle, allowed themselves to be defeated without a blow. At last, to settle the differences, ten men (decem-viri) were appointed to draw up a code, which should unite the commons and the patricians, by placing them on an equal footing : a supreme magistracy was also to be instituted in place of the consulate. The first decemvirs were worthy men, but their successors abandoned themselves to cruelty, avarice, and licentiousness ; hence the support shown to them by the patriciate excited the indigna- tion of the people. Among their victims was Sicinius Dentatus, whom Niebuhr styles the Roman Roland. The brutal outrage of Appius against Virginia caused the abolition of the decemvirate, and the restora- tion of the tribunes, b. c. 449.* Amid various disputes, and the alterna- tion of tribunitial and consular power, the rights of the people were advancing ; and freedom was secured by reviving old or framing new- laws. The prohibition of intermarriages between the patricians and plebeians raised an insurmountable barrier between the two classes ; but this regulation was repealed in 445. The struggle for the admission of the commons to the consulate continued eighty years. The jealousy of the privileged orders was provoked by the generosity of Spurius Maelius, who expended a large fortune in supporting the people during a period of famine. To avert the supposed danger, the well-known Cincinnati^ was a second time chosen dictator; and in full assembly of the people, the benefactor of his miserable fellow-citizens was bar- barously murdered (440 b. c), a victim to a cruel and ruthless faction.f Rome, as the head of the Latin confederation, was engaged in con- tinual wars with those states that felt or imagined themselves to be oppressed by her rule. Though insignificant feuds in themselves, they were the means by which Rome became a conquering nation, and which laid the foundation of the senatorial power. Among the most important was the last war against Veii, 404-395. Volscian and Veientine Wars. — The iEquian war is included by Gellius in his list of memorable epochs. The iEquian and Volscian armies were composed of picked men, bound by awful oaths to fight till death. On the 18th June, they were attacked by the dictator Tubertus, and defeated after a bloody conflict. The Veientines, an Etrurian people, long maintained a powerful opposition against the Romans, and nearly took their city. But fortune changed ; Veii was in its turn blockaded, and taken by Camillus, 396 b. c, after a protracted siege, though the manner of its capture is apocryphal. This w r ar w r as signalized by the devotion of the Fabian family, who raised an intrenched camp on the Cremera, as the Spartans did at Deceleia, whence they ravaged the Veientine territory. They all, but one man, perished by stratagem, within sight of a Roman force. These wars first introduced the system of winter campaigns, and of paying the soldiers, thus gradually forming a standing army. * Appius and M. Claudius found imitators in the Duke of Fronsac and others of the same cast, in the reign of Louis XV. A Niebuhr, vol. ii. FIFTH CENTURY B. C. 81 On the laws of the Twelve Tables. The Grecian origin of these laws has been unreasonably questioned ; and although it is not probable that the haughty patriciate of Rome would con- descend to copy the Athenian democracy, still the pre-eminence of Athens under Pericles, might have justified an examination into her codes. The casual resemblances to be found in the legislative enactments of Solon and the Decem- virs may also be discovered in. the first efforts of all people in the infancy of their civilisation. The Twelve Tables inculcated the soundest principles of government and morals ; they were learnt by schoolboys, and were the favourite meditation of their fathers. They were soon overloaded by a multi- tude of new statutes, when Augustus conferred the legislative authority on the senate. The edicts of the Praetors furnished the salutary means of perpetually harmonizing the several codes with the spirit of the times. The Praetors were the true organs of the public mind ; their regulations were framed according to the opinions of the great lawyers of the day. Laws were rarely enacted con- trary to the provisions of the Twelve Tables, which, by certain fictions, existing alike in all nations, were brought into accordance with the necessities of the age. These variable edicts at length comprehended the whole of the Roman legislation, and became the basis of the jurisprudence contained in the digest of Justinian. CARTHAGE. The progress of this nation was slow, but at the close of the fifth century it was the first power in Africa, and possessed many extensive foreign settlements. The principal islands in the Mediterranean, and it is supposed the Canaries and Madeira, were occupied by her adventur- ous citizens. Mago, with his two sons and six grandsons, had the glory of extending the territory, and establishing the dominion of Carthage in Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa, 550-480. About the same period this republic became connected with the Persian monarchy, — had met and fought the Phocean navy, — extended its colonies along the shores of the Atlantic, 539, — and concluded its first treaty with Rome, 509. The great object of its policy was now the possession of the fertile island of Sicily,; but the alliance with Xerxes in his attack upon Greece led to the dreadful rout and disgraceful peace of Himera, 480. This great battle was fought on the same day as that of Salamis, and one of the conditions of the treaty which followed it is highly honourable to the victor Gelo: he insisted on the cessation of human sacrifices ?d the shrines of the Punic divinities. For seventy years Carthage dreaded the arms of Greece, and her name is scarcely met with in history ; but the accession of Dionysius I. renewed the war, 406 b. c, each party at the conclusion retaining its conquests. The second commercial treaty with Rome was formed about this period. The contest with Sicily continued until the breaking out of the Punic wars, which were the necessary consequence of the aggrandizing ambition of two powerful nations. Rome was the aggressor; yet her own safety was scarcely compatible with the dominion of her rivals in Sicily. Read: Heeren's African Nations. 82 ANCIENT HISTORY. FOURTH CENTURY. Greece. — 399, Death of Socrates. — 394, Battle of Coronea. — 387, Peace of Antalcidas. — 371, Leuctra. — 362. Mantinea. — 338, Chaeronea. — 331, Arbela. — 323, Alexander, d. — 312, iEra of the Seleucidas. Rome, — 396, Yeii taken. — 390, Rome taken by the Gauls. — 366, Plebeian consuls. — 343, Samnite Wars. — 321, Candine Forks. Literature, &c. — 401, Xenophon ; Ctesias; Isocrates, b. 436; Plato; De- mosthenes; Aristotle; Epicurus; Menander. Discoveries. — 360, Analysis, by Plato. — 333, Encaustic Painting. — 306, Sun- dial at Rome, by Paririus Cursor. — 300, Colossus of Rhodes; Operation for Cataract, by Herophilus. GREECE. Death of Socrates, 399. — This philosopher, one of the most cele- brated of antiquity, was bom at Athens. In his early days he pursued the trade of his father Sophroniscus, who was a sculptor, but abandoned this pursuit for the more enchanting study of mental science. He was a virtuous man, and one of his most characteristic qualities was a tran- quillity of mind, which could not be shaken by any accident, by any reverse of fortune or insulting language. Even the violent temper of his wife Xantippe, a name become proverbial, never made him forget his patience. He effected a real revolution in Philosophy; he attacked the method of his contemporaries, by laying down self-knowledge as the basis of all inquiries. By this means he substituted the method of observation for that of rash hypothesis ; he was in fact the creator of the science of Ethics, and founded his precepts on the conscience. His manner of teaching was novel and attractive; his was no regular method, but each auditor was skilfully conducted by a simple species of interrogation from one truth to another until he arrived at a just con- clusion. This mode of reasoning still bears the name of the Suc?-atic. His virtuous life, his principles of morality, his belief in the existence of a supreme ruler of the universe, and of the immortality of the soul, found as many enemies as disciples. Under the government of the Thirty Tyrants, Melitus, Anytus, and Lycon accused him before the council of Five Hundred, of corrupting the youth, of despising the gods, and of endeavouring to introduce new divinities. The real ground of this charge appears to have been the offence which his intimacy with Caitias and Alcibiades gave to the democratic party. The minds of the populace being easily inflamed by a misrepresentation of his doctrines, he was condemned to drink hemlock, and his death did not belie his - principles. A short time afterwards, the Athenians repented of thei* injustice, and, by way of atonement, condemned Melitus to death, and the others to banishment. A bronze statue, by the celebrated Lysippus, was raised to his honour, and a temple was dedicated to his memory. His actions, conversations, and opinions have been transmitted to us by the two most distinguished of his disciples, Xenophon and Plato. Philosophic Sects. The Greeks recognised two principal schools of Philosophy ; the Ionian and the Italian. These admit of many subdivisions, from the different principles of their founders. FOURTH CENTURY R. C 83 Ionian School This school, distinguished for its reason and good sense, was founded by T hales of Miletus, 548 b. c. He travelled extensively, learned Geometry in Egypt, and Astronomy in Phoenicia. With him commenced the study of Natural Philosophy. Anaxagoras, the tutor of Pericles (480-450), Socrates, and Plato, belonged to this school. Its chief sects were — The Academicians, founded by Plato, one of the greatest geniuses of anti- quity. Dion, Aristotle, Isocrates, and Demosthenes, were among his followers. The Peripatetics, founded by Aristotle, the preceptor of Alexander the Great, the most voluminous and profound writer of all antiquity. The Cynics, founded by Antisthenes, who placed happiness in the practice of virtue, which he taught was the contempt of wealth, and of the enjoyments of life. Diogenes destroyed the reputation of this sect by the excess to which he carried its doctrines. The Stoics, a revival of the Cynics by Zeno, who taught the celebrated dogma, that pain is no evil, the only real evils being moral imperfections. He said that we should follow virtue instinctively, and practise benevolence from inclination. Epaminondas, Trajan, and Marcus Aurelius, professed the doc- trines of the porch. Italian School. Pythagoras founded this school between 540 and 510 b. c. during the reign of Tarquin the Proud. He quitted Samos, his native country, and after travelling through the East, where he imbibed many of his peculiar doctrines, he settled at Crotona, in Southern Italy, and there effected a complete revolu- tion of ideas and manners. He was a great mathematician and natural philoso- pher, and taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls. The chief sub- divisions of this school were — The Sceptics, founded by Pyrrho, 336 b. c. who doubted of every thing. They asserted that no truth or positive knowledge existed which we could attain by our senses or reasoning. The supreme good was placed in ataraxy and apathy, in suspension of judgment and in calmness of soul. The Epicureans, whose founder was Epicurus, placed the supreme good in the practice of virtue, and in the pleasurable emotions excited by benevolence. His followers degraded these doctrines by assuming the pleasures of the senses to be the only happiness. Horace, Virgil, Atticus, and Maecenas, belonged to this sect. They appear to have admitted the existence of God, but to have denied a Providence. The school of the Eleatics was founded by Xenophanes of Colophon, at Elsea in Western Italy, 538. To it belonged Parmenides, Zeno, and Hera- clitus the Ephesian. Their main doctrine taught that God was all in all, and could be represented by no graven image. Consult: Enfield's History of Philosophy; Anacharsis. Synoptical Table. Names of Philosophers. Birthplace. Time. 1 Sect. ■ ' I Particulars. 1 Agesilaus, king of Sparta, who was as insignificant in person, as he was noble in martial qualities, carried on a successful war against Persia (396-394), but was recalled in the midst of victory to contend against the Athenians and their allies. The Persian court, despairing of safety. 84 ANCIENT HISTORY. had adopted the prudent course of subsidizing the Grecian states, and exciting 1 them to take arms against each other. The Athenians, having recovered from the ruinous government of the Thirty Tyrants, had re- built the walls of their city, and also, under the guidance of Conon, 395, thrown off the Spartan yoke. Agesilaus checked for a season this returning prosperity, by the disastrous battle of Coronea. The defeat of the Lacedaemonians, in the sea-fight near Cnidus, by Conon, who served with the Persians (b. c. 394), led finally to the peace of Antal- cidas, so called from the name of the Laconian negotiator. The repu- tation of Sparta suffered by this disgraceful treaty, which was dictated by the Eastern monarch : the Greek cities of Asia were declared subject to him, though the independence of their states in Europe was acknow- ledged. Sixty years before this, Cimon had dictated conditions to Artaxerxes Longimanus ; but now the supreme state of Sparta was compelled to accept those of Artaxerxes Mnemon. The treaty was signed 8th August, 387 b. c, and by one of its clauses, Persia engaged to compel the ratification of the treaty by force of arms. Conon was accused of treason for endeavouring to oppose its ratification, and car- ried to Susa, where he was poisoned. Thrasybulus, the liberator of Athens, perished in a trifling squabble between his troops and some peasants ; and Sparta lost her influence at the very period when the obscure Theban republic began to acquire a name. Theban War. — Thebes had hitherto been a blank in Grecian history ; but the unjust occupation of the citadel of that town by the Lacedaemo- nians called forth the talents of Epaminondas and Pelopidas. The latter liberated the city from its foreign garrison ; while the former asserted the independence of his country, and successfully maintained it on the field of Leuctra, where the flower of the Spartan youth perished, 371 b. c. The Lacedaemonians were now in their turn to suffer the horrors of invasion. Epamindos overran the country, and at Mantinea in Arcadia, the Thebans again triumphed, but at the expense of their brave general's life, and with him ended their brief supremacy, 362 b. c. Both states were weakened and exhausted by the war, and there was no longer a predominating power in Greece. Even Athens had lost a great part of her influence, together with three of her most celebrated commanders. Macedon. — The foundations of the Macedonian monarchy were laid in the eighth century b. c, by Caranus, a descendant of Hercules. His successors, and the people over whom they ruled, were long considered as barbarians by the more polished inhabitants of the South ; and dur- ing 400 years they were under the protection of Sparta, Athens, or of Thebes. On the death of Amyntas II. (309), civil dissensions agitated the kingdom, which were not appeased until Pelopidas entered the country with a strong army. On his return to Thebes, he led with him numerous hostages, among which was Philip, the brother of King Per- diccas III., whom he succeeded under the title of Philip II. 359 b. c. To strengthen his usurped power, he improved the discipline of the troops, and formed the celebrated phalanx on the model of the Sacred Battalion of Thebes. He married Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus, king of Epirus, and became the father of Alexander III. surnamed the Great (356). 1. Sacred War, b. c. 359. — The Phocians, who had been fined by FOURTH CENTURY H. C. 85 the Amphictyonic council for having committed sacrilege by ploughing up some consecrated ground near the fane of Apollo, resisted payment, and seized on the treasures in the temple of Delphi, to support the expenses of the war. After ten years the struggle was brought to a satisfactory conclusion, principally by the intervention of Philip, who was rewarded by the seat in the Amphictyonic council, which had been forfeited by Phocis. A second war led to the disastrous battle of Chae- ronea, 338 b. c, in which the Athenians and their allies were defeated by the Macedonian king, and the country laid prostrate at his feet. While forming new projects for the conquest of Persia, at the head of the confederated army of Greece, he was assassinated by Pausanias, 336 b.c. Demosthenes the orator was at the head of an Athenian party, which, with greater foresight than their rivals, beheld the subjugation of their native land in the ambitious designs of Philip. But his eloquence was exerted in vain; and like Cassandra, he predicted coming woes only to see his cautions heedlessly rejected. While he was exciting the people to war, Phocion was proclaiming the necessity of peace. Still he did not less exert his military talents in defence of his country, and com- pelled the invader to raise the siege of Byzantium. Had he command- ed at the battle of Chaeronea, the fortune of the day might have been changed. Consult : Leland's History of Philip of Macedon. Alexander ~,ae Great. — Alexander and his unfortunate antagonist Darius ascended the throne in the same year, 336 b. c. Taking courage from the youth of the new monarch, who was only twenty years old, the Illyrians, Triballians, and other barbarous tribes reduced by Philip, endeavoured to recover their independence ; but with an impetuosity and speed which T affled calculation, Alexander crushed his various antagonists with almost a single blow. A false report of his death having reached Thebes, the people rose and massacred the Macedonian garrison, and organized an extensive revolution. These plans were thwarted by the rapid movements of the king, who, before two weeks elapsed, reached Bceotia at the head of an army flushed with victory. The capital was taken by assault, and all the horrors that could be prac- tised by an unrestrained soldiery befell the inhabitants. Every house was rased to the ground, the surviving women and children were sold into slavery, and its territory was allotted to the victorious allies ; but the dwelling of Pindar, and of all connected by blood with the poet, were saved in the general ruin. There is reason to believe that the melancholy catastrophe of Thebes took place without the authority of Alexander, as general in chief of the Amphictyonic council. Athens and other states who had favoured her views, now sent embassies, and submitted to the conqueror. Having thus successfully defeated every opposition which had assail- ed his throne, he prepared to carry into effect the projects of his father, by the invasion of Asia. In the spring of 334, he began his march at the head of 30,000 infantry, and about 5000 cavalry. Antipatei was left behind to watch over his interests in Greece, while Parmenio, one of Philip's experienced and valiant generals, was appointed his lieuten- ant in the field. After indulging his ardent imagination by a visit to 8 86 ANCIENT HISTORY. the scenes described in the Iliad, his favourite poem,* Alexander has- tened to join his troops, which had crossed the straits to Abydos. At the passage of the Granicus the first struggle ensued, the king himself dashing into the river, at the head of the companion-cavalry. Disre- garding all personal risk, with his own lance he killed the Persian leader, being himself twice saved by the activity of his friends. The example of the monarch was followed by all his troops, and the rout of the enemy soon became general. All Asia westward of Mount Taurus fell into his hands as he advanced. The rich provinces of Phrygia, Lydia, and Caria, the great cities of Ephesus, Sardis, and Miletus, were compelled to submit to his authority. Darius now appointed Memnon commander-in-chief both of the land and naval forces; but while this prudent soldier was carrying into execution a well-devised plan that would have been fatal to Alexander's progress, he was suddenly cut off by death. The battle of Issus, in which the Persian ruler commanded in person, soon followed ; but fortune still proving adverse, he w r as com- pelled to flee, leaving his mother, wife, and children, in the power of the victor. Syria, with its capital Damascus, and Phoenicia, the cradle of Gre- cian literature and tradition, next invited his arms. Sidon readily threw off the Persian yoke, but Tyre, refusing to admit Alexander within her walls, was taken and sacked after a resistance of seven months. This city was no easy capture : it had baffled Shalmaneser, and compelled him to return, after a siege of live years ; and during the lapse of thir- teen resisted the attacks of Nebuchadnezzar. Egypt next surrendered without a blow; and not limiting his views in that country to ephemeral conquest or vain d ; splay, he laid the foundations of a new r city, to be called after his own name, and which soon became the capital of the country, the depot of science, and the centre of the commerce of the Eastern world. While he was thus occupied in the south, Darius was preparing for a final and desperate struggle, in the very heart of his dominions. The Grecian army rapidly marched through Syria, crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, which had been left unguarded, and reached Gaugamela or the Camel's House, so called from the animal which bore Darius Hystaspes from his Scythian expedition. Here Alexander found himself in front of 600,000 men, of all tribes and nations, hastily col- lected from various provinces. So great a host being weak in propor- tion to its numbers, the confusion produced by the first charge of the Macedonians could not be recovered ; and after a brief conflict, the great king once more became a fugitive, 331 b. c. From Arbela, by which name this victory is generally known, the conqueror proceeded to Babylon and Susa (Shusham of Scripture), when the accumulated treasures of a long race of monarchs fell into his hands. The march to Persepolis, the capital of Ancient Persia, was not effected without obstruction and danger ; but the city was at length reached in time to save the treasures from plunder by the retreating soldiers. The palace is said to have been afterwards reduced to ashes in mere wantonness, at the instigation of the beautiful Lais.f * Et, voyageur arme pour conquerir la terre, Alexandre en Asie emporta son Homere.— Lebrun. t Other accounts say that the destruction of the palace was an act of stern retalia- tion for the demolition of the Grecian temples by Xerxes. The Persian writers make FOURTH CENTURY B. C. 87 After his defeat, Darius had fled into Media, where he hoped to organize such resistance as might arrest the progress of the invader. In Greece, too, events were occurring which might have materially injured the cause of Alexander. Lacedaemon was at the head of the disaffected party, and Demosthenes was endeavouring to excite the Athenians to share in the intrigues. Antipater, however, was not want- ing in vigour during this emergency, and in a battle which shortly after ensued, the hopes of Spartan supremacy were frustrated, their troops defeated, and King Agis slain, while fifty of her principal citizens were compelled to hecome hostages for her future conduct. Probably being informed of this unexpected change in the affairs of Greece, Darius fled from Ecbatana towards the Caucasus, accompanied with not more than 10,000 men. Actively pursued by Alexander, he was killed by the sword of one of his own officers before the conqueror could overtake him; and Bessus, the murderer, who had assumed the regal title, fell shortly after into the hands of the King of Macedon, by whom he was scourged and mutilated, 330 b. c. About this time the conqueror learnt that Philotas, the son of Par- menio, had entertained designs against his life ; and the offender, with his father, suffered death, according to the decision of a tribunal of their countrymen. Clitus, who had saved his prince's life at the Granicus, and had been appointed to the companion-cavalry after the execution of Philotas, was, in a fit of ungoverned passion or of intoxication, stabbed by him to the heart. Nothing for a time could allay the bitter regret which Alexander felt, and at the moment he could scarcely be restrained from plunging the bloody weapon into his own bosom. In becoming the sovereign of Asia, the Macedonian aimed at per- manency of dominion, and with this view assumed the Median dress, married Roxana, a Persian lady of high rank, and in his internal policy contemplated the prosperity of his new empire. But all his enemies were not yet subdued, and the victorious leader next carried his arms, with his wonted fortune, beyond the Indus, and was meditating an expedition as far as the Ganges. During his progress in India, he earned into execution his plans for promoting a communication between that country and Greece ; and a fleet under Nearchus was fitted" out to gain the desired information, by exploring the coasts of the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf. Returning from these distant scenes of con- quest, he reached Susa once more, where Barcine or Statira, the beauti- ful daughter of Darius, became his wife. Proceeding thence to Ecba- tana, he offered magnificent sacrifices, followed by festive games, in gratitude for his long-continued success. It was here that he lost his early and dearest friend, Hephaestion. He now returned to Babylon, no mention of this circumstance, or of the death of Bcetis, Clitus, Callisthenes, and the other acts of debauchery, pride, and cruelty, with which the Greeks and their Latin copyists have loaded the memory of Alexander. These historians represent him, on the contrary, as a model of public and private virtues. This difference is supposed to arise from the protection afforded by the king to the vanquished against the exactions of the victors, who desired nothing better than to sit down and enjoy their conquests at their ease. Before they could divide the im-mense spoils, it was necessary to be freed from his presence, and his actions were calumniated that his death might be the less regretted. The Greeks were all king-haters, and the Macedonian sovereigns who had subjugated them were particularly the objects of their abhorrence. They listened with an easy belief to all the scandalous tales which were brought from the East, and com mitted them to an imperishable memorial in their writings. 38 ANCIENT HISTORY. regardless of the warnings said to have been given by the Chaldean seers, and of the various omens that had preceded his entry into that city. Here, while engaged in plans for improving his future capital, and for restoring to the ancient Assyrian empire its former supremacy in arms and commerce, he was attacked by a fatal disease, of which he died on the eleventh day of his illness, 323 b. c. He was cut off in the flower of his age, when much might have been expected from the maturer years of one whose youth had given such brilliant promise : he died in the midst of his grand designs, at the moment when a career of usefulness appeared to be opening before him. But although our minds cannot fathom the designs of Infinite Intelligence in thus removing him at the most important period of his life, we are not to conclude that all is the result of chance. In the words of the historian, we may add, that " not without especial purpose of the deity was such a man given to the world, to whom none has ever yet been equal." Partition of the Empire. — The death of the illustrious conqueror became the signal of discord, and his vast empire a theatre of war and revolution: but from the multitude of candidates who aspired simul- taneously to the supreme command, the history of this period is thrown into almost inextricable confusion. — Perdiccas by general consent was appointed regent, and the kingdom divided into thirty-three provinces, corresponding to the number of generals. This distinguished leader fell shortly after by the hand of an assassin, and Antipater succeeded to his office : disorder continued to reign among the numerous successors of Alexander, and each party was by turns victorious or defeated. Lamian War. — Taking advantage of these disturbances, the Athe- nians, excited by Demosthenes, in opposition to the counsels of Phocion, entered into a league to throw off the Macedonian yoke. Leosthenes, the generalissimo of the allies, gained two victories over Antipater, by which the Greeks were quite intoxicated ; but at Cranon these advan- tages were lost, and Athens itself was with difficulty preserved. The orator waa compelled to flee and take refuge in the temple of Neptune at Calauria, when, being reduced to the last extremity, he swallowed poison and died, 322 b. c. Another revolution placed the regency in the hands of Polysperchon, who, desirous of the support of the Greeks, re-established the govern- ment of their cities, 319 b. c. Athens made an unjust use of the restora- tion of her democracy, in the accusation of Phocion and his condemnation without being allowed the privilege of defence. He suffered like many of his illustrious predecessors; and even after death, the fury of the populace forbade the interment of his corpse. Probity was the charac- teristic of this great man; he was elected general forty-five times, was always victorious and always poor. Although compelled to perform the duties of domestic life, generally intrusted to the slaves, he refused a hundred talents which Alexander wished to force upon him. Deme- trius Phalerius, a wise and learned person, whom Cassander some time after (318) appointed his lieutenant, met with a fate different from that of Phocion. Three hundred and sixty statues were erected in gratitude for his skilful administration ; but they were, with true Athenian fic- kleness, as suddenly thrown down as they had been raised. He retired to Egypt, and consoled himself with literary pursuits at the court of Ptolem) Demetrius, the son of Antigonus, who had delivered Athens FOURTH CENTURY B.C. 89 and nearly all Greece (307), was appointed generalissimo in 302, and four years after driven into banishment. He gained the epithet of Poliorceies, or vanquisher of cities, by his great success in the reduction of fortified places. Ambitious, and jealous of each other, the generals of Alexander had never ceased to contend for the spoils of his vast empire. At last, after a long alternation of success and reverses, the united army of Ptolemy, Cassander, Lysimachus, and Seleucus, gained at Ipsus in Phrygia a decisive victory over Antigonus and his son Poliorcetes. The father perished on the field, while th<> other not without difficulty escaped to Greece with the fleet and a remnant of his army, 301 b. c. The dominions of the son of Philip were now divided into four large king- doms :* Macedon and Greece, and the western parts, under Cassander; Thrace, Bithynia, and the northern parts, under Lysimachus ; Egypt, and the south, under Ptolemy, son of Lagus ; and Syria, with the east, under Seleucus. With the establishment of this last king at Babylon commences the Era of the SeleuciDjEJ" (312 b. c), which was in use until 65 b. c. Arts, Literature, and Science among the Greeks. The Greeks cultivated Letters and the Arts with a perfection that places them in the first rank of civilised nations, and the monuments the> have left in every branch have shed a glory upon their country that almost obscures their military fame. It is in the period beginning with Solon and terminating with Alexander, that most of the great men flourished who brought such renown on the Grecian name. Architecture. — During the administration of Pericles, architecture sprang from rude forms to perfection. From the Greeks we derive three orders or styles, the Doric, the Ionic, and the Corinthian ; from the Romans, the Tus- can and the Composite ; from the Goths, the Gothic, in which most of our ancient cathedrals are constructed. The Tuscan order is the simplest and least ornamented. The essential character of the Doric is solidity ; of the Ionic, delicacy and elegance; of the Corinthian, nobility and grace. The Composite is, as its name indicates, a mixture of Ionic and Corinthian. The temple of Ceres and Proserpine at Eleusis was built in the Doric manner; that of Diana at Ephesus and of Apollo at Miletus, in the Ionic ; the temple of the Olympian Jupiter at Athens, in the Corinthian ; the column of Trajan at Rome, in the Tuscan ; and the Pantheon in the Composite. Sculpture. — The ancient sculptors made use of wood, stone, marble, ivory, precious stones, as the agate, several metals, as gold, silver, copper, brass, and different other plastic substances, such as clay, plaster, and wax. The most celebrated statuaries were Phidias, Polycletus, Myro, Lysippus, and Praxiteles. The Elgin marbles in the British Museum are supposed to have been carved under the direction of Phidias, part being the work of his own hand ; the famous horses of Venice are said to be the production of Lysippus. Painting. — We have no specimens to show that this elegant art was carried to so high a degree of perfection as sculpture. The Greeks made use of only four colours, black, white, red, and yellow. Down to the age of Nero, paint- ings were executed chiefly on wood : at this period canvass began to be employed, but it seems clearly demonstrated that the ancients were entirely unacquainted with oil-painting. They wrought in distemper and in fresco ; the *This partition of the empire of Alexander remarkably fulfils the prophecy of Daniel (chap, viii.): "The great horn was broken; and for it came up four notable ones, toward the four winds of heaven." fUsed in the East by Pagans, Jews, Christians, and Mahommedans,— called Era "»f Contracts hv the Jews. 90 ANCIENT HISTORY. former, on wooden tablets, with colours mingled with gum-water ; the latter, on walls covered with fresh and undried plaster. They practised also painting in various kinds of wax, in miniature, enamel, and mosaic. The most celebrated artists of antiquity were, Polygnotus, Apollodorus, Zeuxis. Parrhasius, Pam- philus, Timanthes, Apelles, Aristides, Protogenes, and Pausias, almost all fellow-countrymen and contemporaries of the sculptors named above. Music. — The object of music among the Greeks was to elevate the mind rather than charm the ear ; it excited to courage in battle, softened the manners of the savage, and thus contributed to the progress of civilisation. Music hav- ing there apolitical end, was cultivated with great care, and formed in a certain measure part of their national education. In Sparta, every innovation in the art was strictly forbidden, and a musician was banished who had ventured to increase the number of the strings of the lyre. Poetry. — Thespis, of Attic birth, is the reputed inventor of the dramatic art, 595 b. c. vEschylus, who lived in the time of Xerxes, and shared with his brother Cynaegirus the dangers of the Persian wars, distinguished himself as an author in that department. The battle off Salamis, at which he was present, forms the subject of one of his tragedies. Sophocles surpassed him in purity and simplicity : of his numerous compositions only seven remain. Euripides, the rival of Sophocles, carried, in the opinion of the eminent critic Aristotle, the pathetic power of tragedy to its greatest height. Susarion of Megara, a contemporary of Thespis. is said to have been the inventor of comedy ; Aristophanes, unequalled for his wit and genius, both too frequently defiled by the grossness of his time, introduced the living manners on the stage. The political aims of his comedies can scarcely be accurately appreciated by the moderns. Menander, the predecessor of the Roman Terence, made ideal characters the vehicle of his sentiments and of his story. In lyric poetry we meet with the name of Simonides and of the unrivalled Pindar, who devoted their genius to the celebration of the victors at the Public Games, about 390 b. c. Anacreon confined his muse to Epicurean and comic strains ; Alcseus, Sappho, and Archilochus sang the pleasures and the pangs of love. Writing. — In the first ages of the world, writing was confined to characters graven on stone or plates of metal. Palm-leaves came subsequently into use, and then the inner bark (liber) of certain trees ; soon afterwards, canvass and tablets covered with wax were employed. Paper was introduced in the age of Alexander ; it was fabricated from the papyrus, a plant still growing on the banks of the Nile and in Sicily. Eumenes, king of Pergamus, was the inventor of parchment, and gave it the name it bears. Eloquence. — Eloquence could not fail to be in great esteem among the Greeks, with whom it was the principal instrument of polity and the mainspring of government. Pericles was the first who gained any lasting reputation by this popular talent ; he was followed by Isocrates, Demades. JEschines, Lysias, Aristides, — all of whom were greatly surpassed by Demosthenes. History. — History, according to the ideas of the ancients, had a close con- nexion with oratory. They were satisfied with the narrative, provided it con tnined long speeches gratuitously put into the mouths of actual personages. Herodotus, surnamrd the Father of History, is at the head of the list ; Thucy- dides, the most perfect of all, was the model adopted by Tacitus : Xenophon was the author of the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, and of the Cyropaedia. Polybius, Dionysius of Halicarnassus, and Diodorus Siculus appeared sub- sequently. Philosophy. — Greece gave birth to a great number of men, who, under the name of philosophers, were occupied chiefly with the first principles oi civil polity find the duties of society. They were divided into a great number of sects, the chief of which have been enumerated above, page 83. FOURTH CENTURY B. C. 91 Remarks on the History of Alexander. With the death of Epaminondas at Mantinea (362), and of Agesilaus in his return from Egypt, terminates the history of the Greek commonwealths. Their era was completed ; that of the Macedonians was beginning. All the republics united around three centres — Sparta, Thebes, Athens; but their energies were exhausted when Philip appeared on the scene. His son per- severed in his father's course, though on a much larger theatre. Mind was marching to the conquest of matter; despotism was about to yield to liberty. Greece restored to the East the knowledge she had received from it. "' Thus," says Michelet, "this little imprisoned world declared eternal war against all the relics of natural life in the oriental tribes. This form, by which the Pelasgi had imitated Asia in Europe, was effaced by Athens and by Rome. In this contest were strongly characterized the three epochs of Greece ; she attacked Asia in the Trojan War, — repelled her at Salamis, — subdued her under Alexander." We should not regard this hero as a mere warrior sighing for fresh worlds to conquer ; he is to be admired rather for his sagacity and discrimination, evinced in the political regulations of the various states which were subjected to his authority. He was the messenger of the Almighty sent forth to work his predicted ends ; to effect no transient conquests, but to open the path into the remote East; to introduce the Grecian language, the medium of civilisation and Christianity, into those countries; and to prepare secretly yet power- fully the way for that dispensation, which "in the fulness of time" was to enlighten the countries he traversed as a conqueror. " The fortune of Alexan- der was indeed the overruling providence of God." Measured by years, his life was short ; long, if we reckon it by events. How great was his progress in a few months ! He was no longer King of Macedon, but the conqueror of the world; at his death it remained without a master. His generals were brave, sagacious, enterprising, and successful, so long as they fought under his eye. When he was no more, disunion and dissension followed ; and the capital of the world was removed to Rome. " She enclosed within her walls two cities and two races, Tuscan and Sabine ; sacerdotal and military; eastern and western; patrician and plebeian; landed property and personal; stability and progression ; nature and liberty. It was now her turn to rule." From these apparently discordant materials, we shall soon perceive how Rome became, even in consequence of them, the mistress of the world. Consult: Williams' Life of Alexander. Prepare : A Map of the World after the division of Alexander's Empire. ROME. Preliminary Observations on the Gauls. The Gauls or Celts now first appeared in history. They were a warlike people, who, about two centuries before this period, had crossed the Alps under the command of Bellovesus, and settled in the north of Italy, or Hither Gaul, having exterminated the whole population. Their chief pursuits were pasturage and war: the form of government was a hereditary monarchy : their religion, Druidical. The strength of their armies consisted in cavalry or in chariots ; and the huge bodies wild features, and shaggy hair of the men, struck terror into their enemies. They were badly equipped ; armour was rare, their shields were small, their swords long, thin, and brittle. They hung the heads of the slain to their horses' manes, and in many of their houses might be seen, nailed up as an heirloom, the skull of some person of rank who had fallen before them in battle. Their towns were few, their habitations mean and comfortless. They betrayed an extreme passion for golden ornaments, which they ever wore in battle. Their cloaks shone with all the hues of the rainbow, like the picturesque dresses of the Highlanders. 92 ANCIENT HISTORY. Capture of Rome, 390 b. c. — Allured by the luxuries and climate of Italy, successive invaders pushed farther south, crossed the Apennines, and appeared before Clusium, where first they attracted the attention of Rome, and -whither ambassadors were sent to ascertain who these foreigners were. The envoys having improperly taken part in a battle, the Gauls demanded that they should be given up. The senate con- sented, but the people refused ; upon which the invading army, 70,000 strong, under Brennus, marched towards the city. They were met on the banks of the Allia by 40,000 men, who were defeated with terrible slaughter, and before nightfall the enemy were at the gates of Rome. The town was deserted, but the Capitol was held by about 1000 despe- rate combatants. During several days the city was given up to plunder, and, with a few exceptions, all the houses were burned to the ground. Part of the conquering army now continued thei: advance, and the remainder almost succeeded in taking the Capitol, the defenders of which were reduced to the last extremities by famine. Brennus, after remaining seven months, was induced to accept a thousand pounds weight of gold as the price of quitting Rome and her territories, upon which he led his people home without encountering opposition. The story of their subsequent defeat by Camillus is a fiction of Roman vanity. It was now proposed that the seat of government should be removed to Veii, a town equal to Rome in magnitude and beauty, when the lucky omen of a word decided the question, and within a year a new city rose from the ashes of the former. Fresh wars ensued ; Roman fortune again prevailed ; the Sabines, Etrurians, Latins, iEqui, and Volsci, were successively defeated, and the Gauls, who bad attempted a second invasion, were routed with great slaughter. But Rome still suffered much from the former assault of that fierce people; though this, which elsewhere was a deathblow to liberty, raised the constitution nearly to a perfect state. The oppressive rate of interest, the power which the creditor still possessed, and not unfrequently exercised, of life and death over the debtor, had reduced the lower orders to desperation. Manlius, the preserver of the Capitol, took pity on the helpless people. On the retreat of the invaders, he had found himself neglected, while all civil and military honours were heaped upon his enemy Camillus. His first actions, which resulted from the pure feelings of humanity, led him to become the patron of the commonalty. The measures by which he proposed to alleviate the public distress excited the anger of the patri- cians, who charged him with aiming at despotic power, and committed him to prison, from which he was soon afterwards released. He was again accused by the tribunes, with the design of driving him into exile, but he was unanimously acquitted. Still thirsting for his blood, the public prosecutors once more arraigned him ; he was on this accusation condemned to death, and a slave treacherously pushed him down the fatal Tarpeian rock, 384 b. c. Licinian Laws. — The universal distress had now reached the highest pitch, and Rome was on the point of degenerating into a miserable oligarchy, when two men appeared who changed the fate of their coun- try and that of the world. In the year 376 b. c, Licinius Stolo and L. Sextius were chosen tribunes. The celebrated rogations, which they brought forward, produced a violent opposition between the two parties of the state, which lasted six years. Though the country was fortu- FOURTH OENTURU B.C. 93 nately at peace, sucli a condition of affairs was unsafe; and at length, Camillus mediating between the patricians and the commonalty, tho rogations passed the senate. By these, the consuls, one of whom was to be a plebeian, replaced the military tribunes; the laws of debtor and creditor were altered ; an Agrarian law was enacted, limiting the shares of the public lands to 500 acres and the taxes to be raised upon them, and enjoining that free labourers should be employed in their cultivation. The consular power was however diminished by committing judicial affairs to a praetor, and by the appointment of curule aediles, 306 b. c. L, Sextius Lateranus was the first plebeian consul ; and the commons having once made good their claim to this high olfice, were not long before they participated in the others. They were admitted to the dic- tatorship, 359 ; the censorship, 351 ; the pnetorship, 337 ; and the priest- hood, 301 b. c. A second commercial treaty with Carthage (348) shows that the Roman navy was at this time far from contemptible ; and though, it appears to have been merely piratical, squadrons were equipped and sent from their ports before the close of the century. Samnite Wars, 343 b. c. — The Samnites inhabited the mountains towards the kingdom of Naples, and had spread still farther to the south, when the Campanians, with whom they were at war, applied to Rome for assistance, which was readily granted. The former made a long and vigorous resistance ; but being at last routed by Decius, 30,000 of them were left dead on the field. The Roman arms were now turned against the Latins, who had long been their allies. A war, which dif- fered little from a civil contest, broke out; and in a conflict at the foot of Vesuvius, the Latin and Samnite forces would have conquered, but for the patriotic sacrifice of Decius, who, clad in magnificent robes, rushed into the ranks of the enemy, where he fell under a thousand wounds. A cruel revenge was taken by the victors, and Latium was rendered for ever incapable of opposing their power, 338 b. c. A signal disgrace, it is true, was inflicted on their army at the Caudine Forks, 321 b.c. ; but it was soon effaced, and Samnium reduced to submission, after a struggle of more than fifty years, 290 b. c. These wars opened a way to the subjugation of Italy, and laid the foundation of Roman greatness. A new species of tactics was learnt ; the relations with neighbouring states were more firmly established ; and the influence of Rome extended to the most distant parts of the Peninsula. The internal discords of the city were ended about this period in con- sequence of three laws introduced by Publilius Philo, the dictator: — 1st, The office of censor was made common to the two orders; 2d, The veto was taken away from the curiae; 3d, The plebiscita, or decrees of the people, were rendered binding on the whole state; the distinction between patricians and commons being now merely nominal. Thus was the constitution completed, and Rome rapidly advanced to universal empire, 286 b. c. JUD^A. Judaea now became part of the Syrian prefecture, under the heads of the priesthood, subject to the civil and military control of the Persian satraps, 373 b. c. The meagre annals of this period record but one remarkable event, and that an atrocious crime, perpetrated by the high priest Jonathan, who, suspecting his brother Joshua of intrioruinrr with 94 ANCIENT HISTORY. Bagosfcs, the imperial governor, slew him within the precincts of the temple. Bagoses hastened to Jerusalem, forced his way into the holy edifice, and imposed a heavy tax on the sacrifices as a penalty for that outrage. Alexander passed under the walls of the city, which he was induced to spare by the timely submission of the people, while he bow- ed in adoration before the name of Jehovah, inscribed on the head-dress of the high priest Jaddua. He was shown the prophecies in which Daniel had foretold his conquest of the Persian empire, at which cir- cumstance he was so much pleased, that he took the Jews into par- ticular favour, 332 b. c. After his death and the division of his empire, Palestine was regarded as a valuable frontier province both by the Syrian and Egyptian kings. It fell at last into the hands of Ptolemy Soter, who took Jerusalem by treachery on the Sabbath, and led a great multitude of the inhabitants captive into Egypt, 312 b. c. Philadel- phus, on his accession to the throne, released 120,000 of them, and caused the famous translation of the Hebrew Bible, called the Septua- gint, to be prepared by seventy learned men. The fables concerning the isolation of these translators and the perfect coincidence of their versions, are utterly unworthy of credit. The high priest Simon the Just, the favourite hero of Jewish traditions, died in 292 ; an event that is said to have been announced by prodigies, and which the nation had cause to lament, while groaning under his unworthy successors. He completed the Canon of the Ancient Scriptures, which has never since been changed. About this time the sects of the Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes, assumed their peculiar distinctions. PERSIA. The safe retreat of the Ten Thousand, and the subsequent victories of Agesilaus, revealed the weakness of this monarchy: but the union of the Athenian and Persian fleets under Conon, and the defeat of the Spartans near C nidus, had neutralized those events, when the peace of Antalcidas again restored to Persia its supremacy over Asia, and inflicted on Sparta a deep disgrace. Artaxerxes II. failed in recovering Egypt (374), so little could his barbarian hosts achieve without Grecian troops and generals. The court was under the control of women ; each satrap was at war with his neighbour; and disputes about the succes- sion had nearly produced the downfal of the empire thirty years before the battle of Arbela. Ochus mounted the throne and assumed the name of his father, 358 b. c. ; and though insurrections in Asia Minor and extensive rebellions in Phoenicia, Egypt, and Cyprus, disturbed his reign, he nevertheless, with the help of Greek mercenaries, reduced Egypt once more to a Persian province (350). Returning to his own capital, he resigned himself to luxury, as if desirous to allay the pang? of conscience ; for he had scarcely assumed the regal tiara before he massacred one hundred and fifty of his relations, besides a great number of the nobility. He was himself poisoned by his favourite, Bagoas, who promoted the king's youngest son to the throne, 338, but soon afte' murdering him with all his family, he set up in his place the unfortunate Darius III. Codomannus, by whom the invasion of Alexander was ably opposed. After several bloody battles, the last of which was fought on the well-known field of Arbela (331 b. c), the destiny of the empire was sealed, and Darius, whose virtues entitled him to a better fate, shortly afterwards perished by assassination. THIRD CENTURY B. C. 95 THIRD CENTURY. Rome.— 280, Pyrrhus.— 264, First Punic War.— 256, Regulus in Africa.— 218, Second Punic War.— 216, Cannae.— 202, Zama. Greece. — 280, Achaean League. — 279, Gallic Invasion. — 226, Cleomenes. — 206, Philopcemen. Macedon. — 294, Demetrius Poliorcetes. — 286, Lysimachus. — 221, Philip V. Egypt. — 283, Ptolemy Philadelphus. — 270, Septuagint Translation of the He- brew Scriptures. — 256, Parthia — Arsaces. Inventions, &c. — 269, First silver money coined at Rome. — 264, The Parian Chronicle. — 263, Parchment. — 250, Clepsydra. — 220, Burning-glasses. Literature, &c. — Euclid, Archimedes, Theocritus, Manetho — Plautus, d. 183. ROME. Pyrrhus, 280-275 b. c. — After subjugating- the Latins and Samnites, the Romans turned their arms against the Tarentines, who, unable to defend themselves, applied to the King of Epirus for assistance. Taren- tum was a Lacedaemonian colony of the eighth century b. c, established at the same period with many other towns in the southern parts of the Italian peninsula, hence called Magna Graecia. These cities, which had made rapid advances in wealth and power, had also attained some eminence in science, literature, and philosophy. Crotona was immor- talized by the presence and instructions of Pythagoras, to whom the real system of the universe was not unknown ; while Herodotus and Lysias were among the founders of Thurium. The Eleatic school of philosophy, the parent of so much genius and virtue, was first formed in Magna Graecia, where history and poetry were cultivated with an ardour worthy of their birth. The celebrated laws of Zaleucus of Locris continued in force two centuries ; but the progress of the Tarentines in luxury, which led to their ruin, was not less rapid than their advances in literature and refinement. Involved in a contest with the Romans, they demanded the aid of the military talents of Pyrrhus. He came to their assistance with 30,000 men, and success at first crowned his efforts on the fields of Heraclea and Asculum, but after six years he was com- pelled to yield to the ascendency of Rome. Leaving the Tarentines to their own resources, he returned to his native country, where he perished by an unworthy death, 272. The fall of their capital in the following year decided the fate of Southern Italy. Punic Wars, 264 b. c. — Seven years after the reduction of Magna Graecia, the First Punic War broke out, and Sicily became the theatre of the earliest struggle between Rome and Carthage. Syracuse, the capital of the island, was of Corinthian origin, — the most celebrated of all the cities that were founded by the Greeks. It had reached the height of political and literary renown about a century previous to the breaking out of the Punic Wars. The single name of Archimedes would have immortalized it. Epicharmus was the model of Plautus, and Theocritus, the first of pastoral poets, has been closely imitated by Virgil. So great, indeed, was the estimation in which learning was held, that even the tyrant Dionysius was its patron, and a competitor tor its envied honours. The First Punic War was bep-un in defence of 96 ANCIENT HISTORY. an act of flagrant injustice, and to protect a band of murderous savages The Mamertines, a mercenary body of Italian soldiers, after serving :n the armies of Agathocles, had taken forcible possession of the city of Messana, and put all the inhabitants to the sword, '280. The Syracusans and the Carthaginians united to punish them, upon which the terrified criminals applied to the Romans for support. The pretext for war was eagerly seized on, as, independently of the hatred existing between the rival republics, it was necessary to remove a powerful enemy from the neighbourhood of Southern Italy, which had been so recently conquered. Preliminary Observations. The defeat of Pyrrhus and the subjugation of Magna Graecia, with the definitive submission of Samnium and Etruria, had reduced beneath the Roman sway all Italy from the Arno to the Straits of Messina. The Roman name began to attract attention and to be treated with respect ; the constitution was in its utmost vigour ; and a chain of military colonies, the nurseries of hardy and experienced soldiers, held the conquered nations in awe from north to south. Such was the state of Rome : nor was that of Carthage in any respect inferior at the breaking out of these celebrated wars — called Punic, from the Pceni, or Phoenicians, from whom the Carthaginians were descended. They are three in number : — First, 264-241 b. c, by which the Carthaginians were compelled to evacuate Sicily and the Italian Isles. They suffered still more by the total exhaustion of their finances, and a civil commotion of three years and a half (240-237), terminated only by the heroism of Hamilcar, who sought the aid of the demo- cracy against the power of the senate. Second, 218-202 b. c. Signalised by the rivalry of Hannibal and Scipio. The Romans conquered Spain, and Carthage was deprived of all her possessions out of Africa. Third, 149-146 b. c. Scipio iEmilianus, surnamed Africanus II., took and destroyed Carthage. First Punic War, 264-241 b. c. — The great obstacle to carrying on this war was the want of a fleet, which the ingenuity of the Romans soon supplied ; and, strange to relate, in the first naval battle, the consul Duillius defeated a nation long the mistress of the seas, 260. Scipio expelled the Carthaginians from Corsica, while Regulus transferred the seat of war from Sicily to Africa, where he was defeated, and taken prisoner by the superior skill of Xantippus, a Lacedaemonian general. The torments inflicted on the captive are said to be imaginary, and were invented solely to extenuate the Roman cruelty towards their prisoners, and to make it appear an act of retaliation. After various successes, in one of which off Drepanum (Trapani) the Romans lost ninety galleys, and 28,000 men killed or made prisoners, the Carthaginians met with a signal defeat on the western coast of Sicily, which terminated the war, 241. The conditions of peace were the surrender of that island and the payment of 2200 talents. The temple of Janus was now shut for the first time since the reign of Numa, 235 b. c. Second Punic War, 218-202 B.C. — The issue of the preceding war, while it exalted the Roman state and extended its influence abroad, increased also the power of the senate. Little breathing time was allowed to this warlike people. Their powerful navy was next employed in destroying the Illyrian pirates under a queen called Teuta ; and thus, while their maritime superiority was preserved, their first political rela- tions with Greece were formed. A dreadful war of six years next THIRD CENTURY B.C. 97 ensued with the Transalpine Gauls, to oppose whom was leried an army said to amount to the almost incredible number of 700,000 infantry and 70,000 cavalry. The invaders had entered Etruria and cut to pieces 50,000 men near Clusium, when the victory near Telamo (225) saved Rome. Northern Italy was soon after compelled to submit, and the conquest of Istria and Illyria, in 219, opened the way to Greece. This war had scarcely ceased when the Romans were called upon to defend their country against one of the most remarkable generals of ancient times. Hannibal was the sworn enemy of Rome, even from his youth. He succeeded in the command of the army in Spain, to his father, the great Hamilcar, and to Hasdrubal, Hamilcar's son-in-law. At the age of twenty-six, he captured the city of Saguntum in alliance with the Romans, and in a short time completed the conquest of the Peninsula. A second war between the two nations now broke out, in which Hannibal, adopting the policy of the enemy, carried the war into the heart of their country. By a rapid march he crossed the Pyrenees, the Rhone, and the Alps,* and with little more than 30,000 men, defeated the consul Scipio at the Ticinus. Again at the Trebia he vanquished Sempronius ; at the lake Trasimenus he routed Flaminius ; and so eagerly were the combatants engaged that a great earthquake, which overthrew many cities in Italy, was by them quite unperceived. At the great battle of C annas, 216, he was again victorious, and left 70,000 of the enemy dead on the field. This triumph threw all the south of Italy into his hands; but Rome was too powerful to be overthrown even by such a terrible reverse. While the Carthaginian army was wintering in the luxurious Capua, the senate was occupied in raising new troops, conciliating allies, and carrying on a successful war in Sicily, Spain, Sardinia, and Greece. Marcellus inflicted two severe checks upon Han- nibal near Nola, and the latter, shortly after, while menacing Rome, lost Capua and Tarentum, 209. His brother Hasdrubal, marching to his assistance with 60,000 men, was worsted and slain near the Metaurus ; and after keeping possession of Italy fifteen years, during which neither money nor assistance reached him from home, he was recalled to oppose the armies of Scipio. The fate of Carthage w T as sealed at Zama, where Hannibal was defeated. Rigorous terms of peace were imposed on the vanquished city : all her foreign possessions were to be given up, — her munitions and ships of war to be surrendered, — a tribute of 10,000 talents to be paid in fifty years, and she was bound to engage in no war without the consent of Rome, 202 b. c. Hannibal, on his return, was placed as supreme magistrate at the head of the republic ; and so great were the reforms he introduced into the finances, that ten years had scarcely elapsed before Carthage was enabled to furnish at once the whole of the tribute which she had engaged to pay by instalments. The Barcine faction to which he be- longed was dominant; that of Hanno was powerless. Already he meditated a vast confederacy of the world against Rome, when he was demanded by her ambassadors. Compelled to flee from his native * Hannibal's march across the Alps has called forth nearly a hundred different accounts. The most probable routes are those of the Little St. Bernard, Mount Genevre, or Mount Cenis. The dissertation of Messrs. Cramer and Wickham appear to prove that the first must claim the honour of Hannibal's passage. The reader will smile at the account of the softening the rocks by the joint action of fire and vinegar, or esteem it an extra vagant metaphor, expressive of the ardour and impetuosity of the invading army. 9 98 ANCIENT HISTORY. country, he took refuge with Antiochus of Syria; he afterwards retired to Crete, and then to Bithynia, where, finding that Prusias the king was about to betray him to his enemies, he took poison, of which he died, 183 b. c, in the 65th year of his age. About the same period Scipio, his great rival, expired in retirement at Linternum. The conquest of Magna Grascia, and the intercourse with Sicily, brought Rome into contact with the philosophy and literature of Greece at a period when they had reached their highest perfection. A rapid and almost unparal- leled improvement was the consequence. An immediate change took place in the language ; its barbarisms suddenly disappeared, and Latin became a com- paratively polished tongue. The power of Rome was also greatly increased by the result of the Punic War. Her dominion extended over foreign countries, and the destruction of the Carthaginian navy left her without a rival on the sea. She had now become also a great military republic, and began henceforward i© aspire to universal dominion, — an object rendered easier by the degeneracy of the people in foreign states. State of Europe and Asia at the end of the First runic War. The Roman dominion and influence prevailed from the north to the south ofltaly, in Sicily. Corsica, Sardinia, and on all the northern coast of Africa, and began to be felt also in Greece and in the East. At this epoch there were only three powers capable of making a vigorous resistance against the con- querors of Carthage. These were — 1. Greece, in which these various nations still formed a strong barrier: The fierce JEtolians. the members of the Achcean League, and the Bwotians. 2. Macedonia, defended by its lofty mountains, and formidable on account of its courageous and active population. 3. Syria, the most powerful of the kingdoms which rose upon the ruins of Alexander's empire ; but the kings posterior to Seleucus passed an effeminate life; the example spread from the court to the army, and even the Romans were tainted by it during their war with Antiochus. Prepare : Map of the Roman dominions. Trace : Rout of Hannibal and his campaigns from the siege of Saguntum till he quitted Italy. GREECE AND MACEDON. The extensive ani rapid victories of Alexander terminated in the murder of all his family, and the usurpation of his throne. The battle of Ipsus in Phrygia decided the fate of the various competitors. Mace- don fell to the share of Cassander, but he enjoyed his sovereignty only three years ; and he was shortly after followed to the tomb by Philip, his successor. The two remaining sons disputed the throne, when Antipater murdered his own mother Thessalonice, for the partiality she manifested towards his younger brother. Each now applied to foreign- ers for help : Antipater to his father-in-father law Lysimachus of Thrace, and Alexander to Demetrius Poliorcetes, by whom he was shortly afterwards put to death. The army proclaimed Demetrius king, and in his person the house of Antigonus ascended the throne of Mace- donia. His seven years' government was a constant series of wars ; and being dethroned by Pyrrhus, he died a prisoner in the hands of his son-in-law Seleucus, 283 b. c. Lysimachus of Thrace expelled the ruler of Epirus after a brief reign of one year ; but he was soon involved in a war with Seleucus Nicator in which he lost his life, 281. The monarch of Asia now assumed the title of king of Macedonia; but shortly after he had crossed over to his new dominions, he fell ry the THIRD CENTURY B. C. 90 I liand of Ceraunus, brother of the Egyptian sovereign. The assassin aad scarcely secured the throne before he lost his life in battle against the invading Gauls, 279. Antigonus Gonatas, son of Poliorcetes, who now assumed the vacant throne, was deposed by Pyrrhus ; but after his death, he recovered his dominions, which he and his family possessed until the Roman conquest. He died in his eightieth year, and was suc- ceeded by his son, Demetrius II., 243. Philip V. ascended the throne after the usurpation of Doson, 221. At the early age of sixteen he displayed many of the qualities that form a great prince ; he participated in the war between the iEtolian and Achaean leagues ; and ratified a treaty with Hannibal against the Romans. Many things concurred to prevent both parties from acting upon this agreement, and finally a general peace was concluded in 204. During this century the Gauls or Celts, who had established them- selves in Pannonia 300 years before, threatened Greece with invasion. Two expeditions were unsuccessful, but the third, under Brennus II., overran Macedonia, and penetrated as far as Delphi, where a dreadful storm having thrown their army into confusion, they were attacked and routed by the Greeks. Another party, continuing their march towards the East, supported the claims of Nicomedes to the throne of Bithynia, and settled in the province called from them Galatia, or Gallo-Graecia. Athens, on the death of Alexander, made some vain endeavours to recover her liberty, which ended in the imposition of a more grievous yoke. To regain their freedom the cities of Achaea revived the ancient confederacy, named the Achaean League, — a union of several small republics in Achaia, bound together on the footing of perfect equality. Their constitution was so renowned as to be adopted by several other Grecian cities. This coalition was dissolved in the commotions subsequent to the death of Alexander. In 280, it was partially revived, but did not become formi- dable till the accession of foreign states (243-229). Many great names appear in connexion with it ; such as the virtuous Aratus, Philopoemen, and Lycortas. The Romans endeavoured to excite quarrels between the different members, with the view of checking their rising power; yet Philopoemen, the last of the Greeks, maintained their dignity, at the very time when the Romans presumed to speak as arbitrators. He was taken prisoner by the Messenians, and poisoned at the age of seventy ; and the venal Callicrates who could hear unmoved " the very boys in the streets taunt him with treachery," became his successor. The conquest of Macedonia led to the destruction of the Achaean League. Above 1000 of the most eminent members were summoned to Rome, 167, and kept in prison seventeen years without a hearing; and when at length they were allowed to return home, they excited a war against the common enemy. Their heroic efforts proved vain against dishonesty within and the powerful arms of Rome without. With the taking of Corinth vanished the last hopes of Grecian independence, and under the title of Achaia the country lost even its name, 146 b. c. EGYPT. The Ptolemies. — Ptolemy L, 323 b.c, the son of Lagus and sup- posed brother of Alexander, was governor of Egypt, which title he Lofa 100 ANCIENT HISTORY. changed for that of king after the battle of Ipsus, 301. He wished to form a state on the model of Greece, and with that design beautified Alexandria, and laid the foundations of its celebrated library. His empire increased eve^ry day in wealth, learning, and civilisation. It is said of him that he never went to war without necessity, and that he was always successful. He was named Soter (Deliverer) by the Rho- dians, whom he had protected against the attacks of Demetrius Polior- cetes, 304. His son, the second of the name, who had ascended the throne in 286 as joint-king, became sole monarch two years after. It was in irony that he was styled Philadelphus, having put one brother to death and banished another. In the patronage he bestowed upon learn- ing, he excelled even his father : at his court were entertained the astronomer-poet Aratus; the grammarians Aristophanes and Aristarchus ; Theocritus, and Lycophron the celebrated commentator; the historian Manetho ; the mathematicians Conon, Euclid, and Hipparchus ; Calli- machus and Zenodotus, the latter famous for his notes on Homer. By his order the Septuagint translation of the Hebrew Scriptures was pre- pared ; the lighthouse of the Pharos erected ; and the canal between the Nile and the Red Sea cleared out. Ptolemy III., 246, trod in the steps of his father and grandfather ; his grateful subjects styled him Euergetes (the Benefactor). Before his death in 221, his government extended to Cyrene, as well as over Ccele-Syria, Phoenicia, Lycia, Caria, and Cyprus in the north. Egypt was singularly fortunate in having three great kings in succession. The change which ensued was produced in the natural course of events, for it was impossible that a prosperous court should remain untainted by luxury. Ptolemy IV. Philopator, a de- bauched and cruel monarch, was ruled by crafty favourites, who like- wise endeavoured to maintain their power during the early part of the reign of the youthful Ptolemy V. sumamed Epiphanes ; but the nation, to avoid the dangers impending from the attacks of the Macedonian and Syrian monarchs, intrusted the regency to the senate of Rome, 202. The internal government of Egypt appears latterly to have been in most respects similar to that of ancient times. The division into nomes continued ; the regal power was limited ; the priestly caste with their ancient forms of religion still existed. Under Ptolemy II. Egypt was inferior to Rome alone. Theocritus, probably with the exaggeration of a poet, speaks of its 33,000 cities ; at all events, it was the greatest mercantile nation then existing. By its caravans and its fleet of merchant-ships, it collected in its warehouses the silks and spices of India, the purple of Phcenicia, the precious metals of Spain and Thrace, and the ivory of Ethiopia. The revenue, without including the corn-tax, which was paid in kind, amounted to 14,800 silver talents (aboijt four millions sterling). Consult : Sharpe's Egypt under the Ptolemies. PARTHIA Lies between Media and Aria, southward from Hyrcania. The tyranny of the Syrian viceroy, Agathocles, drove the inhabitants into rebellion. Arsaces, by his military talents, raised himself to power, and with him begins the numerous family of the Arsacidae, 256 b. c. The Euphrates, the Indus, and the Caspian Sea soon became the boun-. daries of the kingdom, remarkable in history for little more than its obstinate wars against the Romans, in one of which Crassus was defeated and killed, 53 b. c. His death was avenged some years after- SECOND CENTURY B.C. 101 wards by the consul Ventidius; hut Julian the Apostate, despising the lessons of experience, invaded the country and perished with a numerous army. The regal power was extinguished by the Sassanides, a. d. 226. This empire was divided into satrapies, and contained several small tributary kingdoms, with some Grseco-Macedonian settlements. The constitution was monarchical and aristocratic. The supremacy of the Parthians, a people jealous of all strangers, interrupted the commerce between the East and West, until a new route was opened by Palmyra and Alexandria. SECOND CENTURY. Rome. — 197, Battle of Cynoscephalae. — 190, Defeat of Antiochus the Great. —168, Battle of Pydna.— 146, Corinth and Carthage burnt.— 133, Fall of Numantia.— 133 and 121, Gracchi.— Ill, Jugurthine War.— 102, Cimbric War. Jud^ka. — 166, Judas Maccabaeus. — 130, Independent. — 106, Aristobulus. Inventions, &c. — 190, Pumps by Hero of Alexandria. — 142, Precession of Equinoxes, Latitude and Longitude, Spherical Trigonometry, by Hipparchus. Literature. — Polybius, Aristarchus, Bion and Moschus, Ennius, Terence. ROME. Macedon reduced. — The fortunate conclusion of the Second Punic War had inspired the Romans with a desire of subjugating the world. Hostilities were declared against Philip in spite of the opposition of the tribunes, and the artful Quintius Flamininus was sent against him. Much political ingenuity was displayed by these two commanders, but at length Quintius succeeded in gaining over the Achaean League, assisted by whose cavalry he utterly routed his antagonist at the battle of Cynoscephalae, 197 b. c. The treaty which followed, besides con- fining the king to the boundaries of Macedon, imposed a tribute of 1000 talents, and stipulated for the surrender of his fleet, as well as for the reduction of his army to 500 men. Roman commissioners now filled the country ; but the troops were not withdrawn from the states which had been declared free at the national festival of the Isthmian games. Syrian War. — Antiochus III. of Syria was the only remaining enemy in any degree formidable to the Romans. His dominions extended from the east of Persia to Asia Minor, and he was meditating the conquest of Egypt, when the Roman intervention was solicited in favour of Ptolemy V. Some time after, Antiochus undertook to reduce Caria and Lydia, and had crossed the Hellespont to seize on the Thracian Cher- sonese. At this time Hannibal, who had fled to him for refuge, offered, at the head of 10,000 men, to transfer the war to Italy. Had this pro- posal been adopted, the result of the contest might have been different. To avert the impending danger, Rome gained over to her interest Eumenes of Pergamus, whose fears had been excited by the power of Antiochus. The vanity of the Greeks was flattered more than ever; Philip of Macedon was easily w T on over; and the fidelity of the Boeo- tians and Achaeans was assured. The importance attached to this war 9* 102 ANCIENT HISTORY* was such, that the consul Cornelius forbade the senators to be absent from Rome more than one day at a time. Antiochus commanded his army in person. He had been led to expect that all Greece would rise at his approach, but he was joined by only two or three of the smaller tribes. At Thermopylae, Cato, by a bold movement, gained the passage defended by the Syrian army, which was utterly routed, Antiochus himself scarcely halting until he reached the Asiatic continent, 191. His rear was closely pressed by the Roman legions, under the command of L. Scipio, whose brother, Africanus, was then serving as his lieutenant. The defeat at Magnesia in 190, for ever broke the power of the Syrian empire, and the conditions of peace included the evacuation of Asia Minor, the surrender of Hannibal, and the payment of 15,000 talents. The king perished in attempting to plunder the temple of Elymais in Persia, 187 b. c. Syria remained a separate kingdom many years, and the throne was frequently an object of violent contention, until Pompey having defeated Mithridates and Tigranes, subdued Antiochus XL, and reduced the coun- try to a Roman province, 65 b. c. Perseus. — Fresh disputes arose with Macedon, but war did not break out until 172. The two sons of Philip were Demetrius and Perseus, the former of whom had been sent as a hostage to Rome. The policy of the senate succeeded in attaching this youth to the Roman interest, with the view of causing a disunion between the brothers. Hence Demetrius had hardly returned to Macedon before he was accused of endeavouring to assassinate Perseus. Philip, who had allowed him- self to be prejudiced against his son, ordered him to be put to death, and died himself some time after under the tortures of a guilty con- science. To ascend the throne by the murder of a prince befriended by Rome, was almost equivalent to a declaration of war against the repub- lic. But all the efforts of Roman policy were required to prevent the formation of a powerful confederacy in the East. A deceitful truce was resorted to for gaining time ; and at first the war was favourable to Perseus. At length, wearied by the slow progress of hostilities, and contrary to their usual custom, the republicans sent an old general, Paulus TEmilius, against him. The bloody and decisive battle near Pydna, 168 b. c, showed how easily a kingdom may be overturned which has only an army for its support. Perseus, after being led in triumph, was starved in prison : Macedonia was now divided into four governments; and the inhabitants were forbidden to marry, or to pur- chase property out of their district, under pain of death. Their gold- mines were no longer to be w r orked, all commerce with foreigners was prohibited, and as if to insult the unfortunate, they were declared free. An adventurer, Andriscus, pretending to be the son of Perseus, placed himself at the head of the disaffected ; but he was overcome by Metel- lus, and the native country of Alexander submitted finally to the arms of Rome, 146 b. c. Conquest of Greece. — The Greeks perceived when too late the error they had committed in demanding Roman aid against Macedon. The members of the Achaean league still made head against the ambitious barbarians, but their utmost efforts and heroism proved vain. At Ther- mopylae, and again at I lie Isthmus, the fortune of Italy prevailed. Corinth was taken by Mummius, who, after countenancing the most SECOND CENTURY B.C. 103 revolting cruelties, burnt the city to the ground, 146. Greece now also became a tributary province under the name of Achaia. Third Punic War. — This war originated in domestic faction. Cato, envious of the great influence possessed by Scipio Nasica in the senate, was offended by the coldness with which he had been received as ambassador at Carthage ; and the disputes with Masinissa were made the pretext for hostilities, 149. The Romans, after claiming all their ships of Avar, ordered the Carthaginians to quit their city, and build another in the interior. So imperious a command was not obeyed ; despair furnished them with arms ; the women cut off their hair to weave cordage for the ships, and gave their ornaments as a contribution towards the defence of their country. During three years the devoted city held out; but at length the younger Scipio ./Emilianus obtained a footing within its walls. For six days more the inhabitants maintained an obstinate resistance, — every inch of ground was defended with desperation ; and in the end, setting fire to the town, they perished in the ruins. Seventeen days the conflagration continued, and the con- queror, it is said, wept at the dreadful sight. Thus perished the mis- tress of the sea, the most formidable rival of Rome, 146 b. c. The city was more than twenty miles in circumference, contained 700,000 inhabitants, and its wealth may be estimated by the plunder collected by Scipio, amounting to £1,500,000.* Spanish War. — In Spain, also, the Roman arms had proved victo- rious. This region was originally possessed by Celts and Iberians, a brave and independent race, whose descendants still survive on the shores of Biscay. The rich mines of gold and silver excited the cupidity of the Romans, but so courageously was the country defended, that seventy years elapsed ere its conquest was effected. Carthage had never possessed more than the coast and Bastica ; the interior and the west were protected by the mountains so favourable to that species of warfare in which the Spaniards excel. The contest began with the revolt of the Seditani, 200 b. c. They were soon crushed ; and after three years' tranquillity the senate was alarmed by the news of a general insurrection, and the defeat of the praetor Sempronius. Cato cruelly retaliated by destroying 400 towns in one day; but Paulus iEmilius, afterwards so famous in Macedon, lost 6000 men, whose fate he revenged by the slaughter of 20,000 Spaniards in the following year. Successive battles under different generals took place, until Sempronius Gracchus, who was four times victorious, concluded a favourable treaty, 179. Other successes gained by Posthumius compelled the Lusitanians to lay down their arms. After a long peace, only interrupted by two revolts which were easily quelled, the Celtiberians, now weary of inac- tion, defeated Calpurnius Piso, routed A. Fulvius Nobilior, with the loss of 6000 men, and destroyed his army at Numantia, 153. Mum- mius, and the consul Marcellus, were scarcely more fortunate. Alarmed by such repeated misfortunes, the Romans regarded Spain as the tomb of their legions. The victories were dearly purchased ; men refused to be enrolled for this interminable war ; and the province would have been lost but for the courage of Scipio iEmilianus, son of Paulus * It lias been conjectured that the city of Timbuctoo may have been founded by Car thaginians who escaped from the conflagration of their city. 104 ANCIENT HISTORY. /Emilius, and adopted grandchild of Scipio Africanus. Lucullus ano Galba were unsuccessful in all but their plans to enrich themselves the latter, by an atrocious massacre of 30,000 unarmed men, made the name of his country an object of execration throughout the Peninsula. A shepherd, named Viriathus, who had escaped from this slaughter, put himself at the head of a small body of partisans. The fame of his exploits having brought together a numerous army, he defeated the pnetor sent against him, 149 b. c. Four generals were successively foiled by this skilful leader ; but the temporizing tactics of the consul Fabius iEmilianus proved a match for him. Metellus Macedonicus restored the reputation of the Roman arms in Celtiberia; still in Lusi- tania, Viriathus defeated a new proconsul, and afterwards the consul himself near Ituca. The exhaustion of both parties led to a peace, most humiliating on the part of Rome, which was only a snare, as the consul Caepio took up arms as soon as he knew that the allies were separated and their troops disbanded. Viriathus still resisted, when the invader, unable to attain his ends by other means, corrupted two of the officers of that brave commander, who assassinated him in his tent, 141 B.C. With his death ended the war in Lusitania, only to break out more fiercely in Celtiberia; it was no longer confined to the mountains, for Numantia became the second terror of the Romans. The consul Mancinus was beaten in every encounter, and obliged to retreat in dis- grace, after concluding an ignominious treaty, which the senate, ever unfaithful in such cases, refused to ratify. Scipio iEmilianus, who ten years before had destroyed Carthage, was nominated to conclude this war. He blockaded Numantia, and surrounded it with a double line of fortifications ; the one to repel the sallies from the town, the other to oppose any attempts that might be made to raise the siege. At last, reduced by famine and disease to a very small number, the inhabitants set fire to their houses and perished in the flames, 133 b. c, upon which the Romans took possession of a desolate and ruined city. — The reader will not fail to remark the extraordinary perseverance with which the Spaniards, both in ancient and modern history, have defended their besieged cities. It is unnecessary to mention more than three names, — Saguntum, Numantia, and Saragosa. In the army of Scipio were two men who soon after became very celebrated, Jugurtha, grandson of Masinissa, king of Numidia, who commanded a body of auxiliaries, and Marius who was destined to vanquish him. Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul. — The wars between the Gauls and Romans were at once sudden and destructive ; and the senate soon became convinced that they could not safely leave such intrepid enemies* in Upper Italy. These barbarians, discovering the error into which they had fallen in not seconding the designs of Hannibal, seized on a favourable moment for reviving the war. In the year 200 b. c, when the general attention was directed to the Macedonian contest, Rome was alarmed by the report of a Gallic tumult, for that was the name peculiarly applied to such invasions. Hamilcar was at the head of the united tribes, who took the town and colony of Placentia, which he burnt to the ground. Cremona was threatened with a similar fate, when the assailants were attacked by the consular army, and routed with the loss of 35,000 men, including their general. Seventy stand 3~ds, 200 war-chariots, and all the booty that had been collected '«• SECOND CENTURY J}. C. 105 ..._.., ^: ...to the hands of the conquerors. The succeeding years, marked with the usual alternations of success and defeat, produced an excessive loss of life on both sides ; the Romans, however, gained ground, owing to the greater regularity with which they pursued their plans. In 194 B.C., a more vigorous effort was made, but the two consuls were obliged to return unsuccessful. The population of Northern Italy, meanwhile, w T as gradually decreasing, when a number of the more influential families who bore the Gallic name, submitted to the ponsuls ; one of whom, Q. Flamininus, desirous of pleasing a young friend who had accompanied him from Rome, smote to the ground and stabbed a noble Boian who had fled to him for safety. FJght years elapsed before he was punished for this crime, under the rigorous cen- sorship of Cato. Many generous efforts were still made by the Bcians, although dis- united ; but in 191 they were defeated by the consul Scipio Nasica, and lost 20,000 men. Proud of his success, he committed the most horrible ravages, and dared to boast, when claiming the honours of a triumph, that he had left none alive of the Boian race except the old men and children. Unable any longer to contend against a cruel enemy, and too proud to live dependent in their native country, they crossed the Norican Alps to seek a refuge on the banks of the Danube, in the year 190 B.C. Conquest of Liguria. — The Gallic and Ligurian insurrections were the great military schools of the Roman legions. Livy observes that after the destruction of the Boians, the Ligurians appeared reserved by Providence to maintain the discipline of the soldiers during the intervals between the more regular wars. Their resistance lasted thirty years, beginning with the massacre of the praetor's escort in 189. For several seasons the two consuls were sent into Liguria, one of whom, M. Po- pilius Laenas, in 173, besieged Oarystum, which surrendered on favour- able conditions. These were not, however, respected ; the inhabitants were deprived of their arms, their city was destroyed, themselves sold as slaves, and their goods put up to auction. Even the senate was shocked at this atrocious conduct, and gave orders for the liberation of the people, and the restoration of their property. Popilius disobeyed the decree, and preserving his command as proconsul in the next year, provoked a universal rising of the Ligurian tribes. The indignation at Rome was at its height, and the tribunes of the people, with the con- currence of the senate, declared that if on the first cf August there re- mained one Statiellian r.nlibeiated, the authqr of the crime should be sought out and punished. The new consuls replaced Popilius, and he was saved from the menaced judgment by intrigue and influence; yet he had massacred 20,000 innocent persons ! The last struo-o-le, which soon afterwards began, continued nearly four years. Each summer two armies and two consuls were required, in the words of Florus, "to break that stone on which the Roman people had for so lono- a lime sharpened their swords," 163 b. c. Istria, which had been conquered in 221, recovered its liberty during the Secpnd Punic War, but it was again reduced under the yoke of Rome a few years before the subjugation of Liguria. One circumstance alone in the campaign deserves mention, for all these wars against the 'ndenendent tribes of Gallic or German origin, are but a repetition of 106 ANCIENT HISTORY. similar atrocities. iEpulo and the principal Istrian chiefs had been driven from place to place until they took refuge in the strong town of Nesactum. C. Claudius Pulcher immediately laid siege to it, and finding himself impeded in his operations by the river .Arsia, which supplied the besieged with water, succeeded in turning it into anew channel. The barbarians, struck with terror at the drying up of the stream, without demanding terms of surrender, killed their wives and children on the ramparts in sight of the enemy, and flung them over into the ditches. In the midst of this frightful slaughter the Roman soldiers scaled the walls and penetrated into the city. The king killed himself with his own sword to avoid falling alive into the hands of the enemy; the survivors surrendered or were slain. The possession of Istria secured the dominion over the Adriatic ; while the conquest of Sardinia and Corsica gave the Romans two important posts in the Mediterranean. The former island was reduced by Sempronius, the father of the Gracchi ; and so great a number of captives was brought to Rome that Sardi venules (Sardinians for sale) became a proverb to designate any considerable quantity of articles for which it was difficult to find purchasers. Internal Condition of Rome. With the termination of those great wars, which may be said to have com- promised the safety of Rome, began the internal dissensions which had been suspended in the presence of a foreign enemy ; and that city, now become the mistress of the world, was doomed to be torn asunder by the strife of rival factions. After the fall of Carthage, the people, noble and plebeian, enriched by the spoil of empires, were desirous in their turn to taste the luxuries of the East ; and hence an unrestrained voluptuousness suddenly appeared in the city, bring- ing with it the most frightful depravity. In many of the nobler minds this seduction commenced with the externals of Greek civilisation. Scipio Africa- nus, in particular, affected the Athenian manners, and thus excited the indigna- tion of his qujestor Cato. Flamininus, Metellus. itimilius, Fabius, and other patricians, followed the example of Scipio ; and to defend themselves against the assertors of the ancient manners, they united by adoptions and intermar- riages, and thus began that faction which so long controlled the senate itself, and endeavoured to take away many of the popular privileges. Their pride and strength may be gathered from the defence made by Fabius in behalf of his son-in-law, who had been declared guilty of treason : — He is not guilty, for he married my daughter. Cato alone dared to resist, and attacked their chief, having instigated the tribunes to summon him to render an account of the various sums of money he had received. The result of this struggle is unknown ; but it appears certain that xA.fricanus, after momentarily triumphing over the tribunitial power, was compelled to retire to Linternum, where he died. In 195 the Roman matrons-, displeased with the severity of the Oppian law,* succeeded in procuring its abrogation in despite of the exertions of Cato. Ten years after, it became evident that the intercourse with Greece and the East had introduced into Home many dangerous innovations. Numerous crimes, the work of unknown hands, had excited terror throughout the city, when the senate discovered that an obscure superstition, the orgies of Bacchus, had been mysteriously communicated, and that this worship, whose rites were prostitu- tion and the murder of those who refused to submit to infamy, already counted numerous partisans. The greatest precautions were taken to convict the criminals, and many women, who had been initiated into these disgraceftr mysteries, were secretly put to death in their own houses. * By the Oppian law women were forbidden to wear more than half an ounce of golo to have party-coloured garments, or to be carried about in any city or town, except ii« the case of certain festivals. SECOND CENTURY B.C. 107 The last effort against the increasing depravity and corruption was the nomination of Cato to the censorship. While in this office he expelled several members of the senate, and among others the Q. Flamininus mentioned above. He established many sumptuary regulations ; taxed private carriages, and numerous articles of dress ; cut off all the private conduits which were fed by the public fountains; demolished the buildings which encroached on the public way ; and by his financial changes greatly increased the revenues of the state. Luxury at home could only be supported by injustice abroad, and accordingly we find the provinces on all sides appealing to the senate against the exactions of their governors. The Sicilian deputies said they would rather be swallowed up in Etna than have Marcellus a second time to rule over them. Spain, from its containing silver mines, was made a scene of plunder by its numerous prae- tors. Greece met with no better fate ; both its temples and private houses being pillaged. When Anicius pacified Epirus and Illyria, 150,000 of the natives were sold into slavery, and all their cities dismantled. A thirst of distinction appeared among the great, who disdained to be con- founded in the crowd of their fellow-nobles. Victorious generals, assuming the names of the countries they had subdued, were called Africanus, Asiaticus, Macedonicus, and such like. Public offices were now become so lucrative, that the higher ranks sought them with avidity. The villian law, which fixed the age at which these could be filled ; a law passed in 18] against the corrupt practices preceding an election ; the consular law of 159 against bribery, — were nugatory. The Sabinian law of 139 provided for the purity of election. Four new tribunals, under the name of Qucestiones Perpetuce, were established to inquire into all cases of extortion, bribery, or peculation ; but the judges parti- cipated in the disorders which it was their duty to punish, and shamelessly sold their decisions. Before the various public offices were opened to the plebeians, there had been a continual and frequently a bloody struggle between the patricians and the popular leaders ; but the plebeian families, which became illustrious from the stations filled by their members, were at last confounded with the higher order, and formed with them an aristocracy so much the more dangerous as it comprehended many whose ancestors had long contended for popular privileges. The plebeians themselves were altered. Decimated by continual wars, the plebs, which now crowded the forum, was a confused medley of Italians and freedmen mingled with the ancient Romans, who had lost all traces of their former dignity by misery and association with those whose bodies were free, but whose minds yet retained the feelings of slaves. Such a populace was little respected or feared by the senate; still, so long as external enemies remained to be encountered, the people were relieved by the founding of numerous colonies. In 197, fifteen hundred families were settled in five towns of Cam- pania and Etruria ; three years later six new colonies were formed in Lucania and Bruttium; and thirteen others between 192 and 175. Gratuitous distribu- tions of corn were made at Rome, and all usury was forbidden by the tribunes. But the exertions of the senate were not the less directed to the depression of the plebeian influence in the government. In 176, the censors confined the populace to the four lowest tribes ; and eight years afterwards one of these four was made to contain all whose landed possessions were not of the value of 30,000 sesterces, about .£240 sterling. By degrees the senators usurped the whole executive powers of the government : and the knights, whom they refused to consider as a new order, were their sole antagonists. The richest Romans formed this class, which was open to nobles and plebeians, provided they were possessed of the requisite pecuniary qualification. Placed between the senate and the people, the Equites or Knights meditated a separalion from both, and the formation of a distinct order in the state. When almost too late, the senate repented of their alienation from this powerful intermediate body. The disorders of the government were increased by the defective harvests of 144 and 143, and by the absence of all colonization during more than thirty years, beginning with 168 e. c. The only resource left to the impoverished multitude was to enter the service of the patricians or of the wealthy knights ; but these classes preferred slave- labour, and besides, the example of Cato had 108 ANCIENT HISTORY. been extensively imiiated; arable land was generally changed into pasturage as being more profitable. The poor were now reduced to the alternative of death or of a revolution which might improve but certainly could not aggravate their condition. Servile War, 131-131. — The demands of the people were preceded by those of the bondmen. Slavery, that scourge of the East, had been extended over all Italy by the conquests of the Romans ; for those who had subdued Greece and Carthage disdained the cultivation of the soil. Everywhere slave-labour had replaced that of the freeman ; and the land was covered with an infinite number of those unfortunate wretches whom war had deprived of their liberty, or who had been kidnapped on the coasts of Thrace or Asia Minor. As has been ever the case, the severity and cruelty of the proprietors increased with the number of their victims. This led to a revolt, which broke out at Tauromenium, headed by the Syrian Eunus, a pretender to the gift of prophecy. Four praetors were successively defeated by these armed slaves, whose num- bers soon increased to 200,000. At last, a consul was sent against them, and the success of Rupilius, aided by his prudent measures, terminated a revolt, which, if it had spread to Italy, might have com- promised the safety of Rome. Had the slaves within the city acted in concert with those of Sicily, they easily would have crushed their masters, than whom they are said to have been ten times more numerous.* The Gracchi. — The revolt of the slaves menaced the existence of the state ; while the revolution attempted by the Gracchi, nearly depriving the nobles of the power they had usurped, transferred it to the hands of the people. The horrible scenes enacted in the battle-field were now to be repeated in the streets of Rome; and we see the just retaliation upon the citizens of all the cruelties they had inflicted on the conquered nations. A warlike people are usually cruel, blood-thirsty, and ignorant of the value of human life. Tiberius Gracchus, grandson of Africanus, distinguished himself in Africa and in Spain, but the senate having refused to sanction his treaty with the Numantines, he placed himself at the head of the populace, and was elected to the tribunate. The deserted condition of Italy, which he had witnessed in his way to Spain, is said to have excited him to put an end to a state of things which threatened to deprive his country of her free inhabi- tants, and replace them by slaves. His project, previously entertained by Laelius the friend of Scipio, was to resume the public lands, leaving to the rich, who had usurped them, 500 acres for themselves individual- ly, and 250 for each of their children ; besides which, a compensation was to be made for the portion they were to surrender, that it might be ♦There is in. Herodias. Herod Agrippa, d. a. d. 44. Herod II. Agrippa, d. a. d. 100. 124 AKCIENT HISTORY. CHRISTIAN ERA. FIRST CENTURY. Home. — 9, Defeat of Varus. — Twelve Cjesars. — 79, First Eruption [recorded] of Vesuvius. Britain. — 43, Claudius in Britain. — 85, Agricola. Jud,2SA. — 8, Archelaus banished. — 41, Herod Agrippa. — Roman Procurators. — 70, Jerusalem destroyed. The Church. — 30, Crucifixion of Christ. — 40, Name of Christians — 64, Fir&c Persecution — 66, Martyrdom of St. Peter and St. Paul. — 95, Second Perse- cution. Inventions, &c. — 16, Introduction of Silk Dresses by Tiberius. — 60, Load- stone discovered. Literature, &c. — Phaedrus, Celsus, Q. Curtius, Persius, Plutarch, Epictetus, Lucan, Martial, Juvenal, Seneca, Quinctilian, Tacitus, Petronius, the two Plinys, Valerius Flaccus, Josephus, Dioscorides. ROME. Augustus. — The Roman empire peaceably submitted to the superior talents and craft of this fortunate soldier. Exhausted by the civil wars which continued nearly a whole century, repose was eagerly sought by all parties, and a population of 120 millions gladly yielded to the dominion of one man. The Roman frontiers, extending from the Atlan- tic to the Euphrates, and from the Rhine to the African deserts, were at peace, broken only by a brief war with the Germans, in which Varus and three legions were cut to pieces by Arminius, a. d. 9. Augustus never recovered his serenity of temper after that defeat. By the mild- ness of his government he acquired the love of the people, and by his affected submission to the senate he gained their constant support, although he had stript them of nearly all their power. Without either superior genius or extraordinary attainments, he was prudent enough to seize upon all opportunities of advancing his ambitious projects ; and his principles improved when the possession of unlimited power rendered crime useless. He was still a hypocritical voluptuary ; but the repose which he had procured to the empire, the flourishing state in which he left it, and the mild exercise of his authority, covered or excused his faults. His latter days were not happy. The profligacy of his daughter Julia, the ambition of his wife, and the loss of his adopted child, added poignancy to the stings of a guilty conscience. He died at Nola, a.d. 14, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, and the forty-first of his reign. Read: Blackwell's Court of Augustus. After the battle of Actium and the death of Antony, Augustus was desirous of legitimatizing his power by concealing it under legal forms. To veil his usurpation, he assumed the titles of the principal offices, using his power as censor to clear the senate of many personal enemies. All the acts of his triumvirate were annulled, as if he wished to show that he was now influenced FIRST CENTURY A. D. 125 by different motives ; and his feigned proposal of abdication was earnestly com- bated by his friends, who persuaded him to prolong his power during ten more years. To prove his disinterestedness, he shared the administration of the empire with the senate, leaving to it the fair provinces of Italy and Sicily : while he, by his deputies, governed the remainder. He assumed no unusual power; and yet, by the simple means of uniting all offices in his own person, be became entirely autocratical. Corresponding changes in the administration of the state ensued; and although the senate still remained the supreme coun- cil, there was another and more important one, composed of his particular friends, such as Maecenas and Agrippa. Towards the end of his life, this body of men assumed the form of a modern cabinet {consistorium), being increased "by the addition of fifteen senators, and one of each magisterial college. They were afterwards divided into three classes, having in their hands the entire government. The popular assemblies and elections still remained ; but they were empty forms, the candidate nominated by the emperor never being rejected. Many salutary laws were enacted ; the public edifices and roads were kept in good repair ; a kind of police and night-watch were established ; and commu- nication between distant points was facilitated by the establishment of regular posts for the transmission of the imperial despatches. The finances remained nearly the same ; there were, however, two treasuries, that of the prince (fs- cus), the other of the senate (aranum). Besides introducing a regular organi- sation into the army, Augustus divided and separated the twenty-five legions, paid them regularly, and compensated their toils by money instead of land. The term of service was also fixed, and the soldiers, instead of being turbulent and insolent, as in the civil wars, became docile and peaceable. The entire body was distributed along the frontiers in stationary camps ; tranquillity was maintained in the interior by praetorian and urban cohorts. Two fleets, one at Ravenna, the other at Misenum, protected the commerce of the Mediterranean; forty vessels guarded the Euxine Sea, and armed boats secured the navigation of the Rhine and Danube. 3. Tiberius, a. d. 14-37. — The reign of Augustus appears in a more favourable light when contrasted with those of his nearest successors. Tiberius was fifty-six years old when he ascended the throne, professing great unwillingness to take upon him its important cares. The first victim of this despotic emperor was the young Agrippa Posthumus, in whom he feared a rival ; and all restraint being now removed, the tyrant gave loose to his cruel and sensual passions. He soon afterwards retired from Rome to Campania, from whose luxurious retreats issued those blood-stained decrees which the senate was so ready to enregister ; and we may read in Suetonius and Tacitus of the murders committed by this body, in compliance with the imperial edicts. Sejanus, com- mander of the praetorian guards, and favourite of the monarch, dared to raise his thoughts to the highest station; and, to clear his way to the throne, got rid of all those whose claims were nearer than his owm. Germanicus, the son of Drusus, was poisoned ; his widow, Agrippina, was exiled to Pandataria, an island noted as the place of Julia's banish- ment ; his eldest son, Nero, committed suicide to avoid the torture; and Drusus, the second son, perished of hunger in prison. But Tiberius suddenly aw r oke to the treachery of his minister, and he who had filled all Rome with mourning w T as surrendered to the popular fury. From this period the emperor, exasperated by the dangers with which he had been threatened, indulged in fresh cruelties. The wealthy inhabitants of Gaul, Spain, and Greece, were condemned to death for the merest trifles, that their riches might augment the royal treasures. His latter years were passed in scenes of infamous debauchery at Capreae, and his death was hastened by the hands of a freedman, a. d. 37. 11* 126 ANCIENT HISTORY. During this odious reign, Jesus Christ accomplished on the cross his divine mission ; and then arose from Calvary that new and pure gospel which was destined to regenerate the world. Foreign Wars. — Tiberius imitated the policy of Augustus by engag- ing in no wars unnecessarily. In Gaul, two revolts, the result of excessive taxation, were with difficulty subdued ; while, in the East, the imperial ministers found safety in the troubles they excited among the tributary Persian states. Germany, however, in the days of Augustus, had been the scene of important military operations. The wife and infant son of Arminius {Hermann) had fallen into the hands of the Romans, to rescue whom all the neighbouring tribes rose in arms. Germanicus, eager to anticipate the terrible blow impending over his country, assumed the offensive, attacked and defeated several detached bodies of the enemy, and in the end had nearly gained a complete vic- tory. A bloody campaign led to no decisive result; the Germans could make no permanent impression on the well-disciplined legions, and the Romans were compelled to retire by sea, when a fearful tempest destroyed a great part of the fleet and army. Shortly after this, Arminius, who has been praised by Tacitus as the liberator of Germany from the domi- nion of Rome when in the height of her power, was assassinated at the age of thirty seven, eleven years after his triumph over Varus. 4. Caligula, a. d. 37-41, began to reign with mildness, but a severe malady at the end of the first year disordered his intellect, after which his cruelty knew no bounds. His excesses can only be excused by supposing his mind to have been affe. ted. He fancied himself at one time a male, at another time a female, deity ; raised his wife and his horse to the consulate ; and fed his wild beasts with the bodies of citizens and captives. A violent death freed Rome from this frantic monster. 5. Claudius, a. d. 41-54. — The senate, immediately upon the demise of Caligula, began to deliberate on the choice of a successor; but the praetorians, amounting to 10,000 men, instituted as a body-guard by Augustus, and kept in various garrisons throughout Italy, now took advantage of their being collected in Rome, to proclaim the supremacy of the army. They elected Claudius, during whose impotent rule 35 senators and 300 knights fell by the hand of the executioner. He was quite a puppet under the management of his favourites Messalina and Agrippina, Pallas and Narcissus. In this reign, the conquest of South Britain was partly effected, a. d. 43. The first act of Claudius' government was to publish a general am- nesty, from which the murderers of his predecessor were alone excepted. He repealed all Caligula's edicts, showing the greatest deference for the senate and magistrates. He himself presided daily at the tribunal of justice, enacted many wise laws, annulled the cruel statutes against high-treason, diminished the taxes, checked usury, and encouraged marriage. It is not one of his smallest claims to the title of benefactor of his people, that he abolished in Gaul the blood-stained religion of the Druids. The principal inhabitants of that province were selected to fill the vacant seats in the senate-house, the censorship was re-established, the circumference of Rome enlarged, and a new port constructed at Ostia, for the reception of the African and Egyptian corn-vessels. But FIRST CENTURY A. D. 127 the empire required the firm hand of a master, while Claudius was feeble and uxorious. His death by poison was effected by his second wife and an infamous sorceress Locusta, a. d. 54. 6. Nero, a. d. 54-68, reigned mildly five years, guided by the ex- perience of Burrhus and Seneca, after which he was seized with a hereditary madness. He murdered his mother Agrippina, his brother, his tutor, and the poet Lucan. He set fire to Rome, and, while the city was burning, mounted a lofty tower, where, accompanying the words with the music of the harp, he sung his own poem on the fall of Troy. He appeared as a singer on the public stage, and contended as a herald or crier at Olympia. The people at last grew weary of his cruelty and debauchery; and he perished by the sword of his freedman. But his private vices were less dangerous to the state than his exactions in the provinces whence he drew the means of supporting his extravagance, and of keeping his subjects in a continual state of intoxication.* With him the Julian family became extinct; and in consequence of the dis- puted succession, four emperors arose in less than two years. 7. Galba, a. d. 68, 69, was elected to the throne during Nero's life, but endeavouring to check the licentiousness of the army and praetorians who had raised him to so dangerous an eminence, he was murdered by the soldiers, after a reign of seven months. 8. Otho, a. d. 69, who had plotted against the life of his predecessor, did not long enjoy the fruits of his treason. This companion of the early debaucheries of Nero had been sent, during that monarch's life, into the honourable banishment of the Spanish qusetorship, in which office he gained over the army, by whom he was invested with the purple. But he was scarcely acknowledged at Rome before the legions of Germany elected a competitor. Supported only by the praetorians and an undisciplined crowd, he was defeated by Vitellius, his rival, and committed suicide, after reigning three months and five days. 9. Vitellius, a. d. 69, trod in the steps of his patron Caligula. Although he gave himself up entirely to the pleasures of the table, he was severe toward his enemies. He was put to death while preparing to meet Vespasian, who had been proclaimed emperor by the Syrian army. Thus in the space of a single year, Rome had seen three monarchs elected by the respective armies of Italy, the Rhine, and Spain, and who all met with violent deaths. 10. Vespasian was declared emperor by the soldiers whom he was leading against the Jews, a. d. 69. This people, excited by false pro phets and oppressed by the severity of their governors, broke out into open revolt. In other parts of the empire the peace was similarly dis- turbed ; blood was shed in the streets of Rome in civil tumult; the splendid temple of Jupiter on the Capitol was consumed by fire ; Gaul was in rebellion ; the frontiers were threatened by the Germans on the Rhine, and by the Parthians on the Euphrates. Vespasian restored peace to the world, and during nine years used his extensive power with * It is a remarkable circumstance that Nero's memory was Ion? cherished among the lower classes. During many years his tomb was decorated with flowers. His death was considered a fabrication, and no less than three false Neros appeared in the East. At the close of the third and fourth centuries, it was a popular belief that he would appear at the end of the world as Antichrist. 128 ANCIENT HISTORY. moderation. Under his orders the Jewish war was terminated ; and his son Titus, whom he had left at the head of the army, utterly destroyed the people of Jerusalem after an obstinate resistance, and rased the city to the ground. A medal was struck commemorative of the event, bear- ing on one side a veiled female figure sitting under a palm-tree, with the inscription Judaea Capta. Vespasian died in the midst of many valuable reforms, and left the empire to the conqueror of the Jews. 11. Titus, a. d. 79-81, called The Delight of Mankind, from his amiable and generous disposition, enjoyed a reign of only two years, which was marked by calamities. He was compelled to quit Berenice, a Jewish princess whom he tenderly loved ; a great part of Rome was consumed by fire ; this was followed by a raging pestilence; and an eruption of Mount Vesuvius buried the towns of Herculaneum, Pompeii, and Stabiae beneath showers of ashes, August 24, a. d. 79. 12. Domitian, a. d. 81-96, who succeeded his brother, manifested the disposition of Nero. He embellished the city with magnificent build- ings, and engaged in useless and unsuccessful wars ; South Britain was however subdued in his reign by Agricola, 85, whose death he is said to have occasioned. He banished literary men from Rome, degraded the senate, and persecuted all who were noble and good. He arrogated divine honours to himself, put to death many men of rank for the most trifling causes, and at last fell by an assassin's dagger, a. d. 96. Thus perished the last of the twelve Caesars, of whom only four deserve the respect of posterity : Julius, Augustus, Vespasian, and Titus. Gibbon thus characterizes the unworthy successors of Augustus : — " Their unparalleled vices, and the splendid theatre on which they were acted, have saved them from oblivion. The dark, unrelenting Tiberius, the furious Caligula, the feeble Claudius, the profligate and cruel Nero, the beastly Vitellius, and the timid, inhuman Domitian, are condemned to everlasting infamy. During fourscore years (excepting only the short and doubtful respite of Vespasian's reign), Rome groaned beneath an unremitting tyranny, which exterminated the ancient families of the republic, and was fatal to almost every virtue and every talent that arose in that unhappy period." JUDJEA. Archelaus succeeded to the throne on the death of his father Herod, 3 b. c, but his administration was so despotic and unpopular, that he was deposed and banished to Vienne in Gaul, a. d. 8, when Judaea became a Roman province, dependent on the prefecture of Syria, under the procurator Coponius. On one occasion this cruel monarch caused 3000 citizens to be massacred in the Temple. Pontius Pilate, who was governor from a. d. 26 to 36, was a man of stern and inflexible temper, utterly disregarding the religious feelings of the people. Twice he nearly caused a revolt by introducing into the city the Roman ensigns, on which were the images of the emperor, and by the consecration of the golden bucklers in the palace of Herod. The yart vvhioh he took in the condemnation of our Lord is too well known to icquire comment. He was soon afterwards recalled, and banished to Vi^/ine, where he is said to have perished by his own hand, a. d. 38. FIRST CENTURY A. D. 129 to o o S • w — CO 3 ■+.0 .° 5 — cr go ^ CD ft *P ^ 3' 3 p to i ■+ o O p c s > ■ at} • -«■?. 63 J IP i(fc i> CD t) «1 > c*ffl 3^ ■ w • m CD ^-j 5 M p !*f • o F 3! a 09 I* 2 o < a >*% II II II • > p'3 a CD S 3 • p _>3. rag §.+ 3 ?" w 1 s> 3/ o • p » t- 1 a a — s > • 3 fo • cl ""' >*"! to — ^ §s •5" 8 -+ |.S> 3 -<-0 " > a P £/a !2!b p — p * Oi o ■ S to CD CO O^ O 3 3 a> 3 p o ■* -+ Q ft tej fed t> O 2 1 ^ O H ffl t> P ►-> i? • ^ *s fed - P J c » 2^ W 130 ANCIENT HISTORY. Herod Agrippa. — The Jewish kingdom was again reconstructed from its several tetrarchies by Claudius, and bestowed upon Herod Agrippa, grandson of Herod the Great, a. d. 41. Educated at Rome, he was the friend of the Emperors Tiberius, Caligula, and Claudius ; and after many years, full of the most striking vicissitudes of fortune, he became one of the greatest princes of the East, and governed the Jews three years in such a manner as to become extremely popular. His death, which was sudden, may be ascribed to the immediate judgment of God for his impiety* On a day of festival, when he appeared in the theatre of Cffisarea, the brilliant light of the sun glancing on nis silver robes struck the people with admiration. Fawning parasites addressed him as a god : — "Be thou merciful unto us, for although we have hitherto received thee only as a man, yet henceforth we shall regard thee as superior to mortal nature." He neither rebuked nor rejected this impi- ous flattery, when he was immediately smitten with violent pains in his bowels. Turning to his attendants, he cried, " Behold your god is now condemned to die!" Five days he lingered in the most excruciating tortures, when he expired, having attained only the fifty-fourth year of his age, and the seventh of his reign as tetrarch of Galilee. Under the frequent change of governors and prefects, the Jews experienced alter- nate changes of gentleness and severity. False Messiahs appeared on every side, and a ferocious sect arose, which, adopting tne opinions of Judas the Gaulonite, put itself in open hostility to the Roman govern- ment. Under Claudius Felix, who trembled at the simple truths uttered by St. Paul, the country began to be filled with robbers and murderers. Gessius Florus, a. d. G4, the worst of the Roman governors, was tyran- nical, cruel, and insatiably avaricious. He murdered 3000 people in Jerusalem, 20,000 at Csesarea, 2000 at Ptolemais, and 2500 at Ascalon- but when he carried his insolence so far as to attempt to enter the tem- ple with his soldiers, the whole inhabitants rose in arms against him. The nation was unfortunately divided into two parties, one proposing submission, the other desirous to continue the revolt. The country now became a scene of bloodshed, and the flame of insurrection spread to Syria, Egypt, and the neighbouring states. Cestius Gallus, prefect of Syria, who endeavoured to recover the capital, was defeated with great loss. The Christians, remembering the prophecy of Christ, took ad- vantage of the retreat of the Roman army, and withdrew to Pella, beyond the Jordan, where they lived in peace, free from the horrors of the war raging around the holy city. Destruction of Jerusalem, a. d. 70. — Ananus, or Annas, the high priest, was raised to the civil command of Jerusalem, and the historian Josephus was at the head of the armies of Galilee and Gamala. Ves- pasian was sent with 60,000 men to crush the rebellion, a. d. 67. After subduing the revolted provinces, he was spreading his toils around the devoted city, when, as already noticed, he was elected emperor, a. d. 69 ; and departing for Rome, left his son Titus to continue the campaign. The Jews had neglected to profit by this season of delay. The ravages of war without were far less fatal than the murderous rage of the fac- tions within the walls. " The holy city had become the nest of all uncleanness, a horrid den of robbers, and a hateful cave of murderers." Eleazar, with a band of Zealots (a horde of robbers who had assumed the name without the principles of the sect), possessed the inner court FIRST CENTURY A.D. 131 of the Temple ; while John of Gischala, who had obstinately resisted .he Romans in Galilee, occupied the rest of the building, now converted into a fortress. When Titus advanced to the siege, Jerusalem was crowded with people from all quarters, who had come up to celebrate the passover ; and they soon became a prey to the most horrible famine recorded in history, so that vermin, grass, and leather, were held a luxury, and sold at a high price. From the middle of April to the first of July, not fewer than 115,880 dead bodies were flung out at one gate of the city ; the whole number thus disposed of is reckoned at 600,000; and after an unexampled siege of six months, the city was reduced, a. d. 70. " The destruction of Jerusalem exceeded all which God or man ever brought upon the world." Exclusive of those who perished in caves and woods, and in the vaults of Jerusalem, 1,364,000 are com- puted by Lipsius to have fallen in the war ; 97,000 were taken prison- ers ; and 11,000 sullenly starved themselves to death. Titus, we are told, called God to witness that he was not the author of their calami- ties. In perusing the melancholy details of Josephus, it is impossible to resist the conviction, that in these awful transactions the hand of the Almighty was punishing a guilty people, and requiring from them the righteous blood of Christ, which they had invoked upon their heads, crying — " His blood be on us, and on our children !" Read : Milman's History of the Jews ; Huie's History of the Jews. HISTORY OF THE CHURCH. The Messiah. — During a season of profound peace, in the reign of Augustus, when there was a general expectation that some great per- sonage was about to appear, the time arrived for the redemption of the human race, — promised at the fall of man, predicted by all the prophets, typified by all the ceremonies of the ancient law, and earnestly desired by all just men. In the " fulness of time" Jesus Christ was born at Bethlehem. He escaped from the murderous rage of Herod, and for nearly thirty years lived an obscure life at Nazareth. At length, enter- ing on his public ministry, he began to teach, in the reign of Tiberius, throughout all Judaea, confirming his divine mission by the purity of his life, the sublimity of his doctrines, and his miraculous powers. The Jews, who had looked for an earthly conqueror, refused to listen to the lowly Galilean, and procured his condemnation and execution as a criminal, 3d April, a. d. 30. After the resurrection and ascension of our Saviour, the Christian religion spread rapidly under the ministry of the apostles and their con- verts. They preached throughout all the Roman empire the sublime truths revealed to them by their divine Master, and established churches in three quarters of the world. The name of Christian was first used at Antioch, a. d. 40. The four gospels contain the history of the Re- deemer's life and doctrines, and were written in the order in which they stand, between a. d. 37 and 98. CONSTITUTION OF THE CHURCH. The first Christian societies or churches were formed, as far as circumstances would permit, on the model of the synagogue, were governed by deacons, and sometimes deaconesses, who were charged with the distribution of alms; elders 132 ANCIENT HISTORY. (presbyters or priests) exercised a right of censure over private individuals, bm their functions originally were not connected with religious instructions ; and bishops (episcopi, overseers), the associates in the labours and the successors of the apostles. The bishop administered the sacraments and maintained the dis- cipline of the church, superintended the daily increasing religious ceremonies, directed the funds, and arbitrated in the disputes of the faithful.* Persecution forced the different communities to unite each round the nearest centre, generally some populous and neighbouring town ; such was the origin of a diocese. The same necessity compelled the bishops of the country towns to unite with the capital of the province, and thus a metropolis was formed. This institution confirmed a custom which dates from the end of the second 2entury, that of synods or councils, provincial meetings held in spring and autumn. First Persecution, a. d. 64. — The progress of the new doctrines brought down upon their professors the rage of the Jews and the cruel torments of Nero. The year a. d. 64 was an eventful epoch in the Christian Church. The dreadful conflagration which threatened with ruin the Eternal City was considered as the judgment of offended deities, to appease whom the followers of the Christian religion were exposed to the severest tortures. " Some of them (says the pagan Taci- tus) were covered over with the skins of wild beasts, that they might be torn to pieces by dogs ; some were crucified, while others, having been daubed over with combustible materials, were set up for lights in the night-time, and thus burnt to death." The apostles Peter and Paul suffered martyrdom in this persecution, which appears to have been principally confined to the capital, where the latter of these faithful men became the victim of imperial rage."j" Second Persecution. — For nearly 30 years after the death of Nero, the Christians were allowed to live undisturbed ; and their numbers had multiplied considerably, when the gloomy tyrant Domitian began the. second persecution, a. d. 95. It is probable that the emperor acted through fear, since there is a singular story related of an edict issued by him fc the extermination of the whole family of David. Some de- scendants of our Lord's brethren still survived, and were brought before the tribunal of the procurator of Judaea, but, after examination, they were dismissed as too humble to be dangerous to the authority of Rome. The apprehensions of Domitian were aroused by the appearance of danger from a nearer quarter. One of his cousins-german, the consul Flavius Clemens, being suddenly accused of atheism and Jewish man- ners, the common charge against Christians, was put to death, and his wife, Domitilla, the emperor's niece, was banished. Tertullian relates that St. John was miraculously delivered unhurt from a vessel of flaming oil, into which he had been cast by the orders of the tyrant. He war, afterwards banished to the isle of Patmos, on the western coast of Asia Minor, where he committed to writing his sublime Book of Revelation. *The apostolic succession of the bishops appfars to be undeniable, but the extent ami nature of their authority are altogether uncertain. It should, moreover, be observed that the term " successors of the apostles" can be applied to them in a very limited significa- tion only. t Count Stolberg, a Romanist writer, brings Peter to Rome at the beginning of Nero'a reign, but denies that the apostle founded the Christian church in that city. It is, how- ever, more than questionable if St. Peter ever was at Rome. Lightfoot positively asserts that he lived and died in Chaldaea. Milman endeavours to reconcile testimony and tra- dition by the theory of two churches, a Petrine and a Pauline, a Judaising and a Hel« lenising community. FIRST CENTURY A. D. [ 33 Ten great persecutions of the early Christian church are recorded l>y nisto- rians ; we shall treat of them as they occur, but it may be convenient to arrange their epochs together : — D. 106, under Trajan. d. 166, under Marcus Aurelius. d. 202, under Severus. d. 235, under Maximin. d. 250, under Decius. d. 258, under Valerian. d. 272, under Aurelian. 3d Persecution, a. 4th Persecution, a. 5th Persecution, a. 6th Persecution, a. 7th Persecution, a. 8th Persecution, a. 9th Persecution, a. 10th Persecution, a. d. 303, under Diocletian and Maximian. Read : Milman's Hist, of Christianity ; Milner's Hist, of the Church of Christ TABLE OF THE PERSECUTIONS. No. of Perse- cution. Year. In what Countries. Name of Emperor, &c. Principal Sufferers, and when. BRITAIN. In the years 55 and 54 b. c, Julius Caesar invaded this island, but his two campaigns were indecisive, and the country maintained its inde- pendence until a. d. 43, when the Emperor Claudius in person, and afterwards the generals Plautius and Vespasian, compelled various tribes to acknowledge the majesty of Rome. The last of these com- manders fought thirty battles before he could subdue the inhabitants, and Caractacus opposed Plautius during five years with varying suc- cess. This brave chief of the Silures being without allies, his army was at last defeated with great slaughter, and he himself taken prisoner and carried to Rome. Suetonius endeavoured to destroy the Druids who had taken refuge in the isle of Anglesey, and quelled a formidable insurrection headed by the celebrated Boadicea, a. d. 61, which cost the lives of 150,000 men. In the course of seven years, 78-85, the power of the empire was firmly established by Agricola : he subdued the natives as far north as the Forth, and also defeated Galgacus and his Caledonians at the foot of their native Grampians. Rutilius has said, with equal beauty and truth, that Rome embraced the whole world in her legislative triumphs, causing all to live under a common bond ; that she blended discordant nations into one; and that, by offering to the conquered a full companionship in her privileges, she made the earth one united city. With these principles Agricola endeavoured to civilize the island, by inspiring the barbarians with a love of letters, and by the introduction of the Roman dress, language, and luxurious manners. Four legions were stationed in Britain, and as many great roads facili- tated the communication between distant points. The most ancient inhabitants of the country appear to have been the Cymry, from whom the Welsh are descended ; and these were followed 12 134 ANCIENT HISTORY. by colonies of Celts from Gaul, being themselves, like the first settlers, of Cimmerian origin. But not by rude emigrants alone was the island visited, for the Phoenicians, and after them the Carthaginians, frequented its south-western shores in search of tin. Numerous tribes, of which forty-five have been designated, were spread over its surface ; and the Belgae, a people of Gothic origin, occupied the south-eastern coast. They all lived in such a state of primitive simplicity as might be wit- nessed at present in the woods of North America, or in New Zealand. Their food was milk and flesh, skins their clothing, and to strike terror into their enemies in battle the exposed limbs were stained blue. Their houses were constructed of timber and reeds ; their towns were situated in the depths of forests, the access to which was protected by ditches and barriers of trees. Money was little used, and was commonly rings of iron or copper of a certain weight. Their army was chiefly composed of infantry ; but, like the heroes of the Trojan war, their chiefs fought from chariots armed with scythes. Their religion was that of the fierce and sanguinary Druids ; a system which is said to have originated in Britain, whence it was introduced into Gaul. Its principal doctrines were the immortality and transmigration of souls ; its chief maxims — to worship the gods, to do no evil, and to behave heroically. To appease, by cruel rites, their offended deities, huge images of wickerwork were filled with human victims, who were burned alive, and from their quivering limbs the priests predicted future events. The mistletoe, wherever it was found upon the oak, itself a sacred tree, was cut with great ceremony, and used as a charm to cause fecundity or to counteract poison. The Druidical order was divided into three classes: 1. The Druids, who were their dignitaries ; 2. The Bards, poets or musicians ; and, 3. The Ouates, the lowest rank of sacrificers and diviners. Of their monuments we have no remains, unless we consider as such the remark- able ruins of Stonehenge and Abury. Read : Turner's Anglo-Saxons, book i. chap. iv. SECOND CENTURY. Rome.— 96, Nerva.— 98, Trajan.— 117, Adrian.— 138-180, The Antonines.— 180, Commodus. — 193, Didius Julianus. The Church. — Third and Fourth Persecutions. Discoveries. — Astronomical System of Ptolemy. Literature, &c. — Lucian ; Ptolemy ; Justin Martyr ; Apuleius ; Suetonius ; Florus ; Justin ; Symmachus ; — The Tar gum and Mischnah.* ROME. The Five Good Emperors. — Nerva, a. d. 96-98, began his short but happy reign by the diminution of taxes. He was of Cretan extrac- tion, and elected by the senate at the age of sixty-five to support the * The Targum is a Chaldee paraphrase of the five books of Moses by Onkelos : its date is uncertain. The Mischnah is a compilation of traditional Jewish laws by Rabbi Jndah ; its commentary, the Oemarah, is divided into two parts, viz. 1st , The Talmud of Jerusa- lem, compiled in the third century; and 2d, The Talmud of Babylon, compiled in the SECOND CENTURY A. D. 135 .state already inclining to its fall. Alarmed at the insurrections excited by his reforms, he adopted the valiant Trajan, then commanding the armies of Lower Germany, a Spaniard by birth, though of Roman descent. The news of his elevation at once quieted all dissensions, and his soldiers, when he returned to Rome as emperor, after the death of Nerva, were never known to give cause for complaint by their insolence or irregularity. Trajan's palace was open to all, and with the studied modesty of Augustus he visited among his former friends like a private citizen. He introduced order and economy into the imperial household, constructed numerous public monuments, and also formed that great road which traversed the empire from Gaul to the Euxine Sea. These and other peaceful cares did not prevent him from watching the bar- barous nations already hovering on the Roman frontiers. He attacked the Dacians, and notwithstanding the skilful tactics of their chief Dece- balus, drove them by repeated defeats to their capital, the ruins of which may still be seen in Transylvania, and compelled them to purchase peace, a. d. 103. The war was next transferred to the Euphrates, and Trajan penetrated into Armenia, w T hich he mastered, threatened Parthia, and advanced to the Tigris, always marching on foot at the head of his troops. In another expedition he reached the shores of the Indian Ocean, sighing that his age prevented him from imitating the exploits of Alexander. While he was thus engaged in distant expeditions, a horrible revolt broke out at home. In Gyrene, Cyprus, and Egypt, the Jews rose and murc'ered all the Romans they could discover, inflicting on them the most frightful tortures. Some were sawn asunder ; others torn to pieces by heated pincers ; and, if we may credit the historians, the murderers even devoured the flesh of their victims. In the midst of these events Trajan died, lamenting that his labours for the public good had proved so ineffectual. He was just and upright in his conduct both public and private, and his warlike reign, by exciting in the barbarous nations a sense of Roman vigour, was eminently useful to the empire. His persecution of the Christians is a great blot on his character. Though his life came to a close in Cilicia, his body was conveyed to Rome, and over his tomb was raised the lofty column which still bears his name. For nearly three centuries after his death it w r as usual to salute each new emperor with a prayer that he might be more fortunate than Augustus, and more virtuous than Trajan. Adrian, a.d. 117-138, was in many respects unequal to his great predecessor. Relinquishing the conquests of Trajan, he wisely reduced the empire to the limits sanctioned by the wisdom of Augustus — to the barriers formed by the Euphrates, the Danube, the Rhine, and the ocean. He travelled through all his dominions to investigate and remedy more promptly the disorders which prevailed. He settled a colony at Jeru- salem, rebuilt the walls of that city, and called it JElia Capitolina. Many useful reforms were introduced by him ; the annual laws of the prsetors were replaced by a perpetual edict, so that the principles of the administration of justice no longer varied with each year. The condi- fifth century.— While speaking of eastern writings we may here observe, that the Saron- tala (translated hy Sir W. Jones with the title of the Fatal Ring), and various other Indian dramas and poems by Calidas, belong to this century. Of greater but uncertain antiquity are the U-Kinsr of the Chinese ; the Vedas or sacred books of the Hindoos : the Maku-bltilrata, the great Hindoo epic ; and the Sanscrit Puranus. 136 ANCIENT HISTORY. tion of the slaves was also greatly ameliorated ; their masters were no longer allowed to exercise an absolute power of life and death over them, and the private prisons were closed. An insurrection, which broke out under the impostor Barchochebas, who announced that he was the Messiah, was, after two years, extinguished in the blood of many thousand Jews, 135. The latter portion of Adrian's reign was darkened by the murder of persons suspected of conspiring against him, and he died of a lingering disease, repeating Plato's well-known lines on the nature of the soul. Antoninus Pius, a. d. 138—161, the second Numa, the father of his country, was a rare combination of virtue and philosophy. His pacilic government of twenty-three years is marked by no striking events, the storms and tempests of nature alone attracting the notice of the histo- rian. * By one celebrated edict he declared all the free inhabitants of the empire to be citizens of Rome, — a measure originating as much in political prudence as in a philosophic love of liberty, for they thereby became liable to taxes from which as provincials they were exempted. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, a. d. 161-180, surnamed the Philoso- pher, was prevented from treading in the tranquil steps of his predecessor by disturbances on the German and Syrian frontiers. The Parihians were driven back with great loss by his colleague Verus, 165 ; and he himself defeated the Sarmatians, the Quadi, and the Marco manni, a. d. 174. Famine and the plague desolated several provinces during this reign. The Tiber rose above its banks and swept away all the public granaries situate near it, the loss of which caused the most melancholy sufferings. Britain and Belgium were in confusion ; three legions were cut off in the East ; the victorious army on its return from the Euphrates brought with it a pestilence which ravaged the whole empire to the shores of the Atlantic, and the city of Rome in particular, so that the dead bodies were carried out promiscuously in wagons. The want of food aggravated the previous miseries; fresh wars broke out simul- taneously on all sides, to supply troops for which even the gladiators were enrolled in the legions. The attacks of the barbarians of the north upon the frontier, during this reign, were the first symptom of that great migration of the fierce tribes from the neighbourhood of the Caspian, who ultimately overran the fairest provinces of the empire. Commodus, at the death, of his father Aurelius, was actively engaged on the banks of the Danube ; but growing weary of a military life, he concluded a hasty peace with the barbarians, and returning to Rome, abandoned the reins of government to Perennis, the head of the prae- torian guard, that he might better enjoy the luxuries of his station. His life was, however, soon endangered by the jealousy of his sister Luci lid. This plot was followed by another, in which the military chief endea- voured to dethrone his master, but was detected and executed. The freedman Oleander, a person of Thracian origin, being next promoted to the rank of favourite, carried his audacity almost to madness, inscribing newly manumitted slaves on the roll of the senate, and electing twenty- live consuls in a single year. He was put to death by the monarch to quiet a sedition of the populace. The mistrust and cruelty of Commo- * Another reason for the historical silence may be the loss of the book of Dion Cassius which contained the history of his reign. SECOND CENTURY A. D. 1 37 dus gradually reached such an excess that he would put confidence in no one; and his chief delight was to descend armed into the public arena and contend with wild beasts, or with gladiators whose only pro- tection was a sword of lead. The people were so changed, that while the emperor declared by his edicts that his reign was the age of gold, Rome itself assumed the name of Colonia Commodiana. and the senate that of* Commodianus. At length he styled himself the son of Jupiter, the Roman Hercules, and on his coins assumed the name and attributes of this demigod. He perished by assassination, a. d. 193. Didius Julianus, a. d. 193. — The praetorian bands, in their camp on the Quirinal Hill, now decided the fate of the world. After the death of Pertinax, who had succeeded Commodus in 193, and whose reign lasted scarcely three months, they exposed the empire to public sale, and it was purchased by a wealthy senator, Didius, who promised a gratuity of more than £200 to each soldier. The people were discon- tented, and the legions, regretting the loss of a commander Mho had often led them to victory, refused to ratify the ignominious transaction. The three armies of Britain, Syria, and Pannonia, elected respectively Albinus, Niger, and Severus. The last immediately marched into Italy, when the reigning sovereign, being deserted by the prsetorians, was con- demned and executed by order of the senate, a. d. 193, after a reign of sixty-six days. The misfortunes of Aurelius and the extravagant propensities of Commodus had begun to weaken the empire ; still the traces of decay were not strikingly manifest, and in spite of them it maintained a contest with ruin during 200 years. The provinces were not as yet impoverished ; the cities flourished, and foreign and internal commerce spread the luxuries of the East over the Roman domi- nions. But had the nation been possessed of moral virtue also, it never would have submitted to the tyranny of Commodus nor to the yoke of the legions. The military despotism of this period was most dangerous to those who relied upon it. It was only by large donatives that the fidelity of the praetorian guards could be purchased or maintained. Severus well knew their power by the maxim he left to his son — to enrich the soldiers, and hold the rest for nothing. THE CHURCH. Although the spread of the Christian religion was opposed by all the power of the idolatrous government, churches were early founded in Rome, Corinth, Crete, Antioch, Asia Minor, Britain, and Spain, and the number of converts daily increased. It was not to be expected that so remarkable a change should escape the notice of the emperors, who providentially, by their moderation and humanity, averted the arm of persecution. The vigorous mind of Trajan appears to have immediately comprehended the nature of the struggle between the gospel and paganism. Third Persecution, a. d. 106. — From the younger Pliny, at that time governor of Bithynia, we have an interesting account of this per- secution. His letter to Trajan, a. d. 107, shows that death was imme- diately inflicted upon every one who was convicted of belonging to the Christian sect. Women were tortured to elicit a confession ; and their meeting at daybreak on the first day of the week, to praise God and to take the sacrament, was reckoned an evil practice. The new belief had already spread like a contagion in city and country, and the Vniples 12* 138 ANCIENT HISTORY. began to be deserted. The emperor, in his reply to this epistle, ordered all those who persevered in their faith to be led to execution in obedience to the existing laws, meaning those only who should be brought judi- cially before the governor. No new edict was published, and informa- tions against believers do not appear to have been countenanced. Adrian prohibited the Christian converts from being proceeded against by cla- morous petitions. To the Hofis with the Christians! had been a populai cry in the time of public shows, till it was thus checked. Among the sufferers in this persecution was Simeon, bishop of Jeru- salem. At the advanced age of 120 years, he supported the '. :uel tor- ment of the cross with unflinching courage. Ignatius of Antioch was questioned by Trajan himself, who condemned him to be exposed to wild beasts in the Roman amphitheatre, a. d. 110. The Fourth Persecution, a. d. 166, began at Smyrna. The defenders of the Gospel now boldly appealed to the government as well as to the public ; and many Jpohgies were published in its vindication. The most ancient of those which have reached our times is that of Justin Martyr, a philosopher converted at the age of thirty, and who after- wards sealed his testimony with his blood. Under the contemplative Marcus Aurelius, the persecutions were renewed with more rigour. The unshaken faithfulness of the sufferers excited the astonishment of the heathen ; and even Epictetus, the moralist, was led to ask what were the motives that could change selfishness into charity, and over- come the natural desire of life. It is a remarkable circumstance in the early history of the Christian faith that the reign of the wisest and most humane of the heathen emperors was the most fatal to it: Marcus " polluted every year of a long reign with innocent blood." But it must be observed that the position of Christianity with regard to Paganism was much altered. It had spread into every quarter of the empire, and an intimate bond of union was maintained between all the churches, while polytheism was becoming more philosophical under the teaching of a superior class of writers. Believers were found in every rank of society, and in all occupations ; slaves were admitted freely into the churches, and by that very act became manumitted. While view- ing the rapid progress of the new religion, the Roman people dreaded that the fall of the ancient worship would involve that of their power; and the Christians, by their interpretations of the apocalypse, appealed to justify such an opinion. The doctrine of the millennium, implying the visible throne of Christ, was still generally entertained ; and in the gloomy aspect of the times, the foreign and civil wars, inundations, earthquakes, famine, and pestilence, the affrighted citizens saw the anger of the avenging gods, to propitiate whom the Christians, their avowed enemies, once more became the victims. The principal of these were: — Polycarp of Smyrna, who had been the disciple of St. John, and was burnt alive at the age of 86; Justin Martyr, who was behead- ed ; and Pothinus of Lyons, who, on the verge of ninety years, died in prison from the ill usage he had received from the populace. One of the most distinguished of these sufferers was Blandina, a female slave, who, after undergoing the crudest tortures, was transfixed by a spear. From these and other judicial murders the martyrdom of Vienne has oecome a memorable epoch in the history of the Church. Read: Milman's History of Christianity, book ii. c. 7. THIRD CENTUEY A. D. 139 THIRD CENTURY. Rome. — 193, Septimius Severus. — 211, Caracalla. — 218, Heliogabalus. — 222, Alexander Severus. — 235, Maximin. — The Thirty Tyrants. — 273, Aurelian defeats Zenobia. — 2S4, Diocletian. — The Empire invaded by Goths, Franks, and Germans. Palmyra. — Odenathus and Zenobia. Persia. — 226, The Sassanides. — 260, Sapor captures Valerian. The Church. — Persecutions. Literature, &c. — Dion Cassius, Origen, Tertullian, Cyprian, Longinus. ROME. Septimius Severus, a. d. 193-211, who was a native of Africa, had risen steadily to the highest honours. In less than four years he van- quished his two competitors, Albinus and Niger, and defeated numerous armies, each of which was equal to his own. Although addicted to sraft and dissimulation, he did not neglect the interests of the people ; but. the calm of peace and prosperity was accompanied by an increased relaxation of military discipline. The prastorians were augmented four- fold, and relying upon the support of these devoted soldiers, Severus destroyed many of the senators and their families. Renewing the cruel- ties of Marius and Sylla, he put to death the wife and children of Albinus, — who had killed himself after an ineffectual struggle in Gaul, — and threw their bodies into the Tiber. He then immolated all who had embraced the party of his antagonist, confiscation of their property following in every case. Forty-one senatorial families, men, women, and children, fell by the hand of the executioner. The news of an irruption of the Caledonians into the British province hurried him again to the field, when a brief, yet not very successful campaign put an end to the war. He died at York, in the 65th year of his age, and the 18th of his reign, a. d. 211. Caracalla, a. d. 211-217, had attempted to shorten his father's life, and to excite a mutiny among the troops ; but the mercy shown to him by the emperor proved fatal to Rome. He commenced his reign by the murder of his brother and colleague Geta, who was slain in the arms of his mother. The stings of a guilty conscience urged him to acts of greater ferocity, and it is computed that 20,000 persons of both sexes perished because they were friends of that prince. Every province of the empire became the scene of his cruelty ; the two Gauls especially were ruined in order to pay his troops and purchase a cessation of hos- tilities from the barbarians on the frontiers. Many thousands were massacred at Alexandria, by the orders and under the eyes of this " savage beast of Ausonia." But he continued a favourite with the army, professing to make the great Alexander his model. At length a centurion of the body-guard* named Martialis stabbed him during an expedition against the Parthians, a. d. 217. * The captain of the praetorian guards became, from the time of Severus, one of the most important officers in the state. To his military command lie united the control of the finances and an extensive criminal jurisdiction. 140 ANCIENT HISTORY. The brief reign of Macrinus prepared the throne for Heliogabalus, a. d. 218-222. This youth, whose character was stained by every kind of vice, had been a priest in the Temple of the Sun at Emesa in Syria. He brought with him to Rome all the luxury and effeminacy of Eastern monarchs ; his wife had a place in the senate, and slaves and eunuchs became first ministers. His profligate conduct raised discontents even among a licentious soldiery; hence he perished in a sedition of the guards, and his body was thrown into the Tiber, a. d. 222. The cor- rupt lives of the emperors had already sunk the scale of morals to a low degree ; but luxury and licentiousness reached their height under this Syrian ruler. Alexander Severus, a. d. 222-235, was raised by the praetorians to the throne at the age of 17; and under his wise and moderate adminis- tration the Roman world enjoyed an auspicious calm of thirteen years. Too young himself to rule, he left the public cares to the skill of his mother Mammasa, and of sixteen ancient senators, among whom was the famous lawyer Ulpian, to whose presence in the council we may attribute the greater regularity in the executive, the abolition of many vexatious laws, and the more legal conduct of the government. But this milder sway came too late ; the attempt to enforce the laws, for three days filled Rome with civil strife, and devastated the city with fire. Alexander resisted the inroads of the Germans, who had been tempted by the decline of the empire ; but was not equally successful against the Persians. His efforts to revive the military discipline of the republic were fatal to his life. The epithet of Severus, added to his name by the army, shows that the soldiers were not masters of the empire, as they had been under the two preceding monarchs. He proved a feeble support to the declining city ; but the fierce barbarians of the North and East were more than a match for the Roman legion- aries ; in Persia his armies met only with partial success, and on the Rhine peace was procured by money rather than by the sword. In the meanwhile, the spread of a new religion was uprooting the foundations of polytheism and the state of society founded upon it. Maximin, a. d. 235-238, a Thracian peasant, distinguished for his uncommon strength and valour, was elected by the army to the throne, left vacant by the murder of his predecessor. His mind was as uncul- tivated as his body was gigantic, for he could scarcely pronounce a few unconnected Latin words, while his dark and sanguinary career was not unworthy of his birth. Confiscation, exile, and death, were considered lenient punishments against those who excited his suspicions or his fears. Some were beaten to death with clubs, others were sewed up in the skins of animals and exposed to wild beasts. Magnus, a senator and 4000 of his supposed accomplices, were put to death in one day The province of Africa having revolted, elected the two Gordians, and ,he choice was approved by the senate, who at the same time declared Maximin and his son to be public enemies. The emperor's lieutenants were successful over his rivals, and the senators were already anticipat- ing the execution of his horrible threat that he would slay them all and distribute their property among his soldiers, when they were relieved of their fears by his murder at the siege of Aquileia. The coalition of the opposing parties procured the elevation of an amiable youth, Gor- dian III., whose reign lasted six years, 238-244. He ascended the THIRD CENTURY A. D. 141 throne under favourable circumstances; beloved by all good men for his virtues; endeared to the senate by his illustrious birth, for he was the grandson of the elder Gordian, and to the army from his being their adopted child. Aided by the superior talents of his father-in-law Misi- theus, he carried on a successful war against Sapor. Philip, the Arabian freebooter, was proclaimed emperor by the army, and the title of Augustus was conferred on him by the senate. He favoured the Christians, and granted them permission to raise temples and exercise their worship in public. He celebrated the secular games, a. d. 248 (April 21), when Rome had attained its thousandth year. — Decius, after a reign of two years and a half, lost his life in battle against the Goths, 251. — Gallus, Hostilian, Volusian, and ^Emili- anus, were succeeded by Valerian at the age of sixty years, 253, who associated Gallienus with him in the government. Marching to repel the aggressions of the Persian monarch, he was vanquished and made prisoner, a. d. 260 ; after which he suffered every indignity, till life sunk under the weight of shame. — Gallienus, a. d. 260-268, the luxu- rious son of Valerian, passed his time in the most ridiculous trifling. Pretenders started up in every province ; hence this period is usually known as that of the Thirty Tyrants, although the names of nineteen only are recorded. Many of these shortlived monarchs were models of virtue, and possessed vigour and ability; but they were chiefly of obscure birth, and elevated on the field of battle. Not one died a natural death. The servile wars were renewed in Sicily; the streets of Alexandria were polluted with blood ; while famine and pestilence, which lasted fifteen years, 250-265, ravaged every section of the Roman empire. Gallienus fell in a nocturnal tumult before the walls of Milan, in which he was besieging Aureolus, the most formidable of his rivals ; and the dying wishes of the emperor raised Claudius, a. d. 268, to the throne. By the most signal victories he delivered Italy from the Goths ; yet the same pestilence which had thinned the ranks of the barbarians, also carried off their conqueror. His short but glorious reign lasted only two years. — Aurelian, a. d. 270-275, the son of a Pannonian peasant, originally an adventurer and common soldier, repelled the Gothic invaders, chastised the Germans who had entered Italy, recover- ed Gaul, Spain, and Britain, from the usurper Tetricus, and destroyed the monarchy which Queen Zenobia had erected in the East on the ruins of the empire, 273. He died by the hands of his officers — regret- ted by the army, detested by the senate, but universally acknowledged as a wise and fortunate prince. — Tacitus, a. d. 275, owed his elevation to a friendly contest which had arisen between the army and the senate for the choice of an emperor; and he was elected by the latter from their own number, at the age of 75. He drove the bands of the Alani out of Asia with great slaughter, but sunk under the fatigues of his office, a. d. 276. — Florian yielded to the better fortune of Probus, a. d. 276-282, who vanquished the Germans on the Rhine and the Danube, and restored peace and order to every province. To check the invasions of the barbarians, Probus built a stone wall nearly 200 miles in length, from the Danube to the Rhine ; recruited the Roman armies from the German nations; settled foreign colonies in various parts of the empire, and taught them the science of agriculture, tie perished in a mutiny of his troops. 142 ANCIENT HISTORY. With Maximin began the race of Barbarians who successively mounted the imperial throne : with Claudius II. commenced what has been called the mili- tary despotism. However glorious the reigns of this monarch and his succes- sor Aurelian, they were far from healing the wounds of the state. Though great warriors, and men whom the circumstances of Rome required, they did little more than delay the fall of the empire- In the period between the Anto- nines and Diocletian, it was divided into two great parts, which were almost distinct worlds, the civil and the military. The people, the immense majority of the population, have no share in the history of these times ; they paid their taxes, cultivated the soil, and passed their lives without troubling themselves about the occupations of the legions. So profound was this apathy, that not a single revolt took place among the numerous inhabitants of the capital. But in the army all was changed. The soldier-citizen of the republic was unknown ; the ancient discipline was lost; the modern warrior had no home but his camp, and no respect for any authority but that of his officers. As they defended the empire, they claimed the right of nominating its chiefs, and of deposing them at will. Each army insisted upon electing an emperor, whose authority was to be maintained by arms and civil strife. The successful competitor was acknowledged by the senate, and saluted with the usual adulations. With the frequent alterations necessarily resulting from this military despotism, the face of the country varied little ; and but for the excessive contributions raised in the provinces to support the troops, the internal condition of the empire would have been very flourishing. This state of affairs continued to the time of Dio- cletian, who introduced some modifications, and to the days of Constantine, who in his turn effected many great reforms. Diocletian, a. d. 284-30a, who succeeded the shortlived monarchs, Cams, Carinus, and Numerian, was born in an obscure town of Dal- matia. On his elevation to the purple, a remarkable change took place in the form of government. Finding that the extent of frontier was too great to be defended by one person against the repeated attacks of daring and enterprising enemies, he selected a colleague in the person of Maximian, to whom he committed the charge of the West, while he retained the East. These two bore the title of Augustus, and each appointed a lieutenant with the title of Caesar. The seat of government was removed from Rome, — Maximian residing at Milan, Diocletian at Nicomedia, — an arrangement which contributed greatly to the support of the empire. Carausius, who had made himself independent in Bri- tain, was defeated in 293 ; Gaul was delivered from the Germans ; and the Persians were compelled to cede five provinces beyond the Tigris. After a glorious reign of twenty-one years, Diocletian abdicated the throne, a. d. 305, and Maximian resigned at Milan on the same day. The abdication of monarchs has always been matter of embarrassment to historians ; and the fact of a prince voluntarily divesting himself of supreme power, without any apparent motive, is a phenomenon well worthy of exami- nation. Diocletian's relinquishment of the purple has been variously explain- ed ; some pretending that it was in fulfilment of an oath made with Maximian at his ascension ; others, that he was grieved at his unsuccessful struggle against Christianity ; others, that he feared the troubles which he saw impending ; and many, that he entertained a supreme contempt for all human grandeur. The last two motives influenced beyond a doubt his resolution ; but his fears, and the threats of Galerius his son-in-law, with his inability to resist him, were the principal causes. At the age of sixty years he retired into private life, and lived esteemed and happy at Salona. His latter days were saddened by the exile and persecution of his wife and daughter, and the ingratitude of those whom he had elevated. THIRD CENTURY A. D. 143 PALMYRA. Queen Zenobia was a Jewess by birth, the wife of Odenathus, prince of the Saracens of the Euphrates, who had raised himself to the dominion of the East, and by his victories over the Persian king avenged the injuries of the Romans and become their ally. On his death, hav- ing been cut off by domestic treason, his widow rilled the vacant throne, and governed Syria with great wisdom. Palmyra (lat. 34° 20' N., long. 38° 30' E.), her capital, the Tadmor of Solomon, was situated in an oasis in the midst of a vast desert of sand, on one of the great caravan routes to the Euphrates, and its magnificent ruins still ornament that portion of the wilderness. Zenobia began her reign by throwing off the protection of the senate and conquering Egypt. Aurelian marched against her, took Antioch, and in a terrible battle in its vicinity routed her mail-clad cavalry and skilful archers. After experiencing a second defeat near Emesa, she sought refuge in her capital, which was besieged by the emperor, and reduced after a long resistance, a. d. 273. Two years afterwards, the unfortunate queen was led in triumph through the streets of Rome. Covered with diamonds, she walked alone before her victor's car, a slave holding the chain of gold which had been placed on her neck. The name and fate of the critic Longinus both honour her reign and reproach her weakness, if it be true that she exposed him to the vengeance of Aurelian to save her own life. PERSIA. Sassanides, a. d. 226. — We have seen that Arsaces founded the Par- thian kingdom in the third century b. c, and that with him began the line of Arsacidan kings. His valour and genius gained the affections of his people; and his successes against the Romans often terrified the imperial city. The history of the several dynasties is obscure during 470 years, till we come to the reign of Artabanus, the last of the family just named, when this formidable power, which had spread from India to Syria, was subverted by Artaxerxes (Ardeschir Babegan). He founded the family of the Sassanides, so called from his father Sassan, which governed Persia till the Arab invasion in G32. Artaxerxes was a distinguished soldier, driven to rebellion by royal ingratitude : three times he defeated the Parthians, and their monarch perished in the last battle. In the plain of Ormuz he was saluted by the army with the lofty title of King of Kings. He restored the ancient religion of the Magi, or Fire Worshippers, founded by Zoroaster in the seventh cen- tury b. c, re-established the royal authority, and began a successful war against the Romans, a. d. 230. His reign of fourteen years forms a memorable era in the history of the East and of Rome. He was suc- ceeded by Sapor, a man of gigantic form, inured from infancy to war, and who preserved the strictest discipline in his army, while he encour- aged agriculture as a nursery for hardy soldiers. Eagerly desirous of founding a powerful monarchy, he attacked the Romans, and devastated both sides of the Euphrates, defeating the emperor Valerian, who had marched against him. He next overran Syria, Cilicia, and Cappadocia, but was compelled to retreat before Odenathus, prince of Palmyra, a. d. 261. 144 ANCIENT HISTORY. Chosroes, sovereign of Armenia, who had resisted in his native mountains with invincible courage during thirty years, fell at last by the intrigues of the Persian court. The Armenian satraps immediately implored the help of Rome in favour of his son, the young Tiridates; but the imperial city being distant, Sapor soon incorporated this state with his vast dominions. Tiridates escaped from the assassins employed by the conqueror to murder him and his father, and was brought up among the Romans. After his country had borne a foreign yoke twenty-six years, he was invested with the monarchy of Armenia by Diocletian. His appearance on the frontier was welcomed with rapture ; the nobles and people flew to his standard ; but the Persians still maintained their ascendency, and it was not till a. d. 297 that the success of the Roman arms was con- firmed by a treaty, which established him on the throne. BARBARIAN INVASIONS. During this century, the Northern Hive, as it was called, began to pour down its swarms upon the Roman empire. The Goths, a. d. 250, passed the Danube and invaded the Roman provinces during the reign of the Emperor Decius. This great nation was of Asiatic origin, — part of the Indo-Teutonic race which had spread irregularly towards the north of Europe. Their migration in that direc- tion took place before the period of authentic history ; and when they first attract our notice, they form part of the Suevian branch, settled along the southern and eastern shores of the Baltic. Their language forms the connecting link between the Sanscrit and the modern Teutonic dialects. Their religion, preserved in the sacred books of the Eddas, was barbarous and sanguinary. Odin, "the Mohammed of the North," was at once their supreme deity and legislator. The daring invasions of these people met with various success, but as yet had produced no lasting effect. The province of Gaul was invaded by the Franks or Freemen, a. d. 256, a confederation of many German tribes on the Rhine and the Weser.* The former river proved an imperfect barrier to their enter- prising spirit. At length they crossed the Pyrenees, and even in the fifth century the ruins of magnificent cities recorded their destructive hostilities. The Allemanni, a. d. 259, were formed at the Tencteri and Usipetre {IVestphali). They were well trained to fight on horseback, and from their renown became a centre around which gathered a multitude of German tribes. This united people are supposed to be included under the different names of Suevi, Marcomcmni, and Allemanni. Having invaded Gaul and Italy, they displayed their banners within sight of Rome ; but the vigour of the senate compelled them to retreat, though they returned to their own country laden with booty. THE CHURCH. So early as the end of the second century or the beginning of the third, the Christian faith had gradually spread to the middle and highe? ranks, — when broke out the * The tribes were these:—]. The Chauci ; 2. The Sicambri ; 3. The Attuari ; 4. Bruc teri : 5. The Chamavii ; fi. The Catti ; 7. The Salii and Oherusci. THIRD CENTURY A. D. 145 Fifth Persecution, a. d. 202. — The Emperor Severus was at first not unfavourable to the believers; but probably considering; them as much political enemies as religious schismatics, he published his sanguinary edicts against them, which forbade, in a particular manner, all assemblies, public or private. While thus occupied, he celebrated the secular games, which, like most other pagan festivals, were followed by violent explosions of fury against the Christians. In Alexandria especially the persecution raged ; almost all the clergy in that city being massacred or compelled to flee. Origen, as yet quite young, was alone charged with the continuance of the sacred functions ; nor was his office without trouble and danger, since he was more than once on the point of receiving the crown of martyrdom. At Carthage, Rome, and Lyons, the faithful were severely afflicted ; though it should be observed that the traces of this persecution in the West are not distinct. Sixth Persecution, a. d. 235. — The church enjoyed a period of repose twenty-four years, but the accession of the brutal Maximin was the signal for new trials. A promiscuous massacre of the Christians, including every rank and both sexes, lasted during the whole of his reign. Seventh Persecution, a.d. 250. — The most formidable enemies of the Church were the heretics, who in the second and third centuries were very numerous. The Marcionites, the Manicheans, and the Arians, raised those important questions which long divided the Christian world, and are in some respects perpetuated to our times. Philip, the Arabian, among some writers passed for a convert, but his successor Decius, alarmed by the miseries of the empire and his own precarious station, thought that the gods would strengthen his crown if he restored to their deserted altars the honours which had surrounded them in more prosperous days. For this purpose he began a bloody persecution, which extended over the whole empire. Christianity had already gained such strength, and its partisans were so numerous, that the struggle between it and paganism assumed almost the appearance of a civil war. The old creed had still on its side the majority of the population, the army, and the public authorities ; but although many Christians apostatized, others were not wanting to seal their testimony with their blood, and fortify by theii courage the trembling hearts of their brethren. Carthage and Alexandria, in particular, were the scene of much suffering ; but Origen escaped, and, in the midst of cruel tor- tures prolonged during several days, gloried in the pains which proved his sincerity. Eighth Persecution, a. d. 258. — Valerian's persecution was brief, for he had begun his reign by acts of clemency, and when holding the office of censor, expressed his opinion that Christianity exercised a favourable influence on public morals. His changed conduct must be attributed to the sorcerer Macrianus, who had a complete mastery over his mind. The first edict left the community in peace, but subjected all nonconforming bishops to the penalty of death, as also the confiscation of their churches and endowments. Among the victims were St. Law- rence, St. Stephen, and St. Cyprian of Carthage. Ninth Persecution, a. d. 272. — Aurelian was arrested in his career — while in the act of signing an edict against the Christians — by the falling of a thunderbolt at his feet. But the end of his reign witnessed 13 146 ANCIENT HISTORY. many severities against the new sect in consequence of hi3 orders, and St. Denis of France was put to death. Tenth Persecution, or the Era of Martyrs, a. d. 285. — A final and vigorous effort was made to crush the new religion by Diocletian, whose wife and daughter are said to have been converted. The first edict against the Christians was published 24th February 303. By it the churches were ordered to be demolished, and the sacred books to be delivered up, under pain of death, and publicly burnt. All assemblies for religious worship were prohibited, the property of the church was confiscated, and its members were put beyond the protection of the law. In subsequent edicts he declared his intention of abolishing the name of Christian ; but he contributed only to its further propagation. The Caesar Galerius was the instigator of these cruel measures, which were much increased by an accidental fire that broke out in the palace at Nicomedia. Galerius, the most implacable enemy of Christianity, having been raised to the throne of the East in consequence of the abdication of Diocletian, the persecution was continued with unmitigated severity. But the fervent spirit of religion was far from yielding to this violent shock. The believers still assembled regularly in private meet- ings ; and though they were deprived of the most eminent of their body, their numbers preserved them from extermination. In the seventh year of his reign, Galerius was smitten with a loathsome disease, the lower region of his body being consumed by a fetid ulcer, or in the language of scripture, "he was eaten of worms," like Herod the Great, and, in later times, Philip II. of Spain. Physicians, oracles, and even the god of medicine himself, were applied to in vain; no remedy could diminish the virulence of a malady which had already reached the vitals. Ha- rassed by the recollection of the tortures he had inflicted, he thought to allay the anguish of his body by recalling the edicts against Christianity, and by allowing the free and public exercise of its ceremonies ; but the hand of death was upon him, and in a few days he expired, 311. The heathens themselves, it is said, were astonished at this signal interposi- tion of the Almighty in favour of his worshippers. In the dominions of Maximin the persecution was still continued, nor did it stop until shortly before his decease, when his people had been diminished by famine and pestilence, and his power was threatened by Constantine. In the death of this monarch also the Christians of that age beheld the finger of God, for he expired in the most excruciating torments, his body being con- sumed by an internal fire, 313. It is impossible to calculate the number of victims who perished in this persecution : a whole legion, consisting of six thousand men, are said to have suffered in the valleys of the Alps. Diocletian's fiery sword Work'd busy as the lightning : then was Allan tried, England's first martyr. A multitude of the believers, who took refuge among the German tribes, were received with kindness ; and the Goths were said to have been indebted to a young female captive for their first knowledge of the gospel. Read: Milman's History of Christianity, book ii. c. 9. FOURTH CENTURY A. D. 147 FOURTH CENTURY. Rome. — 306, Constantine. — 330, Constantinople. — 361, Julian. — 364, Division of the Empire between Valens and Valentinian. — 378, Battle of Adrianople. — 379, Theodosius the Great. — 391, Eugenius, Emperor. The Church. — Establishment of Christianity. — 318, Arian Heresy. — 325, Ni- cene Council. — 390, Theodosius prohibits Paganism. Inventions. — 385, Saddles. — 398, Aerometers by Hypatia. — 400, Gothic Architecture (?). Literature, &c. — Eusebius, Chrysostom, — L. Lactantius, Augustin, — Claudian. ROME. Constantine, a. d. 306. — After the abdication of Diocletian, Con- stant us and Galerius ascended the vacated thrones; the former govern- ing, under his new title of emperor, the provinces of Gaul, Spain, and Britain; the latter retaining those of the East. Two new Caesars were •appointed, Maximin and Severus ; and according to the arrangement of Diocletian, the latter should have recognised the authority of the Em- peror of the West. But he was entirely devoted to Galerius, who, reserving for himself the countries lying between Italy and Syria, exerted an equal influence over him and Maxirriin, and by their means became master of nearly three-fourths of the empire. Constantine, the son of Constantius, w r as a Dacian by birth, and had attained eighteen years when his father was nominated Caesar. He did not immediately profit by this elevation, but followed Diocletian and signalized himself in the Egyptain wars, in which, besides rising to the station of tribune of the first order, he so far enjoyed the good will of the army as to excite the jealousy of Galerius. Proceeding to Britain, he rejoined his father, on whose death at York, in 306, he was pro- claimed Augustus by the soldiers, which title however was not confirmed by the emperor, but that of Caesar substituted, with full authority over all the transalpine provinces. Shortly after the elevation of Constantine, an insurrection broke out in Rome on the imposition of additional taxes; when, encouraged by the connivance of the senate and the weakness of the civic guards, the populace elected Maxentius, the son of Maximian, in place of the absent Galerius, almost without opposition. This change drew the father from his retreat to aid Maxentius, by his counsels, and thereby to strengthen his party. Severus, w T ho wished to assert the authority of Galerius, was besieged in Ravenna, and soon afterwards suffered death ; and the latter was forthwith compelled to retire from Italy, which he had unsuccessfully invaded. Licinius was now elevated to the rank of Augustus, with the government of Illyria, while Maximin, envious of those new honours, assumed the same dignity in Africa, when was seen the strange circumstance of six emperors presiding at once over the Roman world.* Maximian was the first to lose the title, his son being unwilling to see the exercise of power controlled by his father. Galerius passed his time in useful improvements throughout his * Maximian, Maxentius, Maximin, Licinius, Galerius, and Constantine. 1 48 AHCIEWT IIISTOHY. dominions, having wisely abandoned the design of uniting the empire in his own hands; but scarcely had he expired when the two emperors, whom he had invested with the purple, shared his territory; the pro- vinces of Asia falling: to Maximin, and those of Europe augmenting the government of Lieihius. Maxentius, who had been raised to the purple by the zeal of the senate and people, soon forgot how he had obtained wn, and conducted himself even in Rome, in a tyrannical r. His cruelty was especially manifested after the fall of the usurper, Alexander, who, having revolted in Africa, was speedily van- quished. That province was mercilessly ravaged, in punishment for the insurrection, and at home the emperor's exactions and unjust con- demnations were greatly multiplied. Constantine freed Italy from this despot, whom he defeated at the gates of the capital, and who was drowned in the Tiber as he fled from the field of battle, 312.* The conqueror entered Rome amid the acclamations of the people and senate, who assigned him by decree the first place among the Jiugmti. Some time after, Licinius, his ally, added new provinces to those he already possessed. Having been attacked by Maximin during the winter of 313, the promptitude and superior skill of Licinius gave him the advantage ; and his enemy, who was defeated, gained more cele- brity by the swiftness of his flight than by his courage in the field. Twenty-four hours after his discomfiture, Maximin was seen pale and trembling, and stripped of his imperial ornaments, at Nicomedia, about one hundred and fifty miles from the scene of his ruin. Licinius did not imitate Constantine in the use he made of his victory, but stained it by putting to death men, women, and children, partisans cf the van- quished prince. The Roman people now had but two masters ; yet from the disposition of each it was not possible that there could be any rest until one should be destroyed. Constantine was young, active, and ambitious, and would not have waited for an opportunity to begin the war, even had not the other afforded one by engaging in a conspiracy against him. Two battles lost at Cibalae and Mardia compelled Licinius to yield five provinces, and to be satisfied with Thrace and the East, allowing Illyria to pass over to the victor, 314. Nine years after, he was entirely deprived of his power and banished to Thessalonica, where he was put to death ; and his rival who had publicly embraced Christianity ten years before, became sole master of the empire, 323. After his victory, the successful monarch had to contend against the Goths and Sarmatians, the former of whom were bound to furnish a body of 40,000 auxiliaries. But one of the most important results of this reign was the foundation of a new capital. A Christian court might seem to be misplaced in Pagan Rome, besides which the necessity of strengthening the frontiers against the Goths and Persians, while it made some change necessary, seemed to indicate the position of Con- stantinople. The latter part of the life of Constantine was unhappy : his son Crispus was put to death on the accusation of his step-mother Fausta, who was herself not long after convicted of adultery and suffocated in a * While Constantine was marching to Rome, previous to the decisive battle just mentioned, a cross is said to have appeared in the heavens at noon-day, on which was the inscription, In hoc signo vinees. In commemoration of this event, the cross or labarum became the sacred standard of the army. FOURTH CENTURY A. D. 149 bath. Two years before his demise the monarch divided the empire among his three sons, Constantine II., Constantius, and Constans. His two nephews Dalmatius and Annibalianus, received, the former the rank of Csesar, the latter a great part of Asia Minor, with the title of king-. A short time afterwards, Sapor II., king of Persia, sent to demand of the emperor the provinces which Narses had ceded to Dio- cletian. The Roman sovereign replied that he would bear his own answer, and vvns in the midst of his preparations for war when he fell ill at Nicomedia, and died after receiving baptism by the hands of the Arian bishop Eusebius, 337. FAMILY OF CONSTANTINE. Constantius I., Chlorus, f 3UC. m. 1. Helena. 2. Theodora. Constantine I. the Great, Constantia. Jul. Constantius. Annibalianus. t 337, m. 1. Minervina. 2. Fausta. Val. Licinius, \\ \\ Dalmatius, Anniba- Galla. Basilina. Caesar, lianus. 1 2 , ^ , | | f339. |338. Crispus, Constantine, II., Fl. Val. Lici- Gallus, Julian, t 326. f 340. nius, | 326. f 354. t 363. Constantius II., tail. Constans, f 350. Imperial Administration. Constantine was the founder of a new order of things, which Diocletian had endeavoured, although imperfectly, to establish before him : for the previous military despotism he substituted that of the court and of a numerous hierarchy. Henceforward all ambition found a place around the sovereign ; and the gene- rals no longer saw an open path by which any of them might advance to the imperial title. The former state of things, which had given rise to so many re- volts, was altered : step by step each of the commanders might rise to the foot of the throne, but the power of an hereditary principle checked his farther progress. Besides the court, there was a sacred body of men everywhere present, guiding and influencing all minds. Since the year 313, Constantine had embraced the true faith ; but as the church had long previously possessed its hierarchy, he did little more than consecrate and sanction its organization. In the regulation of the court the plan of Diocletian was closely followed. The sovereign was no longer visible to his subjects, and access to him was allowed only after a troublesome ceremonial. Below the seven domestics of the court, or rather the great officers of the state, were four classes of nobility, all exempt from the various taxes, except that imposed on land, which was paid by every one, even the emperor. Under the superior generals of the army were the counts and dukes ; the legions were reduced from G0OO to 1500 men, and the whole army was classed in three divisions, — household troops, garri- sons for the wealthy cities of the empire, and frontier guards, all of whom were more or less exempted from taxation. But these soldiers were now entirely mercenary ; a law of Diocletian expressly forbidding the enlistment of any man possessed of twenty-five acres of land. Finances. — The taxes payable by Roman citizens were — a poll-tax, a property-tax or census, customs or duties on merchandise imported or exported, varying from one-eighth to one-fortieth ad-valorem, tithes on the farming of the public lands, a legacy-tax, and one-twentieth on all manumissions. The public revenues of the empire have been calculated at nearly forty millions of our money. This amount varied little till the time of Constantine. or rather Dio- cletian, who substituted a simple and direct tax, called the Indiction, in the stead of all preceding contributions.* All the lands of the state, including the * Tnis annual tax, if not Introduced, was at least entirely regulated under Constan- tino, and assessed according to a register of all the landed estates. As this register was 13* 150 ANCIENT HISTORY. patrimony of the emperor, were subjected to this impost, and the least prevari cation in the account given in by each proprietor was punishable by death. The death of the emperor was the signal for internal disturbances, which were settled for a time by the division of his dominions among the three princes. Constantine, the eldest, obtained Gaul, Spain, and Britain; Constantius ruled over Thrace and the East; and Constans was the sovereign of Italy and Africa. Constantius, 337, was soon called to the Persian war, where he soon found himself unable to resist the skill and valour of Sapor. It is true he succeeded in restoring Chosroes, son of Tiridates to his paternal throne, but this effeminate prince consented, as the price of peace, to pay a heavy tribute, and re- store the excluded province of Atropatene. Scarcely three years had elapsed after the. partition of the empire, before Constantine became dissatisfied with his share, and crossed the Alps to attack Constans, by whom he was defeated and killed : his possessions were added to those of his conqueror who himself ten years afterwards met with a violent death at the hands of some of the troops of Magnentius. After the demise of his two brothers, Constantius was involved, by the revolutions of the West, in a civil contest with the usurper just named, in w r hich he was ultimately successful, and became sole emperor, 353. The two nephews of Constantine, Gallus and Julian, who, at the death of their uncle, had escaped from the ruin of their family, were long confined in prison, till the emergencies of the state invested the former with the title of Caesar, 351. His cruelty and imprudence, together with his mean submission to his blood-thirsty wife Constantina, were the cause of his disgrace and untimely end, 354. Julian now alone survived, and was passing his hours in studious retirement at Athens, when he was unwillingly de- clared Caesar, 355, and appointed to the provinces of Gaul. His retired and scholastic education had not disqualified him for more active pur- suits. He defeated the Gauls and Franks ; made three expeditions beyond the Rhine; and while his victories suspended the inroads of the barbarians, his civil administration alleviated the distresses of the people. Meantime Constantius was feebly making head against the irruptions of Sapor ; and to quiet the seditious comparisons between himself and the Caesar, he ordered into the East four legions of the army of Gaul; but his commands were disobeyed, and the discontented soldiers proclaimed Julian emperor. No time was to be lost, and the new monarch, by a hasty march, with a small army of veteran soldiers, took possession of the capital a month after the death of Constantius, 361. Julian, surnamed the Apostate from having abandoned the Christian religion in which he was educated, had embraced the mythology of paganism, as subtilized by the New Platonic school ; but while he wrote against Christianity, and endeavoured to establish a reformed polytheism in place of the gospels, it would be unjust to deny his tolerant principles. In the year 3G2, desirous of proving the fallacy of the prophecies, he determined to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem; but "horrible balls of fire breaking out near the foundations, rendered the place inaccessible to the scorched and blasted workmen." His chief reviewed every fifteen years, it save rise to the Cycle oT Imlictions, which became the common era, beginning with the first September, a. d. 313. — To find the Indiction, adV 3 to the given year, because Christ was born in the year answering to the fourth q( this cycle, and divide the sum by 15; the remainder will be the year of the Indiction. FOURTH CENTURY A. D. 151 political cares were the punishment of informers, who had been the scourge of the previous reign, and reforming the abuses of the court, in which were to be seen thousands of the most useless menials. He was thus enabled at once to reduce the taxes by one-fifth, and to indulge in greater magnificence in the state ceremonials. Superstitious to excess, he sacrificed on every occasion, and performed with scrupulous anxiety the functions of sovereign pontiff. He had been scarcely six months at Constantinople before he set out on his Persian expedition, in which he was at first successful ; but, allowing himself to be misled by a deserter, he was surrounded by the army of Sapor, and fell mortally wounded, in the thirty-second year of his age, 363. With the accession of Julian paganism was restored throughout the whole extent of the Roman empire. He had been blinded by the prejudices of a mind too much preoccupied to perceive the luminous point to which the world was verging ; he erred, and to be mistaken in such a manner, when the destinies of a kingdom depend upon the decision of its ruler, is the greatest of misfor- tunes. During a reign of eighteen months, part of which was taken up with his expedition against the Persians, he could not effect all the good or evil that has been attributed to him. He does not appear to have violently opposed Christianity, but, on the contrary, to have allowed its followers full liberty of assembling, and to have permitted entire freedom of conscience. The gravest infraction of religious tolerance that, can be attributed to this emperor is the law of 362, forbidding Christians to teach the faculties of rhetoric and belles- lettres.* Jovian, a. d. 363, a fervent Christian, succeeded Julian, and by ac- cepting the conditions offered by Sapor, was allowed to withdraw the Roman army. All the conquests of Diocletian were restored, and Ar- menia w T as to be entirely abandoned. Eight months after, the new ruler was carried off by disease, and the army then assembled at Nicaea chose, as his successor, Valentinian, who selected Valens for his colleague, and the empire was divided between them. The latter governed the East, from the Danube to the Persian frontiers; the former reserving to himself the rest of the empire, from the extremity of Greece westward to the ocean. EASTERN EMPIRE. Valens, a. d. 364. — The government of this prince was disturbed by the insurrection of Procopius, 365, though the next year witnessed the defeat and death of the rebel. The emperor now began a violent perse- cution of the orthodox Christians, and the martyrdom of the venerable Athanasius was one of his first acts. But Valens did not neglect the commercial interests of his subjects, and in the first year of his reign he reduced the taxes one-fourth. The Persian contest still continued ; Sapor invaded Armenia, and the city of Artageras was taken after a siege of fourteen months, and a loss of nearly 17,000 lives by famine, 369. The conclusion of the Gothic war allowed the eastern emperor to spend several years at Aniioch, disturbed only by religious dissensions. But in 375, Bishop Ulphilas, with other ambassadors from the Goths, solicited his assistance against the Huns, — an oriental people, Calmucks or Mongols, closely allied to the Finnish stock. * Abridged from the " Histoire de la Destruction du Paganiame," by Mr. Arthur Beug- not, which contains a luminous criticism of the character of Julian, enhanced by a vigorous style and extensive learning. 152 ANCIENT HISTORY. Battle of Adrianople, a. d. 378. — The Goths, to the number of nearly a million, were transported across the Danube, and settled on the southern bank of that river. Roman avarice and treachery drove them to revolt ; but they were kept in check by the lieutenants of Valens, and their forces wasted by famine. The emperor hastened in person from the East, and on the 9th August 378, attacked the invaders near Adria- nople, where he suffered a terrible defeat, losing- two-thirds of an army of 300,000 men. He fled wounded from the field, and took refuge in a peasant's hut, to which the victors set fire, not knowing that the monarch lay concealed within. The inexperience of the Goths prevented them from taking advantage of their triumph otherwise than by ravaging Thrace, and carrying their predatory expeditions to the walls of Con- stantinople. When Gratian, the Western Emperor, received the news of these events, he called Theodosius from his estate in Spain, to which he had retired on the death of his father, and raised him to the Eastern throne, as being the only man capable of bearing the heavy weight of power, 379. Nor were the general expectations disappointed, for, by his pru- dence, he delivered the Roman provinces from the Goths, and taking advantage of their dissensions, compelled them to capitulate, 382, so that, until his death, the empire did not lose a single province. His reign was not less devoted to religion than to politics ; for, while he crushed the barbarians, he endeavoured also to eradicate the Arian heresy, even at the price of blood. During the civil wars of the West, he made two campaigns in Italy, where his success was equal to the justice of his cause. After the defeat and death of the usurper Eugenius, he became sole emperor of the world, a title which he enjoyed only a few months, as he died at Milan in 395. He was the last who ruled over the whole Roman empire, which, torn and distracted as it was, his two sons divided between them. Arcadias, as emperor of the East, reigned at Constantinople ; and Honorius in the West preferred Ravenna to the ancient capital of the empire. By the moderation which characterized the victories of Theodosius, by the wisdom of his laws, and the success of his arms, he justly merited the title of Great. Friends and enemies, Pagans and Christians, have alike given their testimony to his talents and virtues. He preserved on the throne the simple manners of his early life, and the splendour of the diadem never made him forget that he was a father, husband, and friend. His good qualities were, how- ever, tarnished by his momentary impetuosity and his occasional cruelty when under the influence of excited passion, as in those melancholy instances when the inhabitants of Antioch and of Thessalonica rose in revolt against him. WESTERN EMPIRE. Valentinian, a. d. 364, preserved a strict impartiality and toleration during this age of religious contention, his mind being occupied by other subjects. The Alemanni invaded and ravaged Gaul, but the brave Jovinus, after a severe conflict, drove them across the Rhine, 366. In Britain the inroads of the Scots and Picts were repeatedly checked by the vigorous exertions of Theodosius, father of the emperor of that name. The same brave general afterwards recovered Africa, which had joined the rebellious standard of Firmus the Moor, 373. The Goths, despising the two obscure princes who were raised to the throne, passed thf FOURTH CENTURY A. D. 153 Danube, to the number of 30,000 men ; but after a sanguinary war of three years, they were glad to accept peace. The Quadi followed, with still worse success; and it was while receiving their ambassadors that Valentinian broke into a furious passion which caused his death, 375. Gratian ascended the throne on the death of his father. His first exploit in arms was the defeat of the Alemanni who had crossed the Rhine, in 378. Unable to resist alone the tempest of barbarians who threatened to burst over the provinces, he invested Theodosius with the empire of the East, 379. The preference he manifested for his Scythian body-guard naturally excited the discontent of the Roman troops. Maximus, who commanded in Britain, availed himself of these mur- murs to assume the purple, and Gratian perished by the hand of an assassin, 383. Not satisfied with possessing the provinces westward of the Alps, the usurper invaded Italy, which was governed by Valen- tinian II., a brother of the late monarch. Theodosius supported the Italian prince, and Maximus was defeated and killed at Aquileia, 388 ; but, notwithstanding, Valentinian perished by the hand of the Frank Arbogastes, before he had completed his twentieth year, 392. The rhe- torician Eugenius, secretary of the barbarian general, was raised to the vacant throne, and for two years Theodosius durst not attack him, defended as he was by the skill of his master and the numerous Franks he had collected around him. The battle which, in 394, put an end to the reign and life of Eugenius, was fought by foreigners alone : the troops of Theodosius being Goths, under the command of their native chiefs, and their antagonists Franks and Allemanni. The history of the Western Empire now rapidly approaches its close. The luxury which pervaded the cities, and the relaxation of military discipline prepared its fall. Ministers, soldiers, and generals were chosen from the bar- barous tributaries of Rome ; and the incorporation of the Goths and other tribes was a fatal injury to the internal government of the state. The court was given up to idle pomp and ceremony ; women and eunuchs directed the affairs of the world ; corruption, injustice, and oppression, famine and pestilence, completed the gloomy picture. BARBARIC MIGRATIONS. The fourth century was marked by an incident of great importance,- the appearance of the Huns in Europe; an event which led to the grea migrations that followed, and finally brought on the destruction of tl e Roman Empire in the West. The name of German comprehends all those tribes which, from the time of Julius Ceesar, were established between 56° N. latitude and the Danube, and between the Rhine and the Vistula. One of these nations, the Goths, being driven from the mouths of the latter river by others who dwelt farther to the east, sought refuge on the frontiers of Dacia, where Caracalla found them in 213. Aurelian permitted them to settle along the Euxine Sea, when they became divided into Eastern or Ostro- goths — from the Don to the Dniester, and Western or Visigoths — from the Dniester to the Danube. About the year 374 the barbarous horde of the Hiong-?m, or Huns, appeared on the eastern bank of the Don. They were a nomad people who wandered over the mountains and pas- ture-grounds of Upper Asia, particularly in the countries lying between Liberia and India. The first historical notice of them is found in 154 ANCIENT HISTORY. Chinese documents of the age of Domitian. Their khan or tanjou, Tehun Goei, had founded a powerful empire beyond the northern edge of the desert of Kobi, by whose successors the Manchoos or Eastern Tartars were subdued. The Chinese, who vainly opposed their great wall to check these incursions, were reduced by the Tanjous ; but for- tune changing, the Emperor Vou-ti expelled them from his country, and the Manchoos alsu threw off their yoke. A prey to dreadful famine and intestine wars, the Huns abandoned the steppes of Tartary, and in two great bodies inarched to the westward. The w T hite Huns, or Neptha- lites, settled in Transoxiana, whence they annoyed the Persians ; while the other tribes to the north of the Caucasus, and between the Volga and the Don, encountered the Alani, a people almost as savage as them- selves. These they carried along with them in their course, and the two hordes, now confounded in one, arrived on the borders of the Ostro- goths. They did not force the vanquished inhabitants to quit their lands, but compelled them to supply a certain number of guides to lead them to the attack of the Visigoths. These latter tribes, at the approach of this terrible scourge, fled in multitudes towards the Danube, and sup- plicated Valens, 376, to receive and protect them on the right bank; promising that when they were once sheltered by this barrier, they would consecrate their services to the defence of the empire. How the declarations of this million of suppliants were kept, the reader will find detailed elsewhere. THE CHURCH. The Christian religion, although severely persecuted, resembled the herb that flourishes best when most trodden upon. The blood of the martyrs was the seed of the Church, and hence converts rapidly spread over the empire, and to the remotest parts of the world. Heresy and schism, no doubt, arose simultaneously with the propagation of the Gospel ; nevertheless, within three centuries, Paganism was entirely abolished. But the Arian controversy threatened more serious danger than external persecution; the believers were for a long period dis- united, and the bond of evangelical brotherhood was broken. With the death of Constantine began the two principal innovations which still divide the Catholic (or Universal) Church, and which have proved the source of all the corruptions that have degraded Christianity : by the one the doctrine was contaminated, and by the other the government of the independent Episcopal churches was destroyed. It ought to be remembered that every church was a society complete in itself, govern- ed in all its branches by one episcopal head, who was liable to be deposed if he violated the faith, — even the patriarchs of the three royal cities, Antioch, Rome, and Alexandria, with those of Constantinople and Jerusalem, scarcely forming an exception to the general rule. Cer- tain large ecclesiastical provinces, such as Persia, Armenia, and Abys- sinia, which lay beyond the limits of the empire, had also their patri- archs or catholics. Lastly, there were in it a few provinces united with a metropolitan, who took the name of archbishop, as Canterbury in England, Vienne in Gaul, Seville in Spain, and Milan in Italy. As to the bishops or overseers (episcopi), their establishment dates from the FOURTH CENTURY A. D. 155 first ages of Christianity : elected by the people and clergy of their diocese, their spiritual authority was equal to that of the metropolitans and patriarchs, on whom, from the exigencies of the + imes, the church had conferred certain exterior privileges. Below the bishops were the elders (presbyters or priests), charged by them with the exercise of a spiritual authority over those members of their diocese whom they them- selves could not reach. The deacons or servants were destined to per- form the humbler functions of the ministry. The equality of this spiritual republic was, nevertheless, modified by its discipline ; for the priest was inferior to the bishop, and both to the provincial council in which the metropolitan presided. The errors of Arius, 318, convulsed the church during three centuries. Rejecting the plain declaration of the Bible and the evidence of an- tiquity, he taught that Jesus Christ was essentially distinct from the Father, and only the first and noblest of created beings. These here- tical tenets led to the summoning of the general councils of the bishops and doctors of the church, — at Nice, 325; Constantinople, 381; Ephesus, 431 ; Chalcedon, 451, — by which the opinions of the primi- tive Christians were confirmed on the subject of the person of Christ, of the Trinity, the Incarnation, and the Atonement.* But the savage inroads of the barbarians, the extinction of learning, and an almost universal mental abasement, prepared the way for the establishment of Popery and Mohammedanism — the rival enemies of pure religion in the West and East. The church of Rome began early to assume authority over the others, as well from the number and wealth of its converts as from its position in the capital city. Many circumstances, especially the Athanasian controversy and its results, concurred to augment the influence of its bishop, although his usurpation and ambition were for a time vigorously repelled. Irenseus of France, in 195, reproved the presumption of Victor of Rome, who had excommunicated the Asiatic churches which did not observe Easter after his fashion. The Romish mandates were peremptorily rejected by the African church, 250; and Spain a few years afterwards refused to submit to the pontiff. The transference of the seat of power to Constantinople increased the authority of the western church, by conferring the chief magistracy on the bishop. To this must be added the sanction given by Gratian and Valentinian to the custom of appeals to Rome, the frequent pilgrimages to the tombs of St. Peter, j St. Paul, and other martyrs. * The Council of Constantinople was convoked by Theodosius the Great, and the patriarchs of Alexandria and Constantinople presided in succession. St. Gregory of Nazianznm was among the number. The symbol of the mass, afterwards received by the whole Romish church, was here proposed. The Council of Ephesus was convoked by Theodosius the younger. St. Cyril of Alexandria presided ; the Nestorians and Pelagians were condemned. The Council of Chalcedon was convoked by the Emperor Marcian. One of the canons then enacted, by which Constantinople ought, to enjoy the same advantages as Rome in the ecclesiastical order, was the germ of schism which afterwards separated the Greek from the Western church. f The most magnificent temple in the world was raised over the traditionary tomb of St. Peter ; but whatever may be the decisions of the critics as to his visit to Rome and martyrdom in that city, there can be no reasonable doubt that neither he nor St. Pau) waa the founder of the Christian church in that metropolis. 156 ANCIENT HISTORY. GENERAL TABLE OF COUNCILS. > Council. When. Where. By whom Summoned. President. Why? Results. 1 325 Nice. Constantine. Osius. To settle the Arian disputes. Nicene Creed ; re- cognition of con- substantiality of the Son of God with God the Father. i The teacher should furnish the pupil with the particulars from Milner, Mosheim, or any more authentic source. Remarks on the Establishment of Christianity by Constantine. It is uncertain whether faith or patriotic philanthropy induced the Roman emperor to distribute the ministers of Christ over his dominions, and to assign .hem a territorial revenue. Contemporaneously with this establishment was the progress of a great and general corruption which had arisen from other causes two centuries before. Superstition and ignorance had invested the ecclesiastics with a power which they exerted to their own aggrandizement, supplanting the authority of Scripture by a discipline and doctrine which blind- ed the souls of men. In this alone — which the establishment should have restrained and corrected — originated the despotism of priests, and by it they were enabled to rule at will over the consciences of their deluded votaries. In consequence of the new arrangement, the religion of Christ spread from the cities and .towns over all the rural districts, and the Pagans (i. e. villagers, in a literal sense) were brought into the Christian fold. An unfailing succession of ministers was thus secured ; a refuge during the dark and stormy ages, already impending over the empire, was prepared ; virtue found a safe retreat ; and learning was sheltered till brighter days arose. The religion of the Gospel could never have perished ; but the sufferings consequent upon the barbarian invasions would have been increased tenfold, and all literature and science would have disappeared in the wreck of the governments. Heresies. — The great heresies in the early Christian church may be traced to three sources : — 1. Pagan Philosophy; 2. Opinions as to the Nature of Christ; and, 3. Doctrines in regard to the Human Will and Original Sin. I. Philosophy. — The Gnostics rejected the law of Moses, with some parts of the New Testament, and regarded Christ as an intermediate being between God and man, an emanation from the Pleroma, or fulness of the Godhead, sent into the world to deliver the human being from the empire of the genii, and to withdraw souls from the malignant influence of matter. Some abstained from marriage, and by fasting and maceration endeavoured to free the soul from the fleshly prison to which it was confined ; others of the Gnostics indulged in every kind of vice, as they attached no idea of good or evil to any of the different modifications of matter. The Manichees derive their name and creed from the Persian Mani, whose belief was a mixture of Christianity and Sabaism, founded on the oriental tra- dition of two principles of Good and Evil. He rejected the Old Testament, and published a gospel of his own, meant by him to complete the imperfect revelation of Jesus. He identified the God of the Old Testament with the evil spirit; rejected all religious ceremonials; and taught the doctrine of the me- tempsychosis, with the triple division of human souls. He was put to death by order of Varanes I., after a dispute with the Magians, and his skin, stuffed with straw, was placed over the gate of the city of Shahpoor, 275. His doctrines spread even to Spain ; they were adopted by Priscilian, bishop of Abyla, who suffered as a heretic — the first victim — at Treves, 385. FOURTH CENTURY A. D. 157 Carpocrates founded the sect which bears his name. He taught the pre- existence of the soul, and that everything was a matter of indifference, except faith and charity. By this he appears to inculcate the contempt of all laws, and that, as our passions were given us by God, we should satisfy .hem at all risks. He added to this licentious doctrine the principle, that excess in debauchery is a more certain, speedy, and, at the same time, a more agreeable method of destroying the burdensome body than the practice of self-mortificatii a. His creed was partly Gnostic. Nicolas, deacon of Jerusalem, chief of the Nicolaitans, formed a sect which, by an unlimited extension of the community of goods, degraded men to brutes, and sapped the foundations of society. A physician, Monlanus, desirous of perfecting the moral precepts of Christ, proscribed all pleasures, dress, the arts, and philosophy. Rigorous fasts were enjoined : marriage was tolerated as a necessary evil, but second nuptials were considered an inexpicable sin ; and all religion was resolved into an inward emotion. The eloquent Tertullian was one of his proselytes. His followers were called Montanists. — The Valesians and Origenists went to still greater excesses. II. Opinions as to the Nature of Christ. — The Macedonians, Sabel- lians. and Monarchists preceded Arius, who denied the proper divinity of the Saviour. This heresy was first taught at Alexandria, in a spirit of opposition to the patriarch ; it gradually divided the church, and was formally condemned by the Council of Mice, 325. The Nestorians imagined a useless and dangerous distinction between the human and divine nature of Christ. They were condemned by the Council of Ephesus, 431. — The Eutychians, called also Jacobites, fell into the opposite error, and were censured by the Council of Chalcedon, 451. III. Doctrines in regard to the Human Will and Original Sin. — Two monks, Pelagius, a Briton, and the Irish Celestius, wholly rejected the doctrine of original sin, and of the influence of divine grace, and asserted the entire freedom of the will. St. Auguslin was the great champion of orthodoxy against these opinions. The Donatists and Iconoclasts belong to a different class. They did not object to the IS icene creed ; their errors were not doctrinal ; they were rather schismatics or rebels. The first sect arose out of the disputes concerning the succession to the bishopric of Carthage. The opinions of Donatus were con- demned by the conference at Carthage, 411. — An account of the Iconoclasts is given in the history of the eighth century. The preceding brief list of heresies can give but a feeble and imperfect idea of the numberless and unmeasured aberrations into which the passion of dog- matizing and the seductions of an unsubstantial glory led away many proud spirits. Who can tell what sufferings these deep wounds inflicted on the church ! The hand of God had supported it during the persecutions of the Pagans ; it found in its own ministers men armed with prudence and courage to defend it from internal enemies. At first it opposed to its misled children the authority of the Holy Scriptures and pure tradition only ; but when the princes of the earth had recognised the reign of Christ, the civil power lent its support to the laws of the church. The mere errors of conscience were assimilated to crimes, and often met with the same punishment. 11 158 ANCIENT HISTORY. Ro.ME.< FIFTH CENTURY. FOUNDATION OF MODERN STATES. ''Eastern Empire. — 395, Alaric. — 403, Theodosius II. — 420, Persia War.- 450, Marcian. — 457, Leo the Great. — 491, Anastasius. Wester -. Empire. — 408, Britain relinquished. — 410, Visigoths at Rome — Vandals, Alani, and Suevi. — 414, Franks, Burgundians, &c, in Gaul. 452, Attila. — 476, Fall of the Western Empire — [^ Odoacer and Theodoric. Venice. — 452, Commencement of the Republic. Gaul.— 420, Pharamond.— 428, Clodion.— 448, Merovens. — 486, Clovis. The Church. — Monachism — Conversion of the Barbarians. DIVISION OF THE EMPIRE. Each empire was now divided into two prefectures ; these into two dioceses, and subdivided into provinces. The cities with their dependencies formed the lowest division in this political scale. Prefectures. I. East. Dioceses. fl. East. 2. Egypt. 3. Asia. 4. Pontus. Provinces. 3 Palestines, Phoenicia. 2 Syrias, Cyprus, Arabia. 2 Cilicias, Mesopotamia. { C Egypt Proper, Thebais. ^2 Lybias, Augustamnica. rPamphilia, Hellespont. < Lydia, Lycaonia, 2 Phrygias. v.Lycia, Caria, the Isles. r2 Galatias, Buhynia, Pontus. K 2 Cappadocias. Paphlagonia. (.5 5. Thrace. I. Italy. II. Gaul. .2 Armenias, Helenopontus, Polemonium. C Europe, Thrace, Rhodope. £ Haemus, 2d Moesia, Scythia. rAchaea, Macedonia. II. fl. Macedonia. < Crete, Thessaly. Illyria • (.Epirus (old and new). rEastern).^ n . C Dacia {Interior and Ripuarian). \J- ^ acia< £ 1st Moesia, Dardania, Prcevalis. /-I. Italy (sub- f Venice, Liguria, 2 Picentums. divided into Tuscany and Umbria, Campania. the Dioceses) Sicily, Apulia. Calabria. of Italy and} Lucania and Bruttium, Cottian Alps. Rome.) \ 2 Rhaetias, Samnium, Valeria, Sardinia, Cor- (^ sica. C2 Pannonias, Savia. ^Dalmatia, Noricum. CTripolis, Byzacium. I Numidia, 2 Mauritanias. ^-Boetica, Lusitania, Galicia. •2 Tarraconensis, Carthaginiensis. (.Balearic Isles, Tingitania (Africa). C Narbonnensis (2), Vienne, J Alps (Maritime and Pennine). i 3 Aquitaines, 5 Lyonnais, ^Belgica (2), Germany (2). r2 Britains iFlavIr and } C * sariensis > Valcntia. Prepare : Maps of the two empires with the preceding divisions. 2. Illyria ( Western). 3. Africa. fl. Spain. 2. Gaul. 3. Britain. FIFTH CENTURY A. D. 159 EASTERN EMPIRE. Invasion of Alaric. — Arcadius, the eldest son of the great Theodo- sius, seemed to impress his own feebleness on that empire whose history begins with his reign, a. d. 395. He ruled over Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, Dacia, and Macedonia. The obscure but clever Gascon Kufinus, who owed his elevation to the father, preserved his influence over the son ; but his fall and death were brought on by his cruelties in the East, and by the marriage of the sovereign. He was succeeded by Eutropius, who shortly after incurred a similar fate. Gainas, the leader of the barbarian auxiliaries, dissatisfied at the frequent changes in the state, and probably moved by ambition, meditated the destruction of the Greek monarchy, by delivering up its capital into the hands of his fellow-countrymen; but the plot being discovered, he was compelled to withdraw beyond the Danube, where he perished in battle against the Huns. The empire escaped from these dangers only to encounter still greater. The Visigoths, on the refusal of Arcadius to pay the annual tribute, poured their wild bands into Thrace and Pannonia, following the guidance of Alaric, a chief of the ancient Balti. From the Adriatic to the Bosphorus, everything was devastated ; and the Goths penetrated as far as Athens, the walls of which were vainly defended by the shade of Achilles and the powerful aegis of Minerva. They escaped from Stilicho, the minister of Honorius, who was sent against them, when the feeble counsels of Arcadius promoted the invader to the title of Prefect of Illyricum, 398. Pulcheria. — The intrigues and conspiracies of the Eastern court are too numerons and too similar to deserve particular notice ; but they con- tributed to the distress of the country by the consequent impossibility of employing the resources of the empire against the Barbarians. Pulcheria, scarcely fifteen years of age, was put at the head of affairs, and intrusted with the education of her young brother, Theodosius II., 408. During this minority the empire enjoyed internal as well as foreign peace ; and its frontiers were extended by the addition of part of Armenia in 441. Theodosius, celebrated for the oldest collection of the Roman law which has come down to our time, was succeeded by Marcian, a soldier of great merit, who was invested with the purple when he received the hand of Pulcheria, 450. He braved the menaces of Attila, and by his firmness restored the peace of the church. With the death of his wife, in the year 453, the family of Theodosius became extinct. The successor of Marcian was Leo the Great, a. d. 457. Proclaimed by the people, the army, and the senate, and crowned for the first time by the patriarch, this simple Thracian soldier appeared to revive the long-disused military elections of the empire. The Isanrian guard had for some time displaced the praetorians, whose privileges they now seemed desirous of assuming. On the death of Leo, they invested his son-in-law, their general Zeno, with the imperial dignity. A revolution placed Basiliscus on the throne, who quitted his pleasures only to terminate by an edict of union the quarrels of the Orthodox and the Eutychians. On the death of Zeno, Ariadne, the mother of Leo II., married a heretic, Anastasius the Silentiary, who attained the sceptre in 491. 160 ANCIENT HISTORY. His character may be learnt from the flattering' shout which greeted his accession — Reign as you have lived ! His excessive intolerance towards the orthodox was atoned for by the removal of many oppressive taxes, the abolition of the sale of offices, the prohibition of combats between men and animals, the banishment of the seditious Isaurians, and other beneficial measures. He built Dara in Armenia to cover the frontiers on the side of Persia, and erected a wall fifty-four miles in length from the Euxine to the Propontis, for the defence of Constantinople. His long reign was agitated by religious quarrels, which in one instance cost the lives of 100,000 inhabitants of the capital. He was succeeded by Justin I., a Thracian peasant, 518, whose throne, nine years after- wards, was occupied by his celebrated nephew Justinian. WESTERN EMPIRE. Battle of Pollentia. — Honorius was eleven years of age when he succeeded to the government of Italy, Africa, Gaul, Spain, Britain, Noricum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, in 395. His minister, the intrepid and sagacious Stilicho, himself of Vandal origin, supported the dignity of the Roman name in the West. After the revolt in Africa was quelled, 398, he was sent against Alaric, at that time ravaging Greece ; but he was soon called to defend the sacred soil of Italy itself against that daring barbarian, 402. The Visigoths, after insulting Milan, and being almost shut up in their camp at Pollentia, were defeated in two battles, and compelled to leave in the hands of their conquerors a great part of the booty which they had collected in Greece. Honorius enjoyed, in Rome, the triumphal honours due to his successful general ; and after- wards transferred the imperial residence to Ravenna, trusting for safety rather to the waters of the Adriatic than to the arms of his soldiers. Alaric retired into Pannonia, but the season of calm, which the Western Empire enjoyed, was of brief duration. Italy was again overrun by Radagaisus, who had served under that adventurer, and Rome threatened ; but the manoeuvres of Stilicho shut him up in the mountains, near Fassulae, where the united forces of the Goths and Huns were starved into surrender, and the leader himself beheaded, 406. Meantime Gaul was desolated by the Vandals from modern Lusatia, by the Suevi from between the Maine and the Neckar, and by the Alani from the banks of the Danube. It was defended by Constantine, who had usurped the imperial power, and whose lieutenant Constans administered the affairs of Spain. Capture of Rome. — Stilicho fell a victim to the intrigues of Olympius, an officer of the palace, who inspired the feeble Honorius with the determination of getting rid of a powerful minister, who was said to meditate the placing of his own son on the imperial throne. Thus the only general who was capable of defending Italy was put to death in 408. Alaric immediately resumed his projects against it, ostensibly to revenge the wrongs of his principal adversary ; but neglecting Ravenna, he marched to Rome, which, since the time of Hannibal, more than six hundred years, had seen no enemy before its gates. A close blockade soon forced it to capitulate, on condition of paying 5000 pounds of gold, 30,000 of silver, 4000 silk dresses, 3000 pieces of fine scarlet cloth, and 3000 pounds of pepper, the last an FIFTH CENTURY A. D. 161 article held in the greatest esteem. The obstinacy and treachery of Honorius compelled Alaric to march a third time against the capital. At midnight a band of slaves in his interest opened the Salarian gate, and the inhabitants were roused from their slumbers by the sound of the Gothic trumpet in their streets. Eleven hundred and sixty-three years after its foundation, Rome, which had subdued the greatest part of the earth, was given up for six days to the fury of Scythians and Ger- mans, 410. The piety of these recently converted barbarians respected the basilics of St. Peter and St. Paul. Marching to the south, de- vastating every thing upon which he set his foot, Alaric was surprised by death in the course of a few months at Consentia (Cosenza), while meditating an expedition to Africa — He was succeeded by Ataulphus, with whom the emperor made peace by giving to him his sister Placidia in marriage. In return, he led his followers against the usurpers Con- stantine, Gerontius, Jovinus, and Sebastian, who were disputing the sovereignty of Gaul. The first was made prisoner at Aries and capitally punished ; the second put himself to death ; the other two were con- quered by the .Visigoths, and perished on the scaffold at Narbonne. Before the demise of Honorius in 424, several barbarian kingdoms had been established : the Burgundian in 413 ; the Suevian in Galicia, and the Visigoths in the south of France, 419. The main object of his government was the extirpation of heresy and paganism ; he declared all noncomformers inadmissible to public offices, destroyed the temples with their idols, and endeavoured to abolish all gladiatorial shows. Kingdom of Carthage, a. d. 439. — Honorius leaving no children, the inheritance reverted to Theodosius II., his nephew ; but the union of the crowns of the East and West was no longer possible, and the em- peror wisely transferred his rights to Valentinian III., the son of Placidia, 424. This princess defeated John the Secretary, who had usurped the Italian throne, and took the reins of state, while Pulcheria, sister^of Theodosius, ruled in the east in the name of her brother. Under the new reign the dismemberment of the empire proceeded rapidly. Boniface, the governor of Africa, when on the point of falling a victim to the intrigues of the powerful minister, iEtius, proposed to Genseric the Vandal, in return for his assistance, a partition of the wealthy province of Africa, and that Mauritania should be his share. The court of Ra- venna exerted itself in support of the governor, but he was unable to defend his province, and in 435, Valentinian, that he might save Car- thage, ceded all Roman Africa. Genseric, four years later, became master of this great and populous city, plundered the treasures of the Catholic churches, and being installed in his new capital, assumed the title of King of the Earth, of the Sea, and of the Islands. His formi- dable navy had reduced Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, the Balearic Isles, ravaged the northern coast of the Mediterranean, and threatened Constantinople. Attila. — The tribes of Huns established in the countries from whence they had expelled the Goths, between the Don, the Theiss, and the Volga, were united under this single chief, denominated the Scourge of God. The Byzantine court having refused the payment of the stipulated subsidy to his people, these barbarians crossed the frontiers, ravaged Thrace and Illyria, and forced Theodosius not only to pay the arrears, but to abandon the right bank of the Danube, 446. The emperor did 14* 162 ANCIENT HISTORY. not long survive this humiliation. His successor Marcian opposed the pretensions of Attila with a firmness not unbecoming the Romans of an earlier age, and the barbarian was compelled to turn his views towards the West. In 451, he marched up the left bank of the Danube, and arrived at Basle, on the Rhine, with an army of 500,000 men. At the news of this irruption, yEtius endeavoured to preserve Gaul for his em- pire : but in vain did the Burgundians dispute the passage of the river. Attila descending its left bank as far as Mentz, plundered Treves and Metz ; after which leading his troops into the heart of Gaul, he pitched his camp before Orleans. At the very moment that he was entering that city by one gate, through another was advancing the army of vEtius, with Theodoric and his Visigoths, and Meroveus with the Franks. The Huns were driven out and in the plains of Croisette, near Cbalons on the Marne, a sanguinary battle was fought, in which 160,000 men were left dead upon the field, and the invader compelled to return to Germany. The next year he marched on Italy, destroyed Aquileia, took Pavia and Milan, and ravaged the north-eastern parts of the peninsula. He entered Ravenna through a breach in the walls, which the people had beeen obliged to make in token of their submission to his will, and hither the venerable pontiff Leo brought presents to conciliate the ferocious conqueror. The wrath of the latter was as- suaged, and he retired from Italy loaded with the plunder of an hundred unfortunate cities. His death, in 453, was not less extraordinary than his life. Having espoused, in addition to a multitude of wives, the beautiful Hildichunde, he perished in the night of his marriage — intoxi- cated, and slain in a drunken fray, according to one account; a sacrifice to female craft, according to Agnellus; but most probably of apoplexy. The custom of primogeniture being unknown, the estates of the conqueror were divided by lot among all his sons.* Taking of Rome by Genseric, a. d. 455. — Maximus having procured the murder of Valentinian III. and married his widow Eudoxia* had reigned three months, when the fleet of Genseric entered the port of' Ostia to take vengeance on the guilty emperor, who was torn in pieces by the exasperated populace, wiiile the injuries of ancient Carthage were avenged by its new citizens. Rome, which in forty-five years hnd recovered its magnificence and forgotten the depredations of Alaric, was given up during fourteen days to the license of- the invaders. On the abolition of paganism, the capitol had been abandoned, but the statues of the gods and heroes which adorned it were respected; all of which, with the celebrated roof of gilded bronze, fell into the hands of Genseric. The golden table and candlestick, brought from Jerusalem several cen- turies before, were transported to Carthage by a barbarian who drew his first breath on the shores of the Baltic. The Christian churches and the treasures of the imperial palace offered a rich booty; but the vessel loaded with the spoils of the capitol, the most precious objects of art, foundered * Attila was buried in a wide plain in a coffin enclosed in one of gold, another of silver, and a third of iron. With his body was interred an immense amount of booty, and that the spot might be for ever unknown, all those who had assisted at the burial were deprived of life. The Goths acted nearly in a similar manner on the death of Alaric in 410. They turned aside a small river in Calabria, and buried him in a grave formed in the midst of the channel. After restoring the stream to its co.irse. they put to death all those who had been concerned in the formation of so singular » nla^ of se- pulture. FIFTH CENTURY A. D. 163 on its passage. Thousands of Romans of both sexes whose charms or talents might contribute to the pleasures of their masters, were removed f.o Africa, where they furnished Deogratias, bishop of Carthage, with the opportunity of exercising his boundless charity. Eudoxia herself, who was plundered of her jewels while hastening to meet her liberator and ally, also followed the Vandal into a captivity which was shared by her daughters. Genseric during twenty years was the terror of the East and West. With his numerous fleet, which he always commanded in person, he desolated all the coasts of the Mediterranean. After his death, 477, the Vandal kingdom was incessantly agitated by religious persecutions or harassed by the Moors, until Belisarius reduced Africa once more under the Byzantine dominion, 534. End of the Western Empire. — During the twenty years which elapsed from the death of Valentinian in 455, Italy had acknowledged the rule of nine successive emperors. Most of them were mere puppets, managed by Ricimer, the commander of the barbarian mercenaries in the pay of Rome, and who was too prudent to assume in his own person the title of Augustus. Of all these, Majorian was the only one who merited title and station. He enacted many wise laws, reformed the imposition and collection of taxes, and endeavoured to preserve the monuments of the city from destruction at the hands of its own inhabi- tants. Nor while thus peacefully occupied, did he neglect the external relations of the state. The Vandals and Moors were defeated at the mouth of the Liris, and Genseric's brother-in-law was amongst the slain. With a brave and disciplined army, the active monarch crossed the Alps in the middle of winter, marching on foot at the head of his legions, sounding the depth of the snow and encouraging by his example, the barbarians, who complained of the severity of the cold. His inten- tion was to pass through Gaul and Spain into Numidia, and to overthrow the Vandal domination. Gaul submitted to his arms, Spain again recognised the authority of the empire, and a fleet of three hundred galleys was constructed to menace the African shores. But Majorian saw all his prospects blighted ; his ships were surprised and burnt in the port of Oarthagena, and he himself perished by the hands of his own soldiers, 460. The murderers conferred the supreme dignity successively on three senators — Severus III., Anthemius and Olybrius, all equally undeserving of the throne. These were followed by Glycerius and Julius Nepos, who were deposed in their turn, and ended their career, 'he one in the honours of a bishopric, the other in the retirement of Salona. The patrician Orestes, master-general of the army of Italy, after having been the minister of Attila, invested his son Romulus Augustulus with the purple which he had stripped from Nepos. But the barbarians in the service of the empire, under the name of fede- rates, not succeeding in their demand for one-third of the lands of Italy, revolted under the Herulean Odoacer. Orestes was defeated and killed at Pavia, and the youthful emperor was banished to Lucullanum in Campania, where he soon after died. Odoacer, a. d. 476, received from his troops the title of King of Italy; but fearful of exciting jealousy, he never assumed either the pur- ple or diadem. His office was without power; for in case of attack he could not rely on the zeal of the population whom he had despoiled ; 164 ANCIENT HISTORY. while his army, composed of men of every race and tribe, without any national tie, and enervated by a long sojourn in the luxurious peninsula, was unable to defend the country against invasion. Although pro- fessing the Arian doctrines, he tolerated orthodox believers ; he strictly enforced the laws ; caused ancient institutions to be respected ; re- established the consulate; and, b}^ promoting agriculture, endeavoured to obviate those frequent famines which devastated the cities of Italy, — a necessary consequence of their entire reliance on supplies from Africa and Egypt. After reigning fourteen years, he was attacked by Theo- doric the Ostrogoth, and being three times defeated, was driven into Ravenna, where he was blockaded nearly three years. He was at last compelled to surrender, but his rival, not very scrupulous about his plighted word, caused him and his faithful companions to be massacred in the midst of a banquet, 493. Reflections. — With the banishment of Augustulus, a. v. 476, ended the Roman empire, 1228 years from its foundation. Its decline was the necessary consequence of its immoderate greatness. Prosperity ripened the principles of decay, which were to be found in the licentiousness of the soldiery, the weak- ness of the government, and the irruptions of the barbarians. The Queen of Nations fell by the hands of a tribe unknown, even by name, in the days of her pride. Her fall made no noise ; it was the last sigh of a victim expiring under a tedious and incurable malady. Her monarchy was no more than a name. Britain was independent ; in Gaul a few provinces only remained faith- ful ; Goths and Suevi disputed Spain ; the Vandals governed Africa ; Italy was crowded with foreign legions ; and Germany was daily sending forth her swarms to prey on the riches of the West. The history of the world took another form. Christianity became the domi- nant religion, threatened indeed for a time by the furious invasion of Islam. No mighty empire now threw its shadow over the whole world ; the monarchies were limited in extent and power ; feudalism gave rise to a new order of ideas and feelings; and the usurpations of ecclesiastical authority, while they pro- moted peace and encouraged the arts, stifled that freedom of thought, which is the birthright of every reasonable being. Construct: Synoptical Table of Barbaric Invasions. Date of Invasion. People. Chief. Origin. Conquests. Manners, &x. Laws, &c. A. D. 365, Allemanni invade Gaul. 402, Goths invade Italy, under Alaric. 409, Suevi, Vandals, Alani, and other barbarians invade Spain. 419, Burgundians settled in Gaul. 449, Saxons invade Britain. 451, Huns, under Attila, invade Gaul and Italy. The prophet Daniel, about 550 b. c. foretold the destruction of the Roman empire, and its division into ten kingdoms. Machiavelli, a most unprejudiced authority, gives us the following list: — 1. Huns (Hungary) a. d. 356. — 2. Ostro- goths (Moesia, Italy) 377.-3. Visigoths (Pannonia) 378.-4. Franks (Gaul) 407, FIFTH CENTURY A. D. 165 • —5. Vandals (Africa) 407. — 6. Suevi (Spain) 407. — 7. Burgundians (Burgundy") 407.— 8. Heruli (Italy) 476.-9. Saxons (Britain) 476.— 10. Longobards (Danube) 483 ; (in Lombardy) 526. VENICE. . The destructive campaigns of Attila laid the foundation of one of the most commercial and enterprising cities of the Middle Ages. The inhabitants of the Roman province of Venetia, of which the principal cities were Aquileia and Padua, fled from the swords of the Huns, 452, and found an asylum in the midst of the Adriatic islands, on a point named Rialto. The danger over, many continued to inhabit the spot, which, for a long period, was ruled by consuls nominated at Padua. In 709, the Rialto and the adjoining isles began to be governed by their own magistrates; they became independent of the Paduan authorities, and considered themselves a republic. This is the epoch of their first doge, Anafesto, a tribune of the people elected by the citizens. Heraclea was the seat of this republic until the death of their third president. Consult: Daru's Venice. — Sketches of Venetian History, in the Family Library. GAUL. Gaul was inhabited in remote antiquity by two nations : — the Gauls from the north of Europe, who filled the country as far as the mountains of Auvergne ; and the Aquitanians, from the south, by way of Spain, who lived between the Pyrenees and the Garonne. At a very early period the Ligurians from Spain occupied the district from the Pyrenees to the mouth of the Arno. A Grecian colony of Phocaeans settled near the mouths of the Rhone, and founded the city of Marseilles. About 600 b. c, the Cymri, driven by other tribes from the shores of the Black Sea, advanced along the Danube, crossed the Rhine, and forcibly established themselves in that part of Gaul which lies between the Loire and the Seine. This invasion was the cause of the irruption of the Gauls into Italy, where they established themselves in what was afterwards named Gallia Cisalpina. The great Julius formed the whole country into an integral part of the empire, from which period it shared the destinies of Rome. In the fifth century, with the rest of the Western Empire, Gaul suf- fered from the ravages of the Northern barbarians. In 406, the Suevi, Vandals, and Alani ravaged it; and in 412, after the death of Alaric, his successor Ataulphus led the Visigoths along the coast of the Medi- terranean into Spain. Aquitaine and all the country between the Loire and the Pyrenees formed one kingdom, with Toulouse for its capital. Besides this people, at the end of the reign of Honorius we find two others firmly established in Gaul. The Burgundians, of Teutonic origin, from the banks of the Oder and the Vistula, were first settled near the head of the Maine; but about the year 414, they occupied Alsace and the western parts of Switzerland. Another Teutonic race, the Franks, had emigrated from the Lower Rhine and the Weser, and in 35S were allowed by Julian to settle in Toxandria (Brabant), where for a time they became the guardians of the Rhine, and the defenders of Gaul. Pharamond, son of Marcomir, an unknown and perhaps fabulous prince, has no title to be regarded as the founder of the French monarchy. This honour belongs rather to Clodion, who crossed the Rhine and made incursions as far as the banks of the Somme, where he was defeated by iEtius.* On his decease, a prince of his family, * Clodion wore long hair, a mark of distinction introduced from Germany ; hence the race of long-haired monarclts. Meroveus is said not to have been a son of Clodion. — Thierry's Letters. 166 ANCIENT HISTORY. named Meroveus, was raised on the buckler by the Salian Franks in 448, and gave his name to the first or Merovingian line of kings. His son Childeric, at first expelled for his debauchery, was afterwards recall- ed by the warriors of his tribe, who, during- his banishment, had recog- nised the authority of ^Egidius, the Roman governor of Celtic Gaul. Childeric made war on the Visigoths on the banks of the Loire, while the Kipuarian Franks were forming settlements at Cologne. From his adulterous marriage with Basine, wife of the King of the Thuringians, was descended Chlodwig or Clovis, the real conqueror of Gaul. BRITAIN. Saxon Invasion. — The Caledonians, celebrated in the wars of Agri- cola, a. d. 85, disappear, and their place is supplied by the Picts and Scots. The former are supposed to be the Caledonians under a new name, and were of Scandinavian descent. The latter came from Ire- land, then called Scotia, and appear to be a division of the Celtic Cniti y whose language, if it remain that of the Vaudois in the Cottian Alps, was related to the vernacular Irish and Scotch. The barriers which the Romans had built to check the incursions of these fierce tribes, proved unavailing in the feebleness of the empire ; but when the Britons were left to themselves, 408, instead of sinking in unmanly despair, they took arms against their enemies, and drove the Picts from their cities. They had thrown off their foreign yoke and declared their inde- pendence, before Honorius sent letters to the respective states exhorting them to protect themselves. Britain was never after this subject to the power of the emperors. The whole southern part of the island during the Roman domination appears to have been divided into thirty-three districts, which were all continued after 410, although each city {civitas) claimed and exercised an independent jurisdiction. Vortigern, the pen- dragon — head-king — united some of these communities, and anxious to confirm his contested authority, called to his aid a band of predatory Saxons who had landed in the south of England, 449. Hengist was entirely successful in his battles against the Picts and Scots; but to complete his conquest it was necessary to have an armed force always ready to meet these barbarians. Such soldiers were easily found among his countrymen, who, at his invitation, came over in great numbers. A disagreement which ensued between them and their employers occasion- ed a long and sanguinary strife, which terminated in the foundation of the Saxon kingdom of Kent, 455. The strangers, each day reinforced by new adventurers, continued their hostile incursions ; but so firmly were they opposed, that Ella could not establish himself as a ruler in Sussex before 491. The entire conquest of the southern part of the island was not completed until 586. Consult: Turner's History of the Anglo-Saxons. THE CHURCH. The history of the Church during this century embraces two im- portant subjects : — the commencement of Monastic Institutions and the Conversion of the Barbarians. I. Monachism originated in the East, the land of contemplation and indolence, where an absurd antagonism was raised between the soul and FIFTH CENTURY A. D. 1G7 the body ; the mortification of the one being- supposea to contribute to the purity of the other. The Jews had their Essenes and Therapeutse, who lived apart from other men, and aspired by the most rigorous practices to attain a superhuman perfection. They abstained from wine, flesh, and marriage, and renounced all business. Egypt, " the fruitful parent of superstition," afforded the earliest example of monastic life. Paul of Thebes, about a. d. 250, fleeing from the persecution of Decius, retired to a cavern, in which he passed the greater portion of his life, supporting himself on dates, with palm-leaves for his only garment. Thirty years after him another Egyptian, St. Anthony, lived also in the desert ; but around his hut were grouped, at a little distance, othei cabins, in which a number of ascetics dwelt in obedience to his au» thority. He thus became the father of the monastic life. This new passion for solitude was disregarded in the Western Churches until Athanasius went to Rome, in the year 340, to solicit the aid of the bishop in his contest with the Arians. The disciples of Anthony soon spread themselves over the Christian world, and before the end of the century a monastery in Flintshire contained above 2000 members. The same discipline was introduced into Syria by his immediate followers, and at a somewhat later period into the solitudes of Pontus, by St. Basil, while St. Martin was establishing in Gaul the first cenobitical community. The rule of the Egyptian monks was brought into Pro- vence at the beginning of the fifth century, by St. Honoratus and St. Cassianus, who founded two establishments, one at Lerins, the other at Marseilles, whence issued many learned apostles of the faith and monastic life, among whom was St. Patrick, the founder of similar colonies in Ireland. These various communities of the West followed each its own rule until that of the Benedictines was received throughout the whole Latin church. The rapid progress of this system may per- haps be attributed to enthusiasm, sympathy, and ambition. Chrysostom presumed that none but monks could be saved, and to these terrors of the church were added those of the barbarians. The emperors, especially Valens, attempted to support the obligations of public and private duties, but such feeble barriers as they opposed were soon swept away by the torrent of superstition. Freedom of mind was destroyed by credulity and submission; and the monks, contracting the habits of slaves, followed the faith and passions of their ecclesiastical tyrants. Their dress, habitations, and manners were equally filthy and disgusting. Athanasius boasts of Anthony's deep horror at clean water, with which his feet never came in contact, except from dire necessity. Simeon, who died in 451, is immortalized by his penance of thirty years on the summit of a lofty column, whence he gained the name of Stylites. These monastic saints boasted of their miraculous powers ; they pre- tended to cure inveterate diseases with a touch, to tame the beasts of the forest, to suspend the course of nature, and even to raise men from the dead. The discipline of the Greek Church, which consisted of four fundamental articles, — solitude, manual labour, fasting, and prayer, was formed by St. Basil. It was long before the follies of the haircloth and flagellation were introduced. II. The Conversion of the Barbarians offers a more pleasing pic- ture than that which we have just been contemplating. Ulphilas, the apostle of the Goths, translated the Scriptures into their native tongue, 168 ANCIENT HISTORY. about the year 360.* At the commencement of the fifth century Christianity was embraced by almost all the barbarians in the Roman empire. The Franks obtained Gaul by their submission to the example of Clovis, 496 ; and the Saxons were converted by Roman missionaries, although the gospel had been introduced into Britain in the second century. These proselytes displayed an ardent zeal in the propagation of the true faith, and England had the honour of producing the apostle of Germany. An immediate change was effected in the moral condition of these nations. The horrors of war were alleviated ; the insolence of conquest was moderated ; and the institutions of Rome, religious and political, were respected. Evangelical truth had been already preached to the Indians, and a bishop governed the Christians of St. Thomas on the spice-bearing shores of Malabar. A church was founded in Ceylon, and missionaries followed in the steps of the caravans even to China and the extremities of Asia. The Abyssinians, an Arabian colony, were drawn from their barbarism by similar means. Rapin observes, that in the fifth century Christianity was debased by a vast number of human inventions : the simplicity of its government and discipline was reduced to a system of clerical power ; and its worship was polluted with ceremonies borrowed from the heathen. APPENDIX TO PART FIRST. History of Literature. The invasion of the South of Europe by the barbarians of the North, the great event which separates ancient and modern times, interrupted the down- ward course of Greek and Roman civilisation. In the East, the Byzantine emperors still protected their declining literature ; in the West, its few relics were received and fostered in the bosom of the church. It is this decline and ruin of learning which composes the entire literary history of the fifth and three following centuries. I. Alexandrian School. — In despite of its numerous aberrations, this school rendered the most valuable services to learning, by preserving and ex- plaining the masterpieces of ancient literature, and by endeavouring to reconcile the various systems of philosophy. Alexandria, situated at a point where Europe, Asia, and Africa unite, became the focus of all doctrines, and its academy the mental emporium of the world. Ammonius Saccas, originally a porter, about 220, founded the Eclectic school of the New Platonists, which united the different systems of the Socratic school, in order to ally them with the fantastic mysteries of the East, — a bold endeavour to terminate the disputes of the Greek philosophers. Plotinus of Lycopolis, d. 270, Jamblichus of Chal- cis, and Porphyry of Tyre, about 300, added to the splendour of the reformed school; and as they announced their design of propping up the falling altars of polytheism, they naturally became the antagonists of the Christian fathers. When the Neo-Platonic school in Rome, as well as that of Alexandria, was shut up by order of Constantine in 324, secret societies were formed through- out the provinces, and, until 353, flourished principally in Asia Minor. Here * TJIphilas had been compelled to embrace Arianism in order to engage the favour of Valens. He is said to have invented the Gothic characters, and his precious MS. in letters of gold and silver is preserved, under the name of Codex Jlrgenteus, in the library of Upsala. APPENDIX TO PART FIRST. 16'j was continued the "golden chain of Platonism," of which Maximus of Ephesus, Chrysanthus of Lydia, and Eusebius of Myndus, were the brightest links. Under the patronage of Julian, 361, the school of Alexandria was re-opened, and a new one founded at Athens. Hypatia, the daughter of Theon, filled with honour the chair of Ammonius and Plotinus ; but when she had fallen a victim to a furious mob, 415, and the pagan school of Alexandria had perished with her, Athens became the centre of this new philosophy. Proclus, who succeeded Syrianus in 450, was a man of varied learning. In his teaching he united the ideas of Plato with the forms of Aristotle ; but the necessity of adapting his opinions to the popular taste compelled him to blend his philosophy with oriental myths, orphic revelations, supposed oracles, and mystic reveries. The school lingered a short time after his decease, until it was closed by an edict of Justinian I. in 529. The Neo-Platonists were tolerated, but their sect became extinct with the pagan religion. They were succeeded by the peripatetics, whose opinions prevailed m the church until the rise of the scholastic philosophy in the eighth century. II. Sacred Literature. — The necessity of defending the Christian religion against its numerous enemies, and the desire of making proselytes among the enlightened spirits of the times, induced the doctors of the church to study the religion they were so eager to propagate, the idolatry which they were sworn to destroy, and the pagan Philosophy, whose errors must either be exposed or rendered subservient to the doctrines of the gospel. Hence arose Ecclesiastical Literature. The Christian school of Alexandria did not become celebrated until the Stoic Pantaenus, a converted pagan, ascended the professorial chair, at the end of the second century. His successor Clement endeavoured tu systematize religion ; maintaining, that as God had disseminated the elements of truth among the different philosophic sects, it was a Christian's duty to unite these scattered fragments, and thus strengthen piety by banishing falsehood. The genius and extensive learning of Origen, d. 254, were employed in defence of this system ; but he defiled the purity of the faith he meant to defend, and introduced a dangerous method, whence afterwards arose that philosophical theology, which, under the name of the Scholastic, played so great a part in the middle ages. Justin Martyr, d. 166, and Tertullian, d. 220, rank as the chief defenders of Christianity. They published, the one in Greek and the other in Latin, elo- quent and bold Apologies for the new religion. St. Irenaeus led the church back from the doctrines of literal and occult meanings, contending that the interpretation of the Holy Scriptures should always be conformable to tradition. The Old Testament had been early translated into the vulgar tongue ; and from the second century we read of versions in Syriac, Coptic, Ethiopian, and Latin, the authors of which are unknown. From the third century we meet with works specially consecrated to the explanation of the Christian doctrines. The earliest of these is by St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, bishop of Neo-Caesarea, who lived till 268. St. Cyril of Jerusalem followed him in the next century. While they explained and defended the faith against the attacks of heretics, they endeavoured to render it useful by founding on it a system of evangelical morality. Tertullian, and after him the learned Cyprian of Carthage. 250, first wrote on the connexion of morals with the religion of our Saviour. The fourth century — from Con- stantine to Theodosius— is the Golden Age of ecclesiastical literature. Atha- nasius, d. 371, Chrysostom, d. 407, Ambrose, d. 398, and Augustin, d. 430. preached the purest morality in the most eloquent language. Their genius aione rose superior to the fall of the empire, and they were the architects of *ha great religious edifice which was founded upon its ruins. Greek Fathers. — The name of Fathers of the Church has been given to those authors who, from the first ages of Christianity, devoted their talents to the defence and exposition of the faith. The East and the West alike produced men of genius who, uniting extensive learning to piety and courage, added new glory to the literature of Greece and Rome, while they imagined themselves performing the simple duties of Christians and ministers of the divine word 15 170 ANCIENT HISTORY. The patronage of Constantine, the first Christian emperor, was less efficacious in behalf of his faith than the talents and indefatigable activity of Athanasius, who destroyed the heresy of Arius at the council of Nice. In the bishop's chair, as well as in exile, he was ever a zealous defender of the Trinitarian doc- ir'ne and of religious unity. Eusebius, d. 340, the father of ecclesiastical his- tory, although not strictly orthodox, was serviceable to religion by his Prepara- tion and Evangelical Demonstration. His great work, describing the propaga- tion ol Christianity, the vicissitudes of the church, the struggles of its teachers, and the miracles of its martyrs, was translated into Latin by Rufinus, the adversary of Jerome. Basil was called from the deserts of the Thebais to fill the episcopal chair at Caesarea, 350. Theological disputes occupied the greater part of his life ; his homilies are moral treatises, in which the tenderest sensi- bility is conveyed in a style sparkling with images and rich in allegory. His brother, Gregory of Nyssa, by his philosophy and his energy against heretics and schismatics, obtained from his contemporaries the title of Pater Patrum. Gregory of Nazianzurn possessed a more elevated genius and more brilliani eloquence. When hatred, excited by his censures and by a domineering spirit, which he could not repress, had raised powerful enemies against him, he re- signed his see without regret, but not without pain, and the farewell of the bishop was the masterpiece of the orator. Chrysostom of Antioch, d. 407, by his clear and easy eloquence, by his rich and bold imagery, by his power of reasoning joined to grandeur of ideas and tenderness of sentiment, may be com pared with Demosthenes or Cicero. He is the chief of the orators of that primitive period. Theophilus> patriarch of Alexandria, whose intolerance was so fatal to the arts and philosophy, brought into the bosom of the church Syne- sius of Ptolemais, afterwards bishop of his native city, 430. The latter cele- brated in prose and verse the great truths of Christianity, and the beauties of religious morals. Cyril of Jerusalem, d. 386, the most skilful teacher of his age ; Epiphanius of Salamis, who combated the sectarians with more zeal than learning; Cyril of Alexandria, d. 444, the first doctor of the East, with many others, shed honour on the age of the Theodosian emperors. John of Damas- cus, d. 750, who was the last in those parts, monopolized all the literary glory of the eighth century. By his application of the peripatetic forms of demon- stration to the Christian doctrines, he became the founder of the Scholastic philosophy. Latin Fathers. — Arnobius, and Lactantius, " the Christian Cicero," flourish- ed in the reign of Constantine ; the one feebly defended his religion against the Pagans, the other acquired just renown by his Divine Institutions. — Hilary of Poitiers was the champion of Athanasius in Gaul. During his Phrygian exile, into which he was driven by an Arian prince, he published his twelve books On the Tri?iity, in which he combats all the heresies relating to the Son of God and the Holy Ghost. — Ambrose, d. 398, was praetor of Milan, when the uni- versal acclamation raised him to the bishopric. He defended with inflexible courage the privilege of Catholic worship against the Arians, who were pro- tected by Valentinian II. His virtuous tolerance forbade him to communicate in the Holy Sacrament with the fanatical bishops who had demanded the blood of Priscilian. He taught the chants, of whose use the Latin church had till then been ignorant ; but the majestic hymn, Te Deum, which bears his name. is the work of a monk of the sixth century. — Jerome, d. 420, opened at Rome the first asylum frr misery and infirmity ; but his virtues were no protection against calumny. In his retreat at Bethlehem he undertook the translation of the Holy Scriptures, a task for which he was well qualified by his profound study of Hebrew, and his vast knowledge of sacred archaeology. The church adopted his version, known as the Vulgate, and his Commentaries are an authority among divines. He translated and continued the Chronicle of Euse- bius ; wrote a Biography of ecclesiastical authors, and the Lives of the Fathers of the Desert. — Augustin, bishop of Hippo, d. 430, successively professor at Carthage, Rome, and Milan, was rescued from his errors by St. Ambrose. He raised himself to the first rank among the Latin Fathers by his City of God, an immense repertory of profane and theological erudition, in which the author, after having in some measure crushed paganism fragment by fragment, applies? api*e:>dix to part fikst. 171 .imseh' to re-establish by invincible proofs the truth of the Christian religion. [n 411, he defended the doctrines of Original Sin and Divine Grace, against Pelagius. — At the court of Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, Dionysius the Little, d. 536, created a new science of Chronology. He introduced the com- putation of time from the Incarnation, a mode which was slowly adopted by the whole Christian world. He also, by the publication of a code of Ca?w?is, laid the foundation of ecclesiastical jurisprudence. His book of Pontifical Decretals, or letters, was disfigured by the impostures of the forger Isidore of Seville, 636. The authentic decretals do not commence before the pontificate of Siricius, 385. — The age to which Boethius and Cassiodorus belong was worthily brought to a close by Pope Gregory, d. 604, and Bishop Fortunatus of Poitiers. III. Profane Learning in the West.— The ruin of learning in the Western Empire was more rapid and entire than in the Eastern, for the complete deso- lation of the former by barbarians destroyed both its language and literature. During the Theodosian period, while the poetic riches of the East consisted in miserable epigrams or inscriptions, the West produced Ausonius, 380, Pru- dentius, 400, Sidonius Apollinaris, d. 488, and others, none of whom was devoid of talent. — Claudian, 395, was the last bard of paganism, superior to all who had preceded him for two centuries, and equalled by none who came after him. — Priscian the grammarian, 380, translated or composed, at Constantino- ple, three didactic poems, — on Geography, on Weights and Measures, and on Astronomy. — Fortunatus was the poet laureate of the different Merovingian courts. Eleven works of miscellanies and a translation in hexameter verse of the Life of St. Martin, by Sulpicius Severus, place him at the head of the versifiers of his day. History. — Ammianus Marcellinus, 370, was far superior to the inflated com- pilers of the Augustan History, and was the last author in the West deserving the name of historian. The chroniclers who come next are the only writers of this period who merit special attention. — Gildas, a fugitive monk who sought refuge in the wilds of Armorica, wrote in a mournful strain, in which truth and fiction are almost inextricably confused, the particulars of the Anglo-Saxon invasion. — Another British monk, the venerable Bede, d. 735, composed the ecclesiastical history of England in Latin, and a long treatise on the Six Ages of the World. — Gregory of Tours, d. 595, completed the annals of the Franks down to 593. Philosophy. — The .ast and greatest philosopher of Latin antiquity was a fol- lower of the Athenian Platonic school, Boethius, d. 526. He translated the Arithmetic of Nicomachus, the Geometry of Euclid, the Poetics of Aristotle, and various treatises by Archimedes and Plato. His great work, the Consola- tion of Philosophy, was the production of his captivity ; it is a dialogue com- posed of mingled prose and verse. Philology. — While learning became more and more neglected, there were found a few men who devoted their time and abilities to the preservation of the remains of antiquity, to the explanation of its masterpieces, and to the teach- ing of a language which soon degenerated into a barbarous idiom. The Satur- nalia of Macrobius, 395, in the style of the Attic Nights of Gellius, is a valu- able work, although written without method or taste. He compiled a com- mentary of great value on the Bream of Scipio. — Servius, the most celebrated of the commentators on Virgil, lived at the beginning of the fifth century. — Cassiodorus wrote on Orthography, and has left a treatise on the Seven Liberal Arts. — The most complete grammar of antiquity is the Eight Parts of Speech, by Priscian of Caesarea, 500. IV. Profane Learning in the East. Poetry. — Nonnus of Panopolis, 400, the restorer of hexameter verse, com- posed an epic poem, the Dionysiacs, on the exploits of Bacchus. — Quintus of Smyrna, surnamed Calaber, from the MS. found in Calabria, wrote a servile imitation of the Iliad, bringing it down to the taking of Troy. — The epigram alone was cultivated with success during the reigns of Justinian and Heraclius. Romance. — At the end of the fourth century, fictions similar to our modern romances appear, a kind of writing unknown to classical antiquity, and destined 172 ANCIENT HISTORY. *o become, in the middle ages and in modern times, the living picture of the manners of the day. The Golden Ass of Apuleius — the epithet is derived from the elegance of its style — was a successful attempt among the Latins. In 390, Heliodorus of Emesa composed the history of Theagenes and Chariclea, far superior to all contemporary works, except the Loves of Daphnis and Chloe, by Longus, the forerunner of Paul and Virginia. Achilles Tatius, 300, wrote the Loves of Clitophon and Leucippe. History. — The vast collection of the Byzantine historians contains few works meriting our esteem. Zosimus, 430, in his prejudiced History of the Casars, endeavoured to trace the causes of the decline of the empire. — Procopius of Caesarea, 555, wrote a history of his own times in a manner at once clear and precise ; but his elegance of style did not preclude bad taste. Geography. — As the Byzantines added nothing to the opinions of the ancients, so they rarely explained them. Stephanus, 500, wrote a kind of Geographical Dictionary, which has not come down to us. Philology. — The Greek language which had not yet fallen into decay, did not produce many grammarians. The Grammar of Dionysius of Thrace was the class-book of the teachers. At Alexandria, Hesychius published his Glos- sary about the end of the fourth century. Stobaeus is the author of a collection of extracts, compiled for the education of his son, and selected from more than 500 writers. A few commentaries were written upon the Latin laws of Byzan- tium, and the name of Tribonian, 545, occurs among the names of the juris- prudentialists. Mathematics. — The exact sciences were cultivated by the Platonists. All our knowledge of the mathematical acquirements of antiquity is due to the school of Alexandria. Hypatia, the learned daughter of Theon, applied the ngorous method of geometry to speculative knowledge. Diophantus first taught the calculation of indeterminate quantities, and thus created Algebra. Proclus wrote on astronomy and the sphere, and composed a commentary on Euclid and Ptolemy. END OF PART I. ANCIENT HISTORY. PART SECOND. THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FROM THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE, A. D. 476, TO THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION, AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. The Roman empire had recovered under Theodosius its unity and greatness ; but after the death of this prince it began to decline, and finally disappeared in the fall of the capital of Italy. This crisis was brought on as much by accidental circumstances, as by the concurrence and reciprocal action of permanent causes. The despotism of the emperors, a natural consequence of political anarchy and military power, preserved the characters of its twofold origin, namely, corruption and violence. The Antonines had vainly endeavoured to restore national and political virtue ; the populace having descended to the lowest degree of abasement, white the philosophy of Epicurus had fixed an indelible slain on the higher ranks. Christianity could alone arrest the almost general licentiousness ; but the designs of Providence still exposed it to fiery trials, and its day of triumph had not yet arrived. Diocletian, by his divisions of the sovereignty, and Constantine, by the removal of the seat of empire to Byzantium, prepared the way for the two separate monarchies of the East and the West, and opened the road into Italy for the barbarians. The appearance of the Huns in the north of Europe drove the savage tribes of Germany across the Roman frontiers. These warlike nations braved the power of the emperors under the walls of Rome and Constantinople; imposed on them burdensome tributes ; entered in whole tribes into the legions ; and finally dismembering half of the empire, broke up the whole social state with its imperfect civilisa- tion, to establish on its ruins the foundations of the existing political system. Of the ten centuries embraced in that period of history entitled the Middle Ages, five were occupied by the restless movements of the vari- ous barbarians, who were partially checked by the strong hand of Charlemagne. In the sixth age, that is, about a. d. 1000, repose and silence pervaded all Europe ; the decay of literature and civilisation extended gradually; while institutions, laws, customs, and languages, began to assume their local peculiarities. Amidst the minute territorial divisions that took place, there was still found one bond of unity in the church, whose members kept up a communication with the remotest districts, all preaching the same doctrines, animating with the same spirit the almost innumerable societies throughout which they were scattered, and combining all nations in one common and holy enterprise. 15* (173) 174 MIDDLE AGES. It was during 1 the crusades that the representatives of every state in Europe, assembling round the tomb of our Saviour, recognised each other as brethren. After the Holy Wars the greater communities began to be remodelled, as their respective sovereigns issued victorious from their contention with feudalism. Then began the rancorous struggle between France and England, the rise of the Spanish monarchies, the destruction of the imperial authority in Germany, the brief splendour and fall of the Italian republics, the revolutions of the Sclavonic and Scandinavian states, and finally, the fall of Constantinople, a. d. 1453, which, by driving the learned Greeks into the centre and west of Europe, contributed in a remarkable degree to the Reformation. SIXTH CENTURY. Greek Empire.— 527, Justinian. — 532, Nika — 557, Earthquake in Syria. — 565, Belisarius d. Persia. — 528, First War. — 531, Nushirvan.— 532, Perpetual Treaty. — 540, Second War. — 590, Varanes (Bahrain). — 591, Chosroes II. Italy.— 493, Theodoric— 552, End of Gothic Empire.— 569, Lombards.— 584, Autharis. France. — 511, Clovis d. — Salic Law. — 558, Clotaire I. Spain. — 507, Visigoths enter Spain. Britain. — 542, King Arthur d. — 586, Heptarchy. — 596, Saxons converted. The Church. — 514, Religious War in Constantinople. — 519, Jewish Persecu- tion. — 578, Pelagius the infallible. — 590, Gregory I. Literature. — 580, Latin ceases to be spoken. — Stobaeus ; Agathias ; Cassio- dorus ; Bcethius ; Priscian ; Journandes ; Gregory of Tours. GREEK EMPIRE. Belisarius. — The Eastern Roman, or, as it was afterwards called, the Greek Empire, began to recover from its lethargy, and to extend its conquests under the celebrated Justinian I., in 527. Belisarius, a Thracian peasant, the Africanus of new Rome, after passing through the various grades of military service, was appointed general of the East, where Cabades had attacked the imperial workmen employed in building a frontier fortress. The defeated Persians next menaced Armenia and Syria, when the fortune of Belisarius again prevailed. The sudden death of the Persian monarch and the succession of Chosroes, whose throne was in danger from a disinherited brother, changed the politics of the court of Ctesiphon, and the w;>r was suspended by a treaty of perpetual amity in 53*3, only to break out again eight years after, with results equally indecisive. Justinian, having, formed the design of reconquering the Roman provinces which had fallen into the hands of the barbarians, turned his views first on Africa, and Belisarius was intrusted with the supreme command of the expedition. The Vandals, taken by surprise, vainly strove to make head against his vigour and activity. Carthage surrendered without a blow ; and in the space of three months, the whole of Northern Africa was subdued, Geli- mer, the vanquished sovereign, gracing the captor's triumph* 534. The SIXTH CENTURY A. D. 175 Gothic war of Italy was the next scene of his glory. After reducing Sicily, Belisarius landed without resistance on the southern shores of the Peninsula. Naples experienced all the horrors of war; and Rome was freed from the tyranny of sixty years without a blow, 536. The victor was in his turn shut up in the imperial city by an army of 150,000 men, under King Vitiges; who, although defeated in various bloody skir- mishes, obstinately persevered in the blockade, until forced to retire before the advancing succours headed by Antonina, the warlike consort of the Byzantine general, 538. His victorious career was checked by the intrigues of the court; he was recalled, and owed his safety to the services of his wife. His second command in Italy, 544, was not equally successful with the first. He failed in throwing troops and provisions into Rome, then closely pressed by Totila, and which suffered the horrors of war to such an extent that a parent flung himself despairing into the Tiber in the presence of his five children. Treachery at last opened the gates to him, 546, when but for the firm remonstrances of Belisarius, the savage conqueror would have changed the city into a pasturage for cattle. By a daring act of valour he recovered the capital with only 1000 horse, and thrice repulsed the Goths in their endeavours to retake it. After several Fabian campaigns he was recalled, 548 ; nor were his services again required till Constantinople was threatened by the Bulgarians, who, in alliance with the Southern Sclavonian tribes, had crossed the Danube on the ice, led by the ferocious Zeberkhan. Forty years of military service could not shelter Belisarius from false accusations of conspiracy against the emperor ; and his patriotism and devotion were ill requited by the confiscation of his property eight months before his death. He was followed to the grave by his envious master before the close of the same year. 565.* Consult : Lord Mahon's Life of Belisarius. Narses. — This rival of the fame of Belisarius had been educated among the females of the palace; but his talents becoming known, he was made the colleague of that general, on whose death he was appointed to the sole command of the Gothic war. He hastened to meet Totila, and after an ineffectual conference, the two armies engaged at Tagina>, near Rome, 552. The ardour of the barbarians was overcome by the decision and calmness of Narses ; they fled, leaving their general with 6000 of his soldiers on the field. The victor had the honour of again sending the keys of Rome to Constantinople, which had been five times taken and recovered in one reign. The triumphal entry of the chamber- lain after the conquest of the Franks and Allemanni, was the last which the imperial city was to witness, 554. His provincial government :asted fifteen years, when he was recalled by Justin II., in compliance vith the demand of the senate, to which body he had become odious on lccount of his cupidity, 568. Factions of the Circus. — The peaceful competitions of the circus, * Tlie elegant French tale of Belisarius, aided by the well-known picture, has served to keep up the fictitious accounts of the last days of this renowned warrior. The loss of his eyes by the emperor's orders, and his being reduced to beg his daily bread, in the well-known phrase, Date obolum Bclisario, are the inventions of comparatively modern writers 176 MIDDLE AGES. an amusement and excitement to the ancient Romans, degenerated into a mere factious exhibition under the unworthy successors of Augustus; and the blood}' contests in their streets were renewed with increased vigour in the Byzantine capital. In 501, the greens treacherously mas- sacred 3000 of their blue* adversaries ; and their dissensions were so violent over the whole country, as to threaten the stability of the empire. Neither churches nor private houses were free from their depredations; many victims perished nightly beneath the dagger of the assassin ; and tbe bonds of society and virtue were universally relaxed. A sedition bearing the name of JVika, was with difficulty suppressed, after a five days' struggle that nearly involved the city in conflagration, and cost the lives of more than 30,000 individuals. To the evils of war, which under Justinian afflicted nearly every pro- vince, were added still greater calamities. Earthquakes in 526 and 557 occasioned dreadful havoc throughout the empire, and particularly in Syria. The plague devastated Europe and Asia; Constantinople lost more than 400,000 inhabitants ; entire countries were depopulated, and left without culture ; while famine was added to the severe scourges of war and contagion. The human race was thus considerably diminished. The empire, exhausted of men and of wealth, could not furnish Justinian, in his latter years, with more than 140,000 soldiers instead of 640,000. A new branch of industry commenced in this reign. Silk, which was in general use throughout the civilized world, had become exorbitantly dear, when two Persian monks succeeded in conveying from China to Europe some of the eggs of the silk-worm, which they had concealed in their hollow walking sticks. These they brought to Justinian who suc- cessfully established the manufacture of this article of luxury in his southern provinces. Justinian Code. — Justinian affected the title of a lover of the arts, and the church of St. Sophia, with about twenty-five others, decorated in a costly manner with marble and gold, were built in his reign ; but the reformation of the Roman law, carried on by his orders, and under the superintendence of the quaestor Tribonian, is his noblest monument. The Roman emperors at various periods published their edicts and their rescripts ; which huge mass of conflicting decisions was first arranged by the Gregorian and Hermogenian Codes, and both united in that of the younger Theodosius, 438. Fourteen months only were occupied by Tribonian and his nine associates in reducing the many thou- sands of volumes gradually accumulated during ten centuries into the twelve books or tables forming the Justinian Code, 529. The Pandects or Digest, an employment of three more years, contained the spirit of the civil law, 533. It was a compilation in fifty books of the Gregorian. Hermogenian. and Theo- dosian Codes, as well as of two thousand treatises on jurisprudence. The Institutes, forming a short elementary treatise on Roman law, divided into four parts, were published about the same time; these, with the Novels, a kind of supplement, constitute the whole body of Roman legislation. Justinian reigned thirty-eight years, and the perils of a disputed suc- cession were avoided by the promptness with which his nephew Justin II. assumed the purple, 5fi5. He revived the title of consul in his own person, liquidated the debts of his predecessor, and gave signs of a benevolent administration; but the disgrace of the chamberlain Narses * These two colours represented the two great religious parties; the Ariaus wore preen, while the blue party were the orthodox believers, and reckoned Justinian among their number. Thus religious fanaticism served to exasperate the quarrels of the circus. SIXTH CENTURY A. D. 177 left both the Eastern and Western empires exposed to the restless bar- barians. About the same period the Avars and Turks sent ambassadors to Constantinople : the alliance proposed by the first he haughtily refused, and formed a league with the Turkish khan against the Persians. By their friendship with this chief, the mighty Disabul, " sovereign of the seven climates of the earth," the Komans were enabled to trade throughout all Central Asia. The progress of Chosroes was not, how- ever, arrested in Syria ; and at the same time Africa was ravaged, while Italy was lost to the empire. Notwithstanding the purity of Justin's intentions, his reign was miserable and unfortunate, not so much from his vices as from a physical debility which confined him to the palace, and rendered him a stranger to the wishes and complaints of his people. In 574, he had the magnanimity to associate Tiberius with him in the empire, and after four years of peaceful obscurity he expired. His successor showed himself worthy of his station, and in him Con- stantinople saw another Trajan. While he was engaged in repelling the Avars in Dacia, his generals gained over the Persians the victories of Melitene and Constantine. Maurice was rewarded with the hand of the daughter of Tiberius, and shortly after ascended the throne of his father-in-law, who on his death-bed had selected him as worthiest of its honours and duties, 582. Maurice, less fortunate as emperor than as general, was unable to maintain his Persian conquests The satrap Varanes (Bahrain), after having conquered the Turks, was penetrating into Asia Minor, when he was defeated by the Grecian troops. Being disgraced in consequence, he revolted against his sovereign, Chosroes II., whom he compelled to seek an asylum in the empire. The generous Maurice restored his enemy, and obtained by treaty the restitution of Varanes' conquests, 591. He next meditated the destruction of the Avars, whom Priscus defeated in five battles ; the victorious army, how- ever, revolted, and proclaimed the centurion Phocas, while a faction drove Maurice from his capital, and opened its gates to the usurper, 602. PERSIA. This empire had been at peace nearly a century under the Sassanian monarchs, whose domination had succeded, in 226, that of the Parthian or Arsacidan. The vicinity of the Nephtha] ite Huns settled on the Oxus, was a source of uneasiness to the great kings, and the necessity of checking their incursions turned most of their forces in this direction. This people had assisted Cabades in the recovery of the crown, which had been usurped by one of his brothers ; and not having the means of recompensing their services according to promise, he applied to the Emperor Anastasius for pecuniary aid. The request was insultingly refused, upon which war immediately broke out, and the Persians re- duced both Armenia and Colchis. The peace which followed was interrupted by the proceedings of Justin I., who had accepted the submission of the Lazi, a people tributary to Persia. Cabades was succeeded by Chosroes Nushirvan in 531. This great prince, who tranquillized his country, which had been a prey to anarchy and fanati- cism, received from his subjects the name of the Just, in consequence of the manner in which he administered the laws. He encouraged agriculture, was a patron of letters, founded a school of medicine near 178 MIDDLE AGES. Susa,and directed the annals of the monarchy to be drawn up. He sent a learned physician, named Bidpai, into India, who brought back with him the fables still current as those of Pilpay, and the game of chess. Nushirvan attracted to his court several of the philosophers of the West. The news of Justinian's victories, and the discovery of a correspondence by which that prince was exciting the barbarians of the Oxus to invade Persia, induced Chosroes to take up arms, which he carried successfully to the shores of the Levant. On his return, he built a city near Ctesi- phon, in which the Syrian captives beheld the very image of one of their own towns; baths, a circus, and a body of musicians and charioteers, were added to complete its resemblance to a Grecian city. Chosroes transmitted his power to his son Hormisdas (Hormuz) 579, whose violent passions soon brought the empire to the verge of ruin. After a few years' reign, the tyrant had the effrontery to boast of having tortured to death no fewer than thirteen thousand victims. His govern- ment was weakened by the revolt of several provinces, when the Turks offered their perfidious aid. But a hero appeared to save the falling monarchy. Yaranes, (Bahrain), having collected a body of twelve thousand men, occupied a defile in Hyrcania, where he crushed the Turks. He next marched against the Romans, who were advancing in the direction of the Araxes, but was ruined by his own confidence and generosity. Hormisdas, jealous of his first successes, seized this oppor- tunity of humbling him, and sent a distaff with a woman's dress. The soldiers felt not less indignation at this insult than their general, and openly revolted. Bindoes, of the Sassanian family, was brought from the dungeon in which he had been confined by the tyrant's order, and putting the monarch in chains with his own hands, surrendered him to public judgment — a mode of proceding unknown in the annals of the East. His subjects unanimously condemned him ; his eyes were burnt out with a rod-hot iron, and his second son, in whose favour he had offered to abdicate, was torn in pieces. Chosroes II. (Khosru Purveez), the eldest prince, was placed on the throne, 590, and endeavoured to mitigate the condition of his father. Hormisdas was removed from his prison, but only to be exposed to the merciless bowstring of the impla- cable Bindoes. With the aid of the Emperor Maurice, Chosroes. who had flod to him for protection, was restored to his throne, and Varanes compelled to take refuse among the Turks, when sorrow and yexation hastened his death. Public rejoicings and executions marked the rees- tablishment of the lawful sovereign, who punished Bindoes, the assassin of his father. The Grecian emperor, was repaid by the cession of Martyropolis, Daria, and all Persarmenia. The Christians hoped that their religion would gain by this change ; but Chosroes remained faithful to the worship of the magi. ITALY. Theodoric. — This monarch, who laid the foundation of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths, had been educated as a hostage at the court of Con- stantinople. Having formally received the government of Ita'j from Zeno,he crossed the Alps with a large Gothic army, in 489, and defeated Odoacer near the ruins of Aquileia. He followed up his advantage by attacking Ravenna, to which the latter had fW with 20,000 men; and after a siege of almost three years, became King of Italy on the assassi- SIXTH CENTURY A. D. 17y nation of his unfortunate rival, 493. Following the example of the latter Caesars, he abode at Ravenna, and had his claim to the regal title formally recognised by the emperor. Little is known of the ieign of Theodoric, but that he preserved internal tranquillity, and was also honoured by the respect of foreign nations. Without quitting Italy, he added to his kingdom Illyria, Pannonia, Noricum, and Rhaetia. The Bavarians became tributary ; and many German tribes sought to be admitted to the privilege of living under his laws. He increased his territories by his war with the Burgundians and the Franks. He rebuilt the walls of Rome, restored the ruined theatre of Pompey, cleared and repaired the aqueducts and public baths, built a cathedral at Ravenna, and palaces at Verona and Pavia. The Roman police, customs, and laws were maintained ; and although himself an Arian, he in no instance oppressed the church which maintained the Nicene faith. The cruel deaths of Symmachus, 525, and Boethius, 526, have left a deep stain upon his character: and at length, after an active life, he sank, con- science-stricken, to the grave, 526, leaving the throne of Italy to Athalaric, under the regency of his mother Amalasontha. The empire of the Goths now fell to pieces ; the Visigoths of Spain refusing to recognise the infant king, elected Amalaric, son of Alaric II., whose power was acknowledged as far as the mouths of the Rhone. Totila succeeded to the throne in the year 541, his predecessor Vitiges having been led captive to Constantinople. He successfully resisted the attacks of eleven hostile generals, and even captured Rome, 546. He fell in the battle of Taginae, and although Teias with his brother Aligern struggled manfully against their enemies, with him ter- minated the Gothic dominion in Italy, which now became a province of the empire, 552. The chamberlain Narses, by a prudent administration promoted, as we have seen, the wealth and tranquillity of the country ; but a fierce nation was rising near the Danube, which in 568 overran the greater part of the peninsula. The Lombards. — This German tribe, originally dwelling on the banks of the Oder, had been settled in Pannonia by Justinian in 527, as a barrier against other warlike nations. At the invitation, it is said, of the disgraced Narses, the whole people marched for Italy, and crossed the Julian Alps without resistance, 568. Alboin soon reduced all the country, except Rome, the exarchate of Ravenna, and a part of the eastern coast. Pavia, which he afterwards made the capital of his do- minions, resisted his arms during a three years' blockade. He did not live to reap the fruits of his successful enterprise, as he fell a victim to domestic treason. It was the custom of this savage people, on certain occasions, to quaff from the skulls of the enemies they had slain in battle. One day, when heated with liquor, he sent to his wife Rosa- mond the skull of her father filled with wine, requesting her to drink it. The insulted queen obeyed, but in a short time caused her husband to be assassinated, 573, and rewarded the murderer with her hand in mar- riage. After the violent death of Cleph, who had succeeded Alboin, the Lombard dukes allowed the throne to remain vacant, and substituted a federative government; but internal divisions and the necessity of union against the Greeks and Franks, brought them back to monarchical principles. Their kingdom, however, did not acquire stability until Autharis mounted the throne, 584, who, " touching with his spea- a 180 MIDDLE ACES. column on the sea-shore of Rhegium, proclaimed that ancient land-mark to stand the immovable boundary of his kingdom :" but a premature death removed him, 590, before he had time or means to make good this boast. In the reign of Agilulf, whom the widowed queen, Theolinda, had married, the nation enjoyed the sweets of peace for the first time; and the joint exertions of these two sovereigns, aided by Pope Gregory, propagated Christianity among the Lombards, encouraged agriculture, and commenced the civilisation of these savage people. Feudality. — The system of feudal polity received its first regular establish- ment and legislative provisions from the Lombards of Italy. Alboin had intrusted the command of several conquered districts to thirty-six dukes, who within two years after his death, became so many confederate independent princes. Apprehensive for their safety, when attacked by the Greek emperor and the Franks, they agreed to pay to the king each the half of his revenue, and to provide a body of troops to be placed at his disposal ; the duchies being liable to forfeiture tor felony, and revertible to the crown if no male heir (a major) were left. FRANCE. Clovis, a. d. 481. — At the age of fifteen, Clovis (properly Chlodwig or Ludwig, i. e. Louis) inherited the little kingdom of Tournay, in right of his father Childeric, the son of Meroveus. The Franks at this period were divided into Ripuarians and Salians. The country lying between the two streams of the Rhine, from Coblentz to Wesel or Cleves, formed the kingdom of the Ripuarian section, whose chief resided at Cologne The Salians (said by the learned Schoell to derive their name from the xiver Yssel) obeyed several chiefs, whose territories were respectively Terouenne-, Tournay, Cambray, and Mans. Beauvais, Soissons, Amiens, Troyes, and Rheims with their respective dependencies, were all that belonged to the Romans in Gaul. Syagrius acknowledged, in form only, the supremacy of the Byzantine emperors after Rome had fallen. Alsace and Lorraine belonged to the Allemanni, a Teutonic federation, which occupied also the country between the Rhine and the Moselle, with Swabia, Hesse, and a part of Franconia. Armorica, between the Mayenne and the sea, belonged to the Britons who had fled from their country at the approach of the Saxon invaders. The Burgundian establishments had increased, and in addition to Western Switzerland they occupied the valley of the Rhone as far as the Durance. The kingdom of the Visigoths lay on the left bank of the Loire. Clovis first directed his arms against Syagrius, and defeated him, 486, in a battle near Soissons, which city afterwards became the residence of the conqueror. The Roman general, who had sought refuge at the court of Toulouse, was given up by Alaric II. to the vengeance of the royal Frank. In 496, he repulsed the Alemanni with dreadful slaughter at Tolbiac (Zulpich, near Cologne), and compelled the cession of their territories between the Moselle and the Rhine, and on the right bank of the latter river, between the Maine and the Neckar. It was during this battle, when his soldiers were wavering, that he vowed to be baptized, if the God of his Christian wife Clotilda, niece of the Burgundian Gun- debald, should grant him the victory. Policy also was a motive for his conversion, as he thus attached to him by firmer bonds his new Gallic subjects, who were all believers. He was baptized in the cathedral of SIXTH CENTURY A. D 181 O o H W > © o o h 3 03 3 O H C3 N3 B d OT tn «o en OJ to S. S- « "3 s w SB * o O o 3 r< o a o E:?d 2. o 00 £1 * I ■ CTQ H » 16 182 MIDDLE AGES. Rheims, with his sister and 3000 of his warriors ; at which time the Celestial oil, still used in the coronation of the kings of France, was said to have been brought down from heaven by a snow-white dove. The title of Most Christian Majesty, borne by the French monarchs, was conferred by Pope Anastasius on Clovis, who compelled Gundebald and the Britons of Armorica to pay him tribute. He next crossed the Loire ; and the battle of Vougle cost Alaric II. his life, 507. The Visigoths, however, recovered Septimania, which remained long united to the des- tinies of Spain ; the Franks kept Aquitania, and the Burgundians resumed their ancient frontiers. Returning from this expedition, the conqueror fixed his residence at Paris, where he inhabited the palace built by Julian. Here envoys from the Emperor Anastasius brought him the purple mantle and the golden crown, emblems of the patriciate, a title revered by the Gauls, as legitimatizing their obedience. On the death of Clovis in 511, his kingdom, like a personal estate, was divided among his four sons. Childebert had Paris; Thierry, Metz; Clodomir, Orleans; and Clo- taire, Soissons, with their respective territories. The history of these princes and their successors is a mournful tale of civil wars and assas- sinations, arising chiefly from the partition of the royal power at the death of each monarch. In 558, the supreme authority was re-united for a short period in the hands of Clotaire, whose dominions extended from the Pyrenees to the Bohemian mountains, and from the Zuyder Zee to the Mediterranean. Note. — The whole series of French monarchs has been divided into three races. The first or Merovingians began with Clovis, 481-750; the second or Carlovingians with Pepin, 751-987 ; the third or Capetians with Hugh Capet, 987, to which belongs the reigning family of Bourbon- Orleans. Brunehaut and Fredegonde. — Clotaire, at his death, 561, left four sons, Sigebert I. king of Ostrasia,* Chilperic I. king of Soissons, Cari- bert of Paris, and Gontran of Orleans and Burgundy. The elements of discord arising from this partition were increased by the death of Cari- bert, whose estates were dismembered by his three brothers. The inequality of the shares occasioned a brief civil war, which terminated in the reconciliation of the inimical princes, and the double marriage of Sigebert with Brunehaut, and Chilperic with Gualsinda daughter of the Visigoth Athanagild. But the King of Soissons having put his wife to death that he might be united to her domestic, the sanguinary Frede- gonde, Brunehaut swore to avenge her sister, and to punish the woman who had usurped her place. ' These hostile feelings gave rise to an intestine war, which, during half a century, desolated France, and filled the royal house with crimes. The Ostrasians defeated the Neustrians at all points, and shut up Chilperic in Tournay. But an emissary of Fredegonde murdered Sigebert at the very moment he was proclaimed king of Neustria. The former prince regained his kingdom ; Brunehaut was detained a prisoner, and her young son Childebert, removed from the vengeance of Fredegonde, was taken back to Ostrasia, when the leudes or nobles were seizing on the government, 575. * Ostrasia (commonly written Austrasia) or East France (Oster-reich), was a province adjacent to the Rhine; Neustria, or New France, containing the kingdoms of Paris, Soissons, and Orleans, extended from Ostrasia to the Loire. A third division, Lorraine, the kingdom of Lothaire {Lotharii regnum) lay between the Rhine, the Meuse, and the Scheldt. SIXTH CENTURY A. D. 183 Gontran, desirous of arresting the encroachments of Chilperic, adopted Childebert II., who forgot this kindness, and formed an alliance with the King of Soissons. Peace was, nevertheless, concluded; but Fre- degonde, to reign without control, procured the murder of her husband in 584, and governed under the name of her infant son, Clotaire II. The usual disorders and wars ensued, when, to arrange their discordant interests, and to prevent fresh troubles, Gontran, Childebert, and Brune- haut, in concert with their chief officers, drew up the famous treaty of Andelot, by which the King of Burgundy was confirmed in his succes- sion to the ruler of Ostrasia. Childebert did not long enjoy his uncle's inheritance ; his two sons, Theodebert II. and Thierry II. 59G, separated Ostrasia and Burgundy, so lately united. Frank Laws. The Salic laws are supposed to have been drawn up, about 421, by com- mand of a monarch of the Salian Franks.* The Ripuarian Franks, dwelling on the bank {ripa) of the Rhine, had also their code ; and the Burgundians their law of Gundebald, 502. By the first and most ancient of these laws, which may serve as a specimen of the rest, homicide was punished with fines varying from 50 to 600 pieces of gold. Questions of right and wrong were decided by judicial combats — a practice still subsisting in the modern duel. The conquered territory was equitably divided among the victors ; not in per- petuity, but yearly, on the condition of bearing arms in the common cause. Thus arose the peculiarity by which females were prohibited from inheriting landed estates, and, by a forced interpretation of its clauses, the crown of France can never descend but to a male heir. The prisoners of war became slaves ; the descendants of the haughty Romans were condemned to cultivate the fields and tend the cattle of their masters, who exercised over them a power of life and death, and made them a subject of traffic. t SPAIN. At the commencement of the fifth century, Spain had been invaded by the Suevi, Vandals, and Alans, who inflicted everywhere the most frightful ravages, so that we hear of the natives being compelled to feed on human flesh. The Suevi and Vandals occupied the ancient Galicia, comprising Old Castile and Leon ; hence arose the kingdom of the Suevi under Hermanric, a. d. 409. The Alans were spread over Lusi- tania, while another Vandal tribe took possession of Baetica ; the Tarra- conensis alone at this time belonging to the Romans. Ataulphus, after the settlement of the Visigoths in France in 412, crossed the Pyrenees two years later, and became the founder of the Gothic monarchy in Spain; but he was unable to subdue these various savage hordes, being stopped in his career by the hand of an assassin, 415. Wallia, having been proclaimed king, continued the plans of his predecessor, and forced the Alans to seek refuge among the Vandals. The Suevi were threaten- ed in their turn, but obtained favourable conditions of peace, and were allowed to remain in the north-west of the peninsula. Wallia's ser- vices were rewarded by part of Aquitaine, with the city of Toulouse, which was during the greater part of a century the Visigoth capital. * The Salic code begins with the following elaborate eulogy on the people by whom it was formed : — " Gens Francorum inclyta, auctore Deo condita, fortis in armis, firma pacis focdere, profunda inconsilio, corpore nobiliset incolumis, candore et forma egregia, audax, velox. aspera," &c. t See Guizot, History of French Civilisation, p. 333, &c. 184 MIDDLE AGES. Theodoric, the next monarch, was killed in hattle against Attila at Chalons, 451. By Thorismond the frontiers of the kingdom were extended to the Loire, 456 ; while Euric, the murderer of his brother, expelled the Romans from Spain, and added to his possessions Berry and Auvergne, ceded to him by the Emperor Julius Nepos, and Pro- vence, which he obtained from Odoacer, 477. Such was the power of this monarch, that he received ambassadors from the Franks and Bur- gundians, from the Ostrogoths encamped in Pannonia, from Odoacer king of Italy, and from the Persian monarch. Under his son and suc- cessor Alaric II. the Goths lost, by the defeat near Poitiers in 507, all Gaul with the exception of Septimania. Gesalic, his natural son, was deposed by Theodoric the Great", the father-in-law of Alaric, who declared himself guardian of his grandchild Amalaric. This monarch reigned from 526 to 531 ; and by his outrageous behaviour to his wife Clotilda, daughter of Clovis, drew upon himself the vengeance of the Franks. Under Recarede, 586, all the people with their sovereign entered the bosom of the Catholic church, and allowed such privileges and influence to the bishops that the national assemblies soon became little more than ecclesiastical synods. About 570, the Suevi also em- braced the Christian faith. BRITAIN. Heptarchy. — The Jutes and Saxons, having once obtained a footing in Britain, were speedily followed by numerous tribes of adventurers ; and in a short time England was divided into seven kingdoms, called the Saxon Heptarchy,* which frequently acknowledged the sovereignty of one ruler, called Bret-walda — sovereign of Britain. The ancient inhabitants did not yield without resistance. King Arthur, who died in 542, ruled over the Cornish Britons, and from his successful struggles against the invaders, became one of the favourite subjects of poetry and romance. The numerous colonies that emigrated to Armorica, to which they gave the name of Bretagne, spread his renown still more widely. But in spite of the services rendered to his countrymen, he was not without enemies among them ; the title of king reducing him to the necessity of drawing his sword against the Britons almost as frequently as against the Saxon invaders. He fell mortally wounded in battle against his own nephew, and was buried at Glastonbury. As the cir- cumstances of his death were not generally known, his re-appearance was long expected ; and for several ages the credulous people in their distress looked for the interposition of their brave deliverer. Saint Augustine. — About a. d. 560, the Anglo-Saxon occupation of a great part of Britain was completed, bringing with it the most terrible disasters to the native population. The ferocious conquerors extirpated the arts and religion of the inhabitants, and endeavoured by a promiscu- ous slaughter to depopulate the country. The language was entirely changed; civilisation perished ; and the people were fast relapsing into their original barbarism, when Gregory I. was induced to send mis- sionaries to convert the Saxons to Christianity, and to establish the supremacy of Rome, 596. St. Augustine failed in obtaining the sub- * This term conveys an erroneous idea, as at no one period were there seven distinct and independent kingdoms.— See Palgrave and Turner. SIXTH CENTURY A. D. 185 mission of the nativeclergy to his church, but succeeded in extending the faith throughout all the Saxon tribes. Ethelbert, king of Kent, was baptized, chiefly at the suggestion of his wife Bertha, who was a Chris- tian, and the majority of the enslaved inhabitants, professed the same belief. From the British islands issued, in the seventh and eighth cen- turies, those courageous preachers who perfected in Germany the work commenced by Saint Rupert, bishop of Salzburg. Columba, Kilian, Wilfrid, Willebrod, and Swibert, were the precursors of Winifrid (Boniface), the great apostle of Germany. Winifrid was born in Devonshire, and after extending the temporal as well as spiritual limits of the church, the good bishop, with fifty of the companions of his labour, was put to death at Dokkum, in Friesland, 755. THE CHURCH. Among the chief conquests of evangelical truth during this period must be reckoned the conversion of the Franks and Saxons. The par- ticulars of the former event have been already given ; and to understand fully the account of the latter it will be necessary to subjoin a few remarks. The Anglo-Saxon conquest did not entirely obliterate the Christian faith which had been planted in Britain in the time of Ter- tullian and Origen, and had seen Alban, its proto-martyr, perish in the persecution of Diocletian. At the council of Aries in 314, the Bishops of York and London were present; but war and the influx of barbarians had produced the usual result, which was corrected by the mission of St. Augustine. The Vandals in Spain, the Burgundians in Gaul, and the Lombards in Italy, abandoned Arianism ; nevertheless heresy was still flourishing, particularly in the Eastern Empire, where the authority of the councils was exerted in vain. Three writings, known as the Three Chapters, had been published in the time of Nestorius in favour of his heretical opinions. Two of the authors had been present at the synod of Chalcedon ; and the third being dead, they had united with their colleagues in condemning the doctrines of Eutyches. The Euty- chians, in the hope of weakening the authority of that council, endea- voured to procure the condemnation of the three chapters; but, after numerous debates, another convocation was summoned at Constanti- nople, which censured all works really pernicious, and thus avoided any attack upon the assembly at Chalcedon. Its decisions were obeyed with the respect due to the learned men who drew them up, and by gen- eral consent the synod was regarded as the fifth general council. Gregory I. the Great. — This celebrated pope was sprung from a distinguished family; his grandfather Felix had filled St. Peter's chair before him, and saints were reckoned among the number of his female relatives. While nuncio at the Byzantine court, he boldly assumed a tone of independence, which his subsequent conduct did not belie. Being raised to the pontificate in 590, during more than fourteen years he assiduously watched over and advanced the interests of the church. Pelagius the Infallible had preceded him in 578 ; but Gregory, far from assuming any presumptuous title, even reproved the Greek patriarch (John the Faster) for calling himself the oecumenical or universal bishop, condemning it as devilish, humbly styling himself the servant of the servants of God. He revised the liturgy ; arranged the yarious details of the religious ceremonies ; and introduced the celebrated chant which 16* 186 MIDDLE AGES. bears his name. He established the ecclesiastical system by determin- ing in a fixed manner the proper ritual, the division of parishes, the calendar of festivals, the service and costume of the priests and deacons, and, finally, by arranging all the imposing orders of the Romish cere- monial. On the other hand, he burnt the Palatine library, and warred against the arts by destroying the temples and mutilating the statues which the Goths had spared. Benedictines. — In a. d. 527, St. Benedict of Nursia, in the Apen- nines, founded twelve convents near Subiaco in the neighbourhood of Rome, and next year the celebrated monastery of Mount Cassino, in the territory of Naples. Before his time, each fraternity had its peculiar customs ; he created the real statutes of the order. His simple and edifying rule, besides prescribing prayer, manual labour, study, and the instruction of youth, enjoined the three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. The administration and discipline of each community were intrusted to an abbot, chosen from the society by the free suffrages of the monks. In 595, Gregory accorded the apostolic sanction, permitting the inmates to possess an oratory, and to enjoy the spiritual labours of a priest taken from the bosom of their fraternity. In time, most of the cenobites entered the priesthood, without renouncing their condition. The Nicene council of 787 conferred on the abbots the right of admit- ting monks into the inferior orders of the clergy. The Benedictines were industrious and charitable men. In the midst of deserts they reared convents, the asylum of misfortune in an age of brutal violence and rapine. The active inhabitants tilled the earth, drained marches, cleared forests; hamlets,, villages, and considerable towns sprang up around their walls ; and in the convents were deposited the literary treasures of antiquity, which in many instances were indebted to them for preservation. SEVENTH CENTURY. Greek Empire. — 602, Phocas. — 610, Heraclius. — 622, Chosroes defeated. — 672, Constantinople besieged by the Saracens. — 685, Justinian II. Persia. — 618, Chosroes, d. Arabia. — 570, Mohammed born. — 622, Hegira. — Koran; Son?ia. — 634, Omar. — 640, Alexandrian Library burnt. — 660, Ommiades. Italy. — 643, Lombard Code. — 697, Venice — First sole Doge, Anafesto. France. — 613, Clotaire.— 678, Pepin.— 688, Sluggard Kings— Mayors of the Palace. Spain. — 600, Christian Religion introduced. The Church. — 606, Papal Supremacy ; (Ecumenical — Image Worship. Literature. — Fortunatus; Isidore of Seville ; Gregory the Great. Inventions. — Quills for writing. — Chess in India. GREEK EMPIRE. Phocas, a. d. G02, repulsive in person as well as in character, com- menced his tyranny by the massacre of all the imperial family. Maurice was dragged from the sanctuary in which he had taken refuge, and his SEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 187 five son J were murdered before his eyes; after which the heads of the deposed monarch and his children were exposed on the walls of Con- stantinople. The wife of the emperor was afterwards decapitated with her three daughters in the place which had witnessed the murder of her husband. Every province was ripe for rebellion, which was encouraged and headed by Priscus, Maurice's son-in-law, and by Heraclius, exarch of Africa. A fleet from Carthage boldly sailed up to Constantinople, and in a short time the cruel despot, by his death, paid the penalty of his crimes. Heraclius, the deliverer of the empire, was elected to the vacant throne, a. d. 610 ; and soon after was compelled to turn his attention to the Persian war. Ciiosroes II. had been forced by internal dissension to take refuge in Constantinople ; but, aided by Narses, he defeated his rivals and recovered his crown, 591. At a later period, simulating dis- gust at the crimes of Phocas, he made war upon the Greeks, overran the country westward of the Euphrates, and conquered Syria, 611. Palestine was subdued in 614; and twenty-six thousand Jews, who followed his banners to attack Jerusalem, are said to have massacred ninety thousand Christians. The victorious career of the Persian monarch reduced Heraclius to great distress, which was increased by the devastations of the Avars, who nearly succeeded in taking his capital, 619; and in their retreat carried off 270,000 captives. A series of misfortunes had so depressed the spirit of Heraclius that he meditated the removal of the seat of government to Carthage ; but the patriarch was opposed to the change, and the empire was saved by the liberality of the clergy. Peace was made with Chosroes on ignominious terms, — the annual payments of 1000 talents of gold, and the same amount of silver, silken robes, horses, and fair maidens. Fortune now deserted the Persian arms, when the emperor, in six adventurous campaigns, beginning in 622, retrieved his own honour and that of his country. Boldly carrying the war into the enemy's territories, he landed a numerous and enthusiastic army in Cilicia, and defeated Chosroes. The vanquished prince was compelled to recall his armies to defend their own country, and the rapid conquests of Heraclius may remind us of Hannibal or Napoleon. The battle of Nineveh, 627, fought on the ground once covered by that remarkable city, w T as followed next year by an honourable peace, concluded with Siroes, the successor of Chosroes who had been deposed by his subjects, and compelled to witness the murder of his eighteen sons. The return of the conqueror to Europe was one continued triumph. Ambassadors from the Franks and from India came to offer their congratulations; but the empire was exhausted by these victories ; and in order to repay the sums advanced by the church, it was necessary to raise a second time from the devastated provinces the amount of taxes which had been already paid. Two hundred thousand soldiers had perished ; and at the same time there appeared on the frontiers of Syria an enemy more ter- rible than any that had hitherto menaced the empire. Heraclius, attacked by the Mussulmans in 632, lost Syria and Egypt; and the emperor terminated his reign by a theological discussion and a religious war. His death, in 641, was hastened by intelligence of the capture of Alexandria, which event he survived only a few weeks. Seven rulers of the Heraclian family successively mounted the throne, 1S8 MIDDLE AGES. which they stained less by bloodshed than by personal vice. The first was Constantine III., whose hundred days of empire were terminated by poison, and Heracleonas succeeded, only to be deposed, before the year expired, in favour of Constans II., 641. Ascending the throne when scarcely twelve years of age, he thus addressed the senate: — " By Divine Providence, .Martina and her incestuous progeny have been driven out; and I exhort and beseech you to stand forth as the coun- sellors and judges of the common safety." But the murder of his brother Theodosius proved that these sentiments were not very deeply seated. The astonished people and army drove this second Cain into exile, when, odious to himself and mankind, he perished at Syracuse by the hand of a slave, 668. Constantine IV. (Progonatus) put out the eyes of his two brothers, and left the crown to Justinian II., a vicious and foolish boy, who dishonoured his name by his cruelties, and by the choice of the ministers of his pleasures. For ten years he filled the city and country with sounds of horror, when Leontius, who had been released from a tedious imprisonment, and raised to the government of Greece, headed a successful revolt. "Christians! to St. Sophia's!" was the cry ; and there the patriarch delivered an inflammatory discourse on the text — "This is the day of the Lord!" Justinian was deposed, and, after mutilation, exiled to Chersonae, in the Crimea, 695, where he learnt that his successor had been dethroned in his turn, and Tiberius (Jpsimar) elevated in his stead, 698. He therefore renewed his claim to the empire; and, uniting with the Bulgarians, appeared before the capital with 15,000 horse, and was restored without striking a blow. His revenge was sweeping: the Chersonites, who had displeased him during his exile, were devoted to slaughter — "All are guilty, and all must equally perish," being his savage mandate. The nobles were executed at their own doors, drowned in sacks, or killed by pouring molten lead down their throats. Johannicius of Ravenna was permitted to write his will with his own blood : " Oh God ! deliver us from the tyrant!" was all he wrote, before he dashed his brains out against the wall. The patience of his subjects became exhausted; the troops and provinces renounced their allegiance; Justinian fell by the stroke of an assassin ; and with his son Tiberius, who had vainly taken refuge in a church, perished the family of Heraclius, 711. PERSIA. Chosroes II. — Under the pretence of avenging Maurice, Chosroes invaded the Byzantine provinces of Asia, 603. Syria and Palestine yielded to his arms ; Pelusium, the key of Egypt, capitulated ; and the Persian trophies were fixed on the ruins of the Greek colony of Cyrene. Another army advanced to the Thracian Bosphorus ; Chalcedon was taken after a long siege; and the Persian army encamped for more than ten years in sight of Constantinople. If Chosroes had possessed a fleet it would have been difficult to assign bounds to the progress of his vio torious arms. Yet the difference of manners and language, the intoler ance of the magi and schismatic Christians who followed in his train,- were an inseparable barrier between the conquered and the conquerors, and would soon have shattered to pieces the mightiest empire. He himself appeared to mistrust the stability of his power, by exhausting SEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 189 the tributary nations with heavy exactions, and transporting into Persia all the riches of the vanquished provinces. At the end of six years, Chosroes demanded a large sum as the con- dition of abandoning- the siege of the Grecian capital ; but the inhabitants, finding courage in their despair, resolved to employ their means in com- bating rather than in enriching their enemies. The victories of Heraclius have been already described, the results of which were the capture of the Persian treasures, the recovery of three hundred standards, and the delivery of a numerous body of prisoners in 627. The fugitive did not think himself secure until he had placed the Tigris between him and the Romans. But his pride was not yet completely humbled : his obstinacy irritated the Persians ; and Siroes, one of his sons, conspired with the discontented to seize the throne, to the prejudice of his younger brother, who had been appointed successor. Chosroes was deposed ; and, as has been already stated, eighteen of his children were put to death before his eyes; and he himself died in prison at the end of five days, 628. With him ended the glory of the Sassanides. His unna- tural son enjoyed the fruits of his crime only eight months; and eight competitors assumed the kingly title within four years. This anarchy continued eight years longer, until the country was subdued by the Arabs. To Chosroes belongs the distinction of restoring the ancient limits of the Persian monarchy from the Hellespont to the Nile, and thus con- tributing indirectly to the propagation of Mohammedanism. His magnificence rivalled that of Xerxes. Nine hundred and sixty elephants, with 20,000 camels, and 6000 horses, w r ere maintained for the transport of his baggage, or for the pleasures of the chase. Eighteen thousand guards in succession were stationed within and around his palace. Forty thousand plated columns with a thousand golden globes supported the roof of his palace ; and a hundred vaults were filled with gold, silver, precious stones, and all the subsidiaries of luxury and refinement. ARABIA. At the beginning of this century the Arabian peninsula became the scene of a remarkable revolution, the effects of which may still be traced over great part of two continents, and some of the fairest portions of Europe. Remote from the civilized world, that country was scarcely known but as the land of spices or of frankincense ; and the inhabitants, with few brief exceptions, continued to preserve their independence. They were a hardy, hospitable people, nursed to habits of war by the discipline of a pastoral life. In their native deserts they are invincible ; and the legions of Napoleon as well as those of Augustus found in them an untiring enemy. The various tribes are independent, but unite in periods of emergency under some popular sheik or chief. They, particularly the Bedouins, are robbers by profession ; stranger and enemy being with them, as among the ancient Romans, synonymous terms. Their language is exceed- ingly copious ; their poems, tales, and proverbs proclaim their wit and fancy. Sabaism, or the worship of the heavenly bodies, was the prevailing superstition ; and the temple or Caaba* of Mecca was known even to the Greek writers. * Arabian traditions relate that Jshmael took up his abode and built a temple on the spot where the angel showed the fountain to his wearied mother. This is the famous Caaba, the centre of Mussulman worship, the point to which every Mohammedan turns at his devotions, in what part soever of the world he may be. The well of Zem-zem, near the temple, is said to be the well of Hagar; and there is still to be seen on a black stone what is called the imprint of Abraham's feet. Around the Caaba the town of Mecca was formed by the children of Ishmael and the concourse of devotional strangers. 190 3IIDDLK AGES. Their altars were sometimes polluted by human sacrifices. The revolutions of surrounding nations had driven many peaceable men to seek the Arabian deserts, in search of that quiet which the Byzantine court was unable to afford them. Six hundred years before Mohammed, Jews had settled in that coun- try ; and the Himyarite kings of Yemen had embraced the Jewish religion at the commencement of the fourth century a. d. The Bible was already trans- lated into Arabic, and the Christians successively retiring from persecution, carried with them and propagated their peculiar tenets. Thus was the way prepared for the daring impostures of the Prophet. Of the early history of Arabia little is known : Alexander the Great aspired to its sovereignty, and a Greek colony can yet be traced among the hills in the island of Socotra. The efforts of Augustus and Trajan to subdue it were in vain. About a. d. 50, Mareb, the chief town of the Sabaeans, — the ruins of which may still be seen, — was swept away by the bursting of an artificial lake formed in an elevated valley towards the north-west. In 529, the Negush of Abyssinia invaded and reduced the country, governing it by means of deputies. But Arabia soon recovered from it? misfortunes, though their effect is still perceived in Europe. The conquerors introduced the smallpox, which subsequent intercourse propagated through the world. Its visitations at first were dreadful „nough rare ; and nearly one hundred years elapsed before it reached Italy and Germany. Mohammed, a. d. 570, sprung from the tribe of Koreish and the family of Hashem, the hereditary guardians of the Caaba, was the only son of Abdallah and the Jewess Amina. In early life he was bereaved of his parents ; and, after spending many years in the Syrian caravans, at the age of twenty-five he entered the service of the rich widow Cadi- jah, whom he afterwards married. His person was majestic ; and, with a countenance that charmed all beholders, he possessed no common vein of eloquence. He was not less an enthusiast than an impostor ; and from his early youth had been in the habit of retiring to solitary caverns for the purpose of meditation, where he formed that mighty scheme of fraud, which, under the name of Islamism, he at length proclaimed to the world, 609. His wife and one or two others of his family were his first converts ; three years elapsed before he had increased their number to fourteen. Twelve years had passed before they were augmented to six score, when the hostility of the Koreish compelled him to leave Mecca. This " flight" to Yatreb, under the name of the Hegira, be- came the memorable epoch of Mohammedan nations, dating from Friday, 16th July, a. d. 622.* Acclamations of loyalty and devotion hailed the entry of the prophet into the city, which afterwards received the name of Medina, or the City of the Prophet. Here he began to exercise at once the regal and sacerdotal authority, and to be worshipped as a superior being. " I have seen," said an astonished ambassador from Mecca, " Chosroes of Persia, and the Caesar of Rome, but never did 1 behold a king among his subjects like Mohammed among his com- panions." War was soon declared against all infidels, and the doctrine * To reduce the Mohammedan to the Christian era: — Multiply the years elapsed by 970,203 ; cut off 6 decimals ; add 622.54. and the sum will be the year of the Cnristian era, and decimal of the day following, in old style. To reduce the Christian era to the Mohammedan .-—Subtract 022 from the current year ; multiply by 1.0307; cut off four decimals, and add .4ti: the sum will be the year and decimal of the day, old style. SEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 191 proclaimed that the sins of every one who fell in battle would be for- given. Blinded by prosperity, he had the audacity to summon the most powerful monarchs of the earth to embrace Islamism ; and we are told that when a Roman magistrate in Syria put to death one of his ambas- sadors, he did not hesitate to fall upon an army of 30,000 men with a small body of undisciplined troops. With an inconsiderable force he attacked the Koreish, and defeated them in several battles, 625. Four years afterwards, Mecca submitted to his arms, and the whole peninsula shortly after yielded to the " apostle of God." Nor was the ambition of Mohammed confined to the narrow limits of Arabia, for he was on the point of entering on a new career, when a languishing disease recalled him from the Syrian frontiers. Perceiving the approach of death, he boldly submitted his past life to the scrutiny of his people, saying, " If there be any man whom I have unjustly scourged, I submit my own back to the lash." At the age of sixty-three, the great impostor was removed from the earth, in 632. The caliphs, as his successors were called, in less than one hundred years, spread their conquests and their creed, from India to the Atlantic Ocean, — over Persia, Syria, Egypt, Africa, and Spain. The Koran. — The religious doctrines of Mohammed are contained in the Koran. The Book, for such is its title, is filled with stories from the Old Tes- tament and parables borrowed from the New. He asserted that it was brought in fragments from heaven by the angel Gabriel, and appealed to the pure classical style of the work as a proof of its divine origin. It comprises a mass of tales, visions, discourses, laws, precepts, and counsels, in which truth and falsehood, the sublime and the ridiculous, meet side by side. Each sura (chapter) bears the superscription — "In the name of the kind and merciful God." The first verse is always preceded by three mystical initial characters, whose meaning the Moslem theologians dare not penetrate. Mistaken in his opinions of the Trinitarian doctrine, and deluded by the image-worship of the Eastern Christians, the author declaims often against their polytheism and idolatry. " In what consists Islamism ?" asked an angel in the guise of a Be- douin. " To profess," replied Mohammed, " that there is but One God, and that I am his prophet ; to observe strictly the hours of prayer ; to give alms ; to fast in the month of Ramadan ; and to make the pilgrimage to Mecca." " It is so in truth," said Gabriel, making himself known. Mohammed called his religion Islam (resignation to the will of God), and excluded all others under the pretence that its founder was the last and greatest prophet sent from God ; by whom the law of Moses and of Jesus was perfected and accomplished ; — and that as Christ abrogated the Jewish religion, so did the son of Abdallah the Christian. Five times in the twenty-four hours do the Mussulmans (the saved) repeat their prayers, turning their faces towards Mecca ; and during the monthly fast of the Ramadan they abstain from eating and drinking while the sun is above the horizon. Friday is their day of public worship. The resurrection, the day of judgment, and fatalism are part of their creed. After the day of judgment, the good and bad have to cross a narrow and perilous bridge (al Sirat) over the abyss ; the former being upheld by angels, the latter falling headlong into the first of the seven hells. The right- eous, being admitted into the seventh heaven, near the throne of God, will recline on the softest couches, be fed with the most delicious food, clothed in the richest garments, and waited upon, each by seventy-two black-eyed houris of resplendent beauty, youth, and purity. The doctrine of predestination was skilfully employed by Mohammed to advance his designs, encouraging his fol- lowers to combat without fear, on the assurance that no caution could avert their fate or prolong their lives one moment. Polygamy was authorized by the Koran, although it reduced within certain limits a custom prevailing in Asia many ages before his time. Besides allowing four legitimate wives, a les% formal marriage was also permitted. 192 MIDDLE AGES. The Arab legislator inculcated tolerance towards the Christians, Jews, and Persian disciples of Zoroaster ; but this was always purchased by a kind of capitation-tax. Consult : Preface to Sale's Koran ; Gibbon's Decline and Fall. The Caliphs. — Four caliphs were successively elected to occupy the seat of Mohammed, by the suffrages of the leaders of Islamism. Abubeker, chosen in 032, gave the signal for a holy war, in fulfilment of the vow of the prophet, who had summoned all true believers to the conversion of the infidels. Omar, the second caliph, 634, saw the three great countries bordering on Arabia submit to its yoke ; in the caliphate of Othman, 644-655, these conquests were made permanent, and the power of the Arabs received a new lustre from their first naval victories. The virtuous Ali seemed destined to put the legislation of the prophet in harmony with the extent of the Mussulman dominion; but the five years of his reign were troubled by civil war, and, like his two prede- cessors, he fell beneath the blow of a fanatic, who thus unintentionally 'confirmed the triumph of the rebel Moawiyah, and the establishment -of an hereditary dynasty, 660. Conquest of Syria, a. d. 632. — Under the direction of Abubeker, two armies issued from the Arabian peninsula ; one of them marched into Syria, the other, under the command of Khaled, surnamed the Sword of God, advanced towards the Euphrates. Abu Obeidah, at the head of the former, crossed the Jordan, and besieged Bostra with the fanatic cry of " Fight! fight ! Paradise ! paradise !" The town fell, and Damascus was attacked. Heraclitus, roused by a sense of danger, ordered an army of 70,000 men to hasten to the defence of this city But these succours were in vain ; for, after an obstinate engagement at Aiznadin, the imperial forces were utterly routed, and Damascus was taken after a siege of seventy days, 634. Jerusalem, having been closely blockaded during four months, capitulated, 637, and the conquest of Syria was almost immediately achieved. Taking of Arrestan. — This city was reduced by Abu Obeidah, in a manner that will forcibly remind the classical student of the wooden horse by which Troy fell. He requested and obtained leave of the governor to deposit in the citadel some old lumber which impeded the rapidity of his march. Twenty large boxes were filled with men, and carried into the castle : the general then marched away, leaving only Khaled with some chosen troops in the neighbourhood to act in concert with the adventurers. While the Christians were returning thanks for the departure of their enemy, the soldiers removed the sliding bottoms of the chests, and made their way out. The sentries being overpower- ed, the great church was surprised and converted into a garrison. Khaled came to their assistance as soon as he heard the appointed signal ; and the towm was taken without further opposition.* Reduction of Egypt, a. d. 638-640. — Amrou, a man of mean birth, but of great ability, was commanded to invade Egypt. Having already distinguished himself in the Syrian campaign, he now boldly, at the head of only 4000 Arabs, took Pelusium and invested Memphis. The siege was protracted for seven months, when the city was taken by assault ; and on its ruins, or rather on those of the suburb of Babylon * Ockley's History of the Saracens, vol. i. p. 185 SEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 193 on the eastern bank of the Nile, was built the modern city of Cairo, or the Victory. The submission of the Coptic Christians enabled the invaders to turn their arms against Alexandria, the reduction of which was the most important enterprise in the whole of the Arabian contests. After a siege of fourteen months, and the loss of 23,000 men, the cres- cent of Mohammed was raised above the Cross, 640. We are told that Amrou found in the city 4000 palaces, 4000 baths, 400 theatres, with 40,000 tributary Jews. The lives of the inhabitants were spared ; but in the destruction of the celebrated library, by the express command of Omar, we have to regret the " irreparable wreck of the learning, the arts, and the genius of antiquity." The possession of Egypt led to the conquest of Northern Africa; though sickness and want of provisions compelled the Mussulman forces to retreat after a successful expedition in Cyrenaica and Tripolitana. Cyprus, Rhodes,* and the Cyclades were conquered, 653 ; in the East the Mohammedans advanced to the Euphrates, the Tigris, and beyond these barriers even to the Oxus, thus completing the subjugation of Persia, 652. Ommiades. — As soon as Ali was proclaimed caliph, a. d. 656, he resolved to subdue the Ommiades, whose ambition had given him umbrage, and displaced Moawiyah, the chief of the family, from the government of Syria. This prince refused obedience to the order, and assuming the title of Emir of the Believers, marched against the legiti- mate caliph. During one hundred and ten days, the two armies con- tended almost incessantly ; and the victory was yet doubtful, when three fanatics swore to put an end to the civil war by assassinating Ali, Moawiyah, and Amrou. Ali alone perished, and by his death left the sceptre to his rival. His two sons Hassan and Hosscin, bore the title of caliphs, and their descendants were regarded by the Mussulmans of Persia as the only legitimate successors of the prophet ; but the Ommiades did not the less inherit the power. This revolution was fol- lowed by another; and the caliphate became hereditary instead of elective, 660. Mohammedan Sects. — The dissension between Ali, the prophet's son-in- law, and the first three caliphs, gave birth to a schism which yet disturbs the unity of Islam. The one party are called Sonnites, because to the Koran they add the Sonna (tradition), another collection of laws and precepts which fell from the lips of Mohammed. t They respect the memory of Abubeker, Othman, Omar, aud Ali, but assign the lowest degree of sanctity to the last. The Turks belong to this sect. The other party are called Sheeahs (schis- matics), recognising the authority of the Koran alone, and consider Ali as the vicar of God. not inferior to the prophet himself. The Arabians and Persians hold the opinions of this sect. Moawiyah transferred the seat of empire to Damascus, a. d. 661, and to gain some popularity to his dynasty, recommenced war against the infidels. The Africans had been already compelled to pay tribute to their conquerors ; but when the emperor wished to impose another by * The ruins of the celebrated Colossus, or statue of Apollo, after they had Iain scat- tered on the ground eight centuries, were collected and sold by the Saracens. The weight of the metal is said to have laden 900 camels. t The Sonna or oral law was first committed to writing by the pious Al Bochari, about a. d. 800. In Ockley's History of the Saracens, the reader will find many pathetic stories of the calamities of Ali and his sons. 17 194 MIDDLE AGES. way of fine, the assistance of the Arabs was implored against this tyranny. In 605, the Greeks were defeated and lost eighty thousand men. The Arabs had now begun to form a navy, and were eminently successful in their early maritime expeditions. Six times their fleets appeared before Constantinople, but were as often repelled by the terri- ble Greek lire. These armaments having exhausted the resources of the caliphate, Moawiyah solicited peace, which was granted on his con- senting to pay a tribute of fifty horses, as many slaves, and three thou- sand purses of gold, 677. At his death, three years afterwards, a civil war broke out ; but the unity of the empire was re-established by the devotion of the brave Hegiage, who destroyed successively all the ene- mies of the house of Ommiyah. Under Abdel Malek, India was con- quered ; and during the government of his son Walid I. communications were opened with China, — a circumstance that should be kept in mind, since it is probable that from the latter country the Arabs derived part of their knowledge in science and manufactures. The writers of that nation are the first who make mention of a spirit extracted from rice, of tea, porcelain, and other Chinese commodities. Africa Reduced. — The unsettled state of affairs interrupted the war in Africa twenty years ; but in 692, Hassan, governor of Egypt, com- menced a series of expeditions, which reduced the whole northern coast; and about the end of the century, the fearless Akbah spurred his horse into the waves of the Atlantic, sighing, like another Alexander, for new worlds to conquer. Carthage fell in 698, and Africa was irre- coverably lost to the Greek empire ; but the wandering tribes of Bar- bary did not submit so easily to a new government which threatened their independence. Their Queen Kahina forced Hassan to retire ; nor was it till the death of this heroine that any advantage was gained by the Arabian forces. Musa completed the conquest of this part of Africa ; and by degrees the inhabitants, deserting Christianity, embraced the religion of a people who, by their similarity of manners, encouraged the belief of a common origin. ITALY. From a. d. 568, the peninsula was divided between the Lombard kingdom and the exarchate of Ravenna, w r hich still acknowledged the authority of the Byzantine emperors.* The Lombard sovereigns were virtuous and able; peace and happiness adorned their government; and Italy began to recover from the devastations of the two preceding cen- turies. A brief period of discord led to the accession, in 636, of Rotharis, duke of Brescia, who signalized his reign by his conquests and his code of laws. The prudence of this king was shown in his respect to religious affairs; the Arianism wiiich he professed not making him unjust to his orthodox subjects. After his death in 652, the Lom- bard monarchy w r as agitated by ambitious dukes who coveted or usurped * The exarchate, properly so called, contained the cities of Ravenna, Bologna, Iniola, Faenza, Ferrara. Adria, Gommachio, and Forli. with the Pentapolis, or that territory which included Ancona, Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, and Sinigaglia. It was governed by ail exarch invested with civil and military authority; under him various dukes ruled in Rome, Gaeta, Naples, Syracuse, and other great cities of the Peninsula, Dalmatia, and the Italian Islands. This state of affairs continued until the first half of the eighth century, when the quarrel between the iconoclasts and the ambition of Astolplms wrought important changes in the condition of Italy. SEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 195 the c;own, and threatened by the Emperor Constans II., who wished to re-establish the seat of empire in Italy. Doge of Venice. — About a. d. 697, the inhabitants of the Adriatic isles assembled at Heraclea, and elected Paulo Anafesto duke, with the insignia of royalty, without however rejecting the supremacy of Con- stantinople. By subsequent limitations, the power of the doge was reduced within very narrow bounds, and his office became a sort of ducal mayoralty for life. In authority he was merely a counsellor ; in the city, a prisoner of state, and out of it, only a private person. The great council of 480 citizens was principally composed of men of high birth, and invested with the appointment of their head and all the inferior magistracies. The senate consisted of the sixty Pregadi, the forty judges, the college of Savii, the council of ten, and formed an intermediate body between the nobles and the executive. They imposed taxes, and declared war or concluded peace. The three state inquisi- tors were superior to all the citizens, not excepting even the doge. Criminal justice was administered by a tribunal of forty, annually chosen from the great assembly. By the laws of 1296 (the Serralura del Consiglio), 1298, and 1300, all those who had not been in the great council within the four preceding years, were for ever debarred from election to that assembly, thus establishing an exclusive hereditary aristocracy. Much discontent was manifested at these proceedings, and several insurrections took place with the object of framing a more popu- lar form of government. Such is a meagre outline of an avowed aris- tocracy which governed larger territories and endured a longer period than any other upon record. Already at this early period Venice had its fleets, and these she placed at the service of the Exarch Eutychius, to aid in driving the Lombards from their more recent conquests, by which they became unwelcome neighbours both to the republic and to Rome. Read ; Spalding's Italy and the Italian Islands, 3 vols., in the Edinburgh Cabinet Library. FRANCE. Clotaire II., a. d. 613. — The disputed succession of Alsace led to a civil war between Thierry and Theodebert, in which the latter, after having been defeated at Tolbiac in 612, was decapitated by order of his brother, by whom he was followed to the grave in the subsequent year. Brunehaut, seconded by the patrician Protadius, vainly endeavoured to maintain one of the sons of Thierry on the throne ; for Clotaire gained the ascendency, and won over the Ostrasian leudes, whom the queen had exasperated by her violent opposition to their claims. This ao-ed female was surrendered to the mercy of the son of Fredegunde, and by him put to death with barbarous cruelty. In 613, Clotaire re-united the different, members of the monarchy, and by an edict issued from the national assembly held at Paris, he reformed the kingdom, and gave securities for the public peace, which was not again broken during his reign. Mayors of the Palace. — The mayor of the palace (major domus) was originally what his title signified — the chief of the king's domestics. Under princes of unripe years or feeble character, he easily usurped al 1 the powers of the state. Warnachaire in Burgundy and Radon in Os 196 MIDDLE AGES. trasia had been declared immovable by Clotaire, with the consent of the nobles, who had long - had a voice in the nomination of these ministers, and who appear finally to have had the exclusive power of election. It was not until after the time of Dagobert I. that the govern- ment passed entirely into the hands of the mayors. Dagobert. — Clotaire II. died in 628, and was succeeded by Dago- bert, his son, who had been six years king of Ostrasia. He conferred Aquitaine on his brother Caribert, who reigned three years at Toulouse, and died not long afterwards, when his eldest son was recognised as king. Dagobert, however, caused him to be poisoned, and gave Aqui- taine as an hereditary duchy, to another of his nephews, who became the founder of a long line of princes, which terminated, in 1503, in the person of Louis of Armagnac, duke of Nemours, killed at the battle of Cerignole. The reign of Dagobert offers no remarkable event, except the invasion of Ostrasia by a Sclavonic tribe, who had elected to the kingly station a Frank merchant named Samon. Some time after, Judicael, duke of Bretagne, whose subjects committed incessant ravages on Western France, came to Clichy soliciting the alliance of the Frank monarch. Dagobert expired in 638, after a reign of some splendour, the honour of which belongs not so much to the sovereign as to the mayors Arnulph, Pepin of Landen, Ega, and to the goldsmith Saint Eloi, who administered the king's finances and presided over the magnificence of the court. Sluggard Kings.* — With Siegbert II. and Clovis II., respectively monarchs of Ostrasia and Neustria, begins the list of Sluggard Kings — for by that name were the ten feeble successors of Dagobert I. charac- terized. Forty years after, the right of succession called Thierry III. to the united throne of the triple kingdom, 678 ; when the Ostrasian nobles, indignant at the favour shown to their enemy, the mayor Ebroin, abolished the royal title, and chose their dukes in the persons of Pepin d'Heristal and Martin the grandson of Saint Arnulph. Hostilities ensued with the mayor of Thierry III., in which Martin perished. Pepin, thus left sole duke, became bolder in his designs, and attacking Neustria, ended the war in 687 by the victory of Testry, which placed the chief portion of Western France in his hands. Pepin d'Heristal, now become absolute master in the two kingdom;*, strengthened his power by the defeat of the tributaries who had as- sumed independence during the Frank dissensions. Three times he disposed of the Nuestrian crown, and dying, bequeathed the mayoralty to his grandson Theodobald and his widow Plectrude, passing over his illegitimate son Charles, 715. * Michelot remarks of these latter Merovingian kings, that they appear to be a parti- cular race of men ; they were all parents at fifteen, and old men at thirty. Few of them attained the latter age: Caribert II. died at the age of twenty five years ; Sigebert II. at twenty-six ; Clovis II. at twenty-three ; Childeric II. at twenty-four ; Clotaire III. at eighteen ; Dagobert II. at twenty-seven, &.c,—Hist. de France, tome i. p. 280. y - > > 3 CO cd c s. ^1 CD CD CD "2. 3' 3 o cd K cd crq CD ^>crq r p SEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 197 re ^i -^ V - p is 3 3 H > a t a* I— I to •— ' 00 •r. P H 13 >• S crq ° 7T a 5" f

a IT 1 H ?-; co O 3 co crq p hh 3 17* 198 MIDDLE AGES. SPAIN. The two successors of Recardede, Liuva II. and Vitteric, died by assassination. Gondemar gained a few advantages over the Greeks, who were driven out of Spain by Sisebert, 612-620. This prince, cele- brated for the composition of a not inelegant Latin poem on the eclipses of the sun and moon, conquered Tangier and Ceuta, as well as part of Mauritania. His son Recardede II. died shortly after his coronation ; and his second son Suintilla, was nominated his successor by the bishops ; but was overthrown by Sisenand, governor of Septimania, 631. Under this ruler, the fourth council of Toledo declared that no one could ascend the throne without the consent of the prelates and the chief officers of state ; that the king should take oath not to pronounce any judgment on capital matters without the advice of his court; that the bishops might summon to the councils, or exclude from them, any persons whatever ; and that, finally, the ecclesiastics should be exempt from charges and taxation. Thus was Spain placed under the control of a sacerdotal aristocracy. Chintilla, a. d. 636, expelled the Jews from Spain, in obedience to the orders of the sixth council of Toledo, which further decreed that no election of a successor should take place during the life of the reigning king. Tulga, deposed by the nobles, left his crown to Chindasvind, who associated his son Recesvind with him on the throne. The latter still further augmented the power of the bishops, repelled an invasion of ths Gascons, and defended Mauritania against the first attacks of the Arabians. His successor Wamba, 672, had to check the numerous revolts which broke out on every side, and was at length deposed after several successful campaigns against the Mussulmans. The noble Erwiga, instigated by the Archbishop of Toledo, mixed opium in his wine, cut off his hair during sleep, and took away the silver keys, the ensigns of royalty. On his awaking, the sovereign not unwillingly resigned a throne which he had accepted only on compulsion. The new king Erwiga was compelled to reward the services of the head of the Spanish church by new concessions, and by the privilege of nominating to the vacant sees. By this act the crown lost almost the only useful prerogative which remained, for the great civil and military dignities having become hereditary, the king had no other means of opposing the nobles than by filling the bishoprics with trusty men. Under Egiza, 687, the Jews formed secret relations with their African brethren, in the hope of receiving protection and aid from the Saracens. The plot having been discovered, the exercise of the Jewish worship was forbidden ; children of seven years old and under were taken from their parents to be educated as Christians ; and all who apostatized were deprived of their wealth and liberty. This reign was disturbed by the claims of the Archbishops of Toledo, who were desirous of conducting the affairs of the kingdom by a regency. Witizen beheld the increase of the factions, to which he himself became a victim, 710: being de- throned by Roderick, the son of a nobleman whose eyes he had ordered to be torn out. THE CHURCH. The true doctrines of Christianity were fast becoming ob^'ared in the East, from the ambition of the patriarchs and the subtle spirit of tho EIGHTH CENTURY A. D. 199 people. Heraclius, who was said to have recovered the relics of the True Cross from the hands of the infidels, — a victory still celebrated in the Romish ritual, — did not confine himself to opposing- the enemies of the empire, but mingled in theological discussions and controversies on the faith. The Eutychians had modified their opinions to give them new vigour, and the patriarch Sergius openly disseminated their heresy, which tended to confound the divine and human nature of Christ. The emperor published an edict in favour of the Eutyehian dogmas, and Pope Honorius, deceived by a letter of Sergius, forbade all discussion of their errors. This disposition to temporize alarmed the orthodox, and Sophronius, bishop of Jerusalem, wrote to inform the Pope of the real state of affairs. John IV., who then occupied St. Peter's chair, con- demned the error, and also the imperial decree which defended it. A short time before his death Heraclius disavowed his edict; but his grandson Constans II. again reasserted it, and deposed the venerable pontiff. Constantine Pogonatus, wishing to restore peace to the church, convoked the sixth general council at Constantinople, 680, at which the papal legate presided. The errors of the monothelites were condemned as well as all their followers, and this heresy became ever after con- founded with that of the Eutychians. Triple Crown. — The emperor Anastasius having invested Clovis with the dignity of patrician and consul, sent him a crown of gold ; the king of the Franks presented it to Pope Symmachus, 498, and it was the first of those which composed the papal diadem. The second was added by Boniface VIII., who ascended the spiritual throne in 1294 ; and the third by John XXII., 1316. — The title of pope, it should be observed, was not exclusively applied to those who held the see of Rome until Hildebrand issued a bull to that effect, towards the close of the I lth century. Before the time of Sabinianus, 604, they were simply styled bishops. EIGHTH CENTURY. Greek Empire. — 717, Leo III. — Saracens at Constantinople. — 726, Iconoclast War. — 797, Empress Irene. Arabia. — 711, Northern Africa and Spain subdued.— 749, Abbassides.— 786, Haroun al Raschid. Spain. — 711, Arabians in Spain. — 755, Independent Caliphate. Italy.— 715, Pope Gregory II.— 774, End of Lombard Kingdom.— 795, Leo III., first Bishop of the West. — 728, Luitprand takes Ravenna. — 749, Astolphus. France.— 714, Charles Martel.— 732, Victory of Tours— 752, Carlovingian Dynasty — Pepin. — 768, Charlemagne. Church.— 720, Dionysian or Vulgar Era introduced.— 769, Worship of Images. Literature. — Bede, d. 735; Boniface, Apostle of the Germans, d. 754 ; Alcuin, d. 804. GREEK EMPIRE. Isaurian Dynasty — A space of six years divided into three short reigns separated the fall of the Heraclian from the rise of the Isaurian Dynasty. Justinian II., put to death in 711, was succeeded by Philip- 200 MIDDLE AGES. picus Bardanes, a general raised to the throne by the voice of the soldiery ; bat this adventurer, after a reign of two years, was over- thrown by his secretary Artemius, who governed in the name of Anasta- sius II. The revolt of the fleet compelled the latter to take refuge among the Bulgarians ; and a new emperor, Theodosius III., succeeded, only to abdicate the following year in favour of a popular officer, whom the army had already proclaimed. Leo, a native of Isauria, had gradu- ally risen from the plebeian rank to the throne, which he had scarcely usurped before his capital was closely besieged by the Arabs. During thirteen months Constantinople was blockaded by land and sea, and was saved only by its lofty walls and the terrible Greek lire. He next quelled a revolt in Sicily, but compromised his success and the peace of the empire by theological disputes. In 726, he interdicted the wor- ship of images, and, in spite of the discontent manifested by the people, broke all the statues in the churches. The inhabitants of the Cyclades, the Italian Greeks, and above all the Romans, refused to obey the imperial decrees; still Leo, unyielding in his faith and his decisions, enforced their execution at the risk of losing several valuable provinces. Constantine V., Cuprotiymus, 741, a dissolute and sanguinary tyrant, showed scarcely less iconoclastic zeal than his father. His reign was celebrated, however, by the recovery of Armenia and Syria from the Arabians ; by the defeat of the Bulgarians ; by the redemption of many captives ; and by his judicious measures for repeopling the almost deserted Thracian cities. Leo IV., 775, reigned only five years, and left the crown to Constantine VI., Porphyrogenitus, nnder the regency of his mother Irene. The worship of images was restored in 787, by the resolutions of the second Nicene council, at which three hundred and seventy bishops condemned the impiety of the innovators. Irene, who was as adroit as she was ambitious, endeavoured to withdraw her son from public business ; her schemes prospered until he reached his twentieth year, when she was condemned to exile in a palace on the shores of the Propontis. But here by her intrigues she contrived to seduce the affections of the army and the citizens, by whom he was dethroned and deprived of his eyes. The reign of the unnatural mother, now become sole empress, was not unaccompanied by external splen- dour ; yet the public indignation being excited, she was dethroned by her treasurer Nicephorus I., 802. In her solitude at Mitylene siie earned a scanty subsistence by the labours of her distaff. ARABIA. Walid, a. d. 704, and Soliman I., endeavoured to render themselves masters of Constantinople, but their armies were compelled to retreat with loss. Their want of success in the east of Europe was compensated by the conquest of Spain in the west, 711. Here again they found themselves too weak to contend with the warlike children of the north; for, after the dreadful battle of Tours, the Saracens were driven igno- miniously across the Pyrenees, 732. Internal dissensions now began to prevail : the immense empire of the Caliphs of Damascus, composed of elements so various and so suddenly brought together, had not acquired consistency enough to preserve its unity. In other respects, too, the Omniades had failed to conciliate the affections of their subjects, EIGHTH CENTURY A. D. 201 and all eyes were turned upon the family of the prophet. Of these, the Abbassides, who derive their name from the prophet's uncle Abbas, were the most numerous and active. A black banner was adopted as their peculiar badge, while their opponents were distinguished by a white one. The East was convulsed by the conflicts of these parties, till, on the banks of the Zab, victory deserted the reigning caliph, and Mervan II., fleeing to Egypt, was pursued and put to death, 750. The Abbassides. — Abbas immediately set about confirming his power by destroying every one related to the deposed family. One royal youth with difficulty escaped from those who hunted after his life, and, reach- ing Spain, Abdalrahman established the throne of Cordova, whence during 275 years the family of the Omniades governed that peninsula. Almansor, on his accession in 754, had to contend against his uncie Abdallah, who had been proclaimed at Damascus. He conquered his rival after a struggle of five months, and treacherously put him to death. The victor himself was also executed a short time afterwards under the eyes of the caliph, who feared his ambition and his talents. This general, it is said, had sacrificed more than 600,000 persons to the Ab- bassides. His death caused an insurrectiou in Khorassan ; and the commander who put it down, being offended at the disproportionate share of booty taken by the caliph, revolted in his turn, seized on Ispa- han, and was defeated in Azerbijan. To strengthen his throne Almansor was often cruel. The Omniades, with one exception, had been extirpated, but the descendants of AH still survived. These he persecuted with atrocious violence : wishing to discover the hiding-place of Mohammed and Ibrahim, great-grandsons of Hossein, he shut up their father in a close prison; eleven others of the family expired in a dungeon ; one of the Othmans perished under the scourge, and his head was carried into Khorassan and exhibited as that of Mohammed. One of the youths being driven to extremity, at last took up arms, but was defeated and killed with his brother, 762. Mohadi, a. d. 774, a prince as magnificent and prodigal as his father, revived the war against the Greeks, in which his son Haroun, afterwards called Al Raschid (the Just), traversed Bithynia and penetrated to the Bosphorus, whence he menaced Constantinople. By the death of his parent and brother, he was raised to the caliphate in 786, and began the most glorious reign of all the Abbasside dynasty. Haroun al Raschid. — An insulting demand made by the Emperor Nicephorus led to a new war along the Byzantine frontier. Haroun entered Asia Minor, devastating the country with fire and sword as far as the walls of Heraclea, whence the approach of winter compelled him to retreat beyond the Taurus. He soon found it necessary to repass these mountains, though covered with snow, to meet his enemy, who was secretly advancing at the head of all his forces. At Crasus in Phrygia, the Creeks suffered a terrible defeat; and the emperor was reduced to purchase a cessation of hostilities by the payment of a very large sum of money. It was under the character of opponent to the Greek monarch and to the Caliph of Cordova, that Haroun sent an embassy to Charlemagne in 799. The glory of his reign was tarnished by the cruelty which he practised on the illustrious family of the Barme- cides, two of whom, Yahia and his son Jaafar, had the entire manage- 202 MIDDLE AGES. merit of the affairs of his empire. Tiieir popularity excited the jealousy of Haroun to such a degree, that he put them to death, and exterminated almost all their relations. The cultivation of Arabian letters, begun by Almansor, was continued under Harouh with increased brilliancy. The fanatic admirers of the prophet, the successors of the barbarians who had destroyed the library of Alexandria, ap- plii d themselves to the study of the Greek language and the translation of the treasures which it contained. By this means the Arabs acquired the elements of mathematics, medicine, astronomy, natural history, and philosophy. The pupils soon becoming instructors, gave to these sciences an extent and develop- ment previously unknown. They created, it might almost be said the natural sciences — astronomy, chemistry, medicine, the mathematics, algebra, the mechanical arts; and their progress in these pursuits was attested by the splendour of Bagdad, Ispahan, Kufa, Damascus, and Cordova. In the department of literature, the Arabs had their poets and historians, and as metaphysicians they made known the works of Aristotle to the Euro- peans. Wherever they settled, numerous schools arose, — even on the shores of Africa, the constant refuge of barbarism. Spain still preserves the memo- rials of their magnificence ; and while the traveller gazes on the ruins of Moorish architecture, so light and elegant, that everywhere cover her soil, he looks in vain for the 300,000 inhabitants of Seville, and the 200,000 of Toledo. Anciently Cordova was eight leagues in circumference, being only three less than Rome under the emperors, and contained 60,000 palaces, with 283,000 private houses. The diocese of Salamanca comprehended 125 cities or towns, where only thirteen are now to be found. In Seville might be counted 60,000 looms for silk alone, while, in 1742, entire Spain reckoned only 10,000 for silk and wool. SPAIN. Arab Conquest, a. d. 710. — The Goths possessed along the African shore the town of Ceuta and the province of Tingitania, governed by Count Julian, whose treason introduced the Arabs into Spain. Tarik, the lieutenant of the Emir Musa, crossed the straits of Hercules, follow- ed by a small army of 5000 men, with whom he took possession of the castle of Algesiras, and of the rock of Calpe which afterwards bore his name, Gebel-nl-Tarik or Gibraltar. Roderic the Gothic king, at the first news, hastened to repel the invaders, whom he found in the neighbour- hood of Cadiz, increased indeed in numbers, but still vastly inferior to the opposing army. Three successive days were marked by bloody but indecisive skirmishes. On the fourth, however, 16,000 men lay dead on the field of Xeres, and Roderic fled from the battle to perish ignobly in the waters of the Guadalquivir, 712. The victor directed his march to Toledo, which soon fell ; and from that centre, Spain, which had resisted the Roman arms two hundred years, was reduced by the Sara- cens in fifteen months. In the mountains of Asturias the flame of liberty still burn', and thence in a later age rolled down that tide which ceased not till I a> soil of Spain was freed from her infidel invaders, 1 192. The cnn ;• crors manifested great moderation : in all that related to themselves, the Christians were allowed to retain their own laws; they were also permitted to fill certain offices, to serve in the army, to intermarry with the Moslem — their onl) r badge of servitude being a heavy impost. After the recall of Musa, and the tragical death of his son, Spain was governed by deputies, nominated by the viceroys of Africa. Numerous Asiatic colonies spread over the peninsula, advancing agriculture and EIGHTH CENTURY A. D. 203 iommerce, while the natives profited by the advantages of conquest without suffering its disgrace. The Arabs repeatedly invaded France •n maintenance of their claims to the province of Septimania, but they were finally checked by the memorable defeat near Tours, which saved France and Christendom from impending desolation, 732. When the house of the Ommiades was deposed by Abul-Abbas, one member of the family alone escaped destruction and fled to Africa. Here he carried on a correspondence with the principal Spanish sheiks, who prepared an insurrection in his favour, and after an exile of four years, Abdalrahman landed in the peninsula, defeated the Abbasside governor Youssef, and was proclaimed Prince of the Faithful at Cor- dova. Such was the beginning of the caliphate of the West, in 756. Abdalrahman skilfully triumphed over all the opposition raised by the partisans of his enemy, forced the governors of Barcelona and Sara- gossa to submission, and consolidated the throne by a victory over the Emir Magreb, who had landed in Spain to support the disaffected sheiks. The expedition of Charlemagne, originating in similar motives, termi- nated in the submission of the provinces between the Ebro and the Pyrenees. Internal cares prevented the Ommiadan prince from prose- cuting the sacred war with any success. Hashem I. retaliated the Frank invasion by an irruption into Aquitaine, in which the whole country was devastated even to the suburbs of Narbonne, 793 ; and so great was the spoil that the caliph's share amounted to forty thousand gold purses. With this and the aid of his numerous prisoners he com- pleted the great mosque at Cordova, begun by Abdalrahman, and one of the largest of existing edifices. Its length is 600 feet, nearly equal to that of St. Peter's at Rome, and its width 250, almost double that of the metropolitan church in Paris ; 100 columns of marble or of jasper formed the interior enclosure of the cupola ; by means of 993 others it was divided into nineteen naves, all closed by gates of bronze with sculptures in bas-relief, these of the great gate alone being in massive gold ; 4700 lamps illuminated the interior during the night, and con- sumed annually 120,000 pounds weight of oil. Hashem also construct- ed canals and bridges, founded schools for the Arabic language, forbade the use of Latin, and obliged the Christian to relinquish his vernacular tongue. Learned men and poets were encouraged, and the Caliph of Cordova vied in magnificence with the great Haroun al Raschid. Christian Spain. — The peninsula was not entirely conquered by the Arabs ; there still remained a small number of Christians, who, pre- ferring liberty to servitude, had taken refuge in the mountains of As- turias. Here, if any credit is to be given to popular tradition in the absence of historical testimony, they elected Pelayo king, 718, from which period commenced, on the banks of the Douro, that series of crusades which terminated in the conquest of Granada. Pelayo reign- ed over the kingdom of Oviedo, a region extending to between thirty and forty leagues, and defended by encircling mountains. Alphonso the Catholic took Lugo, Leon, Astorga, and many other Castilian cities, with a large portion of Galicia, including Braga and Porto Calle. His son Fruela vigorously executed the ecclesiastical laws, and compelled the ministers of the church to live in celibacy. Continuing his father's career, he annihilated, as we are told, an army of 54,000 Saracens that had invaded Galicia, destroyed another in Castile, and with the spoils 204 MIDDLE AGES. built the city of Oviedo. But he was as cruel as he was brave, and punishing 1 those with death who had refused to follow him, he stabbed one of fits brothers with his own hand. He was himself assassinated soon afterwards. Alphonso, his son, having gained a brilliant victory over the Moors near Burgos, received the crown on the field of battle, 791. This monarch, surnamed the Chaste, again defeated the Arabs at Lugo, fortified Braga, and plundered Lisbon. He founded the cele- brated church Compostella, in which the relics of St. James the Great were said to be preserved. The conquests in Spain of the Moors (so called from Mauritania, whence they embarked for the Peninsula) produced many salutary effects in Europe. The taste for letters rapidly spread from the banks of the Euphrates to the Tagus. The schools of Cordova, in which were cultivated many branches of science unknown to the rest of Europe, became the great resort of the learned Christians of the West. The celebrated Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II., was one of the first who studied in Spain. Agriculture, navigation, and manufactures are greatly indebted to the Arabs : their carpets, gold and silver embroideries, silks, steel-work, and leather, were brought at an early perioa to a high degree of perfection ; and by their means the arithmetical numerals, cotton-paper, and gunpowder were introduced into Europe. ITALY. Origin of the Pontifical Sovereignty. — The earlier part of Luit- prand's reign was occupied in reforming the abuses of the Lombard states, and checking the encroachments of the great vassals of the crown ; the latter, and far more important part, from its influence on posterity, was passed in religious quarrels, which gave rise to the tem- poral power of the popes, and entirely destroyed the imperial supremacy in Italy. Rome, like the Greek cities in the peninsula, was governed by dukes subordinate to the Exarch of Ravenna; but the pontiffs, the spiritual masters of the ancient capital, moderated by the influence of their character the despotism of the imperial officers. An edict of Leo the Iconoclast changed this state of affairs, and disturbed the West, as it had already embroiled the East. Gregory II. protested against the decree, and all the Greeks in Italy, participating in his indignation, expelled their dukes. The inhabitants of Ravenna murdered the Ex- arch Paul and opened their gates to Luitprand, who seized on the Pen- tapolis. At the same time, Rome formed itself into a republic, and confided the supreme magistrative authority of the new state to its bishop, whose temporal power extended from Viterbo to Terracina, and from Narni to the mouth of the Tiber. Gregory II., whose fears were excited by the Lombard possession of the exarchate, entered into a secret negotiation with the newly-formed commonwealth of Venice, which lent its fleet to Eutychius, who, after he had expelled the Lom- bards from his dominions, formed a treaty with them for the recovery of Rome, 729. Gregory III. ascended the papal chair, 731, without soliciting the permission of the emperor, and issued an anathema againsl the Iconoclasts. The irritated Leo sent a powerful fleet against him, but it was scattered and destroyed by a tempest in the Adriatic ; after which event Rome had nothing more to fear from the Byzantine rulers. The elements of discord, which seemed preparing new misfortunes foi Italy, disappeared with the death of the pope and of the eastern monarch, who both descended to the tomb in the same year, 741, whither Luit- prand soon followed them. EIGHTH CENTURY A. D. 205 End of the Lombard Kingdom. — The deposition of Hildebrand, the son of Luitprand, and the abdication of Ratchis who retired to Mount Cassino, raised to the throne Astolphus. He completed the conquest of the exarchate, 752, and summoned Rome to acknowledge him as her lawful sovereign. The citizens hesitated, temporized, and finally im- plored the assistance of the Franks, 754. Pepin, their king, after having employed his mediation in vain, raised an army and crossed the Alps. The Lombards were defeated, and the conquered exarchate was bestowed upon the pope, Stephen III., Pepin being rewarded with the title of Patrician. For twenty years their kingdom continued sinking, while the prudence and craft of Adrian I., aided by the genius of Charlemagne, were preparing to overwhelm their expiring monarchy. Desiderius, the last of the Lombard sovereigns, was betrayed into the hands of the Franks, 774, and ended his life in the retirement of the cloister. Charles assumed the Iron Crown and the title of King of the Lombards. Paul Warnefrid, the chancellor of Desiderius, for his fre- quent conspiracies to restore the independence of his country, was con- demned to lose his eyes and hands, when Charlemagne, imitating the generosity of Caesar, exclaimed, " Where shall we find hands able to write history as these have done !" The authority of the Frank monarch extended as far as the Garigliano; while the country to the south acknowledged the sovereignty of the dukes of Benevento. FRANCE. Battle of Tours, a. d. 732. — Charles Martel (the Hammer), son of Pepin, was mayor of the palace in Ostrasia, having succeeded his father in 714. This great man restored and supported the dignity of the throne, successively crushed by his warlike activity the German and Gallic rebels, and saved Europe from the hands of the Saracens. These enthusiasts having conquered Africa, and crossed the Straits, had over- run Spain, and were already threatening the destruction of France, when they were opposed by Martel, between Tours and Poitiers, 732. The conflict is reported to have lasted seven days, and the Arabs fled, leaving 300,000 of their number dead on the field. "The victory of Charles," says Hallam, "has immortalized his name, and may justly be reckoned among those few battles of which a contrary event would have essentially varied the drama of the world in all its subsequent scenes — with Marathon, Arbela, the Metaurus, Chalons, and Leipsic." The victor endeavoured to complete his triumph by driving the Saracens beyond the Pyrenees, and was so far successful that they were able to retain only the towns of Narbonne, Agde, Maguelone, and Beziers. At the death of Thierry IV. in 737, the throne was left vacant, but Charles, under the title of Duke of the Franks, continued for the remainder of his life to exercise all the functions of sovereignty. Carlovingians. — On the death of Charles Martel in 741, the Frank dominions were divided amongst his sons. Pepin had Neustria, Bur- gundy, and Provence; Carloman received Ostrasia; while Grypho, the third son, obtaining only a trifling share in this partition, conspired with some of the turbulent dukes — to repress whom the title and authority of a king was found to be necessary. Childeric III. was placed on the throne in 742 : Ostrasia, however, recognised no superior but Carloman, 18 206 MIDDLE AGES. who governed as an independent chief. It was this prince who sum- moned the council of Liptines in 743, when the Christian era was intro- duced into Frafice. In 746, he retired into a monastery at Cassino, leaving to Pepin his portion of the paternal heritage. Grypho, again irritated at his exclusion, raised the German provinces in his behalf, but was defeated by his eldest brother, who remained sole master of the empire. When the suffrages of the nation, imperfectly represented by the acclamations of the Camp de Mars, had conferred the regal authority on Pepin, it was confirmed by the authority of the church, in the person of Pope Zachary, 752. A grand revolution was now completed, which reunited into one system all the fragments of the Germanic nation dis- persed over the continent of Europe, and allied indissolubly the con- quering race with the Roman population. The last descendant of Clovis, Childeric III., was deposed, and the Merovingian dynasty was brought to an end after existing 270 years.* Pepin, the first king of the Carlovingian dynasty, a. d. 752, taught by experience and by the faults of his predecessors, had learnt the necessity of strengthening the kingly power, and of elevating by every means this safeguard of public tranquillity. He began by causing his person to be consecrated by Boniface of Mentz, and completed his designs by the entire conquest of Gaul. Septimania was reduced in 759, and Aquitaine in 768. The country now regaining tranquillity, the national assemblies were regularly held, and no endeavours were spared to remedy the grievances of the preceding reigns. Desirous of preserv- ing the crown in his family, and procuring the favour of the church, he readily agreed to the prayer of Stephen III., and not only rescued him from his Lombard enemies, but added the conquered exarchate of Ra- venna and Pentapolis to the patrimony of St. Peter. Charlemagne, a. d. 768. — In a general assembly of the chiefs of the nation, the inheritance of Pepin was divided between his two sons : Charles had Neustria and Aquitaine ; Carloman, Ostrasia and Bur- gundy. The two brothers, from the very first, regarded each other with jealousy ; but the death of the latter in 771 prevented the consummation of a rivalry that w r ould have weakened both kingdoms. The entire Frank monarchy was now seized upon by the survivor, to the prejudice of his nephews, who, with their widowed mother, took refuge at the court of Desiderius the Lombard, whose generous reception of Queen Geberge was one cause of the Italian war. " Charlemagne," says Sismondi, " claimed as a saint by the Church ; by the French as their greatest king; by the Germans as a fellow- countryman; by the Italians as their emperor; is placed, in a measure, at the head of all modern histories." When the death of his brother had re-established the unity of the Franks, Charles found himself in possession of a power superior to that of any of his predecessors. He began a series of expeditions which had for their object the protection of his kingdom against the invasions of the German tribes on the north, and of the Saracens on the south. He subjugated the Lombard king- dom, 774, and next carried his victorious arms against the Saxons, who, * The family of Clovis descended to a private station, and it is conjectured that the posterity of the founder of the French monarchy is represented by the noble house of Montesquieu. EIGHTH CENTURY A. D. 207 often vanquished by the Franks but always restless under their yoke, had promised Pepin to receive missionaries into their country. The imprudent menaces of St. Libwin having irritated them against Christianity, they burnt the church of Deventer in Holland, which act of violence served as the pretext for hostilities that, with only some interruptions, endured thirty years. This war is divided into three periods, namely, from 772 to 777 ; from 778 to 785, terminated by the peace of Horxheim ; and from 792 to 803. The ascendency was at length achieved by means which shock every feeling of humanity.* 1 At Verden, in 782, he caused 4500 prisoners to be massacred in cold blood. Witikind, the second Arminius of Germany, the chief of the warlike Saxons, embraced the gospel, and acknowledged the sovereignty of Charlemagne, after which his name disappears from history. While engaged in the Saxon war, Charles had promised to restore certain Spanish emirs whom the Caliph Abdalrahman had deposed from their governments. Crossing the Pyrenees, he received the doubtful submission of the people of Biscay and Navarre, destroyed Pampeluna, but suffered defeat before Saragossa. Returning into Gaul, a confederate army of Basques, Saracens, and Asturians attacked him in the valley of Roncesvalles, when his rear-guard was cut in pieces to a man. In this fatal day the hero lost his most illustrious companions: Egghiard, his seneschal; Anselm, warden of the palace; and the famous Roland, warden of the frontier of Bretagne, whom the ties of glory even more than those of blood attached to the person of the monarch. f Charlemagne, having visited Rome in order to quell a tumult which had been excited against Pope Leo III. by the nephews of that pontiff's predecessor, was consecrated Emperor of the Romans by the grateful occupant of the papal chair, a. d. 800. His territorial possessions war- ranted him in claiming the additional title of Emperor of the West. All France, with the exception of Brittany, acknowledged his power ; beyond the Pyrenees, the Spanish march, comprising Rousillon and Catalonia, Navarre and Aragon, was subject to his jurisdiction ; while in Germany, a line drawn from the Elbe through Magdeburg and Passau would have marked his eastern frontier. Many other nations were his tributaries : indeed, all that part of Europe which lies between the Ebro and the Elbe, the frontiers of modern Naples and the Eyder, sub- mitted to his sway. The ceremony, which conferred on Charlemagne the imperial title, raised him in the general opinion far above the kingly power, and invest- ed him with absolute dominion. It broke the last and feeble links which still united Rome and Constantinople, and introduced new rela- tions between the imperial courts. It has been supposed that Leo III. meditated the chimerical design of reuniting the two empires by the * Among the severities of Charlemagne was the institution of the Secret Tribunal of Westphalia, a sort of inquisition appointed to prevent the apostasy and rebellion of the Saxons. This terrible system of judicial administration lasted till 1H50. when the great elector, Frederick William, shocked at its enormities, effected its formal abolition.— See Coxe's Letter on the Secret Tribunal of Westphalia. |The exploits of Roland, presented to the imagination of the warriors of the middle ages by the military song that bears his name, and which led the Normans to victory at Hastings, were above all rendered popular by the romantic history of Charlemagne and Roland, ascribed to Turpin, archbishop of Rheims, a.d.7?3; but which bears internal evidence of having been composed about the time of the First Crusade, in the eleventh century. 208 MIDDLE AGES. two churches by the marriage of Charles with the Empress Irene, who had just succeeded her son on the Byzantine throne. The Frank monarch expired in 814. Observations on the Life, of Charlemagne. I. Political life. — Independently of those conquests by which Charlemagne acquired two-thirds of the Roman empire, he is worthy of our notice as a greaf legislative reformer. Two national assemblies (placita) were held annually, to which all the clergy and laity repaired to enact such laws as the public weal required. His cares extended alike over the most distant as the nearest parts of iiis vast empire, and by his public acts he endeavoured to promote the hap- piness of his people. This led him to reform the coinage ; to establish the legal divisions of money ; to repair old and construct new roads; to found schools ; to collect libraries ; to build bridges ; and to facilitate commerce by uniting the ocean with the Black Sea, by cutting a canal from the Rhine to the Danube. The Capitularies of Charlemagne, first collected in 827, prove that he was not unacquainted with the rights of property, and what was consistent with the liberty of the subject. All weighty matters concerning life or goods were tried before a kind of jury, with an appeal to the sovereign. Special judges (missi regii) were also appointed to hold assizes from place to place, to inquire into the administration of justice, enforce its execution, and expel those who misconducted themselves in their various judicial offices. II. His literary life. — His acquirements were probably not very great, as, until the age of thirty-two, he was ignorant of the first elements of science. It is doubtful if he could write ; and Mabillon says, " he had a mark to him- self, like an honest, plain-dealing man." He spoke several languages, and daily received lessons from eminent teachers in the seven liberal arts.* He gathered about him the learned of every country ; founded an academy in which he took the name of David, and the accomplished Englishman Alcuin, that of Horace. III. His private life exhibits the characteristics of a barbarian and a con- queror. He was addicted to the pleasures of the chase, and regardless of human life ; but he was affable in conversation, temperate in his repasts, and simple in his dress. A hundred and twenty guards watched every night around his bed, each holding in the one hand a drawn sword, and in the other a burn- ing torch. Mr. Hallam thus sums up his character: " He stands alone like a beacon upon a waste, or a rock in the broad ocean. His reign affords a solitary resting-place between two long periods of turbulence and ignominy, deriving the advantages of contrast both from those of the preceding dynasty, and of a posterity for whom he had formed an empire which they were unworthy and unequal to maintain." THE WORLD IN THE TIME OF CHARLEMAGNE. End of the Eighth Century. Western Empire. France. — Charlemagne possessed nearly all France, great part of Germany, the half of Italy, part of Spain, and was the arbiter of the remainder of the West. The language of the Franks was still Teutonic, and continued so until the middle of the ninth century. Eastern Empire. Irene, stained with the blood of her son, reigned at Constantinople, and administered justice from the Bosphorus to the Adriatic. Tottering on a throne * The sciences had long been divided into two parts, the tririum and quadrivium ; the first comprehending grammar (t. e philology), logic, and rhetoric; the second, music, arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy. Few persons mastered the latter four, and to be perfect in the three former was rare. EIGHTH CENTURY A. D. 209 never free from the violence of rebellion and fanaticism, pressed on the north by the Bulgarians, attacked in different quarters by the Mohammedans, this celebrated woman, an extraordinary mixture of great virtues and greater crimes, of talent and weakness still preserved the empire. Empire of the Caliphs. Haroun al Raschid was master of great part of Asia and all the northern coast of Africa. He was obeyed from the Imaus to Mount Atlas. Secondary Powers. Denmark resisted the ambitious designs of Charlemagne; and Godfrey, while he closed the entrance to this peninsula against the troops of the Frank conqueror, sent forth from Norway those swarms of warriors which made successive descents upon the Western Empire. Sweden and Russia were as yet insignificant powers ; and Poland, already become an elective monarchy, was of little importance. Bohemia was the prey of the barbarous Sclavonians, whom the thirst of plunder had attracted into Germany. The Huns, successors of the ferocious people who had devastated Europe, settled at last in Pannonia, from which country they attacked the frontiers of the Western Empire. Under the name of the Avars they carried terror to the gates of Constantinople. Spain presented a great battle-field for the Moors and Christians. The latter, though inferior to their enemies in number, riches, and knowledge, were more warlike and united ; and, by unwearied courage and constancy, gradually enlarged their boundaries. The South of Italy was disputed by the Saracens and Greeks. Rome, apparently submissive to Charlemagne, favoured the popes, who con- stantly endeavoured to extend their influence, temporal and spiritual. Venice, placed between two powerful empires, affected to recognise the sovereignty of the one which was too weak to be feared, and thus avoided the yoke of the other. England was about to begin her glorious career. The numerous states into which the country was divided were gradually united to the kingdom of the West Saxons. Construct : A map of Europe, with the boundaries of the governments as they existed at the end of the eighth century, distinguishing the Mohammedan from the Christian states. THE CHURCH. The union between the Greek and Latin churches was threatened &t the close of the seventh century by the controversy respecting- the wor- ship of images, which ended in the revolt of Italy, the temporal power of the popes, and the restoration of the Empire of the West. In reject- ing the Pagan creed, many of the early Christians still clung to its superstitions ; and the images of the gods and heroes of antiquity, under new names, were still regarded as objects of adoration in the churches. The reproaches of the Jews and Mohammedans, with the victories of the latter, awoke the more rational portion of the Greeks to a sense of their condition. Leo the Iconoclast proscribed trn use of images and religious pictures, and the eastern churches were cleansed from idolatry in 726. In a general council held at Constantinople, 754, after six months' deliberation, it was unanimously agreed that all visible symbols of Christ, except the eucharist, were blasphemous; and that image- worship was not only a corruption of Christianity, but a renewal of Paganism. The imperial edicts founded on this decision were no received without frequent tumults ; and the daring malecontents, headec 18* 210 MIDDLE AGES. by some unscrupulous monks, endangered the emperor's person, and even ventured to attack the city. The Bishop of Rome was far from approving of these measures ; and Gregory II., in a letter to the Emperor Leo, had the boldness to maintain that the use of images had descended from the apostolic ages. Carrying his zeal or ambition still further, he excommunicated the Greek emperor, and proceeded to take possession of the exarchate. In the synod of Rome, 769, called the council of the Lateran, it was ordered that images should be honoured according to ancient tradition, and the Greek council of 754 was anathematized ; but idolatry was not extirpated in the East. The Empress Irene called a seventh general council — the second of Nice — by which the worship of images was restored, 787, and its decisions were confirmed by Pope Adrian I. During the five succeeding reigns the contest was maintained between the two parties with undiminished vigour and varying success. It is honourable to the churches of the West — France, Germany, Spain, and England — that they took a middle course, at once reproving the fury of the Iconoclasts and the superstition of the Greeks. All the laws of Charlemagne were favourable to the clergy, at that time the sole depositaries and dispensers of learning; and, in a great number of mixed diets held by this prince, the bishops in concert with the sovereign were anxiously engaged in promoting the spiritual and temporal prosperity of the church. The decrees of the general council of 787, having been misunderstood by the Gallican clergy, were con- demned by three hundred prelates at Frankfort, 794, who did not, how- ever, adopt the errors of the Iconoclasts. In this latter council were abjured the heretical doctrines of Felix, bishop of Urgel, who, distin- guishing two natures in Jesus Christ, maintained that, considered as a man, the son of Mary was the son of God by adoption only. The second general council, held at Constantinople in .381, had caused to be inserted in the Nicene creed the doctrine that the Holy Ghost pro- ceedeth from the Father ; to which, in 653, the eighth council of Toledo added " and the Son" (filioque) — a clause not long after adopted intG the Gallican ritual. Pope Adrian I., alarmed at this innovation, sub- mitted it for the examination of the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle, 80!), by whom the addition was recognised, and, although rejected by the Greek church, received in a short time the papal approbation. The popes were not temporal sovereigns before the invasion of Italy by Pepin, although they doubtlessly exerted considerable political in- fluence. They were the subjects of the Greek emperor, and their inter- ference with the civil magistrate was confined to mere admonition. The most violent defenders of the papal encroachments have been com- pelled to acknowledge as fabulous the pretended donation made by Con- stantine to Sylvester I., 314. Those forgeries of Isidore, known by the name of the False Decretals, appeared about the end of this century.* But the ambition of the Frank monarchs led to far more dangerous con- sequences ; and the appeal of Pepin to Pope Zachary was assumed as * Saint Isidore, archbishop of Seville, who died in 636, had made a collection of all the canons of the Spanish churches which were most favourable to the papal assump- tions. Riculf, archbishop of Mentz, brought them into France, and being spconded, it is supposed, by the monk Isidore Mercator or Peccator, disseminated them throughout the country, having previously interpolated several pretended letters of the earliei popes. EIGHTH CENTURY A. D. 211 a precedent for al] the subsequent usurpations of the Vatican. The donation of the exarchate of Ravenna to the Bishop of Rome, and its confirmation by Charlemagne, had a natural tendency to elevate the papal power; and we shall soon be called upon to witness the unbound- ed ambition of the Roman pontiffs. In the pontificate of Zachary, the court of Germany decided that no metropolitan could enter upon his functions without having previously received the pallium from the pontiff.* This important decision was established by the eighth general council, 869, whereby the popes were gradually invested with the right of confirming or annulling the episcopal elections, and with the means of keeping foreign dignitaries in depend- ence on the Roman see. APPENDIX TO EIGHTH CENTURY. Fine Arls,fro?n the Fall of Rome to Charlemagne. Christianity, which afterwards contributed to raise the arts to great perfection, began by inflicting the most grievous injuries. The ardent zeal of many bishops had already demolished temples to build churches, and broken those repre- sentations in stone or bronze so much abhorred by Christians, long before Theodosius had published his edict proscribing the pictures and statues of Paganism. Some fine temples had been preserved by appropriating them to the Christian worship. Thus Boniface VI. dedicated the Pantheon of Agrippa to All Saints ; and the parthenon of Pericles, without a change of name, was consecrated to the Virgin. The successive invasions of the Germans, Persians, and Arabians caused the greatest injury to the achievements of genius; and among their ruins the productions of art were few and ephemeral. The tri- umphal arch of Constantine at Rome ; the golden gate raised at Constantinople by Theodosius the Great ; the column erected to his honour by the filial piety of Arcadius; a few remains at Ravenna and Terracina of the age of Theodoric ; the bridge of Salaro over the Anio, rebuilt by Narses, are almost the only architectural monuments of these great men. Theodoric encouraged the arts, and appointed officers to protect the public buildings throughout Italy. The rotunda of Ravenna, whose cupola consists of a single stone cut in the quarries of Istria. belongs to his reign. The Gothic, or what is sometimes termed the " Pointed" style of archi- tecture, begins to appear about this time. The ogive, not unknown under Constantine, is found combined with semicircular arcs in the aqueduct of Jus- tinian. The last effort of ancient art was the temple of St. Sophia, the work of Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus. It is the model of churches built in the form of a Greek cross. Under Charlemagne the skill of the architects was so imperfect that, to raise the cathedral and palace of Aix-la-Chapelle, it was necessary to bring from Ravenna the columns and mosaics which had adorned the residence of the later Roman emperors. Painting declined ; but we have still a few relics of miniature in the marginal drawings that explain and decorate the text of the ancient manuscripts, none of which are earlier than the sixth century. By a fatality without example, while the violence of invasion and the confla- gration of cities destroyed many copies of the Greek and Latin authors, it happened that in the West as well as in the East, the richest depositories of learning became the prey of the flames. At Constantinople, an accident destroyed the library of the Octagon, 476, founded by Constantine. The fana- * The pallium was originally a mantle sent by the Byzantine emperors to the great prelates, for which a stole of white wool was afterwards substituted. Symmachus was the first pope who sent, a pallium to St. Cffisarius, bishop of Aries and perpetual vicar of the holy chair in Gaul, 513. From vicars and primates the honour passed to inetropo. ■itans, to certain bishops, and even to abbots. 212 MIDDLE AGES. licism of ihe Isaurian Leo completed the ruin of what the fire had spared, 730. '['he library of Alexandria underwent a more melancholy fate. Burnt once hy Julius Caesar, condemned with other Pagan monuments by the decree of Theodosius, 390, it was finally destroyed by the fanatic Arabians in 640. One of the successors of Omar, the Caliph Yezid, commanded the destruction of the libraries of Syria, already many times devastated by the ravages of the two Chosroe-*. In Africa the Cyrenais had become a vast ruin, when the Mussul- mans added ir to their provinces ; but these barbarians overwhelmed the treasures of science under the ruins of Carthage, Hippona, and Tagaste. At Rome, the temple of Apollo Palatinus had preserved from the time of Augustus the masterpieces of classical literature ; but a conflagration reduced them to ashes at the end of the sixth century. In the monastic schools, the relics of science found an asylum : there the seven liberal arts were cultivated, and the profane authors studied. Manuscripts were copied, and caligraphy became an art ; but frequently ignorant or fanatical monks transcribed litanies or holy legends over the effaced episodes of Virgil or the periods of Cicero. NINTH CENTURY. Greek Empire. — 813, Leo the Armenian. — 842, Michael III. — 867, Mace- donian Dynasty. — 886, Leo VI. Arabia. — 800, The Aglabites— 813, Almamon. — 841, Turkish Guard.— 870, Motamed — Mohammedan heresies. Spain. — 801, Barcelona captured by the Franks. — 866, Alphonso the Great. — Moorish literary Era. France. — 800, Charlemagne, Emperor. — 814, Louis the Debonnaire. — 840, Charles the Bald.— 843, Treaty of Verdun. — 887, Charles the Fat, dep.— 888, Eudes— 842-886, Norman Ravages. Germany.— 817, Louis. — 846-874, Sclavonian Incursions. — 881, Charles the Fat.— 888, Arnulph — 899, Louis IV, the Child. Italy. — 817, Bernard d. — 844, Louis II. — 893, Berenger of Friuli. — 896, Arnulph, Emperor. Britain. — 800, Egbert. — 832, Danish Invasions. — 872, Alfred the Great. — 871,876 Battles of Wilton and Edindon.— 900, Death of Alfred.— Anglo- Saxon constitution. Church. — 854, Pope Joan (Benedict II.). — 861, Greek Schism — Saint Worship. —867, Adrian II. GREEK ExMPIRE. With the reign of Nicephorus I. recommenced the reverses of the empire. His character was stained with the odious vices of avarice and hypocrisy ; nor was his want of virtue redeemed by any superior talents. The Arabs destroyed Heraclea on the Euxine, took Cyprus, devastated Rhodes, and compelled the emperor to pay tribute, a. d. 807. About four years later, the Bulgarians utterly exterminated an imperial army, and slew Nicephorus who commanded in person. Michael I. endeavoured to check these barbarians, but was vanquished at Adriano- ple, and deposed in favour of Leo V. the Armenian, 813, in whose reign also Thrace was ravaged, Adrianople reduced, and 50,000 prisoners transported beyond the Danube. On the death of the Bulgarian chiet who had conducted these invasions, Leo penetrated into the heart of his* NINTH CENTURY A. D. 213 country, and compelled the new khan to conclude a peace for thirty years. This interval of repose, so honourably procured, was employed in restoring- the ruined cities, and re-establishing- order in the adminis- tration of the empire. Michael, afterwards emperor, who had assisted in investing - Leo with the purple, being - dissatisfied with the rewards that had been showered upon him, entered into various conspiracies, which were severally detected ; and at last the ungrateful Phrygian was sen- tenced to be burned alive in the furnace of the baths. But a brief delay in the execution of this cruel order, cost the emperor his life. On the morning of Christmas-day, a body of conspirators, disguised as priests, with arms beneath their dresses, intruded themselves into his private chapel, and rushed upon him just as he began to chant the first psalm. He long and vigorously defended himself with a weighty cross he had grasped, till a vv ell-aimed blow severed his right arm from his body. As he fell, his cry for pity was savagely answered, " This is the hour of vengeance, not of mercy !" 820. — Michael II. the Stammerer was carried from his prison to the throne, which he disgraced by his vices. Thomas the Cappadocian disputed his title, and laid siege to the capital ; but falling into the power of the monarch, he suffered the mutilation of his hands and feet. The Arabs, still continuing their incursions, circumscribed the Greek possessions in Italy to the city of Naples, 820 : in 823 they conquered Crete, and Sicily in 827. Theophilus the Unfortunate, a just and brave prince, punished the murderers of Leo V., embellished as well as fortified Constantinople, and patronised the arts and sciences. He several times attacked the Arabs, but eventually lost Ancyra, and his native town Amorium. Michael III., 842, ascended the throne at the age of five years, under the regency of his prudent mother Theodora ; but as he grew up he threw off her easy yoke, and imitating the vices of Nero and Heliogabalus, became as contemptible as he was odious. The factions of the circus were revived ; the safety of the empire was neglected for the result of a horse-race; and the ceremonies of religion were profaned by his impiety. In this reign began the separation between the Greek and Latin churches, in the excommunication of Photius, whose election to the patriarchate had been disapproved by Nicholas I. The infatuated prince was mur- dered in an hour of intoxication, and the sceptre passed to the Macedonian Dynasty, a. d. 867. — Basil I. was said to count among his ancestors the Persian Arsacides, the great Constantine, and the Macedonian Alexander. His youth had been spent among the Bulga- rians; but, uniting with some fellow-captives, he boldly made his way to the Grecian capital. Here he gradually rose to the highest offices of state, not more by his great personal merits than by his compliance with the vices of the emperor; and under this founder of the new dynasty the empire began to revive from its decay. He passed the Euphrates, forced several emirs to acknowledge his power, protected Dalmatia and the rising city of Ragusa against the Aglabites, and re-established the throne of Lombardy by expelling the Arabs from Apulia and Calabria. His arms were formidable to the barbarians, while his prudent administration in financial matters replenished an exhausted treasury, and promoted the happiness of his people. He began the revisal of the Justinian code; and the Basilics, completed by his son, are an honour to his genius and 214 MIDDLE AGES. philanthropy. Accident put an end to his life in a stag-hunt, and he was succeeded by Leo VI. the Philosopher, 886, who trod in the steps of his father. He was not, however, equally successful in his foreign wars, being compelled to yield to the superior valour of the Arabs and Bulgarians. His marriage to a fourth wife, Zoe, caused a schism be- tween him and the church. He died in 911. ARABIA. The political decline of the Arabian empire began in the reign of its greatest caliph, Haroun. In 756, Spain became independent; in 789, Fez was built, destined to be the capital of a petty kingdom ; and at the end of the century the Aglabite dynasty was founded, which governed a territory extending from Tunis to the Egyptian frontier. It was in combating against a rebel chief in Khorassan that Haroun al Raschid met his death, 808. Almamon, a. n. 813, after several years of internal dissension, raised himself to the throne of his father. He continued the patronage which the other had accorded to literature, eagerly seeking and translating the philosophical writings of Greece. In his reign, a degree of the great circle of the earth was measured, determining the circumference of the globe at 24,000 miles. In the science of medicine, Rhazes and Avi- cenna rank with Hippocrates ; and chemistry, though degraded by being connected with alchymy, owes its origin and improvement to the Ara- bians. Al Motassem, who had succeeded Almamon, in 833, was recalled from quelling some civil commotions, to face the active Theo- philus, 838. One dearly-purchased battle, followed by the obstinate siege of Amorium, which had fallen into the power of the Greeks, terminated a war in which 200,000 lives were sacrificed. Arab Sects. — Motassem was unable to take advantage of his successes ; for, while the Greeks were pressing him in the north, he had to contend with formidable internal enemies. Heresies appeared in Islamism almost from its very commencement ; in 659 the Karidjies took exception to the doctrines of fatalism, and it was one of this sect that assassinated Ali. In 737, new attacks were made upon several of the dogmas and practices of the Mohammedans. In 742, Djead Ibn Dirkhem impugned the Koran, denying its divine origin, and founded a considerable sect in the East. In 758, Achmet Ravendi preached the Indian tenet of metempsychosis, and pretended that the soul of Adam had been transmitted to the body of the Caliph Almonsor. Seventeen years later, Hakem with the golden mask revived this doctrine and added to its absurdities. When he was besieged in the city to which he had retired, and was on the point of falling into the hands of the orthodox Mussulmans, he set fire to his habitation and flung himself into the midst of the flames, exclaiming, " I depart for heaven ; let him who desires to share in my felicity imitate my example." His wife, children, and partisans, all precipitated themselves into the burning mass. But of all those various heresies, the one which was checked with the greatest amount of human suffering was that of Babek Khourrerrimi. The Persians had long been regarded as the freest and most civilised people of the East ; and, after the Arabs had destroyed their empire, being unable to struggle with their conquerors in the open field, they cunningly sapped the power and religious authority of the caliph by propagating doctrines in opposition to those of the Koran. Their most daring advocate was Babek, u ho proclaimed the indiffer ence of human actions, and a community of goods. — opinions that tended to dissolve all society, civil, political, or religious. So numerous were his followers NINTH CENTURY A. D. 215 *,hat for twenty years he was able to contend against the Caliphs of Bagdad. The quelling of this revolt, which is said to have cost the lives of a million of men, failed to eradicate entirely the doctrines of Babek. Motassem, to support his tottering throne, introduced into his armies and palace a body of 50,000 Turks, a warlike Tartar race from beyond the Oxus, 841. These praetorian guards, despising the weakness of their employers, soon provoked the public indignation by their licentious behaviour. Motawakkel, the cruel son of Motassem, was murdered in his palace by these barbarians ; and Montasser, stained with his father's blood, was placed on the throne in 862. The mercenary soldiers now assumed the right of choosing their sovereign, and the rapid succession of caliphs perplexes the historian. Every province began to shake off its allegiance; new principalities were formed in Syria and Mesopo- tamia ; and the caliphate at last was confined to the city of Bagdad. The Emir of Egypt, formerly a Turkish slave, assumed the sovereign power in 869, and founded the dynasty of Thelonides. The Aglabites, as well as the Edrisites, had already made themselves independent in Africa ; both of whom were subdued by the Fatimites in 912. Motamed, 870, had to contend not only against revolted chiefs but also against, impious sectarians. In the twentieth year of his reign the doctrines of Babek were revived by Abdallah, but they were preached in secret, and only fully revealed to those who had undergone a course of six preparatory tests, and it was not until the seventh of the series that these opinions, subversive of all religion and morality, were clearly developed. One of Abdallah's mission- aries, surnamed Karmath, did not imitate the prudence of his chief; but when he had gained over a certain number of partisans, raised the standard of revolt against the caliph, defeated several generals, and recruited his own army by his successes and the license granted to his soldiers. Mecca was taken by these insurgents, when thirty thousand Islamites perished in defence of the Caaba. A hundred battles were fought before the sect of the Karmathia^ was exterminated. Read : Crichton's History of Arabia, 2 vols, in the Edinburgh Cabinet library. SPAIN. The Caliphate. — The reigns of Hashem I. and Hakem I., Abdal- rahman's successors, were troubled by rivals to the throne, and by the Franks who took Lerida, plundered the environs of Huesca, and laid I siege to Barcelona, which, after a lengthened blockade, fell into their I hands in 801. To repel these invaders, the caliph, Hakem, established i a regular military force, and equipped a numerous fleet, which ravaged the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, but without making any i permanent conquest. Four years before his death, a sedition which | broke out in the suburbs of Cordova was severely repressed ; three I hundred of the rioters were impaled, and the remainder, to the number \ of fifteen thousand, transported to Africa. The attacks of the Christians | of Oviedo, who advanced as far as the Tagus, and the revolts of the I Arabian governors under Hakem's successors, brought premature decay | on the caliphate. Still it was at this period that a troop of Spanish Moors became the terror of Italy and Provence. A small party of Saracens took the village of Fraxinet by surprise, and from this almost i inaccessible position ravaged the neighbouring country, isolating them- selves entirely from the rest of Provence on the landward side, while 216 MIDDLE AGES. the sea lay before them always exposed to their piratical expedi- tions. The destruction of Frejus opened the passes into Italy, of which they instantly took possession, whence they devastated Bur- gundy and even Swabia by sudden incursions. They long occupied the fortified monastery of St. Maurice in Transjurane Burgundy ; and traces of their establishments may still be seen in Switzerland and Provence. Christian Spain. — The Christians had met with almost uninter- rupted success until about the middle of this century, when they were checked by internal disorder, and by the ravages of the Northmen on the coast of Biscay. Ordogno I. defeated these barbarians, vanquished the Emir of Saragossa, and extended the frontiers of the kingdom of Leon to the river Tormes. In 866, Alphonso the Great, who had been expelled from Oviedo by the governor of Galicia, returned after the rebel's death, and conquered the insurgent Count of Alava. He con- ducted thirty successful campaigns against the infidels, seized on the country between the Douro and the Minho, and forced the Moors to sue for a truce of six years. But domestic troubles put an end to his con- quests ; and as his subjects murmured at the heavy taxes imposed to fortify the frontier towns, he was compelled to abdicate in favour of his son, 910. He died the next year in battle against the Arabs, fighting as general of the army. FRANCE. Origin of Modern France, a. d. 840. — Louis the Debonnaire succeeded his father, 814 ; but the mighty empire of Charlemagne had already begun to decay. It was the misfortune of Louis to mistake petty reforms for a salutary attention to the public good. His life was passed in a long struggle against three sons, who were supported by the clergy in their violation of all filial duties. Alternately victorious and vanquished, he was once actually deposed by Pope Gregory IV. At his death in 840, the kingdoms of Germany and France were for ever separated ; the former being assigned to Louis, the latter to Charles the Bald, while Lothaire inherited the rest of the imperial dominions. The last appears to have entertained a design of universal monarchy, but his schemes were frustrated by the battle of Fontenay, which, with the alliance of Strasburg, contributed to produce the celebrated treaty of Verdun, 8-13. Charles had to contend against the Northmen and Bre- tons on the banks of the Seine and of the Loire. The people of Aqui- tania took up arms successively in favour of Pepin II. and of Louis of Germany, in order to form an independent kingdom ; but, in the end, they were incorporated with Neustrian France, which maintained over them a nominal supremacy. The deaths of Lothaire and his three sons were the cause of fresh divisions. The kings of Germany and France, by the treaty of Mersen, shared the dominions of Louis II., the emperor; but Charles soon boldly laid hands on the German portion and wrested Provence from his rival. The death of Louis II. having created a vacancy in the empire, the King of France hastened to Rome, where he received the diadem from the hands of Pope John VIII., to which was afterwards added the iron crown of Lombardy. After the demise of Charles the Bald, the imperial NINTH CENTURY A. D. 217 throne remained unoccupied until 881, during part of which time Louis the Stammerer ruled over France, which he exhausted hy his pro- digalities. His sons Louis III. and Carloman, who succeeded, aban- doned French Lorraine to the King of Saxony, at the same time that Boson detached the Burgundian provinces from France. By the treaty of Amiens, concluded in 880, the two brothers made a partition of their father's inheritance : Louis was declared king of Neustria, and Carlo- man obtained Aquitaine with a right of Burgundy. In the same year, the two French princes met in congress at Gondre- ville with the two kings of Germany, Louis the Saxon, and Charles of Swabia, all being alike interested in the defence of their dominions against the Northmen, and of the Carlovingian legitimacy against a usurping aristocracy. But this royal league attained no better success than those which had preceded it. The wife of Boson held Vienne against the united efforts of three kings ; and, though she at length yielded to one of Carloman's lieutenants, the crown of Provence never- theless remained on the head of the usurper. A brilliant victory gained ever the Northmen at Saucourt in Vimeux, covered the Neustrian sovereign with a renown that was long celebrated in the popular songs. But Louis III. did not live to realize the hopes that the nation enter- t ;ined of him. His death, which happened in 882, reunited the two crowns of France on the head of Carloman, who descended to the tomb in 884. His heir was a posthumous brother, whom the Franks excluded from the throne on account of his youth, and elected Charles the Fat in his place. This monarch, who had previously been crowned emperor, ruled over a territory not less extensive than that of Charlemagne, but his weakness was unable to support the heavy burden, and, under the pretext of his inability to defend the empire against the northern pirates, he was deposed by his vassals, 887. Eudes, a. d. 887. — On the deposition of Charles, there was not in France, among the many independent princes, one who was capable of seizing the crown and inspiring due respect for his power. Yet the remembrance of the exploits of Count Eudes, the defender of Paris, induced most of the bishops and nobles of Neustria to proclaim him king. There remained, however, one descendant of Charlemagne, Charles the Simple, who had been excluded on account of his youth from all the Carlovingian thrones to which he had any claim. Eudes had two other competitors, descended from the first emperor of the West by the female side: these were Guy, duke of Spoleto, and Arnulph, king of Germany. But their distance from the scene of action, and the necessity of directing their forces to another quarter, left the new king in undisturbed possession of the crown. The whole of France did not acknowledge this sovereign : the Count of Poitiers, duke of Aquitaine, was independent, and even bore the title of king; the Duke of Brittany assumed the royal authority; as did also the Dukes of Gascony and Burgundy, w T ith the Counts of Flanders, Vermandois, and Anion. Eudes justified anew r the choice of his vassals by delivering Paris from another siege, and defeating in the terrible battle of Montfaucon the Northmen, who lost 19,000 men. Emboldened by this success, he com- f>elled the discontented princes to acknowledge his authority, and when le died in 898, named Charles III. for his successor. The rustory 19 2!^ MIDDLE AGES. of the twelve succeeding 3 T ears is entirely unknown, except that the ravages of the northern invaders were still continued with their usual ferocity.* CARLOVINGIAN DYNASTY. **** ****** 6. Eudes, k. 888, t 39S t. Charles the Bald, 5. Charles the Fat, k. 840, t 879. k. 884, | 888, 8. Robert I. k. 923, 2. Louis II., the Stammerer, 9. Rodoli-h, k. 9-23, t 923. k. 877, j 879. t 936. _J 3. Louis III., k. 879. 4. Carloman, k. 879, f £84. 7. Charles the Simple. f 8b2. . k. S'.)3, dep. 923. 10. Louis IV., Outremer, k. 936, f 954. 11. Lotuaire, k. 954 f 986. Charles, duke of Basse Lorraine, / * . excluded from the throne. J2. Louis V., k. 986, f 987. THE NORTHMEN. The Northmen were originally from the countries now known as Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. This people professed the warlike religion of Odin, who in times beyond the reach of credible history had quitted the banks of the Tanais, and conquered most of the regions on the Baltic. This warrior gave laws to his followers, and established a religious system, perfectly in harmony with their wants, which could only be satisfied by war. He was himself the principal divinity, adored as the father of carnage. His people, whose chief oc- cupation appears to have been piracy, infested all the seas of the North until the beginning of the eleventh century, when Christianity had softened their manners, and attached these vagrant adventurers to their native soil. At this period the history of the Scandinavian states assumes an air of greater credibility, without, however, inspiring deeper interest. To know these ancient inhabitants of the north, it will be necessary to follow them beyond the boundaries of their own country. From the fourth century they carried desolation to Rome and even into Africa ; and, though restrained by the vigilance of Charlemagne, they found all the passages open under his successors. Their rude barks, im- pelled at once by sails and oars, and bearing each about 100 men, wasted the shores of western Europe, ascended the rivers, and pillaged all on which they could lay hands. In 843, they entered France by the Seine, and plundered Rouen ; another fleet, sailing up the Loire, devastated Touraine. In the follow- ing year, they made simultaneous descents on England, France and Spain. They afterwards reached Paris, which they burnt in the face of Charles the Bald, who was intrenched at St. Denis. Between 845 and 861, the modern capital of France was thrice ravaged by these daring barbarians. In 886, they reappeared, but met with a vigorous resistance — Eurles, count of Paris, whose valour afterwards raised him to the throne, animating the citizens to repel the invasion by force. He was aided by the courageous Bishop Goslin, who every day, after having given his benediction to the people, placed himself in the breach, with a helmet on his head and a battle-axe in his hand, and planting his crosier on the ramparts, fought heroically in defence of the city. One of the pirate chiefs, Rollo, tired of his wandering life, and desirous of a permanent settlement, obtained the territory which extends from the rivers Andelle and ♦Charles the Bald, 840, is by many considered the first kin? of France, properly so called ; others date the commencement of the French monarchy and nation from 388, when the people dwelling between the Mense and the Loire became French; they con- sequently reckon Endes as the first king. France long preserved the limits assigned by the treaty of Verdun, 843, all beyond being derived from the conquests of the fourteenth century. The Romance became the language of the court ; and by gradual changes it formed the polished dialect of Louis XIV. Under the sons of Clovis, the name of France appears to have been first used. NINTH CENTURY A. D. 219 Aure to the Ooean. To this was afterwards added the country between the Andelle and Epte, with Brittany. In return, the Norman was baptized by the name of Robert, and entering the Christian communion, did homage by the title of Duke of Normandy, 912. His country afforded greater security than the rest of France: labourers returned, population increased, towns were rebuilt, monasteries and churches repaired, and laws enacted for the punish- ment of the evil-doer. Besides the Normans, the Saracens from Africa made frequent incursions into France, and established a colony at Fraxinet (now La Garde) in Provence, where they continued independent for many centuries. Read : Crichton's Scandinavia, Ancient and Modern, 2 vols, in the Edin- burgh Cabinet Library. GERMANY. Louis the German, son of Louis the Debonnaire who received Germany as his heritage, had not only to combat against the Normans, but all the Sclavonic tribes on the eastern frontiers of his dominions. To repel their ravages, it was necessary, in Germany as well as in France, to create officers (margraves) charged with the duty of guard- ing the frontiers against all invaders. From 84G to 874, the barbarians on the eastern borders were in a state of almost continual insurrection ; in the latter year, however, most of the Sclavonic tribes swore fealty to Louis at the diet of Forcheim. These wars did not prevent the German monarch from observing what was passing in the other Carlovingian states. After the death of Lothaire and his son, to whom Lorraine had been allotted, he divided this province with Charles the Bald ; thereby augmenting his kingdom by the cities of Basle, Strashurg, Metz, Cologne, Treves, Utrecht, and Aix-la-Chapelle. Louis II., another of Lothaire's children, who possessed Italy with the title of emperor, dying in 875, Louis the German, as the eldest survivor of the Carlovingian dynasty, was desirous to obtain his dominions; but in this he was an- ticipated by the activity of Charles the Bald. In the following year, Louis the German expired, leaving three sons to share his dominions. Carloman had Bavaria, with Carinthia, Aus- tria, Moravia, and Bohemia ; Louis the Young received Eastern France, Thuringia, Saxony, Frisia, and part, of Lorraine ; and Charles the Fat obtained Swahia, Alsace, and Switzerland. But this arrange- ment was soon disturbed, first by the death of Carloman, and next by the decease of Louis of Saxony. Charles the Fat, in consequence, reunited without much trouble all the Germanic states, to which he added Italy, with the dignity of the imperial throne. In his reign the Normans ravaged all the country south of the Rhine from the sea to Mentz; Cologne and Aix-la-Chapelle w r ith other cities were reHuced to ashes ; the palace of Charlemagne was converted into a stable, and for eight years remained in that degraded condition. To remove these formidable enemies, Charles raised a numerous army, and besieged them in their camp at Maestrich, but just as they were on the point of surrendering, he offered to give them 2400 pounds of silver to evacuate a position no longer tenable. In 884, his difficulties were increased by the death of Carloman and the offer of the throne of France. But how could he protect his new kingdom, when he had proved himself unable to maintain the honour of the five other crowns which had fallen to him ] The Normans continued their incursions, and besieged Paris, which was. nobly defended by Eudes. The imbecility of the emperor 220 MIDDLE AGES. becoming every day more evident, he was deposed at the diet of Tribur on the Rhine, 887. Arnulph was the newly-elected king of Germany. His policy was a continuation of the imperial system : he sought to bring back Italy and Burgundy to his obedience, to revive the homage of the French monarch, and to be crowned emperor. At the diet of Worms in 888, and also in 893, he received the fealty of the various competitors for the crown of France. He made a vigorous resistance to the Norman invaders, and in a battle fought near the Dyle routed them with great slaughter, two kings being killed and thirteen standards captured, 896. The Sclavonians also were reduced to seek peace by the decisive measures of the new sovereign. Of the fruit of his expeditions into Italy he retained little more than the imperial title ; and not long after his return to Germany, he expired at Ratisbon, 899, where his tomb may still be seen. ITALY. On the death of Charlemagne, a. d. 814, Bernard the son of Pepin obtained the kingdom of Italy; but rebelling against his uncle Louis, who inherited the empire, he was condemned to lose his eyes, — a pun- ishment which was so cruelly inflicted as to cause his death, 817. The son and lieutenant of Lothaire, afterwards Louis II., who kept the Romans in obedience, compelled also the Dukes of Benevento to respect the imperial authority, and drove the Saracens from Apulia. In 844, his father resigned to him the Italian provinces. This peninsula was incessantly menaced by Sclavonian tribes in the direction of Friuli, by the Mohammedans on the southern shores, by the Normans, whose vessels approached even the coasts of Tuscany, and also by the Greeks, who were always ready to support the rebellious dukes of Benevento, Friuli, and Spoleto, the princes of Salerno, or the counts of Capua. The Aglabite Saracens of Africa had possessed Messina and Palermo since the year 832; from which ports they ravaged all maritime Italy, and threatened Rome, the suburbs of which they destroyed by fire. But Gregory IV. fortified against them the city of Ostia, and Leo IV., surrounding with walls the churches of the apostles Peter and Paul on the Vatican mount, formed a new quarter, called by the inhabitants the Leonine city, and which protected Rome on the Tuscan side. Some r ime afterwards, the people of Amalfi, Naples, and Gaeta, who were enacting on a smaller scale the part which Genoa and Venice performed somewhat later, entered into a league against the infidels, and, by the destruction of their fleet, checked their plundering expeditions for several years. But the Saracens re-appeared more formidable than ever ; and when two competitors disputed the duchy of Benevento, Louis, hoping to terminate their differences, divided it between them, giving to one, Benevento with the eastern slope of the Apennines, to the other, Salerno with the western declivity. He thus weakened the only power that could have effectually guarded the shores of Southern Italy. Soon, in fact, all the cities and monasteries were pillaged by the Saracens, who advanced even to the convent of Mount Cassino, the abbot of which was forced to pay a ransom of three thousand gold pieces. In self- defence Louis was compelled to make an appeal to all the military population of Italy ; though an alliance with the Greek emperor, who NINTH CENTURY A. D. 221 o o - P 1 1* 3 ■ & P3 2> V CD ^ *■ oo ai 2,3 s, •n 2. ^ 2 ^ !«. Q 2, N to 3 > 3 2. O" as 'Z S I -+ f 3 £ i -* 3" t- 1 a. ?r a J a § 5? o > ': s £< o » o 19* S - d — o f 3 ■ff 03 3 2 ~ ~ - ill! S. -t PT » O 6* « "■•» S 3 Q »' •O « g, GD 3 » £ 3 2 ^ 3 00 a 4- oo a © P " ' 9 Z' » S" s b "J ft- f» R. 3 J rJ J . 222 MIDDLE AGES. sent him two hundred vessels, was more useful to him. Bari was recovered from the Saracens, and Otranto besieged; but the treachery and rebellion of the Duke of Benevento neutralized this success; and when Louis died in 87a, Southern Italy, divided between the Greeks, Saracens, -and dukes of Benevento, who had transferred their allegiance to the Byzantine court, was entirely detached from the Frank monarchy. In the central portion of the peninsula, the pope, who had become a temporal prince in consequence of the donations of Pepin and Charle- magne, no longer sought from their successors the confirmation of his election before seating himself in St. Peter's chair. Lastly, in the northern section were several powerful feudal princes, whose ambition harassed those fine provinces for nearly a century. Louis the German, being the eldest surviving prince of the Carlovin- gian dynasty, claimed Italy; but was anticipated by Charles the Bald, who had passed the Alps with a numerous army, and hastened to Rome, where the pope and citizens appeared to be the sole persons invested with the right of conferring the imperial dignity. Subsequent events placed that country, with the rest of the Frank empire, in the hands of Charles the Fat, again to be divided on the deposition of this monarch in 888. Guy, duke of Spoleto, and Berenger, duke of Benevento, dis- puted the crown of Italy, the river Adige forming the boundary of their respective ominions. Guy, who was proclaimed king at the diet of Pavia, went to Rome and was crowned Emperor and King of the Romans, having associated his son Lambert in the imperial dignity, 891. Arnulph of Germany did not look with indifference on the pro- gress of affairs southward of the Alps, and to vindicate his claims to the titles usurped by Guy, crossed the mountains and advanced as far as Piacenza, without gaining the object of his expedition, 894. Two years later he proceeded to Rome, and was consecrated emperor by Pope Formosus. After the retreat of the German, Lambert effected a reconciliation with Berenger, who preserved the title of king, which had been conferred on him by the Lombard nob'es. immediately after the death of Charles the Fat. BRITAIN. From the mission of Augustin to the accession of Egbert, king of Wessex, the history of Britain offers little worthy of the historian'* notice, except the quarrels of the petty rulers, the erection of numerous convents, the frequent pilgrimages to Rome, and the levying of Peter- pence, a tax of one penny on each family to be paid annually to the Roman see. Egbert, a. d. 800, who had been elected king of Wessex, added the tributary states of Kent, Essex, Sussex, and East Anglia to his domin- ions, and compelled the independent sovereigns of Northumbria and Mercia to pay tribute. From this period England may be considered as forming a single kingdom, — a happy change to a nation which, by its insular position, seemed protected against foreign invasion. But that which might have been considered as an advantage became the primary cause of its ruin ; and the Anglo-Saxon monarchy was doomed to sup- port in succession the yoke of the Northmen of Denmark and of the Neustrian Normans. The descents of the Danes, begun in 793. were NINTH CENTURY A. D. 223 resumed in 832, but were checked by the victories of Egbert. These inroads became more terrible and more frequent when, after Ethelwolf's death in 857, the partition of his territory and the quarrels of the several princes exposed this island, like France, to those pirates. Here per- manent settlements were founded by the Danes earlier than on the Con- tinent; and, supported by the alliances of the Welsh and Scotch, they subjugated at first East Anglia, and finally the whole kingdom. Alfred, a.d. 871. — One great man sufficed to check the conquests of the Danes for nearly a century. Alfred, the youngest of Ethelwolf's sons, carried to the throne all the virtues of a philosopher with the qualities of a hero. Seven years of misfortune taught him wisdom and moderation. After the disastrous result of the battle of Wilton, 871, everything appeared lost, when the victory of Edindon in Wiltshire restored to him the heritage of his brother, then in possession of the foreigner, 878. The Danes of East Anglia and Northumbria recognised his authority and embraced the Christian faith, to which course they were influenced by the example of Gothrun their ruler. The country being now at peace, Alfred turned his mind to the civilisation and security of his people. London, which he enlarged and fortified, became the capital and naval arsenal of the kingdom; and the ships construct- ed in its port served to protect the distant coasts and harbours, or were employed in promoting commerce. Prosperity began to reappear under this prince, who was equally capable of maintaining the national peace by his laws and by his sword. To facilitate the administration of jus- tice, Alfred introduced or revived the division of the whole kingdom into counties, hundreds, and tithings ; the laws of Ina, Offa, and Ethel- bert were collected and remodelled ; and the clergy, ashamed of their ignorance, applied to study, that they might gratify a monarch who founded schools and invited the most learned of all nations to his court But his great designs perished with him a.d. 901 ; and the rival of Charlemagne was not more fortunate than his model. Character of Alfred. Alfred is celebrated not only for the fifty-six battles which he fought in de- fence of his kingdom, but also for the efforts he made to civilize his subjects. In his court were seen Asser, the learned Welshman, Grim bald of Rheims, John Erigena (the Irishman), and Plegmund, archbishop of Canterbury. He left several compositions of his own in prose and verse, remarkable for their imagination and that pomp of figure peculiar to the ancient Germanic languages. He translated the Consolations of Philosophy by Boethius, and greatly enhanced the value of the original work by his commentaries ; he also rendered intu Anglo-Saxon the fables of JEsop, the Ecclesiastical History of the venerable Bede, the Geography of Orosius, to which he annexed much important mattet on Germany, and on a voyage towards the Arctic Pole.* In addition to his other accomplishments he cultivated poetry with a success that places him on a level with any of the bards of his own time. His private character has been thus summed up; — "He was humble to all, affable in conversation, mild in transacting business, venerable in aspect, serene in countenance, moderate even iu his walk, sincere, upright, calm, temperate, and charitable," to which may be added the traditional epithet of " truth-teller." All his lite Alfred was oc- cupied in devising means for the happiness of his subjects, while his own was almost hourly interrupted by an excruciating pain, which did not quit him from his twentieth year to the day of his death. * The mission which Alfred sent to the Christians of India, is of itself a proof of the ^«ographical knowledge of this prince. 224 MIDDLE AGES. Anglo-Saxon Constitution. In that form of government instituted by the Saxons may be found the germs of that constitution which has been characterized as the envy and the admiration of the world. This warlike people, jealous to an excess of their liberty, were governed by elective chiefs, who were generally selected from the same family ; but their authority was precarious and controlled by the regulations of the national assembly called the Witenagemot — assembly of wise men. After the introduction of Christianity, the Bishops and abbots became members of these assemblies ; but the vanquished Britons were never allowed to form part of rhem. The thanes or lords were the highest class; the ceorls or free men constituted the second ; while the third class or serfs was composed of the ancient inhabitants of the country, of the prisoners of war, and of those Saxons, who had from one cause or another been reduced to slavery. Every free male of twelve years of age was required to be enrolled in some tithing, the members of which were accountable for each other's conduct (frank-pledge). The prin- cipal seat of justice was then the county court : the various members assembled twice a-year, under the presidency of a bishop and an alderman, charged with the civil and military administration. To these was added the sheriff, who re- lieved them of part of their duties. The judicial authority did not belong exclusively to these magistrates ; for in certain cases justice was administered by twelve freeholders on oath. Crimes were atoned for by pecuniary penalties, at first given to the plaintiff, but afterwards divided between him and the government. This organization was still imperfect ; nevertheless it existed, was recognised, and appealed to by those who violated or protected it. To this the Saxons owed the comparatively mild treatment they received from the Normans, who did not oppress them like the unfortunate Britons. THE CHURCH. While zealous missionaries were disseminating Christianity among the numerous barbarous tribes that still roamed in the wild forests of northern Europe, the clergy were corrupting its simplicity by their im- piety and licentious lives. Few of the prelates who sat in St. Peter's chair were distinguished either for learning or virtue. Monastic insti- tutions were then in high esteem, and men of all ranks deserted their proper sphere of duty to take shelter in the gloom and leisure of the cloister. But as such retreats were not free from irregularity, many councils were held to repress their disorders, and to establish the far- famed rule of St. Benedict. The study of the Holy Scriptures almost ceased in the Greek and Latin churches ; while the veneration paid to the fictitious relics of the departed saints, and the multiplication of canonized individuals, proved the ignorance and depravity of the priest- hood. Greek Schism. — The son of Theodora, led into vicious habits by the example of his uncle Bardas, and irritated by the remonstrances of the patriarch Ignatius, threw this faithful minister into prison, and' elevated in his stead the learned Photius, a captain of his guards. This change was approved of by a council, which did not however prevent Pope Nicholas I. from excommunicating the intruder, who in his defence made use of the same spiritual weapon. Soon afterwards, the tragical end of his two protectors left Photius without any support; and Basil, the new emperor, deposed him and restored Ignatius, a proceeding which was ratified by the eighth general council. The death of the latter in 877 restored to Photius the patriarchal dignity; and Pope John VIII. received him into communion, hoping by this means to recover the government of the Bulgarians, which, since its foimation in 869, had TENTH CENTURY A. D. 225 been under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. His expectations, how- ever, were disappointed ; and from this period the division became still wider between the Roman pontiff and the Greek patriarchs, until the complete separation of the two churches in 1054. Saint-worship. — One of the greatest corruptions grew out of the reverence paid to the memory of departed saints. " He whose heart," says Southey, " is not excited upon the spot which a martyr has sanc- tified by his sufferings, or at the grave of one who has largely benefited mankind, must be more inferior to the multitude in his moral, than he can possibly be raised above them in his intellectual nature." But the best things are the most easily abused. The prayer was at length offered to the martyr himself, and the remains of his body or the rags of garments, nay, even the instruments of his torture or death, became ob- jects of veneration. In this century the dangerous doctrine was first established by Adrian II., " that the pope- can release from the obligation of an oath !" Pope Nicholas, also, by his conduct in the divorce of Thietberga, wife of Lothaire II., king of Lorraine, and in the deposition of Rothad, hishop of Soissons, confirmed the principle on which reposes the supremacy of the apostolic chair, namely, that the decrees of the pontiff shall be re- ceived as law throughout the church. TENTH CENTURY. Greek Empire. — 912, Constantine VII. — 919, Romanus I. — 963, Nicephorus I. — 969, John Zimisces. Italy. — Papal Disorders. — 962, Otho crowned Emperor.— 990, Crescentius. France. — 912, Normans established by Treaty. — 915, Feudal Aristocracy com- plete. — 987, Hugh Capet. Germany.— 911, Saxon Line.— 919, Henry the Fowler.— 936, Otho I.— 955, Battle of Augsburg. Britain.— 901, Edward the Elder.— 925, Athelstan — 937, Dunstan. Spain. — 912, Abdalrahman's Conquests — University of Cordova. — 932, Madrid taken by the Christians. Arabian Empire. — 936, Mohammed, Emir al Onira. — Fatimites in Egypt. Church. — 999, Pope Sylvester II. (Gerbert) — Odo of Cluny — Penance. Inventions. — Coats of Arms ; 1000, Arabic Numerals ; Watches. Learned Men. — Suidas, philosopher. —Gerbert (Pope Sylvester II.) — Olym- piodorus. GREEK EMPIRE. Constantine VII., Porphyrogenitus — born in the purple chamber — ascended the throne at the age of five years, a. d. 912, under the guar- dianship of his uncle Alexander, whose death, brought on by dissolute courses, saved the life of his ward. Zoe, who had been banished, was now recalled ; but she and all other competitors for the regency were forced to yield to the daring ambition of Romanus, a low-born soldier, who soon threw aside his mask, and caused himself to be proclaimed, in 919, Caesar and Augustus, which titles he bore nearly twenty-five years. 226 MIDDLE AGES. The lawful monarch escaped the usual fate of deposed princes in that age by his studious habits, mild character, and love of retirement. In 945, he was restored to his throne by means of the usurper's sons, who conspired against their father's life. His second reign lasted fifteen years ; and when he died, in 959, the afflicted Greeks at once excused his vices and pitied his misfortunes. During the preceding fifty years, the empire was scarcely ever free from the attacks of the barbarians. The Bulgarians twice besieged Constantinople, in 913 and 916, defeated several of her generals, ravaged Macedonia and Thrace, took Adrianople, and even proclaimed their khan emperor in the suburbs of the Eastern capital, 922. The Russians also appeared before the imperial city with a thousand barks, and pillaged all the coasts of Asia Minor. Romanus II., a dissolute prince, appears to have adopted his father's example ratber than to have obeyed his precepts. His death was caused by poison administered by his vicious wife Theophania, in 963. Nicephorus II. united, in the popular opinion, the characters of a hero and a saint. In the preceding reign, he had recovered Candia from the Arabs ; and after his accession, which he owed to his marrying the late emperor's widow, he conquered Cyprus, Cilicia, and Antioch; from which last place he brought home as a trophy the sword of Mohammed. The Byzantine empire now began to recover, as that of the Saracens decayed ; and under John I. Zimisces, who had murdered his predeces- sor, even the cities beyond the Euphrates were added to his territory. He spent most of his time in the camp, and by his defeat of the Bulgarians and the Russians ensured the safety of the empire. This warlike ruler is said to have met with an untimely death by poison, pre- pared for him by those who dreaded the consequences of some meditated reforms, 976. Basil II. was acknowledged sovereign of Constantinople; but the early years of his reign were disturbed by the revolt of two veteran generals, Phocas and Sclerus, who oppressed Asia Minor. These enemies being defeated, he made several successful campaigns against the Saracens; but his most important triumph was the reduction of Bulgaria to a Grecian province,* in 1018. He was greedy, ignorant, and superstitious ; and, after a reign of nearly fifty years, died, neither loved n:>r respected, in 1025. ITALY. Adelaide. — After the death of Berenger I., the last duke of Friuli, his successors bore no other title than that of King of Italy. The young Lothaire II., who died childless, was succeeded in 950 by his guardian, Berenger II., marquis of Ivrea. This prince demanded for his son the hand of Lothaire's widow ; but on Adelaide's refusal to accept a deformed husband, he plundered her of her possessions with brutal violence, and confined her in a tower on the Guarda lake : she afterwards escaped by the aid of her almoner, who had contrived to make a secret passage . through the base of the building. Disguised in male attire, and accom- panied by the priest, she was conveyed in a fishing-boat to a neighbour- * In 1014, Basil pained a decisive victory over the Bulgarians, took fifteen thousand prisoners, who, after their eyes were plucked out, were sent hack to their own country Such a terrible spectacle hastened the death of their aged khan. TENTH CENTURY A. D. 227 ing forest, where they subsisted some time on fish which was bestowed in charity. At length she found an asylum with a chieftain dependent on the Roman see; and, in 951, married Otho of Germany, who, after being called to her assistance in 948, had become a widower. In right of this union, the German sovereigns aspired to the royal and imperial dignities of Italy.* Papal Disorders. — The power of the popes was gradually confirmed, at the same time that their vicious lives were bringing the church into contempt. Two sisters of infamous character, Theodora and Ma- rozia, with their mother the Margravine of Tuscia, disposed of the triple crown at their pleasure. John XII., placed in the pontifical chair when only eighteen years of age, was charged with the most revolting crimes. To consolidate his authority, he solicited the assistance of Otho L, whose services, in quelling the sanguinary feuds which harassed Rome, were repaid with the title of emperor, in 962. He then assumed the appella- tions of Caesar and Augustus, and received the oaths of fidelity tendered by the pope and the Roman nobles. While he was occupied in Upper Italy in the reduction of a few castles which still held out, he learnt that the pontiff, discontented with the feudal superior whom he had recog- nised, was labouring to restore the vanquished Berenger. The emperor, hastily returning to Rome, assembled a council to inquire into the state of the papacy; and, by the decision of forty bishops and seventeen car- dinals, John was deposed for his scandalous life. He was succeeded by Leo VIII., who acknowledged Otho's claims to dispose of the crown of Italy as he pleased, to confirm the papal election, and to invest the prelates. But the country was never at peace, and the Romans lost no opportunity of endeavouring to throw off the barbarian yoke. Crescentius. — Circio, or Crescentius, on the demise of Otho I., headed an insurrection against the pope, whom he put to death in 974. With the title of consul he was master of Rome, and held the pontiff, whom he had himself appointed, in such subjection, that his holiness urgently solicited the German monarch to come to his relief. Otho III. arrived in Rome in the year 996, when he received the imperial crown, and two years after caused the demagogue to be thrown from the battle- ments of St. Angelo. His own death is said to have been caused by poison administered by the widow of Crescentius. FRANCE. On the death of Eudes in 898, the crown devolved on Charles the Simple, the legitimate sovereign, the history of the first twelve years of whose reign is entirely unknown, except that the ravages of the Nor- mans and Saracens were continued. This feeble prince expected to find an auxiliary in the Norman Rollo against his rebel barons, but this hope failed him when the nobles were excited to revolt, and their suffrages had conferred the crown on Robert, brother of the late king, Eudes, who perished in battle, and Charles, having fallen into the hands of the Count * The kingdom of Italy comprised the Italian Alps (except Savoy), the plains of the Po (except Venice), Istria, Tuscany, States of the Church, and the Abruzzi. In the south were the independent principalities of Benevento, Salerno, and Capua ; the dukes of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi, suzerains of the Greek emperor; lastly, the territories of Bari, Otranto, and Calabria, under Grecian officers. The African Saracens held Sicily, except its eastern coast, with Malta, Corsica, and Sardinia. 228 MIDDLE AGES. of Vermandois, beheld another prince, not of the royal family, seated on the throne, 923. This new usurper was Raoul or Rodolph, duke of Burgundy, who owed his elevation to the influence of his brother-in-law, Hugh the Great, count of Paris. The principal vassals of the South and the Norman dukes withheld their homage from Rodolph until 929, when Count Herbert of Vermandois had almost succeeded in restoring the deposed Charles. But the powerful support of Hugh maintained the interests of Rodolph ; and the necessity of union to repel the Hungarians produced a reconciliation between the vassals and their superior, which led to a defensive treaty between the kings of France, Germany, and Burgundy, in 935. Hugh possessed almost regal power during the reign of the succeed- ing monarch, Louis IV., who was surnamed Outremer, from his having resided in England. When this king expired, the sovereignty, which was not divided, was for the first time transmitted like the fiefs. Lo- thaire in 954, and Louis V. in 986, were the last of the Carlovingians who bore the title of King of France, already become to them an empty honour. Hugh Capet. — In 956, Hugh, surnamed Capet, from the kind of hat which he wore, succeeded his father as Count of Paris, and in the power which his vast domains in Picardy and Champagne conferred upon him. While Louis V. was slowly expiring of a fatal disease, at the early age of twenty, Hugh assembled his forces, and, seizing on the throne as soon as it became vacant, was crowned at Rheims in 987. His first act was to secure the succession in his family, by the coronation of his son Robert at Orleans ; by uniting to the royal domains the duchies and earldoms which he had hitherto possessed as a vassal ; and by declaring those to be hereditary which were in the hands of other feudatories. Charles of Lorraine, as son of Louis IV., did not patiently submit to the usurpation of his rights; but his efforts were unavailing, and a brief struggle was terminated by his confinement in the castle of Orleans, where he died in 994. Those of the great vassals who had declared for the pretender now did homage to Hugh Capet, whose authority, how- ever, was still obstinately resisted by many nobles south of the Loire. He died at Paris in 996. Robert, surnamed the Wise, ascended his fathers throne without opposition, but experienced a less tranquil reign. He had married, in opposition to the canons of the church, Bertha of Burgundy, widow of the Count of Blois, and his cousin in the fourth degree, for one of whose children he had also stood godfather. Pope Gregory V., a relation of the Emperor Otho III., excommunicated Robert, and laid the kingdom under an interdict. The French king obeyed the papal mandates with deep regret, but shortly after espoused Constance of Toulouse, a frivolous and wicked princess, who corrupted the court, domineered over her good-natured husband, and lighted the first fires against heretics. Feudal System. — Gaul, after its invasion by the transrhenane tribes, re- lapsed into barbarism, and the inhabitants were long without holding any social relation one with another. About the eighth century, order began to appear in the formation of a number of isolated confederacies, — the commencement of feudality, or that system of government which divided society into two classes, lords and dependants The feudal system was the child of circumstances, and probably originated with the Lombards. Charles Martel, son of Pepin, con- TENTH CENTURY A. D. 229 ferred benefices (fiefs), the holders of which were bound to fidelity and to mili- tary service. They were called vassals ; but they had only temporary posses- sion of their fiefs as leudes or antrustions of their suzerain* or lord paramount. Charles the Bald made these benefices hereditary, 877, when they took the name of fiefs (fides, fe). The feudal system now took a different form. The royal authority was prostrated, and the counts usurped their governments as sovereignties, their wives taking the appellation of countess. Feudality still formed a chain of obligations from the king, as lord paramount, down to the meanest of his subjects. The lands under this system were divided into three classes : — 1. The noble lands, i. e. the fiefs, which were divisible into two species; the simple fiefs, and the fiefs of dignity or the title lands, such as the duchies, earl- doms or counties, and baronies. 2. The rotures, or lands enfranchised from the fiefs, possessed by roturiers, liable to feudality and subject to their seigneurs. t 3. The allodial lands, which every man possessed in his own right, without owing any rent or service to his superior. Each vassal held his fief on conditions of fidelity and homage to his suzerain. There were two classes of them : — 1. The great vassals dependent immediately on the crown ; — 2. The small vassals subordinate to the great for the fiefs which they held by homage. Each was the liegeman of his superior, i. e. bound (ligatus) in indissoluble allegiance by the duties of his rank. These were, — military service, the defence of his lord from the machinations and arms of his enemies, and attendance in the courts of justice. He was also to pay his lord's ransom if he were captured, and, in some cases, to be detained as hostage. The vassals were summoned to the field by the bann and arriere bann ; the one was composed of gentlemen who mounted at the sound of the king's trum- pet ; the latter were the tenants, or coutumiers (serfs) of the bann. But after the establishment of corporations by Louis the Fat, in 1108, the condition of the commons was greatly meliorated. Philip Augustus, the tribune of the nobles, 1180, kept the vassals in due restraint by his large armies; and Louis IX., 1226, destroyed the judicial powers of the seigneurs by establishing regular tribunals of justice. Philip the Fair deprived the barons of their power of coining money ; and thus they lost between 1108 and 1300 the four supports of feudality. Louis Hutin emancipated all the serfs on the royal domains, by a general edict in 1315 ; but the fiefs existed till the revolution of 1789; nor was praedial servitude actually abolished until that period, the peasants being attached to the soil and forbidden to leave it without their lords' consent. GERMANY. House of Saxony. — The connexion between France and Germany was broken by the death of Charles the Fat in 888. Arnulph was the first elected king- of the latter country ; and on the death of Louis IV. in 911, Conrad, duke of Franconia, was chosen by the general assembly of the eight nations composing the Germanic confederation. His brief reign of eight years was exposed to external enemies, in fighting against whom he received a mortal wound, and, having no male heirs, the crown was bestowed on Henry the Fowler, duke of Saxony, in whose family it remained till 1024. This able prince began by reducing to subjection his powerful and turbulent vassals. He united Lorraine to the empire ; protected the country against the inroads of the Hungarians ; and besides fortifying many of his principal towns, added the march of Misnia to his original territory. To him Germany is farther indebted * The leudes and antrustions were men of rank, nobles attendant upon the court. | Roiure has been compared with our soccage freehold. "We have no word," says Hallam, ll that conveys the full sense of the word roturier. How glorious is this defi- ciency in our political language, and how different are the ideas suggested by commoner!" 20 230 MIDDLE AGES. for the establishment of its first municipal towns, which, together with the monasteries, was one of the chief means of civilizing the people. Otho I., 936, justly named the Great, completed what his father had begun. He reconquered Italy, and gave a final blow to the Hungarian power by the victory of Merseburg. In 962, he was crowned at Milan, with the iron crown of Lombardy, and at Rome by Pope John XII., with the golden crown of the empire. The discovery of the gold and silver mines of Goslar, and the settlement of the Saxon frontier, rendered that part of his territories the richest and most important under his rule. Otho had the skill to unite all the great governments in his family; but the necessity of resigning his duchy of Saxony, prevented the formation of solid monarchical power in Germany. Nevertheless, repaying the mistrust of his vassals by similar suspicion, he placed them under the inspection of the palatine counts, and also subjected the temporal power of the bishops to the control of certain imperial officers. By these means he checked the progress of feudalism, which, however, proceeded uninterruptedly after his death. Otho II. the Bloody,* 973, was allied by marriage to the Byzantine court. His wars in France, and in Lower Italy against the Saracens, were not generally successful. Otho III., 983, was scarcely six years of age when he ascended the throne of his father, under the guardianship of his mother Theophania, by whom his education had been intrusted to the learned Gerbert, afterwards Pope Sylvester II. The early portion of this reign was harassed by the continual wars of the great vassals against each other, and by the incursions of the Danes and Sclavonians. Like his predeces- sor, he took much interest in all that passed on the south side of the Alps ; and to establish his authority in the Italian peninsula and at Rome, was almost the sole occupation of his reign after he was left to his own guidance. He died childless, and was succeeded by Henry duke of Bavaria, the last of the Saxon house, in 1002. SAXON LINE. The succession of German kings is reckoned from Louis the German. Otho, ****** d. of Saxony, presumed descended from Witikind 7. Conrad I. of Franconia m. Hedwige, d. of Emperor Arnulph. emp. 9] I, f 919. 8. Henry I. the Fowler, king of Germany, 919, t 9. Otho the Great, Tancmar. Bruno, archbp. k. of Germany, 936; of Cologne, and emp. 9G2 ; m. 1. Editha, archduke of sister of Athelstan. Lorraine. 2. Adelaide, q. of Italy. 10. Otho II. emp. Ludolph, d. Three William, nat. Henry, 973, m. Theophania of Franconia. daughters. son of archbp. of Constantinople. f °57. ofMentz. 11. Otho III. emp. 983, 1 1002. Four daughters. 12. Henry II. emp. 1002, f 1024. Note. — A collateral branch cnn- tinued in Saxony until 1111. * He derives this epithet from the perfidious massacre of the Roman senators whom he had invited to share his hospitality. TENTH CENTURY A. D. 231 BRITAIN. The successors of Alfred persevered in that monarch's career of con- quest. Edward, surnamed the Elder, 901, deprived the Danes of the eastern coast from the mouth of the Thames to the Wash. This king must be ranked among - the founders of the English monarchy, as besides securing his people from a Danish domination, he prepared the way for the overthrow of that power in England. Like his father, he paid great attention to education, and his sons received the best instruction that the age could afford, in order to qualify them for the station to which they were born. Athelstan, a. d. 925, the grandson of Alfred, was the first monarch really entitled to the name of King of England. As he had attained the age of thirty before he was called to the exercise of royal power, he commenced his reign with the advantage of a matured judgment and extensive experience. Passing the Humber, he took the city of York, and routed at Brunanburgh in North umbria a numerous army, in which were assembled the principal enemies of the Anglo-Saxon race. He was a prince of very great influence at home and abroad ; and his reign, from his connexion with the Continent, is of more importance than those of any of his family. He ravaged Scotland with his troops, while his fleet spread dismay to the extremity of Caithness. The cause of this invasion was the refusal of Constantine, the Scottish King, to perform the conditions of an international treaty. England began now to lose its insular seclusion, and to take part in the transactions of foreign states. The sovereign of Brittany, when driven out by the Normans, had been hospitably received at Athelstan's court, and there, too, tbe queen of Charles the Simple, with her son Louis, found a refuge.* Hugh the Great, count of Paris, married Ethilda, one of Athelstan's sisters, and when Louis Outremer ascended the throne of France, a friendly treaty was made between the two countries, and the English monarch aided his ally with his fleet in 939. Two other sisters of Athelstan were married, one to Otho the Great, the other to a German prince in the emperor's court. Haco, the son of Harold Harfager of Norway, was educated here, and, by the aid of the king, was placed on his father's throne. Thus England began, and has ever continued, to be the asylum of the persecuted. Athelstan rebuilt several monastic edifices, and bestowed on them books, ornaments, or estates. He did not neglect the poor, and decreed, under a penalty, that each of his bailiffs should feed one pauper, and taxed his own farms to raise the necessary funds. A new invasion, attempted in 94 fi. was repelled by Edred, who succeeded his brother Edmund, and all England, from the Tweed to the Land's End, was united into one political body. But this state of things was not of long duration. The Danes soon re-nppeared in greater numbers, and again commenced their piracies in the reign of Ethelred II., an effeminate prince, who sought to free his kingdom of *The presents made to Athelstan afford a curious insisrht into the manners and civi- lisation of England and France. Hugh sent over some brilliant emeralds, many richly caparisoned horses, a beautifully carved and polished vase of onyx, the sword of Con- stantine the Great, the spear of Charlemagne, a diadem of gold and jewels, and some venerable relics. At another time, the Norwegian Harold presented a magnificent ship with a golden beak and purple sails, surrounded with shields gilt on their inner surface. — Turnet's Angle- Saxons. 232 MIDDLE AGES. its invaders by large bribes rather than by courage and decision. The miseries of the Saxons were increased by several years of scarcity, by a contagious disease among the cattle, and by a most fatal dysentery that carried off many thousands of the people. Dunstan. — The national tranquillity was interrupted during the middle of this century by the ambition of the monks, who, meddling with public affairs, were on the point of abolishing the secular clergy. Edwy, who succeeded his uncle Edred, 955, had married Elgiva, a princess within the degrees forbidden by the ecclesiastical laws. Dun- stan, abbot of Glastonbury, in concert with several of the nobles, offered the most unwarrantable insult to the king on the very day of his corona- tion; but although the churchman was compelled to flee in order to avoid his sovereign's indignation, his party was too powerful to be resisted, and the queen was dragged from the palace by an armed troop, branded in the face with a red-hot iron, and banished to Ireland. Return- ing some time after, when her wounds were healed, Elgiva was dis- covered and cruelly murdered. SPAIN. Moorish Spain The effeminacy of the Arabian monarchs of Cor- dova cost them part of their empire. Some successful rebels made themselves independent in the states of Toledo, Huesca, and Saragossa, and by their mutual contests endangered the Moorish dominion. Ab- dalrahman III., 912, reduced all these turbulent governors to submis- sion, and under his wise rule agriculture, manufactures, and commerce flourished. He extended his dominions by conquests in Africa, but these advantages were counteracted by the terrible defeat at Simancas, in 938, when 80,000 Mussulmans were left dead on the field, — a proof of the fury of the battle and the valour of their antagonists. These losses were, however, after a time skilfully repaired, and more than twenty times Abdalrahman advanced into the very heart of the Christian states. By this emir the first medical school was established in Europe, and its celebrity is attested by the cure of the king, Don Sancho, who had obtained permission to be attended by Arabian physicians. The glorious reign of this caliph, which terminated in 961, was closely followed by the decay of the Mohammedan power; yet it was maintained during half of the tenth century by the great vizier Almansor, who made fifty-four successful campaigns against the Christians, penetrating even to the sanctuary of Compostella. He was succeeded by his son, who worthily trod in his father's footsteps. Christian Spain. — Meanwhile the Christians, pent up in the Bis- cayan mountains, were preparing to contend with their conquerors. Ramires II. took Madrid in 932, threatened Toledo, and after the glori ous victory at Simancas, extended his dominions to the range of hills which separates New from Old Castile. In the year 960, about a cen- tury after the foundation of Burgos, may be placed the formation of the kingdom of Castile under Ferdinand Gonzales, who severed it from Leon. But between 982 and 990, the Christian sovereignties were menaced with the greatest peril. The vizier of Cordova drove Bermudes II. to seek refuge in the wilds of Asturias, and was only compelled to retire by the breaking out of a terrible pestilence among his troops, in TENTH CENTURY A. D. 233 997. The presence of the enemy at last reunited the discordant princes of Northern Spain; and the Count of Castile, being placed at the head of the troops of Leon, Navarre, and Castile, destroyed the army of Al- mansor, which had been hitherto victorious. ARABIAN EMPIRE. Emir al Omra. — The decline of the Arabian dominion was rapid and certain ; for the Turkish guard held the caliph almost a prisoner in his own palace, while the governors of the provinces threw off their alle- giance, contenting themselves with merely acknowledging, in their daily prayers, the existence of their supreme lord, and by the payment of certain unimportant tributes. Al Radhi, 934, the twentieth of the Abbassides, was the last of his order that enjoyed the power and privi- leges as well as the splendour of royalty. Even in his reign, Mohammed, a Turk, was appointed to the new office of emir al omra — commander of commanders — which conferred on the possessors unlimited authority in the state, not unlike that of the mayors of the palace in France Violent and ambitious men were always ready to seize upon this office, which, in 944, became hereditary in the family of the Persian governor, and henceforth the caliphs were mere ecclesiastical regents. In this decline of their power they were also condemned to witness the loss of part of their dominions. Between 963 and 975, the Byzantine armies had recovered Syria, crossed the Euphrates, and also subjected all the Ottoman dominions in Europe. Fatimites. — Africa was entirely lost to the Abbassides, who had the mortification of beholding a new caliph establish a rival throne. In 908, Obeidallah, one of the Karmathians, all of whom were supposed to have been exterminated, was proclaimed ruler, as a descendant of Ismael, son of Djafar Sadik, the seventh visible Imam. He was soon sufficiently powerful to overthrow the Aglabite dynasty of Kairwan and the Edris- ites of Fez. Mahadia, in Africa, which he founded, became the residence of the Fatimites, a name preferred by the new monarchs to that of AH, as marking with greater clearness their descent from the prophet's daughter, Fatima. Sicily and the Arab dominions in Italy soon fell into the power of Obeidallah ; and his fourth successor, Al Moez, completed in 960 the conquest of Sardinia and Egypt, in the latter of which he built Cairo, the metropolis of the African caliphate. By the reduction of Egypt the Fatimites soon lost their other posses- sions in Africa, in which independent principalities arose so soon as the seat of government was transferred to the banks of the Nile. The history of this dynasty presents the same vicissitudes as all others of Arabian origin ; the sovereigns, who for the most part lived retired in their palaces, were elevated or dethroned according to the interests of ministers, or the caprice of the officers of the body-guard. The Ghaznevides. — While the caliphate of Bagdad was thus falling into ruin,, a vast monarchy was rising in the East. The Suffarides, established in Khorassan, had been dethroned, after a reign of thirty years' duration, by the Samanides, a Turkish family, who maintained their power till the end of the century. But in 961, a slave named Alp Tegin, seized on the castle of Ghasna, and founded the dynasty of the Ghaznevides. Mahmoud, 997, who united the reputation of a sage with 20* 234 MIDDLE AGES. the glory of a conqueror, reduced Lahore, Moultan, and Guzerat, extend- ing his conquests, and with them the Mussulman faith, far into the Indian peninsula. From these victories arose the Hindosianee, the modern language of India, which has taken the place of the Sanscrit, now hecome the exclusive idiom of the learned in that country. The Turks. — The Turks were a people of Tartar origin, condemned by their first conquerors, the Gevugen, to work in the mines of the Imaus, and to forge arms for their masters. But these victims soon quitted their mountains, overthrew their oppressors in 552, and founded a state which continued until 585. At this epoch they separated : those of the East were reduced by the Chinese in 744 ; those of the West exhausted their resources by intestine divisions, and by degrees ceased to exist as a formidable nation. In the ninth century, numerous bands of the Western Turks entered into the service of the caliphs, and net long after into that of the Ghanzevide sultans. The chief of the tribe Seljuk, who inhabited Bokhara, was able alone to arm 200,000 men. Mahmoud it is true distributed them among his cities on the banks of the Oxus; but when he died in 1028, they returned to their former pas- toral life, supporting themselves chiefly by plunder. THE CHURCH. The tenth century is generally characterized as one of the darkest of the dark ages ; and in the history of the church there is little to relieve the gloom that overhangs the secular annals of this period. The Christian religion had been propagated successfully in the East, beyond the Imaus, and among the barbarians in the north and east of Europe. About the year 720, the Nestorian patriarch appointed metro- politans in China and at Samarcand, while in India and Ceylon the gospel appears to have been received much earlier. The Normans were converted about 910, the Poles in 964, and the Russians and Hungarians at the end of the century. In Europe the purity of the doctrines of the church was obscured by the vicious lives of many of the clergy, and the strange opinions every day introduced. The pontiffs are described as monsters rather than men, and the see of Rome has been represented by its own historians as the spoil of profligate women who disposed of it at their pleasure. At the end of the century, the papal chair was ably filled by the learned Gerbert, Sylvester II. Notwithstanding the rapid succession of twenty-five popes, between 905 and 1003, the influence of the church gradually increased, partly by open violence, partly by fraudulent usurpation; and it was now for the first time maintained that " the authority of the bishops, though divine in its origin, was conveyed to them by St. Peter, the prince of the apostles." The invasions of the Normans were always disastrous to ecclesiastical edifices, which they pillaged and destroyed without mercy. Profound ignorance necessarily followed such havoc, since the cloisters were the sole asylum of learning; and the priests and monks, being suddenly deprived of their means of subsistence, were obliged to seek relief in occupations foreign to their profession. Hence arose negligence of their duties, which became the more palpable as the means of instruction and disciplined were withdrawn. Berno, at Cluny, in 910, commenced the reform of the monasteries in France, by introducing the Benedictines, TENTH CENTURY A. D. 2^5 the severity of whose regulations was increased by Odo in the convent of Fleury, whither the body of the founder had been transported from Mount Cassino. This discipline rapidly became popular, and was adopted generally within a very short period. During this century, a groundless panic, arising from a false interpre- tation of the twentieth chapter of the Revelation of St. John, seized all Europe. Temples and palaces were suffered to fall into decay, and language vainly attempts to describe the confusion and despair that tor- mented the minds of the ignorant multitude. The sacerdotal order did not scruple to profit by this delusion. Many charters begin with these words : '« As the world is now drawing to its end ;" and an army march- ing under Otho I. was so terrified by an eclipse of the sun, which was conceived to announce this consummation, as to disperse hastily on all sides. Penance. — St. Augustin gave some countenance to the Manichean ideas of Two Principles, Good and Evil, existing in each individual, and constantly at war as in the struggle between the flesh and the spirit. This doctrine exhibited at once the weakness and strength of human nature : at one time degrading it below the beasts, at another elevating it almost above humanity. Enthusiasts, in order to attain heaven, spent their lives in inflicting the greatest torture on themselves. They disfigured the body by neglect and filth, weakened it by fasting and watching, and tore it with stripes. Linen was proscribed among the monastic orders, and the use of the warm bath ceased, because cleanliness itself was a luxury, and therefore a positive sin. They bound chains round the body, which wore into the flesh ; Arnulph of Villars in Brabant had an under- waistcoat of hedgehog skins ; St. Dominic the Cuirassier was clothed in an iron dress, and scourged himself with both hands night and day ; and the English saint, Simon Stock, obtained his name from passing many years in a hollow tree. THE WORLD AT THE END OF THE TENTH CENTURY. Greek Empire. — At the end of the eighth century the known world was under the control of three great monarchies, — the East, the West, and the Caliphate. Of these, one only now remained ; and the Eastern Empire, lying between the Saracens and Franks, was obliged to have recourse to the assist- ance of the latter, and was often tributary to the former. It still however maintained considerable power, though but a shadow of what it had been, and was a continual prey to civil dissensions and external war. The Caliphate was parcelled out into a number of petty states, leaving scarcely a trace of its existence except in the pomp which still surrounded the rulers as ministers of religion. The Frank Kingdom, at one period the terror of the West, existed in several different sovereignties founded upon its ruins, of Avhich the chief were the kingdoms of France and Germany. These two states at first sight present an equality of force which disappears on a closer examination. France was exhausted by anarchy and tyranny ; each province had its inde- pendent sovereign, duke or count, one of whom (Hugh Capet) violently seized the crown. Thus we see a king of Burgundy, a duke of Paris or of France, dukes of Aquitaine, Normandy, and Brittany ; counts of Champagne, Flanders, Toulouse, and Anjou, — all of whom reigned as independent princes in their own territories. Under this crowd of masters, mutually jealous of each other and continually at war, the people were always suffering and enslaved. They recognised a sort of hereditary chief, upon whom they conferred the title of king; but this ruler, without authority, money, or arms, was always at the mercy of his powerful vassals. Germany was as extensive as France, and its nobles were scarcely less numerous. The sovereignty was elective, but the electors, while they reserved 236 MIDDLE AGES. the honour of choosing the common master, had the good sense to surrender part of their privileges to give him more authority. Hence the king had fiefs at his disposal, officers at his command, and armies to execute his orders. Spain was but little changed. The North, occupied by the Christians, was perpetually at war with the Moors of the South. In both the states were numerous and feeble ; but the former always gained ground, while the Sara- cens, equally brave and enlightened, were weakened by civil dissensions. England was entirely changed. The seven, or rather eight little kingdoms were now united into a single monarchy ; but its powers were still enfeebled by the divisions of the Danish and Saxon inhabitants, who made the island a theatre of revolution and bloodshed. Italy, winch presented the spectacle of cities overthrown, was oppressed by tyrants, and ruined by anarchy. Venice alone, separated from all others by its peculiar situation and policy, enjoyed a period of calmness and prosperity. Rome contained a rising and ambitious power, which threatened to overthrow the ascendency of the Germans. The papal territories were of small size, but no prince had a more extensive power than the pope : by his dominion over men's consciences he completed the great work of a spiritual monarchy. Prepare : A map of the world, and fill up two lateral columns with the ne- cessary explanations of the changes that have taken place. ELEVENTH CENTURY. Greek Empire. — 1028, Romanus III. — Bulgarian Invasion. — 1057, Comneni — 1081, Anna Comnena — Varangian Guards. Italy. — 1046, Norman Kingdom. — 1057, Robert Guiscard — Italian Republics. Germany. — 1024, Conrad II.— Franconian House. — 1073, Investitures — Saxon Wars. France.— 1031, Henry I.— 1060, Philip I.—1095, Synod of Clermont. Spain. — 1080, New Castile recovered. — 1081, Kingdom of Portugal. — The Cid. Arabian Empire. — 1038, Togrul-Beg — Seljukians. — 1050, Invasion of Arme- nia. — 1063, Alp Arslan. — 1074, Malek-Shah — Gelalaean Era. — 1076, Jerusa- lem taken by the Turks. Britain. — 1002, Massacre of the Danes.— 1017, Danish Dynasty. — 1041, Ed- ward the Confessor. — 1066, Norman Conquest. — 1080, Domesday Book. — 1087, William Rufus. Church.— 1027, Truce of God.— 1038, Benedict IX. deposed.— 1073, Gregory VII. — Investitures — Cistertians and Carthusians — The Holy Lance. — 1096, First Crusade. Celebrated Men. — Ferdousi, d. 1020; Avicenna ; Guido of Arezzo. i GREEK EMPIRE. Zoe. — By the death of Basil, in 1025, Constantine VIII. remained sole master of the empire ; but he occupied himself little with the government, which his daughters Zoe and Theodora managed, and con- tinued to direct, even under his two successors. Romenus III., who had been compelled to repudiate his wife and marry Zoe, Constantine's eldest daughter, succeeded to the throne in 1028. He met with several disastrous reverses in his campaigns against the Saracens; and by his injudicious attempt to replenish his exchequer, caused successive com- ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 237 motions, which were aggravated by a dreadful plague, followed by famine and an earthquake. He died of poison administered by his wife, who with criminal haste married Michael IV., 1034. This prince, after defeating the Bulgarians, who had crossed the frontiers of the empire, and rolling back the tide of war into their own forests, divested himself of the purple, and finished his days in a monastery, 1041. Michael V., who had been nominated Caesar during his uncle's reign, caused the empress to be imprisoned ; but the people deploring her exile, a formidable tumult of three days terminated in her recall and in the deposition of the sovereign, after a reign of scarcely four months, in 10452. The third husband of Zoe, Constantine IX., was now declared emperor, the beginning of whose reign was disquieted by the revolt of ten of his best generals. They were scarcely defeated before Togrul Beg conquered Erzeroum, and 800,000 Bulgarians crossed the Danube on the ice; but, fortunately for the empire, they perished from the com- bined effects of war and disease. After the monarch's death in 1054, Theodora reigned two years, and chose Michael VI. for her successor; but he was dethroned by a conspiracy formed among his most distin- guished commanders. The Comneni, 1057, were a noble family from the shores of the Euxine, but of Italian origin. Manuel, the first of their line, distin- guished himself in the East ; w T hile Isaac and John, for their great merits, had been promoted to the highest posts in the army. The sol- diery had long viewed with disgust the succession of vicious and feeble emperors who had worn the purple, and on the plains of Phrygia unanimously raised Isaac to the imperial dignity in 1057. After two j years, his delicate health determined him to abdicate, and having vainly j offered the throne to his brother John, he was succeeded by Constan- tine X., Ducas, 1059. Selfish and short-sighted in his policy, this i monarch endeavoured to aggrandize his family, while he left the fron- I tiers unguarded against the inroads of the Turks, who invaded and ) occupied Iberia and Mesopotamia, as Thrace, Macedon, and Greece were by the Utzes. He was followed by his three sons, governing under the regency of their mother Eudocia, who married, in 1068, Ro- manus IV., Diogenes, by whom Alp Arslan was defeated while his hordes were ravaging Cilicia and Cappadocia. Romanus was taken prisoner in a second campaign, but restored to liberty on promise of a I heavy ransom. In the interval, Michael VII., Parapinaces, was raised I to the throne, by whom his predecessor was deprived of his eyes, pre- | viously to his being exiled. In 1074, Soliman conquered Romania I (Roum), and chose Nice for his residence. The Greeks now possessed | little more of Asia Minor than the seacoast and a few strong towns, I while their feebleness was increased by losing those territories in Italy which were seized by the Normans. Wearied of a prince who had I abandoned the cares of government to an infamous and incapable | minister, the troops proclaimed as emperor their general Nicephorus I III., and Michael, divested of his power, received the title of Archbishop iof Ephesus. But Alexius I., Comnenus, in 1081, seized on Constan- tinople, and obliged Nicephorus to retire into a monastery. For the ■ history of the life of this emperor, we are indebted to the fluent pen of Phis affectionate daughter Anna. In the disorder of the times, compre- [ihending every calamity which can afflict a declining empire, Alexius 23c JllDDLE AGES. steered the imperial vessel with courage and dexterity. His warlike demonstration alone sufficed to check the incursions of the Turks; but his Norman opponents under Robert Guiscard were more serious anta- gonists,* and he was only freed from them by the dissolution of the army on the death of their commander, 1085. Towards the end of the century, the Turks again threatened Constantinople ; and the supplicatory letters of Alexius to the several princes of Europe were the immediate cause of the crusades. We shall trace their history elsewhere, but it may here be remarked, that the crafty emperor trod in the footsteps of the. victorious Franks, and secured to himself those fruits for which they were too impatient to wait. He died in 1118. ITALY. Normans. — Some of the armed pilgrims of Normandy, while visiting the Italian shrines, were employed by a Lombard prince of Salerno against the Saracens, a. d. 1016. Their success led to fresh engage- ments, and attracted many of the restless spirits of the age to their vic- torious standard. By them a great part of Southern Italy and Sicily was torn from the grasp of the infidels ; and to indemnify themselves for an unjust division of the spoil, they seized upon Apulia, under the first count, William of the Iron Arm, one of the sons of Tancred de Hauteville, 1046. Leo IX., who did not regard these formidable and unscrupulous neighbours without anxiety, endeavoured by fraud and force to drive them from the peninsula. He did not, however, succeed, but fell into their hands, and the condition of his release was a present of Apulia and Calabria, as a fief of the holy see, 1053. Robert Guis- card, another of the twelve sons of Tancred, was the most remarkable of the dukes of Apulia. His ambition led him to aim at the conquest of the Greek empire; and, in 1081, he besieged Dyrrachium (Durazzo) with a resolute army of somewhat less than 30,000 men. The Emperor Alexius marched against him in person, and suffered a disgraceful defeat. The dissensions of Italy recalled Robert; and while preparing a second armament, he engaged in three naval battles with various success against the combined fleet of Venice and Constantinople. An epidemic disease, which attacked him at Corfu, proved fatal next year, and carried him oPf in the seventieth year of his age, 1085 ; but the conquest of Sicily was completed by his brother Roger. The latter island, then a prey to civil discord, was occupied by a number of emirs, who no longer recognised the authority of their sovereigns in Africa, and had divided the country into petty principalities. The chivalrous Norman crossed to Messina, and at the head of only sixty men attacked the Saracens. The spoils he acquired soon attracted others to his standard, and after thirty years he became master of the island, 1090, with the title of grand count. His exploits during the earlier campaigns in Sicily are quite romantic. To strengthen his power, Roger behaved with mildness and toleration towards the vanquished, and the Mussulmans had no reason to complain of a change of masters. Not less skilful as a politician than valiant as * In the Greek armies were many English nobles, who, to avoid the oppression of the Norman William, and despairing of the fortunes of their country, had sought refuse at the court of Constantinople. These, under the name of Varangians, proved true and' faithful supporters of the Byzantine empire till its fall. ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 239 a warrior, he had the address to turn to his own advantage all the pre- tensions of the pope ; and, in order to preserve the right of conferring ecclesiastical benefices, he declared the .Sicilian princes to be perpetual and hereditary legates of the holy see. Italian Republics. — The origin of these republican states cannot now be precisely ascertained, but we may place them after a. d. 990. Of their history during this century little is known, except that they restored the Roman municipal government, which had never entirely ceased, and were engaged in continual hostilities. The rural nobility were soon brought into subjection, and their fortresses dismantled ; the towns were wisely thrown open to all who chose to settle in them ; and the military habits of the populace protected them against the violence of their enemies. But, from a desire of tyrannizing over their neigh- bours, they imitated the example of the ancient Greek republics, " with all its circumstances of inveterate hatred, unjust ambition, and atrocious retaliation, though with less consummate actors on the scene." Venice had subdued the Istrian pirates, a. d. 939 ; and conquered Dalmatia, in 1000, before any rivals to her commercial power had arisen in the cities of Genoa and Pisa, or any other marts were formed for the merchandise of the East and West. The democracy naturally lost its predominance in the augmented riches of the state ; but lest the supreme power of the doge should be abused, he was reduced to a mere cipher by the annual election of councillors to superintend his conduct, 1002. In the contests against Robert the Norman, the Venetians took part with the Greeks, but were defeated, 1081. The crusades which occur- red shortly after paved the way to their subsequent riches, insolence, and power. Genoa and Pisa. — These two republics derive their origin from the anarchy that followed the deposition of Charles the Fat, in 888. To this year the Genoese assign the election of their first consuls, the crea- tion of their senate, and the assemblies of the people, with all the ancient municipal forms recognised by Berenger II., in his charter of 958. Pisa adopted nearly the same institutions in the tenth century; and, like the other, directed all its energies to maritime commerce. The Saracens were the first enemies which these two cities had to contend with; Genoa was pillaged in 936, and Pisa in 1005. GERMANY. Henry II. did not receive the crown of Germany in 1002, without opposition ; but eventually his claims and authority were recognised in the whole of the duchies and by all the electors. The peace of the kingdom was, however, soon disturbed by the war in Franconia and on the eastern march. Italy was for a time estranged from Germany by the enemies of the Marquis of Ivrea ; and the towns of Lombardy, divided between the partisans of Ardouin and Henry, were a prey to civil strife. In 1012, Henry's intervention was formally demanded ; for the Romans, being formed into two parties in the election of a pontiff, each faction nominated its own candidate ; one of whom, Benedict VIII., having been driven out of the city, came to Paderborn in great state, and entreated the assistance of the German monarch to establish him in his dignity. The urgent solicitations of the pope were seconded by 240 MIDDLE AGES. the complaints preferred by the Archbishop of Milan against Ardouin. In the campaign of 1014, Henry advanced to Rome, where he was crowned emperor. Returning across the Alps, and visiting Burgundy and Lorraine, he stopped atlhe monastery of Saint Vannes, near Ver- dun, where he was prevented from embracing a cloistered life only by the good sense and firmness of the superior. House of Franconia. — Conrad II., the Salic, descended from Otho the Great, was elected to fill the vacant throne, and with him began the line of Franconian emperors, a. d. 1024. To secure the crown in his family, he endeavoured to increase its influence by conferring various duchies and principalities on his relatives. His son, Henry III., who succeeded him in 1039, was perhaps the most powerful and absolute of the German rulers. Having defeated the Hungarians, he obtained the cession of all the country between Kahlenberg and the Leitha; and when he had confirmed his power at home, he turned his attention to Italy, where three popes were urging their claims to the triple crown. None of them met with the approbation of the German king, and the Bishop of Bamberg was elected, with the title of Clement II. He also nominated the three successors, who honoured the tiara by their virtues, and commenced the reform of the clergy. Uniting the fief of Franconia to the imperial domain, he bestowed the forfeited duchy on his wife, Agnes, — entirely laying aside the usual forms of popular concurrence which were deemed necessary to various acts of sovereignty. Henry IV. was only six years old when his father died in 1056. The care of his minority was assigned to his mother, from whom it was wrested by the Archbishop of Cologne. Under his new guardian he was allowed to indulge in all kinds of excess, and the Saxons, among whom he resided, soon grew weary of the expenses of the licentious court, and its attacks on their liberties.* To keep this warlike people within their bounds, he constructed a great number of castles in Saxony and Thuringia, compelling" the inhabitants to raise with their own hands those fortresses whose garrisons were to be maintained at their expense. His proceedings at last excited a general revolt among them, which he soon quelled, but at a great cost of human life, 1075. Investiture. — Henry's adversary was the celebrated Gregory VII., who desired to free the church from the temporal authority of laymen; that is, to deprive all princes of the power of investing bishops with the ring and crosier, the symbols by which the pope himself conferred the spiritual authority. Gregory's first attack was violent. In a council held in the Lateran Palace, it was declared that no laics should confei ecclesiastical benefices, or clerks should receive them from a layman, under pain of excommunication. This decree w r as carried to Henry by four legates, charged with the removal of this annoyance throughout the German church. The king, then occupied with the Saxon war, at first promised them his aid ; but when the insurgents submitted, he forgot his pledge, of which the pope reminded him in a threatening manner. The irritated monarch assembled at Worms the great nobles and prelates of his kingdom, who pronounced Gregory's deposition, 1076. The reply * On the occasion of a quarrel between Henry, and Otho, duke of Bavaria, the latter was deposed, and the duchy conferred on Otho's son-in-law, Welf or Guelph, from whom descended the Brunswick line, now occupying the British throne. ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 241 of the Papal See was the excommunication of the king, accorr^ anicd by an act depriving him of his regal dignity, and absolving his subjects from their oaths of allegiance. The German aristocracy, oppressed by Henry III., and the Saxons, vanquished by his son, ran to arms, as much to avenge their private injuries, as to enforce the papal encroachments. The rebel chiefs, at whose head were Rodolph of Swabia, and Guelph of Bavaria, met at Tribur, suspended the emperor from his functions, and threatened to de- pose him, if he did not procure the retractation of the Romish anathemas. Henry yielded to the storm, and visited Italy, where he became reconciled to the pope, on certain humiliating tonditions, 1077. But he had sub- mitted only to gain time, and being encouraged by the fidelity of his Lombard vassals, he broke the treaty to which he had given his assent, and marched against the rebellious Germans, who had already elected Rodolph of Swabia to the throne. The decisive victory of Wolksheim in Thuringia, 1080, was fatal to Rodolph, who perished by the lance of Godfrey of Bouillon, afterwards so distinguished in the First Crusade. In Italy, also, Henry was triumphant ; and at the same time, the death of Pope Gregory in exile, 1085, relieved him from much disquietude. But he did not long enjoy the fruits of his victory, and his latter days were clouded with increasing misfortunes. First, he had to contend against a new competitor; afterwards against his own son Conrad; while the confessions of his wife Bertha added to his domestic afflictions. But he continued, in despite of all these miseries, to struggle with firm- ness, and by his courage effaced at least his earlier faults. When Conrad died, his brother Henry appeared in arms against their father, who was forced to flee before his rebellious child. So great was his distress, that he begged the humble post of reader in a church which he himself had founded, and was refused. Laying himself down on the steps, he died of hunger in 1106, and his body was left without sepul- ture, as being that of an excommunicated person.* FRANCONIAN DYNASTY. 13. Conrad II., the Salic, duke of Franconia, elected emp. 1024, m. Gisela, granddaughter of Conrad d. of Bourges, herself of Swabian origin. 14. Henry III., the Black, emp, 1039, Two daughters. m. 1. Ounegunda, d. of Canute the Great ; 2. Agnes of Poitou, afterwards regent. 15. Henry TV. emp. 1056, Matilda m. Rodolph, Sophia m. 1. Bertha of lvrea ; d. of Swabia ; elected m. 1. Solomon, k. of Hungary, 2. Adelaide of Russia, emp. and killed in 1080. 2. Ladislaus, k. of Poland. Conrad rebels 16. Henry V., emp. 1106. Agnes Adelaide m Matilda of m. Matilda of England. m. Frederick of m. Bolcslas III. Sicily. Hohenstaufen. k. of Poland. *********** 17. Lothaire II., son of Gerhard of Supplinbourg, d. of Saxony, 1106, emp. 1125, 11137 ; m. Richenza, heiress of Henry Hie Fat, d. of Saxony, and last descendant of Henry the Fowler. * Other accounts state that Henry died at Liege in extreme want. On one occasion he was compelled to sell his books to purchase bread ; and shortly befoie his death he I'm-- warded his sword to his son with the brief message : " Si mihi plus dimisses, plus tibi misissem." 21 242 MIDDLE AGES. FRANCE. In 1022, Robert shared the regal power with Hugh, his eldest son, who was soon driven to revolt by the harshness of his mother Constance, who required from him, as king, the same implicit obedience which he had given when a child. Robert vanquished and pardoned the rebel. On the demise of Hugh, soon afterwards, the king elevated his third son Henry in his stead. Constance, however, preferred the youngest, named Robert, and, by her ungracious behaviour, drove Henry, as she had be- fore compelled his brother, to revolt. But the youthful prince was far from seconding his mother's projects, and in fact united with his brother against her tyranny. They returned to their duty a short time before the death of their father, which took place at JVIelun, in the sixty-first year of his age, and the thirty-fifth of his government, 1031. During this reign the Church began to take measures against the heretics, who appeared in great numbers ; some of whom pretended to change the doc- trines, others to reform the manners, but all were persecuted alike. In a council assembled at Orleans, a multitude of these unfortunate persons were condemned to the flames. King Robert and his queen were present at their execution ; when Constance remarking among the victims an ecclesiastic who had been her own confessor, thrust out one of his eyes with an iron rod. Robert's devotion and goodness, the chief qualities that can be praised in him, were not very elevated. His principal occupation was founding churches, chanting with the priests, and correcting the liturgies. Yet this piety, however erroneously directed, was accompanied by an ardent charity that should ever consecrate the memory of this king. The poor were his friends ; every day he fed three hundred, sometimes a thousand ; on Holy Thursday, kneeling and in sackcloth, he washed their feet, and served them. Henry I., 1031, was scarcely seated on the throne before Robert, his brother, was urged to assert his claims to the crown ; but the king be- ing triumphant, the other was contented to accept the duchy of Burgundy, which his descendants possessed until 1361. Another, but far less suc- cessful war, occupied the remainder of his reign. The Duke of Nor- mandy, Robert the Devil, by whose aid Henry had been maintained on the throne, having died in 1035, while returning from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, left William the Bastard, afterwards the conqueror of Eng- land, to succeed him. The French king took advantage of the minority of the young prince to weaken his power ; but no sooner had William reached man's estate, than he attacked his enemy and defeated him in threp battles, 1051. Philip I. succeeded his father in 1060, and commenced the longest reign which occurs in the French annals. His personal acts must be carefully separated from those which so highly characterized the chivalry of France during this period. He distinguished himself in several wars, but in his private life indulged in vices that drew upon him the censures of the church and the contempt of his subjects. He trafficked in holy matters, selling to the highest bidder the vacant benefices and sees. Gregory VII. menaced him with an interdict, but the pontiff's severity was exhausted in his German quarrel. He was afterwards successively excommunicated by two popes, at the councils of Autun and Clermont, on account of his divorce, but was eventually restored by the council of ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 243 Paris, held in 1104. The latter years of Philip's reign were passed in all the excitement of the First Crusade. He died in 1108. CAPETIAN DYNASTY: Portion 1. Conrad Welf. Robert the Strong, or the Angevin, d. of France, 861-866. Hugh the Abbot, d. of France 866-886. Ecdes, ct. of Paris, d. of France, 886; k., 888-t 898. Robert I., d. 889 ; k. 922, f 923 Emma, wife of Rodolph of Burgundy q. of France, 923-936. No issue. Hugh ihe Great, d. of France, &c, 923-956, in. Hedwige, sister of Otho the Great. Hugh Capet, d. 956 k. 987-996. Otho, d. of Bourses 956-963. * (Both without issue.) Henry, d. of Bourges, 965-1002. Robert II., k. 996-1031, in. 1. Bertha of Burgundy. 2. Constance of Toulouse. Henry I., d. of Burgundy, 1015; k. 1031-1060 ; m. Anne of Russia. Robert, d. of Burgundy, 1032, stock of the first hereditary dukes. Philip I., k. 1060-1108. m. I. Bertha of Holland. 2. Bertrade of Montfort. Louis VI., the Fat, k. 1108. Hugh the Great, ct. of Vermandois and Valois, in right of his wife Adelaide (Branch extinct in the sixth generation.) SPAIN. The Almoravides. — Moorish Spain presented in every quarter the appearance of anarchy and dismemberment, at the very period when its existence was threatened by two formidable enemies : on the one side by Alphonso V., who, after uniting- Galicia to the kingdoms of Leon and Castile, took possession of Toledo, Madrid, and Guadalaxara; on the other, by African tribes bent oil a war of extermination. About the middle of the eleventh century, there appeared in Africa, beyond Mount Atlas, in the deserts of ancient Gaetulia, two tribes of Arab origin, known by the appellations of Gudala and Lamtuna. When these were converted to Islamism, they assumed the name of Murabitins or Almoravides — that is. men of God. Excited by the enthusiasm of their new faith, they crossed the mountains; when the Arabs of the desert, uniting with the new people, founded the city of Morocco. Yus- suf was its first emir, and being summoned by Mohammed, sovereign of Cordova, made three expeditions into Spain; and, on learning the feebleness of all the petty kings, resolved to subject them to his power. In 1094, he succeeded in putting an end to all the Mohammedan states in the peninsula; but soon felt himself incapable of appropriating their territories as he had intended. It is true, however, he gained a f ew advantages over the Christians, and ravaged Catalonia after a terrible battle, in which, it is said, 30,000 men were slain. Christian Spain. — With the death of Bermudes III., in 1037, the dynasty of the Kings of Leon expired, and this ancient sovereignty was united to Castile in the person of Ferdinand of Navarre, son of that 244 MIDDLE AGES. Garcia III. who, notwithstanding his great valour, was surname! the Trembler. This family possessed the four Christian thrones of Spain, which were reduced to three, in 1038, by the death of Gonzales of Sobrarva. At this time the Moors still possessed Andalusia, Granada, Murcia, part of New Castile, and all the seacoast from Barcelona to the mouth of the Tagus. The war with the infidels was renewed by the new King of Leon and Castile, whose frontiers were even extended to the Mon- dego, and the Arab princes of Saragossa, Toledo, Cordova, and Seville, were compelled to pay him tribute. On Ferdinand's death in 1065, his kingdom was divided among his three sons: Sancho had Castile; Al- phonso, Leon and the Asturias ; Garcia, a part of Portugal with Galicia. Little variety characterizes the history of these states until 1081, when Henry of Burgundy, a soldier of fortune, received the hand of Theresa, Alphonso's natural daughter, and, as dowry, whatever he could wrest from the Moors in Portugal. Other French knights were found in the Spanish armies, and on one occasion an auxiliary force crossed the Pyrenees to aid Alphonso, with whose assistance the Moors were driven into Andalusia. The Cid. — Although Capmany, with an excess of critical scepticism, throws doubts upon the existence of this warrior, it is not the less necessary to be acquainted with his history. Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar, surnamed Campeador (the battler), and Cid (chief), illustrated the reign of Ferdinand I., founder of the Castilian monarchy. He was born of a noble and ancient family at Burgos, and aided Don Sancho to deprive the brothers and sisters of the latter of the heritage which Ferdinand had left to them ; but Sancho having, in 1072, been killed at Zamora, his brothers recovered their estates. The Cid shortly after falling into disgrace, retired from court, not to an inactive life, for with his own fol- lowers alone he took Alcazar, and maintained himself on a rock near the Guadalaviar, which still bears the name of Penu de el Cid. One of his most remarkable exploits was the siege of Toledo, which lasted twelve months, and attracted many cavaliers from Italy and France. From the number of French families which settled in that town, their privileges derived the name of Franchise. The Cid next conquered Valencia, which he governed with the authority of an independent sovereign. He died in 1099. ARABIAN EMPIRE. Turkish Conquests. — In 1038, an unsuccessful battle terminated the Gfhazneyide dynasty, and the choice of the victorious Turks fell on Togrul-beg, founder of the family which bears the name of Seljukian. In the space of sixteen years he conquered Balkh, Carmania, Taberist an, and obeying the summons of the caliph, he overthrew the Bowides, win; had long reigned at Ispahan. Togrul next assumed the title of Emir a! Omra : seated behind a black curtain and holding the sceptre of the prophet, the Abbasside invested him with seven robes, gave him seven captives born in the seven climates which obeyed the Arab dominion, presented him the mystic veil, placed two crowns on his head, and girt him with two swords, to show that he was master both of the East and the West. Dying without children, he was succeeded by his nephew, ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 245 Alp Arslan, in the title and prerogatives of sultan, 1063. The Valiant Lion, for such is the meaning of his name, gallantly attacked the Greek empire, and the provinces of Armenia and Georgia fell in three years. Romanus Diogenes bravely opposed him, but after a few trivial suc- cesses, was defeated and made prisoner, 1071. The fairest part of Asia submitted to Arslan ; his throne was surrounded by 1200 princes, and guarded by 200,000 hardy warriors. He died in 1073, and on his tomb might be read the following inscription : — " O ye who have seen the glory of Alp Arslan exalted to the heavens, repair to Maru, and you will behold it buried in the dust!" Malek-Shah, the eldest son of Alp, was victorious over all his com- petitors for the sovereignty, and extended his dominions from the Chinese frontier to Arabia and the neighbourhood of Constantinople. Twelve times this active monarch is said to have travelled through his vast kingdom. He embellished the cities of Asia with public buildings ; revived and honoured the pursuits of literature ; and by his reformation of the calendar, approximated nearly to the accuracy of the Gregorian style. The era named Gelalsean {i. e. glory of the faith), from one of Malek's titles, is fixed to the 15th of March a. h. 471, a. d. 1079. The shah's death, in 1092, was preceded by the murder of the vizir Nizam, the wise and virtuous minister of two sovereigns. Thirty years' faith- ful service could not screen him from the attacks of faction, and at the age of ninety-three he fell beneath the dagger of a fanatic — the first victim of Hassan Sebek, the celebrated founder of the Assassins. With the son of Alp Arslan disappeared the unity of the empire. Barkiarok succeeded in Persia ; but already three separate dynasties reigned in Carmania, Syria, and Iconium, which, though they had obeyed Malek-shah, became nearly independent at his death. The most powerful of these petty kingdoms was Roum, which had been founded by a prince of the royal family in 1084. Towards the end of the tenth century Jerusalem had fallen under the power of the Turks, but access to its holy places was still allowed to the Christians. In 1076, it was taken by the Turks, who insulted and oppressed the citizens and pil- grims during the twenty years that their domination lasted. The Caliph of Egypt obtained possession of it in 1096, but three years afterwards it was captured by the crusaders. BRITAIN. Danish Line. — Ethelred II., in the hope of freeing himself and his subjects from the odious tribute of Dane gelt, plotted the massacre of every Dane within his kingdom. At the appointed time, 13th Novem- ber 1002, the treacherous design was executed, but failed, as it merited, in its results. Sweyn reappeared with a numerous force, and after some years of hostility, compelled the native sovereign to take refuge in Normandy, and was himself proclaimed king of England, 1014. Ed- mund Ironside, 1016, struggled manfully for his father's crown, and was several times victorious over Canute, Sweyn's successor ; but his death established the foreigner on the throne in 1017. This prince, justly named the Great, was affable, wise, and virtuous. By his marriage with Emma, Ethelred's widow, he conciliated the vanquished, and dis- armed the Duke of Normandy, while the powerful Earl Godwin was 21* 246 MIDDLE AGES. gained over by receiving the hand of his daughter. His reproof of the flatteries addressed to him by his courtiers is well known, and throws a favourable light on his character. Preserving the authority of the laws, he added to their efficiency by other good institutions of his own ; and effectually checked the incursions of the Scotch on the northern frontier. He composed songs which were sung alike by Danes and Saxons ; and patronized the literature of the monks not less than the wild poems of the scalds. In 1030, he visited Rome as a pilgrim ; and after a reign of twenty years, he died with a reputation inferior to no monarch of his age. He was succeeded by his' sons Harold, 1036, and Hardicaniite, 103° ; on the death of the latter the crown returned to the ancient family, in the person of Edward thje Confessor, 1041. The accession of the Danish kings had produced little change in England, since most of their followers had embraced Christianity, and assimilated themselves gradu- ally to the natives, whose laws and language were not unlike their own. The mildness of Edward's character endeared him to his subjects, in spite of his Norman favourites ; but his reign was disturbed by the rebellion of Godwin, earl or governor of Kent, which was soon quelled, and by occasional hostilities with the Welsh and Scotch. In 1054, Siward, earl of Northumberland, and Macduff, earl of Fife, led an army against Macbeth, whose usurpation of the northern throne has been im- mortalized by the pen of Shakspeare. Edward died in 1006, and was buried in the magnificent church of St. Peter at Westminster, which he had rebuilt from its foundation, his subjects bewailing his loss like that of an affectionate parent. Harold, the son of Godwin, immediately claimed the sceptre, and procuring his election by the witan, to the prejudice of Edgar Etheling, the legitimate heir, was crowned in 1066. Two rivals, the king of Norway, and his own brother Tostig, now appeared to endanger his kingdom, but they were soon defeated. Wil- liam, duke of Normandy, proved a more formidable competitor, founding his claim to the crown on the purpose, if not the testament, of Edward, and on the oath which Harold himself had made to promote the duke's" succession to it. The king's reply was, that the promise had been extorted by violence, and that as he had been elected by the people, he would endeavour to show himself worthy of their choice. Each party immediately prepared for war, but it was unfortunate for Harold, that he had meanwhile to march against the Norwegian king, who had landed in the north of England. The two armies met at Si im- ford Bridge; and the ranks of the hostile cavalry having been broken, tiieir leader was slain, and his army almost annihilated. In the midst of the rejoicings which followed this victory, the news was announced that the Normans had landed on the coast of Sus No sooner had William received the answer of Harold, and heard of his coronation, than he began to make vigorous preparations for invading England. Ships were immediately constructed, supplies collected from all the adjacent parts of the Continent, and volunteers from every quarter crowded to his camp at the mouth of the Dive, eager to share in the danger and plunder of the campaign. Unfavourable winds, ae.d the loss of several vessels, I for a time the spirit, of the adventurers. A.t length the favourable moment arrived ; and quitting St. Valerv with hundred ships, he landed at Pevensey, 28th September 1066. Thither Harold flew with all the forces he could muster, and at a place ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 247 called Senlac, about nine miles from Hastings, was fought the battle th* decided his fate. From an early hour until sunset the fight was continued with varying success, until the king fell pierced with an arrow and his soldiers fled panic-stricken from the field. " It was ordained (says Turner), by the supreme Director of events, that England should no longer remain insulated from the rest of Europe ; but should for its own benefit and the improvement of mankind, become connected with the atfairs of the Continent. The Anglo-Saxon dynasty was therefore terminated ; and a sovereign, with great continental pos- sessions, was led to the English throne. By the consequences of this revolution, England acquired that interest, and established that influence in tlie transactions and fortunes of its neighbours, which have continued to the present day, with equal advantages to its inhabitants and to Europe." The Norman Conquest, 10G6. — William I. did not even yet succeed to the crown without further struggle. Edgar, surnamed Etheling or the Illustrious, who had been nominated king on the death of Harold, was supported by the Londoners and others; but disunion and disaffec- tion prevented them from taking advantage of William's delay in marching upon the capital. At length, when he appeared before the city, after devastating all the surrounding country, a deputation of the inhabi- tants waited upon him with an offer of the crown, which was accepted, and the festival of Christmas appointed for the coronation. The Saxon chiefs, Edwin and Morcar, whose fatal retreat into their northern provinces had led to the surrender of London, being now overawed by the additional power which the invader had acquired by his possession of the capital and his title of king, took the custom- ary oaths of submission. Meanwhile the Normans were almost wholly engaged in dividing the riches of the conquered territory. Commis- sioners overran all the country that was in the power of their army, making inventories of every kind of property, public and private; inscribing and enregistering each article with the greatest care. Parti- cular inquiries were made as to the names of the individuals who died in battle under Harold, of such as had survived, as well of those who had been prevented, by what cause soever, from joining his standard. All those persons or their heirs were deprived of their possessions ; and the immense proceeds of this universal spoliation were the pay of the adventurers who had been enrolled in William's host. He himself retained for his own share all the treasures of the ancient kings, the church-plate, and the most precious of the articles found in the ware- houses of the merchants. The barons and knights received vast domains, castles, villages, and even entire towns, while the vassals were rewarded by smaller portions. Towers and strong places arose in every direction; all the natives were disarmed, and compelled to swear obedience to their new sovereign. To overawe the city' of London, the conqueror took up his abode in the Tower, which he enlarged and strengthened ; here he raised his dreaded banner bearing the three lions, and similar ensigns floated over two new castles towards the west of the city. The name of Saxon became a term of reproach, and during a whole century not one individual of this race was elevated to any civil or ecclesiastical dignity. Even their language and alphabetical charac- ters were rejected as barbarous ; in the schools, French only was allowed to be taught; the Norman idiom was employed in all legal acts 248 MIDDLE AGES. until the reign of Edward III. ; and some slight traces of it may be found at the present day. The victor having- thus secured his conquest, returned to his dukedom to receive the felicitations of his Norman subjects; and during his absence, the Saxons, incensed by the arrogant government of his vice- roys, rose in arms. Their revolt however was of brief duration ; for hastily returning, he attacked Exeter, the stronghold of the insurgents, and took it after a siege of eighteen days. While all hopes of independence were thus gradually crushed in the West, the extensive provinces of the North offered an asylum to the friends of liberty. Edgar had early taken refuge with Malcolm Can- more, king of Scotland, by whom he was received as legitimate sovereign, and whose alliance was firmly assured by his marriage with Margaret, the youngest sister of the English prince. William did not wait for his antagonists to begin the campaign, but resolutely marching northwards, defeated all who opposed him, cruelly devastating the whole country, at the cost, it is said, of more than a hundred thousand lives. Malcolm was soon obliged to submit, and consent to hold certain portions of his kingdom as a vassal of the English crown, while Edgar, the last male descendant of Cerdic, was compelled to seek a reconcilia- tion with the victor, 1072. The conqueror next turned his attention to the organization of his government, and as his power depended on the sword alone, all grants and fiefs were burdened with the condition of furnishing, whenever required, a certain number of horsemen completely armed; and by this regulation, called the knights' service, the king was enabled to raise in a brief space an army of 60,000 cavalry. The tenants of the crown exacted a similar and proportional service from their dependants. All the followers of William were noble, in right of their victory and foreign birth. After himself, in point of rank, stood the governor of the pro- vince, or count; next to him his lieutenant or viscount (vice-count) ; then came the different ranks of soldiers, namely, barons, knights, and esquires or sergeants. A general survey was made of England, the particulars of which were inserted in the Domesday Book, or Book of Judgment. From this account and other equally credible sources, we learn that the daily revenue amounted to 1061 pounds weight of silver, or nearly one million and a quarter sterling per annum ; an enormous sum, when we consider that the value of this metal was perhaps ten times as great as it is at present. Robert, William's eldest son, and the Norman lords, took advantage of the absence of their sovereign to revolt. From 1078 to 1084, the king conducted several expeditions into France, reduced Manceaux, and defeated the prince, 1079; but the latter again took up arms, on the pretence that the duchy of Normandy fell to him immediately upon his father becoming the sovereign of a foreign nation. He was" supported by the king of France, who could not regard without uneasiness the exaltation of his vassal. This was the origin of a long series of wars between the two countries, during which, as the conqueror was march- ing towards Paris, an accident caused his death, 1087. In the previous year, a total failure of the harvest in England, and a malignant disorder, carried off many thousands of the inhabitants. William Rufus, 1087, the second son, took possession of his father's ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 249 throne, not however without resistance, for revolts broke out in several parts of the couritry, which were put down by the aid of the Saxons, who flocked to the royal standard. Normandy was at this time in a troubled state, owing to the bad government of Robert, who, after two invasions from England, resigned the administration of his kingdom to his brother for ten thousand marks, with which sum he raised a body of troops and embarked for the Crusades. Rufus governed his subjects with a rod of iron ; and his treasury, soon exhausted by his prodigality, was replenished by the most unscrupulous means. Taxes and fines were imposed on the liberty of hunting, while a transgression of many of the forest-laws was made punishable with death. It was this king, also, who established the " benefit of clergy," by virtue of which, all persons capitally convicted, saved their lives by proving that they could read — a most convincing proof of the rarity of such an accomplishment. William, who had now become odious to his people, was shot in the New Forest of Hampshire, whether accidentally or by design, is un- certain, 2d August 1100. Malcolm Canmore. — In 1091, William entered Scotland to revenge an invasion by Malcolm, whom he compelled to do homage for the southern counties. The Scottish king and his eldest son perished in battle at the siege of Alnwick castle, 1093, when the throne was seized by Donald Bane, who in a few months was deposed by Duncan, an illegitimate son of Malcolm's; and he, in his turn, was cut off by Mal- peder, Maormor or Earl of the Mearns. THE CHURCH. The Roman bishops had long been desirous of extending the Christian religion into the countries occupied by the Mohammedans; but the troubles of Europe prevented them from directing a full share of their attention to that object. A favourable opportunity, however, occurred at the end of this century, and Peter the Hermit preached a holy war throughout Christendom. The papal power and corruption had now nearly attained their height. Benedict IX. was so disorderly in his con- duct, that even the Italians degraded him from his office in 1038, and again in 1044. Leo IX., a pope of a different character, was not the least deserving of those who obtained the name of saint. His regula- tions for correcting and punishing the enormous vices of the clergy may be held as some criterion of the corrupt state of the church. Gregory VII. , Hildebrand, who was the first pontiff elected by the college of cardinals, 1073, was a man in every way suited to maintain the cause of the Roman see, his chief object being the attainment of worldly gain and authority. While he disputed with the emperor for power, he contended with human reason in support of the doctrine of transubstantiation, and with the clergy for the enforcement of celibacy; a practice that had early been introduced into the Christian church from the Jewish Essenes, and the philosophical sect of the Gnostics. He began by excommunicating some of the ministers of the Emperor Henry IV., on the pretence of simony, and then denied to the sovereign the right of investiture by the ring and crosier ; maintaining that the estates of the bishops might be conferred by a layman, but that those emblems )f spiritual power could only be bestowed by the vicar of Christ. The 250 MIDDLE AGES. resistance of Henry led to the deposition of the pope by the council of Worms ; when Gregory in his turn excommunicated the king, and re- leased his subjects from their allegiance, 1076. His majesty obtained an absolution from this sentence by sitting at the pope's gate three days barefooted, and clad in coarse woollen. Retreading his steps, he not only subdued the German rebellion, but also banished the refractory pontiff, and commanded himself to be crowned in Rome by the antipopc Guibert (Clement III.), 1084. Gregory expired, the year following, at Salerno, saying, " I have loved righteousness and hated iniquity, there- fore do I die in exile/' Towards the beginning of this century the Hungarians were convert- ed, and their king, Stephen, received the title of " Apostolic" from the pope. In France, Berenger, archdeacon of Angers, openly attacked the new opinions on the eucharist, for which he was twice threatened with excommunication : while at Constantinople, the patriarch Ceru- larius resisted the claims of the Bishop of Rome to the chief rank and authority among the faithful, 1053. Transubstantiation. — This most astonishing doctrine arose from taking a figure of speech in a literal sense. According to the Romish church, when the words of consecration have been pronounced by the priest, the bread, and every fragment into which it is again broken, become the actual body of flesh and blood in which our Redeemer suffered upon the cross, — remaining bread to the sight, touch, and taste, yet ceasing to be so. Of all the corruptions of pure Christianity, this last was the slowest in being adopted. It was first pro- posed in 831 by Radbert, afterwards abbot of Corbey ; but it was not declared the doctrine of the church until 1215. When the question was first brought before Hildebrand, he not only inclined to the principle of Berenger, by whom it was opposed, 1079, but pretended to consult the Virgin Mary, who, he asserted, had pronounced against it. It was finally declared by Innocent III. to be a tenet necessary to salvation. La Chartreuse. — In the midst of the troubles which at this time agitated the church, there arose a new order of solitaries, who, by holiness of life, mortification, and prayer, at once edified the people and honoured religion. St. Bruno, founder of the order of Chartreuse, was born at Cologne of distinguish- ed parents ; and soon became so skilful in theology, that he passed for one of the most learned doctors of the age. While filling a distinguished station in the cathedral of Rheims, he suddenly formed the resolution of withdrawing into solitude. With some of his friends, in whom he had inspired similar feel- ings, he retired into the desert of the Chartreuse, in the diocese of Grenoble, whither the report of their sanctity quickly attracted a number of imitators. St. Bruno himself was invited to Rome by Urban II. ; but the disorders which he beheld there soon disgusted him, and he retired into Calabria, where he founded a monastery, in which he died. The regulations of the order are still preserved with the same strictness as when first drawn up. Each brother has a separate cell ; they live upon the plainest food, and that in small quantities ; and only the Sabbath is spent in each other's society. Their clothing is simple and coarse ; sackcloth is worn next the skin ; all gold and silver ornaments are expressly forbidden, even in their religious services, with the exception of a silver chalice used in the sacrament. They observe the strictest silence, com- municating only by signs, and support themselves by the labour of their hands. Truce of God. — In these ages, when a country was at peace with its neigh- bours, it was liable to be disturbed by priva\e wars, individuals taking upon themselves the right of deciding their own quarrels. In consequence of the confusion which this caused, it was enacted by the council of Clermont, that from sunset on Wednesday to sunrise on Monday, in every week, the Truce of God should be observed on pain of excommunication. But the same coun- cil also published a canon, which has ever since produced the most disastrous ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. 251 effects wherever Romanism is tolerated or established: namely, that "no bishop or priest shall promise upon oath liege obedience to any king or layman." Tradition. — With the decay and corruption of the Latin language, the Latin version of the Holy Scriptures had become useless to the people ; and the Roman see exerted its power in proscribing the use of such vernacular translations as existed. This was done in the consciousness that what was then taught as Christianity was not to be found in the written word of God.* Vague unwritten tradition, the artifice of the early heretics, was used instead, on the assumption that many things had been revealed which had not been committed to writing. Thus, like the Pharisees, the Romish clergy corrupted the ritual and faith of the Western Church. Gregory VII. issued the first of these prohibitions, refusing to the Bohemians the liberty of performing the service in Sclavonic. THE CRUSADES. Peter the Hermit. — During many centuries the devout Christians of 6 MIDDLE AGES. merit for a treasonable correspondence with the King of Hungary. Twelve years had passed, when accident discovered a long-forgotten recess into which he crept, when the guards supposed he had fled. His wife being suspected of aiding in his flight, was imprisoned in the same dungeon, and with her he shared his scanty provisions. At length, after one unsuccessful attempt, he escaped from the cell, and found an asylum in Russia. The exile was soon after pardoned and restored to his country, only to be removed to the more honourable banishment of the defence of the Cilician frontier ; but, having offended Manuel, he was forced to flee, and finally settled among the Turks of Asia Minor. After a space, however, he obtained leave to throw himself at the feet of his sovereign, who was satisfied with this submission of a brave and haughty spirit. The youth and inexperience of Alexius II., Manuel's successor, opened a fair field for his ambition ; and he was loudly sum- moned by the public voice to end the civil war now violently raging ir the streets of the capital, 1183. No sooner was his power confirmed than he began to exhibit a singular contrast of vice and virtue. His personal enemies he persecuted without mercy, while in other respects he was the father of his people. A narrative of his horrid cruelties would be less characteristic of his reign, than the term " halcyon days" given to a week of peace and happiness. Some have supposed that his severities originated in a deep-laid plan for regenerating the empire, to effect which, it was necessary to exterminate the factious and dissolute nobles of Byzantium. However we may now excuse his tyranny on the plea of necessity, his subjects could make no such calculation; and wearied out by their calamities, they burst into sedition, placing Isaac II. at their head. Andronicus struggled in vain against the infuriated mob ; and soon falling into their hands, he was torn to pieces in 1185. His death was a fatal blow to the Greek empire. Isaac Angelus won golden opinions from his subjects by his lenity and moderation ; but after being success- ful in some of his foreign expeditions, he had to defend his capital against one of his generals, Branas, who was defeated and killed by Conrad of Montferrat. The emperor next directing the whole strength of his army to oppose the march of Frederic Barbarossa, his treacherous conduct met with the fate it deserved, and he was obliged to make peace on dishonourable terms, 1189. While amusing himself with his buf- foons, or engaged in the gross delights of the table, his brother, Alexius III. was unanimously invested with the purple, 1195; but a change of masters did not bring a change of conduct, for the new monarch equalled his predecessor in dissoluteness of life. The son of Isaac had escaped into Italy, and persuaded the leaders of the fourth Crusade to aid in raising him to the throne, engaging to unite the Greek and Roman churches, and to contribute funds for the war. Alexius resisted in vain; Constantinople fell into the hands of the crusaders ; and the blind Isaac was recalled from a prison to a throne, 1203. But dissension soon re-appearing, the Greeks and Latins fought three days ; and Alexius V., Mourzoufle, having deposed the empero and his son, shortly after murdered them. In this instance guilt over- reached itself, for the crusaders avenged the cause of the late monarch, and Constantinople was given up to pillage in 1204. The misery of the Greeks on the ruin of their city cannot be described ; the sanctity TWELFTH CENTURY A. D. 257 of the churches and graves was violated ; the arts have to lament the destruction of the choicest sculptures in marble or in brass ; and the scholar to regret the loss of some of the noblest remains of Greek learning. THE EAST. The Attabeks. — The history of the Mohammedans in this century is almost that of the crusades. The Seljukian dynasty had flourished and was now doomed to perish like its predecessors, for Sangiar was the last of his race, 1117. Meantime the mayors of the palace again ap- peared in the East ; the Attabeks or father princes, who were governors of towns, made themselves independent in their respective provinces. Zenghi, 1127, fought thirty campaigns with various success; drove the Franks from beyond the Euphrates; and the martial but uncivilized mountain-tribes of Kurdistan were overawed by the governor of Aleppo and xMosul. Noureddin, his son, 1145, reigned from the Tigris to the Nile ; and the Latins were compelled to acknowledge the w T isdom, courage, and frugality of this faithful servant of the Abbassides. " O Noureddirl," exclaimed an oppressed man, " where art thou now ? Arise from the dead; arise, to pity and protect us!" — The reconquest of Egypt from the Fatimites was the work of time, as they were assisted by The Frank army of Jerusalem, 1163. Three sanguinary campaigns were shortly after followed by the deposition of the caliphs, and Egypt exchanged the green colour of Ali for the black banner of the Abbassides. The famous Saladin was elected governor of Egypt by the universal acclamations of the army, 1171, and he soon contrived to make himself independent. Before his death he had extended his power beyond the valley of the Nile from Tripoli to the Tigris, and from the Armenian mountains to the Indian Ocean. In 1187, he invaded Palestine with an army of 80,000 men, gained the decisive victory of Tiberias, and took Jerusalem after a short siege. These events gave rise, in less than two years, to the Third Crusade, in which he contended so successfully against the valour of the lion- hearted Richard and the craft of Philip, that he was enabled to negotiate for peace on favourable terms. The reign of this great leader was ter- minated by death, and his vast dominions were divided, in the reign of the Caliph Naser, 1193. ITALY. The events of the preceding century had gradually undermined the authority of the emperors in this peninsula, although their title had never ceased to be acknowledged. Frederick Barbarcssa, the greatest military commander of the age. was ambitious of regaining all the power and privileges of the Iron Crown.* He appeared in Italy at the head of a well-appointed army to support his claims, and after a brief delay caused by the diet of Roncaglia, 1158, by the hostility of Pope Adrian IV., and by the punishment of a few small rebellious towns, he laid siege to Milan, which he captured and rased to the ground, 1162. * The iron crown of Lombardy is described by St. Marc as having the srold bordered with a rim of iron. It was, with two others, presented to the churcli of Monza, where the first Lombard prince had abjured Arianism, a. d. 591. 258 MIDDLE AGES. The Lombard cities were now subjected to a podesta, always a stranger, and who held his extensive powers during the pleasure of the emperor. But when fortune is at the lowest, it must change for the better : a secret league formed by those communities, encouraged by Alexander III., by Venice, and by the Greek court, overturned the fabric of absolute power, and Frederick fled in disguise from the decisive field of Legnano, 1174. A truce of six years followed, the terms of which were not unfavour- able to the allies. On its expiration, the treaty of Constance, 1183, secured the peace and liberty of the Italian republics. But dissension and hatred soon began to appear among the confederated cities ; and the factions of the Guelfs and Ghibellines again subjected them to the German sway. Arnold of Brescia. — Arnold, the author of what was aptly named the heresy of politicians, after his return from France, where he had studied under the celebrated Abelard, preached at Brescia against the corruption and ambition of the clergy, 1139. Being condemned by the council of the Lateran, he was compelled to retire to Zurich, where he taught without restraint. At the end of five years, he returned trium- phant to Rome, within the walls of which he lived protected by the senate, and applauded by the people. At last, to gratify the pontiff, he was delivered up by Frederick in 1155, and expiated at the stake the dangerous errors he had inculcated. Venice. — The crusades, which gave such an impulse to all the rest- less spirits of the west of Europe, were not unfelt by the Venetians, who sent a fleet of 200 vessels to share in the first of these expeditions. The siege of Jaffa was raised through the dispersion of the Saracens by the Doge Micheli, who, after paying a visit to Jerusalem, distinguished his homeward voyage by the sack of Rhodes, and the temporary occu- pation of other isles of the Archipelago. Marriage of the Adriatic. — When Frederick Barbarossa attempt- ed to subject the rich communities of Lombardy, Pope Alexander took refuge in Venice. The emperor violently demanded that he should be given up, but received a severe defeat from Ziani, who destroyed forty- eight sail of the German fleet in 1177. The pontiff accompanied the triumphal procession which went forth to congratulate the victor. " Take this rino - , Ziani," said the pope, " and present it to the sea as a testi- mony of your dominion over it. Let your successors annually perform the same ceremony, that posterity may know your valour purchased such a prerogative, and subjected this element to you, — as a bridegroom is husband and lord over the bride whom he has chosen." The donation of a consecrated rose is also said to have crowned these allegorical nuptials. GERMANY. Henry V. — As soon as Henry mounted the paternal throne in 1100, he declared that he would never abandon the rights of investiture and homage ; asserting his pretensions in still plainer terms than those which had led to his father's melancholy death. Paschal II. wished to decide the question by reducing the church to the poverty of apostolic ages, and by causing the clergy of all ranks to subsist on the alms of the faithful. Such a proposition was treated as heretical by the bishops, TWELFTH CENTURY A. D. 254 ind the war recommenced. It was carried on during several years with various changes ; but at last Henry, who was shaken by the terrors of excommunication, and the threatening attitude of the German princes, signed with the pope the famous concordat of Worms, 1 122, in which the emperor renounced the investiture by the ring and crosier, the sym- bols of spiritual authority, and retained his right over the temporalities of the several dioceses. Henry expired three years after this transaction. Guelfs and Ghibellines. — The Franconian line became extinct with Henry V., and as the Germans were exhausted by their efforts to establish an hereditary monarchy, they raised to the throne a friend of the church, Lothaire, duke of Saxony, 1125. The new emperor, sub- missive in all things to the clergy, renounced the prerogatives guaran- teed by the diet of Worms. His successor was Conrad, the first of the Swabian family, 1138; and in the disputes which raised him to the crown began the deadly feuds of the Guelfs and Ghibellines. The origin of these famous names is singular. A battle was fought in 1140 by the generals of Conrad against Welf, duke of Bavaria, whose name was the war-cry of his army ; that of the imperialists was Wibelung, a town in Franconia, whence the emperors of that line are said to have sprung. Hence the corruption Ghibelline came in Germany to signify a partisan of the emperor, and Guelf, an adherent of the great vassals, or in Italy, of the pope. The reigning family of England is descended from this latter house, which traces its ancestry to the reign of Charle- magne, and even as far back as to the invasion of Attila. Barbarossa. — Frederick Barbarossa, 1 152, who endeavoured to acquire a real authority in Italy, found two great obstacles — the pope, and the towns of the north which had revived the spirit and political feelings of the Greek republics. At the invitation of his holiness and of many of the smaller Lombard cities, he entered Italy, and punished the Milanese. After restoring Adrian IV., and putting into his hands Arnold of Brescia, who had recalled the shadow of Roman liberty, Frederick, twice master of the imperial city, was crowned emperor in the capitol. His warfare with the republics was carried on with varied success, till at length he made peace with the Lombards on terms most advantageous to them, although in the form of an edict, issued at the diet held at Constance, 1183. By this he granted to the towns the rights which they had exer- cised, and recognised the validity of all the usages prevailing among theni. His career was closed at the head of 150,000 men whom he was leading to the Holy Land. Having conquered all the enemies he met, the way to Syria lay open before him, but when he arrived on the banks of the Selef (Ca/ycadnus), impatient to cross the stream, the only narrow bridge over it being blocked up with soldiers, he plunged into the river on horseback. The impetuous torrent carried him away, and when his body was dragged to the shore, life was found extinct, 1190. Henry VI., who had administered the government during his father's absence in the crusade, conceived the design of declaring the empire hereditary, but was unable to accomplish his object from the violent opposition of the Saxons. His principal wars were against Sicily and Naples, which states he at last joined to the empire, 1194; the pope and the free cities of Northern Italy not perceiving that this dangerous union must destroy the political balance of the peninsula. Thus perished the 260 MIDDLE AGES. Norman race in Italy, a few years before the duchy of Normandy was annexed to the French crown. Frederick II., although elected king of the Romans, was too young to succeed his father, who died in 1197. Two candidates appeared before the electors, Philip, the late emperor's brother, and Otho of Brunswick, third son of Henry the Lion. Each was nominated by his own party, and hence arose that deplorable anarchy which desolated Germany until the reign of Maximilian. FRANCE. Louis the Fat, 1108, had to contend at once against the power of Henry I. of England and the lawlessness of the French nobles. With this reign began the protracted wars between the two nations, so glorious yet so unprofitable to the English. This monarch reigned over a territory which, comprising what is called the isle of France and part of the Or- leannais, contained only five out of the eighty-six modern departments. In his struggles against his powerful barons, he received the. support of the clergy, so that before his death, in 1137, he had extended his influ- ence to the Pyrenees. Louis VII., surnamed the Young, adopted the policy of his father, but rashly joined the crusaders, contrary to the prudent advice of his faithful minister, Suger. On his return, the conduct of his wife, Eleanor, heiress of the great duchy of Guienne, led to a divorce; and she immediately married Henry II. of England, who, already inheriting Anjoufrom his father, and Normandy from his mother, was sovereign of more than one-third of France. The accession of Philip Augustus, in 1180, entirely changed the scene. His ambition and craft extended the authority of the monarchy, and concentrated its power by the subjection of the three great fiefs of Vermandois and Artois, and by the seizure of Normand)% Anjou, and Maine, under the pretext that King John, his vassal, refused to appear before him as his lord para- mount. The battle of Bouvines was gained by Philip over the English, principally by the burgher-militia, which had obeyed the royal summons to repel invasion. In this reign the Jews were expelled from Paris, the king having previously released all Christians in his dominions from their debts to them, with the reserve of one-fifth part for himself. CORPORATIONS AND STATES-GENERAL, 1119. The forms of civil liberty, the offspring of Frank independence and the Roman municipal law, though never lost in England, were neglected at a very early period in France. Deliberative assemblies, or parliaments of the Champ de Mars, were known under the kings of the first and second race ; and Char- lemagne was aided in his legislation by the presence of the peers and bishops. The three brothers, Louis, Charles, and Lothaire, were reconciled in a national assembly ; and by one, similarly convoked, Eudes was elected king. 888 ; and Hugh Capet about 100 years later. Yet so uncertain and irregular were the*e meetings, that only thirty-five have been counted between 613 and 1230: Louis the Fat took one of the most likely means that could be devised to elevate the people ; and this was contemporary with the English character of Henry I. At his accession the monarchy was feeble and languishing ; the aristocracy powerful and enterprising It was the good fortune of Louis to take advantage of a general movement of the people to forward his designs against the turbulent feudal barons. Then also the commons themselves first appear as a body in history, soon to take their station beside the nobles and the priesthood. He confirmed to each city the right of self-governmefit by its mayors and other TWELFTH CENTURY A. D. 261 magistrates, from which arose those little republics known by the name of commons (corporations), that, in case of war, were to furnish a stated number of soldiers for the king's army. The great harons soon followed the sovereign's example, and enfranchised their vassals also. Under Philip the Fair, 1285, the communes became so powerful as to send deputies to the states-general, who were called the third estate (tiers eial). The states-general, a representative body, composed of the three orders of the state, were first convened in 1302, to support his majesty in his quarrel with Boniface VIII. About the same period a great national impulse was felt in most European states In Italy the com- munes, as we have seen, became republics ; for a brief struggle enabled them to vanquish the few powerful nobles in their vicinity. In France, on the con irary, the power of the commons was soon absorbed by royalty. Under Louis VII., the Young., the great vassals assumed the title of peers, and composed the parliament, or judicial tribunal for the arrangement of the disputes of the nobles, and to which appeals for denials of justice were referred. Its seat was not fixed at Paris till 1302, when great changes were introduced by Philip the Fair ; its sittings became regular, and the place of the nobility was gradually supplied by lawyers. It now became celebrated as the supreme judicial court, by which all the royal edicts were registered, and whose mem- bers, after 1468, were appointed for life, and by election. These rights it con- tinued to exercise till 1788. SPAIN. Alphonso VI. of Castile, and Alphonso I. of Aragon, succeeded in all their undertakings against the Moors ; and before the close of the century, the province of Aragon, with New Castile and Estremadura, was possessed by the Christians. Under Alphonso VII., the Castilian dominions were extended to the Sierra Morena, 1135 ; but the power of his kingdom was greatly diminished by its imprudent division into those of Castile and Leon, under his sons Ferdinand and Sancho. Frequent internal wars ensued, till the final coalition of the two branches of the Gothic monarchy in 1238, when Mohammed founded the kingdom of Granada, in the reign of Ferdinand III. Portugal, which had hitherto been governed by Castilian lieutenants, was resigned by Alphonso VI., 1095, to his son-in-law Henry of Be- sahcon, whose son Alphonso, after the glorious victory over the Moors at Ourique, was saluted king on the field of battle, 1139; but Castile did not willingly allow the assumption of the regal title until the pope had decided in favour of the new monarch. His territory lay between the Minho and the Douro. In 1147, he became master of Lisbon, and, dying in 1185, was succeeded by his son, Sancho I. The celebrated Military Orders of Spain date from about this period. The most ancient is that of Alcantara, 1156, fixed at the town of that name, in 1219 ; and the decoration was a green lily-shaped cross. That of Calatrava began in 1158, and was confirmed in 1164 by Pope Alexander III. ; it received a red cross, also, in the shape of a lily, as a distinctive mark. The order of St. James of Compostella (Santiago) was founded in 1161, and sanctioned by the pope in 1175 ; it was distinguished by a red cross in the form of a sword. That of Montesa, 1317, replaced the Templars iti Aragon. To the three first orders may, in a great measure, be ascribed the rapid progress of the Christian arms in the subsequent centuries. BRITAIN. Henry I., Beauclerc, took advantage of the absence of his brother Robert in the Holy Land, and seized the crown, 1100. By his marriago 262 MIDDLE AGES. with Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III., and niece of Edgar Atheling, he strengthened himself in the affections of his Saxon subjects. He was the first king who granted a general charter to the English people; he remitted all lines due to the exchequer; restored the ancient privileges of the church ; removed many of the feudal burdens ; gave London a municipal constitution ; and declared his intention of restoring the laws of Edward the Confessor. Louis VI. of France, fearing so powerful a rival, continually harassed him, and cordially supported William Clin- ton (afterwards Count of Flanders), the son of Robert. The death of Henry's son, in 1120, struck him with incurable sorrow. He died in 1135, and was buried at Reading. The cruel treatment of his brother is not the only indelible stain on the character of this monarch : his cousin, the Earl of Moretoil, he imprisoned and deprived of sight ; and he drove the hapless satirist Luke de Barre to the commission of suicide. The crown was left to his daughter Matilda; but Stephen of Blois, son of Henry's sister, who had already gained the pope and the nobility, secured the throne. Having long been popular in England, he now attached the people more firmly to him by the abolition of the Danegelt, and by the restoration of several immunities which had been withheld by his predecessors. Nearly twenty years were spent in civil struggles, with varied success, to the ruin of the people and the prejudice of the crown, when a compromise was made, leaving Stephen in possession of his title, but stipulating that Henry, the son of Matilda, should succeed him. Stephen's reign presents a condensation of the evils incident to the feudal system. " The nobles burnt all the towns : — thou mightest go a whole day's journey and not find a man sitting in a town, nor an acre of land tilled. Wretched men starved of hunger: to till the ground was to plough the sands of the sea." Henry II., Plantagenet,* mounted the throne in 1154. By inherit- ance and marriage he possessed a great part of France, viz. Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, Maine, Guienne, and Poitou, with Saintonge, Au- vergne, Perigord, Limousin, and Angoumais. The life of this able king was spent in war both against temporal and spiritual powers. He re- pressed the boldness and rapacity of his nobles, who had taken advan- tage of the disturbances of the preceding reign; endeavoured to reduce the clergy to subordination, and to check their encroachments, or, as they called them, immunities and privileges. By the 4i Constitutions of Clarendon," 1164, it was declared that priests should be tried before the civil tribunals, without appeal to the pope ; and that the consent of the monarch was necessary to the promulgation of any papal edict within the kingdom. The commons, who had profited by the submis sion of the nobles, obtained the re-establishment of trial by jury, and the exemption of their property from the debts of their lords. During the humiliation of the monarch, who had been excommunicated for his supposed share in the murder of the turbulent Becket, the people again profited by having a sculage, or military tax, substituted for personal service. The circuits of the judges were now first appointed. The subjection of South Whales, and the invasion of Ireland, 1172, were the principal events of this reign. The latter days of the king were imbit- 1 So called from the family device, a sprig of broom (planta genista, plante a genet). TWELFTH CENTURY A. D. 263 tered by the rebellion of his sons, supported by the pope and the King of France. Richard I., Cceur de Lion, was not reconciled to his father when he was informed that the latter had died in Touraine, 1189. His first act before visiting England was to release his mother Eleanor from prison, and to appoint her regent. His coronation at Westminster was signal- ized by a cruel massacre of the Jews ; their habitations were pillaged and set on fire, and in the city of York alone five hundred perished who had taken refuge in the castle. After raising large sums of money by the sale of employments, and other means, he set out for Syria, where his daring exploits, with the long captivity he suffered in Germany as he was returning, made his generous subjects forget his errors and his vices.* When he reached home in 1194, he found his kingdom a prey to the greatest troubles. The Bishop of Ely, whom he had left regent, was expelled by the barons, and Prince John had obtained supreme influence in the new administration. All the projects of the disaffected were now disconcerted, and the King of France, who had aided the prince, was immediately attacked. The most brilliant affair in the sub- sequent war, which financial difficulties prevented being carried on with any vigour, was the battle of Gisors, in Normandy, in which Philip Augustus narrowly escaped. A peace was concluded in 1198, and the next year Richard died of a wound received before the castle of Chalus near Limoges. Ireland was fondly supposed by its antiquarians to have been peopled by Phoenicians. But the songs of the minstrel are an imperfect substitute for genuine history, and sober truth must confess that the green island was little more than a battlefield for its uncivilised inhabitants even long after its invasion by the English. The doctrines of Christianity are said to have been first pro- claimed in it by Palladius in 430, and by St. Patrick in 450 ; but perpetual intestine war among the various chieftains, and the incursions of the Danes, soon checked its progress towards civilisation. About the middle of the twelfth century, the country was divided into the five hostile kingdoms of Leinster, Munster, Ulster, Meath, and Connaught, besides several inferior principalities. One monarch was chosen to preside over a kind of deliberative assembly held at undetermined periods, and which possessed little power. The deposition of the King of Leinster and his flight to England, led to one of the most fortunate events in the history of Ireland. After the successful expedition of Earl Strong- bow, who restored Dermod with an inconsiderable troop of knights and archers, Henry himself landed in 1172, and effectually established the English pale. — Druids existed in Ireland so late as the year 1166. Scotland had long and effectually resisted the Roman arms, and spread terror over the adjacent countries of England and Ireland ; but her history is obscure and greatly mingled with fable till the tenth century. The names of Duncan, d. 1039, and Macbeth, d. 1056, will ever attract the attention of the student from their connexion with one of the noblest specimens of dramatic art. Malcolm III., d. 1093, kindly received many hundreds of Saxons who had fled from the tyranny of the first William, and settled them in the Lowlands. These brought with them the civilisation of their homes, and improved the character of the native inhabitants. David I. was defeated at Cutton Moor, near Northal- lerton, in the Battle of the Standard, 1138, but, superior to the monarchs of the * A chronicle written in England, in 1455, relates that the place of Richard's confine- ment was discovered by Blondel, a French minstrel, who, being near a castle, played an air well known to the king, and heard it repeated by the royal captive. This is probably nothing more than a romantic fiction. The emperor Henry VI. purchased Richard from Duke Leopold of Austria for sixty thousand pounds, speculating on the probability of i'htaining a larger ransom. 264 MIDDLE AGES. age, he endeavoured to soften the manners of his people by the establishment of numerous churches and monasteries, among others, Holyrood in 1128, and Melrose in 1136. William the Lion, who had supported the sons of Henry II. of England in their rebellion against their father, was taken prisoner, 1174; and regained his liberty only on the condition of becoming the liegeman of Henry for his territories, which feudal superiority was restored by Richard I. on the payment of 10,000 marks. THE CHURCH. Romish Usurpations. — Though the papal power now began to assert its supremacy over all temporalities, the Emperor Henry V. succeeded in the dispute with Paschal II. about investitures, in 1111. Next year, however, Henry was excommunicated ; but the pontiff was finally com- pelled to yield by the persevering emperor, whose claims were confirmed by the diet of Worms, in 1122. During several years two popes con- tested the chair of St. Peter, and the city of Rome was agitated by a restless party who desired to restore to the senate its former privileges, and to reduce the power as well as the revenues of the pope. Adrian IV., 1154, the only Englishman that ever sat in the papal chair, de- clared his intention of preserving the majesty of the church, as well as the authority of the clergy. He compelled the Emperor Barbarossa to hold his stirrup ; and by his granting Ireland to Henry II. of England, he seemed to claim all islands as the property of St. Peter. Another pontiff, Alexander III., is said to have trodden on the neck of the emperor, as he knelt and kissed his foot, 1177. It was this haughty bishop who refused to sanction the wise Constitutions of Clarendon, and absolved Becket from the promise he had made to observe them. Innocent III., who ascended the papal throne in 1198, soon acquired such an independence and supremacy as his predecessors could never have contemplated. He ordained that the doctrine of transubstantiation should be embraee I by the church ; established the formidable tribunal of the inquisition ; the mendicant order of friars was taken under his protection; and auricuhr confession was enjoined. He even exercised a dispensing power which set at defiance the claims of morality {qui, secundum plenitudinem poieslatis, jure possumus supra jus dispensare). Second Crusade, a. d. 1147. — The example and success of the First Crusade led the Christian soldiery of Western Europe again to unite under Conrad III. and Louis VII. This second expedition had been preached by St. Bernard for the delivery of the Latin kingdom of Jeru- salem from its Mussulman invaders. The immediate cause of this cru- sade was the capture of Edessa by Zensrhi, in 1145 : this city had been taken in a foolish expedition led by Baldwin, brother of Oodfrey, at the beginning of the First Crusade. The armies of the king and the emperor amounted each to 70.000 knights, and their train was increased to the number of 300,000. The Germans marched through Hungary, and after various distresses, augmented by the treachery of the Emperor Manuel, they reached Constantinople, whence they were rapidly carried across the adjoining straits. Louis did not arrive till some time after; and he perceived with regret that the Christians in the eastern parts of Europe were less trustworthy than the infidels. Conrad meanwhile, misled by his Greek guides, advanced through the heart of the Turkish dominions, suffering the extremities of hunger and thirst. Everywhere TWELFTH CENTURY A. D. 265 exposed to the incessant attacks of the enemy, only one-tenth part, with their commanders, survived, and reached the French army, encamped at Nice in Bithynia. Louis, with his forces, was soon left to pursue his march alone, and narrowly escaped destruction at the fords of the Maeander, in the mountains between Phrygia and Pisidia, 1148. He proceeded from Attalia to Antioch by sea, leaving, under Thierry, count of Flanders, the pilgrims and the sick, not one of whom reached the holy city. From Antioch he marched to Jerusalem, where he met Con- rad and his exhausted army. Abandoning the original purpose of the expedition, they proceeded to the relief of Damascus, which had been under the Moslem yoke nearly five centuries. The white cresses of St. John, and the red crosses of the Templars, were ever foremost in the numerous skirmishes that took place ; but all their exertions terminated in defeat, and the two Christian monarchs returned to Europe, oppressed with the deepest sorrow, in 1149. Third Crusade, a. d. 1189. — The Latin kingdom of Jerusalem was overthrown by Saladin in 1187, but its internal condition had long pre- pared it for ruin. The city, as Gibbon remarks, was abandoned to the protection of a leper, Baldwin IV., — a woman, his sister Sybilla, — a child, her son Baldwin V., — a coward, Guy of Lusignan, — and a traitor, Raymond count of Tripoli. The rapid conquests of the Saracen spread grief and consternation through all Christendom; and, by the orders of Clement III., a new crusade was everywhere preached. Richard Co3ur de Lion, Frederick Barbarossa, and Philip Augustus, assumed the cross in 1188. The maritime states on the Mediterranean, and a numerous band of pilgrims from the north of Europe, had already pre- ceded them, and for two years the city of Acre held out against 30,000 Franks. Nine battles were fought beneath its walls, the sultan being- eager to raise the siege ; but the arrival of the English and French fleets in the bay was followed by the surrender of the city. Disunion was soon apparent in the councils of the invaders, Philip and Richard inces- santly interrupting the campaign by their mutual jealousies. The former returned to France; after which, Richard, who continued the war, was uniformly victorious. But the romantic exploits of this chi- valrous monarch failed to produce any permanent effect. Before he quitted Palestine to meet an unjust captivity and early death, he con- cluded a treaty, in 1192, by which the holy sepulchre should be open to all pilgrims, and the seacoast from Jaffa to Tyre be held by the Latins. Thus ended the Third Crusade, and though five others at various inter- vals disturbed the peace of Europe, Palestine was never again the scene of action. A parallel has been drawn between these enterprises and the Trojan war ; and there are not wanting many points of resemblance in the character of the respective heroes and in the results of their labours. Poetry also has assisted to increase the likeness ; and the religious wars found a Homer in Tasso. This is, however, the weakest part of the similitude, for the tinsel of the Italian can bear no comparison with the pure gold of the great bard of antiquity. Assassins.* — The society which bore this name proved one of the *The word assassin is of doubtful etymology. Some think it derived from the name of the founder; others from haschischim, an intoxicating preparation of henbane and hemp, which, when smoked or otherwise inhaled, excites a violent delirium or a pleas- ing trance. 23 266 MIDDLE AGES. most dreadful scourges of the East. It was founded about the year 1090, among the hills southward of the Caspian sea, by Hassan Sebek, the son of Ali. This prince of the Ismaelites, by uniting the doctrines of the Koran with the visions of some pretended prophets, established a politico-religious system, whose motto was, "to the faithful nothing is forbidden." The Old Man of the Mountain, for by that name he and his successors were generally known, resided first at Damghan, whence he removed to the fortress of Alamout, in the Persian territory, not far from Teheran. The daggers of his subjects were felt in the East and the West; and by them perished Conrad, marquis of Montferrat, while walking in the streets of Tyre, 1192. In Syria, where they amounted to 60,000, their capital was Massiat, a day's journey westward of Hamah, and from that place they possessed a line of seven other for- tresses, extending to the Mediterranean, near Tripoli The sect, which lasted 172 years, was finally destroyed by the Mongols.-* The Druses, who are said to have sprung from the Assassins, chose for their prophet, Hakem, an Egyptian caliph, notorious at once for cruelty and vice. When his licentiousness and murders had excited disgust among a portion of his subjects, he answered their remonstran- ces, not by denying his crimes, but by asserting that they formed a sublime allegory, full of inst uction to true believers. THIRTEENTH CENTURY. Greek Empire.— 1204, Latin Princes.— 1259, Second Greek Empire— Michael Palaeologus.— 1274, Union of the Churches. Germany. — 1212, Frederick II. — Papal Disputes — Crusade. — 1241, Hanse Towns. — 1273, Rodolph of Hapsburg. Italy.— Italian Republics— The Visconti.— 1258, 1293, Venetian Wars.— 1282, Sicilian Vespers. France.— 1214, Battle of Bouvines.— 1226, Louis IX.— Parliament begun.— 1268, Pragmatic Sanction.— 1285, Philip le Bel.— 1302, States-General— Albigenses. — 1302, Rout of Courtray. Britain.— 1199, John.— 1215, The Great Charter.— 1265, First Parliament. 1283, Conquest of Wales.— 1297, Wallace. Spain.— 1212, Battle of Tolosa.— 1252, Alphonso X.—Siete Partidas. The East.— 1205, Affghan Dynasty, India — Mamelukes. — 1206, Genghis Khan.— 1279, Conquest of China, by Kublai Khan.— 1300, Ottomans in Bi- thynia. Church.— Mendicant Friars.— 1209, The Inquisition— The Albigenses. Inventions.— 1270, Glass Mirrors. — 1253, Linen first made in England.— 1299, Spectacles at Pisa. Celebrated Men. — Aquinas — R. Bacon — Saadi — Duns Scotus — Marco Polo. GREEK EMPIRE. The Latins. — The warriors engaged in the Fourth Crusade, 1202, were diverted from the more immediate object of their expedition by the + Some families of the Assassins are reported still to exist in Lebanon ; but the last inhabitants of Massiat were put to the sword in the year 1809, bv a hostile tribe in that neighbourhood THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 267 solicitations of the young Alexius Angelus, who implored their inter- cession in behalf of his father Isaac, whom another Alexius of the same family had dethroned and imprisoned. The usurper was soon defeated ; but the non-fulfilment of the terms of agreement and the daring usurp- ation of Ducas Mourzoufle, armed the Christian warriors anew against Constantinople. The French knights and the Venetian fleet, by a simultaneous attack, carried by assault the Greek capital, which had been hitherto deemed impregnable, and gave it up to pillage. The Latin princes next agreed to choose a sovereign from their own body, and Baldwin, count of Flanders, was saluted emperor with the applause of the whole army in 1204. The territory was afterwards divided among the French and Venetians; the latter long preserved the title of Lords of the Roman Empire. The Greeks did not patiently submit, and Theodore Lascaris, ruler of Nice, twice threatened the eastern metropolis. Trebizond, also, whither the wife of Manuel had fled with her infant sons from the relentless enmity of Isaac Angelus, was the seat of another rival to the Latin monarch. By her means, the Greeks of that region gradually formed, on the banks of the Phasis, a sove- reignty which the distracted government of the Angeli was unable to suppress. On the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders, Alexius was joined by many fugitives from that city. He had always retained the title of Caesar and King, and now fixed the seat of empire at Tre- bizond, without, however, abandoning his claim to the Byzantine throne. A more formidable opponent to the divided Latins was the revolted chief of the Bulgarians in 1205; for, being invited by the Greeks, his approach was marked by a general massacre of those spread over the face of the country. The gallantry of Baldwin led him to take the field with an inferior army ; but, being defeated and made prisoner, his captivity was closed by an agonizing death. While the throne was filled in succession by various celebrated warriors, the restoration of the Greek family was at hand. Theodore Lascaris, during a reign of eighteen years, had extended his principality of Nice to the greatness of an empire. John Ducas Vataces, 1222, encouraged agriculture and commerce, preserved friendly relations with the Turks, and reigned supreme from their frontiers to the Adriatic sea. Theodore Lascaris II., 1255, thrice invaded Bulgaria ; but the honourable task of recovering Constantinople was reserved for Michael Pal^ologus, the most illus- trious of the Greek nobles. New Greek Empire. — With the aid of the Genoese, Palaeologus made himself master of the capital, 25th July, 1260. Some time pre- viously, he had caused himself to be crowned emperor, and two years after put out the eyes of his ward, John III., in order to reign alone. Fearful of being attacked by Charles of Anjou, king of Naples, he sent to the council of Lyons two Greek bishops, who formed a treaty of union between the two churches, but which did not continue longer than the reign of Michael. The empire, indeed, was no sooner re-establish- ed than the priests were embroiled in quarrels, occasioned by discus- sions on obscure dogmas of the church. The controversy on the ques- tion whether the Holy Ghost proceeded from the Son, or by the Son, together with the disputes on the election of the patriarchs, was long the sole occupation of the sovereigns and their ministers. Palseologus was succeeded in 1283 by his son Andronicus the Elder, who being 268 MIDDLE AGES. constantly assailed by temporal and spiritual enemies, had little time to promote his own views or his people's happiness. He recovered many isles in the Archipelago from the Franks, but on his eastern frontier was unable to make head against the Ottomans. Though reputed the most learned prince of the age, he was the slave of degrading superstitions. GERMANY. Henry VI., who died of poison in 1197, left his son Frederick under the guardianship of Innocent III. This rival of Gregory VII. raised up antagonists to Philip of Swabia, the brother and successor of Henry, procured the election of Otho IV. of Brunswick in his stead, and after- wards excommunicated him for refusing to restore the fiefs of the Coun- tess Matilda. The pope now brought forward Frederick II., at the age of eighteen years, who was acknowledged by the greater part of the German princes, 1212. After various contests, and the defeat or death of all his competitors, he received the imperial crown at Aix-la-Cha- pelle, 1215. The greater part of his reign was spent in Italy and Sicily. His unwillingness to enter upon the crusades led to his excommunica- tion by Gregory IX., which he retaliated by boldly ordering the eccle- siastics to continue the performance of their sacred functions, and by proceeding to Jerusalem, which surrendered at the terror of his name. The interval from 1230 to 1238 was occupied in the re-establishment of order in Germany, disturbed by the unruly vassals, by the ecclesiastics, and by a rebellious son. In the subsequent disputes with the papal see, originating in charges of irreligion, Frederick appears to have caught some glimpses of pure Christianity. From a war of manifestoes the contending powers had recourse to arms ; and those of the emperor were successful in every quarter. But his excommunication in 1239, the crusade published against him in the following year, and his solemn deposition by the council of Lyons, 1245, changed his fortunes. City after city revolted ; and this great antagonist of the papacy expired in the castle of Fiorentino, near Lucera, in 1250. Interregnum. — With the death of Frederick began the great inter- regnum, from 1250 to 1272, during which Germany was in effect without any ruler ; for, although there were several, none exercised any real authority. In 1250, two princes bore the title of King of the Romans, — Count William of Holland, the priests' king, as he was denominated, and Conrad IV., son of Frederick II. On the news of his father's death, Conrad, abandoning Germany, where the scantiness of his resources reduced him to an inglorious station, passed into Italy to receive the fairest portion of the paternal inheritance — the kingdom of the Two Sicilies; but his death, in 1254, which has been attributed to Manfred, prevented his return into Germany at the head of a numerous and well-appointed army. The demise of William of Holland happened shortly after. The title of emperor was next conferred on Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry III. of England, and, on his mother's side, nephew of Henry the Lion. Richard, whose wealth was his chief re- commendation, had promised to the Archbishop of Mentz 8000 silver marks, 12,000 to the archbishop of Cologne, and 18,000 to the Count Palatine; but the choice of the other electors fell on Alphonso X., king of Castile, who offered 20,000 marks for each vote. This double electior THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 269 was the first in which the grand dignitaries of the crown alone took a part, to the exclusion of all the other great vassals ; or, in other words, it is the first time that we see appear the seven princely electors. Alphonso never visited Germany ; but his competitor undertook several journeys, in each of which he distributed enormous sums of money among the electors. Although greatly occupied with the internal affairs of his native country, Richard, in 1269, passed an important decree, by which the estates, assembled in diet at Worms, bound themselves mu- tually by oath to punish all who should exact illegal toll, trouble the security of commerce on the high-road, or who should in any way dis- turb the public tranquillity. In another of his visits he gave the investiture of Austria and Styria to Ottocar, king of Bohemia. In his last journey, he espoused the daughter of a baron named Falkenstein, and, returning to England, died in 1272. In the midst of these petty wars between weak princes, the power and influence of the great commercial cities were slowly increasing ; and from their alliances for mutual defence arose three sorts of confedera- tion: — 1st, The Teutonic or Hanseatic league, 1241 ; 2d, The confede- tation of the cities of the Rhine (Burgfrieden), about 1255; and, 3d, The Ganerbinates, (Gan-Erbschaften), or treaties of succession and mutual defence. The long-continued anarchy at length wearied all parties, and it was determined to elect an emperor. The choice fell upon Rodolph of Hapsburg in Switzerland, a prince whose scanty resources and limited influence seemed to give no cause for fear. House of Hapsburg, 1273. — Rodolph, the founder of the house of Austria, was a brave and just monarch, wisely devoting his attention to the internal affairs of Germany. The rebellion and defeat of Ottocar, king of Bohemia, enabled him to confer the dukedom of the Austrian provinces upon his son Albert, 1283. But he was not less a peacemaker than a conqueror. He visited all parts of his dominions with incredible activity, re-established the security of the highways, and destroyed a number of castles which were little else than retreats for brigands. His death in 1291 was followed by an interregnum of ten months, — for, in order to avoid the appearance of hereditary right to the imperial crown, the electors refused to appoint Albert, and their choice fell upon Adol- phus of Nassau, 1292. In a contest which ensued, Albert destroyed his rival in 1298, maintaining till 1308 his imperial dignity, notwith- standing the irregularity of his election, and the determined hostility of Boniface VIII. Hanse Towns. — These were a commercial league (hansci) formed o the most flourishing cities in the north and west of Europe. In 1241, Lubeck associated with some neighbouring places for mutual protection against the pirates of the Baltic ; and by degrees it was joined by all the trading towns between the Rhine and the Vistula. Depots were established at London, 1250, Bruges, 1252, Novgorod, 1272, and Ber- gen, 1278. The administration of the league was intrusted to the four cities of Lubeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic. During three centuries they maintained a degree of prosperity then unexampled, and by their navies commanded the narrow seas ; but the discovery of the Indies was a fatal blow to their commerce. The town of Ghent d^red 23* 270 MIDDLE AGES. to beard Charles V. in the very height of his glory, by putting one of his officers to the torture for having concealed the record which contained the ratification of the concessions they had extorted from former sove- reigns. By the power of the league the King of Sweden was dethroned, and his crown bestowed on Albrecht of Mecklenburg. Such was the wealth of these merchants that at a great ball at Bruges, the Queen of France retired in chagrin, because six hundred of the wives of the citizens were more splendidly dressed than herself. HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN OR SWABIA. This family, issuing from the castle of Wibelung, was ennobled in Frederick Hohen- Btaufen, who, for his eminent services, was rewarded with the hand of one of the daugh- ters of the Emperor Henry IV. Frederick, Count of Hohenstatifen, and created Duke of Swahia, by Henry IV., in 1080, t 1105, m. Jignes, daughter of Henry IV. 18. Conrad III. Frederick, d. of Swahia, j9 lb ert, Henry, Leopold, emp. 1138, | 1152. m. Judith, d. of Henry the Black, successively d. of Austria, t 1126. 19. Frederick I., Barbarossa, emp. 1152, t 1 100 = Beatrice, heiress of Burgundy. 20. Henry VI. emp. 1190, 21. Philip, emp. 1197, Three other sons, m. Constance, heiress of Sicily. m. Irene Angela. 23. Frederick II. k. of Sicily, 1197; emp. 1212, f 1250. 24. Conrad IV. emp. 1250, f 1254. Manfred, nat. son k. of Sicily, t 1266- Conradin, d. of Swahia, behead. 1268. Constance = Peter HI. k. of Aragon. ****** ****** 25. William of Holland, emp. 1247, f 1256. 26. Richard of Cornwall, emp. 1257, t 1271. HOUSE OF GUELF OR D'ESTE. This ancient and noble family descended, according to Muratori, from Adalbert 1. mar- quis of Tuscany (847-875). It received new lustre from the marriage of Albert Azon II. with Cunegonda of Altorf. Albert died in 1097, leaving behind him Welf I. created d. of Bavaria, 1071, Foulques, t 1101. Founder of the House of Modena. Henry the Black, d. of Bavaria, f 1126, Welf II. of Este = Matilda, countess in. Wilfrida, daughter of d. of Saxony of Este, heiress of Tuscany, t 1129. and heiress of Luneburg. Henry the Proud, d. of Bavaria, \ 1139 = Gertrude, d. of Emp. Lothaire II. heiress of Saxony and Brunswick. Henry the Lion, d. of Bavaria and Saxony, Welf III. d. of Tuscany, dep. 1180,11195. 22. Otho IV. emp. 1208. William of Luneburg, 1st d. of Brunswick, t 1213: from him descends the reigning monarch of England. 26. Alphonso X. emp. 1257. ITALY. Italian Republics. — The republics of Northern Italy refused to acknowledge Frederick II. as their sovereign, and their rebellious spirit was fomented by the popes. But the struggle that followed was not one of principle, but of faction, — Guelf against Ghibelline, the church against the empire. These states may be divided into four THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 271 great clusters: — 1. Central Lombardy, containing Milan, Cremona, Parma, Mantua, Lodi, and other towns. 2. The March of Verona, between the Adige and the German frontiers. 3. Romagna, containing Bologna, Modena, and Ferrara. 4. Tuscany. The first and third were principally Guelfs; the second, Ghibellines; while the fourth was ba- lanced between the two parties. The misfortunes which oppressed Frederick pursued all his family. A kind of fatality seemed to impend over his race ; and it appeared as if the heroic house of Hohenstaufen was destined to astonish the world as much by its miseries as by its glory. His son Enzio died a prisoner at Bologna, after twenty years of captivity ; his natural son Manfred was deprived of the kingdom of Naples by Charles of Anjou, and perished in battle ; lastly, his grandson Conradin, who endeavoured to recover his heritage by arms, was defeated, taken prisoner and judi- cially murdered. Lombard Leagues. — The first Lombard league, 1167, against the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, succeeded in obtaining the objects for which it was formed. The alarming demonstrations of Frederick II. against the pope and the independence of the Italian cities aroused the fears of the Guelf party in that peninsula. The Milanese began the resistance by an appeal to the Lombard communities, fourteen of which adhered to the confederation. The departure of the emperor for the holy war was improved to the advantage of the revolted states ; and although, on his return, he published a law on the public peace, which was sup- ported by the eloquence of the preacher John of Vicenza, the suspension of hostilities was not of long duration. Frederick suddenly reappeared in Italy, in obedience to the call of Ezzelino, podesta of Verona and chief of the Ghibellines in Lombardy. After the victory of Corte Nuova, on the Oglio, in 1237, nearly all the towns made submission; but they were again driven to arms by the intrigues of the pope, who had conciliated the alliance of Venice and Genoa. After the death of Frederick II. the contentions still survived, although their objects were changed, the struggle being now between the nobfes and the people. Ezzelino III., with his brother Alberic, podesta of Treviso, was at first victorious over the Guelf party; but Pope Alex- ander IV. having preached a crusade against them in 1255, most of the cities united under the command of the Marquis of Este. To punish the citizens of Padua, who had received the crusaders, Ezzelino put to death eleven thousand of those enrolled among his troops. This atro- cious cruelty having withdrawn from him his most powerful allies, he was defeated and mortally wounded at Oassano, 1259. In the follow- ing year, Alberic and all his children were massacred; and the spoils of the family divided among several of his principal antagonists. Florence. — In this city, whose history previous to this period is obscure and unimportant, the chief offices were held by the Guelf families of Buondelmonti and Donati, and the Ghibellines of Amidei and Uberti. In 1250, about two months before the death of Frederick II., the former, supported by Pope Innocent IV., deposed the imperial governor, and framed a democratic government under a captain of the people and a Milanese podesta. Lucca, Pistoia, Sienna, and other towns, followed the example of Florence, and the Ghibellines were enabled to preserve the superiority in Pisa alone. After several years 272 MIDDLE AGES. of exile, the proscribed faction, with the aid of Manfred of Sicily, being victorious in the battle of Monte Aperto, returned to Florence, whence they were again expelled in 1267, and the Guelfs re-established by Charles of Anjou, then signor of the republic. Venice. — The crusades were the commencement of the power and greatness of this commercial state. Mercantile advantages alone in- duced the people to embark in the holy wars, which opened to them all the Syrian harbours, and gave them greater security than they could expect from the infidels. They had already factories, officers, and a particular jurisdiction in the principal marts of Asia, when the Emperor Alexius Comnenus granted them the freedom of unlimited commerce in all his ports, with the exception of those in Cyprus and Candia. In the Fourth Crusade they acquired a universal monopoly in the Greek empire, and even a partial sovereignty in 1204. Corfu, Candia, am most of the i^Egean islands, fell under their power, and half of Con stantinople was thrown open to them. Henceforward Venice long pos sessed the exclusive commerce of the Black Sea, and established he. principal factories on its shores. The Venetians disputed the possession of Illyria with the Hungari ans, but their most formidable antagonists were the Genoese, with whom commercial rivalry had brought them into contact in 1264. They then lost their influence at Constantinople; and two naval defeats, in 1293 and 1298, forced the Doge Gradenigo, to sign a treaty, forbidding the vessels of the republic to navigate the Black Sea. This epoch, so dis- astrous to their commercial prosperity, was equally ruinous to their ancient constitution. The sovereign power was placed, at this period, in the great council, which, in 1172, had deprived the general assembly of their voices in the election of the chief officer of the state, as well as the nomination of the tribunes, who each year were charged with the renewal of the council by the choice of fresh members. Gradenigo made a greater progress towards aristocracy by confining the qualifica- tion to the families of the senators then in office (il serrar del comiglio, 1298); and, finally, under the Doge John Soranzo, the great council being made hereditary, in 1319, the Golden Book received the names of the houses retaining this new nobility. In the interval between these changes the spirit of the democracy was manifested by the conspiracy of Marino Boccfonio, 1299, and that of Bohemond Tiepolio, 1310. These popular movements served only to strengthen the nobles, who placed themselves under the mysterious guardianship of the council of ten. Genoa. — This commercial city entered the Lombard confederation in 1238, previous to which period it had been considered part of the king- dom of Italy. Its earliest government was by consuls; but in 1190 it exchanged them for podestas, and these made way for the eaptains of the people, 1257, who again were succeeded by doges in 1339. These changes do not seem to have injuriously affected its mercantile interests In the latter half of the thirteenth century, the Genoese contributed their efforts to restore Constantinople to its legitimate monarchs, and the privileges which were granted in return for their services enabled them to dictate to Pisa and Venice. They disputed the possession of Candia with the Venetians, and took Corsica from the Pisans, whom they compelled to renounce all maritime operations, 1290. THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 273 P IS a. — This city took no part in the internal agitations of Italy, but always remained faithful to the German emperors ; while the island of Sardinia, one of her most valuable acquisitions, formed also the most extensive portion of her territory. It did not definitely acknowledge the republic until 1117, when it was divided into four provinces, Cagliari, Logodore, Galium, and Arborea. Corsica, for which Pisa and Genoa had long contended, gave rise to implacable hatred between the dis- putants. The battle of Meloria, gained by Uberto Doria over the Podesta Morosini, secured the island to the Genoese ; and by the rain which it inflicted on their enemies' marine, left them without rivals in the adjoining waters, 1284. The republic, exhausted by so great a reverse, and deprived of the protection of the Swabian family, fell under the influence of the Guelfs ; but their chief, Ugolino, being accused of planning the surrender of the city to the Florentines, expiated his trai- torous intention by the most cruel tortures, 1287. Intestine divisions served only to aggravate the misfortunes of Pisa, which was compelled to sign a treaty with Genoa, the articles of which stipulated that its port should be filled up, 1290. This act hastened the decay of the republic. The internal prosperity of the chief Italian cities may be inferred from the solid magnificence of their architecture. No part of Europe could show such commodious private houses, flagged streets, noble public buildings, and majestic bridges. These cities were fortified with mas- sive walls, and defended by an intrepid body of buighers. Their administration was under the management of annual consuls, aided by a popularly elected assembly : but a nominal sovereignty was still reserved to the people. Dissension, however, soon intruded upon this fair scene ; and civil strife proved more dreadful than any foreign war. Before the end of the century, the Lombard cities had fallen under the yoke of tyrants ; Ferrara acknowledged the Lords of Este ; the savage Ezzelino ruled over the cities beyond the Adige ; the Torriani and Vis- conti at Milan ; the Scaligers at Verona ; the Gonzagas at Mantua ; and at Padua the Carraras. Naples and Sicily. — The authority of the emperors in Italy was almost entirely lost at the death of Frederick II., in 1250. Pope Inno cent IV. planned the reunion of Naples to the States of the Church ; and, with this view, wrote to the clergy and nobles, exhorting them to take up arms, and declaring their kingdom henceforward irrevocably united to the holy see. But the intentions of the pontiff were frustrated for the present by the decision of Conrad and Manfred, the two sons of Frederick. The decease of the former in 1254 left the Neapolitan inheritance to Conradin, then a child two years old. Innocent took advantage of these circumstances, and was pursuing a victorious career, not, however, without a severe check from Manfred, when death termi- nated his ambitious designs in December of the same year. Alexander IV. was unable to maintain his predecessor's conquests : in two years Manfred recovered the kingdom, and on a vague report of Conradin's death, was proclaimed king. Urban IV., who filled St. Peter's chair in 1261, resumed the designs of Innocent, and offered the crown to Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. All Upper Italy declared for this prince, and Philip del] a Torre, signor of Milan, went so far as to receive a Pro- vencal podesta in his city. Manfred was, meantime, preparing a vigorous resistance. The Sicilian galleys, united with the Pisan fleet, 274 MIDDLE AGES. were to close the seas against the Angevins, while two armies sent into Tuscany and the March of Ancona, defended the approaches to the king- dom. Neither of these precautionary measures succeeded. The two rivals met on the banks of the Calore, in the plain of Benevento, 1266. Treachery deprived Manfred of the victory, and, unwilling to survive defeat, he rushed into the ranks of the enemy, and fell, mortally wounded. The decisive victory of Benevento threw all the country into Charles' hands ; Messina declared in his favour, and thus was Sicily laid at his feet. The capture of Manfredonia completed the subjugation of the kingdom, and placed at the mercy of the victor all the family of Manfred, with the exception of one daughter, married to the King of Aragon. The exactions and violent proceedings of Charles were ill calculated to ensure the tranquillity of his government. The Ghibelline party sent to Conradin, then sixteen years old, the most flattering representations of the state of Italy ; the deputies of Sienna and Pisa brought with them 100,000 florins, and the chief barons of Germany joined his army. Moved by their arguments, he advanced into Italy with the young Duke of Austria, Frederick, who was himself deprived of his hereditary estates. He entered Pisa, Sienna, and even Rome ; Charles had lost many cava- liers in Tuscany ; his fleet had been destroyed before Messina, by that of Pisa ; all Sicily, except Palermo, Syracuse, and Messina, raised the Swabian flag ; and his affairs seemed on the verge of ruin. The rival armies met at Tagliacozzo, near the Lake of Celeano, when a stratagem gave the victory to the usurper. Conradin was taken prisoner, and shortly after beheaded, with Frederick of Austria and the chief Ghibel- line captives, 1268. Thus ended the two houses of Hohenstaufen and Bamberg. After putting to death the illustrious individuals just named, Charles did not hesitate to sacrifice to his vengeance a crowd of the obscure partisans of Conradin. All the provinces were filled with executions. In Rome he cut off the legs of those who had declared against him ; and then, fearing the pity that would be excited by the view of their sufferings, he enclosed them in a wooden house to which he set fire. In Sicily the inhabitants of a whole city perished on the scaffold, not excluding the traitors w r ho had opened the gates to the French. Being now master of the Two Sicilies and head of the Guelf party, he became the arbiter of Italy. In 1269, in the diet of Cremona, he was declared signor of most of the Guelf cities of Lombardy, including even Milan. He would not have limited his success to this important station, had he not been drawn by his brother into the second crusade of St. Louis, in which, after making Tunis tributary to his crown, he turned his views towards Constantinople. Pope Gregory X., and his successor Nicholas III., impeded his designs; but a more formidable obstacle appeared in the person who, having been the companion in arms of Frederick II. and Manfred, burned with the desire of avenging their cause, and liberating his country. John of Procida, a banished Neapolitan, trave* led through Sicily in disguise, exciting the people to revolt, and animat- ing them with a hope of deliverance. The insurrection, which took place in 1282, has been named the Sicilian Vespers from the occasion on which it occurred. The inhabitants were excited by an outrage THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 275 which was perpetrated on a young woman, under the pretence of search- ing for arms, as she was going with other citizens of Palermo on Easter Monday to the customary service at a church without the city. The Sicilians rose upon their oppressors : 4000 persons were massacred in one night, — victims to the popular indignation ; and before the end of April, the island was entirely evacuated by the French troops.* The Sicilians, terrified at their own boldness, sent deputies to implore the pardon of Martin IV. and his intercession with their king ; but the only reply that was given bade them think of self-defence, if such were possible. To prepare themselves against the vengeance of Charles, they called the King of Aragon to their aid. All the efforts of their enraged enemy w r ere unsuccessful before the walls of Messina, and his fleet was burnt by Loria, who also had the good fortune to make his son prisoner, 1284. In the following year the invader died, the victim of disappointed ambition. Charles II. was restored to liberty by a treaty which he did not observe ; and the King of Aragon, attacked by France, Castile, and Rome, was constrained to abandon Sicily. In 1303, his brother Frederick, who was soon elected to fill his place, by his talents confirmed the independence of the people, and the pope was compelled to acknowledge him as sovereign. FRANCE. Battle of Bouvines, 1214. — When John succeeded to the English throne in 1199, Philip supported a pretender in the person of Arthur of Brittany, grandson of Henry II. This prince fell into the hands of his uncle, and w 7 as murdered ; upon which Philip Augustus summoned John to appear and answer the charges made against him, as vassal of the crown of France. On his refusal, Philip confiscated his fiefs, seized on Normandy, Maine, Anjou, and Poitou, leaving him Guienne alone. John was compelled to submit in silence, but, soon finding a favourable opportunity, he united with the French barons, the Earl of Flanders, Otho IV., and the Earl of Boulogne, in a formidable league against the French king. All had just cause of complaint, and all were ready to assert their rights by force of arms. Not fewer than 200,000 men combined against Philip, while 70,000 were the whole he could bring into the field under the Bishops of Senlis and Beauvais. Lut, never- theless, he was victorious ; and thus the safety of John's continental possessions was endangered, and the French monarchy more respected. The last years of Philip's reign were spent in tranquillity, though dis- turbances prevailed all around him. Louis VIII., 1223, was diverted from the wars against the English in France to prosecute his crusade against the Albigenses. For a lono- period the southern provinces had been insulated from the northern, and the Count of Toulouse, the most powerful baron in those parts, was also one of the richest princes in Europe; but his wealth and the premature civilisation which was the consequence, had drawn the people away *The French were long taught to remember this bloody lesson. " If I am provoked," said Henry IV., "I will breakfast at Milan, and dine at Naples."— " Your majesty," replied the Spanish ambassador, " may perhaps arrive in Sicily for vespers." To the credit of the Sicilian character, it should not be forgotten that the single Frenchman (William Porcelet) who had not disregarded the laws of justice and humanity, was, together with his family, safely conveyed to Italy. 276 MIDDLE AGES. from the church of Rome. The reformers spread over Languedoc had already refused to recognise the spiritual authority of the pope, who, denouncing them as schismatics, lighted up a terrible war, which deso- lated one of the fairest portions of Europe. " Innocent III.," says the President Renault, " was the soul of this war, Dominic was its apostle, the Count of Toulouse the victim, and Simon, earl of Montfort, the chief." Louis VIII. marched against these opponents of the Romish church, with 200,000 men. After some resistance he took Avignon, which, strengthened with 300 houses fortified with towers, had been considered almost impregnable. Many cities in Languedoc opened their gates to him ; but a contagious disease spread among his troops, and he himself being seized with the disorder, withdrew to Montpensier in Auvergne, where he died, 1226. Louis IX., surnamed the Saint, being only eleven years old at the death of his father, his minority was spent under the regency of his mother, the excellent Blanche of Castile. Though the first fifteen years of his reign was one continued struggle against his refractory barons, his moderation and virtue, nevertheless, increased the influence of the monarchy. A series of destructive cam- paigns was avoided by his surrender of Guienne to Henry III. of Eng- land ; and the security of his people was maintained by his " Establish- ments," a code of feudal customs, the first monument of legislation raised by the Capetian family. But Louis was superstitious, and this led to his two unfortunate crusades, in the last of which, 1270, he met his death at the siege of Tunis. St. Louis united several provinces to his crown without the cost of one drop of blood. The alliances of his brothers, Alphonso and Charles, prepared for the union of Languedoc and Provence ; Blois and Chartres were purchased from the Count of Champagne, 1247; Nismes and Carcassone were gained by renouncing the feudal sovereignty of Barcelona, 1258; and the treaty of Abbe- ville with the English in 1259 consolidated the conquests made during the reign of Philip Augustus. From his impartiality, St. Louis was frequently chosen as mediator in the quarrels of his time : he endeavoured to reconcile the Duke of Brittany with the King of Navarre — the latter with the King of England — Henry III. with his barons — and Gregory IX. with the Emperor Frederick II. In all his transactions with the court of Rome, he firmly but respectfully defended the rights of his crown, and by his Pragmatic Sanction,* 1268, estab- lished the liberties of the Gallican church. Louis IX. prudently continued the work begun under the auspices of Philip Augustus, of increasing the royal power by controlling his vassals, not, how- ever, without due respect to such rights as were consecrated by age, although originally usurped by violence. For the first time deputies of the citizens were admitted into certain public assemblies. The administration of justice was reformed by wise institutions and by the influence of the "Establishments;" the limits of civil and ecclesiastical jurisdiction were clearly determined by the orders of 1235 ; and the traders' companies regulated by useful decrees. M til- ler, speaking of St. Louis, observes, that the empire of the Franks was founded by arms ; but royalty in France was consolidated by the virtues of this monarch. Philip III. the Bold, considerably increased the royal domain by the addition of Poitou and Auvergne, 1271 ; while circumstances, arising *This regulation in matters of religion is commonly, but perhaps without foundation, attributed to Louis FX. A similar usage in episcopal elections was established by the famous pragmatic, sanction of Charles VIL. drawn up in an assembly of the French- church held at Bourges, 1438, which contains certain regulations for ecclesiastical dis cipline in conformity with the canons of the council of Basle. This rule, which was intended by the Gallician church as a barrier against the encroachments of the papa' court, was revoked by the concordat of Bologna in 1516, between Francis I. and Leo X. THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 277 out of the death of Theobald II. on his return from Tunis, eventually gave Champagne and Navarre to the French crown. By these acquisi- tions, and that of the earldom of Toulouse, the king became on a sudden very powerful in the south. But he was not successful in the war in Sicily, undertaken to defend his uncle Charles of Anjou against Aragon. Having marched an army into Spain, he died on his return to France, at Perpignan, 1285. CAPETIAN DYNASTY: Portion II. Louis VI. the Fat, k. 1108. 6. Louis VII. the Young, 1137, m. 1. Eleanor of Guienne. 2. Constance of Castile. 3. Alice of Champagne. Robert the Great, stock of the families of Dreux and Brittany. Peter (7th son), m. Isabella, d. and heiress of Reginald of Courtenay.ct. of Auxerre. 7. Philip II. Augustus, 1180, m. 1. Isabella, heiress of Artois. 2. Agnes de Meranie. Margaret, m. Henry, son of Henry II. of England. Peter, emp. of Constantinople, 1216. I 8. Louis VIII. 1223, m. Blanche of Castile. Philip, ct. of Boulogne. Robert, emp. of Constantinople, 1221. 9. Louis IX. 122fi, m. Margaret of Provence. Robert I. stock of House of Artois, extinct in 1472. Mphonso, ct. of Poitiers, m. Joan, heiress of Toulouse, t 1271. Charles, ct. of Anjou, m. Beatrice of Provence; stock of Sicilian kings. 10. Philip III. the Bold, 1270, m. 1. Isabella of Aragon. 2. Mary of Brabant. Robert, ct, of Clermont ; stock of branches of Bourbon, Ven- dome, and Mont- pensier. Peter, ct. of Alencon. Blanche, m. Ferdinand of Lacerda. 11, Philip IV. the Fair, 1285, m. Joanna, heiress of Navarre and Champagne. I Charles, stock of Houses of Valois and Alencon. Louis, stock of House of Evreux-Na- varre. Margaret, m. Edward I, of England. 12. Louis X. Hutin, 1314, 13. Philip V. 14. Charles IV. Isabella, m. 2. Clemence of Hungary. the Long, 1316, the Fair, k. 1322, m. Edward II. 1 m. Joan of t 1328, last of the of England. 1 Burgundy. first branch. 1 John I. 1315, Joanna, Joanna, Edward III. of lived but eight heiress of heiress of Bur- England, pretender days, and is Navarre ; gundy, and Ar- to the French not reckoned m. Philip tois; m. Eudes IV. throne. among kings of Evreux. d. of Burgundy. of France. Philip IV. the Fair, was bent upon the aggrandizement of the mon- archy by the reduction of the five great fiefs, Champagne, Guienne, Flanders, Burgundy, and Brittany. The first he obtained by marriage ; the second he got possession of by stratagem, but was compelled to restore in 1303; his attempt on the third was defeated by the terrible rout of Courtray, 1302, in which the Flemings took 4000 pair of gilt spurs, worn only by knights. The various difficulties in which this king was involved, by the depreciation of the coinage and his disputes with the clergy, led to the convention of the states-general, 1302. Pro- fiting by a quarrel between some Norman and English sailors, he coin- 24 278 MIDDLE AGES. menced a war with England, and took, with little resistance, all the strong places of Guienne and Gascony. Edward I. was then too much engaged with the Scottish war to defend his continental possessions , but he menaced France with a formidable league in the north. The defeat of the Flemings suspended the contest ; and, by the treaty of Montreuil sur Mer, Edward espoused, in 1299, Philip's sister, Margaret. BRITAIN. Magna Charta. — John, 1199, the murderer of his nephew Arthur, fell under the ban of the pope, and provoked his subjects to revolt. All the exactions usual to Norman kings were not only redoubled, but min- gled with outrages still more intolerable by this prince, who was not less contemptible for his folly than his cowardice. It was a fortunate circumstance that England was not at this period parcelled out like France into numerous petty states, separated from each other by laws, manners, and privileges. When the country rose as one man against his tyranny, John was isolated ; there was no province on which he could depend for support by concessions and privileges detrimental to the rest. He was therefore compelled to relax the severity of the forest laws, and to sign the Great Charter, 1215, the keystone of English liberty. "All that has since been obtained," says Hallam, "is little more than as confirmation or commentary ; and if every subsequent law were to be swept away, there would still remain the bold features that distinguish a free from a despotic monarchy." Sir J. Mackintosh observes, that " to have produced the Great Charter, to have preserved it, to have matured it, constitute the immortal claim of England on the esteem of mankind." This is what some rash men were about to exchange for the dominion of France in 1213. The attempt of John to annul the charter was happily frustrated by his death ; but he had already suffered the continental possessions of England to be diminished by sur- rendering to the French monarch, without a struggle, Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, and Maine, 1205. A quarrel with Innocent III. caused the kingdom to be laid under an interdict. The churches were closed, the sacraments withheld from all but children and dying persons ; and the dead were buried without prayers in unhallowed ground. John was at length compelled to yield, promising to do homage for his dominions, and to pay an annual tribute of 1000 marks. His character maybe summed up in the words of Juvenal, — " Monstrum nulla virtute redemp- tum a vitiis." Remarks on the Great Charter. On the English nation the charter has contributed to combine stability with improvement. It set the first example of the progress of a great people in blend- ing popular pretensions and the power of the nobles with a vaguely limited monarchy, so as at length to form, from these discordant materials, the only kind of free government which experience has shown to be reconcileable with widely extended dominion. Prepare : A sketch of Magna Charta, with the names of its chief promoters. Henry III., 1216, succeeded his father at the age of ten years. His minority w r as passed in peace and without any important event, under the successive guardianship of the Earl of Pembroke and Hubert de Uurgh. As soon as he attained his majority, he showed himself as THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 279 unworthy the confidence of his subjects as did his father. Always guided by favourites, he was easily managed by De Burgh, on whom he lavished numerous offices. He oppressed his people with all kinds of exactions, and fell into a serious disagreement with his brother Rich- ard, earl of Cornwall, afterwards King of the Romans. He twice inter- fered in the civil wars of the regency in France, and was on both occa- sions unsuccessful. In 1245, he opposed the preaching of the crusade within his dominions, partly from mistrust of Louis IX., and partly from his being engaged in disputes with Llewellyn, the last native prince of Wales. England during nearly the whole of this reign was a prey to internal dissensions, excited by Henry's prodigality, favouritism, exactions, and continual violation of his people's rights. These grievances led to a revolt of the barons, who placed at their head Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who had married Henry's sister. They compelled the king to agree to the provisions of the parliament of Oxford, reforming most of the abuses; but, in 1261, he recalled his assent, and procured Pope Alexander IV. 's dispensation from his oaths. St. Louis was umpire in the subsequent disputes ; but the barons being dissatisfied with his deci- sion, recourse was had to arms, when the battle of Lewes, 1264, threw the king and his brother Richard into their hands. The commons were now, according to some historians, summoned for the first time to the national assembly or parliament.* Affairs, however, soon changed appearances. Edward, the presumptive heir to the crown, defeated the insurgents at Evesham, in 1265, when Leicester perished, and the king was delivered from his captivity. Peace being established, the prince joined in the crusade of St. Louis, and two years after was recalled to England on the death of his father. Edward I., 1272, the conqueror of Wales and the Justinian of Eng- land, proved equally wise and patriotic. Warlike and sagacious, he corrected the many abuses which had crept into the administration of the laws, and reduced the W T elsh to subjection, 1283. A disputed suc- cession to the sovereignty of Scotland led to his interference in the affairs of that country. By his arbitration as lord paramount, Baliol was seated on the throne, 1292; but four years afterwards, on a frivolous pretext, Edward invaded and overran the whole country, carrying the king pri- soner to London. The Scots, however, soon re-asserted their independ- ence, and next year, under the brave Wallace, cleared the country of the invaders. The name of this heroic soldier is worthily ranked among the foremost of patriots — with Gustavus Vasa, the two Williams of Orange, with Kosciusko, and with Washington. The battle of Falkirk, in 1298, proved fatal to Scotland ; and it was while marching against the noble Bruce, who had assumed the royal title, that this enterprising monarch breathed his last, 1307. SPANISH PENINSULA. Castile and Leon. — In the beginning of the thirteenth century, an army of 80,000 Moorish cavalry, accompanied by a corresponding body *This parliament, held in London, 22d January 1265, was composed of the clergy and barons, with two knights from each county, and two harnesses from every borough. The division into separate houses was effected between 1339 and 1343. 280 MIDDLE AGES. of infantry, invaded Spain, spreading terror throughout Christendom. At the summons of Innocent III., 60,000 crusaders from France and Germany crossed the Pyrenees, and took Malagon and Calatrava. Dis- appointed in their expectations of the pillage of these two cities, they returned to France, leaving only a small part of their forces under the Archbishop of Narbonne and Theobald of Blacon. With these the Sierra Alorena was passed, and the battle of Tolosa fought, 1213, in which, if we may credit the historians, not fewer than 200,000 .Mussul- mans perished. Alphonso IX. of Castile died shortly after, leaving the crown to his infant son Henry, under the regency of Don Alvaro, chief of the house of Lara. The unimportant reign of this monarch was followed by that of Ferdinand III., son of Alphonso IX. of Leon. On the death of his father, in 1230, who expired on a pilgrimage to St. James of Compostella, he united Castile to the kingdom of Leon. The situation of Christian Spain was extremely flourishing at this period; two formidable invasions had been repelled, and the Moors pos- sessed little beyond Murcia, Valencia, with part of Andalusia and Gra- nada. The order of St. James, founded about the middle of the twelfth century, having acquired eighty commanderies and two hundred priories, was capable of bringing a thousand knights into the field. Next fol- lowed the orders of Calatrava and Alcantara, which filled the ranks of the Christian army with their bravest warriors. Thus success followed upon success; and Alphonso, the brother of Ferdinand, crossing the Guadiana, defeated the Moors. The king in person took Ubeda, and Cordova fell before an army of adventurers, 1236. The sovereigns of Murcia and Granada submitted to pay tribute; Seville was attacked and taken after a two years' siege ; and Ferdinand was projecting the cap- ture of Ceuta when he died in 1252. Alphonso X. of Castile and Leon, 1252, received on his accession to the throne the oaths of fidelity from the sovereigns of Granada and Nie- bla. The latter city he conquered in 1259, and four years after defeated the rulers of Murcia and Granada, notwithstanding the aid they had re- ceived from Morocco : he further united great part of Murcia to Castile, forcing the King of Granada to acknowledge his dependence by payment of a tribute. But the glories of the earlier years of this reign were tar- nished by the disturbances which clouded its close. The depreciation of the coinage and the establishment of a maximum led to extreme misery and discontent among all classes. The invasion by the King of Fez in 1275, reconciled for a time the monarch and his subjects; yet Sancho the Brave, his second son, who had the greatest share in the defeat of the Moors, renewed the troubles by aspiring to the crown, which by right should have fallen to his elder brother, Ferdinand of Lacerda. Alphonso was forced to submit to his rebellious son, who was acknowledged heir. The first act of Sancho IV., 1284, was to deprive his brother, Don Juan, of Seville and Badajoz, which had been left to him by his father. Resuming the war against the Moors, his fleet, united with the Genoese, several times defeated the infidels, and the King of Morocco fled in dismay from the siege of Xeres, 1285. The course of his victories was suspended by the quarrels of the rival houses of Haro and Lara ; but on the settlement of their disputes he was enabled to return against the Moors, from whom he took the fortress of Tarifa. He died in 1295, leaving his son Ferdinand IV. under the regency of his mother, Mary, THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 281 who was fortunate enough to satisfy the ambition of Don Juan, her late nusband's brother, and to reconcile the two hostile families. Henry, third son of Ferdinand III., having reappeared in Spain after an absence of twenty-five years, seized on the regency ; but was soon environed with enemies, whose w r ant of unity was fatal to their success. The death of the usurping regent, which happened shortly after, threw the chief power into the hands of Don Juan and the house of Lara, who persuaded the king to deprive his mother of her authority. On obtaining Iiis majority, Ferdinand re-established concord for a time, by giving a suitable appanage to the eldest son of Alphonso of Lacerda, and by ceding the north of Murcia to Aragon. Il Ferdinand's reign the im- portant fortress of Gibraltar was taken from the Moors. Aragon. — Peter II., who ascended the throne in 1196, after contri- buting to the victory of Tolosa, perished at Muret, fighting on the side of the Count of Toulouse against Simon of Montfort. His successor, James I., surnamed the Conqueror, 1213, undertook an expedition to the Balearic Isles, attacked Majorca, defeated the Moors, marched towards their capital, and himself mounting first to the assault, took possession of the place, which, with the whole island, he united to Aragon. an im- portant conquest for the maritime commerce of the Catalonians. When two Moorish princes were prosecuting their claims to the throne of Valencia, James, proceeding to the succour of one of them, penetrated to the capital, which he captured. The submission of Valencia gave fresh importance to Aragon ; but his successors, wishing to unite the crown of Sicily to those which they already wore, the occupation of that island diverted them from the Moorish wars to mingle in the quarrels then agitating Italy. Peter III., 1276, who had married the daughter of Manfred, king of Sicily added that island to the possessions of the house of Barcelona. It was in vain that Pope Martin IV. declared his deposition, and con- ferred the crown on Charles of Valois, second son of Philip the Bold, for the Admiral Roger de Loria maintained everywhere the superiority of the Aragonese flag, and thereby entirely neutralized the invasion of Catalonia by the French monarch. At Peter's death, in 1285, the crown of Sicily was left to his second son James, and that of Aragon to Al- phonso III., the Beneficent, who took Minorca from the infidels. At the news of Alphonso's death, in 1291, James, abandoning Sicily to his brother Frederick, returned to assume the crown of his native land. To terminate the war with France, he espoused Blanche, daughter of Charles of Naples, and promised to restore Sicily to that prince ; but Frederick found means to prevent the execution of this promise. THE EAST. Mamelukes. — On the death of Saladin, in 1193, his empire was di- vided among the princes of his family; Egypt still maintaining its pre-eminence. But the sons of that great leader were dethroned by his brother Malek-el-Adel, who began, in 1200, the dynasty of the Ayoubite sultans ; and in the reign of his last descendant, St. Louis undertook the crusade in which he and his army were made prisoners, 1250. In the same year the Mamelukes broke out into open rebellion, and having murdered their new sovereign, they established a dynasty of their own. 24* 282 MIDDLE AGES. This class of men were principally Circassian or Georgian slaves whom the Egyptian sultans had purchased to fill the ranks of their army ; and being trained as a body-guard, they proved very brave though sometimes turbulent soldiers. After this period, few of their sovereigns died a natural death ; the only variety in their fate was the means employed — the sword, poison, or the bowstring. The Mamelukes oppressed the unfortunate Egyptians, and rilled the country with scenes of violence, until their dynasty was ended in the Sultan Selim, 1517. Genghis Khan. — Another terrible scourge now appeared in Asia. On the banks of the Selinga was born, in 1164, Temugin, better known as Genghis Khan.* This leader of the Mongols issued from the distant regions of Chinese Tartary at the head of a fierce and uncivilised race, whose course was everywhere marked by desolation, 1206. His career was one splendid victory. Invading China, he seized on seven of the northern provinces ; conquered Corea and Thibet; defeated 400,000 men under Mohammed, the sultan of Kharism ; and routed the Czar of Rus- sia. All Asia, from the sea of China to the Euxine, yielded to his power ; and though he died in 1226, his conquests were continued by his successors. One of them, Baatu, made a rapid incursion into Europe, 1236, the broadest rivers proving no obstacle to his savage followers. Having conquered Russia, they invaded Poland, and destroyed the cities of Lublin and Cracow. The monarchs of Europe trembled on their thrones, when this second Attila was recalled by the death of the Great Khan Octai in 1245. The caliphate of Bagdad was terminated by the Mongols, under Hulaku, in 1258, a. h. 656. During forty days the city was given up to plunder, and 200,000 persons were slain. The conquest of China was completed in 1279, by Kublai Khan, who had raised the power of his nation to the summit of grandeur. He died in 1294, when the empire was divided into Iran (Persia), Zagatai (S. E. Asia) ; Kaptschak (Russia); and China. Read: Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. Ixiv. THE CHURCH. The Mendicant Orders. — The reform called for by the corrupt lives of the clergy demanded a stronger spirit of enthusiasm in their defence. Francisco, the son of a rich merchant of Assisi, was actuated in his youth by a delirious piety ; in his riper years he became either a mad- man or an impostor. With the pope's consent he instituted in 1210 a class of Friars Minorite, better known as Franciscans, from the name of their founder, in honour of whom they modestly call themselves the Seraphic order ; having installed him above the seraphim upon the throne from which Satan fell. They were bound to observe the severest rule of life : they went barefooted, and trusted to alms for their daily bread. They increased with great rapidity ; so that in the eighteenth century, when the Reformation must have diminished their number by one-third, * Genghis Khan, or the greatest khan, had been raised to the command of his nation by the help of another whose name has been mixed up with numerous fables. Temugin had married the daughter of Ouang, the great khan of the Keraites, who, from the story of having been converted by some Cliristian monks and baptized, is known in Europe as Prestcr John. THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 283 there were found 28,000 Franciscan nuns in 900 nunneries, and 115,000 friars in 7000 convents. The rival order of Dominicans, which was instituted on the same principles, and about the same period, became noted for performing the sanguinary tasks of the Inquisition, extirpating heretics with fire and sword. By the council of Lyons, 1274, the number of the mendicant orders was confined to four: — Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, and Austin friars, — all of whom proving the ever-acting agents of the holy see, received in consequence great privileges from the popes. The monks could confess, absolve, and preach in all churches ; and thither ran the people to listen to these men, coarsely clad and attenuated by austerity, rather than to the delicate and sumptuous prelates, who glit- tered in purple garments and gold. These orders, by undermining the influence of the superior clergy, restored to Christianity the democratic character which it bore in the primitive church, and which was mani- fested with such terrible energy during the religious wars. Read: Southey's Book of the Church. The Inquisition. — The establishment of the Inquisition by Dominic, in 1204, enabled the papal court to direct all its efforts to the extirpation of heresy. The leading features of this odious tribunal were the impen- etrable secrecy of its proceedings, the insidious mode of accusation, the use of torture, and heavy penalties. This weapon of the church was first successfully employed against the Albigenses, but was afterwards suppressed in France. Introduced into Germany in 1231, it was abolished after the lapse of three years on account of the violence of the inquisitor, and never again restored. In Italy it succeeded in crushing the Reformation ; but it was successfully resisted by the Neapolitans, who were alarmed at the cruelty with which it was administered in Spain. In that country it possessed a formidable power, and there an auto-da-fe was solemnized so lately as 1783. Read: M'Crie's Reformation in Italy. — Llorente's Inquisition. Albigenses. — This sect, which derived its name from the town of Albi, was probably a union of all who differed from the Romish church, collected round the simple Waldenses — so called from Valdo of Lyons — whom Providence had kept untainted by the papal corruptions. The suspicious death of Pietro de Castelnau, while crossing the Rhone in 1208, called forth a bull from Innocent III. against all schismatics, and particularly against Raymond VI. count of Toulouse, absolving his subjects from their allegiance, and informing them that faith was not to be kept with heretics. Simon, count of Montfort, was appointed leader of this Western Crusade. It began with the storming of Beziers, where 15,000 Albigenses were slain. It is said that when some of the in- habitants would have escaped, a Cistertian monk led on the crusaders with the cry of " kill them all ! God will know his own." At last Raymond VII., in 1229, was forced to capitulate, and the Inquisition was established in Toulouse. The Albigenses were dispersed, but not destroyed, by a determined system of persecution. During two cen- turies they supplied victims for the Spanish inquisition; in Bohemia they had a dreadful season of vengeance under Zisca and Procopius; in Germany they prepared the way for Luther; and in Britain they sowed that seed of which, by the blessing of God, we now enjoy the abundant harvest. 284 MIDDLK AGES. CRUSADES. Fourth Crusade, a.d. 1202. — A new holy war was preached by Fulques of Neuilly, and Baldwin, count of Flanders, was made leader. The crusaders were diverted from the object of their expedition by the prayers of the young Alexius, who implored their protection in behalf of his father. Aided by Dandolo of Venice, they took the Byzantine capital, and elected Baldwin emperor. Other chiefs shared in the spoils; Boniface of Montferrat had the title of King of Thessaly ; Ville Hardouin was made Duke of Thrace; Athens was converted into a duchy ; Achaia into a principality ; and Corinth into a lordship Thus began the Latin empire in 1204, which lasted till 1261. Crusade of Children. — As the crusading spirit of the times haa seduced Louis IX., so even children were possessed by it. In 1212. nearly 90,000 youths of different countries left their parents and school- masters in order to betake themselves to the Holy Land. They pro- ceeded in great troops to Marseilles and Genoa, although their numbers were diminished by cold, hunger, and disease. As two merchants of the former city otfered to transport them across the sea, seven vessels quitted the port, by which they were carried to Alexandria, and there sold as slaves. Most of those who reached Genoa, in the hope of find- ing the bed of the sea dried up, were reduced to bondage by the in- habitants of the country. Consult : Michaud's History of the Crusades, vol. hi. Fifth Crusade, 1217. — This expedition was undertaken by the king of Hungary, Andrew II., who was aided by John of Brienne, king of Jerusalem; Hugh, king of Cyprus; and Leopold III., duke of Austria. The crusaders first landed at Acre, but their ill success in Palestine, and the departure of the Hungarians, induced them to turn their arms to another quarter. As Egypt was the great resource of the Mussulmans in the Holy Land, it was resolved to conquer Jerusalem by depriving it of its usual supplies. Accordingly Damietta was stormed, and the sultan offered to give up the Holy City with the true cross, when the pope's legate thought fit to reject his proposals and con- tinue the war. This resolution was fatal ; for, surrounded by the waters of the Nile, attacked on all sides by the Saracens, and wasted by a con- tagious malady, the Christians were forced to submit to humiliating conditions of peace, in 1221. Sixth Crusade, 1228. — The failure of the fifth crusade incited the fope to press the fulfilment of the vow which the Emperor Frederick I. had made to assume the cross ; but it was not until he had incurred the penalty of excommunication through his various delays, that the emperor set out for the Holy Land. Here, by a convention signed the following year, the Sultan of Egypt ceded Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Rama, and all the country between Acre, Tyre, Sidon, and Jerusalem. But the Christians did not long preserve their acquisitions. Weakened by civil wars, some forming alliances with the Sultan of Damascus, others with the ruler of Egypt, they lost Jerusalem in 1244 ; and although they recovered it again, and held possession of it for a brief period, they were finally driven out by the Kharismians, who massacred or reduced to slavery all the population of Palestine, and destroyed the sacred sepulchre. THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. U. 285 Seventh Crusade, 1248. — Cardinal Eudes of Chateauroux was the eans of giving birth to this war, in which Louis IX. sailed for Egypt with an army of nearly 60,000 men. That country was looked upon as the key of Palestine, and Louis made the city of Damietta the centre of his movements. Natural obstacles, the resolute opposition of the Turks, and the loss of many brave knights, including his brother the Count of Artois, compelled him to retreat when almost within sight of Cairo. Pestilence and famine aggravated the distresses of his soldiers; and the king himself became a captive, when his army was almost annihilated. His ransom was obtained by the payment of 400,000 livres. At Acre, he lingered four years, ashamed to return inglorious to France and unable to visit the holy sepulchre. Eighth Crusade, 1270. — A chimerical hope of converting the King of Tunis led Louis to the African coast. His army, 30,000 foot, and 6000 horse, was composed of men of all nations; for English, Scots, Catalonians, Portuguese, and Castilians, fought under the same ban- ners with the French chivalry. The plague, however, soon appeared in the camp, which cut him off at the age of fifty-five, 1270. RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. Des Michaels, examining the influences of the Crusades, classifies them under the following heads :— I. Immediate Effect. — Europe was saved from Turkish invasion at a period when she would have been ill able to resist it, although she purchased this benefit and short repose at a great price of blood and treasure. II. Effect on the Church. — The popes augmented their spiritual and temporal power. They brought under their supremacy the patriarchs of Antioch and Jerusalem, and strengthened the links of the hierarchy. III. Political Effect. — This was shown, 1st, Among the princes, who all, with the exception of the emperors, found means of enlarging their domains, and increasing their authority ; 2d, Among the nobility, who suffered in power and riches, but were gainers in honorary distinctions. The orders of knight- hood established in the East reflected their splendour over Europe and were imitated in all Christian states. Tournaments, a recent introduction, charmed the West by representing the exploits of the Holy War ; the combatants from beyond the seas came, to display, in the various courts, the magnificence of the East ; while coats of arms became necessary as distinctive marks, and family names were adopted and transmitted from sire to son. IV. Effect on Commerce and Industry .—The art of navigation made important progress', owing to the frequent voyages, to the great profits derived from them, and to the practices borrowed from the pilots of the Levant. By opening a wider field to speculation, and by facilitating exchange, commerce derived the same advantages as nautical science. Productions of nature and art, hitherto unknown in the West, brought new enjoyments, and called forth fresh industry. The maritime cities that engrossed the commerce of the East, attracted to them most of the wealth of Europe, and several of them became powerful republics. Hence the prosperity of Venice, Genoa, and Pisa, of Barcelona and Marseilles. Hence, too, the wealth and activity of the Flemish towns, which served as the medium of exchange between the North and South, between the ports of the Mediterranean and the towns of the Hanseatic league. Agriculture was also greatly benefited by the introduction of the mulberry, Turkey-wheat, the sugar-cane, and other plants. V. Effect on Knowledge. — General civilisation was advanced by new inter- national relations, and the progress of science and literature. Ideas of honour and courtesy spread from chivalry into society generally, softening the public 286 MIDDLE AGES. manners, and ennobling, in some respect, the enfranchised serfs, who were indebted for most of their wealth and liberty to the crusades. New and sublime subjects were laid open to poetic genius, which, however, rarely employed them with advantage. Still talent was honoured, and the warriors, not satisfied with encouraging the versifiers who celebrated their exploits, became their own bards. A peculiar character was impressed on poetry, and thus arose the romance of chivalry and the songs of the troubadours. Hence was breathed the first harmony into the various dialects of modern Europe. . The advances made by the sciences of geography, history, and medicine, were important in giving a new impulse to geographical research and adventure. FOURTEENTH CENTURY. Greek Empire. — 1341, Cantacuzene. — 1355, Great Earthquake. — 1391, Manuel II. The East. — 1310, Knights of St. John at Rhodes.— 1326, Rise of the Ottoman Power —Janizaries. — 1370, Tamerlane. — 1389, Bajazet. — 1402, Battle of Angora. Germany.— 1315, Battle of Morgarten.— 1338, Union of Rense. — 1347, Charles IV. — 1356, Golden Bull. — 1378, Wenceslaus, Emperor. — 1386, Battle of Sempach. Italian Peninsula. — The Visconti. — 1320, Castruccio Castracani. — 1342, Joan I. — 1347, Rienzi. — 1355, Faliero expelled. — 1378, War of Chioggia. France. — 1302, Defeat at Courtray— Papal Quarrels. — 1307, Templars abol- ished — Salic Law. — 1346, Battle of Cressy ; 1356, of Poitiers. — 1358, The Jacquerie. — 1364, Charles V. Britain. — 1314, Battle of Bannockburn. — 1346, The Black Prince. — 1371, The Stuarts.— 1381, Wat Tyler.— 1399, House of Lancaster— Henry V. Spanish Peninsula. — 1340, Battle of Tarifa: Cannons first used. — 1350, Peter the Cruel. — 1368, Henry of Trastamare. — 1385, John of Portugal. Church. — 1360, John Wickliffe.— 1378, Great Schism of the West — Lollards — Bianchi. Inventions. — 1306, The Mariner's Compass — Linen Paper — Cannons. — 1330, Notes of Music— 1360, Metal-drawing; Pins.— 1380, Playing Cards— Gun- powder used. Literature, &c. — 1300, Cimabue ; 1336, Ghiotto, Painter. — 1321, Dante, Poet; 1343, Occam, Theologian; 1374, Petrarch, Poet; 1375, Boccacio, Novelist; Hafiz, Persian Poet; 1400, Chaucer, Poet; 1402, Gower, Poet; Froissart, Historian. GREEK EMPIRE. A nation so degraded as the Greeks was unable to defend itself against the Turks, to repel whose attacks Andronicus II. hired 7000 Catalonians, whom the reconciliation of the houses of Anjou and Aragon had left without employment ; but these mercenaries, uniting with the Turks, pillaged Thrace and Thessaly, and seized on the duchy of Athens, 1312. Further, the knights of St. John wrested Cos, Rhodes, and several adjacent islands, from the Byzantine emperor. Internal dissen FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 287 sions led to the dethronement of the sovereign by his grandson, Andronicus the Younger, 1328, under whom the abuses of the government increased. Bithynia was conquered by the Turks ; and his reign of thirteen years was imbittered by a declining popularity and a premature old age, the consequence of youthful excess. John Palaeologus, 1341, was left in his ninth year under the guaidianship of the regent Cantacuzene, who had the merit of restoring Lesbos and iEtolia to the empire. The intrigues of jealous courtiers led him to assume the imperial title. During six years the flames of civil discord burned with various success ; and while internal factions weakened the state, the barbarians were breaking through the whole line of the frontiers. The regent finally triumphed, but his reign was disturbed by faction ; and he descended from the throne to a cloister, 1355, when John resumed the purple. In this year a terrible earthquake shook most of the cities in South Rou- melia, — an event of which the Turks took advantage to seize on them, and to fortify Gallipoli and Zympe. Opposed on all sides by Chris- tians and infidels alike, the emperor besought the protection of the pope, and endeavoured to effect a union between the two churches. But this was unavailing against the victories of Amurath, to whom he became almost a tributary vassal, and the Greek empire was confined to a corner of Thrace between the Sea of Marmora and the Euxine, scarcely 1500 miles square — Philadelphia, the last city held by the Greeks in Asia Minor, having been wrested from them in 1390. — Manuel II., 1391, who had served under Bajazet, preserved his military reputation by a lengthened struggle with his rival John of Selymbria. The threatening power and haughty summons of Bajazet led to an ignominious truce of ten years, in virtue of which the religion of Mohammed was tolerated in the Christian capital. THE EAST. Ottoman Empire. — Profiting by the weakness of the Seljukians of Iconium, many Turkish families had retired into the mountains of Asia Minor, where they formed several petty states, and preserved their war- like habits by continual inroads into the Greek territories. Amono- these was Othman, who, fixing his residence at Karahissar, extended his power into Bithynia; and his son Orcan, who succeeded him, 1326, having assumed the title of sultan, rapidly enlarged his dominions. Invited into Europe by one of the factions of the capital, the barbarians established themselves in the neighbourhood of Constantinople, whence they sub- dued the whole province from the Hellespont to Mount Haemus, 1360. Amurath I. at length reduced the Greek emperor to the ignominy of sending his four sons as hostages to the Ottoman camp. To him, or to his predecessor Orcan, the celebrated Janizaries owe their oricrin. Aware of the real superiority of the Europeans in warlike matters, he selected the stoutest of the Christian prisoners, and educated them in habits of martial discipline. This new militia was consecrated by a renowned dervise, who said, " Let them be called Janizaries — new sol- diers; may their hands be ever victorious, and their swords keen." Bajazet I., surnamed Ilderim, 1389, reigned fourteen years; and his rapid movements soon reduced to obedience all the country between the Euphrates and the Danube. At the battle of Nicopolis, 1396, he defeated Sigismond the king of Hungary, and the bravest knights of France and 288 MIDDLE AGES. Germany, who had marched to the support of Europe and the church. It was the insolent boast of this proud army of 100,000 Christians, that if the sky should fall they could uphold it on their lances. The impe- tuousity of the French caused the loss of the day, and the lives of many of the most gallant soldiers. With savage cruelty Bajazet led out the prisoners, amounting to no fewer than 10,000, to be slaughtered in cold blood. The Duke of Burgundy was compelled to be a spectator of this inhuman massacre, which lasted from early morn till four o'clock, p. m. ; and then was only stopped by the intercession of some of the Moham- medan leaders. The siege of Constantinople was next meditated, but the sultan was compelled to defend himself against the formidable Tamerlane. The two armies met at Angora, 1402 : Bajazet was defeated and- made captive, and carried about in triumph, as some say, in an iron cage. Tamerlane. — Under the successors of Genghis Ki.an in the four- teenth century, the vices common to all Asiatic monarchies appeared. The provincial governors asserted their independence in 1355, and the dynasty of the Ilkhanians at Bagdad extended their authority to the Caspian Sea. At the same time, the khan's officers deprived him of his power, and governed the empire in his name. Lastly, the inroads of the Turkomans, and of the Mongol Khan of the Kaptschak, who several times entered Persia, but particularly those of Tamerlane, put an end to their dominion. This famous warrior was not distinguished in arms until the age of twenty-seven ; his youth having been passed in tending the flocks and herds of the family. At nineteen he became religious, and made a vow never to injure any living thing. His first adventures were the struggles upon which he entered to restore to independence his country, that had been invaded by the Calmucks. He ascended the throne of Zagatai, 1370 ; but before his death the crown of that kingdom was only one of fourteen that encircled his brows. Turkestan was sub- dued in 1383 ; Persia in 1393 ; and Eastern Tartary was invaded with a mighty army, whose front covered thirteen miles. Hindostan was assailed by 92,000 horsemen; and 10,000 prisoners, whom they took on their march, were all massacred. Delhi was captured and delivered up to an undisciplined soldiery ; and after a campaign of one year, Tamer- lane returned home. His designs of conquest were probably changed by the news he received of the ambitious projects of Bajazet. Quitting the banks of the Ganges, he marched against his rival ; Sebaste, on the borders of Anatolia was taken, and the garrison, consisting of 4000 Armenians, buried alive. His incursions into Syria and Persia during the next two years enabled Bajazet to collect forces; and after various delays, the two armies met in the heart of the Ottoman empire. The result of the battle of Angora, 1402, did not disgrace the thirty years' experience of Tamerlane. Almost the whole of Asia was now in his hands, but while meditating a new design of vast extent, the reduction of Egypt and Africa, and the entrance into Europe by Gibraltar, death put a term to his conquests in 1405. With his life the glory of his empire faded, and, before the end of the fifteenth century, Transoxiana and Persia were trampled upon by their Turkoman neighbours. GERMANY. After the death of his rival Adolphus in 1298, Albert of Austria JOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 289 »6oeived the imperial crown at Aix-la-Chapelle, notwithstanding me determined opposition of Boniface VIII., who, nevertheless, becoming reconciled, assisted him in placing on the throne of Hungary their com- mon friend, Carobert of Naples, 1308. The emperor next disposed of the Bohemian territory in favour of two of his sons, Rodolph and Frederick. But the states had already conferred the sovereignty on Henry of Carinthia, brother-in-law of the preceding king, Wenceslaus V. Albert, after making several vain efforts to support the rights of his own family, turned all the fury of his anger against the Swiss. Helvetic Confederacy. — The Swiss towns did not rise into import- ance before the twelfth century, nor did their country bear its present name. Part belonged to the duchy of Swabia ; part to the kingdom of Aries ; part to Burgundy ; and though all as a body were dependent on the empire, certain fiefs appertained to the house of Austria. At the end of the thirteenth century, the politic and enterprising Rodolph, with his son Albert, had obtained a great ascendency among them. The latter, however, was viewed with distrust, and his conduct in sending some imperial bailiffs as administrators of criminal justice, excited a brave and simple-minded people to insurrection. Stauffacher, Furst, and Melchthal united in the cause of liberty, and the cantons of Schweitz, Uri, and Unterwalden, which they represented, unanimously rose and expelled their oppressors in 1308. Tell, the son-in-law of Furst, having offended the bailiff Gessler by refusing to bow to a hat planted on a pole, was seized, and in violation of the privileges of his canton, placed in a boat to be carried across the lake. A storm having arisen, he was loosed from his fetters to navigate the vessel, when he found an oppor- tunity of effecting his escape. He shortly after met his enemy and shot him in a hollow way in 1307.* Leopold, duke of Austria, led a considerable force to reduce the pea- sants who had rebelled against his father ; but the battle of Morgarten, the Marathon of Switzerland, confirmed the independence of the three cantons, 1315. In this conflict a display of patriotic firmness occurred, not unworthy the best^days of ancient Rome. Fifty men, who had been banished from Schweitz, solicited permission to fight in defence of their native homes; the magistrates declined the offer, being unwilling to allow T the approach of danger to relax the ordinances of the state. But the exiles, though thus rejected, posted themselves on an eminence beyond the frontier of the canton, where they contributed to the victory of those by whom their services had been refused. They obtained from the gratitude of their country, what they had vainly sought from its fears, and were all restored. The battle of Sempach, in 1386, was the last in which Austria endea- voured to subdue those independent mountaineers. It was rendered illustrious by an heroic act, deserving to be ever remembered among the instances of generous self-devotion. When the confederates had been defeated in every attempt to break the line of the enemy, another Codrus, Arnold Struthan, knight of Unterwalden, cried to his countrymen that he would open a passage, desiring them to provide for his wife and *The authenticity of the romantic story of Tell and his son is very doubtful. Saxo Grammaticus, the Swedish historian, relates a precisely similar event, which happened to the Danish Toko, under Harold the Blue, king of Denmark, in the 10th century. 25 290 MIDDLE AGES. children, and to honour his race. Then throwing himself on the oppos- ing pikes, he grasped as many of them as he could, huried them in his bosom, and bore them to the ground, leaving a space open for the ad- vance of his companions. Before the middle of the century, the confederacy had been strength- ened by the addition of Lucerne, Zurich, Berne, Zug, and Glaris, com- posing the eight ancient cantons. Friburg, Appenzel, Soleure, Basle, and Schall'hausen, afterwards became part of the body ; and its inde- pendence was declared by the treaty of Basle in 1500. Seven months elapsed between the murder of Albeit and the election of Henry VII. of Luxemburg, 1308. In order to divert the attention of the princes of the empire, he endeavoured to re-establish the imperial power in Italy, which during sixty-four years had recognised no foreign authority. The factions of the Guelphs and Ghibellines still distracted the country, though their objects were no longer the same, — the one contending for the emperor, the other for the pope. When Henry ap- peared in Italy, escorted by -2000 cavalry, all the signors presented them- selves before him, but they were compelled to resign into his hands the sovereignty which they had abdicated. After having assumed at Monza the crown of Lombardy, he received deputies and oaths of fidelity from all the cities. He died of poison administered in the consecrated wafer, 1313. During this period Germany was at peace, but in the year pre- ceding Henry's death it was ravaged by a pestilence that carried off 13,000 persons at Strasburg, 14,000 at Basle, and as many at Colmar. In some towns and cities not one man escaped. After an interregnum of fourteen months, two emperors were chosen : Frederick of Austria, the son of Albert, was crowned at Cologne, and Louis of Bavaria at Aix-la-Chapelle. The civil war which broke out between the two competitors, was terminated in 1322 by the victory at Muhldorf, which left Louis sole emperor. In 1328, he caused himself to be crowned king at Rome, not by the pope, who was always opposed to him, but by the prefect Sciarra Colonna and two excommunicated bishops; after which he solemnly proclaimed the deposition of John XXII. and proceeded to the election of another pope. The degraded pontiff with his successors Benedict XII. and Clement VI., from their place of exile at Avignon, did not cease to pursue his majesty with their anathemas. Wearied by such continued persecutions, Louis offered to resign his crown, but the electors opposed this resolution, and united at Rense for the preservation of the German independence against his holi- ness, and replied to the anathemas of Benedict XII. by the pragmatic sanction of Frankfort, 1338. By this act of firmness the papal court was only the more offended ; and Clement VI. persuaded the ecclesiastical electors and the Duke of Saxony to choose a new r emperor. Their choice fell on Charles of Luxemburg, margrave of Moravia, and eldest son of King John the Blind of Bohemia. The sudden death of Louis IV., in 1347, gave the imperial crown to Charles IV. without a struggle. Golden Bull. — The emperor just named, like Louis XI. of France, showed how a monarch may rule without possessing any respectable qualities. His residence at Prague led to the embellishment of the city with public buildings, and his bull of 1355 terminated the disputes be- tween the electors. It was surnamed the golden, from the seal attached to it. Bartholus, the celebrated lawyer, drew up this charter, ^y which FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 291 the prerogatives of the electoral coJleg< wer* finally ascertained. Their number was confined to seven ; the imperial elections were to be held at Frankfort, and the coronation at Aix-la-Chapelle, the Archbishop of Cologne performing the ceremony. The electors were declared equal to kings, and conspiracy against them was made high treason. Charles twice visited Italy, where he sacrificed most of his imperial prerogatives, as he had already done in Germany. He was always King of Bohemia, and showed great wisdom in the government of his hereditary states. His reign is further remarkable for the foundation of the universities of Prague and Vienna, and for a persecution of the Jews, so atrocious as to require the interference of the pope to stop it. He was succeeded by his son Wenceslaus in 1378. The reign of Charles, it has been said, was an age of gold compared with that of his son. In Swabia and Franconia private hostilities were frequent; and the cities, from the necessity of preserving the public peace, formed various associations to protect themselves against the leagues of the nobles. An open war ensued between the two parties, and the corporations were defeated at the battles of Weil and Worms, 1388. The emperor paid dearly for the secret influence which he had used in favour of the free cities : and in order to destroy him, his vicious pursuits, exaggerated beyond all probability, were everywhere made known. He had not a less difficult task in governing his Bohemian subjects; for he had undertaken to Germanize these ancient Sclavonians, and impose on them new laws and a new language. At length his peo- ple imprisoned him, 1393, and he was deposed in 1400. ITALIAN PENINSULA. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries were a brilliant period, in which poetry, the letters, the arts, and internal improvement raised the Cisal- pine nations to an intellectual superiority, which has rarely been equalled ; while the political history of the same space presents little more than a labyrinth of petty facts, not less obscure than unimportant. Milan, Flo- rence, Genoa, and Naples, rose to eminence ; the pope consolidated his territorial sovereignty ; but the kingdom of Naples was a prey to the factions of Anjou and Aragon. By the end of the thirteenth century, the Ghibelline faction was everywhere proscribed ; and Charles of Anjou was constituted vicar-general of Tuscany. Robert, the third of the An- gevin kings of Naples, aspired to the sovereignty of all Italy, and before 1318 his ambitious measures were generally successful. His death restored the republics to their former condition, but only to accept new masters ; for the Visconti of Milan gradually absorbed the rule of all the northern provinces. The marriage of Valentina with the Duke of Or- leans, 1389, led to protracted calamities in Italy at the beginning of the sixteenth century. During this period, their relations with the empire, though interrupted, were never entirely suspended. The decree of Rodolph, 1278, by which he resigned the imperial supremacy over all the dominions already granted to the Roman see was a leading epoch in the civil history of the papacy. The power of the bishops was not generally acquiesced in by the citizens, whose bosoms were animated with the recollection of ancient glories. Amok' of Brescia, a political heretic, had preached against the temporal juris .292 middle ages. diction of the hierarchy, in 1140. By his exhortations the republic was restored ; but his life was sacrificed to cement the union between the Emperor Barbarossa and Pope Adrian, 1155. The government of the senate lasted nearly fifty years ; when Brancaieone, a senator of Bologna, was elected to the supreme magistracy, 1-253. His rigour and inflexible justice were repaid' by the ingratitude of an unworthy people. The translation of the holy see to Avignon, 1305, left Rome a prey to the factions of her nobles. In every street was erected some stronghold ; each mansion became a castle ; an I the feuds of the Orsini and Colonna families were more fatal to the capital than the inroads of the barbarians. Rienzi. — Nicholas Rienzi, born of humble parents, was carefully educated, and from the study of the ancient classics had imbibed a deep veneration for the past glories of Rome. In 1342, he was named col- league of Petrarch in a deputation sent to solicit the return of Clement VI. Shortly after, he w T as appointed apostolic notary ; and, in 1347, he began the revolution he had long meditated.* He suspended in the public places various pictures emblematical of the misery and degrada- tion of the city, which he explained in the most animated manner. Favoured by the absence of Stephen Colonna,f he at length proclaimed that all should assemble on the eve of Whitsunday, in the church of St. Angelo, to provide for The Good State, the watchword of his party. There he assisted during the night at the masses of the Holy Spirit, that he might appear to act by inspiration of Heaven ; and then sallied forth bareheaded, attended by a hundred armed men. He was invested by acclamation with the necessary power for carrying his proposed regu- lations into execution, but contented himself with the title of tribune. The intemperance of prosperity soon betrayed the vices of his character, and precipitated his ruin, even in despite of the salutary influence of his government. Resolving to assume the order of knighthood, the unusual •eremonies he employed, such as bathing in the porphyry vase used at the baptism of Constantine, offended the superstition of the people. His victory over the nobles, who had united in defence of their lives and property, was the crisis of his fate, by the distress it caused to the inhabitants of Rome. A small force advanced to the capitol, in which he held his sumptuous residence, and forced him to leave the city after a government of seven months. He returned in a short time, invested with legitimate authority by the pope; but his administration of scarcely four months was terminated by assassination, in 1354. Genoa dates her commercial prosperity from the recovery of Con- stantinople, 1261. Owing to her convenient station at Galata, she long monopolized the commerce of the Euxine, and contested the dominion jf the Mediterranean with Venice. In a dispute with the Tartars it became necessary to blockade the Sea of Azoph, a proceeding which gave umbrage to the Venetians, and led to a war, in which Genoa was eventually successful, under the Admiral Paganino Doria. In 1378, *The author ofCorinne has drawn with a single stroke the character of Rienzi, Cres- centius, and Arnold of Brescia, qui out pris les souvenirs pour les esperances. The sub- sequent affairs of Rome are obscure ; the people appear to have continued the republican institutions till 13t)'2, when the legate of Innocent VI. was allowed to assume the govern, ment. tLike Brutus, Rienzi acted the buffoon, and the Colonnas used to invite him to their palace to furnish them with amusement, considering him as a mere fool, and of no im? portance. FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 293 the occupation of Tenedos by the Venetians, and the conquest of Cyprus by the Genoese, led to the war of Chioggia, The latter, defeated near the ruins of Antium, and victors before Pola, seized upon Chioggia; where Peter Doria rejected with contempt the submission of the Doge Contarini. But the tide of fortune turned, and the peace of Turin, in 1381, which reconciled the two powers, was advantageous to neither. From this period Genoa was in continual revolution; between 1390 and 1394, the doge was changed ten times; and the city was finally placed under the protection of a French garrison, 1401. Venice. — While this republic was extending her sway abroad by arms and commerce, she was limiting the power of the doge at home, and establishing an hereditary aristocracy that enabled the state to rise to the highest greatness. In 1339, she increased her territory on the Continent, by the conquest of the city of Treviso, and in 1355 executed Faliero for his attempts on the constitution. This doge had been raised to the ducal throne, 1354, at the age of 76. Jealous of the attractions of his young and beautiful wife, he was filled with unappeasable indig- nation at a scurrilous couplet written on his throne by a young noble- man, Michael Steno, and which reflected on the purity of his lady. He wished to make it a state crime, but the council sentenced the offender to a short imprisonment only. This drove the doge to extremities, and uniting with several discontented plebeians, he engaged in a conspiracy to massacre the whole of the oligarchy. The plot was discovered ; Faliero avowed his guilt, and was condemned to die. He was privately beheaded on the great staircase of the ducal palace, and the bloody sword was shown to the populace, with the proclamation, that justice had been executed on a great criminal. The honour of Venice was connected with the reign of the Latins at Constantinople, and the supremacy there of the Roman church; while Genoa, emulous of her fame, concluded an alliance with the Greeks, and assisted them materially in the recovery of their metropolis. Re- ligious disputes, as well as commercial and national prejudices, imbit- tered the contest between the two republics. The war of 1378 threaten- ed Venice with great misfortunes. The capital was blockaded by the possession of Chioggia, and the Genoese swore that a curb should be placed in the mouth of her wild horses. Necessity compelled the release of the Admiral Pisani from his prison. The canals were defend- ed by floating batteries ; private coffers were emptied ; gold and silver plate was melted down ; and a promise was made that thirty families should be ennobled for their exertions in this momentous crisis. Al- though the besiegers were in their turn besieged, the senate seriously thought of transporting themselves to Candia. Things were in this state when Carlo Zeno arrived laden with treasure from the Ligurian shores. But after some further struggles, the fortunes of Genoa sunk for ever, and the rivalry of 130 years was terminated by the superiority of Venice. The latter seized on Durazzo and Corfu in 1386, and the Polesina of Rovigo in 1395; and from that moment she did not cease to direct her ambition and arms towards the continent of Italy. Tuscany. — This rich country was still divided into nearly as many republics as cities, and the disputes of the Guelfs and Ghibellines raged with their wonted animosity. The latter would not have been able to maintain themselves much longer, but for the genius of Castruccio Cas» 25* 294 KIDDLE AGES. tracani, who was elected signor of Lucca in 1320. Uniting with Gale- azzo Visconti of Milan, he invaded the territory of the Florentines, and defeated their troops at the battle of Alto Pascio in 1325. But for the premature death of this warrior, the liberty of the Tuscan republics would have been endangered. Of all the Italian cities Florence was perhaps most distracted by rival factions, which, in turn victorious, unfeelingly proscribed their antago- nists. Thus was the great poet Dante expelled at the beginning of the fourteenth century by the Guelfs, and condemned to wander, until his death, through the towns of Tuscany and Romagna. The Blacks and the Whiles — for by this name did the Guelfs and Ghibellines distinguish themselves — promoted in no small degree the cause of the democracy. The former, guided by the Donati and controlled by the kings of Naples, were nearly alwa) r s predominant, and the administration was conse- quently of a popular form. Sometimes the power fell into the hands of the nobles; but the tyranny of Walter of Brienne in 1312 induced the state to adopt the democratic form of government. Its situation became then more critical than ever. Depopulated by pestilence in 1348, and afterwards besieged by the troops of John Visconti, it found safety in the devotion of the Guelf corporations of Sienna, Avizzo, Volterra, and Perugia. By such means the Florentines employed their power to maintain the union between these republics, and to withdraw them from the control of the French, and particularly of the pontifical legates. But they were themselves divided by the rivalry of the Greater and the Less Arts)* as well as by the aristocratic and popular factions, who renewed within the walls the bloody tragedies of the E_acks and the Whites, at the same time that Tuscany was ravaged by " the free com- pany," which the legate, Robert of Geneva, had brought to protect him, 1376. About two years later, democracy prevailed at Florence, through the influence of the gonfalier Sylvester de Medici. Lombardy. — The grandson of Mastino della Scala, who had raised a durable power on the ruins of the house of Romano at Verona, obtained from the Emperor Henry VII., in 1312, the title of imperial vicar in the march of Treviso, as well as the signory of Vicenza. The republicans of Padua contested the government of that city ; but they themselves fell under the hereditary yoke of James Carrara in 1318. Mastino II., pursuing the ambitious designs of his father, extended his influence into Tuscany by the acquisition of Lucca, and menaced the independence of Florence, which was indebted for its safety to the Venetians. He aspired to the sovereignty of Italy; in this, however, he was opposed by the hostility of the Visconti and the policy of Venice. His family, after his death in 1351, gradually declined, and Antony, the last heir, was deprived of all his possessions by Galeazzo Visconti, who also took Padua from Francisco Carrara in 1388. This city, as well as Verona, fell into the hands of the Venetians in 1404. The Torriani succeeded in driving the Visconti from Milan in 1302; but they soon returned, and their leader, Matthew, engaged the former *The citizens exercising commeive were divided into twelve companies or arts. The seven, called the greater, were those of lawyers and notaries, wholesale dealers in foreign cloth, bankers or money-changers, woollen-drapers, physicians and druggists, dealers in silk, and furriers: the inferior arts, which were gradually increased to fourteen, were the retailers of cloth, butchers, smiths, shoemakers, and builders. FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 295 n a sedition in which the greater part of them perished, 1311. It was about the same period that Henry VII. conferred the title of Imperial Vicar of Lombardy on this chief, who contrived to make the office of signor hereditary in his family. His successors extended their power in Upper Italy by policy as much as by vigour of arms. John Galeazzo Visconti ruined the fortunes of the Scaligers, and united to his paternal estates all Lombard Italy from the Brenta to the Ticino : Verona, Vi- cenza, Padua, Bergamo, Brescia, Lodi, Cremona, Alexandria, Parma, Piacenza, Bologna, and Pisa, all nourishing cities, received under diffe- rent titles the laws of the signor of Milan. The kings of France courted his alliance, and in 1395, the Emperor Wenceslaus, for 100,000 florins, conferred on him the dignity of duke. Sicily and Naples. — Frederick of Aragon merited by his prudent administration the gratitude of his Sicilian subjects. Useful institutions, the encouragement of manufactures, an alliance with Henry VII., and afterwards with Louis IV., both enemies of the house of Anjou, dis- tinguished his reign of forty-one years, which terminated peaceably in 1337, in spite of several excommunications by the holy see. His son, Peter II., filled the throne only five years. Under his successor Louis, peace was at length signed with Naples, and Joan I. renounced Sicily, Louis paying a tribute to the pope, 1347. But the domestic troubles which followed drove 10,000 inhabitants from the island, and forced the King of Naples to renew hostilities. Frederick III. succeeded in expelling the Neapolitans a second time, and the peace of 1372 left to their monarchs little more than the titular sovereignty of Sicily. During this time, Naples had been the theatre of bloody revolutions. Charles of Anjou was succeeded by Charles the Lame in 1285, who was followed by Robert the Good, 1309, by whom Sicily w r as unsuccessfully attacked. He was moie fortunate on the mainland, being nominated senator of Rome by the pope, and received by the Genoese as their signor. It was he who crowned Petrarch in the capitol in 1341. His daughter Joan, wife of Andrew the Hungarian, succeeded to the throne in 1343, commencing her disgraceful reign by the assassination of her husband, and then marrying Prince Louis of Tarentum. But the King of Hungary, Louis the Great, led an army to avenge his brother, and the country was devastated by war during several years, until the inva- der was recalled to his own states. Henceforward the court of Naples gave way to the grossest immoralities, though Joan finally expiated her crimes by a cruel death, being strangled by Charles of Durazzo. She left behind her the seeds of war by adopting Louis I. of Anjou in oppo- sition to the lineal heir. From this period began those struggles between the second Angevin family and the royal branch of Durazzo, which brought the French into Italy, and were the cause of a lasting enmity between the houses of France and Austria. Louis I. in 1383, and his son in 1390, invaded the kingdom, but were compelled to retire. FRANCE. Flemish War. — The peace of Montreuil allowed Philip IV. tt> resume his aggressions against Flanders. The count of that province was already his prisoner, and two of Philip's officers so oppressed the Flemings with unjust exactions, that they revolted, and having mur. 296 MIDDLE AGES. dered the French residents, advanced to meet the royal army. At Courtray a most sanguinary engagement took place, in which the flower of the French chivalry perished," 1302. Two years after, Philip repaired this disaster by the victory of Mons-en-Puelle, while the Genoese in his service, under the command of Grimaldi and Philip of Rieti, destroyed the Flemish fleet at Zierikzee. These successes, however, were fol- lowed by no advantage, as his majesty was compelled to recognise the independence of the Flemings, 1305. Papal Quarrels. — Boniface VIII. was scarcely seated in the ponti- fical chair, before he resolved to extend the authority of the tiara; though he found in the King of France an adversary by no means inclined to give up any of his prerogatives. At first the intentions of the pope appeared favourable towards him ; but his holiness, wishing to interfere as mediator between France and England, employed language which highly incensed the French monarch, who, some time after, imposed a new tax on all his subjects, from which not even the priests were exempted. This measure did not create a breach; yet when the king had imprisoned Bernard Saisset, a turbulent bishop who pretended to have no superior except the pope, Boniface published that, celebrated bull Auscullajili, ordered by the other to be publicly burnt, and which was the cause of the first meeting of the three estates of the kingdom, 1302. This assembly protested energetically against the superiority assumed by the holy see over the crown of France. In another assem- bly of barons and church dignitaries, Philip appealed to a future council against the anathemas of the pope; and William of Nogaret, his chan- cellor, accusing Boniface of heresy and simony, procured a sentence of imprisonment, to avoid which the pontiff fled to Rome, where he died in 1303. His successor Benedict XL, enjoying his exaltation only a few months, was followed by Clement V. who transferred the seat of the pontificate to Avignon, 1305. Templars abolished. — This distinguished order, which was esta- blished in 1118 by the patriarch of Jerusalem, consisted originally of eight or nine poor knights who dwelt in community near the site of the ancient temple. They voluntarily took on themselves the obligation of guarding the roads in the neighbourhood of the city, and of protecting the pilgrims from the infidels. Gradually their numbers and wealth augmented ; their mijitary services excited the gratitude of Christendom ; and in every nation legacies and lands successively increased the pos- sessions of the brotherhood. After being expelled from the Holy Land, they indulged in indolence and luxury, and were charged with the grossest crimes. Philip, having repeatedly denounced them to Clement V., at last ordered every member within his dominions to be arrested. Fifty-nine of the noblest were burnt at Paris in 1309 ; and numbers in other parts of France also became victims.* The result of the trials, which lasted three years, acquits the order, however it may condemn a few individuals. A bull was published by the council of Vienne, 1312, transferring their property to the knights hospitallers of St. John, who had just achieved the conquest of Rhodes. * In Castile the templar? were imprisoned only; in Aragon they existed some time longer; in Portugal they were incorporated withthe order of Christ; in Germany they were acquitted of all charges ; while in England and Ireland they were kept in honour- able but safe custody. FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 297 Salic Law. — Philip IV., dying in 1314, left three sons — Louis Hutin, Philip the Long, and Charles the Fair — who successively- reigned. Louis survived his father less than two years, leaving one daughter, and his queen on the point of giving birth to another child. In his reign there was a violent reaction against the royal despotism. Louis was obliged to accord to the barons of the north and centre of France the rights of local sovereignty to which they had laid claim ; and further confirmed the privileges enjoyed by many municipal cities. He also permitted the return of the Jews, who had been expelled by his predecessor, and, declaring that all Frenchmen should be free, allowed the serfs of the royal domains to purchase their liberty. Philip now assumed the regency, and availing himself of the peculiar state of affairs, procured the ratification of the Salic law by the assembly of Paris, 1317, and seized the royal sceptre. French writers assert that he ascended the throne "of right" — the exclusion of females being a fundamental maxim of their government ; but the text of the Salic law sanctions no such opinion, and it is only from this period that the usurpa- tion carries with it the air of legal authority. Philip left four daughters, and Charles IV. ascended the throne in 1322 ; his daughters also being excluded by Philip of Valois, 1328. Edward III. of England now advanced a claim to the French crown, which gave rise to a struggle of one hundred and twenty years — the evils of which were increased in both countries by domestic disturbances in the intervals of the war. Edward maintained that, although females were excluded from the suc- cession, their male issue might succeed, and hence that his mother Isabella might transfer her title to him. France at thie period was an extensive and compact monarchy, and deemed so powerful that Pope Benedict XII. wrote an urgent letter, dissuading the English monarch from taking the style and arms of that kingdom, and showing the im- possibility of his ever succeeding in establishing his claim. But in the course of twenty years, courage and military skill compelled that nation to submit to an ignominious peace, and to cede several provinces. The battles of Cressy, 1346, Poitiers, 1356, and Agincourt, 1415, in spite of the great disparity of forces, manifested l*ie high martial qualities that distinguish the English soldiery. The cruelties of the Count of Flanders having created fresh discontent among his subjects, a sedition broke out at Ghent which rapidly spread over the whole province. James Von Artaveldt, a brewer, was the leader of the revolt, and proposed to Edward III. to assume the title of king of France, in order that the Flemings might join his ranks with- out violating the feudal laws. War between the two monarchs now became inevitable ; the earlier operations were not very favourable to Edward, who, notwithstanding the defeat of the French fleet, was unable to take Tournay. The hostilities, which were suspended by a year's truce, were once more resumed in 1341. John III., duke of Brittany, left the duchy to his niece, who had mar- ried Charles, count of Blois, and nephew of Philip of Valcis ; though the Earl of Montfort, brother of the last duke, was the popular candidate. Philip sent an army to instal the new prince, and Montfort, who had been made prisoner at Nantes, was unable to profit by the succour which Robert of Artois brought to him from England. Shortly after- wards his competitor also was captured, and the struggle continued 298 MIDDLE AGES. twenty years longer, until the treaty of Guerande assigned the dukedom to the house of Montfort. Cressy. — The French and English did not long confine themselves to opposing each other in the duchy ; the execution of Oliver de Clisson, and several other Breton nobles devoted to the court of Edward, led to a rupture of the truce. This prince suddenly landed in Normandy, ad- vanced to Paris, and burnt St. Cloud, spreading everywhere terror and desolation. The approach, however, of an army of 100,000 men forced him to retreat towards Flanders, when he was opposed at Cressy, 26th August, 1346, and compelled to fight a battle, in which 30,000 French, besides one king, eleven princes, and 1200 knights, were left dead on the field. Next year Calais surrendered to the English monarch. Pope Clement VI., grieved at the misery of the inhabitants, wh«m the war, with its frequent attendants famine and pestilence, was afflict- ing, interposed between the belligerents, and procured a truce which lasted until 1355. Philip, who died in 1350, had enlarged his domin- ions by the addition of Montpellier, purchased from the King of Majorca at the price of 200,000 crowns, and of Dauphiny, ceded by Humbert II. Henceforward the eldest son of the French monarch bore the title of dauphin, from this province. The prerogatives of the throne had so greatly increased that the sovereign no longer thought it necessary to rid himself of his enemies by judiciary processes. Thus John II., who succeeded in 1350, put to death the Constable d'Eu, whom he suspected of corresponding with Edward III., and somewhat, later he beheaded Count Harcourt, and im- prisoned the King of Navarre. In former reigns the whole of the nobility would have risen in arms; but the great barons, now almost extinct, were replaced by poor nobles, most of whom received the royal pay. The necessity of keeping up a large army, and of maintaining the knights who followed the king's banner, had so deranged the finan- ces, principally through the ill-judged means devised for raising money, that it was found necessary to summon the states-general of the langue d'oil to meet in Paris for the purpose of levying a subsidy, The depu- ties of the three orders voted a sum of 5,000,000 of livres, and 30,000 men at arms. The necessary funds were raised by the gabelle and a tax upon the sale of merchandise. In return for these sacrifices, the representatives required a fixed standard of coinage and the reform of many abuses, 1355. While the estates were endeavouring to secure their political rights, Edward III. ravaged Picardy, and his son, the Black Prince, devastated the provinces beyond the Loire. Against the latter, King John march- ed with an army of 60,000 men, and came up with him at Maupertuis, near Poitiers, 19th September, 1356. Regarding the small band of 8000 islanders as already his prisoners, he charged them with thought- less impetuosity, and the result was a frightful carnage of his own troops. The dauphin was one of the first to flee, leaving in the midst of the enemy his father, who was valiantly defended by his fourth son Philip, a youth scarcely fifteen years of age. He was, however, taken and carried to England, where he shared the captivity of the Scottish monarch, David II. The Jacquerie. — During John's detention, France was a prey to FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 299 every calamity. The ruler of Navarre had taken the field against his sovereign, the capital was in sedition, pestilence was consummating- the work of hunger and the sword, and to crown all, the Jacquerie broke out in 1358. The peasantry {Jacques bun homme, the cant phrase appli- ed to them) furious at the ill treatment received from their superiors, flew to arms, and laid waste the whole country, murdering every person who refused to join them. Two hundred castles were burnt and their inhabitants massacred ; but the nobles soon retaliating, the cruelties of the free companies deluged France with blood. Subdued by these heavy misfortunes, the regent, afterwards Charles V., concluded a peace in 1360;* by which Guienne, Gascony, Poitou, Saintonge, the Limou- sin, and Angoumois, with Ponthieu and Calais were ceded in full sove- reignty to the English, who were also to receive for the king's ransom three millions of gold crowns. In 1364, Charles V. succeeded his father, whose death occurred in London, whither he had returned to sup- ply the place of one of the royal hostages who had escaped to Paris. The war was resumed in 1368 by Charles, on the ground that treaties found unfavourable to the public service ought not to be kept ! French historians give a specious account, which tends to throw the blame of the rupture on the English king; but however ambitious Edward may have been, his reputation is unblemished by bad faith. He and his son being in declining health, were, unable to contend against the valour of Du Guesclin. Hence in a few campaigns they lost the whole of their conquests; yet the war was always popular in England, although that country, scarcely to a less degree than France, was weakened by internal discord. Charles continued his victorious career; and while the French fleet was ravaging the English coasts, all that remained of Edward's acqui- sitions were Bordeaux, Bayonne, Rochelle, Brest, and Calais. The monarch dying in 1380, the fruits of this temporary success were lost by France in the succeeding reign; and during the forty-two years that Charles VI. was on the throne, his kingdom was reduced to a state nore deplorable than in the time of John's captivity. The Maillotins — the rabble using clubs armed with lead — treated Paris as a place taken by storm : dreadful executions succeeded, and many persons were put in sacks and thrown by night into the Seine. The insanity of the king, in 1393, placed the government in the hands of the Duke of Bur- gundy, not without opposition from the Duke of Orleans, who at last succeeded in obtaining the entire management of affairs. But his dis- solute conduct, and the excessive taxes he imposed, rendered him quite odious. BRITAIN. Edward II., 1307, at once effeminate and timid, and entirely governed by favourites, was unable to carry out the warlike projects of his father. The companion of his youth was Piers de Gaveston, a brave and hand- some cavalier, who was celebrated for his feats in the tournament. He was created Earl of Cornwall, appointed a lord of the bedchamber, and married to one of the king's nieces. Indignant at tht, favours lavished * Edward was induced to consent to the treaty of Bretigny, by the impression which a tremendous storm, deemed by him a special admonition from heaven, had made upon his mind. 300 MIDDLE AGES. upon this minion, the English nobles insisted on his banishment. Having- retired to Ireland, he soon after returned, and it was not until the parliament in 1310 made his exile the condition of certain subsidies, that he again left the island. But shortly after he revisited England, jpon which the barons flew to arms, attacked his place of refuge, and, making him prisoner, beheaded him at Warwick castle. The mediation of France now became necessary to restore harmony, which was effected, at least in appearance, between Edward and his people. The unfortu- nate Gaveston was succeeded by Hugh Despenser, whose earliest ob- ject was to bring Pembroke to the scaffold, as being the cause of his predecessor's ruin. While these events were occurring in the south, King Robert Bruce was steadily gaining ground in Scotland. The principal cities had fallen into his hands ; and the strong fortress of Stirling was closely invested, when Edward II. marched to its relief with 100,000 men. To oppose him, Bruce collected a force of 30,000, and the complete rout which the English sustained in the battle of Bannockburn, 21th June 1314, secured the independence of his country. Edward Bruce, brother of the renowned warrior, crossed to Ireland, with the view of delivering that island from the English yoke; but after various successes, and receiving the title of king, he was defeated and slain, 1318. Meantime, famine was desolating England, and the popularity of the king diminished as that of his nephew, the Earl of Lancaster, increased. Indeed, so disgusted were the people with the vices of their ruler, that they universally revolted ; and Edward could only appease them by granting all their demands. In a subsequent rising, the royal lieuten- ants were able to withstand the rebels ; and their leader, Lancaster, was taken and beheaded, along with a number of his partisans, in 1322. This year was further remarkable for the inroads of King Robert Bruce into Yorkshire, and a successful battle he fought at Boroughbridge. A more imminent danger, however, menaced Edward from the Pembroke party, which grew so formidable as to make open war upon him; when the two Despensers, father and son, were captured and put to an igno- minious death. The chief instrument in this revolution was the queen, Isabella, a princess remarkable for her beauty, but inheriting her father's cruel disposition. When she found the two favourites monopolizing all influence with the king, she crossed the sea to Flanders, and raised an army, with which she returned, and deposed Edward, who was impri- soned in Berkeley Castle, where he was put to death in the most bar- barous manner in 1327. Edward III. inherited the active and warlike spirit of his grandfather. In 1331, he caused the queen-mother and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of March, to be arrested ; the latter was executed, and Isabella ended her days in prison. The chief complaints against Mortimer, were the conclusion of peace with Scotland, and giving the king's sister in mar- riage to its monarch, David Bruce. The claims of Edward Balinl to the Scottish crown led to a war. in which the English army gained a vic- tory at Halidon Hill in 1333. Battle of Sluys, 1310. — Edward, in returning from England to Flanders, was intercepted by a numerous fleet which Philip had moored in four lines across the mouth of the harbour at Sluys. These ships were provided with turrets filled with stones on their mast-heads, anr FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 301 Were fastened to each other with strong chains. Having the wind and tide in his favour, Edward gallantly bore down on the first line ; and after an obstinate contest, prolonged to midnight, only a few stragglers escaped. With these exceptions, the whole flotilla, of more than 200 sail, remained in the hands of the English, who lost but two vessels, while the slain and drowned of the enemy exceeded 20,000. History does not present an instance of a naval victory more complete or more sanguinary. The French ministers dared not inform their royal mas- ter of the calamity, which was first hinted to him by a buffoon who called the English cowards; and when the king asked his reason, replied, because they had not the courage to leap into the sea, like the French and Normans. Cressy and Poitiers. — Hostilities with France were recommenced for the succession to the throne, — Edward claiming the crown as the son of Isabella, in opposition to Philip de Valois, who was heir in the male line. By the help of his gallant son, the Black Prince, he reduced the power of France to a very low ebb. The war which broke out in 1339, was continued with various success till 1346, when the celebrated battle of Cressy was fought, in which, as just noticed, 30,000 English under Ed- ward defeated 100,000 French under Philip, with the loss of 30,000 men, besides many of the nobility, 1200 knights, and 1400 esquires. The impor- tant city of Calais was invested, and taken the next year ; and a long truce succeeded, during which Europe was ravaged by a dreadful plague. In 1356, the war was renewed, under Edward the Black Prince, "that young Mars of men." With an army of 8000, he defeated, at Poitiers, King John with 60,000, and made him prisoner. France was now com- pletely at the victor's mercy ; and the treaty of Bretigny was concluded in 1360. The terms of this peace were, the ransom of the king for three millions of golden crowns, and the cession to England in full sovereignty of a great part of the conquered territory. The declining age of Edward, however, and the disordered health of the prince were visible in the suc- ceeding campaigns, during which the sons of those who had fallen at Poitiers recovered nearly all their fathers had lost, except Bordeaux, Bayonne, Calais, Brest, and Cherbourg. The Prince of Wales died in 1376, in the forty-sixth year of his age, leaving behind him a character without blemish, and exciting a degree of sorrow which time could not alleviate. His father followed him about a year after, deserted by his courtiers, even by those who had grown rich on his bounty. This great king confirmed Magna Charta no less than fifteen times. In his reign the House of Commons first met annually ; the parliament assumed the right of trying ministers of the crown; and decided cases of high treason, which had been hitherto left to the arbitrary decision of the judges. Edward encouraged trade, and above all that in wool, the main source of the riches of the kingdom ; he protected letters, and conferred many privileges on the university of Ox- ford. The order of the Garter was instituted by him in 1347 : its origin is involved in obscurity. About this period the distinction between the Normans and Saxons began to disappear, and they gradually formed an undivided people, having one language and the same manners. To efface the last traces of the Conquest, the king forbade the use of the French language in legal proceedings and deeds, though enjoined by law. 26 302 MIDDLE AGES. The feeble reign of Richard II., son of the Black Prince, commenced in 1377. One of its remarkable events was the march of the Earl of Buckingham, at the head of 10,000 men, through the heart of France. Such was then the terror of the English name, that the Duke of Bur- gundy, with a much superior force, would not hazard a battle. Thirty years of respite from war, and an almost friendly intercourse between •he two nations, now succeeded.* Richard was only eleven years of age when he ascended the throne; the guardianship was disputed by his three uncles, the Dukes of York, Lancaster, and Gloucester, whose quarrels dissipated the finances of the kingdom, already deranged by the w r ars of the preceding reign. New taxes were imposed, and the arbitrary manner in which they were levied gave rise, in 1381, to a revolt, headed by Wat Tyler : he rallied around him the people of Essex, whoso loyalty had already been shaken by the discourses of John Ball, a priest of Kent. A hundred thousand rebels marched to London; but the death of their leader and the treacherous professions of the young mo- narch restored order. The amnesty and charter promised by him were soon forgotten, and the people were more oppressed than before. The war against Scotland was renewed, although without success ; when the king, despairing of the submission of its inhabitants, abruptly relinquished his enterprise, 1385; and Robert II. was able peacefully to transmit to his descendants the succession to a throne, which, how- ever, proved to them very fruitful in misfortunes, f Returning from his Scottish expedition, Richard aimed at absolute power, and fell under the influence of princes and favourites who op- pressed the people in his name. By a treaty with France in 1395, it was stipulated that he should marry Isabella, the daughter of Charles VI., and surrender the ports of Cherbourg and Brest. This latter con- dition was extremely unpopular ; severe punishments checked discontent for a season; but, during his absence in Ireland, whither he had gone to quell a revolt, Henry, duke of Lancaster, quitted his exile in France, and landed in Yorkshire, whence he marched to the capital. The king, being deserted by his army, was forced to resign the crown, which the parliament conferred on Lancaster, in 1399. The manner of Rich- ard's death in Pontefract castle, is variously related : some attributed it to grief, others to assassination or hunger. Gkeat Pestilence, 1348. — A succession of earthquakes convulsed Europe from Poland to Calabria; and although England escaped this calamity, it was deluged with incessant rain from June to December. In August the plague appeared in Dorsetshire, whence it gradually extended to the north of the island. Many of its victims expired in six hours ; few lingered beyond three days. All the cemeteries of London were soon filled, — one burial-ground alone * At the coronation of Richard II. we first meet with a ceremony which was repeated at that of the English kings till the reign of William IV. : An officer called the King's Champion, clad in mail, rides into Westminster Hall, and by his herald proclaims" a challenge in defence of the monarch's title to the crown. Baker, in his Chronicles, says that " Sir John Dymock and Sir Baldwin Freville both claimed the office of king's cham- pion, but it was adjudged to the former," in whose family it is now hereditary. fThis race of monarchs was particularly unfortunate :— James I. was kept a prisoner in England nineteen years: he was murdered at Perth in 1437. James II. perished at the age of twenty-nine by the bursting of a cannon at the siege of Roxburgh castle, 1460 ;— -James III., after being defeated by rebels, was assassinated, 1488; — James IV. perished at Flodden, 1513;— Queen Mary was beheaded after being imprisoned nineteen years, 1587;— Charles I., her grandson, perished on the scaffold, 1649; — James II. was driven from his kingdom, 1688, and died in exile. FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 303 receiving 200 bodies daily during several weeks. Its ravages were, however, principally confined to the lower orders. From man the pestilence extended to the brute creation. SPANISH PENINSULA. Castile. — The long minority of Alphonso XI., 1312, was disturbed like that of his father by the rivalries of the houses of Lara and Haro ; but so soon as he assumed the reins of government himself, he vigor- ously repressed all domestic troubles, and, uniting Portugal to Aragon, gained a brilliant victory over the Moors in 1340. Unfortunately he died of the plague at the very moment he was about to inflict the most deadly blow on the Saracenic power. Pedro the Cruel, 1350. — This prince began his reign with the mur- der of Leonora de Guzman, his father's mistress. His own wife, Blanche of Bourbon, being committed by him to the custody of the uncle of Maria de Padilla, a lady whom he had secretly married, soon perished by poi- son. Such was his unexampled tyranny, that the arbitrary conduct of his predecessors, Sancho and Alphonso, was quite forgotten. The nu- merous fugitives from his despotic cruelty found refuge in Aragon; thence, with Henry of Trastamare, the son of Leonora, at their head, they were driven into France. Aided by the celebrated Bertrand du Guesclin, an army of 30,000 men was soon raised from the free compa- nies, and by their help Pedro was dethroned without a blow, 1366. The tyrant escaped to Bordeaux, where he threw himself at the feet of Ed- ward the Black Prince, who undertook to avenge his wrongs, and marched into Spain at the head of 30,000 men. The road lay through the valley of Roncesvalles, the scene of the fabulous exploits of the renowned Orlando. It was then the depth of winter; the snow beat in the faces of his troops, while to cold and fatigue was added the want of provisions in a barren and mountainous district. The two armies met in the plains between Navarete and Najera — Henry having more than 100,000 men under his banners, while the army of the Black Prince scarcely amounted to one-third of that number. Victor}^ favoured the cause of Pedro, and Trastamare was compelled to flee, 1367. Two years after, during the siege of Montiel, the two brothers met by chance in the tent of a French knight: they immediately grappled ; Pedro threw Henry on the floor, but in the struggle was despatched by the poniard of his adversary. Henry II., the first of the house of Trastamare, now succeeded to the throne, and governed during a brief and fortunate period. He had to contend against the Duke of Lancaster, son of Edward III. of England, vvho had married Constance, daughter of Pedro the Cruel; Granada, Portugal, and Navarre, being also opposed to him. He defeated the Portuguese fleet in 1370, and next year that of the English before Ro- chelle; and, dying in 1379, left his crown to John I., who espoused Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand of Portugal, stipulating that her chil- dren should succeed to the throne of that kingdom. The Portuguese attached little importance to this arrangement, which sacrificed their independence; and, when Ferdinand died, their choice fell upon John, son of Pedro the Justiciary. Upon this the Castilian sovereign imme- diately commenced hostilities, but was unsuccessful, being once driven by pestilence from before the walls of Lisbon, and at another time de- 304 MIDDLE AGES. feated before the walls of Aljubarotta. At the same time, the Duke of Lancaster made a descent at Corunna, and was proclaimed king 1 at San- tiago de Compostella; his farther progress was, however, prevented by Ireaty. Henry III. was only twelve years of age when he succeeded his father, John I. The regency had been disturbed, as usual, by civil strife, which was suppressed when the king assumed the government in 1393. He abolished the enormous pensions which had been granted to various members of his family during his minority, deprived them of the strong- holds to which they had retired, and reduced them to submission. The Portuguese, who had surprised Badajoz, were defeated ; and the pirates of Tctuan were attacked and dispersed in 1400. Encouraged by these successes, Henry planned a war against the Moors, but he died in 1 106, leaving an infant son fourteen months old. Aragox. — James II., by the conquest of Sardinia in 1325, was recom- pensed for the loss of Sicily ; this acquisition, however, involved the country in a series of wars with Genoa, which occupied the whole of the reign of Alphonso IV. Pedro the Great, who succeeded in 1336, maintained the possession of Sardinia, and united the Balearic Isles to his dominions, wresting them from James III., a prince of a younger branch of his own house. In alliance w T ith Venice, he defeated the Genoese near Algheri in 1353, and shortly after aided Henry of Trasta- inare to win the crown of Castile. His son, John I., 1386, continued the war against the Genoese with success ; and at his death, in 1394, he bequeathed his kingdom to his brother Martin, with whom terminated, in 1410, the house of Barcelona, which had reigned 273 years. Portugal. — Dionysius, surnamed the Just, founded the university of Coimbra, and encouraged agriculture, as well as the sciences, and navigation, and commerce. He was succeeded in 1325 by Alphonso IV. the Bold, who caused the assassination of Inez de Castro, whom his son had privately married. Pedro I. succeeded to the throne of his father in 1357; and his earliest object was to punish the cruel assassins of his unfortunate and beloved wife. His useful laws and economical expenditure made his loss generally deplored, 1367. The extinction of the legitimate line of Alphonso I. in 1383, in the person of Ferdinand I., was followed by an interregnum of eighteen months. Ferdinand nad left one child, an illegitimate daughter, Beatrice. Desirous of placing her on his throne, he united her at an early age to John of Cas- tile, 1382, and bequeathed the sceptre to their issue. At his death, which happened soon after, Don John, his natural brother, took advan- tage of the jealousies of the two provinces, and seized on the crown. The Castilian king upon this laid siege to Lisbon; failing, however, in his attacks, the cortes, in the year 1385, elected Don John, by whom the country was soon cleared of invaders. THE CHURCH. Great Schism. — Boniface VIII., who succeeded to the tiara in 1294, was the last of the great popes, the heirs, so to speak, of Gregory VII. He proposed to complete the mighty work of his predecessors by sub- jecting all the kings of the earth to the pontifical authority ; but at the end of the thirteenth century the condition of the world had greatly FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 305 changed, for society was beginning to emerge from feudal anarchy, under the shield of a power capable of maintaining public peace. Even in the darkness and confusion of the ninth century, the papacy had failed in its enterprises. It was therefore to no purpose that, at the beginning of the fourteenth, Boniface, in the council held at Rome, 1302, composed the famous decretal Unam Sandam, which asserts that the temporal power is inferior to the spiritual, and that the pope has the right of appointing, correcting, and deposing sovereigns. Philip the Fair, against whom this was manifestly aimed, replied by accusing the pontiff of heresy, simony, and other crimes, — a charge which is said to have caused the death of his holiness. The dispute, however, was amicably settled by his successor in 1303. The residence of the supreme pontiff was now transferred from Italy to France ; and Cle- ment V. made Avignon the capital of the papacy. This " Babylonish captivity," as it was derisively called, lasted seventy-two years. On the decease of Gregory XL, in 1378, two popes were elected: Urban VI. was acknowledged by the greater part of the empire, also by Bohe- mia, Hungary, and England ; Clement VII. was recognised as legiti- mate in France, Spain, and Scotland. The former resided at Rome, the latter at Avignon. This great schism of the West lasted fifty-one years : it was extinguished by the abdication of Clement VIII. in 1429. TABLE OF POPES DURING THE GREAT SCHISM. 1378. Urban VI. 1378. Clement VII. 1389. Boniface IX. 1394. Benedict XIII. 1404. Innocent VII. 1406. Gregory XII., de- posed and replaced by 409. Alexander V. 1410. John XXIII. {Three popes instead of two). This dispute was terminated by the council of Constance, in 1414, which deposed the three popes, Gregory, John, and Benedict, and con- ferred the papacy on 1417. Martin V. 1424. Clement VIII. (antipope.) About 1360, Wickliffe began to expose the corruption of the clergy, which paved the way for the Reformation in England. Twenty years afterwards, he made known to the people the records of divine truth, by the first English translation of the Bible. It was now that more for- cibly than ever he raised his powerful voice against the doctrine of tran- substantiation ; and above all, he boldly declared that the Sacred Scrip- tures alone are the sole foundation of our belief. His followers, by way of reproach, were termed " Lollards."* The Flagellants. — This sect, which appeared during the great pestilence of 1348, imagined that scourging was the only means of procuring a remission of the divine punishment. It originated in Hungary, and gradually spread over the central parts of Europe : it was excluded from France, but reached Eng- land in 1349. The Bianchi. — In the summer of 1399, a sect of fanatics suddenly arose in Italy called Bianchi, from the long white garments they wore. Their faces were covered with a veil, that they might not be known. They walked in * A word of doubtful origin : probably from Walter Lollard, a German, 1315 ; or from Lutlards or Lollards, the praisers of God, a sect thus named in Brabant, 1309. 26* 306 MIDDLE AGES. procession from town to town, following a large crucifix, and chanting that beautiful hymn of the Romish church, " Stabat mater dolorosa." They restricted themselves to bread and water. A remarkable although transient reformation of manners has been ascribed to their influence. They were opposed by the pope, and strictly prohibited both in -France and England. The founders of this sect are said to have come from Britain ; and their description corresponds to a certain extent with that of the itinerant priests in 1382. INVENTIONS, &c. The Mariner's Compass. — In this century many new inventions, by seconding the exertions of genius, accelerated the progress of knowledge and civilisation. The chief of these were the construction of the mariner's compass, and the manufacture of linen paper. The Chinese were acquainted with the polarity of the magnetic needle so early as 1121 ; and they assign the invention of the compass to 1108 b. c. This instrument was probably introduced into Europe by the Saracens ; but only came into general use at the end of this century. The pretensions of Flavio Gioia of Almafi have been long detected ; indeed it is doubtful if such a person ever existed. A more fearless spirit of maritime adventure soon arose, and its fruits in the next century were the dis- covery of the New World. Linen Paper. — The revival of learning in the fourteenth century called for cheaper materials than the parchment in general use. Paper made from cotton appears to have been known as early as 1100. The Arabians assert that cotton paper had been manufactured at Samarcand in the eighth century, the method having been introduced from China. Though' linen paper was very little known till the latter part of the fourteenth century, it is an unreasonable scepticism to doubt its use in the West in the middle of the thirteenth. Pace da Fabiano of Treviso is said to have been its inventor ; but subsequent researches place him in the same rank of fabulous persons, as Flavio Gioia and the monk Schwartz. FIFTEENTH CENTURY. Greek Empire and the East. — 1402, Invasion of Tamerlane — Mohammed I. — 1425, John Pala?ologus — Huniades and Scanderbeg. — 1448, Constantine Palaeologus. — 1451, Mohammed II. — 1453, Constantinople taken by the Turks. — 1480, Siege of Rhodes — Bajazet II. Germany. — 1400, Robert. — 1410, Sigismond. — 1414, Council of Constance — Hussite War. — 1436, Peace of Iglau. — 1438, Austrian House. — 1464, Ernes- tine and Albertine Houses. — 1479, Victory at Guinegate. — 1493, Maximilian I. — 1495, Diet of Worms: Imperial Chamber. — 1500, Six Circles. France. — 1407, Civil War: Burgundians and Armagnacs. — 1415, Defeat at Agincourt.— 1420, Treaty of Troyes.— 1422, Charles VII.— 1423, Defeat at Verneuil. — 1429, Joan of Arc— 1461, Louis XL— 1477, Charles of Bur- gundy killed at Nancy.— 1479, Swiss League.— 1483, Charles VIII.— 1495, Naples conquered — Victory of Fornovo. Britain. — 1401, Sawtrce burnt for Heresy. — 1413, Henry V. — 1415, Agin court. — 1422, Henry VI. — Bedford, Regent. — 1444, Truce of Tours — Jack Cade. — Wars of the Roses: 1455, Battle of St. Albans: 1460, of Wake- field Green.— 1461, House of York: Edward IV.— 1471, Battle of Bar- nett; 1483, of Tewkesbury— Jane Shore— Edward V.— Richard III.— 1485, Tudors: Henry VII. —1487, Sirnnel, and Perkin Warbcck. FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 307 Italian Peninsula. — 1400, John de Medici. — 1434, Cosmo I. — 1435, Al- phonso V. of Naples. — 1460, Defeat at Sarno. — 1466, Galeazzo Sforza. — 1469, Lorenzo de Medici.— 1485, Revolt of Nobles. Spanish Peninsula. — 1406, John II. of Castile — Alvarez de Luna — Power of Grandmaster of the Three Orders. — 1409, Martin V. of Aragon and Sicily.— 1419, John II. of Navarre.— 1452, Don Carlos defeated at Aibar. — Roussillon and Cerdagne sold to France. — 1454, Henry IV. — Invasion of Granada. — 1465, Deposition of Henry — 1474, Isabella. — 1479, Union of Castile and Aragon. — 1480, Inquisition. — 1492, Conquest of Granada. Church. — 1409, Hussites. — 1414, Sixteenth General Council, Constance. — 1429, End of Schism of the West.— 1439, Council of Florence.— 1454, St. Francis de Paulo founds the order of Minims. Inventions and Discoveries. — 1440, Carriages. — 1449, Felt Hats. — Painting in Oil.— 1461, Engraving on Copper— First Silk Manufacture. — 1450, Print- ing. — 1474, First Lithotomic Operation. — 1495, Algebra. — 1486, Cape of Good Hope. — 1492, America discovered. Literature and Art. — Poggio, L. Valla, Pulci, Politian, Pico Mirandola, Manutius Aldus, Jtal— Budaeus, Fr. — Villena, J. de Mena, Sp. — Lydgate, Fortescue, Littleton, Caxton, Eng. — Thomas a Kempis, Reucnlin, Germ. GREEK EMPIRE. Fall of Constantinople. — The destruction of the Greek empire was for a time delayed by the invasions of Tamerlane, so that Manuel, who had visited the west of Europe in the hope of obtaining succours from the Latin powers, returned to his capital, where he reigned many years in prosperity and peace. In 1425, the crown descended to John Palve- ologus II., who, with a design of healing 1 the schism between the Eastern and Western churches, attended the council of Ferrara, 1438. Had this visit failed in its object, still the revival of Greek literature in Italy by the learned men in the emperor's train would have been ample compensation. On his decease, in 1448, the throne was occupied for the last time by one of its native sovereigns, Constantine Paljeologus. He was soon attacked by the young and ambitious Mohammed II., who laid siege to his capital in the spring of 1453. The emperor, having implored in vain the assistance of the Latin princes of Europe, was left with only 7000 or 8000 men to contend against a victorious rival at the head of 260,000. Fourteen batteries, mounting guns of enormous cali- bre, poured their destructive fire, night and day, against the ancient walls. The various operations of the siege were conducted with the greatest impetuosity on both sides ; while the failing spirits of the gar- rison and citizens were revived by the timely arrival of five heavily laden ships of war, that had broken through the line of the enemy's fleet, and caused a loss of 12,000 men. Although this was the only attempt made to succour Constantinople, it so discouraged the sultan, that he was about to withdraw his troops, when the devoted city was entirely surrounded by transporting some of the lighter Ottoman vessels over a narrow isthmus into the inner part of the harbour. The terms of capitulation which Mohammed now r offered were such as the religion of Constantine forbad him to accept. Preparations were accordingly made for a fierce struggle, and while the Greeks dedicated the whole <*08 MIDDLE AGES. night of 28th May to prayer, the besieging camp was already filled with the shouts of victory. At daybreak, the city was violently attacked on all sides ; the valour of the Christians long rendered the event douhtful, and the fortune of that day might have been different, but for the retreat of Justiniani, the Genoese commander, and his auxiliaries. A gigantic janizary, named Hassan, was the first to climb the shattered rampart, and though precipitated into the ditch, he had shown the practicability of the enterprise. Palreologus fell by an unknown hand, resisting to the last; and with him the fate of his capital was decided, after a siege of fifty -three days, 29th May 1453. Constantinople was sacked, and its inhabitants became the prey of the victors. In the destruction of the libraries, posterity has to regret the loss of 120,000 manuscripts. The dissolution of the Greek empire now proceeded step by step. " Every province was in turn subdued ; the limbs were lopped off one by one ; and the majesty of the Roman name was ultimately confined to the walls of Constan- tinople. Before Mohammed II. planted his cannon against them, he had deprived the expiring empire of every hope of succour or delay. It was neces- sary that Constantinople should fall ; but the magnanimous resignation of her emperor bestows an honour upon her fall, which her prosperity seldom earned. The long deferred but inevitable moment arrived, and the last of the Cassars folded round him the imperial mantle, and remembered the name which he represented in the dignity of heroic death." — Hallam's Middle Ages. OTTOMAN EMPTRE AND TURKEY. Invasion of Tamerlane. — In 1402, Tamerlane invaded the Ottoman empire, after provoking Bajazet by menacing letters, in which he was compared to an insect. The sultan was at this time besieging Constan- tinople, when hastily breaking up his camp before that city, he marched against the Mongols, who were attacking Angora, in Asia Minor. Here, on the 28th July, he gave battle on the ground where Pompey defeated the army of Mithridates. The combat was prolonged (hiring three days and two nights, and 140,000 men were left dead on that terrible field of slaughter. The Turks were completely routed, and Bajazet fell into the hands of the conqueror, by whom (according to the western historians, whose testimony is not confirmed by the Persians) he was carried about enclosed in an iron cage until his death. Fortunately for Europe, the want of ships checked the progress of Tamerlane on the shores of the Hellespont and Bosporus. The victor now returned to Samarkand, whence his ambition, which the snows of seventy winters had not cooled, hurried him to China, hoping to add that country to his acquisitions ; but he did not live to realize his project, having died at Otrar, 1st April 1405. The fate of his kingdom was similar to that of Alexander, whose place it nearly occupied. From a portion of this immense dominion his descendant Baber, in the next century, formed the empire of the Great Mogul in India. The invasion now described, and dissensions among the sons of Ba- jazet, nearly compromised the existence of the Ottoman state ; but the victory of Semendria, gained by Musa over the Emperor Sigismond in 1412, restored to the Crescent its former glory, and the pacific policy of Mohammed I. secured the conquests of his predecessors. Constan tinople, however, still remained insulated in the midst of barbarians, having no means of communication with the rest of Europe except by the Genoese cruisers. It owed the prolongation of its miserable exist FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 309 > 10 £5 C5 10 . IV ri i-t 3 f 2 is bo +-<*! , to 1 £< -a j3 .s •S 5 ^ H 1 ? la §1 3 +- 3 « or a ' • 3 * £2 « M 1-1 rt j, « X! — »o / c a >> .2 <~ rt Hog o * || « o V — * <~ - to CS < 1 FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 315 FRANCE. Burgundians and Armagnacs. — The imbecility of Charles VI. left France without a ruler ; but his uncles, after expelling the ministers, seized on the royal authority, and rendered the government odious by the divisions and quarrels which threatened the country with the greatest misfortunes. After some years of tyrannical administration, the state changed masters, without however receiving any change of fortune. Louis, duke of Orleans, his majesty's brother, supplanted his three uncles, and was proclaimed lieutenant-general of the kingdom. But this victory cost him dear, for when the Duke of Burgundy died, his son John-sans-Peur, a man of vindictive temper, resolved to destroy his father's rival ; and the better to compass this end, he feigned to become reconciled to him. The two princes swore eternal friendship, and par- took of the sacrament together ; yet three days after, on 23d November 1407, Orleans was assassinated in the streets of Paris by the agents of the Duke of Burgundy. The murderer openly boasted of his crime, and a doctor of the Sorbonne was found to justify the deed. The unfor- tunate Louis left three legitimate sons, and the bastard Dunois, son of Mary of Enghien. As these young men grew up, they determined to avenge their father's murder. Charles, the eldest, who had married the daughter of the Count of Armagnac, became the chief of the Orleanists, and from him they derived the name that characterized them in the civil wars which ensued. Hostilities began with the devastation of the environs of Paris, and to preserve this city, the Duke of Burgundy organized the faction of the Butchers, who, from the name of one of their chiefs, were denomi- nated Cabochins, 1411. His rivals, now despairing of success, solicited the protection of Henry IV. of England, offering to fulfil the conditions of the treaty of Bretigny. This flagrant abandonment of the rights of France gave fresh power to the Duke of Burgundy, who induced the king to declare the Armagnacs enemies to the state. The royalist army marched into Berri against them, and a treaty was signed at Bourgess, which put an end to hostilities without bringing about a real concilia- tion ; the fear of foreign invasion alone having temporarily united the two parties. Meanwhile Henry V. had succeeded to the English crown, and on the refusal of the French princes to execute the treaty of Bretigny, he landed in Normandy with 30,000 men, took Harfleur, and endeavoured to march through Picardy to Calais. An army nearly ten times the amount of his own encountered him at Agincourt, 25th October 1415, and expe- rienced a defeat more terrible than those of Cressy and Poitiers. Ten thousand French, among whom were seven princes and more than eight thousand gentlemen, perished on the field, while five princes and four- teen thousand men were made prisoners. This loss increased in an extraordinary degree the unpopularity of the Armagnacs, and the Parisians took a very active part in the revolt against their party, great numbers of whom were put into confinement. In June 1418, the prisons were broken open, and all immured there were slain one by one as they came out. The Count of Armagnac, father-in- law of the dauphin, the chancellor, seven prelates, with peers and magistrates of the parliament, were dragged from their dungeons and 316 MIDDLE AGES. massacred. In one prison some resistance was made; but the edifice being at last set on fire, the inmates surrendered ; and the populace rushing- in, compelled them to precipitate themselves out of the windows upon pikes held below. Three thousand five hundred persons are stated to have perished in three days. The cruelty of the Burgundians was not atoned for by any valour or activity in their party, whose unpopularity was farther increased by the conclusion of a treaty with the English. Circumstances, however, occurred that induced the duke to seek a reconciliation with the dauphin, for which purpose a meeting was appointed to take place at the bridge of Montereau, on the Yonne, where he was assassinated by the attend- ants of the prince. The latter, though probably innocent of this treacherous act, was abandoned by the majority of the nation, and expe- rienced a new enemy in Philip the Good, who had succeeded to the vast possessions of his father. The young duke, forming an alliance with Isabella of Bavaria and the king of England, procured Henry's signature to the treaty of Troyes, 1420, by which, on the marriage of the latter with Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., he was to be declared regent of the kingdom, and to succeed to the throne on that monarch's death, in despite of the claims of the dauphin. In the midst of his glory, and when his expectations of conquering all France were highest, Henry V. died at the castle of Vincennes in 1422; and the same year beheld the close of the unfortunate reign of Charles in circumstances of great depression. Charles VII. was crowned at Poitiers, where he organized a parlia- ment and university from among the members of those bodies who had left Paris when the English entered it in triumph. Amused by the little court he had assembled round him, he forgot the loss of his provinces amid balls and gayeties, which soon exhausted his scanty treasury. During these festivities, the Duke of Brittany declared for the English, and notwithstanding the victory of Marshal la Fayette at Bauge, in 1421, the Scottish auxiliary troops in the service of Charles were de- feated at Crevant, and again at Verneuil, 1424; the city of Orleans, which defended the passage of the Loire, was already closely invested, and the king proposed to retire into the southern provinces, when several unexpected events turned the current of affairs.* Joan of Arc. — On the death of Henry V. of England, the Dukes of Bedford and Gloucester had been appointed guardians of his son, Henry VI. ; the former to have the regency of France, the latter that of Eng- land. At this epoch there appeared one of the most remarkable enthu- siasts that history has commemorated. Joan of Arc, a village girl of Domremy in Lorraine, was the daughter of poor and industrious parents. Her early years had been employed in tending cattle, and the solitude in which much of her time was passed seems to have fostered a disposi- tion naturally religious and enthusiastic. The degradation of her coun- try had so deeply impressed her mind, that she was persuaded heaven had commissioned her to effect its deliverance. Encouraged, as she *Fe\v states have ever been in a more wretched condition than France at this period. To the north of the Loire the country appeared to be one vast scene of desolation,— theft and open robbery being the chief occupations of the inhabitants. Charles was acknowledged king only by the central provinces, and by Languedoc, Poitou, ani/ Dauphiny. FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 317 fondly imagined, by angelic voices, she determined to declare to the king her mission ; and though she met with great opposition, at length appeared before Charles, who at first treated her as a visionary. Per- sisting, however, in her declaration that she was delegated by Cathe- rine, her patron saint, to raise the siege of Orleans, and to crown her native monarch in Rheims, at that time in the hands of the enemy, she obtained a party of troops for the relief of the besieged town, 1428. With the veteran Dunois at her side, she succeeded in making her way into the city, when the assailants retired, a prey to superstitious terrors, not less strongly felt by Talbot and Chandos than by the meanest sol- diers under their command. In the course of the next year, she had the gratification of seeing her sovereign consecrated in the cathedral of Rheims. She was soon after taken prisoner by the Burgundians, while endeavouring to raise the siege of Compiegne; and John of Luxemburg surrendered her to the Duke of Bedford for a large sum of money. At Rouen she was burned on a charge of witchcraft in 1431, it having been declared that the defeats of the English " were caused by the un- lawful doubt that they had of a disciple and limb of the fiend, called the Pucelle, who had used false enchantments and sorcery."* With the king every thing now appeared to prosper : the Duke of Burgundy entered into an alliance with him; his victorious troops re- entered Paris in 1437; and if a few other places remained in the hands of the English, it was owing entirely to the discontent of the dauphin, Louis, and some turbulent nobles. A brief civil war, called the Pra- guerie, interrupted for a season the triumphant progress of his arms ; and in 1444, a suspension of hostilities, concluded at Tours, left several towns in possession of the enemy for a brief period. Charles took advantage of this interval of repose to re-organize his army, and to negotiate the marriage of Margaret of Anjou with Henry VI., — a union unfavourable to England, as it caused both the loss of the French pro- vinces and civil wars that lasted half a century. The queen brought no dowry to her husband, who, although crowned in his infancy King of France and England, w r as fated to expire dethroned. The Duke of Suffolk, who had risen to high rank by the favour of the king, found it necessary to make peace with France, and even renounced, in his mas- ter's name, all title to Maine and Anjou. As he did not venture to make a public avowal of these shameful transactions, he still maintained gar- risons in the two provinces; but Charles, w r ho did not understand the policy of Suffolk, renewed hostilities in 1448. Dunois conquered all Normandy; while Richemont destroyed at Formigny the only English army that could arrest his progress. The taking of Rouen, Cherbourg, and Harfleur, in 1450, and, next year, of Bayonne and Bordeaux, left Calais alone in the hands of Henry VI. Thus France became suddenly * If the cruel fate of Joan of Arc be a stain on the glory of England, what can be said of Charles VII. and his friends, who abandoned her to languish in captivity, and to perish at the stake? No ransom was offered for her, no attempt made to alleviate the rigour of her confinement, no notice was taken of her execution. An ingenious writer in the Monthly Magazine has recently endeavoured to prove that she did not suffer execution, and that she was afterwards received at Orleans with due honours ; that she was acknowledged by her brothers Jean and Pierre, and afterwards married to a gentle- man of the house ofAmbois, in 143G ; and that, on their solicitation, her sentence was annulled in 145(5. The curious in such matters are referred to the work of M. Palluche, Probleme Hist, sur la Pucelle CO a „ ^ • 5- >» -< "3 r© c 3 s ^S LS — < < « U -3 M O << — < ^O ^6 16 ^ IS en .2 o L J < FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 323 by persecuting- the Wickliffites ; and in securing- that of the nation by making important concessions to the House of Commons. His' son, Henry V., 1413, reaped the fruits of his father's prudence, and was, as we have seen, enabled to take advantage of the troubled state of France. After showing from the first days of his reign a moderation that was not to be expected in one whose youth had been so disorderly, he summoned the French king to fulfil the treaty of Bretigny. On his refusal, the young monarch called a parliament at Leicester, 1415, to which he declared his intention of recovering his inheritance by force. On the 14th August, he landed near Harfleur with 6000 men at arms, and 24,000 archers. The town and garrison were soon compelled to surrender; but dysentery attacked his troops, which were in consequence forced to retire upon Calais, through the hostile provinces of Normandy, Picardy, and Artois. When they had arrived near Agincourt, a body of 100,000 men was discovered ready to oppose them. A dark and rainy night depressed the spirits of the English soldiers, who were already much enfeebled by disease and want of food ; but brighter hopes revived with the dawn, and the confidence of their leader was shared by the whole army. "The fewer we are," exclaimed Henry, "the less will be the loss to our country if we fall, and the greater our honour if we gain the victory." The battle was begun by the archers, who soon threw the French into inextricable confusion, and then their lines were successively defeated. The loss on the side of the conquerors amount- ed to 1600 men, with the Duke of York and the Earl of Suffolk. Of the enemy, there perished 8000 knights and esquires, more than 100 bannerets, seven counts, and the dukes of Bar, Alencon, and Brabant. The number of prisoners exceeded that of the whole army w T hich took them, among whom were the Dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and the Counts of Eu, Vendome, and Richemont. This finished the campaign, and when Henry returned, he was conducted from Dover to London in one continued triumph. In the succeeding spring, he resumed operations in France. Cher- bourg opened its gates to him after a siege of six months ; Rouen made a desperate resistance for a period nearly equal, during which the in- habitants were compelled to eat the most disgusting food. The capitu- lation of this city in 1419 spread consternation throughout France. A treaty was soon after concluded at Troyes, 1420, by the terms of which Henry received the hand of the Princess Catherine, was appointed regent of the kingdom during the life of Charles, and was to succeed to the French crown at his death. But he did not long enjoy the ad- vantages of this treaty ; an inveterate disease carried him off on the 31st August, 1422, in the same year with his father-in-law. Henry was equally celebrated as a statesman and a warrior, — as able to take advantage of a victory as to achieve it. The ordinary crown-revenue in his time amounted to about £56,000, and the usual outlay to £53,000. Henry VI., who was only nine months old at the death of his father, was immediately proclaimed in London and Paris ; while the govern- ment was carried on in France by the Duke of Bedford, and at home by the Duke of Gloucester. The flames of war were soon rekindled on the Continent, and at Crevant, on the banks of the Yonne, the united French and Scots were defeated, and their respective commanders taken prisoners. Shortly after the breaking up of the confederacy between 324 MIDDLE AGES. Charles and his allies, and the restoration of King James I. b< Scotland to liberty, the battle of Verneuil was fought, 1424, in which the Eng- lish were again successful. But the affairs of Henry in France now took an unfavourable turn. Gloucester, by marrying Jacqueline of Bavaria, forfeited the alliance of the Duke of Burgundy, and the Duke of Brittany was compelled to abandon the English party. At length, the Earl of Salisbury crossed the Loire and laid siege to Orleans, during the protracted blockade of which, Sir John Falstaif, at the head of 1500 men, routed a body of 5000 cavalry, under the Earl of Clermont, who attacked him at Rouvrai. The garrison was driven to despair, and on the point of surrendering, when the extraordinary appearance of Joan of Arc completely changed the scene. She performed prodigies of valour; but, falling eventually into the hands of her enemies, was burnt at the stake in the city of Rouen, 1431. Michelet observes, that while this proceeding was disgraceful to the English, it was still more so to the French clergy, who, becoming the creatures of the foreigner, show- ed the most ferocious dislike to the heroine who had rescued her coun- try from bondage. In 1435, the congress of Arras reconciled the great vassals of France with their sovereign, and before the close of the same year the Duke of Bedford died. His successor, the Duke of York, showed neither the same talents nor activity ; and the quarrels which broke out between Gloucester and the Cardinal of Winchester, prevent- ed England from adopting vigorous measures. In each successive campaign, the English were expelled from some town of France by Dunois or Richemont. The victor of Agincourt was ill replaced by the youthful Henry, whose gentleness rendered him the more unsuited to the turbulent period in which he lived. While the annual revenue of the crown had fallen to nearly d£5000, several families had acquired princely fortunes by marriages and inheritance. The Earl of Warwick, the last and most illustrious example of feudal hospitality, supported regularly on his estates about thirty thousand individuals ; while his immense fortune was maintained by all the talents which the head of a party required. His intrepidity was a stranger to the chival- rous point of honour ; for although he had not hesitated to attack a fleet double the strength of his own, he often fled when he saw his troops waver before the enemy. It was observed, too, that although severe toward the nobles, he spared the lives of his men in battle. The court, too weak to withstand such men as Warwick, seemed to take a pleasure in aggravating the discontents of the people. As early as 1430, a law had been passed, depriving of the elective franchise all freeholders below forty shillings; and, in 1445, Henry's marriage with the Princess Margaret, together with the cession of Maine and Anjou, rendered him still more unpopular. Scarcely two years after this event, the good Duke of Gloucester was found dead in his bed ; and, in 1 151, Calais was the only town in France which the English were able to retain. The favourite, Suffolk, lost his life at the hands of the offended people, for the supposed share he had in these reverses. At the same time, a formidable rising took place in Kent, under the management of Cade, and London itself fell into the power of the insurgents, though in a few days they all returned to their homes. The rebel displayed his banner a second time, but not with the same good fortune ; he was pur- sued and slain at Lewes. FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 325 Wars of the Roses. — In 1452, Richard, duke of York, openly pro- claimed his designs on the throne, and appeared in arms to enforce them, though each side hesitated to strike the first blow. However, in 1454, when Henry VI. was attacked by a mental disease which rendered him incapable of governing, Richard, being recalled to the council, was named Protector ; but on the king's recovery, he was again compelled to quit the court. He then put himself at the head of 3000 men in the marshes of Wales, being aided by the Duke of Norfolk and the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick. The king advanced against him, and a battle took place at St. Albans, in which the royalists were defeated. Henry was wounded, and fell into the hands of the conqueror, who treated him with respect, but seized anew on all his authority, under the former title of Protector. In 1460, Queen Margaret undertook to defend a second time the rights of the crown, but she was vanquished by War- wick at Northampton, and her husband again became a prisoner. Richard now laid before the peers his claims to the throne, which they recognised as legitimate, declaring, that as Henry had already wielded the sceptre thirty-eight years, he should preserve it until his death, and that in the mean while the Duke of York, being acknowledged heir, should administer the government of the country. Margaret, in behalf of the Prince of Wales, refused to ratify this act, supporting her refusal with an army of 20,000 men. Richard, with only 5000 followers, im- prudently hazarded a battle, in which he was defeated and killed at Wakefield, 14G0. After this important victory, the queen divided her forces, and sent part under the Earl of Pembroke against Edward, earl of March, the eldest son of York. This young prince triumphed over his adversaries at Mortimer's Cross, killing about 4000 of their troops. Owen Tudor, Pembroke's father, and who had married Catherine, widow of Henry V., was taken prisoner, and, with seven other chiefs, beheaded at Hereford. This barbarous practice, which became customary on both sides, consecrated private revenge under the name of just retaliation. The struggle was now almost at an end, and although Margaret was victorious at St. Albans, she was compelled to retire towards the north, while York was proclaimed king at London, under the title of Edward IV., 4th March 1461.* Edward was scarcely seated on the throne before he was compelled to march against the Lancastrians, whom he defeated near Towton, with immense loss, quarters being refused on both sides. As soon as these pressing dangers were removed, the king in council announced his pri- vate marriage with Elizabeth, the widow of Sir John Grey, a beautiful woman, daughter of Jacquetta of Luxemburg, duchess of Bedford, by her second marriage with Sir Richard Woodville. The queen's rela- tions and friends soon obtained the principal offices about the court, and Warwick, who had been the chief means of placing Edward on the * It has been observed that usually the weakening of the regal power and great poli- tical troubles in a state are accompanied with financial difficulties. This remark applies especially to the reign of Henry VI. The hereditary revenues of the crown had long been decreasing; but under this monarch they diminished still more rapidly, owing to the enormous expenses of the French wars and tbe personal extravagance of the king, In 1429, the money absorbed annually by the war exceeded the revenue by nearly £14,000; and, four years later, there was an annual deficiency of £35,000 sterling, which, with the debts of the crown, exceeded £140,000. Despite of the measures adopted to remedy this state of affairs, the evil still augmented ; and the deficit was nearly tripled before the end of Henry's reign, 28 326 MIDDLE AGES. throne, fell into disgrace. He retired to France, where he strengthened his party by giving his daughter Isabella to the Duke of Clarence, the king's brother. Both soon afterwards returned to England, which they found in a state of insurrection, and battles, truces, and negotiations fol- lowed in succession. At length, in 1470, Warwick, surnamed the King- maker, expelled the monarch whom he had created, and brought Henry VI. from his prison to be reseated on his throne by the unanimous voice 3f parliament, — a body, however, which at this time seldom failed to respond to the wishes of the strongest party. This restoration was the consequence of an agreement made by War- wick at the court of Louis XI. with Queen Margaret, whose son had been married to one of the earl's daughters. The conditions were, that if the Prince of Wales died without issue, Clarence should succeed ; Warwick thus securing the cro\vn in his own family. But he was dis- appointed in his schemes; for Edward, who had taken refuge in the Low Countries, returned, and soon found himself at the head of 60,000 men, by whose aid he was victorious at Barnet, where Warwick and all the Lancastrian chiefs, except Somerset and Oxford, were killed, 1471. On the very day of this disastrous battle, Margaret and her son landed at Weymouth with a small body of French troops. The king defeated them at Tewkesbury, and the young prince, who was made prisoner, was stabbed in his presence. Henry VI. shortly after perished in the Tower, and the Duke of Exeter was secretly put to death, his body being found floating betw T een Dover and Calais. Some years afterwards, Ed- ward procured a decree of the parliament,* condemning his brother Clarence to death for high treason. A report was circulated that he had been drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine. After such turbulent scenes, Edward relapsed into his former volup- tuous life, from which he was aroused, for a moment, by the prospect of a great conquest. In 1475, he united with the Dukes of Burgundy and Brittany against Louis XI. ; but his efforts soon terminated in the treaty of Pecquigny, by wmich the French king agreed to pay 75,000 crowns, with an annuity of 50,000 more, while he ransomed Margaret with a noble generosity. In 1483, Edward IV. expired, leaving behind him the character of an accomplished gentleman, but of a revengeful and suspicious king. Edward V., then in his twelfth year, succeeded to the throne, the Duke of Gloucester being made protector. The queen-mother, who saw in this proceeding the ruin of her family, took refuge in the sanctuary of Westminster. By persuasion and menace, Gloucester succeeded in lodging the two young princes in the Tow T er, as a place of greater secu- rity. It appears also to have been customary for the sovereigns to take up their residence in that fortress some time before their coronation. The ambitious duke had already procured the execution or disgrace of *The independence of parliament was in abeyance during the civil wars: the abso- lute spirit of military discipline had passed into the government, with which terror seemed to be the mainspring of action. The Lords and the Commons always appeared ready to second Edward's despotic measures; and no statute was passed during his. reign for the redressins: of grievances or the maintenance of the national privileges. In the preceding reisrn, the manner of elections had undergone some modifications. Henry IV., to win popularity, had so greatly increased the number of voters, that the elections were become a source of danger and disturbance, Henry VT., or rather the Duke of Gloucester, who governed in his name, confined the elective franchise, in counties, to the 40s, freeholders, a sum not less than .£45 of our money. FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. .'327 those whom he feared, and now, by the most unwarrantable means, endeavoured to induce the citizens of London to name him king. Al- though they did not respond to his wishes so readily as he might have expected, he nevertheless assumed the crown, and put an end to the brief reign of Edward V. Richard III. ascended the throne June 26, 1483, sealing his usurpa- tion by the murder of his nephews, whose liberation their friends in London were already meditating.* The news of this crime spread hor- ror among all parties, and the adherents of the young princes fixed their attention on Henry, Earl of Richmond, heir to the house of Lancaster. An ill-timed insurrection in his behalf drew down all the wrath of the usurper ; but the latter was gradually deserted by most of his support- ers, Catesby and others of a similar class alone remaining faithful. At length, Richmond landed with an army of 3000 Normans, and being generally aided by the English, he was successful at the battle of Bos- worth, in which the tyrant fell, after a reign of two years, marked by a succession of cruel executions. Tudor Line. — Henry VII., 1485, in order to put an end to the civil contest that for more than half a century had deluged England with blood, married the Princess Elizabeth, heiress of the house of York. Nor was such a measure unnecessary, for he had to contend against the impostures of Lambert Simnel, whom, after some trouble, he defeated at Stoke in Nottinghamshire, 16th June 1487. f The king took ad- vantage of this revolt to abolish the dangerous and illegal practice of " maintenance," that is, the association of individuals under a chief, whose livery they wore, and whose cause they swore to defend. Such Jeagues gave the nobles means of expeditiously raising troops, and of favouring insurrection or usurpation. The preceding parliament had ordered all the lords to swear to renounce this usage, and to receive no longer into their service men publicly known as vagabonds, murderers, felons, or outlaws ; and in that held in 1487, it was further enacted that the chancellor, the treasurer, the keeper of the privy seal, with one tem- poral and one spiritual peer, and the judges of King's Bench and Com- mon Pleas, should have authority to call before them persons accused of violating this law, and to inflict punishment on them. Their place of meeting was a chamber decorated with stars, and hence the tribunal acquired the appellation of the Star-chamber. About this time Henry's attention was drawn to France, where Charles VIII., at the age of fourteen, had succeeded his father Louis XI. in 1483 ; and although the affairs of Brittany were settled without the aid of Eng- land, he nevertheless landed at Calais with an army of 25,000 men and 1600 horse. He marched to Boulogne, which he invested ; but the war was soon terminated by the French monarch agreeing to pay £149,000 sterling to the invader, as an equivalent for his claims on Brittany. The * In July 1674, iii consequence of an order to clear the White Tower from the adjoin- ing buildings, as the workmen were digging down the stairs which led from the kind's apartment to the chapel, they found the bones of two boys, apparently of the age of the two princes, viz. thirteen and eleven years; which were conseqiientlv deposited in the chapel of Henry VII. at Westminster. fLord Lovell escaped from this battle, and was never seen afterwards. About the end of the 17th century, there was found in a subterraneous chamber at Lovell Castle, Oxfordshire, the skeleton of a man sitting in a chair. It has been supposed that his 'ordship had concealed himself there, and perished for want of food. 328 MIDDLE AGES. § a FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 329 king's repose was soon after troubled by the intrigues of the Duchess of Burgundy, sister of Edward IV., and whose court was the asylum of all the disaffected. Spreading the report that Richard of York had not perished with his brother in the Tower, she put forward Perkin War- beck, the son of a converted Jew, who had resided many years in Eng- land. The vulgar were easily deceived by the polished manners of this adventurer, and by the elegance of his language. He was well received in Ireland,* and protected by the kings of France and Scotland; but several partial insurrections terminated his designs, and, after imprison- ment, he perished on the scaffold, 1499. In the same year, another insurrection in Warwickshire broke out, when, in order to crush entirely the hopes of the malcontents, the Earl of Warwick, the last legitimate descendant of the Plantagenets, was executed by Henry's order. Let the pupil draw up : A genealogical table of the houses of York and Lancaster. Scotland. — This country enjoyed few intervals of repose from that anarchy to which it had been very long subjected. This evil originated in the excessive power of the nobles, sovereigns on their own estates, and almost always at war with one another or with the king, who, having but a scanty revenue and no per- manent forces, exercised at the best a very precarious authority. Such disorder was most prevalent on the English Border and in the Highlands, two great, divisions of Scotland which were yet in a state of barbarism. The inhabitants of the mountains were distinguished from the rest of the nation by their man- ners, dress, and language. They spoke, as many still speak to this day, a Celtic dialect, the Gaelic, unintelligible to the Lowlanders, whose language differed little from the English. They were divided into tribes or clans, each denominated after some ancient chief whom his followers considered as their common ancestor. For example, the MacDonalds and the MacGregors were esteemed the sons of Donald and of Gregor. Besides their almost incessant struggles one with another, these mountaineers were in perpetual hostility with the dwellers in the plains, whom they hated as Saxons and usurpers of the country that had belonged to their forefathers. Many Highland chiefs assumed the privileges of independent monarchs. The most powerful of these was the Earl of Ross, lord of the Isles, who was considered the absolute sovereign of the Hebrides. The Borderers were no less turbulent than the mountaineers, to whom, in their manners, they bore a great resemblance. They were divided into clans under particular chiefs, lived on the booty plundered from England or the central counties of Scotland, and trampled under foot the respect due to the laws and regal government. Under the Stuarts, in despite of the wise laws enacted by parliament! to destroy or diminish the evil, the ambition of the Douglas family, dissensions in the court, and numerous minorities of the crown, perpetuated this unsettled condition. James III. of Scotland, 1460, was not less zealous than his two im- mediate predecessors in his endeavours to diminish the power of the aristocracy ; but instead of keeping these chiefs around him, and re- pressing their violence by firmness of character, he drove them from his presence, and passed his time in comparative seclusion at Stirling, sur- *On the occasion of these attempts of Perkin, Sir Edward Poynings, sent into Ireland to repress the troubles, assembled a parliament in Dublin, which enacted the famous statute known as Poynings' Act, and which forms an epoch in the history of Ireland, with reference to the English dominion. This act declared, that all the statutes of the English parliament should be law in Ireland, and that the Irish parliament should not meet without the permission of the King of England, and after assigning the motives of such convocation. J Tn the Scotch parliament, the nobles, prelates, and commons sat in one chamber, and voted as members of the same bodv. 330 MIDDLE AGES. rounded by men of low extraction, with whom he occupied himself in the study of architecture, music, and other arts. The nobles, indignant at the choice of his favourites, plotted against him ; but the treason was discovered : John, earl of Mar, brother of the king, was assassinated ; Alexander, duke of Albany, another brother, escaped from Edinburgh castle, and took refuge in England. In consequence of the intrigues of this fugitive with Edward IV., in which Albany assumed the title of King of Scotland, and bound himself, if the English monarch would furnish him with the means of establishing his claim, to do homage to him, the Duke of Gloucester marched northwards at the head of a numerous army, which compelled James to implore the aid of his barons. These readily assembled in arms, less with the intention of repelling foreign invasion than of obtaining satisfaction for their own injuries. They resolved on the death of the king's favourites, and executed their design in the camp near Lauder, with all the promptitude and vigour of military men. James, unable to rely on an army so turbulent, disband- ed it, and taking refuge in Edinburgh castle, soon became reconciled with the Duke of Albany. But his majesty had not learnt wisdom from the late transactions ; and a decree forbidding the wearing of arms within the royal palace, together with the formation of a permanent body-guard, drove the nobles to revolt, who placed at their head the Duke of Rothesay, the eldest of his children. This imminent danger drew the monarch from his retirement : He marched against the rebels, and, being defeated at Sauchieburn, a few miles from Stirling, was assassinated in a miller's cottage. 1488. The general indignation ex- cited by this atrocious murder compelled the conspirators to use their victory with moderation. James IV. succeeded to the throne; and in his reign, the enmity which had frequently displayed itself between the sovereign and the nobility was almost forgotten. Far from dreading the power of the aristocracy, he considered it the best support of the throne; and by his confidence gained their aid in all his enterprises. ITALIAN PENINSULA. Naples. — In the twelfth century, the kingdom of Naples passed in succession to the Normans, and to the German Hohenstaufens ; and in the thirteenth, to the house of Anjou. This dynasty governed until 1382, when Joan I. adopted the younger brother of Charles V. of France, Louis I, of Anjou, who was, however, 'deprived of the crown by Charles, duke of Durazzo, the direct heir. Thus began those wars between the second house of Anjou and the family of Durazzo, which led to the invasion of Italy and the long struggle between France and the Empire. Louis I., in 1383, and next Louis II., in 1390, invaded the kingdom, but without success. A second Joan, sister of Ladislaus who succeed ed Charles of Durazzo, revived this war, when its embers were nearly extinct, by adopting in turn Alphonso V., king of Aragon and Sicily, and Louis III. of Anjou. When Joan and Louis died in 1435, Rene of Anjou, duke of Lorraine and count of Provence, opposed Alphonso V., and was for a brief period master of Naples; but, in 1442, he was driven out by the latter sovereign, who received the investiture of his new kingdom from the pope. Alphonso died in 1458, leaving to his natural son Ferdinand the kingdom of Naples, and to his brother John FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 331 II. (the usurper of Navarre) Aragon, Catalonia, and Valencia, with the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, and Sicily. Alphonso V., surnamed the Magnanimous, was not only a skilful and for- tunate warrior, but the protector of letters. In his liberality originated the chief delects of his government ; for perpetually embarrassed in consequence of his profuse generosity, he was obliged either to oppress his subjects with taxes, or sell his patronage contrary to the good administration of his kingdom. Lavishly conferring new titles, he extended the prerogatives of the nobles, so as to aggravate the evils of vassalage, and weaken the authority of the crown ; but in spite of these faults, he deserves to be considered one of the greatest and most worthy monarchs that adorned the fifteenth century. At the summons of the Neapolitan barons, John of Anjou, son of Rene, in 1459, opposed himself to Ferdinand, who, being defeated in the battle of Sarno, 1460, was only saved from destruction by Francis Sforza and Scanderbeg, the latter of whom Alphonso had often aided against the Turks, and who now repaid to the son the assistance he had received from the father. The victory of Troja in Apulia, however, seated Ferdinand securely on the throne. The conqueror now began to oppress the supporters of his rival ; and the hatred excited by his cruel- ties was increased during his long reign by numerous acts of treachery and violence. In 1485, the nobles revolted against him ; but he dis- armed them by an insidious peace, and arresting the most dangerous, caused them to be secretly put to death. Those who escaped his ven- geance by flight spread throughout Italy the odium of his name. Florence. — Towards the end of the fourteenth century, the triumph of the Albizzi faction deprived the Medici of all influence. John of that name restored his family in 1420, having acquired immense riches, and become chief magistrate. In 142G, when the nobles had formed the design of usurping all the power of the state, he alone refused to second their project, and thereby raised his popularity to the greatest height. Cosmo I. inherited the talents of his father, but neglecting his sage counsels, was banished in 1433. Being recalled the following year, the Albizzi were all proscribed, and he preserved the supreme authority until his death in 1464. His fellow-citizens conferred on him the title of" Father of his Country," — a distinction worthy of his zeal to main- tain peace at home as well as abroad, and of the noble uses to which he applied his wealth, in building palaces, founding monasteries and hospitals, forming libraries, and extending to letters and the arts that protection which became hereditary in his family. This distinguished merchant was at the head of one hundred and twenty-eight commercial houses in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Pietro de Medici had neither the experience nor the talent required to accomplish the objects contemplated by his predecessor; but when Soderini, the gonfalonier of justice, had sought the alliance of the Duke of Modena to dethrone Pietro, the latter gave such proofs of firmness as disconcerted his enemies, and enabled him to proscribe the most illus- trious families. Lorenzo and Julian, though young, were recognised as their father's successors; and, during seven years, Florence enjoyed peace under their government. Among the chief persons of the city the Pazzi held the first rank, and these Cosmo had desired to attach to his party by bonds of marriage. Lorenzo, surnamed " the Magnificent," pursuing a different line of conduct, spared no exertions to ruin their 332 MIDDLE AGES. fortunes ; and hence a conspiracy to murder the Medici and change the government was eagerly entered into by these persecuted men.* The brothers were attacked in the cathedral church: Julian was killed, but Lorenzo escaped to take a bloody revenge on the assassins, 1478. The war which sprung out of this conspiracy lasted nearly three years. Lorenzo died in 1492, beloved by his subjects, respected abroad, and deeply lamented on account of the skill with which he had held the balance among the other powers of Italy. His taste for the arts and literature procured him the title of " Father of the Muses ;" but his luxury, together with the bad management of his commercial transac- tions, entirely absorbed the immense fortune of the Medici. During many years, the public revenues contributed to cover their losses; and, at last, to prevent their bankruptcy, the state itself became insolvent, 1490. The interest of the debt, then fixed at three per cent., was reduced to one and a half; a number of charitable foundations were suppressed; and the coin in circulation was received in payment of taxes at one-fifth below its nominal value, and reissued at its full amount. The Roman State. — The abdication of the antipope, Clement VIII. , in 1429, terminated the great schism of fifty-one years. Martin V. alone retained the tiara, by whom the council of Basle was convoked in 1431. His successor, Eugenius IV., alarmed at the attacks made by this body upon his prerogative, convened in succession the synods of Ferrara and Florence, a proceeding which gave rise to another separa- tion, — the fathers of Basle deposing him, and electing Amadeus of Savoy as Felix V. In 1438, the French adopted several decrees of the council of Basle, by the famous pragmatic sanction which Charles VII. drew up at Bourges; and their example was imitated by the Germans, who accepted the same decrees at the diet of Mentz, 1439, since which time the popes had used every exertion to obtain their revocation. Nicholas V., who succeeded Eugenius in 1447, substituted the Germanic concordat for that of Mentz ; but the joy this event caused was clouded by the conspiracy of Stephano Porcari, and by the fall of Constantinople. Several attempts were made by Calixtus III., Pius II., and Paul II., to excite the Christians to another Crusade, but they all completely failed. The Cardinal Francis de la Rovera, exalted to the pontificate under the title of Sixtus IV., was more occupied in the aggrandizement of his family than in promoting the interests of the church. Innocent VIII. succeeded in 1484, — a prelate of easy life and manners, entirely governed by favourites, and who made every thing a matter of money. After him the infamous Borgia, Alexander VI., for eleven years disgraced St. Peter's chair. His simoniacal election, 1492, and the knowledge of his character, spread general consternation. Venice. — The taking of Constantinople by the Turks threatened the destruction of the Venetian colonies in the East. At first the republic was allowed to have an ambassador in that capital; but in 1463, her leaders began a war, which, after sixteen years, was terminated by an unfavourable treaty. It was during these hostilities that Venice obtained * Conspiracy at this period seemed to be the constitutional mode of reforming a bad government. In three years, historians reckon one at Ferrara, two at Genoa, one a< Milan and one at Florence. FIFTEENTH (KNTURY A. D. 333 possession of Cyprus. This islo had been givjgn by Richard Coeur de Lion to Guy of Lusignan, whose descendants occupied the throne 266 years. The last of these, John III., died in 1458, leaving an only daughter, Charlotte, who succeeded, and whose husband, Louis of Savoy, brother of Duke Amadeus IX., shared the honours of the crown. James, a natural son of John III., supported by the Sultan of Egypt, Malek-Ella, to whom the kings of Cyprus were tributary, dethroned them both in 1460. The usurper, threatened by the knights of St. John and the Genoese, sought the aid of Venice by marrying Catherine Cor- naro, niece of Andrew Cornaro, a patrician, whose family had extensive estates in the island, 1471. The senate, to honour this union, adopted Catherine, declaring her " daughter of St. Mark," that is, of the republic. James died two years after, and the queen, owing to her foreign extrac- tion, being unpopular among the Cypriots, the Venetians, in her name, reduced the island under their power in 1474, leaving to her little beyond the pomp of royalty. Their hold on this conquest was confirmed by Catherine's abdication in 1489 and the investiture given them by the Sultan of Egypt. While the republicans were thus extending their sway over Cyprus, aggrandizement in Italy was not neglected by them. They acquired by wars and treaties Gallipoli and Policastro, Polesina and the territory of Rovigo ; for at this period their armies were scarcely less powerful on land than their fleets at sea. The population was nu- merous, the finances well administered ; and this was the first state that, by government loans, had attached the rich to the commonwealth by the great bond of the public funds. Her manufactures in gold, silver, and silk, were much esteemed ; but the time of her fall drew near, when the commerce of Asia, turned from its ancient course, went to enrich the nations of the West. Milan and Genoa. — A labourer of Cotignola, named Attendolo, becoming a soldier at the beginning of the fifteenth century, passed rapidly through all the degrees of military rank, and became the most famous captain of the age. With 7000 volunteers who followed his banner, he delivered Joan II. of Naples from the hands of Alphonso of Aragon, for which he was made constable of the kingdom and gonfalo- nier of the Roman church. A premature death by drowning terminated his honourable career. He had changed his name to Sforza, which he transmitted to his natural son Francis, inheritor of his talents and cou- rage, who had married Bianca, natural daughter of Philip-Maria, last of the Visconti dukes of Milan. On his father-in-law's death, 1447, he claimed the inheritance in opposition to the Duke of Savoy, the King of Naples, the republic of Venice, and Charles of Orleans. The Mila- nese abolished the ducal power, and established a republic, nominating their own magistrates, and appointing Sforza commander of their troops. In this post he succeeded in restoring the title of duke, and reigned until the year 1466. The greatest princes sought his alliance ; his daughter Hippolyta married Alphonso of Naples, and Louis XI. ceded to him the city of Genoa. His son and successor Galeazzo, by his pride and des- potism, excited an insurrection in which he perished, 1476. Under his infant heir John Galeazzo, two uncles disturbed the public tranquillity ; they were, however, eventually banished. About this time the Genoese revolted and recovered their liberty ; but Prospero Adorno, the mover of the revolution, having abused his victory by putting some of his oppo 334 MIDDLE AGES. nents to death, fled from the city, and Battista Fregosa was proclaimed doge. In 1479, one of the uncles of the Duke Galeazzo, known as Ludovico the Moor, made himself master of Tortona. Having been called to Milan to act as counterpoise to the favourite minister Simoneta, he soon put that officer to death, declaring that his nephew, a child of twelve years, had attained his majority ; from which time Ludovico in reality governed in the name of his ward. In 1488, Genoa again be- came a Milanese dependency, although Sforza had the prudence to hold it as a fief of the French crown, the investiture of which he received two years after. The other states of Italy do not require to be mentioned in detail : it will be sufficient merely to note their existence. The Counts of Savoy were attached to France. Duke Philip II. was of great use to Charles VIII. in his Italian expedition, for which he was created high-chamber- lain and grand-master of the palace. The marquisates of Montferrat and Saluzzo were not yet united to Savoy ; while Parma and Piacenza formed a portion of the Milanese territory. The house of Este reigned in Ferrara, Modena, and Reggio; the Gonzagas at Mantua; the Picos at Mirandola ; the Malatestas at Rimini; the Malaspinas at Massa and Carrara; the Grimaldis at Monaco; and the Montfeltros at Urbino : all of which states, with the small republics of Lucca and Sienna, were dragged into the common vortex of political commotion. Never had Italy been happier or more flourishing than at the epoch of the French invasion in 1494. Ruled by native-born princes, inde- pendent of all foreign influence, exempt from internal troubles, she had carried the sciences, letters, and the arts to the highest degree of perfec- tion. Enriched by agriculture and commerce, she possessed the most brilliant courts, the most magnificent cities; and her pleasures, the natural result of long prosperity, had attained a degree of delicacy and refinemen unknown to the rest of Europe. But this deceitful exterior concealed those vices which usually indicate the decline of nations, — effeminacy, perfidy, cowardice, and corruption. She carried in her bosom the seeds of ruin, which the concord maintained by the ascendency of two wise rulers, Pope Innocent VIII. and Lorenzo de Medici, alone prevented for a time from bursting forth. But these two monarchs expiring about the same period, in 1492, the equilibrium was destroyed, and Italy doomed to experience the horrors of internal discord and foreign invasion. SPANISH PENINSULA. Navarre. — In 1419, John II., second son of Ferdinand the Just, king of Aragon, had married Blanche, daughter and heiress of Charles III., king of Navarre, of the house of Evreux. When the latter monarch died, in 1435, the crown passed to the family of John, who had one son, Don Carlos, prince of Viana, and two daughters, Blanche married to Henry IV. of Castile, and Leonora the wife of Gaston IV., count of Foix. On the death of his mother in 1441, Carlos ought to have inherited the crown of Navarre, but as this would have compelled his father to descend from his high station, he not less wisely than affec- tionately left the supreme power in his hands. The king having taken a second wife, Joanna Henriquez, daughter of the Admiral of Castile, had a son, who is known in history as Ferdinand the Catholic. At the FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 335 instigation of his consort, John endeavoured to secure the succession to his younger son, and for this purpose deprived Carlos of all share in public business. After enduring the most unworthy treatment, this victim of an ambitious stepmother took up arms, but was defeated in battle near Aibar, 1452. Being- taken prisoner, he was shut up in a strong castle, whence he was delivered only at the earnest intercession of the Navarrese states. In 1 3 56, the queen, who had sworn the de- struction of the prince, aided her husband in forming an alliance with his son-in-law, the Count of Foix, against him, by which it was agreed that John should possess the crown of Navarre during his life, and that it should afterwards pass to the Count and Countess of Foix, to the prejudice of Don Carlos, and Blanche, queen of Castile. This injustice drove him a second time to arms ; but the fortune of war turning once more against him, he went to Paris and Naples, to solicit the mediation of Charles VII. and Alphonso V. During his absence, his supporters again proclaimed him king, though bloodshed was avoided by the inter- position of the latter monarch, whose death unfortunately removed all chance of reconciliation. Other reverses followed, but eventually the injustice of John augmented so greatly the number of his son's sup- porters, that, at Barcelona, the latter was proclaimed heir, and intrusted with the perpetual lieutenancy of Catalonia. He did not live to enjoy this elevation ; and his death, in 1461, has been attributed to various causes, — to poison administered by Joanna, of to grief at being the con- tinued object of paternal hatred. His sister, Blanche, whom he had named his successor, was not long after imprisoned by her father and deprived of life. The Catalonians becoming alarmed for their liberties, never spoke but with abhorrence of the homicidal monarch, and with euthusiasm of their governor, that noble victim of unnatural ambition, or, as he was already esteemed, that " holy martyr," to whom the super- stitious attributed numerous miracles. It was in order to raise money for punishing these insurgents, that the king sold the provinces of Rous- sillon and Cerdagne to Louis XI. for 300,000 gold crowns. John II. died in 1479, and was succeeded by his daughter Eleonora, who occupied the throne less than a year, after which it passed to the house of Foix, in the person of Francis Phoebus, her grandson. Aragon. — With the death of Martin in 1410 ended the house of Bar- celona, which had filled the throne 273 years. Five claimants to the sovereignty now appeared ; but, in 1412, the estates decided in favour of Ferdinand of Castile, whose son Alphonso the Magnanimous con- quered Naples in 1442. At the death of Alphonso in 1458, his natural son Ferdinand succeeded to the throne of Naples, and Aragon devolved on his brother John II. The son of the last monarch, Ferdinand the Catholic, by his marriage with Isabella of Castile, united the two kino-, doms in 1479. Castile. — Henry III., while projecting a war against the King of Granada, died in 140G, leaving behind him an infant son of only fourteen months. In such circumstances Ferdinand, the king's brother, was solicited by the estates to assume the crown, but he refused, and caused his nephew to be proclaimed as John II. The uncle, however, held the regency till 1412, when he was called to the throne of Aragon to suc- ceed Martin, who had left no children. His place as regent was supplied by Alvarez de Luna, who, in a short time, excited disaffection by the 336 MIDDLE AGES. severity of his government. Aided by Henry, infant of Aragon, who resided in Castile, the powerful nobles took Toledo by surprise, urged the Prince of Asturias to revolt, and at last constrained John to make concessions. But Don Juan Pachecho engaged the prince to support the cause of his father John II. , who was soon at the head of an army which defeated the rebels in the battle of Olmedo, where Henry of Aragon fell, 1444. The prince, displeased at seeing Alvarez restored to favour, again revolted, when the latter was banished from the court and put to death. Henry IV. succeeded his father in 1454, and his reign presented simi- lar vicissitudes. He invaded Granada with an army of 50,000 men ; but no conquests were made of sufficient importance to defray the ex- penses of the war. Returning from this expedition, Henry, who had repudiated his first wife, Blanche of Navarre, espoused Joanna of Por- tugal. In the Castilian court the greatest corruption prevailed ; the king indulged in every kind of license, and the new queen followed the con- tagious example. By this means the affections of his subjects were alienated, and a storm was gathering which could not fail eventually to burst on the two sovereigns. A few trifling though fortunate expedi- tions against the Moors retarded the catastrophe ; but, in 14G5, the nobles, with the Archbishop of Toledo at their head, proclaimed Alphonso, the king's brother, their new T sovereign. The cowardly monarch, Henry, entered into an accommodation with the rebels, by which he sacrificed his daughter, the Princess Joanna (whose parentage appeared somewhat doubtful), and adopted Alphonso as his heir. New dissensions followed this arrangement, until 1465, when a civil war broke out ; but its cruelties were in a measure softened by the interposition of the pope, and it was terminated by the death of Alphonso in 1468. The factious nobles after this proclaimed Henry's sister Isabella ; but she refused to accept a title that did not belong to her while her brother lived. In 1469, this princess, whose hand had been sought by the King of Portugal and the Duke of Guienne, secretly married Ferdinand of Aragon. Henry immediately annulled the union by a solemn decree, to which no one paid any respect, and the country was once more plunged into all the horrors of a civil strife, which con- tinued until his death in 1474. In the preceding year, he endeavoured to remedy some of the abuses that had accumulated during his unfortu- nate reign. The revenues of the crown being extremely diminished, he revoked all the donations made during the last ten years, — an arrange- ment that became ineffectual from the number and strength of the inte- rested parties. He also dissolved various brotherhoods or congregations, established with dangerous views; confirming these only which were founded for the security of the kingdom against the bands of robbers that everywhere devastated it. Finally, he suppressed all tolls and other tributes of that kind, arbitrarily established by the nobles in their do- mains, and which gave rise to innumerable vexations. Joanna was left heiress to the crown, and her cause was warmly espoused by her uncle, Alphonso V. of Portugal. She was supported in Castile, chiefly by the malcontents who had formerly contested her legitimacy, but who now dreaded the firmness of Isabella. The victory of Toro, in 1476, gave the throne to the latter, and Joanna, deserted by her partisans, retired to a convent in Coimbra, 1479. FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D 337 In the same year expired John II., king of Aragon, whose states, com- prising Aragon Proper, Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, the Balearic Isles, Sardinia, and Sicily, descended to Ferdinand, by whom they were united to Castile. Aragon and Castile. — The moment that Ferdinand and Isabella assumed the reins of government, the state of their dominions was changed. Crime, even in the highest ranks, ceased to be unpunished, and the execution of robbers and assassins snowed the people that vio- lence would be replaced by order and justice. The organization of the " Holy Brotherhood" (Santa Hermandad), destined for the repression of murder and theft, was perfected. In Galicia, where the nobles exer- cised the greatest tyranny, forty-six strongholds were demolished, and the property stolen from the royal domains, the churches, monasteries, and private persons, was restored. After having thus destroyed faction and strengthened their own power, the Catholic sovereigns, for by that title were they known, began to carry into execution their long-meditated plan of expelling the Moors from Spain. Muley Ali Abulhassan, who at this time occupied the Moorish throne, began the war with the surprise of Zahara, 1481, which was immediately retaliated by the capture of Alhama. The successes were for a long time balanced, until one imprudent step drove the infidel to ruin. Captivated by the charms of a Christian slave, he repudiated his wife Ayesha, who belonged to one of the chief tribes, and had borne him several sons, all of whom he ordered to be destroyed for the purpose of securing the succession to the issue of his second marriage. One only escaped, the celebrated Boabdil (Abu-Abdallah), who was shortly after proclaimed king by a party of discontented nobles, and Abulhassan was driven from his capital. A cruel civil war forthwith commenced, and while the Moors were thus weakening their own resources, Ferdinand pursued a victorious career. Ten years were spent in a sanguinary con- test before the Christians were enabled to besiege Granada, which they invested with a chosen army of 50,000 men, when a blockade of nine months compelled the inhabitants to surrender, and in January, 1492, Isabella and Ferdinand made their triumphal entry into a city whose capture almost compensated for the previous loss of Constantinople. To Gonzalvo de Cordova, a distinguished leader of the Christian host, was intrusted the adjustment of the articles of capitulation, which were highly honourable to both parties. They provided that the vanquished should be governed by their own laws, preserve their customs, judges, and liberty of worship ; that they should hold their property in Spain free from molestation, or be allowed to sell it and withdraw wheresoever they pleased ; and that Boabdil should be permitted to retire to an estate in the Alpuxarras. The Saracens were, however, finally expelled from Spain in the reign of Philip III., 1610. The Jews had been included in the Moorish treaty ; but with them the conditions were not kept. Besides having amassed considerable riches by trade, they had also acquired nearly all the wealth of the king- dom by usury. An intolerant zeal, excited by absurd reports, impelled the government to order every individual of that persecuted race to quit the country. Four months only were allowed for the settlement of their affairs, and they were forbidden, under pain of death, to carry with them either silver, gold, or precious stones. Half a million, or according to 29 338 MIDDLE AGES. certain authors 800,000, are said to have departed, some proceeding to Africa, others to France, and the majority into Portugal, where they were in a short time treated with no less severity. These oppressed individuals carried away all the commerce of the Peninsula, and the Spanish government, far from enriching itself, lost a great portion of its annual revenue: In the same year which saw Granada wrested from the Moors, Ame- rica was discovered by Columbus, who thus " for Castile and Leon found a New World." The restoration of Roussillon and Cerdagne by Charles VIII., before his expedition into Italy in 1494, added to this prosperity; and in 1496, a double marriage united the houses of Spain and Austria. Mary of Burgundy, wife of the Archduke Maximilian, bore her husband two children; namely Philip, who married Joanna second infanta of Spain, and Margaret, who became the wife of John the infanta's brother. This latter prince dying the same year, Isabella, married to Emmanuel of Portugal, was declared heiress of Castile and Aragon by the estates assembled at Toledo and Saragossa. But she died in giving birth to a son, who did not long survive his parent. Portugal. — The race of Henry of Burgundy became extinct in 1383, in the person of Don Ferdinand, who, at his death, left a natural child Beatrice, married to John I. of Castile. The aversion entertained by the Portuguese to a Castilian sovereign enabled Don Juan, brother of the late king, to ascend the throne as John I. of Portugal. Being sup- ported by the English, he defeated the Spaniards and their French allies at Aljubarotta, 1385, and thereby secured the throne, though the war was not terminated until the commencement of the fifteenth century This sovereign died in 1433, after a popular and glorious reign of forty- eight years, during which the Cortes were twenty-five times convoked. Edward, his eldest son, succeeded, but was soon carried off by a pesti- lence which ravaged the country, 1438 ; and in an expedition against the African Moors, he was so unfortunate as to leave his brother to perish in captivity. Alphonso V., a monarch of warlike and chivalrous spirit, conducted three expeditions against the infidels. In 1474, on the death of Henry IV. of Castile, he espoused Joanna, daughter of that .nonarch, assumed the title of sovereign, and even disputed the posses- sion of the kingdom with Ferdinand the Catholic. Being unsuccessful, he visited France to seek the assistance of Louis XI. ; and here the failure of his negotiations so disgusted him with the regal power, that he formed the resolution of abdicating and retiring to the Holy Land, He died in 1481, as he was about to enter the monastic life. John II. strengthened the royal authority in Portugal by diminishing the power of the barons : in the diet of Evora, 1482, he revoked the concessions made by his predecessors to the prejudice of the crown, and suppressed the power of life and death exercised by many nobles. Such innova- tions were not tamely endured, but the vigour of the king eventually compelled submission. John has been styled a perfect prince, and the tutor of kings in the art of government ; and in truth he deserved the esteem of his subjects, by the indefatigable cares of his administration, by his just regulations, and by his anxiety in promoting maritime dis- covery. But, by humbling the nobles, he laid the foundation of future despotism, as thev gradually became instruments of absolute power. He died in 1495. FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 339 DISCOVERIES AND COLONIES. At the close of the fifteenth century, two events of incalculable im- portance to mankind, — the discovery of the New World, and the route to the Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, — produced an entire revolution in the commerce, manners, industry, and government of every nation. Portuguese Colonies. — John I., who about the end of the fourteenth century had founded a new dynasty in Portugal, undertook an expedi- tion against Barbary in 1412, with the intention of occupying the rest- less minds of his subjects. His third son, Henry, who accompanied him, manifested thenceforward a very ea<_:er desire for foreign adventure. Two ships, equipped by his orders, advanced five degrees beyond Cape Nun, hitherto considered impassable owing to the burning heat of the torrid zone; but they did not venture to pass Cape Bojador, lying three degrees north of the tropic. In 1419, accident led to the discovers of Madeira; the extraordinary fertility of which island is attributed to" the burning of the forests to clear the face of the country, which is said to have continued seven years. The sugar-cane was imported from Sicily and Cyprus ; the vine was brought from the Morea ; and in a few years sugar and wine became considerable articles of commerce. The Canary islands, early taken possession of by the Spaniards, were during several years a subject of dispute between Spain and Portugal ; but they even- tually remained in the power of the former. Prince Henry, now directing all his attention to the discovery of a passage to India by sea, obtained from Pope Martin V., as sovereign of the universe, a right to the conquests he should make between "Cape Bojador and the Indies. As soon as the necessary bull was granted, the expedition sailed ; and in 1440, Cape Blanco was reached. Two years after, the exchange of some prisoners for gold-dust and negroes gave rise to the odious slave-trade. In 1484, the adventurers proceed- ed more than 1500 miles, crossing the equator and entering the river Congo. In their farther progress south, the land was found to decline towards the east, which gave them hopes of arriving at India, and ap- peared to confirm the narratives of the circumnavigation of Africa by the Phoenicians. The solution of the great problem fell to the lot of Bartholomew Diaz, who discovered the. Cape of Good Hope in 1486. Vasco de Gama, the hero of the Lusiad, sailed from Portugal in 1497, and doubling, for the first time, that celebrated promontory, discovered Madagascar. From this island he proceeded until he reached Calicut, thirteen months afler his departure from Lisbon. Hindostan was at this period divided among the kings of Cambay, Delhi, Bisnagar, Narsinga, and Calicut, who had many sovereigns among their tributaries. The port of Calicut, from a Mohammedan superstition connected with it, became the most celebrated in the whole peninsula. Here Gama was at first hospitably received, but he after- wards experienced considerable opposition from the Moors of Africa, who traded to that city. On his return home in 1499, the kino- named him admiral of the Indies, and loaded him with honours. America. — About the end of the tenth century, the Scandinavians, in some of their maritime expeditions, had reached Iceland and Greenland, from which latter country they appear to have advanced to Vinland, J540 MIDDLE AGES. probably Labrador. In Greenland some unimportant settlements were made, and the communication with the transatlantic continent was main- tained until the beginning of the 15th century, when the fate of these colonies was covered as with a cloud ; and although various attempts have since been made for their discovery, no traces of their existence have been obtained. In Southern Europe these expeditions were entire- ly unknown, and therefore the undiminished glory was left to Columbus of proving the existence of the Western World. This celebrated navi- gator was of Genoese origin ; though his character had been formed and his skill acquired in the service of Portugal. His active mind readily foresaw the length and difficulties of a voyage to the Indies by sailing to the eastward, even if the route should be discovered; and it appeared to him that by sailing directly west he would more readily attain his object. Many circumstances, the importance of which is best known to mariners, supported his theories ; but those to whom he applied for protection and support did not acknowledge their force. The Genoese senate regarded him as a madman; in Portugal his confi- dence was most treacherously abused ; and in England his brother Bar- tholomew obtained the consent of Henry VII. only when too late. After many obstacles, arising from the ignorance and religious scruples of those to whom his project was submitted, Columbus sailed with three small vessels from Palos in Andalusia, 3d August, 1492. On the night of the 11th October, land was seen after a tedious voyage, during which the commander had to contend against the cowardly and rebellious spirit of his crew. San Salvador or Guanahani, one of the Bahama chain stretching between Florida and St. Domingo, was the island first dis- covered. Cuba and Hayti were reached soon after. Columbus, now directing his course homeward, returned to the harbour of Palos, seven months and eleven days after his departure. He was received 'with great kindness by Ferdinand and Isabella, who ennobled his family, and ratified all the privileges of the treaty of Santa Fe.* While Europe was still re-echoing with the news of this voyage, the navigator had again sailed towards the west with seventeen vessels, having on board numerous settlers eager to reap the golden harvest which the descriptions of travellers had placed in the Indies. Isabella in the island of Cuba was the first city founded in the New World. In his third voyage, 1498, Columbus reached the continent of America, near the mouth of the Orinoco. It does not fall within the scope of this work to do more than notice the leading points of transatlantic dis- covery ; the history of the early settlers will be found in volumes espe- cially devoted to that purpose. It will here suffice to say, that Colum- bus died in 1506, after being treated by the Spanish court with the great- est ingratitude. His body was pompously interred in the cathedral of Seville; and over it was erected a monument, with the simple inscrip- tion that Columbus had given a new world to Castile and Leon. His remains were afterwards transported to the island of Hayti, and buried in the cathedral of St. Domingo in 1536, whence, two hundred and sixty years afterwards, they were transferred to Havana. *By the articles of this treaty, drawn up before Columbus sailed, he was created high- admiral, with hereditary right in the seas he should discover ; viceroy also, with heredi- tary possession of the lands; he was to receive a tithe of the profits of commercial undertakings; and be supreme judge in all mercantile disputes in the newly-discovered countries. FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 341 In 1499, Alonzo de Ojeda sailed to the new continent, accompanied by a Florentine merchant named Amerigo Vespucci, under whose direc- tion the enterprise was chiefly conducted. Returning to Europe, he pub- lished an account of his adventures, and claimed the honour of being the first to discover the mainland of the new world.* In 1500, the mouth of the great river Amazon was entered ; while the Portuguese had already landed in Brazil. Consult: Robertson's History of America; Irving's Life of Columbus. THE CHURCH. Councils of Constance- and Basle, 1414 and 1431. — Several at- tempts were made to terminate the great schism in the Catholic church ; and for that purpose, in the double pontificate of Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII., a council was held at Pisa in 1409, whose election of Alexander V. added a third pope to the two who disputed the possession of the tiara. It was not until the council of Constance deposed all the three, and elected Martin V. in their stead, followed, in 1429, by the resignation of Clement VIIL, that these divisions in the church were entirely extinguished. Martin, in contempt of his promises, published only seven unimportant decrees, by which he pretended to satisfy the complaints and demands of the council. In 1418, he dissolved it, and named Pavia for the next place of meeting, but the assembly was even- tually held at Basle under Eugenius IV. Independently of the correc- tion of abuses, this body had to deliberate on a reunion with the Greek church and other schismatic communions. The first object was attained by decreeing the abolition of " annates, reserves, and expectatives." The pope, alarmed at these bold measures, wished to dissolve the coun- cil ; but the members asserting their supremacy by force, accused Euge- nius of heresy, and deposed him. The reforms effected at Constance and Basle had not all the happy results that were expected; neverthe- less, they were adopted in France by the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, 1438 ; and the diet of AschafTenburg accepted the German concordat, drawn up in terms exceedingly favourable to the holy see, 1448. The Emperor Frederick III., who desired to be crowned in the Roman capi- tal, withheld no sacrifice; and his coronation in 1452 was accompanied by a total renunciation of the rights of the empire over that ancient city. S;ince this period, the authority of the popes has been supreme in Rome ; and the conspiracy of the tribune Porcari in 1453 was the last struggle for republican* liberty. The chief resolutions of the assembly at Basle were those of the fourth and fifth sessions: one declaring the supremacy of general councils, as having received by divine right an authority to which every rank, even the papal, must submit in matters of faith, and in the reformation of the church;' the other declares liable to punishment every person, not excepting the pope himself, that shall refuse to obey any council lawfully assembled. These decrees, the great boast of the moderate papists, are not of direct practical importance ; but they served to check the usurpations of the see of Rome, by the acknowledgment * The imposture of Vespucci has long been known, and his dishonest narrative has in no degree injured the glory of Columbus. As to the honour of first reaching the shores Of the new continent, it probably belongs to the English mariners, who, under Cabot, a Bristol seaman of Venetian parents, sailed along the coasts of North America from Labrador to Florida, 1498. 29* 342 MIDDLE AGES. of a superior authority. The same assembly further enacted that another general council should be held in five years ; a second at the end of seven more; and at intervals of every ten years afterwards. Their proposition on the faith to be kept with heretics will be noticed below. This synod further took away the cup from the laity, ordering that "the Lord's supper should be received by them only in one kind, i. e. the bread." Hussites. — Since the cruel extirpation of the Albigenses, the pope and church, who assumed to be sole interpreters of Scripture, had reigned without obstacle; but the imprudent obstinacy of John XXII., in 1324, excited complaints and accusations against the holy see, which proved the forerunners of the Reformation. The Franciscans, whom the pope violently persecuted, furnished in thirty-four years no fewer than two thousand victims to the pontifical executioners. The publications de- scribing the disorders of the court of Avignon were followed up in England with an effect still more fatal to the supremacy of Rome. John Wickliffe, by his translation of the New Testament into the English tongue, inflicted a severe blow on the authority of the clergy.* His doctrines spread rapidly beyond this country ; and in the university of Prague arose the great predecessor of Luther. John Huss began by preaching against the disorderly lives of churchmen, and soon adopted the principles of Wickliffe, with which he became familiar, by means of the books his friend Jerome had brought from Oxford. Some time afterwards, Boniface IX. sent monks into Bohemia charged with the sale of indulgences : this scandalous traffic was forbidden by Sigis- mond ; and Huss seized the opportunity of declaiming against the power of the pope to grant them. When the reformer's exertions in defence of the privileges of the university had promoted him to the rectorship, he spoke more freely, and even attacked the papal supremacy. Alexander V. interfered energetically to crush the rising heresy ; but although in 1412 he excommunicated Huss and laid Prague under an interdict, the rector continued to disseminate his doctrines. For this conduct he was cited before the council of Constance, the states-general of Christendom, as it has been called, 1414. Under a safe-conduct from Sigismond, Huss reached the place of meeting, where he was soon thrown into prison, and detained half a year before his first interrogation, 5th June 1415. About a month afterwards, judgment was pronounced on a series of thirty-nine articles professed to be taken from his works, his books were condemned to be burnt, and himself given over to the secular power. He perished at the stake, protesting his orthodoxy to the last, j In 1416, his disciple, Jerome of Prague, underwent a similar fate. * The translation and reading of the Bible, after the Vulgate had ceased to he intel- ligible, was by no means interdicted, although the Legends of Saints were more admired The New Testament was rendered into German by two different parties in the ninth century, and detached books had been translated into French before the twelfth. When the spread of heretical opinions began to disturb the orthodox believer, it was thought, necpssary to provide against lawless interpretation; and, accordingly, the council of Toulouse, in 1229, prohibited the laity from possessing the Scriptures. t Hallain remarks, that " the scandalous breach of faith -the violation of the safe- conduct — which the council induced Sigismond to commit on that occasion, is notorious. But perhaps it is not equally so, that it recognised by a solemn decree the flagitious principle, that no faith or promise ousht to he kept with Huss, by natural, divine, or human law, to the prejudice of the Catholic religion. No breach of faith, he continues, can be excused by our opinion of ill-desert in the party, or by a narrow interpretation of our own engagements. Every capitulation ought to be construed favourably for the weaker side." APPENDIX TO PART SECOND. 343 The news of these executions excited general indignation throughout Bohemia, where the doctrine of communion in both kinds and evangeli- cal self-denial had made great progress. All the churches of Prague re-echoed the panegyrics of Huss; medals were struck in his honour; and at length a solemn festival was appointed to commemorate his mar- tyrdom. Angry feelings both against Germans and Romans now announced a speedy outbreak; and in John of Trocznow, surnamed Zisca, was found a leader in the war against the church. His partisans soon amounted to the number of 40,000; and to provide a stronghold for them, he caused lines to be drawn around the summit of a mountain, which he called Tabor — the Bohemian word for a camp or tent — whence his followers derived their appellation of Taborites. The Hussites gave full scope to their fury, so that they destroyed 550 monas- teries before the end of the year. This violence brought Sigismond into Moravia ; and by means of the crusade then preached, he united 140,000 men under his banner. This numerous host was defeated by the Bohemians armed with iron flails, and nearly all the Moravian nobility perished on the field of battle. Zisca having died in 1424 of the plague, the Taborites separated into two bodies, which continued to devastate Bavaria, Misnia, and Lusatia. Their ravages were terminated by the concessions of the council of Basle. Council of Florence, 1439. — Under Pope Eugenius IV. a council was held at Florence, whither it had been transferred from Ferrara, for the purpose of terminating the Greek schism. The Emperor John Pa- leeologus, after a brief discussion, acceded to the Roman confession of faith, recognising especially the doctrines that the " Holy Ghost pro- ceedeth from the Father and the Son," and that the Bishop of Rome was the head of the universal church. The wound now seemed healed ; but when the emperor returned to Constantinople, he met with such an opposition to the re-union of the two churches, that he dared not perse- vere. In the subsequent overthrow of the Greek kingdom, Pope Nicholas V. saw the judgment of an offended Deity. In 1492, the papal crown was disgraced by Alexander VI. (Roderic Borgia), whose profli- gate career, scarcely possible to be exaggerated, was ended by his drinking the poison he had mingled for another. APPENDIX TO PART SECOND. Commerce, the Progress of Learning, Discoveries, $'c. Commerce. — The commerce of Western Europe was almost entirely inter- rupted between the fall of Rome and the accession of Charlemagne, at which latter period the cities of Italy began to form a connexion with the ports of the Greek empire. While Constantinople flourished, the treasures of the East were brought thither by caravans from India, through Candahar and Persia; by the northern routes along the Caspian and F-uxine seas ; by the Euphrates and thence overland to the Syrian ports; or lastly, by way of the Red Sea and Egypt. Amalfl, in the tenth century ; Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, in the eleventh, became in turn the chief marts of foreign trade. The persecuted Jews were at this time active agents in the mercantile system ; and by the decrees of the church against usury, the trade in money was, until the thirteenth 344 MIDDLE AGES. century, thrown almost entirely into their hands. The Crusades formed a grand epoch in the history of commerce, by the introduction of silk and sugar into the west of Europe. Five hundred years before, in 551, silk- worms had been brought from China into Greece, and were successfully reared in the Morea. In the fourteenth century, the Genoese traded with India through the Black Sea ; as did the Venetians through Egypt and Syria. The circumnavigation of Africa proved as fatal to the commerce of Venice as did the fall of Constan- tinople to her great rival. So long as the Mediterranean was the medium of commercial intercourse, Venice, situated nearly in the centre of the civilised world, possessed the whole trade of the East ; and such were her resources derived from the traffic, that five millions of gold crowns were expended in opposing the memorable league of Cambray, 1508. The maritime communica- tion opened by the Portuguese with India in 1497, deprived the republic of the wealth of the East; while the discovery of America directed the attention of Western Europe to a wider field of mercantile and naval enterprise. Another extraordinary event again changed the course of commerce : an inundation of the sea formed a connexion between the ocean and a lake since called the Zuyder Zee, and thus Amsterdam became a maritime port in the fifteenth century. The Hanseatic league, which, in 1241, facilitated the progress of the interior trade of Europe, began to decline from 1370. The grand commercial route was the Rhine, the Danube, and the various passages of the Alps, particularly across the Tyrol and by the St. Gothard. The second line proceeded from Greece to Russia, passing by Vienna and Ratisbon. A third road extended from the coasts of the Mediterranean, by Marseilles, to the Atlantic. The merchandise brought by these channels was distributed at the several fairs of Aix-la-Chapelle, where all goods were exempt from toll, and of Champagne, where might be seen merchants from the most distant parts of the known world. Spain furnished arms, silk, and Cordovan leather; while Germany, in return for the wines of France and spices of the East, exported beer, cloth, and metals. In England the charter of John, 1215, declared a uniformity of weights and measures; and in 1331, Edward III. endeavoured to bring from the Low Countries a number of the discontented weavers. In the thirty-seventh year of his reign, it was enacted that every merchant or artificer worth £500 in goods and chattels might dress like a squire of £100 a-year, and so on in a rising scale. In 1348, Spanish horses of Arabian breed were exchanged for sheep ; a barter which created new sources of wealth in both countries. Agri- culture especially flourished in England ; and it is to this triple combination of commerce, manufactures, and rural economy that she is indebted for her splendour and power. Woollen Trade. — The introduction into England of the important manu- facture of woollen cloth was the work of Edward III. Flanders had previously been the great centre of the trade, whence, by the institution of yearly fairs, 960, all continental Europe was supplied. English wool had long been exported to the Netherlands, but principally by German and Italian merchants. Henry I. had endeavoured to establish manufactures of fine wool in 1111, by a settle- ment of Flemings at Ross in Pembrokeshire. The abuses of monopoly, and the tumults to which they gave rise, drove many workmen from Holland and Flanders into this kingdom, 1331, where they obtained such privileges as encouraged them to resume their occupations. The serges of Ireland were much esteemed in Italy in the fourteenth century, before which period the woollen trade of Catalonia had been firmly established. Fisheries. — The earliest authentic account of the herring-fishery on the coast of Norway extends as far back as to 978. At the beginning of the fifteenth century the Netherlands rivalled the Hanse Towns, not only in their woollen manufactures, but in their method of pickling herrings, a superiority which they attained about the time of the removal of the great shoal from the southern shores of the Baltic, first to those of Denmark and Norway, and, in 1394, to that of Britain. Naval Code.— The first maritime code was that of Rhodes, which was revived APPENDIX TO PART SECOND. 345 in that of Amalfi. Richard I. of England is supposed to have drawn up the laws of Oleron, 1194 ; but the code of Barcelona, 1255, became the fundamental law of commerce. Some such regulations were necessary to prevent piracy and the barbarous custom of reprisals. Banks, (J-c. — The silver mines of Misnia, discovered in 698, afforded a more convenient means of trading than by barter. The modern funding system dates from 1175, when a forced loan was raised at Venice. General letters of credit are mentioned about 1200 ; bills of exchange were known in 1255 ; and the first bank of exchange and deposit was established at Barcelona, 1401. In 1236, an attempt was made in China to introduce a paper currency for the relief of the government, but it failed from the want of public confidence. Gu?ipowder. — The manufacture of gunpowder was known to the Chinese about a. d. 85 ; but no traces of it are discoverable in Europe before the middle of the thirteenth century, when it is said to have been used by the Spanish Moors in defence of the city of Niebla, 1249. Cannon appear to have been first employed by the King of Granada, when he besieged Baza in 1312; and by Edward III. at Cressy, 1346. Muskets were introduced about 1411, and bombs in 1450. Printing. — The art of printing with moveable types was invented about the middle of the fifteenth century ; but its origin is involved in much uncertainty, no less than fifteen cities and a greater number of individuals laying claim to the honour. The taking of impressions from engraved blocks or plates is very ancient, and was known to the Babylonians and Romans. The Chinese are supposed to have made much progress in this art before the tenth century. Guttenburg of Strasburg, Faust, and Schoeffer, however their pretensions may be confused, consummated this valuable discovery. The first printed book was a Latin Bible, 1450-1455, known as the " Mazarin Bible," from a copy having been discovered at Paris in the library of the Cardinal Mazarin. The first work printed in England was executed at Oxford, 1468, three years before Caxton began to print in Westminster Abbey. The Great Plague. — An extraordinary continuance of heavy rain-storms in the winter ofl345 and the following spring, by causing the almost entire failure of the harvests in Europe, produced a severe famine, which rendered the popu- lation very susceptible of contagion. The great plague raged in every country of Europe, carrying off nearly three-fifths of the inhabitants. It began in the Levant about 1346, and thence extended to Sicily, Pisa, and Genoa: the suffer- ings of Florence gave occasion to the Decameron of Boccaccio. In 1348, it spread over France and Spain, reaching Britain the next year. In 1350, it coasted Germany and other northern states, continuing generally about five months in each country. Gipsies. — In the year 1417, the gipsies first appeared in Moldavia, Wallachia, and Hungary. It is extremely probable that the terror spread by Tamerlane's invasion of India, 1408, drove out many of the inhabitants, and that these are the Zingari (Wanderers), known as Bohemians in France, and 'Gipsies (j. e. Egyptians) in England. Revival of the Arts and Learning. — The revival of the fine arts illumined the close of the Middle Ages. The church of St. Mark at Venice was completed in 1071 ; Notre Dame in Paris was founded 1163, and occupied 100 years in building ; Westminster Chapel was rebuilt by Henry III. in 1220 ; the dome or cathedral of Pisa was the first model of the Tuscan order ; Cimabue, born at Florence 1240, was the restorer of oil-painting ; while his pupil Giotto intro- duced rules and added dignity to the art. The gardens of Lorenzo de Medici, filled with the precious remains of antiquity, were the nursery of men of genius, and particularly of Michael Angelo, who attained the highest eminence in painting, sculpture, and architecture. Finiguerra, in 1460, or rather Baldini, invented the art of engraving ;* and by 1600, the sublime and graceful produc- tions of Raphael were accurately transferred to paper. •This is doubtful, as plates are to be found in the different cabinets of Europe of ad early a date as 1440. Wood-engraving made great progress in Germany about the 346 MIDDLE AGES. From the fall of Rome to the time of Charlemagne there was i long period of violence and ignorance ; during which the islands of Britain and Ireland claim the honour of sheltering the exiled learning of Europe. Situated beyond the limits of the barbarian ravages, they afforded an asylum, from which the students were again expelled by the maritime ravages of the Danes and North- men, to diffuse their knowledge over the Empire of the West. The conventual schools, established by Charlemagne, became the means of arresting the utter decay of learning. The dialects of France, Italy, and Portugal, are derived from one common source; for " Rome imposed not only her yoke but her language upon con- quered nations." The progressive corruption of the Latin language by the adoption of foreign words, and by the loss of many works of standard authority, conduced to the formation and peculiarities of its several derivatives. Still it did not cease to be spoken- in France until the eighth century; but in 813, we find the Romance tongue completely established. In Italy, the change appears to have taken place earlier With the disuse of Latin all the learned pursuits were abandoned, and the establishment of Christianity alone preserved the remains of ancient literature, which found refuge in the monastic institutions. The first great step towards a revival of letters appeared in the foundation of universities. Paris, in 1100, became famous by the teaching of William of Champeaux, and of his rival Abelard. Oxford was a flourishing school about 1200, and Cambridge was incorporated in 1231. Bologna claims a higher antiquity. These seats of the muses owed their reputation to the "scholastic philosophy" — an intri- cate web of logical and metaphysical subtleties, founded on .he dialetics of Aristotle. In the twelfth century the Romance language separated into the Langue oV Oc and the Langue d' Oil, Provencal and Northern French. The celebrated Troubadours now appeared ; and the Floral games of Toulouse and the Courts of Love attracted the chivalry of Europe. French, properly so called, began to be spoken prior to 1100, and England was the earliest school of its literature, and the resort of the Norman trouveurs. The English language was formed at a later period than either of the above- mentioned dialects ; the earliest tolerable writer was the author of Piers Plow- man's Vision. Wickliffe first displayed the copiousness and energy of the language ; and Geoffrey Chaucer, born in 1328, is justly esteemed the father of English poetry. The oldest Italian poet is not earlier than the year 1193. Dante, the first great one of modern Italy, was born 1265 ; his noble poem, the Divine Comedy, was written in exile. He died in the year 1321. Petrarch followed at an interval of eighty-three years, 1304, and gave a polish to the language which the other had formed. He was among the first to urge the study of Greek literature, and was successful in recovering many of the treasures of the ancient classics. Boccaccio, born 1313, kindled his poetic ardour at the tomb of Virgil ; but he is more justly famous as the father of Italian prose composi- tion. About this period the French commenced turning their old metrical romances into prose — an evidence that the prosaic genius of their dialect began to be felt. The language and poetry of Spain were not developed before the sixteenth century. The arrival of Barlaan, a Calabrian monk, at Avignon was an epoch in literary history. He read Plato and Homer with Petrarch, whose example attracted the attention of Italy. Cosmo de Medici established an academy at Florence about 1450, solely for the study of Plato : Nicholas V., on the con- trary, favoured the philosophy of Aristotle. The progress of learning was facilitated by the invention of linen paper in the thirteenth century, and public libraries were soon afterwards formed. To Poggio we are indebted for the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries under Albert Durer and his masters. APPENDIX TO PART SECOND. 347 discovery of Quintilian, Lucretius, twelve comedies of Plautus, and other works. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 contributed greatly to the spread of Greek literature in the West, by the dispersion of its learned men. A pro- fessorship of Greek was established at Oxford under Henry VII., and another at Paris in 1458. The cause of learning was supported by Laurentius Valla, Leonardo Aretino, Politian, and the learned printer Manutius Aldus. Domestic Manners, fyc. The increasing wealth and foreign commerce of Europe naturally led to greater refinements in domestic life. When other and more direct testimony is wanting, we may, in certain respects, judge of the progress of society by the sumptuary laws, the chief part of which, extending both to the table and the wardrobe, were enacted in the fourteenth century. In France these provisions were continued down to 1700. The history of civil architecture gives a striking insight into the advancement of social comforts. The high gloomy keeps, with their narrow loopholes, gradually yielded to the castle and the palace, in which the large arched windows are evidences at once of internal quiet and magnificence. The houses of the gentry were usually built of wood or of stones rough from the quarry. Brick buildings first appear in the fourteenth century. The ordinary mansion-houses were small and inconvenient ; a passage extended through the house, with a hall and parlour on one side, and on the other the kitchen and offices, with one or two chambers above. In France, traces of fortified castles {chateaux) remain; while in Italy, although in several towns the houses were covered with thatch, there was a greater degree of elegance in the buildings. Chimneys' did not come into generaJ us*e before the middle of the fourteenth century ; and in France, not before the middle of the seventeenth. They were not introduced into the Cheshire farm-houses until the early part of Elizabeth's reign, the fire being in the middle of the house against a hob of clay, and the oxen lived under the same roof with the family. Neither in France nor in England was window- glass introduced before the fourteenth century, and during the middle ages glazed windows appear to have been an article of moveable furniture. Beds were extremely rare ; the walls of the rooms were naked ; there were no libraries or pictures ; silver cups and spoons were almost the only articles of plate. Chairs and looking-glasses were scarcely known ; window- shutters and curtains were great luxuries even in 1539. The condition of agriculture in England had been gradually improving since *he Norman conquest. During the long reign of the Plantagenets, woods were cleared, marshes drained, and parochial enclosures made, so that, under Edward III., there was a great extent of land cultivated; the northern and western parts, however, being the most backward. The culture of the arable soil was very imperfect, nine or ten bushels of wheat being a fair average crop to an acre. Such land was rented at about sixpence an acre, though meadow- ground was double or triple that sum. To augment their revenues, the land- lords procured a repeal of the act forbidding the exportation of corn, 15th Henry VI., so long as wheat did not exceed 6s. 8d. a-quarter, and barley 3s. Under Edward IV. the usual price of land was ten years' purchase. But to form precise notions on this subject, we must be acquainted with the relative value of money. Before the debasement of the coin in 1301, the ordinary price of a quarter of wheat was about 4s., that of barley and oats being in proportion. A sheep was dear at one shilling, and an ox at ten or twelve. By a com- parative table of English money, drawn up by Sir F. Eden, it appears that the value of a pound sterling of our present coinage was worth at the Conquest .£2, 18s. lfd., whence it gradually decreased until it reached 4s 7|d. in 1551 ; but the next year it rose to £1, 0s. 6fd. With few variations, until the 43d of Elizabeth, it continued as at present. Sir John Fortescue speaks of £5 a year as " a fair living for a yeoman ;" in 1514, the expense of a scholar at the uni- versity was but £5 a-year, or about £60 of our money ; and earlier, in 1476, we find fourpence (our five shillings) given as a fee to a barrister for his dinner. Here we must consider the change in manners and the usual mode of living. Little wine was drunk ; there were no foreign luxuries ; male servants were kept chiefly for husbandry; and landed estates were nearly exempt from 348 MIDDLE AGES. taxation. The condition of the labouring classes, in the reign of Edward III. or Henry VI., was better than at present. In the fourteenth century a harvest- man had fourpence a-day, thus enabling him in a week to buy a coom of wheat, which, at the average of the last twenty years, would now cost about 28s. In 1350, reapers' wages were fixed by law at threepence a-day, without food, equal to 5s. at present; in 1424, at fivepence, equal to 6s. 8d. ; those of ordinary workmen being somewhat less. In 1444, a head-shepherd had £1, 4s. a year, equivalent to about £'20, and in their ordinary diet labourers used a good deal of animal food. Consult: Hallam, Middle Ages, ch. ix. pp. 1 and 2; and Millar's Lectures on the Philosophy of History, vol. iv. lect. 38-40. END OP PART II. MIDDLE AGES. PART THIRD. MODERN HISTORY FROM THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION, AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY. The great historical and political events which characterize this lasi period of Universal History were brought about by many concurrent circumstances, sufficiently united in respect of date to form a marked difference between the middle ages and the events of modern times. The introduction of the mariner's compass was followed, though at a long interval, by the discovery of America and by the circumnavigation of Africa ; while the invention of printing prepared the way for the intel- lectual and religious changes effected by Luther in the sixteenth century. In considering the actual state of Europe, we must not forget the influence of race and language. The nations of the South, with their Roman habits and dialects, were in almost constant opposition to those of the North, whose language and manners were of Germanic origin. In the West, civilisation was rapidly developed, and carried to the most distant countries, whereas in the East, the people, chiefly of Sclavonic lineage, were too much engaged in opposing the barbarians to make any great progress in the arts of peace. Similar causes will also account for the backwardness of the Scandinavian tribes, who were so far removed from the influence of refinement. In all the nations of Gothic descent, which alone were strictly under the feudal law, a powerful middle class arose by degrees, and supported the kings against the barons. But the struggle was long and severe ere the people triumphed. In the middle of the fifteenth century, feudal- ism was dominant in the Empire; it had humbled the Castilian monarchs, and preserved its supremacy in Portugal, England, and Naples ; in Scotland it was attacked by the sovereigns ; while in France, Charles VIII., successful in recovering those provinces conquered by the English, paved the way for its abolition ; and, before the end of the century, Ferdinand of Spain, Henry VII. of England, and Louis XI. of France, had established the royal power on its ruins. Sweden, which had been united to Denmark during sixty years, broke the union of Cal- mar ; Russia emancipated herself from the Tartar yoke ; and the Teu- tonic order of knights became the vassals of Poland. During the time the emperor was busied in founding the greatness of his house, and Germany in repairing the evils inflicted by her political and religious wars, all the Eastern states were menaced by the Turks, whom the Hungarians at length arrested in their victorious career. By the middle of the sixteenth century, the Reformed doctrines were already spread 30 (349) 350 MODERN HISTORY. throughout Europe, particularly in France, England, Scotland, and the Low Countries. Spain alone remained closed against them, and be- came their most determined adversary. The Eastern and Northern states did not long remain strangers to the European republics. During the rivalry of Francis I. and Charles VI., Turkey was identified with the European system; and at the beginning of the seventeenth century, Sweden interfered in a resolute manner in the affairs of her southern neighbours. It was now that France assumed a high position ; and Louis XIV. dictated to Europe so long as his an- tagonists were composed of the divided Empire, Holland, and Spain, then almost ruined ; but his influence and power were eclipsed so soon as William III., in 1688, ascended the British throne, and was enabled to wield the extensive resources of his new kingdom. In concert with Holland, the English destroyed the pretensions of France to the dominion of the sea, and, in union with Austria, confined her within her proper limits, though they could not prevent the establishment of a Bourbon on the Spanish throne. Sweden was the principal northern power : twice she effected considerable conquests, but was too feeble to maintain a lasting supremacy. Her career, too, was checked by Russia, which eventually attained the superiority she has ever since preserved. The beginning of the eighteenth century was marked by the formation of the kingdoms of Prussia and Sardinia. The colonial wars, one of the characteristics of this period, furnished England with an opportunity of destroying the navies of France and Spain, and of asserting her power over the neutral states. The revolution of her American dependencies threatened her influence, and terminated in the loss of these important settlements ; but, presenting a determined front to her enemies, she founded in the East an empire of vast wealth and extent. At the close of the eighteenth century, war raged throughout the greater part of Europe ; and the very foundations of society were shaken by the most terrible revolution on record. The political whirlwind spread from France over Europe, leaving in all directions the deepest marks of its progress. But as storms and tempests serve to puiify the atmosphere, so good has, in the political world, sprung out of what ap- peared to be unmingled evil. Constitutional monarchies are everywhere established, or the way is rapidly preparing for them; and the influence of the middle class is more directly felt in the governments both of England and France. SIXTEENTH CENTURY. Britain and Ireland. — 1509, Henry VIII. — 1513, Battle of Flodden; James V. — 1514, Wolsey. — 1527, Anne Boleyn. — 1536, First Suppression of Monasteries.— 1542, Mary, Queen of Scotland.— 1547, Edward VI.— 1553, Mary.— 1558, Elizabeth.— 1587, Queen of Scotland beheaded.— 1588, Spanish Armada defeated. — 1598, Irish Revolt. France. — 1508, League of Cambray against Venice. — 1512, Battle of Ravenna. — 1515, Francis I. — 1520, Field of Cloth of Gold. — 1544, Battle of Cerri- soles ; Boulogne taken by the English. — 1545, Massacre of the Vaudois. — 1558, Calais recovered.— 1560, Charles IX.— 1572, Massacre of St. Bartho- SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 351 lomew.— 1574, Henry III.— 1588, States of Blois.— 1589, Henry IV.— 1598, Edict of Nantes. Italian Peninsula. — 1501, Naples conquered by French. — 1503, Battle of Cerignola; 1525, of Pavia. — 1537, Cosmo de Medici. — 1547, Fieschi's Con- spiracy. — 1580, Charles Emanuel of Savoy. — 1585, Pope Sixtus V. Spanish Peninsula. — 1500, Charles V. born; Ximenes. — 1539, Last Casti- lian Cortes. — 1555, Philip II. — 1557, Sebastian of Portugal. — 1578, Henry I. of Portugal.— 1596, Cadiz taken by the English. United Provinces. — 1568, Death of Counts Egmont and Horn. — 1579, Union of Utrecht. — 1584, Prince of Orange murdered. — 1597, Victory of Turnhout. Germany. — 1501, Aulic Council. — 1517, Luther. — 1519, Charles V. Emperor. — 1530, Diet of Augsburg. — 1535, Anabaptist War. — 1545, Council of Trent. —1552, Treaty of Passau.— 1556, Ferdinand I. ; 1564, Maximilian II. ; 1576, Rudolph II. Hungary and Bohemia. — 1490, Ladislaus. — 1516, Louis II. — 1526, Battle of Mohaz ; John Zapoli and Ferdinand. — 1541, John Sigismund. — 1548, Here- ditary Succession of Bohemia. — 1566, Turkish Invasion. Poland and Russia. — 1506, Sigismund I. king of Poland. — 1519, Polish War against Teutonic Order.— 1533, Ivan IV.— 1550, New Code.— 1573, Henry ofValois. — 1581, Conquest of Siberia. — 1598, EndofRurik Dynasty. Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. — 1448, Christian II. — 1523, Gustavus Vasa. — 1534, Christian III. — 1560, Eric of Sweden. — 1592, Sigismund of Poland. The East.— 1501, Ismael Sophi, King of Persia.— 1512, Selim I.— 1515, Mogul Empire in the East Indies. — 1521, Belgrade taken. — 1522, Siege of Rhodes. — 1548, War with Persia. — 1553, Roxalana. — 1571, Battle of Lepanto. — 1574, Amurath III.— 1585, Shah Abbas. Colonies. — 1500, Brazil discovered. — 1503, Portuguese first established in India. — 1508, West Indies. — 1513, Discovery of the South Sea. — 1526, Pizarro in Peru.— 1584, Virginia, the First English Colony. — 1586, Davis' Straits. The Church. — 1517, Luther. — 1525, Capuchin Order. — 1530, Confession of Augsburg. — 1533, Calvinists. — 1534, English Reformation. — 1540, Jesuits. — 1545, Council of Trent. — 1546, Socinians. — 1552, St. Francis Xavier. — 1568, Bull in Cozna Domini, — 1572, Massacre of St. Bartholomew. — 1580, Chinese Mission. Inventions, &c. — 1517, Gun-locks.— 1538, Lotteries. — 1548, Balance Wheel. — 1582, Reformed Calendar; Oil-Painting. — 1593, Telescope and Ther- mometer. BRITAIN. England. — In 1501 and 1502 were concluded two marriages which led to important results in after-times. Arthur, prince of Wales, son of Henry VII, having espoused Catherine of Aragon, fourth daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, and dying- six months afterwards, his "brother, afterwards Henry VIII., accepted the hand of the widow; while Mar- garet, eldest daughter of Henry VII., married James IV. of Scotland, thereby transmitting rights to her descendants which at length placed the Stuart family on the English throne. 353 MODERN HISTORY. Henry VIII. succeeded his father in the year 1509, at the age of eighteen. His accession to the throne excited transports of joy in the nation, which had been dissatisfied with the parsimonious habits of his predecessor. The treasures amassed by the latter furnished the young king with immense resources ; the chief potentates of the Continent sought his alliance ; the treaties with France were made perpetual ; and nothing was thought wanting to his happiness. The celebrated Wolsey now first appeared on the theatre of politics; and, soon after his intro- duction to Henry, became the most influential member of the privy- council, and was considered prime-minister. Although older than his majesty, he made it his study to flatter and subserve the natural disposi- tion of his master for luxury and every kind of pleasure. Henry speedi- ly dissipated in tournaments and banquets the wealth left by his parent; and turned his attention to political intrigues and active warfare. Pope Julius II., eager to expel the French, whom, in virtue of the league of Cambray, he had introduced into Italy, spared no means to gain his support. He succeeded so far as to interrupt the friendly relations with Louis XII., and the English king in person led an army into Flanders, where he took Terouenne, and routed the enemy at Guinegate, in the Battle of the Spurs. In Scotland, the arms of Henry were not less successful; and James IV., the Scottish monarch, was entirely defeated and slain at Flodden in 1513. But finding at length that he had been the dupe of the Pope, he concluded a treaty with Louis XII., giving him in marriage his sister Mary, 1514. Francis I. renewed the treaties of his predecessors, and Wolsey seized on this opportunity of making himself agreeable to the French ruler, whose influence he required at Rome to obtain a cardinal's hat, the object of his ambition. The crafty churchman, however, took ad- vantage of the success gained by his patron at Marignano to alarm Henry as to the effect of the victories of the young and warlike sovereign. The long rivalry between Francis I. and Charles V., consequent on the elevation of the latter to the imperial dignity, for which Henry had him- self been a candidate, brought the English monarch into the quarrel, in the first instance, as the ally of the emperor. Discussions of a very different character soon engrossed the attention of the English monarch. Henry, who piqued himself greatly on his theological abilities, was indignant at the contempt with which Luther had treated Thomas Aquinas. In support of his favourite author, he composed " A Treatise in Defence of the Seven Sacraments," which was presented to the Pope, who, besides comparing it to the writings of Jerome and Augustin, gratified the king with the title of " Defender of the Faith," 1521. In return, the royal author, who was not inaccessible to the voice of praise, entered readily into the league against the King of France. The English invaded Picardy, and advanced to within eleven leagues of Paris, when the defeat and capture of Francis at Pavia in 1525, altered the policy of their sovereign. His intercession between the captive and Charles led to new conventions between England and France, whereby Henry gave up all pretensions to the crown of the latter country, which his predecessors had claimed since the reign of Edward III. In 1527, Henry was seized with a passion for Anne Boleyn, one of SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 353 the queen's maids of honour ; and he seems to have early formed the design of getting rid of Catherine, and making this new favourite his wife. The quarrel between Pope Clement VII. and Charles V. appear- ed to Henry a favourable moment for accomplishing his purpose. Pro- posals to annul the marriage had been ineffectually made to the Pope several months before Anne appeared at court, when the king's determi- nation assumed all the violence natural to his character. Affecting to have scruples as to the lawfulness of his union with Catherine, and adopting the express language of the Book of Leviticus, he forwarded a theological treatise on the subject to Clement, who, pressed on the one side by a prince whom he was desirous of conciliating, and on the other by the emperor whom he feared, promised and temporized, in the hope that the passion of the former would cool. But this delay only irritated Henry's impatient temper, and, after a disgraceful scene before the two legates, he banished the unfortunate Catherine from court, 15*29. Meanwhile the Pope had become reconciled with Charles V., at whose instigation the case was transferred to Rome. For this change the king held Wolsey responsible, who, overwhelmed with sudden disgrace, was stripped of his immense riches, and died of a broken heart, 1530. His place was soon supplied by Cranmer, under whose advice Henry con- sulted the principal universities of Europe, the majority of which were favourable to his wishes ; and to annoy and weaken the clergy, he in- cluded them in the charge previously brought against the cardinal, of violating the statute of " praemunire."* A convocation was immediate- ly summoned, and d6 100,000 were offered for a full pardon, which Henry, who had now resolved on entirely subverting the papal au- thority, refused unless he were acknowledged " Supreme Head of the Church in England." Having attained his object, he secretly married Anne Boleyn, 1533; and after publicly acknowledging his new wife, had her crowned with great ceremony so soon as Cranmer, now raised to the see of Canterbury, could pronounce the sentence of divorce against Catherine. The parliament ratified the marriage with Anne, and declared Mary, the issue of the previous union, illegitimate. It also formally annulled the pontifical authority, and conferred on the king the title of " Supreme Head of the Anglican Church," with most of the spiritual prerogatives previously exercised by the Pope. In separating from the Romish communion, Henry pretended still to be orthodox. Believing himself absolute master of the minds of his subjects as well as of their bodies, he changed the discipline of the church, but retained its doctrines. In his eyes it was equally criminal to believe in the Pope or in Luther; and those of either party who were unable to disguise their sentiments, were punished alike. In 1535, two illustrious victims, Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More, perished on the scaffold for refusing to take the oath of supremacy; and at the same time, Protestants were dragged to the stake for speaking against the sacraments of the Roman church. The monks, whose credit had fallen with the power of the pontiff, detested the sacrilege which they conceived *This law, which is still in force, was passed during the disputes of Richard II. with the papacy, and enacts, that if any man shall seek or obtain, in the court of Rome or elsewhere, any translations of bishops from their present sees to other sees out of the kingdom ; any excommunications, bulls, or other instruments against the king's crown and dignity ; that his goods and chattels, lands and tenements, shall be forfeited to the crown, and his body imprisoned. 30* 354 MODERN HISTORY. the king to have committed ; and, on the other hand, Henry regarded them as his principal enemies, whom it was necessary to destroy. For this purpose, Cromwell, his secretary, was appointed "royal vicegerent and vicar-general," with orders to visit by his commissioners the con- vents of both sexes throughout the kingdom. Though time had intro- duced abuses and disorders into these institutions, the visiters published an exaggerated relation of them.* The parliament immediately made a first step towards the entire destruction of the religious orders, by sup- pressing all monasteries whose yearly income did not exceed £200 ster- ling. By this measure, 380 communities were abolished, whose total revenue amounted to £32,000, besides plate and jewels to the value of £100,000. Soon after these arbitrary proceedings, the queen was suddenly arrested and conveyed to the Tower, being accused of adultery and high treason. Seventeen days saw Anne Boleyn pass from the throne to the scaffold. There is no doubt that her vivacity and freedom of manner had given rise to suspicion ; but the best exculpation of her character is to be found in Henry's marriage with Jane Seymour, one of her maids of honour, on the day succeeding Anne's execution, 1536. During these transactions, the violent religious changes had excited great discontent, particularly in the north of England, where several revolts broke out. Thirty thou- sand of the malcontents marched towards London ; but they were dis- persed, and the principal leaders executed. These commotions increased the king's dislike to the monks, whom he not unjustly accused of being the secret agents of the insurrection. To crush them entirely, he deter- mined to destroy all the remaining religious communities. The parlia- ment readily passed the necessary measures ; and the annual revenue of the crown was augmented by an addition of £160,000. In the midst of his hostility to the Romish church, Henry never failed in his zeal to uphold its dogmas. The parliament, becoming daily more servile, approved of his intolerance by the famous bill of the Six Arti- cles, called the Bloody Statute, — a law which asserted the real presence, and communion of one kind, forbade the marriage of priests, admitted vows of chastity, and declared the utility of private masses, with the necessity of auricular confession. Any violation of the first article was punishable with death; and for the others, the penalties were confisca- tion of property and imprisonment during the royal pleasure. To crown all, the same parliament gave to the king's proclamations the force of statute law. In 1540, Henry, left a widower by the death of his queen, Jane Sey- mour, who died in 1537, twelve days after giving birth to a son, subse- quently Edward VI., contracted a new marriage with Anne, daughter of the Duke of Cleves. His union with this princess, whose personal appearance did not correspond with Cromwell's flattering description, led to the destruction of that favourite, whose sudden exaltation and tyrannical conduct had caused him to be generally hated. The king gave him over to his enemies, by whom he was accused of heresy and high treason; the very parliament which condemned him to death hav- * The substance of these charges has never been impeached ; and their existence is in a measure confirmed by similar imputations attached to monastic institutions even of these later days in Italy and Spain, as may be seen in the life of Scipio Ricci, bishop of Pistoia. SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 355 ing, but a few days before, declared him worthy to be the " vicar-gene- ral of the universe." The disgrace of this high officer was followed by the divorce of the queen ; and in less than a month Henry married a niece of the Duke of Norfolk, Lady Catherine Howard, who was decapitated eighteen months afterwards on a charge of incontinence before and after marriage. The king next espoused Catherine Parr, widow of Lord Latimer. A revolt in Ireland, hostilities and negotiations with Scotland, and a war with France, occupied the latter years of his reign. As Henry was descended from the Welsh Tudors, he naturally di- rected his attention to the country of his ancestors, which was a prey to all the disorders of feudal anarchy, and where his proclamations were without force. In 1536, it was enacted that the whole of Wales should be incorporated with England, being made subject to the same laws, and authorized to send to parliament a member for every county. In Ireland, the religious innovations countenanced by the government had excited so profound a sensation as to unite in one common cause the natives and the settlers, hitherto apparently irreconcilable enemies. But O'Neill, the head of the insurgents, having been defeated, the other chiefs submitted to the royal authority. In 1542, that country was raised from a lordship to a kingdom, and several of the most powerful leaders created earls, among whom O'Neil received the title of Tyrone. Lastly, some regulations for the administration of justice completed its pacification, and the power of the English had never appeared more firmly established since the invasion of Henry II. The king, finding his authority confirmed in England and Ireland, wished to extend his influence into Scotland, and oblige his nephew, James V., to adopt his religious opinions and declare war against France. An invasion by an English army produced no other effect than the burn- ing of a few villages; and the death of the Scottish sovereign, in 1542, led to a cessation of hostilities. Henry was now at leisure to turn his attention to France, whither he sent a numerous army, which took Boulogne. After the defection of Charles V. from his alliance, the war continued two years longer, but was not marked by any memorable event. In virtue of the treaty of 1516, Henry retained his conquests until certain sums of money owing by the enemy were paid. The end of this extraordinary monarch now rapidly approached; and his death, on the 28th of January 1547, saved the life of the Duke of Norfolk, who had been condemned to be executed the following morn- ing. Hall am thus describes Henry's rule and character: — A government ad- ministered with so frequent violations not only of the chartered privileges of Englishmen, but of those still more sacred rights which national law has established, must have been regarded, one would imagine, with just abhorrence and earnest longings for a change. Yet contemporary authorities by no means answer to this expectation, some mentioning Henry after his death in language of eulogy. I do not indeed believe that he had really conciliated his people's affection ; for that perfect fear which attended him must have cast out love. But he had a few qualities that deserve esteem, and several which a nation is pleased to behold in a sovereign. He was without dissimulation ; his manners were affable, and his temper generous. Though his schemes of foreign policy were not very sagacious, and his wars productive of no material advantage, yet they were uniformly successful, and retrieved the honour of the English name. But the main cause of the reverence with which our forefathers cherished this king's memory, was the share he had taken in the Reformation. They saw 356 MODERN HISTORY. in him not indeed the proselyte of their faith, but the subverter of their enemies power — the avenging minister of Heaven, by whose giant arm the chain of superstition had been broken, and the prison burst asunder. — Constitutional History of England, ch. i. Read : Tytler's Life of King Henry VIII. in Edinburgh Cabinet Library. Edward VI. had not reached his tenth year when he ascended the throne in 1547. Henry had fixed his majority at eighteen, and ap- pointed -sixteen executors, assisted by twelve counsellors, to carry on the government in the meanwhile. But the young king's uncle, the ambitious Earl of Hertford, by securing a majority of the curators, was appointed protector of the realm, and created Duke of Somerset. This nobleman, being a zealous partisan of the new religious doctrines, edu- cated Edward in Protestant principles, and concerted with Cranmer a plan of general reform. Yet it was necessary to proceed with caution ; and the duke suspended for a time the episcopal authority, appointing commissioners to visit the dioceses. Gardiner, bishop of Winchester, opposed these proceedings with all his influence ; and to silence so powerful an adversary, he was thrown into prison. During this time Scotland was more than ever agitated. The murder of Cardinal Beaton lighted up the flames of civil war. The queen- dowa^er, Mary of Lorraine, asked succour from France, and the Pro- testant party had recourse to England. Somerset, who crossed the Tweed at the head of 20,000 men, proposed to unite the two kingdoms by the marriage of the young queen with Edward, and offered peace as the condition. The battle of Pinkey, 1547, in which more than 10,000 Scots wire left on the field, followed the refusal. Instead of taking advantage of this success, the victor returned to London, where cabals were forming against him by his brother Lord Seymour, and Dudley, earl of Warwick. To secure his popularity, he summoned a parliament, which repealed the most hateful laws of Henry VII!., including the statute of the Six Articles. Further, private masses were forbidden, and the holy communion ordered to be administered in bread and wine, while the nomination of bishops became one of the prerogatives of roy- alty. In the following year, the parliament enacted that the mass should be celebrated in English, adopted the reformed liturgy, and per- mitted the marriage of priests. Public attention was now directed to the struggles of the protector against his brother Lord Seymour, who was one of his greatest enemies. The ambition of the latter had been nourished by his marriage with Catherine Parr, widow of Henry VIII., on whose death he had aspired to the hand of the Princess Elizabeth. He had numerous partisans; but being charged with plotting to carry off the king and change the government, he was executed on the 20th March 1549. This, however, did not terminate the protector's embarrassments ; for Catholic priests had stirred up the peasants of Devonshire and Norfolk, and when these insurrections were suppressed, he had to contend against the allied Scotch and French army. Failing in obtaining foreign aid, and being opposed by the powerful Warwick faction, Somerset fell rapidly from his lofty station. He was accused of high crimes and misdemeanours, and committed to the Tower; but his execution in 1552, and the title of Duke of Northumberland conferred on W T arwick, did not satisfy the lat* ter nobleman, whc aspired to the supreme authority, founding his ambi- SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 357 tious views on the delicate health of the king. He first persuaded Ed- ward to change the order of succession, representing that Mary and Elizabeth, having been declared illegitimate by the parliament, could not ascend the throne ; that the religion and birth of the Scottish queen disqualified her; and that, consequently, the nearest heir was his cousin the Marchioness of Dorset, eldest daughter of Mary, sister of Henry VIII., by her second husband the duke of Suffolk, and after her, Lady Jane Grey, the grand-granddaughter of Henry VII. While the council were deliberating on this momentous question, Northumberland effected the union of his fourth son, Guildford Dudley, with Lady Jane, and Ed- ward VI. expired not long after, in the sixteenth year of his age, July 6, 1553. Immediately on Edward's decease, Northumberland proceeded to pro- claim Lady Jane Grey ; but Mary, the daughter of Henry VIII. by his first queen, Catherine of Aragon, collected an army, asserted her claims, and prevailed over her rival. The unfortunate Jane reigned only ten days, — to her a period of sorrow and distress. The duke was beheaded in 1553, and Lady Jane and her husband in the following year. Mary had determined to re-establish the Roman Catholic worship, but she proceeded cautiously, at first liberating Gardiner and other bishops from prison, and restoring them to the sees of which they had been deprived ; while of the reformed clergy great numbers were ejected. Cranmer, doubly hateful to her for the share he had taken in the divorce of her mother, and in the establishment of Protestantism, was accused of favouring the party of Lady Jane Grey, and condemned for high trea- son; but his execution did not take place till three years after. Parlia- ment readily abolished the statutes of Edward VI. which were in any- wise favourable to the new doctrines, and restored affairs to the state in which they were left by the death of Henry VIII., Mary retaining the spiritual power and the title of the head of the church only until she could restore both into the hands of the Pope. In order more surely to accomplish her designs, she contracted a marriage with Philip, son of the Emperor Charles V., in 1554. After a sojourn of fourteen months in England, the prince returned to Flanders, and soon after inheriting the crown of Spain, he thought no more of his queen. Thus was fortu- nately defeated a deep-laid plot to tranpfer the kingdom under a foreign yoke, and to crush the Protestant religion along with the national inde- pendence. In the new parliament, which assembled in November 1554, the entire re-establishment of the Roman Catholic religion was agreed to, and Cardinal Pole was sent from Rome to reconcile England to the holy see. Worldly interest entered deeply into this religious change; for those who had enriched themselves by the spoils of the church in the two preceding reigns, exacted a confirmation of the abbey lands to their new proprietors. Under the fanatical Gardiner, it was not to be expected that heresy would pass unpunished. The number of persons who suf- fered death by fire in Mary's reign has been computed at 300, among whom were Archbishop Cranmer, Bishops Latimer, Hooper, and Ridley. The Princess Elizabeth was confined in the Tower, on account of her extensive influence among the Protestant party. The murmurs of the people, the rapid progress of the Reformed doctrines, the indifference of her husband, the loss of Calais, and the failure of an expedition to Brest, 358 MODERN HISTORY. all preyed upon the queen's spirits, and hastened her death. She expired in 1558, leaving the kingdom to her sister. Hallam sums up the character and reign of Mary in the following expressive terms: — "Her reign was inglorious, her capacity narrow, and her temper sanguinary; although conscientious in some respects, she was as capable of dissimulation as her sister, and of breach of faith as her husband ; she obsti- nately and wilfully sacrificed her subjects' affections and interest to a misplaced and discreditable attachment; and the words with which Carte has concluded the character of this unlamented sovereign are perfectly just: — 'Having reduced the nation to the brink of ruin, she left it, by her seasonable decease, to be restored by her successor to its ancient prosperity and glory.' " — Const. Hist. England. Elizabeth had been brought up in the religion of her mother, Anne Boleyn, and had with difficulty escaped from the trials of the preceding reign. Misfortune served only to call forth the strength of her character. In her long retirement, occupied in the study of ancient and modern lan- guages, and in the pursuits of literature, she prepared herself for the great task which Providence had reserved for her. Although the divorce of Catherine of Aragon, and Henry's marriage with Anne Boleyn, had been ratified by parliament, yet as these acts were not acknowledged by the Pope, the zealous Catholics disputed Elizabeth's right of succession, and turned their eyes to Mary Stuart, who inherited the claims of Margaret, eldest daughter of Henry VII. This princess, married to the dauphin of France, accordingly assumed the title of Queen of England, and quartered the English arms with those of Scotland and France. Elizabeth now decided upon establishing Protestantism, as the safeguard of her throne ; but her first steps were marked by her characteristic caution and prudence. She published an edict maintaining, until further orders, the services of religion in the same form as at the death of Mary, and permitted the prayers and offices to be read only in English. She was even consecrated by the Roman Catholic bishop of Carlisle, 15th January 1559; but the parliament which assembled ten days after abolished the papal supremacy, ordered the Book of Common Prayer to be exclusively used, and that all clergy- men should swear to the new order of things. The bishops, with one exception (Landaff), refused to take the required oath; but among the inferior clergy, spread over nearly ten thousand parishes, there were not found two hundred to follow their example. The Protestant Church of England was thus established in its present form. As Elizabeth's greatest difficulties were to be expected from the oppo- sition of the Catholics, she endeavoured to promote Protestant principles in those states that were most in connexion with her own. In Scotland the reformers had made great progress, animated by the zeal ?nd elo- quence of Knox; and the dissensions between the two parties in thai kingdom were encouraged by Secretary Cecil, in order to weaken the power of the queen, and destroy the influence of the French king, her husband. The measures pursued were so successful, that when Mary returned to Scotland in 1561, she was obliged to renounce all claims to the English throne. Elizabeth now turned her views to the internal improvement of her own dominions, and the success which accompanied her labours excited the admiration of all Europe. In 1563, a law was passed commanding all members of the House of Commons, teachers, lawyers, and clerks, to take the oath of supremacy; SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 359 not long after which the Puritans separated from the established church. An ecclesiastical convocation was summoned to compose the national creed, and the Thirty-nine Articles were drawn up, as they exist at the present day. The progress of affairs in Scotland was so adverse to Mary Stuart, that she was compelled to flee from her own subjects into England, where she was immediately imprisoned on the plea of certain crimes with which she was charged. The conferences at York and Hampton Court, as to her participation in her husband's murder, were far from disproving her guilt; while the extensive combination in 1569, to marry her to the Duke of Norfolk, gave great disquietude to the cabinet. The intrigues of this weak and ambitious nobleman were terminated by his death on the scaffold in 1572. The Pope, Pius V., did not remain an idle spectator of these transactions. He issued a bull, which, after enu- merating Elizabeth's crimes, declared her guilty of heresy, and an- nounced that her subjects were absolved from their allegiance. This edict, founded on the assumed right vested in the supreme pontiff to depose kings for heinous crimes against the church, was far more inju- rious in its consequences to those whom it was intended to serve than to the sovereign. It elicited two statutes for her security, punishing with severity any intercourse with Rome, and all who ventured to deny her title. The House of Commons even called for the trial of " the pre- tended Scottish queen." Elizabeth now began to enjoy tranquillity, her authority being firmly established in England, and Scotland governed by her creature Morton. Although herself a Protestant, she had not hitherto, from the unsettled state of her affairs, interfered directly in the insurrection of the Low Countries or the civil war in France. But in 1579, she beheld dangers closing around her on every side. The first blow was the disgrace of Morton, and the subsequent loss of her influence in Scotland. In 1578, she had concluded a treaty with the states-general of Holland, professing at the same time a desire to preserve friendly relations with Philip II., notwithstanding that Drake, with a privateering squadron, was ravaging the Spanish colonies of America. His majesty, to retaliate these indi- rect hostilities of the English queen, sent a body of troops into Ireland, 1579. Her quiet was farther menaced by the plots of the Catholics, to counteract which the Protestants formed a solemn association for her defence against all enemies, foreign or domestic. Parliament banished the Jesuits as well as the priests of the Romish communion, and forbade their return under the penalties of high treason. The alarm, whether real or feigned is uncertain, which Elizabeth felt on account of Queen Mary, caused an increase of severity towards that unfortunate princess. Her friends in England were consequently more earnest in her cause, and plotted the assassination of their own sovereign. A young man, named Babington, managed to open a correspondence with the royal prisoner, which however did not long escape the vigi- lance of Secretary Walsingham. Means were now found to implicate Mary with the conspirators, and she was tried and condemned to death by a special commission, 25th October, 1586. On the 8th of February, in the following year, the sentence was carried into effect at Fotheringay castle. Elizabeth affected grief and anger, put on mourning, and pun- ished her secretary, Davison, for having allowed the execution to take place without her orders. 360 MODERN HISTORY. When the King of Scotland was informed of the death of his mother, he testified the most violent indignation ; but policy soon prevailed ovei filial tenderness, and the prospect of one day succeeding Elizabeth in- duced him to suppress his resentment. Philip II. had resolved on pun- ishing the English queen for the aid she had given to the Low Coun- tries, and the eyes of all Europe were fixed on his armaments; but before the preparations were completed, Drake, at the head of a gallant squadron, burnt a great number of Spanish ships in sight of Lisbon and Cadiz, captured the galleons which were on their voyage from America, laden with riches, and returned home with an immense booty, 1587. At the same time, Walsingham succeeded in getting the Spanish bills dishonoured at Genoa, thereby depriving Philip of the resources he expected. This manoeuvre, and the terror inspired by Drake, compelled the expedition to be deferred until the following year, thus giving Elizabeth time to prepare for the defence of her kingdom. The " invincible armada," as it was called, consisted of 132 vessels, most of them being of unusual magnitude, and mounted 3165 guns. It was navigated by 8766 seamen, and carried nearly 22,000 soldiers ; a force which was to be augmented by 30,000 men assembled in the neighbourhood of Dunkirk. England now appeared animated with one sentiment. Exclusive of the levies furnished by the city of London, 132,000 men were speedily collected where the prospect of invasion was most imminent. The queen appeared on horseback in the camp at Til- bury, and haranguing the army, exhorted the soldiers to remember their duties to their country and their religion. " I am ready," she said, "to pour out my blood for God, my kingdom, and my people. I will fight at your head ; and although I have but the arm of a woman, I have the soul of a king; and what is more, of a king of England." By such conduct and language she filled the people with enthusiasm. Her fleet, which consisted of only twenty-eight ships, was by the zeal of her people soon increased to a hundred and seventeen, having on board 11,120 men, placed under the orders of the High-admiral Lord Howard of Effingham, who was aided by Drake, Hawkins, Lord Henry Sey- mour, and Frobisher. The spirit of the Scotch was not inferior to that of the English ; they raised troops for the defence of both kingdoms, and formed an association, whose object was to maintain their religion and government against all enemies, at home or abroad. On the 29th of May, 1588, the Spanish armada, under the Duke of Medina, sailed from Lisbon ; but a furious tempest next morning drove it back into harbour, and it did not reach the Channel before the 19th of July. Here it was attacked by the English squadron, which proved victorious in five successive engagements. The duke, finding he could not form a junction with the troops at Dunkirk, meditated a return to Spain, when a storm arose, which destroyed the greater part of his fleet on the shores of Orkney and Ireland, so that only 53 ships reached home, and these in a shattered condition. The event was celebrated in England with great rejoicings, and a medal struck in commemora- tion, bearing the inscription, Bens afflavit et dissipantur. The destruc- tion of the armada was a fatal blow to Spain ; English cruisers covered all the seas, ravaged her coasts, and plundered her colonies. Henceforward the reign of Elizabeth was less disturbed. The death of Mary Stuart, and the Protestant sentiments of her son, had entirely SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 361 mined the hopes of the Catholics; while the cause of the Reformation was supported in Holland by British auxiliaries. Philip, in revenue, stirred up the Irish Catholics to revolt. On a given 4ay there was a general massacre of the English, — a detestable treachery, that only served to call down upon their country the wrath of the queen. The Earl of Essex was sent over at the head of a large army, and with unlimited power, but this favourite was recalled to perish on the scaf- fold, 1601. The death of Elizabeth followed not long after, havino- been accelerated, if we may believe the common rumour, by her regret at the untimely fate of the earl. At the age of seventy years, and after a glorious reign of nearly half a century, she expired on the 24th March 1603, leaving the sceptre to James VI. of Scotland. Scotland. — This country had suffered greatly from its wars with England, against which the alliance of France proved but an uncertain protection. The chivalrous temper of James IV. led him to seek the chief support of his crown in the great feudatories ; but he prematurely perished in the disastrous battle of Flodden, 1513. During the minority of James V., his mother, Margaret of England, disputed the regency with the Duke of Albany. But this contest was of little importance, compared with the great change operating by the introduction of the Reformed doctrines, about 1530. James V., who had married a French princess, Mary of Lorraine, died in 1542, leaving an only child, Mary, afterwards united to the dauphin. Under the regency of the queen- mother, the Reformation rapidly proceeded; and Cardinal Beaton, who virtually administered the government, attempting to check it by violence, perished by assassination. Excited by the enthusiastic eloquence of John Knox, the people rose in insurrection, stripped the Catholic churches of their ornaments, and in many places totally destroyed them. An army was immediately collected to punish these disorders, when the Protestants united themselves still more closely by a treaty or covenant, at the head of which was James Stewart, a natural son of James V., and sought the assistance of Elizabeth. Taking advantage of the absence of their queen in France, the people, who had subdued the Catholic party, gave their new church a regular form of government. Professing the doctrines of the Reformers of Geneva, they abolished Episcopacy, and established an ecclesiastical republic, or Presbyterian- ism. The return of Queen Mary to Scotland, 1561, was the beginning of the misfortunes of that unhappy princess. Her education in the court of France made the cold and rough manners of her new subjects intolerable, while her adherance to the Roman Catholic religion was far from conciliating their affections. The sudden and violent death of her husband, Darnley, and her subsequent marriage with Bothwell, drove the people into revolt. Her forces were defeated at Carberry Hill, and she was confined in Lochleven castle ; having escaped, she was again defeated at Langside, and compelled to take refuge in England, 1568, leaving the kingdom in the hands of the Earl of Moray, as regent for her infant son, James VI. Ireland. — This country, the origin of whose inhabitants is somewhat obscure, had been governed by native princes until 1172, when Henry II. Plantagenet, taking advantage of its intestine troubles, seized upon the kingdom, and conferred the government upon his son John, by whom it was united to England in 1210. But successive revolutions 31 362 MODERN HISTORY. disturbed the country, and it was not entirely subdued before the end of the sixteenth century. Henry VIII. ruled it with a stern and systematic despotism, and almost entirely destroyed the ancient family of the Ge- raidines. Laws were now enacted to establish the English dress and language, and to prevent the colonists from holding intercourse with the natives. The royal authority, after being in abeyance about two hun- dred years, was recognised in Ulster and Connaught. The accession of Elizabeth was a crisis in Irish history: in her reign the Protestant church was established, and all subjects were bouud to attend its public services. The violent manner in which these laws were attempted to be enforced aggravated the rebellious spirit of the Irish and drove them to insurrection. The insurgents were with difficulty put down ; and their crime was punished with so much severity, that the counties of Cork and Keny, the patrimony of the Earl of Desmond, were reduced to a barren waste. At an early period in the history of Ireland, the chieftainships were subject to the law of tanistry, i. e. that the lands and dignity descended to the eldest and most worthy of the same blood, the claims of seniority being controlled by a due regard to desert. The landowners, not of noble rank, held their posses- sions by the tenure of gavel-kind, which was not an equal partition, as in England, but the chief of the sept to which the deceased belonged was entitled to divide the patrimony as he pleased, allotting to the lineal heirs a portion with the rest of the tribe. Justice was administered in each sept by judges called bretons, selected from certain families. The government of Ireland was en- tirely aristocratic, the condition of the common people being little different from slavery. FRANCE. Louis XII., 1498, ascended the throne of France at the age of thirty- six. He added to his regal titles those of Duke of Milan, and King of the Two Sicilies and of Jerusalem, — thus declaring his intention of fol- lowing in the steps of Charles VIII. His claims to the duchy were derived from his paternal grandmother, Valentina Visconti, a descendant of the ducal family of that name. Trained in the school of misfortune, this prince had learnt to be just; and, by his generous and beneficent character, deservedly bore the title of Father of his People. His chief minister was Amboise, archbishop of Rouen, the early period of whose government was employed in use- ful reforms, and in diminishing an oppressive taxation, although the country was engaged in w T ar. The troops were subjected to regular dis- cipline, fixed garrisons appointed, and a stated subsistence provided for them. He moreover improved the administration of justice by shorten- ing the usual law-processes and their expenses. Almost the first act of Louis' reign was to dissolve his marriage with Joan of France, whom he had been compelled to espouse by Louis XL He w r edded his second wife, Anne of Brittany, the widow of Charles VIII. , as much from policy as inclination, since the alienation of the duchy was thereby prevented. On her death he married Mary, sister of Henry VIII. of England, which was the means of obtaining peace after the defeat at Guinegate, better known as the Battle of the Spurs, from the knights making greater use of these in their flight than of their lances in the attack. SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. t!63 Claude de Seyssel, bishop of Marseilles, in a work on the Monarchy of France, has left us a valuable picture of the constitution of that country during this reign. The royal authority was limited by the states-general and the parliaments. The former, meeting only for important cases, and not being regularly convoked according to a fixed law, possessed little real influence. The parliaments, composed of permanent magistrates, registered the edicts, and could remonstrate against them: so that these two bodies, although im- perfectly constituted for successful opposition, could in some measure restrain the abuse of authority. The Court of Accompts verified the public expendi- ture, and had the power of retrenching whatever appeared unnecessary. It also watched over the preservation of the royal domain, which provided for the personal expenses of the sovereign. These several guarantees against despo- tism, although far inferior to those afforded by the representative system, characterize the monarchy of this period as more constitutional than is generally supposed. The different orders in society, although distinct and unequal, were not so hostile as may be imagined. The clergy had rich benefices and great privileges, but their ranks were open to all classes. The nobility were exempt from taxe3 of every denomination ; but in war they served the state gratuitously, and were forbidden to engage in any mechanical or secular profession. The upper burghers or commons possessed the judicial and financial offices, which gave them great influence in society. These were not interdicted to the nobles, but they generally preferred a military career. Fortune and talent were the means of raising the merchants and lawyers to the higher class ; as this last might be ennobled by the king in reward of meritorious service. Italian Wars. — Before commencing his first Italian campaign, the French monarch endeavoured to strengthen his cause by numerous alliances. Pope Alexander VI. became his friend, as did his illegiti- mate son, Csesar Borgia, upon whom was conferred the duchy of Valen- tinois ; and the kings of England and Spain, with the republic of Venice, formed treaties of alliance with him. Sforza, better known as Ludovico the Moor, was without a friend ; but Bajazet II., the grand sultan, in- directly afforded him assistance by attacking the Venetians, against whom he had declared war. At the close of July, 1499, the French army, composed of 1600 lances, and 13,000 infantry, including 5000 Swiss, crossed the Alps under the command of Marshal Trivulzio. All the strong places opened their gates. Milan itself deserted the tyrant Ludovico, who was obliged to seek an asylum with the Emperor Maximilian at Innsbruck. The con- quest of the duchy was completed in twenty days. Louis XII., who made a triumphal entry into the capital, exercised his rights of sove- reignty by diminishing the taxes and regulating the courts of justice. Trivulzio was appointed governor ; but his violence prepared the way for the return of Sforza, whose re-appearance in the Milanese at the head of 10,000 Swiss was the signal for a general revolt. The duke re-entered his capital in February 1500, amid the shouts of those who had driven him into exile a few months before. The French returned soon after his restoration, when the Swiss, who had fought under his banner, deserted in a body. He sought safety in flight; but was made prisoner, and kept in close confinement at the castle of Loches, in Berri. until his death in 1510. Louis, now thinking himself firmly established in the Milanese, turned his thoughts to Naples. Frederick, too weak to dispute the kingdom, offered advantageous conditions, which were rejected ; and finding that the French still advanced towards Naples, he surrendered 364 MODERN HISTORY. to the invader, who sent him to Tours, where he died in 1504. The French and Spaniards now began to quarrel about the division of the spoil ; but after two campaigns, the latter remained in possession of the kingdom of Naples. Three armies and two fleets were soon prepared by Louis to avenge his honour, but they all failed in their object. The succession of Julius II. to the papal throne led to the treaty of Cam- bray in 1508, by which Louis, the Emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand of Spain, and the Pope united against Venice. By the battle of Agna- dello, gained by the French, the Venetians were driven from the conti- nent and confined to their isles. The allies took possession of the deserted cities, but did not occupy them long; for, in 1510, Julius II. became reconciled with the republic, and in the next year succeeded in drawing Ferdinand, Henry VIII., and Maximilian to his side. France bravely made head against her enemies. Gaston de Foix, at the age of twenty-two, repelled a body of 16,000 troops engaged in invading the Milanese, raised the siege of Bologna, defeated the Venetians, re- covered Brescia from them, and gained the battle of Ravenna, in which he fell, pierced by sixteen wounds, 1512. After Gaston's death, Louis experienced several reverses in Italy ; and the Sforzas were established at Milan, and the Medici at Florence. The war had now no longer any object. Louis therefore concluded a treaty with Ferdinand of Spain, and abjured the council of Pisa, which had authorized his oppo- sition to the head of the church. He died in 1515. Francis I., immediately on his accession, invaded Lombardy with a powerful army. The Swiss valiantly opposed his troops at Marignano; for two days the victory was obstinately contested, and at last the moun- taineers, though defeated, retired in good order. The alliance now formed with Pope Leo X. and with the Venetians seemed to open the way to Naples. Charles of Austria, who had succeeded his grand- father Ferdinand on the Spanish throne, was desirous of peace, that he might consolidate his vast inheritance. Francis hesitated to profit by his victory; and the treaty of Noyon, in 1516, gave a temporary repose to Kurope. The elevation of Charles to the imperial dignity gave rise to a long period of rivalry between that prince and the King of France, 1519. Taking advantage of the departure of the emperor for Germany, Francis, on pretext of recovering Navarre for John d'Albret, sent an army into Spain; where, however, it was defeated, and compelled to recross the Pyrenees. The war was now prosecuted in the Low Countries, France, and Italy, with varitd success. In the latter country, the troops of the empire were commanded by the Constable Bourbon, a prince of the blood-royal of France, who, in consequence of the injuries inflicted on him by the queen-mother, had deserted his native country. The French under Bonnivet were defeated at Rebec, where the celebrated Chevalier Bayard fell, 1524; and in the subsequent year the king, who command- ed in person at the battle of Pavia, was made prisoner. The captive was taken to Madrid, and there kept under a strict guard. In January 1526, a treaty was signed by which he agreed to renounce all his claims on Italy and the sovereignty of Flanders and Artois, restore Burgundy, give his two eldest sons as hostages, and marry Eleanor, the emperor's sister. These Irani conditions, extorted by force, were not strictly exe- cuted. An assembly of notables, convened at Cognac, declared against SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 365 the treaty, and their decision was confirmed by a similar body, which met in Paris. At the same time, his majesty concluded an alliance with Clement VII., Venice, the Duke of Milan, and Henry VIII. The war was terminated in 1529 by the treaty of Cambray ; Charles gave up his hostages, and Eleanor was married to the French monarch. In 153G, Francis invaded Savoy and Piedmont; but Charles, hasten- ing to meet the French troops, drove them across the Alps, and entered Provence at the head of 50,000 men. While he was detained by the siege of Marseilles, another army ravaged Champagne and Picardy. Marshal Montmorency saved Provence and Dauphiny by devastating the country through which the imperialists would have to advance. In 1538, a truce for ten years was concluded at Nice by the intervention of Pope Paul III. An interview between the two sovereigns appeared to give promise of a lasting peace, and these hopes were increased by the circumstance of the emperor being permitted to pass through France, to quell a revolt at Ghent. Scarcely four years of tranquillity, how- ever, were allowed to elapse before hostilities recommenced. To the astonishment of Christendom, an Ottoman fleet, united with a French squadron, undertook the siege of Nice. But Andrew 7 Doria, the cele- brated Genoese admiral, then in the service of Austria, repelled both, and defeated the Turks in several engagements. The victory of Cerri- soles, near Carignano, gained by Francis, was more glorious than advantageous. An alliance of Henry VIII. with Charles V. exposed Paris to the greatest risk ; for the latter had become master of Epernay and Chateau-Thierry. It was fortunate for France that the religious disturbances in Germany demanded the undivided attention of the emperor ; and the peace of Crespy in Valois terminated the contests be- tween the two great rivals, 1544. The French monarch expired in 1547. Battle of St. Quentin. — Henry II., who, in 1547, succeeded his father at the age of twenty-nine, recovered Boulogne from the English, and compelled Charles V. to raise the siege of Metz. The war with Spain and England began in 1557, in which one of the armies of Philip II., commanded by the Duke of Savoy, blockaded St. Quentin. The Constable Montmorency advanced to throw r troops and provisions into the place, when his army suffered a dreadful reverse, and the town was shortly after taken by assault. The Duke of Guise, who had been recalled from Italy, retook Calais, stormed Guines, and by his successes hastened the conclusion of peace. In a tournament given on the occa- sion of the marriage of Henry's sister Margaret with the Duke of Savoy, and of his daughter Elizabeth with Philip II., the king was accidentally wounded in the eye by the lance of the Count de Mont- gomery, a captain of the Scottish guard, and died eleven days after- wards, 1559. The Factions. — Francis II., the husband of Mary Stuart, queen of Scotland, w 7 ho was about sixteen when he ascended the throne, proved a passive instrument in the hands of faction. On the one side w r ere the Bourbons or princes of the blood-royal, Anthony, king of Navarre, and Prince Louis of Conde ; on the other was the family of the Guises, con- sisting of six brothers, — whose leaders were the Duke Francis, who had gained a high military reputation in the last campaigns, and Charles, cardinal of Lorraine, whose vast erudition and fiery zeal against the Huguenots had placed him at the head of the French clergy. The 31* «3bb modern history. Constable Montmorency and his nephews, the two Colignis, formed *. third party, which expected to hold the balance between the other two. The Guises, at this time all-powerful, held the king in tutelage, the nation was enslaved, and the 'princes of the blood were banished. It was not to be expected that they could maintain their power unassailed ; and we find, accordingly, that Conde formed a very extensive conspi- racy, the object of which was to seize them and the king. The plot was discovered through the indiscretion of one of the leaders, and several of the conspirators were arrested and suffered death. This event, known in history as the conspiracy of Amboise, contributed to increase their influence ; and under the title of lieutenant-general of the kingdom, the duke possessed nearly equal power with the ancient mayors of the palace. This he employed to destroy Conde, who, in defiance of numerous warnings, imprudently went to Orleans, at the invitation of his majesty. He was immediately arrested ; the conspiracy just noticed, and other charges, were alleged against him, and by an extraordinary tribunal he was condemned to death ; but, in consequence of the demise of Francis, 1560, the sentence was not carried into effect. Charles IX., at the age of ten years, succeeded his brother ; and Catherine of Medici held the reins of government, without, however, assuming the title of regent. Louis of Conde was restored to liberty ; the Constable Montmorency was received into favour; while the queen- mother, on her side, endeavoured to create a third party. At a meeting of the states-general in Orleans, the clergy fulminated against the Huguenots ; while the tiers etat demanded a reform of the clergy, whose vices, they alleged, were the cause of all the troubles. The nobles besides insisted on freedom of worship for the Huguenots,* who at this epoch were calculated to amount to a sixth or a fourth of the population. Many of them had taken up arms in different parts of France in defence of the reformed religion ; and their numbers compelled the Catholic party to treat them with moderation, until the decision of a national council should be known. A conference was appointed to take place at Poissy ; and although no formula of faith could be adopted likely to unite all parties, an edict was issued in 1562, by which the Protestants were allowed to preach outside the towns. Soon afterwards a body of Huguenots, who had met to worship in a barn at Vassy in Champagne, were attacked by the retinue of the Duke of Guise, sixty rf their number murdered, and more than 200 wounded. This atrocity was the signal for a general rising, and the prelude to the first civil war. First Civil War, 1562. — The parties in this conflict were the Guises in amity with Montmorency, who was master of the king's person ; and Louis of Conde, with Coligni and d'Andelot. The court faction had the ascendency in Paris, and in the provinces of Picardy, Champagne, Brittany, Burgundy, and Guienne. The Protestants were superior in the west and south, especially in Rouen, Orleans, Blois, Tours, Angers, Le Mans, Poitiers, Bourges, Angouleme, La Rochelle, Montaubafi, and Lyons. But being thus isolated, they could not co-operate with then brethren in Germany and the Low Countries. * Tlie derivation of this word is much disputed. Tt is probably another form of Eignot (from the German, eignossen). a name {riven to the Germans who entered into alliance with the Swiss cantons to maintain their liberties against Savoy. SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 367 The first pitched battle was fought at Dreux in Normandy, 1562, where the royal army was commanded by Montmorency, who was taken prisoner at the first onset. Guise, however, won the field and captured the Prince of Conde; and Admiral Coligni, who succeeded to the com- mand of the Huguenot host, was compelled to retreat. The death of Guise at the siege of Orleans restored Catherine's authority, which was consolidated by the convention of Amboise, 1563, allowing the Protest- ants the free exercise of their religion. Second Civil War, 1567. — The pacification just mentioned was scarcely concluded, before its terms were modified by the court; the Huguenot party still demanding securities, which their opponents de- layed to give. A journey of the king and his mother into the southern provinces, and the interview of the latter with the Duke of Alva at Bayonne, when plans were concerted for the extirpation of the new opinions, were soon followed by another war. Rochelle now became the rallying point vi' the reformed party. Since the reign of Charles V. this city had exercised the right of coining money; its mayors and prin- cipal authorities were reputed noble; besides which, with many other privileges, it enjoyed an extensive commerce, and possessed great influ- ence in Aunis, Saintonge, and Angoumois. At Jarnac, on the banks of the Charente, the insurgents were defeated by superior numbers, 1569; and their brave leader, the Prince of Conde, who had been made pri- soner, was assassinated after the battle by a captain of the Duke of An- jou's guards. Coligni once more saved the relics of the conquered army. The widowed Queen of Navarre, Joan of Albret, carried her son Henry, prince of Beam, to the camp, and presented him to the troops, by whom he was recognised as head of the Protestant party. They were, how- ever, again defeated at Moncontour, in Poitou, where the royal youth fought by the side of the admiral. Massacre of St. Bartholomew, 1572. — A peace was concluded in 1570 at St. Germain. Catherine accorded favourable conditions to the Huguenots ; but she had long been meditating a blow more deadly than all the preceding defeats. Henry, now king of Navarre, received in 1572 the hand of Margaret of France, the youngest of her daughters; and to add to the splendour of this marriage, the leading members of the Protestant party were invited to Paris. On the 22d August, as Coligni was returning home from a conference with the king at the Louvre, his life was attempted by an assassin at the instigation of the queen-mother, jy whom Charles was easily brought to consent to a general massacre of his Protestant subjects. The night of the 23d August, St. Bartholo- mew's eve, was the time fixed for the perpetration of a deed which has covered with infamy the memory of every one engaged in it. The admi- ral was one of the first victims : after being murdered, his head was cut off, carried to the queen as a trophy, and, being embalmed, was subse- quently transmitted to Rome. During three days the massacre was continued in the streets and in private houses ; even in the royal palace some of the retainers of the King of Navarre and the Prince of Conde were assassinated before their masters' eyes. Henry and the young prince were spared only on condition of abjuring their religion within three days. Neither rank nor age was exempted : in the capital there suffered 500 gentlemen, with 10,000 persons of inferior station; while hot fewer than 70,000 individuals fell throughout the entire kingdom. 368 MODERN HISTORY. Public thanksgivings were offered up at Rome and Madrid for the suc- cess of a crime which Thuanus, himself a Roman Catholic, stigmatizes as " a ferocious cruelty, without a parallel in all antiquity."* Charles IX. died in 1574, in great agony of body and mind. The League. — Henry III., the conqueror at Jarnac and Moncontour, who had been elected King of Poland, returned hastily to France on the news of his brother's death. The new monarch, who endeavoured to play the parties against each other, gave favourable terms to the reform- ers, now headed by his brother the Duke of Anjou and the young King of Navarre. To the former he ceded Anjou, Touraine, and Eerri; reli- gious toleration was permitted everywhere, except in Paris ; Protestants were to form half of each parliament ; and the cities of Angouleme, IS'iort, La Charite, Courges, Saumur, and Mezieres, were to be held by Hugue- not garrisons. The Catholic party, directed by the Duke of Guise, were far from being satisfied with this arrangement. They formed the cele- brated compact known as the Catholic League, 1577; and the king, with the view of controlling it, declared himself its head. The ostensible object of this association was to promote the ascendency of the Romish faith ; but it also secretly contemplated the deposition of the dynasties of Valois and Bourbon, in virtue of an anathema by Pope Stephen II. in 752 against the usurper Hugh Capet, and the placing of Guise on the throne, on condition that he should engage to suppress the liberties of the Gallican church. In 1584, died Francis duke of Anjou, on his return from an expedition into the Low Countries ; and by his decease the King of Navarre be- came the presumptive heir to the crown. It was about this time that a popular society was formed among the leaguers, more violent in its principles, and which was called the Sixteen, from the number of its directing committee, each of whom became a religious agitator in so many quarters of Paris. The Barricades. — Henry III. gave himself up to the debauchery of his capital ; and, although he practised every external act of devotion, became the object of public contempt, and was daily exposed to some new attack on the part of the Sixteen. Guise, who had been forbidden to enter Paris, openly defied the royal prohibition, and on his arrival a general rising was organized. The League took up arms; barricades were erected ; and chains stretched across the streets. The king's troops were gradually driven back to the Louvre; and he himself made a nar- row escape to Chartres, 1588. From this place he negotiated with Guise, nominated him generalissimo of his armies, and promised to con- voke the states-general at Blois, to deliberate on the articles proposed by the League. This assembly met on the 4th October 1588; but its first measures disappointed the monarch's expectations. The spirit of Rome appeared to animate the deputies; and Henry soon discovered that *ProtPstant writers endeavour to prove— and their arguments are very powerful — that the massacre of St. Bartholomew had been premeditated for nearly two years, if not longer; and that the nuptials of Henry of Beam and Mariraret of Valois were only a pretext for drawing the chief Huguenots to Paris. But whether it was premeditated or not for so long a period ; whether the kinc and his mother were the sole contrivers whether a greater or less number of victims fell than above stated,— are questions of little importance: it was planned, organized, and executed, facts which admit of no palliation, and must eternally brand the memory of Charles, Catherine, and their counsellors. , SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 369 his enemies would prove successful, unless he anticipated them by some bold measure. He therefore determined to assassinate the duke; and, accordingly, on the morning of the 23d December, he was killed when entering the royal chamber. His brother, the Cardinal of Lorraine, was murdered the next day while the king was at mass. On the news of these events many towns rose in revolt. The sove- reign was regarded as the assassin : the pope excommunicated him ; the Sorbonne declared the throne vacant, and his subjects were released from their fidelity ; while the faction of the Sixteen flung into the Bas- tile those members of the parliament who still showed any attachment to the monarchy. Henry ultimately sought the alliance of the King of Navarre, whom he had long treated as an enemy, and at the head of the united forces, Catholic and Huguenot, he advanced to besiege Paris; but at the moment his affairs were taking a favourable turn, his career was checked by the dagger of Jacques Clement, August 2, 1589, and in him the house of Valois became extinct. The Bourbons. — Davila regards the transactions which led to the advancement of Henry IV. to the throne, " as one of the most surprising arrangements of the providential government of the world." Even the manner of his predecessor's death determined many of the Catholic party to attach themselves to this prince, rather than to the League, which had countenanced so unjustifiable a deed. Deserted by the royal army, the new king retired into Normandy, followed by the Duke of Mayenne at the head of the troops of the League, who had already proclaimed his uncle, the Cardinal Charles of Bourbon. Having received an aid of money and reinforcements from England, he was however enabled to keep the field ; and his troops, though inferior in number, being superior in valour to those of the duke, he defeated him at Arques in 1589, and next year gained the decisive battle of Ivry. After some delay, he laid siege to Paris, and when so employed received notice that death had removed his rival, and that a solemn decree of the Sorbonne had declared him incapable, as a heretic, of mounting the throne of France. Already 30,000 victims had fallen, when the generous enemy relaxed his rigour, and allowed all but the military to retire. Peace was at length restored to the country, and he became the king of a united people by his abjura- tion of Protestantism, 1593. He entered the metropolis on the 22d March 1591. The parliament was immediately re-established ; all its decisions since 1588 were cancelled, and the decrees of the last assem- bly held at Paris annulled. In 1598, a memorable ordonnance termi- nated the religious quarrels which had distracted France during thirty- six years. The edict of Nantes granted to the Protestants the public exercise of their worship, the enjoyment of the rights of citizenship, and free admission to all employments and judicial offices ; while, in other respects, they preserved their importance as a political party. Having secured peace to his country by a treaty with Spain, the young sovereign, aided by his wise and virtuous minister, Sully, devoted the remainder of his reign to the restoration of order and general improvement. ITALIAN PENINSULA. Naples and Milan. — Throughout the first half of the sixteenth cen- tury, the Italian peninsula was the scene of almost incessait contests, 370 MODERN H1STOEY. arising out of the claims of the French monarchs to the possession of these two states. Charles VIII. of France having taken possession of Naples in 1494, a general league of the Italian powers was formed against him, his troops were driven from the country, and Ferdinand II. ascended the throne. He was succeeded by his uncle Frederick, who, being threatened by Louis XII., applied for assistance to his relative, Ferdinand of Spain. This last sent Gonsalvo de Cordova, his captain- general in Sicily, into Naples ; but, instead of rendering the aid demand- ed, a secret treaty was entered into with Louis for the partition of the kingdom. This nefarious transaction accordingly took place, 1496 ; but Louis granted to the dethroned monarch the duchy of Anjou, with a pension. The plunderers soon quarrelled about the division of the spoil, which was decided by the battle of Creignola, 1503, where Gonsalvo gained a complete victory, and drove the French from the country. Naples thenceforth continued an appanage of the Spanish crown, go- verned by viceroys. Louis XII. began his wars in 1499, by a treaty with Venice for the partition of the Milanese, when Ludovico Sforza was left without an ally — the Turks alone making a diversion in his favour. He was shortly after betrayed into the hands of the French king, by whom he was im- prisoned till his death, ten years later. Various alternations of success followed ; and the territory was occasionally in the hands of the French and of the Sforzas, until after the battle of Pavia in 1525, when it fell into the possession of Charles V. Ten years subsequently, the male line of the Sforzas having become extinct, the emperor, who still retained possession, granted the duchy to his son Philip, as a vice-royalty of Spain. The wars consequent on these arrangements are detailed under the respective heads of France and Germany. The French invasion in 1494 appears to have been courted by most of the powers of Italy : — Ludovico and John Galeazzo hoped to profit by the arrival of Charles VIII: ; the Florentines were eager to throw off the yoke of the Medici ; Pope Alexander VI. was jealous of the authority of Ferdinand of Spain; the Venetians desired the humiliation of the house of Aragon, and the numerous enemies of this family in the kingdom of Naples sought revenge for a long period of oppression. In Florence two parties divided the state. Jerome Savonarola, a native of Ferrara, a man of ardent imagination, and who had early embraced a religious life, thought himself commissioned by Heaven to reform Christendom. He began by preaching on the Apocalypse at Florence in 1489, where he continued his exhortations during eight years, mingling politics with religion. An enthu- siast in the pulpit and a demagogue in the public places, he gradually became the idol of the people and the leader of the anti-Medk-ian party. At the approach of Charles, he declared that monarch to be the envo}r of Heaven, the predestined instrument of reform. Peter de Medici, intimidated by the sensa- tion produced by his harangues, and unable to contend at once against internal tumult and foreign aggression, submitted to Charles VIII. ; for which the enraged populace drove him into banishment, and the government of Florence became an aristocracy. The Medici were restored in 1532 by Charles V. after the treaty ot Cambray. Savonarola, having been excommunicated by the Pope, was tried for sedition and blasphemy, and being condemned to death, was burnt in 1498. At this epoch there was a great and important difference between the French and Italian armies. The former were chiefly composed of gentlemen, animated by the desire of glory ; and, being paid by the king, they were always well equipped and complete. The latter were, on the contrary, a crowd of adven- turers and peasants, hired by the chiefs named Condottieri, who had neither SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 371 love of fame nor attachment to the prince who paid them. Solely bent on gain, .hese captains passed with their troops from one side to the other under the most trivial pretexts ; and in battle their chief aim was to make prisoners for the sake of ransom. The Italian cannons were of iron, and difficult to manage, while those of France were of bronze. In such circumstances Charles might, with ordinary prudence, have obtained a permanent footing in Italy ; but the arrogance and injustice of the French alienated all parties, and finally led to their expulsion from the country. " During the whole period of the French wars the wretchedness inflicted on Italy by the foreign soldiery, and especially by those mutinous robbers who composed the armies of the Empire and of Spain, was such as had not been exceeded in any age of her eventful history. Cities were plundered and burnt, rural districts were converted into wastes, families were despoiled and dis- honoured, individuals were imprisoned, tortured, and put to death. And yet, over this blood-stained arena, on which a nation, summoning up its expiring strength, fought unwisely though not ingloriously its last battle for independence — over this wild and troubled scene, where danger stalked without and treason lurked within — genius diffused a radiant light, that died away after peace had revived, hand in hand with bondage. Almost all the greatest of those names that make the modern Italians proud of the sixteenth century, presented them- selves in groups which disappeared before the age had proceeded halfway towards its close." — Italy, Edinburgh Cabinet Library, vol. ii. p. 263. Savoy and Piedmont. — The house of Savoy was founded in the beginning of the eleventh century, when Berold possessed its lands, as an ancient province of the kingdom of Burgundy. By intermarriages, by taking advantage of the civil dissensions of the country, and par- ticularly by those in France, its territories were gradually extended ; but, w T hen Duke Charles III. died in 1553, a great part of his domin- ions was seized by the French and Spaniards. The troubles w 7 hich soon after broke out induced Charles IX. to restore to Savoy the strong places which he still occupied in Piedmont. Emanuel Philibert, as well as his son Charles Emanuel, who succeeded in 1580, had nothing to apprehend from France, then distracted by the religious wars. Charles even went so far as to invade Piovence and Dauphiny, in 1590, and disputed the possession of these provinces with his powerful neighbour. Genoa. — The aristocratic constitution which Andrew Doria had given the Genoese, did not satisfy many of the turbulent and factious repub- licans. In January 1547, a conspiracy was headed by John Louis Fieschi ; all the more important posts were seized ; Gianettino, the nephew of Andrew, upon whom the government had devolved, was stabbed in the streets ; his aged relative escaped with difficulty, and every thing had succeeded beyond expectation, when the leader himself perished. His partisans submitted to their rivals, who punished the most guilty by banishment or death. After suppressing this conspiracy, Doria continued to exercise the supreme authority in Genoa, until his death in 1560, at the age of ninety-four. During the remainder of the century, this state, disturbed by its revolted subjects without, did not enjoy internal repose, in conse- quence of the differences between the old and new nobilitv. These dissensions ran so high as to give Don John of Austria a hope of mas- tering the city, wiien he lay in its port with the fleet that afterwards gained the battle of Lepanto, 1571. The disputes between the factions were referred to the arbitration of the Pope, the Emperor, and the King of Spain, by whom the constitution was modified, and the privileges of ♦he nobles augmented, 1576. Tranquillity was thus re-established, and the Genoese enjoyed peace during the succeeding fifty years. 372 MODERN HISTORY. Venice. — The league of Cambray, 1508, armed the half of Europe against this single state. Venice, long confining her power to the sea, had, as early as 1274, forbidden her citizens to acquire any possessions on the mainland ; but, gradually departing from her ancient maxims, she had made large acquisitions at the expense of her neighbours. To enforce the abandonment of these conquests, Louis, Maximilian, the Pope, and Ferdinand of Spain, formed a coalition; but the glory as well as the charges of this impolitic war devolved upon France. The battle of Ao-nadello, in 1509, destroyed the continental power of Venice ; after which, his Holiness seized upon Rimini, Faenza, and Ravenna; the troops of Maximilian, advancing through Friuli, captured Verona, Vicenza, Padua, and Trieste ; the Spaniards retook the cities of Trani, Brindisi, and Taranto ; while Brescia, Bergamo, and Cremona, fell to Louis. The Venetians, although driven to the shelter of their lagunes, did not despair; and, taking advantage of a trivial success, entered upon negotiations with the pontiff, who formed a treaty with them, 21th February 1510. After exhausting her strength in resisting the league of Cambray, Venice sunk into comparative obscurity. Two unsuccess- ful wars with the Turks deprived her of the islands in the Archipelago, and of Cyprus, her most valuable colony, 1570. The fear of the Otto- mans induced the government to form an alliance with Austria; and, during the remainder of the sixteenth century, her history contains little worthy of attention. Tuscany - . — After the treaty of Cambray, the Florentines continuing hostile to the Medici, the city was besieged by an imperial army, and forced to surrender in 1530. A new constitution, published by the emperor two years afterwards, declared Alexander de Medici chief of the city, with the hereditary title of duke; but he did not long enjoy his new dignities, being assassinated in 1537 by one of his near rela- tives. He was succeeded by the morose and heartless Cosmo de Medici, the first grand-duke, who was very active in the administration of affairs, endeavouring to reform the public manners, especially those of the clergy, and to revive agriculture and commerce. He extended his protection to letters, re-est\blished the universities of Florence and Pisa, and founded the Academy in the former city. In 1562, his palace was the theatre of some tragical events. His second son, Giovanni, having been assassinated by the third son, Garcia, Cosmo stabbed the fratricide in the arms of his mother, who died of grief shortly after, .and the duke himself retired from public life, assigning the administration of the government to Francis, his heir. Cosmo died in 1574, and his successor, after a reign marked by assassinations and crimes of every kind, was poisoned, 1587, together with his paramour, who had become his wife, at a banquet given by his brother, the Cardinal Ferdinand. The latter ascended the throne, and endeavoured to raise the people from the degradation to which they had been subjected sixty years. Under this prince, agriculture and commerce flourished ; he extended his patronage to the fine arts, and rendered the court of Tuscany the best musical school in Europe. The Roman States. — Romagna was, during many years, the theatre of a contest excited by the ambition of Cassar Borgia. At this time the States of the Church were the worst administered and least peaceful ox* i SIXTEENTH CENTUEY A. D. 373 all Italy, the territories immediately encircling Rome having passed entirely under the control of the Colonnas and the Orsini. The former being Ghibellines, the latter Guelfs, the nobility were divided between these two powerful families, whose quarrels often stained the streets of the capital with blood. Alexander VI., 1492, resolved to profit by these dissensions for the aggrandizement of his son, at the expense of the church patrimony. Caesar Borgia, with the aid of French troops, gradually reduced the petty lords of Romagna; and this prince, whom Louis XII. protected, extended his conquests by taking the isles of Piombino and Elba, with several towns on the mainland. Alexander VI., who died in 1503, was succeeded by Pius III., and the latter by Julius II., in the same year. The last-named pontiff, a thorough Italian in heart, entertained a like hatred to Spaniards, Ger- mans, and French, as having been in turn the conquerors and oppressors of his country. After the death of Caesar Borgia, he reduced part of Romagna, and prosecuted his design of expelling all foreign enemies from the Italian soil. Julius, dying at the very moment that his schemes appeared likely to be realized, was succeeded by John de Medici, as Leo X., who at first trod in the steps of his predecessors, but whose conciliatory character inclined to peace. He continued the magnificent basilic of St. Peter, which the other had begun ; and, in order to raise the necessary funds, had recourse to the sale of indulgences, — the proximate cause of the Reformation. Clement VII., 1523, also one of the Medici, and a patron of letters, but of an austere life, published a bull for the reformation of manners at Rome and throughout Italy. He was succeeded in 1534 by Alexander Farnese, who assumed the name of Paul III. It was by his intervention that Francis I. and Charles V. were induced to conclude the treaty of Nice in 1538; and the council of Trent, which was sum- moned at his suggestion, was by him transferred to Bologna. Paul IV., 1555, was the first who drew up and published an Index expurgatorius, to prevent the dissemination of heretical doctrines; he also invested the Inquisition with more ample powers. Gregory XIII. aided the Vene- tians in their wars with the Turks ; and it was this pontiff who re- formed the Roman calendar, adopting the system of Louis Lilio, a Cala- brian astronomer, and commanding its immediate use.* He was distinguished for liberality, having expended in charitable and pious works not less than 200,000 crowns. Sixtus V., his successor, 1585, who was the son of a peasant in the March of Ancona, honoured the pontificate by the vigour of his character. He cleared the country of robbers, favoured agriculture, and encouraged manufactures. Under him Rome was greatly improved and extended ; he built magnificent aqueducts, worthy of the ancient capital of the world ; raised the Egyp- tian Obelisk before the church of St. Peter ; and completed its gorgeous cupola. He died in 1590. His decision, and the numerous public buildings which he constructed, conferred honour on his name ; but his extreme rigour caused his death to be hailed with joy by the Romans, *This method, which consisted simply in throwing out ten days from the common reckoning of time at that period, and introducing«proper regulations of the bissextiles, was ordered to take place in October 1582. It has been received by all the nations of Europe, except the Russians and Greeks. The new stvle was not adopted in Great Britain before 1752. 32 374 MODERN HISTORY. who overthrew the statues that had been raised to him in the Capitol. After him, Urban VII., Gregory XIV., and Innocent IX., successively reigned only a few months ; they were followed by Clement VIII. in 1592, who reunited Ferrara to the Holy See, and expired, in 1605. Parma and Piacenza. — Pope Paul III., who passionately desired the aggrandizement of his family, had obtained, in 1545, the consent of the Sacred. College to confer on his illegitimate son, Peter Louis Farnese, the states of Parma and Piacenza, with the title of duke, feudatory to the holy see. But the new ruler was assassinated in 1547 by the nobles, to whom his debauchery, cruelty, and, above all, his various efforts to limit their privileges, had rendered him odious. Ferdinand de Gonzago, governor of Milan for the emperor, who had taken some share in this conspiracy, seized on the duchy in the name of his master. Octavius, the duke's son, claimed Parma, which the Pope had resumed, and applied, to Henry II. of France for assistance, by whose intervention it was recovered, in 1552, to which Piacenza was added by Philip II., in 1556. The long reign of this prince, of nearly forty years, contri- buted greatly to strengthen the ducal throne. He was succeeded by his son Alexander, who commanded the Spanish troops in Flanders, and died at Arras in 1592. His successor, Ranuzio L, exercised the most frightful tyranny. SPANISH PENINSULA. The death of their only son, and other family bereavements, induced Ferdinand and Isabella to centre all their hopes on the Princess Joanna and her posterity. In 1504, on the demise of Isabella, the infanta and her husband the archduke succeeded to the crown of Castile, their son Charles becoming prince of the Asturias : two years afterwards, Philip's reign was terminated by death. This event entirely unhinged the mind of his consort, and Ferdinand, her father, became regent of the kingdom. He expelled John d'Albret from the throne of Navarre, thus extending the limits of the Spanish monarchy to the Pyrenees, 1512. This prince, who has been reproached for his insatiable avarice and crafty policy, died in 1516, leaving the throne to Charles, afterwards Emperor of Germany. Ferdinand, of whom it was said by Philip II. that royalty in Spain was in- debted to him for every thing, rescued the country from feudal anarchy. Under various pretexts — by violence or judicial sentence — he deprived the nobles of the lands they had acquired from the prodigality or weakness of his predeces- sors, and diminished the power of the religious military orders. By these and similar innovations, he firmly established the royal authority ; but at the same time laid the foundation of a political and religious despotism, which attained its full development in the following reign. Charles I. was successively recognised king of Castile and Aragon, principally through the influence of his able minister, Cardinal Ximenes. The partiality of the monarch for his Flemish favourites had the effect of greatly alienating the affections of the Spanish people ; when, in the midst of the discontents thus occasioned, his grandfather Maximilian died, and he succeeded to the imperial crown by the title of Charles V., 1519. His departure to Germany was immediately followed by a for- midable insurrection, in which even the clergy took part, one of the most active leaders being the Bishop of Zamora; it was, however, SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 375 quelled after a short, but ill-concerted struggle. The history of Spain during this reign is henceforth almost inseparably connected with that of the empire. The incessant wars in which Charles was involved, compelled him to make frequent applications, particularly to his Spanish subjects, for the necessary funds. In 1539, the cortes being assembled at Toledo, he proposed to relieve the wants of his government by a general impost upon all kinds of merchandise. The violent opposition of the several orders, especially of the nobles and clergy, to the impo- sition of this tax, led to an important change in the constitution of the cortes. Finding it impossible to overcome their resistance, the emperor indignantly dissolved the assembly, remarking that those who did not contribute had no right to deliberate. Thenceforth, neither nobles nor prelates were summoned to take part in the discussion of any fiscal question, the states being composed merely of the representatives of cities, who, to the number of thirty-six, formed an assembly entirely subservient to the will of the court. Philip II. was called to the throne, in 1555, by the abdication of his father, and signalized the commencement of his reign by stringent measures for the extirpation of Lutheranism. The regulations of the Council of Trent were rendered imperative throughout the whole extent of the Spanish monarchy ; and, with the view of compelling the Moors to embrace Christianity, it was ordered, in 1568, that they should renounce their language, names, and all distinctive usages. This blind tyranny provoked a general insurrection, which was headed by Moham- med-Aben-Humeya, a descendant of the former sovereigns of Granada. Don John of Austria being sent against them, they were defeated in several engagements, and compelled to submit to conditions which involved their removal from their former residence, and their dispersion through the old Christian provinces, 1576. Revolutions in Portugal were preparing the way for the temporary union of that kingdom with Spain. The absolute government which had prevailed in the former country under John II. and Emanuel, increased greatly under John III. In the reign of this monarch, which lasted thirty-six years, the cortes were only three times convoked ; while the establishment of the Inquisition, and the introduction of the Jesuits, contributed greatly to the consolidation of despotism. The disastrous reign of Sebastian, grandson of John III., began in 1557, when the king was a minor three years of age. Educated in a manner well cal- culated to excite a naturally romantic character, and full of religious and knightly ardour, he, in 1578, undertook an expedition against the Moors in Africa, where he was defeated and slain. The Cardinal Henry now succeeded,* the only important event of whose short rule was the meeting of the estates at Lisbon to decide between the claims of the six pretenders to the throne on his decease, among whom was Philip II. of Spain. The priest-king, as Henry was called, died in 1580 ; and Philip, having gained over a part of the Portuguese nobles, ordered 30,000 men into Portugal, who, in three weeks, obtained possession of the country * Henry is seen to much greater advantage as a prelate than as a king. He reformed the too relaxed manners of the ecclesiastics, established schools and hospitals for the poor, protected letters, founded the university of Evora, and colleges at Coimbra and Lisbon. He employed the Jesuit MafFei in writing the history of the Portuguese in the Indies, encouraged the useful labours of many learned men, and himself composed several works. 376 MODERN HISTORY. The Spanish arms were at this period in the height of their success in Flanders under Alexander Farnese. Seized with the emulation of subjugating France and England, and at the same time irritated by the assistance which the latter country had afforded to the Flemish revolt, Philip, in 1588, fitted out the famous armament known as the invincible armada, which was signally defeated. Spain now gradually became of less importance in the politics of Europe; her naval power and com- merce declined ; and the king, at his death in 1598, bequeathed a debt of 140 millions of ducats to a nation whose resources were already exhausted.* THE NETHERLANDS. Philip the Hardy, youngest son of John of France, having been created Duke of Burgundy in 1363, married Margaret, daughter and heiress of Louis III., last count of Flanders. With the hand of this princess, he obtained, in addition to the county now named, Artois, Franche-Comte, Nevers, Rethel, Mechlin, and Antwerp. The fortune of the family rapidly increased with the lapse of years, and the dukes of Burgundy were soon more powerful than several of the kings of Europe. On the death of Charles the Bold, Louis XL seized on the dukedom, while all the other provinces passed to the house of Austria by the marriage of Mary of Burgundy with the Archduke Maximilian, 1477, whose grandson Charles V. increased his domains by the lord- ships of Utrecht and Overyssel, with the territory of Groningen. He then formed the plan of uniting the seventeen provincesf with Spain. Under this monarch the United Provinces greatly flourished ; but his son, Philip II., desirous of eradicating Protestantism, introduced the Inquisition, which ultimately drove the inhabitants into rebellion. In the Counts Eginont and Horn, and in William of Nassau, prince of Orange, the people had leaders worthy of their cause. Their repre- sentations to the sovereign having failed, they attacked the churches and monasteries, and after destroying the altars and images, violently introduced the Protestant form of worship. Philip, in 1567, sent the Duke of Alva into the Low Countries with an army of 20,000 men, at whose approach 100,000 Flemings abandoned their country, carrying their treasures and industry into France, Ger- many, and England. A tribunal of twelve judges established by Alva to examine into the excesses, and discover those who favoured Protes- tant doctrines, caused no fewer than 18,000 persons to perish by the hand of the executioner. The most illustrious of these victims were the Counts of Egmont and Horn, who suffered death at Brussels, June 5, 1568. The news of this cruelty was the signal for a fresh revolt and civil commotion. The Prince of Orange, at the head of a large but undisciplined army of Germans, French, Italians, and Flemings, invaded * At his accession, Philip possessed, in Europe, the united kingdoms of Castile, Ara- gon, and Navarre, with Naples, Sicily, Milan, Franche-Comte, and the Netherlands; in Africa, Tunis, Oran, the Cape Verde and Canary Islands; in America, Peru, Mexico, New Spain, and Chili, besides Cuba, Hispaniola, &c. The mines of Mexico, Chili, and Potosi were alone a source of greater wealth than almost all the other princes of Europe together were possessed of. — Watson's P/ti/ip II , vol. i. p. 17. t These provinces were the duchies of Brabant, Limburg, Luxemburg, and Gueldres; the seven earldoms of Flanders, Hainault, Artois, Holland, Zealand, Namur, and Zut- phen ; the marquisate of Antwerp, and the five lordships of Mechlin, Friesland, Utrecht, Groningen, and Overryssel. / SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 377 Luxemburg. His first efforts being unsuccessful, he and his brother Louis were compelled to return to Germany. Though defeated on land, the prince and Count William deja Marck encouraged a maritime war against the Spaniards; and in 1572, a small body captured the town of Briel, an event which laid the foundation of the republic of the United Provinces. A revolution broke out in Zealand ; and all the cities, except Middleburg, opened their gates to the insurgents, an example followed by many towns in Holland. At Dort, William was declared stadt- holder, and the public exercise of the Reformed religion in the Calvin- istic form openly introduced. Alva was recalled and disgraced ; his successor, Louis de Requesens, and Don John of Austria, continued the war with varied success. The Spanish fleet having attempted to secure Middleburg, was defeated by the Prince of Orange; while Count Louis of Nassau and his brother Henry were killed at the battle of Mookerheide. One of the most remarkable events of the war was the siege of Leyden, 1574, which was defended by the Dutch with heroic resolution. The dikes of the Yssel and Maes were broken down ; the fields occupied by the besieging army inundated ; and the invaders were eventually forced to retire. In the following year, the states of Holland founded the university of Ley- den, which long held an elevated rank among the great seminaries of Europe. The Spanish soldiery now committed the greatest excesses, plunder- ing many cities, and ravaging the open country. In this extremity, a common danger united the Protestants and Catholics. The states-gene- ral, assembled at Brussels, proposed negotiating with the Prince of Orange and the confederates of Dort. Their overtures were favourably received ; and a treaty of general union was concluded, under the title of the " Pacification of Ghent," between the provinces of the north and south, guaranteeing mutual support against the Spaniards, and solemnly pledging the contracting parties not to lay down their arms until their enemies were finally expelled from the country, 1576. On the death of Requesens, Don John of Austria was appointed go- vernor. The confederates were now T masters of Antwerp, Bergen-op- Zoom, Breda, and other important places. With an army of 20,000 men, the new governor was at first successful; but was eventually de- feated on the banks of the Diemar, and dying in 1578, was succeeded by the Prince of Parma, who, like his predecessors, failed to make any impression on the northern provinces. He was so far successful, how- ever, in sowing dissension between the states of the north and south, that the Prince of Orange, who had long regretted the insecure nature of the connexion subsisting between them, was led to form the design of isolating the northern provinces from the rest of the Low countries, and establishing a republic of which he should be the head. The act which realized this design was signed at Utrecht, January 25, 1579, between the provinces of Holland, Zealand, Utrecht, Gueldres, and Groningen. Friesland and Overyssel acceded to it in June following; and several cities of Belgium, including Ghent, Antwerp, and Breda, joined it somewhat later. William of Orange was elected stadtholder, with all the attributes of royalty. While the Seven United Provinces braved with their own resources the power and vengeance of Spain, the ten others had elected the Duke 32 * 378 MODERN HISTORY. of Anjou, brother of Henry III., to the sovereignty of the Low Coun- tries ; but that prince, having foolishly attempted to tamper with the constitution of his new dominions, was driven back to France in 1584. In the same year, William was assassinated at Delft, at the instigation of Philip, by Balthasar Gerard ; and, in the absence of the prince's eld- est son, who was a prisoner in Spain, Maurice, his second son, was raised to his father's dignities, and notwithstanding his youth, became a formidable rival to the Duke of Parma. The loss of William, however, was a severe blow to the confederation ; the Spaniards recovered several cities, and reduced the states to such extremity, that they offered, as the price of succours, to resign the country either to England or France. Elizabeth afforded only a trifling assistance; but her aid, by involving Philip in those hostilities with England which led to the destruction of the armada, had an important though indirect influence on the welfare of the United Provinces. The scale was finally turned in their favour by the death of the Prince of Parma, in 1592; and the battle of Turn- hout, in which his successor was totally routed by the allied English and Dutch forces, 1597, may be regarded as the virtual conclusion of the contest. The result of the protracted struggle between the sovereign of so many states and the small republic of the Seven Provinces appears almost a miracle. Many circumstances, however, contributed to thwart the King of Spain and to favour the Dutch. They would have been inevitably crushed, if Philip II. had brought all his power to bear upon them ; but his ambition, which compelled him to divide his forces, was a protection to his enemies. That ruinous policy which kept traitors in every court of Europe in his pay, the support he gave to the League in France, the insurrection of the Moors of Granada, the conquest of Portugal, and the construction of the magnificent palace of the Escurial, dissi- pated treasures which seemed almost inexhaustible; while his armament against England swallowed up the entire revenues of both Indies, and proved the destruction of the veteran Spanish soldiery. The situation of the insurgents was different. They found auxiliaries in all those who, to escape the Duke of Alva, had quitted the southern provinces; in all whom the Huguenot wars had driven from France ; and in all whom religious intolerance had banished from other parts of Europe. The enthusiasm inspired by new doctrines, the desire of vengeance, and other motives, attracted to their standards the adventurers of all countries. Thus the Dutch army was complete without the necessity of withdrawing men from the cultivation of the fields, from commerce, or from their extensive fisheries, which, in 1604, con- tributed Wvti millions of florins to the revenue. At the epoch when the new country was struggling for existence, it extended its dominion beyond the seas, and laid the foundations of its power in the East Indies. — Schiller's Revolt of the Netherlands. GERMANY. The reign of Maximilian was an important one both to Germany and his hereditary dominions. He reformed the public law of the empire, and was the first to establish a standing army, with infantry, cavalry, and artillery, divided into regiments and companies. In 1501, he insti- tuted the Aulic Council, which gradually acquired extensive jurisdic- tion, in some respects superior to that of the Imperial Chamber. The diet of Treves, besides confirming the power of the council, completed the subdivision of the empire into circles, by adding four others to the six instituted in 1500. He also secured the reversion of Hungary and Bohemia to his posterity, by the double marriage of the Archduchess SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 379 Mary, his granddaughter, with Louis, only son of Ladislaus, king of Bohemia and Hungary, and of Anne, sister of Louis, with his grandson, the Archduke Ferdinand. Charles V. — The death of the emperor, 1519, led to some of the most important events in modern history. Three candidates aspired to the imperial honours — Charles I. of Spain, Francis I. of France, and Henry VIII. of England ; the last, however, speedily withdrew. The electors, distrustful of the known ambition of Francis, and influenced, moreover, by the consideration that the dominions of Charles in Austria would render him the most likely defender of the empire against the Turks, then under the warlike Selim I., decided in favour of the Spanish monarch, who was solemnly inaugurated at Aix-la-Chapelle, by the title of Charles V., 1520. The dissatisfaction of Francis with this decision, conjoined with his claims on Italy, led to a series of disastrous wars between him and the Empire. The French monarch, having invaded and taken possession of Navarre, advanced into Spain, where he was defeated, compelled to evacuate his conquest, and driven back into his own country. At the same time, the Milanese, disgusted with the exactions and insolence of his troops, rose in arms, putting them- selves under Francis Sforza, brother of their late duke ; while Pope Leo X., the Emperor, and the King of England, formed a league for their assistance. The French forces were everywhere defeated, and forced to abandon nearly the whole of their possessions in Italy. Joy at these successes having proved fatal to the reigning pontiff, 1522, he was succeeded by Adrian VI., who, with the Florentines and other Italian states, joined in league against Francis, now left without an ally, 1523. The emperor and Henry VIII. invaded France on the north, south, and east ; but their forces were repelled ; and Francis, encouraged by this partial success, again essayed the recovery of the Milanese. In 1525, entering Italy at the head of a large force, he was at first very successful, and finally sat down before Pavia, a town strongly garri- soned, and commanded by Leyva, an able officer. Every exertion was now made by the imperial generals to collect an army ; while the French, exhausted by fatigue and the rigour of the season, and weakened by a large detachment sent against Naples., remaine.d in their intrenchments. On the 2d February, they were attacked by the imperialists and totally routed ; and their king, after beholding the flower of his nobility perish by his side, was taken prisoner and carried in triumph to Madrid. The result of these signal reverses was a treaty by which Francis agreed to surrender Burgundy to the emperor, and delivered up his two sons as hostages for its performance, 1526. The English sovereign now became alarmed by the growing power of the empire ; the states of Burgundy protested against the surrender of their province ; and Pope Clement VII. absolved the king from the obligations of the treaty of Madrid. In these circumstances, an alli- ance, called the Holy League, was formed between France, England, the Swiss, Florentines, Milanese, and the Pope, to oblige Charles to give up the sons of the French monarch, and to restore the duchy of Milan, of which he still retained possession, to Sforza. Charles, the ruler of so vast an empire, possessed a very limited revenue ; and the wants of his exchequer opposed a greater obstacle to his ambition than trie coalition of all the princes of Europe. The forces of the empire 380 MODERN HISTORY. were commanded by the Constable Bourbon, who had been arbitrarily deprived of his estates at home, and had joined the cause of the enemy. The confederates took the. held in Italy ; but not being: sufficiently rein- forced by Francis, the Constable overran the Milanese, and his troops beginning to mutiny for want of pay, he led them to Rome, then one of tbe richest cities in Europe. In the assault on the city, he himself was slain; but Rome was taken, and experienced from the troops of the Catholic monarch calamities surpassing those inflicted by the bar- barians of former times, 1527. On receiving the news of the captivity of the pope, Charles ordered prayers to be offered up in the churches for his deliverance, saying that his quarrel was with the temporal sovereign of Rome, but not the spiritual head of the church. The treaty of Cambray, 1529, restored peace between the rival monarchs; Francis abandoning his claims upon Italy and Flanders. In the same year, Charles and Pope Clement were also reconciled; and, in March 1530, the Spanish king was crowned by the pope at Bologna as Empe- ror and King of Lombardy. In the mean time, the doctrines of the Reformation had made rapid progress in the empire. Martin Luther, a man of elevated mind and inflexible resolution, had boldly declaimed against the corruptions of the papacy, 1517; and the opinions he promulgated were readily em- braced by the thoughtful and speculative people of Germany. The policy of the northern princes strongly encouraged this natural direction of the minds of tfieir subjects, as the best guarantee against the almost irresistible power of Charles. From the year 1525, John the Constant, who had succeeded his brother Frederick the Wise in the electorate of .Saxony ; Philip, landgrave of Hesse ; George, marquis of Brandenburg; Ernest, duke of Luneburg; and Wolfgang, prince of Anhalt, with most rf the free cities of the empire, made a public profession of Lutheranism. Albert, margrave of Brandenburg, grandmaster of the Teutonic knights, desirous of sharing in the political advantages of the Reformation, renounced his vow of chastity, secularized the duchy of Prussia, which he placed under the protection of Poland, and thus laid the foundations of a monarchy which, two centuries later, became one of the most pow- erful in Christendom. Thoroughly alarmed at the progress of the new opinions, Charles, soon after his coronation, set out for Germany, where he immediately assembled the diet at Augsburg, June 1530. The Re- formers, w'ho had now received the name of Protestants, here solemnly presented to the emperor the first public confession of their faith, drawn up by Luther, and subscribed by the various princes who had embraced the reformed doctrines. Charles, whose disposition was not naturally intolerant, found himself compelled to adopt a temporizing policy towards this portion of his subjects. The Turks were now menacing Hungary; and satisfied that he could not refuse them the free exercise of their religion without a war of extermination, he referred the whole matter to a general council, which he urged the pope to convoke, but which did not meet until 1515. The emperor now began to despair of universal monarchy, and finding himself unable alone to support the burden of affairs, he associated his brother Ferdinand with him in the government, and conferred on him the title of king of the Romans, 1531. This prince, who administered the hereditary estates of Austria, had acquired by marriage the kingdom SIXTEENTH CENTUKY A. D. 381 of Bohemia, and the sovereignty of Hungary had fallen to him on the death of Louis II. Thus already wielding three sceptres, and uniting under his authority all the south of Germany, he was one of the most powerful princes in Europe when he was nominated to the imperial succession. Charles having repelled a formidable inroad of the Turks in Hungary, 1532, returned to Spain, whence he sailed with a large army for Tunis, where Barbarossa, the dread of the Christians in the Mediterranean, had fortified himself, 1535. During his absence, the Anabaptists, a fanatical sect which had arisen in Germany amid the agitation of Reformed doctrines, seized on the city of Munster, and defended it courageously against the troops of the bishop ; they were, however, overcome, and their leaders executed with great cruelty. On the return of the emperor from Africa, where he had been completely successful, he was again compelled to take up arms against Francis, who once more revived his Italian claims, 1536. Having expelled the French from Italy, Charles invaded their territory, with the determina- tion of reducing it to a province of his empire ; but after fruitlessly investing Aries and Marseilles, and laying waste Provence, he was compelled to recross the Alps with the loss of half his army. Moham- med, the sultan's lieutenant, having at the same time invaded Hungary, while Barbarossa was ravaging the coasts of Southern Italy, he gladly accepted the mediation of Paul III., and a truce of ten years was con- cluded with Francis, 1538. The conquest of Algiers had long been a favourite object with Charles. Having suppressed a revolt in Ghent, his native place, he, in 1541, collected a large armament, with which he sailed for Africa, contrary to. the advice of his admiral, Andrew Doria. Having landed and com- menced operations against the city, a furious storm scattered his fleet and destroyed his soldiers, and he was forced to reimbark with the loss of the greater part of his force. Meanwhile, the murder at Milan of two French emissaries on their way to Constantinople, and the refusal of Charles to call the perpetrators to account, put an end to the truce be- tween him and Francis, 1542. The latter was allied with the kings of Denmark and Sweden, and had renewed a treaty he formerly made with the sultan. During two years, war raged in France, Spain, Italy, and the Low Countries; but the only important engagement took place at Cerrisoles, in which 10,000 imperialists were slain, and their opponents gained a signal victory, 1544. This was followed by a peace signed at Crespy, in which each party agreed to restore its conquests, unite against the Turks, and suppress reform in their respective dominions. The prime motive with Charles in the peace now mentioned was his desire to humble the Protestant princes. The diet of Worms, in 1545, passed various resolutions against them, in consequence of which they rose in arms under Frederick of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse. The emperor concluded a dishonourable peace with Soliman, formed an alliance with the Pope, who sent him 13,000 men under his illegitimate son, Alexander Farnese, and having collected an army, made a victori- ous march towards Upper Germany, levying contributions in the disaf- fected districts. In a decisive battle at Mulhausen, 1547, the confede- rates were completely defeated, and the two princes taken prisoners. The electorate of Saxony was conferred on Maurice, a kinsman of Fre- derick, who had treacherously aided the emperor against the confederacy 382 MODERN HISTORY. of which he had at one time been a member. All opposition seemed now at an end ; his great rival Francis had recently expired ; and Charles, thinking himself secure in his designs on the liberties of Germany, and desirous of ending dictatorially the disputes on religion, presented a formula to the diet of Augsburg, 1548, drawn up by his own order, the articles of which were to serve as a rule of faith until the final decision of a general council. To this most of the Protestant states were com- pelled to submit. But such an order of things was not destined to con- tinue, for the Lutherans, though humbled, were not subdued ; the princes were fully alive to the ambitious designs of Charles; and even Maurice, of Saxony saw the necessity of opposing them. That prince, having been appointed general of an imperial army, retained the troops in his pay under various pretences ; formed a treaty with Henry II. of France ; and, secure of the adhesion of the Danish king and most of the northern potentates, at length threw off the mask. At the head of a force of 20,000 foot and 2000 horse, he took the field, with the avow T ed purpose of defending the Protestant religion and maintaining the liberties of Ger- many ; and marched towards tbe south, everywhere restoring the Luthe- ran clergy and magistrates. At the same time the French invaded Lorraine, their monarch styling himself " Protector of the liberties of Germany and its captive princes." The emperor in vain sought to negotiate : Maurice advanced with all speed to Innsbruck, where he was then residing, and was so near surprising him, that he escaped with difficulty during the night. Augsburg had been taken, the Protestants laid siege to Frankfort on the Maine, and the haughty spirit of Charles was at length forced to submit. The treaty of Passau terminated the internal disputes of the empire, and placed the reformed religion on a secure basis, 1552. This was unquestionably the most disastrous period in the reign of that great ruler. The war continued with the Turks in Hungary on the one side, and the French on the other ; and on both the imperialists were almost uniformly unsuccessful. Italy was in commotion from north to south; Sienna openly revolted ; and the coast of Naples was ravaged by the Turkish fleet, 1555. Wearied with the cares of government, and hopeless of realizing his dreams of universal dominion, Charles at length determined on resigning all his dignities. For this purpose he sum- moned his son Philip to Brussels, where the latter was solemnly invest- ed with the government of the Low Countries, and a few weeks after with that of Spain and the Indies. In the following year, 1556, he gave up the imperial crown to his brother Ferdinand ; and, after astonishing the world by this abdication, retired to the convent of St. Just, in Estre madura, where, at the end of two years, he expired in the 69th year of his age. Consult, for particulars, Robertson's History of Charles V. The first exertions of Ferdinand I., on being invested with the su- preme authority, were directed towards the establishment of civil and religious concord. He opposed the pretensions of the pope, who claimed the right of conferring the imperial title, and vindicated the independence of the empire from the encroachments of the holy see, 1557. Having re-assembled the counci' of Trent, which had been broken up by the disturbances of the last iBign, an attempt at reconcilmtion between the SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 383 Catholic and Protestant parties was made by the emperor ; but this prov- ing - ineffectual, this last of general councils was dissolved, 1563. Maxi- milian II. pursued with greater success the same course as his father, 1564. The reformers had now begun to retaliate the Catholic persecu ions, and even to disagree among themselves ; but by his ability and moderation, he was enabled to hold the balance between the contending parties, and preserve the tranquillity of the empire. A Turkish invasion of Hungary was repelled, and a truce concluded with the sultan; while a convention with John Sigismund secured to him the crown of Hun- gary. Rudolph II. succeeded to the imperial crown in 1576, but fol- lowed a very different course. Abandoned to the direction of favourites, and naturally intolerant, he suppressed the Protestant worship in Aus- tria, and attempted to deprive the Hungarians and Bohemians of all their immunities. The country was everywhere embroiled in insurrections ; the Lutherans were led to form a confederation, and to ally themselves with Holland and Henry IV. of France; while the Catholics, on the other hand, united for mutual defence. The empire was saved from open war by the assassination of Henry IV., 1610, just as he was about to pour his troops into Germany ; and Rudolph himself died in 1612. In the midst of these troubles, however, science flourished ; and the cele- brated Rudolphine Tables, calculated by Kepler and Tycho Brahe, have rendered this reign an era in the annals of astronomy. HUNGARY AND BOHEMIA. Hungary first attained the rank of a kingdom in the eleventh century, the reigning prince, whose father, Duke Geysa, had previously embraced Christi- anity, assuming the title of Stephen I., 1000. Under succeeding monarchs, the country rose rapidly in importance ; its limits were extended ; and it long formed the chief barrier of Christendom against the Turks. The sovereignty was elective : in 1437, it had fallen to Albert, archduke of Austria, who perished in a campaign against the Turks, and was succeeded by his posthu- mous son, Ladislaus, 1440. Under this monarch and his successor, the king- dom was saved from destruction by the valiant regent, John Huniades, whose son, Matthias I., ascended the throne in 1458. The neighbouring country of Bohemia became known as a kingdom about the end of the twelfth century, though still remaining feudatory to the German emperors, from whom its kings received their investiture ; they, in turn, enjoying one of the seven electoral votes. The crown, like that of Hungary, was elective, passing, however, in ordinary cases, to the nearest heir. The power of the monarch was limited by the coronation oath, by a permanent senate, and by frequent convocations of the national diet, composed of the armed nobility. An important era in the history of Bohemia dates from the appearance of the celebrated John Huss, and his pupil, Jerome of Prague, the former of whom had translated the works of WicklifFe, and openly taught his doctrines to his countrymen, 1400. Both fell victims to the persecuting spirit of the age ; but their preaching and example had made a deep impression, and led the way to an important change in the national faith, preceded, however, by great internal disorders. On the death of Matthias I. of Hungary, in 1490, Ladislaus, kino- of Bohemia, was invested with the crown, thereby uniting the two countries. This able prince was succeeded by his son, Louis II., a child ten years of age, 1516, during whose long minority the country was torn by factions, and the national revenue wasted. In 1526, the Sultan invaded Hungary with an army of 300,000 men ; and, in the fatal battle of Mohacz, Louis perished with the flower of his nobility, 384 3I0DEKN HISTORY. great part of his territory becoming a prey to the conqueror. Ferdi- nand I. of Austria, having married the sister of Louis, succeeded to the throne of Bohemia; but the Hungarians, refusing to acknowledge his claim, gave the crown to John Zapoli, palatine of Transylvania, and at his death to his son, John Sigismund. This led to a long and bloody war, which, as the Turks took part in it, lasted during the whole life of Ferdinand, — the result, in a great measure, of the unpopularity oi the house of Austria, whose religious intolerance and despotic habits were offensive to the Hungarian nobles. Maximilian II., 1563, sue ceeded his faiher in the dignities of Emperor and King of Hungary and Bohemia; not, however, without opposition from John Sigismund, who was aided by Soliman II. Rudolph, who ascended the throne ir 1572, in order to get rid of the enormous expense of maintaining the strongholds of Croatia, gave them, as a fief of the empire, to Charles, duke of Styria, who partitioned the whole into a number of smaller fiefs, which he bestowed on foreigners of all nations, of whom he formed a military colony. This establishment, which gradually extended along the frontiers of Sclavonia and Croatia, effectually repelled the Turkish inroads, and supplied those redoubtable troops, who, under the names of Croats and Pandoors, became the strength of the Austrian armies. The bigoted spirit of this prince alienated the affections of his subjects, particularly of the Protestants, who rose in rebellion, and gave the thrones of both countries, during his lifetime, to his brother Matthias. POLAND AND RUSSIA. Poland. — The Poles, who belonged to the Sclavonian branch of the European family, were at first divided into several petty states, constantly at war with each other ; but the early history of the country is involved in much obscurity. In 965, the people were converted to Christianity, and united under the govern- ment of Duke Mieczeslaus, who became, however, a vassal of the empire; and his successor, Boleslaus, received the royal crown from the hands of the Emperor Otho III., 1000. During three hundred years the country presents the usual disorders incident to a rude and warlike people. Ladislaus II., 1306, an able prince, exerted himself to compose the disturbances of the king- dom, and firmly established his authority. His son, Casimir the Great, followed in the steps of his father : he freed the nation from its dependence on the empire, invited the settlement of foreigners, built towns and fortresses, encouraged industry and commerce, and promulgated an excellent system of laws. At his death, 1370, the crown became elective with certain limitations, and was conferred on his nephew Louis, king of Hungary. This monarch secured the succession to his daughter, who ascended the throne in 1382, and married Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, that prince with his people agreeing to embrace the Christian faith. This important augmentation of national strength was followed by long and violent contests with the Teutonic Knights, who possessed Prussia and the neighbouring provinces ; these were not terminated till 1466, when, after immense bloodshed, the knights submitted to do homage.* The union with Lithuania did not prevent violent contentions and animosities between the two countries; they were afterwards repeatedly separated and again united, and their thorough incorporation was not effected till 1569. The kings of Poland were engaged in almost incessant wars with the Ottomans, as well as with the Tartars and Muscovites. In 1501, ♦This order of military monks was founded in Asia during the Crusades, whence they removed to Germany on the relinquishment of all hopes of recovering Palestine. Here they subdued the pagan inhabitants of Prussia, and shortly after acquired Livonia and Esthonia, 12?a SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 385 Alexander^ grandduke of Lithuania, was elected to the Polish crown, during whose government the royal power was much weakened by the encroachments of the nobles. His successor, Sigismund I., 1506, found the country in great disorder ; and his reign forms one uninterrupted series of successful exertions for its security and improvement. The same wise course of administration was followed by his son, Sigismund II., 1548-1572. During this interval the Reformed doctrines made great progress in Poland, especially among the higher classes ; and this country is distinguished as being the first to adopt a complete system of toleration. By an enactment of the diet, known as the Confederation of 1573, all sects were left at liberty to follow the dictates of conscience, and allowed equal rights and privileges.* The death of Sigismund II. terminated the main line of Jagellon, and the throne of Poland became open to the ambition of various competitors. Henry of Anjou was first chosen, but he clandestinely retired to France, to the crown of which he succeeded as Henry III. Battori, prince of Transylvania, was next elected, and proved an able and vigorous monarch : he was a terror to the enemies of his people, and greatly promoted their internal prosperity. Sigismund III., crown-prince of Sweden, 1587, reigned forty-five years. His bigoted attachment to the Papal church caused the loss of his here- ditary dominions, and gave rise to a rebellion in Poland, which was suppressed with difficulty. Russia. — Tn the ninth century, the vast territory now known by this name was peopled by various Scythian and Tartar tribes, and divided into numerous independent states, the two principal of which were Kiew and Novgorod. In 850, a Scandinavian chief, named Rurik, became master of the latter country, and is considered the first of the Russian sovereigns. Under Vladimir the Great, 980-1015, the people embraced Christianity according to the forms of the Greek church, the arts of civilisation were introduced, and some degree of stability was given to the government. After his death, the country was partitioned among his sons, and became for nearly a century a prey to civil wars and Polish invasions. In 1223, the whole region was overrun by the Tartars, under a son of Genghis-khan; the towns were destroyed, and the inhabitants massacred ; and during the space of two hundred years, the Rus- sian princes became vassals of the conquerors. In 1462, Ivan III. restored the independence of his country, reunited the several divisions of the territory, and already aspired to the possession of the Byzantine throne. In this reign the influence of Russia first began to be recognised in the politics of Europe. Vasili IV., the successor of Ivan, 1505, continued to prosecute the schemes of aggrandisement formed by his father. His son, Ivan IV., 1533, was the first Russian prince who assumed the title of Czar, and contributed more than any of his predecessors to the power of the government. In the early years of his reign, he repressed the incur- sions of the Tartars, instituted the Strelitzes, a regular body of infantry, and published a code of laws. The voluntary adhesion of the Don Cos- sacks secured to him the services of these warlike auxiliaries, 1549; while the conquest of Siberia, 1581, more than doubled the original ter- ritories of the empire. During this reign, the discovery of the passage to the White Sea by some English merchants, opened a commercial intercourse between Great Britain and Russia. The ferocious character * The Arians and Socinians were at this time numerous in Poland — the latter sect persecuted everywhere else, here found an asylum. Their chief establishment was at Racau. 33 386 MODERN HISTORY. of Ivan procured for him the surname of the Terrible and the execrations of his subjects, but was probably inseparable from the energy necessary for the government of a savage people. His successor, Theodore, 1584, proved an imbecile prince ; and the government was actually conducted by his minister, Boris, who succeeded him in 1598. Boris prosecuted the designs of Ivan: he signalized the commencement of his reign by raising the condition of the serfs, invited artists from foreign countries, promoted commerce, and improved the military defences of the empire. DENMARK, SWEDEN, AND NORWAY. Denmark and the Scandinavian peninsula were early occupied by the Goths, who subdued the original Finnish tribes. The ninth century is generally assumed as the beginning of the connected history of Denmark, when Gormon, by reducing the separate provinces, established his sovereignty over the whole territory, 863-900. His son, Harold II., introduced Christianity about a. d. 970; and, at the beginning of the eleventh century, Swevne I., his grandson, subjugated a portion of Norway and the greater part of England. Canute the Great, 1016, possessed himself of the whole of England and part of Scotland, and in 1030 completed the conquest of Norway.* The reign of this warlike and enlightened prince was devoted not merely to his own aggrandisement but to the establishment of law and internal organisation, and to the general dif- fusion of Christianity throughout his dominions. Under his imbecile successors, the history of Denmark exhibits an almost uninterrupted series of disasters, terminating with the death of Sweyne III., 1157. The ascendency of the feudal system, introduced by Canute, had rendered the sovereign dependent upon the voice of the nobles and superior clergy, the peasants were degraded to the condition of serfs, agriculture could hardly be said to exist, and nearly the entire commerce of the country fell into the possession of the Hanse Towns. Valdemar III. began the restoration of his kingdom, 1333 ; and after a vigorous reign, was succeeded by Olaus III., a child five years of age, 1376. His mother, ?vIakgaret, distinguished by the title of the Semiramis of the North, was appointed regent ; and in 1387, on the death of Olaus, she herself ascended the throne. Having acquired Norway by inheritance, and conquered Sweden by force of arms, the grand object of her ambition was attained by the Union of Calmar, which united the three northern kingdoms into one monarchy, 1397. By this means the great mercantile confederacy of the Hanse Towns was humbled ; but the Swedes, to whom the union had always been displeasing, after a long series of contests, renounced it in 1523. The proximate cause of Swedish independence is found in the tyranny of Christian II., surnamed the Wicked. Having vanquished the patriotic party by treachery and force, he was crowned at Stockholm ; . and, with the view of striking terror into the nation, he seized the oppor- tunity to perpetrate a public massacre of ninety-four nobles, 1521. Gustavus Vasa, son of one of the murdered chiefs, having escaped from the prison in which he had been immured, roused the miners of Dalecarlia to assume arms in defence of their native land. His first attempts proving successful, the whole people gradually rose against the tyrant ; the Danes were driven from the country, and Gustavus, by * The Norwegians were first known in Europe as pirates, frequently visiting and lay- ing waste the countries bordering on the North Sea. Their first regular king was Harold Haarfager, v/ho subdued and united the small principalities into which the country was divided. His reign was distinguished by the numerous migrations of his subjects: some settled on the distant shores of Iceland; others seized on the Scottish isles; Rollo, exiled in 896, established himself in France, 911. Norway was united with Denmark under Sweyne and Canute; but the countries were again separated till 1387, when they were conjoined under Margaret. SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 387 universal consent, ascended the throne, 1523. Christian, who was equally hated by his Danish subjects, was in the same year superseded in the crowns of Denmark and Norway by his uncle Frederick I., duke of Sleswick and Holstein. In 1528, the Swedish government introduced the Lutheran Reformation ; while the usurpations and vio- lence of the clergy during the ten years' interregnum which followed the death of Frederick I., and their attempts to set aside his son Chris- tian III., on account of his religious principles, led to the same event in Denmark in 1536. During the reign of Christian, a code of laws, entitled the Recess of Coldhig, was promulgated, Sleswick and Holstein were united to the Danish crown, and the improvement and stability of the country promoted. The harmony between Sweden and Denmark was disturbed by a furious war which continued seven years, 1563, and again in 1611 ; both of which tended to a more precise adjustment of the relations of the two rival monarchies. The long reign of Gustavus, an interval of tranquillity, allowed full time for the consolidation of Swedish independence. In 1560, he was succeeded by his son Erik, a fickle and violent prince, during whose time a war was prosecuted with Russia; the Livonian contest followed, 1561 ; that with the Hanse Towns, 1562 ; and with Denmark, 1563, — which were almost uniformly unfortunate. The internal administration of Erik was stained with sanguinary cruelties, which eventually led to his deposition, his brother John, duke of Finland, who had married a daughter of Sigismund of Poland, being raised to the throne. After some successful operations, the new king concluded an advantageous peace with Denmark, 1570, the quarrel with Russia still continuing. In 1592, Sweden was united to Poland in the person of his son Sigismund. The vehement efforts of this prince to change the established worship, led to a rebellion headed by his uncle Charles. He was finally deposed by a resolution of the states, on the ground that he had " broken the coronation oath, violated the constitution, disregarded the laws, and endangered the Protestant religion;" and Charles, endeared to the people by his services, and as the last surviving son of the great Gusta- vus, was immediately elevated to the throne, 1600. OTTOMAN EMPIRE AND THE EAST. A peace concluded with Venice in 1503, and which was observed until 1537, left the Ottoman empire in tranquillity with its neighbours during the remainder of the reign of Bajazet. But it was not equally free from internal disturbances : two younger sons of the sultan rebelled in their respective provinces, and were immediately strangled by their father's order ; of the remaining three, two were feeble and unwarlike, the third, Selim, after compelling Bajazet to abdicate, caused him to be poisoned, 1512. He commenced his reign by the murder of his brothers and nephews, and the massacre of 40,000 Sheeahs, or dissenters from orthodox Mohammedanism. Two of Achmets's sons, however, having escaped to Persia, Selim sent to demand them; and Shah Ismail, the founder of the Suphi dynasty in that country, refusing to give them up, he took up arms against him, and defeated the Persians near Tauris, but with a loss of 40,000 men. He acquired Koordistan and Mesopo- tamia either by force or negotiation, and declared war against the Mame- luke sultan of Egypt, as an ally of Ismail, whom he overthrew in a i388 MODEKN HISTORY. sanguinary engagement near Aleppo, 1516, — all Syria falling into the hands of the victor. Selim now entered Egypt, gained another battlo near Cairo, which city was taken, 50,000 of its inhabitants barbarously massacred, the brave sultan, Toomaun Beg, hanged at one of the gates of his capital, and the country reduced to a Turkish province. The last caliph of the house of Abbas having submitted, and dying on his way to Constantinople, the sultan assumed the sacred title, which has ever since been borne by his successors. Soliman I., the Magnificent, and the greatest of the Ottoman sove- reigns, succeeded his father in 1520. In the first year of his reign, pro- fiting by the troubles of the West, he captured Belgrade and other for- tresses from the Hungarians. Satisfied with having thus secured the key to Eastern Christendom, he next resolved upon the conquest of Rhodes, which had been upwards of two hundred years the chief station of the Knights of St. John, then commanded by the illustrious grand- master Villiers de l'lle Adam. In 1522, the vizier appeared oif the island with a fleet of 400 sail, containing an army of 200,000 men ; to oppose which ihere w r ere only GOO knights and 5000 soldiers. The place was defended with unexampled resolution, the Christian warriors performing prodigies of valour: Soliman himself arrived to encourage his troops ; but 80,000 Turks had perished by the sword and by disease, the fortifications were reduced to a heap of ruins, almost every one of the defenders had been wounded, and their ammunition and provisions were exhausted, ere the heroic grandmaster would condescend to capitu- late. The sultan granted honourable terms to the survivors, who evac- uated their stronghold on Christmas-day : they were afterwards settled in Malta by Charles V., 1530. Long p^ace being incompatible with the habits of the Turkish soldiers, who had already broken out, into several serious revolts, Soliman again invaded Hungary; the king of which lost a battle and his life on the plains of Mohacz, his capital was plundered, and the whole country overrun, 1526. Three years after, the sultan laid siege to Vienna, but was compelled to retire. A war with Persia next followed, by which Soliman gained possession of Bagdad. About this time the famous Khair Eddin Barbarossa entered the ser- vice of the sultan. His brother, originally a pirate, had by force and eachery attained the sovereignty of Algiers, whence he swept the coasts of the Mediterranean with his galleys, and carried the terror of his name even into the centre of Africa. On his death in 1518, the Turks in that province immediately proclaimed Khair Eddin, who has been called Barbarossa II. He placed himself under the protection of the grand seignior, repelled the attacks of the Christians, captured Tunis, and was appointed to the command of the fleet, 1530, — a dignity which he held till his death, 1546. Tunis was however again wrested from him by Charles V., who restored it to the former sovereign, Muley Hassan. The Turkish arms were victorious on all hands, and the friendship of Soliman was even courted by Francis I., who formed with him the first alliance between the Porte and any Christian power, 1536. Repeated wars with Austria and Hungary- followed, greatly to the advantage of Soliman, who eventually succeeded in making Transylvania a province of his empire, 1552. A renewed invasion of Persia, in which Erivan was taken, led to a peace with the shah in 1554, which became the SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 389 basis of all subsequent treaties between the rival powers. The great naval victory at Djerbeh, on the coast of Africa, over the combined Christian fleets, 1560, secured the Turkish ascendency in the Mediter- ranean; while a truce with the empire confirmed their Hungarian con quests, 1562. These brilliant martial triumphs were, however, imbittered by do- mestic dissensions. Soliman's eldest son, Mustapha, had been put to- death in 1553 by the intrigues of his stepmother Roxalana, who wished to secure the succession for one of her own children ; the jealousies of the two surviving princes, Selim and Bajazet, ended in the revolt of the latter, who was defeated and executed, 1561. An unsuccessful expe- dition against Malta, 1565, was followed next year by a campaign in Hungary, in which he headed his armies in person for the last time. He expired before the walls of Zigeth, the day before the capture of the place, at the age of seventy-two, and was succeeded by his only sur- viving son, Selim II., 1566. The empire now began to decline rapidly, the conquest of Cyprus being more than neutralized by the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Lepanto, 1571. Under Amurath III., 1574, the turbulent janissaries revolted ten times ; and on one occasion set fire to Constantinople, when 15,000 houses were destroyed, with the loss of 50,000,000 gold crowns. Persia. — During this century a dynasty was formed in Persia on the basis of religion. Sheikh Eidar, a descendant of Ali, having gained a number of adherents by a reputation for sanctity and the austerity of his life, assumed the title of Sophi, and declared himself commissioned by Heaven to work a religious reformation. He perished, however, in the attempt; but his son Ismail, protected by his disciples, was removed to the province of Chilan, and strictly educated in his principles. In 1501, at the head of a numerous body of partisans, he revived the claims of his father, whose doctrines he propagated ; and, gradually overcoming all opposition, he at length became ; and. amid the disturbances that ensued, arose. those epheme- ral races which have been designated by the Chinese historians as the six petty dynasties, 265-608. During this period, the empire, desolated and enfeebled by civil wars and revolutions, lost the ascendency which it had formerly main- tained over great part of Asia. These troubles were at length terminated by the elevation 3 of the royal house of Tang, 618-907, under whom the nation SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 391 attained a high degree of power and opulence. The most illustrious prince of this family was Tai-tsong, in whose reign the frontiers, or at least the^pfluence of China, were extended far into Western Asia, and even to Persia; the sovereign of the latter country having solicited the aid of his soldiers to repel the Mohammedan Arabs. The Tang was followed by no fewer than five suc- cessive lines of monarchs, which lasted only fifty-three years, under whom the empire was again split among a number of independent chiefs. In 960, the Song dynasty was founded, and lasted 319 years, presenting during that long period a succession of able and virtuous monarchs. The last sovereign of the race, however, was compelled to become tributary to the Tartars ; and, in 1279, China fell under the Mongol yoke. Kublai-Khan, a grandson of Genghis, was the founder of this new line of monarchs, and extended his authority from the Frozen Ocean to the Straits of Malacca. He possessed also Pegu, Thibet, Tartary, and Turkestan: Siam, Cochin-China, Tonquin, and Corea paid him tribute ; and he was regarded by the other chiefs of the family as the head of their race. Several of the princes after Kublai seem to have been able and even enlightened rulers ; but under their degenerate successors the ruin of the dynasty was consummated. The Chinese took advantage of the dissensions of their conquerors, and about the middle of the fourteenth century revolts everywhere broke out. The last Mongol emperor retired in 1368 into Tar- tary, abandoning his throne to the founder of the glorious dynasty of Ming, 1368-1644. The new sovereign immediately attacked the princes of the fugitive race, when Thibet and other Tartar dependencies were subdued by his arms. COLONIES AND DISCOVERIES. The fifteenth century had closed with the discovery of a new world and a new route to India. Between 1508 and 1510, the Spaniards set- tled in Hayti, Cuba, and Jamaica; but the revenue they drew from the West Indies was at first inconsiderable. Mexico. — In 1517, Mexico was discovered by Francisco Cordova; and, two years later, the celebrated Hernan Cortez landed with an arma- ment for the conquest and settlement of the country. The invaders found the empire at this period governed by Montezuma, a powerful prince, whose subjects were considerably advanced in civilisation and in the knowledge of the mechanical arts. t The cruelties that disgraced the conquest of Mexico can scarcely be imagined. A great number of the people were branded in the forehead and sent to work in the mines; and the successor of the vanquished monarch was burnt to death over a slow fire by the orders of Cortez. The Spaniards, however, derived immense riches from this acquisition. Pf.ru. — This country was invaded by Francis Pizarro, once a shep- herd of Estremadura, in 1526. Intestine dissensions facilitated his suc- cess; and, after putting the sovereign to a violent death, the principal provinces were divided among the conquerors. Peru, at the epoch of its discovery, was under the theocratic government of the Incas or " chil- dren of the sun," the object of religious worship. The great mass of .he people were enslaved ; and, although they had constructed roads and built cities, they were but little advanced in the arts ; for they had no iron, no coined money, nor any beast of burden except, the llama. Brazil was approached by the Portuguese in the last year of the fif- teenth century, but was not settled till about 1530. Its history was not remarkable until it passed into the hands of the Spaniards in 1580; and the revolution which placed the family of Braganza on the throne, ter- minated their dominion in 1640. 392 MODERN HISTORY. North America. — The English, before 1588, had advanced little farther t^vards their maritime and colonial dominion than by making- repeated attacks, not avowed by government, on the rich home-bound cargoes of Spain. Between 1576 and 1610, vain attempts were made by Frobisher, Davis, Hudson, and others, to discover a northeast or a northwest passage to India. The unfortunate Sir Walter Raleigh founded a colony in Southern Virginia, 1584: but the affairs of North America remained in the hands of a company until the reign of James I. France made a few unsuccessful attempts at colonisation, important chiefly for their consequences. Cartier, a mariner of St. Malo, took possession of the shores of the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1534. [DISCOVERIES AND SETTLEMENTS IN NORTH AMERICA. [The honour of discovering the continent of North America belongs to John Cabot, a Venetian merchant resident at Bristol, and his son, Sebastian Cabot, a native of the latter place. The brilliant success of Columbus had awakened a zeal for discovery throughout Europe. Under the influence of this feeling, Henry VII. of England, in 1495, readily granted to Cabot and his sons a commission to make a voyage of dis- covery, and to take possession of the regions discovered in the name of the king of England. Their first voyage commenced in 1496. Its object was to find a northwest passage to China, and it resulted in the disco- very of the north coast of Labrador, in June 1497. The fame of this expedition led to the immediate fitting out of a second for commercial purposes by the merchants of Bristol, in which the king himself became an interested partner. This second expedition, which was under the command of Sebastian, sailed early in 1498, and after reaching New- foundland, proceeded in a southerly direction along the coast as far as Albemarle Sound. Sebastian Cabot, afterwards known in England as the Great Seaman, lived to an extreme old age, and was much distin- guished for his naval skill and enterprise. [Florida was discovered in 1512 by Ponce de Leon, a gallant soldier, and one of the companions of Columbus. This noble-minded Spaniard attempted in 1521 to settle the country which he had discovered; but his little colony was expelled by the natives, and he himself died of a wound received from one of their poisoned arrows. [The French were the first to derive any commercial advantage from the discoveries of the Cabots. As early as 1504, the hardy mariners of Brittany and Normandy were found engaged in the fisheries oif New- foundland. In 1524, Francis I. employed John Verrazzani, an adven- turous Florentine, to explore the new regions. Sailing westerly from the coast of Spain, in a single small vessel, Verrazzani reached the coast of North Carolina, near where Wilmington now is, a portion of the con- tinent never before seen by any European. From this point he sailed north along the coast as far as latitude 50, trafficking with the natives and exploring the regions, particularly the New Jersey shore, New York harbour, New Port, New England, and Nova Scotia. [In the following year, 1525, Stephen Gomez, a Spanish navigator, sailed northward along- the coast of North America for the purpose of discovering a northwest passage to China, which Cabot had attempted. Hence New England and the Middle States are marked in old Spanish SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 393 maps as the land of Gomez. The expedition of Gomez, however, was without any practical result. [The continued success of the French fishermen led Francis I. in 1534, to fit out another exploring expedition for the New World, under the command of James Cartier, a mariner of St. Malo in France. Car- tier, in this voyage, sailed around Newfoundland, entered the bays of Chaleurs and Gaspe, and explored the bay and river of St. Lawrence. In the following year, 1535, Cartier led a second expedition, whose object was to colonize the newly-discovered regions. He followed the same route as in the previous year, sailed some distance up the St. Lawrence, gave name to Montreal, learned from the natives something of Vermont and New York, and having wintered in the country, returned in the spring to France, leaving no settlement behind him. A third but unsuccessful attempt was made by Cartier in 1541, in conjunction with Roberval, a nobleman of Picardy. Some other attempts to settle Ca- nada were made by the French during the present century, but without success. [Ferdinand de Soto, a companion of Pizarro in the conquest of Mexico, became dazzled with the accounts which he had received of the wealth and magnificence of Florida. Accordingly, under the auspices of Charles V., he set on foot an expedition similar in its design to those conducted by Cortez in Mexico and Pizarro in Peru. De Soto reached the bay of Spiritu Santo in Florida in 1539 ; and dismissing his ships, commenced his march into the interior. His followers, six hundred in number, were mostly men of wealth and distinction ; some of them were nobles, and the very flower of Spanish chivalry. De Soto continued for three years to traverse in various directions the States bordering on the Gulf of Mexico; and after encountering almost incredible hardships, he died on the banks of the Mississippi in 1542, and lies beneath the river which he discovered. He crossed a continent in search of gold, and found nothing so remarkable as his burial-place. His followers attempted to penetrate the country westward to Mexico; but failing in this, returned to the Mississippi, and passed downward through its mouth into the Gulf of Mexico. [In 1562, a colony of French Huguenots, under command of John Ribault, made several discoveries along the coast of Florida and the Carolinas, and effected a settlement. The infant colony struggled on with various success for three years, when it was exterminated by a general massacre, conducted with remorseless cruelty by Melendez and a body of Spaniards from St. Augustine. [To the bigoted Melendez belongs the honour of establishing the first permanent settlement in the United States. The foundations of St. Au- gustine were laid by him in September 1565; and houses in it are yet standing, which are said to have been built many years before the colo- nization of Virginia. [English mariners appear very early to have been attracted to the fisheries off Newfoundland. No formal expedition however was made into these regions after the time of the Cabots until 1576, when Martin Frobisher renewed the design of accomplishing a northwest passage to China. In three successive voyages, undertaken by the authority and partly at the expense of queen Elizabeth, and for the double purpose of colonization and discovery, Frobisher made no settlement, and penetrated 394 MODERN HISTORY. Hudson's Straits only to see regions visited by Cabot seventy years before. [Sir Francis Drake, an English navigator, who had acquired great notoriety and immense treasures, as a freebooter in the Spanish harbours on the Pacific, sailed in 1579 northward along the coast of California as far as the 43d degree of latitude, or about one degree north of the south- ern boundary of the Oregon territory. This whole coast however had been previously explored by an expedition of Spaniards in 1542, who traced the continent as far as the 44th degree of latitude, or within about two and a half degrees of the mouth of the Columbia river. [In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, a member of the English parliament, and step-brother of Sir Walter Raleigh, under a liberal charter from queen Elizabeth, made a vigorous but unsuccessful attempt to establish a colony on the coast of the United States. Gilbert himself and a large part of the colonists perished on the voyage. [Nothing daunted by the melancholy fate of his step-brother, Raleigh in 1584 obtained a new patent from Elizabeth, and sent out another expedition, consisting of two ships well laden with men and provisions. The colonists visited the islands in Ocracock inlet, explored Pamlico and Albemarle Sounds, and trafficked with the natives ; but wanting the courage to make a settlement, they returned to England, where they gave a glowing account of the regions, which in honour of the Virgin Queen were named Virginia. [Raleigh, however, pursued his plan for colonizing the New World, and in 1585 set on foot a second expedition, composed of seven vessels, and carrying out 108 colonists. Among these were Lane, Grenville, Cavendish and Hariot, all men of distinction. Lane, the governor of the colony, proved to be not equal to his station. After remaining on the island of Roanoke little more than a year, and making a few incon- siderable excursions into the interior, he returned with his whole colony to England in the fleet of Sir Francis Drake, which had stopped to visit the colonists on a homeward voyage from the West Indies. [Raleigh was not dismayed by ill success. In 1587 he sent out at his own expense a third company of emigrants, with their wives and children, 108 in all. The poor colonists of Roanoke were however for- gotten in the panic of the Invincible Armada; and when, after its signal discomfiture, vessels were sent to inquire after and supply their wants, no traces of them could be found. Whether they perished of hunger, or were massacred by the savages, is a matter of conjecture. [Thus ended for the present all attempts to settle this country. North America, at the end of the sixteenth century, had many English graves but no English towns. Raleigh himself, the illustrious author of colo- nization in the United States, after expending more than fifty thousand pounds upon his favourite project, lived to see it apparently entirely abandoned; and he was himself reduced to beggary by the English government, and finally beheaded by order of James I.] Colonial System. — The conquered kingdoms of America became colonies of Spain, under a constitution framed by Charles V., 1542. All the external apparatus of Christianity was carried across the Atlantic; there were arch- bishops, bishops, vicars, and monks, dependent entirely on the king ; nor was the Inquisition forgotten, 1570. The political affairs were managed by the Council of the Indies in Spain, and in America by two viceroys, aided by boards and SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 395 municipalities. By this imitation of European forms, the national spirit of the natives was extinguished. The trade was rendered a complete monopoly. Vera Cruz, Portobello, and Carthagena, in America; Seville, and afterwards Cadiz, in Europe, were the only ports which were allowed to be used by colonial ships. Little advantage was derived from these extensive acquisitions beyond the supply of precious metals, the mining operation connected with which gave rise to the African slave-trade, the aboriginal population being found unable to undergo the exhausting labour demanded by their taskmasters. During the sixteenth century, the Portuguese dominion, strengthened by the genius of its governors, Almeida and Albuquerque, extended in the East from the African coast to the peninsula of Malacca and the Spice Islands. Every- where they established factories or marts; but although their commerce wa9 not restricted to a company, as in England and Holland, it could not be carried on without permission of the government. A connexion was formed with China, 1517 ; and Xavier, the apostle of the Indians, was the means of establish- ing a regular communication with Japan. In Brazil also, the Portuguese pos- sessions were widely extended ; and the sugar-cane, transplanted from Madeira, was largely cultivated. A dispute between this nation and Spain about the possession of the Moluccas, was the cause of the voyage of Magellan, whose fleet first circumnavigated the globe, 1520. The ruin of' the Portuguese dominion in the East was accelerated by the decline of morality among the higher class of colonists, and more especially by their avarice. The tyranny of the Inquisition at Goa has never been equalled. Spain, between 1560 and 1620, considerably augmented her commerce and maritime power by acquiring the East Indian colonies of Portugal and the pos- session of the Philippines. England and Holland entered into rivalry with her ; and the latter, while combating for the liberty of Etirope, became mistress of the commerce of the world. The first charter of the Dutch East India Com- pany was granted in 1602, making it a political as well as a mercantile body, governed by a board of directors at home and a governor-general in India. Establishments were made at Amboyna, Ternate, and other places, 1607 ; an intercourse was opened with Japan, 1611 ; and Batavia was founded in 1619. England in the reign of Elizabeth extended her views to all parts of the world. After having penetrated into Persia and even to India by the Caspian Sea, she founded her great agricultural colonies in North America. The prin- cipal branches of foreign, commerce were conferred on chartered companies; that of the East Indies was organized in 1600, but its traffic was long very inconsiderable.* THE CHURCH. The Reformation. — Many circumstances, widely separated in respect of time, seem to have contributed to the great ecclesiastical revolution which distinguished this century. The introduction of image worship had been strenuously resisted ; and many of the principles of Protestantism can be re- cognised so far back as the end of the eleventh century. The Waldenses or Vaudois had ever maintained a strong opposition to the grosser corruptions of Rome ; but the isolated position which long ensured them an immunity from persecution was ill suited for the birthplace of wide religious changes. In 990, Gerbert declared the Pope to be antichrist ; and Berenger of Tours, in the next age, attacked the great doctrine of transubstanfiation. In the Greek church, the liturgy was read in the vernacular tongue of each country which received its tenets, and the communion dispensed to the laity in both kinds. Wickliffe, in 1360, had preached against the corruptions of Rome; and his opinions, spreading over the Continent, were eagerly embraced by Hups and Jerome of Prague. Interior causes of decay were also undermining the colossal fabric of popery. The tiara had been contested by two or three pontiffs at a time ; and the attachment of the secular clergy to the court of Rome was weakened by its partiality for the mendicant orders, its usurpation of the rights of ecclesias- * For the substance of this and the subsequent sketches of colonial history, the reader is referred to Heeren's work on that subject. 396 MODERN HISTORY. tical patronage, and its oppressive pecuniary exactions. The temporalities of the papacy brought forward base and unworthv men, eager to gratify an in- triguing ambition ; and in the latter part of the fifteenth century, the triple crown was dishonoured by the extreme profligacy of the popes, especially of the notorious Alexander VI. The necessity of a reformation, in discipline at least, was generally felt even by those best disposed to the church of Rome ; while the spirit of inquiry awakened by the invention of printing was ominous of more important doctrinal changes. Luther. — The immediate cause of the Reformation was the gross abuse of indulgences. Mitigations of the penalties of the church had been introduced as early as the third century, but they were not employed as an engine of power until the time of the Crusades. The indulgences then granted to the opposers of the infidels were afterwards extended to those who aided in the suppression of heresy : they were also transformed into remissions of the pains of purgatory. Leo X., who had been elected in 1513, discovered that his finances were inadequate to his great expen- diture, and to complete the magnificent church of St. Peter. Accord- ingly, in 1517, a sale of indulgences was proclaimed, as the most effec- tual means of replenishing his exhausted treasury, their disposal being intrusted to the monks of the order of St. Dominic. By these, absolution was given for future sins, as well as for the past; and they were con- verted into licenses for violating the most sacred moral obligations. This daring infringement of the law of God roused the indignation of Luther, and he resolutely determined to oppose it. As confessor, he had enjoined penance for some atrocious crimes, and refused to accord absolution until his directions were complied with, although the party had pleaded a remission in the form of a plenary indulgence. His firmness was threat- ened with the terrors of the Inquisition and the stake ; but he determined to appeal to the reason of his countrymen, and, on the 31st October 1517, he began the Reformation by submitting ninety-five propositions to be discussed before the universit)^ of Wittenberg, in which he was professor of divinity. Adopting the opinions of St. Augustine on predestination and grace, and denying the efficacy of indulgences and the intercession of the saints, he proceeded to contest the doctrines of auricular confes- sion, purgatory, celibacy of the priesthood, transubstantiation, and, finally, the supreme authority of the pope. Erasmus, who ridiculed the monastic orders, and even the court of Rome itself, by his writings ma- terially assisted the efforts of Luther. His translation of the New Tes- tament appeared in 1516; but he was too timid to enter into the views of his great contemporary, hoping that the advancing reform in literature would gradually effect a corresponding change in religion. Leo X. was little qualified to combat the energy of Luthrr; and he did not proceed to condemn the new tenets until the year 1520, yielding at length to the importunity of his ministers. Charles V., having need of the Pope's services, declared against the reformer, who, with his followers, was proscribed by the edict of Worms, 1521. He was not, however, dismayed : in the castle of Wartenburg, to which he had been conveyed, he continued to write in defence of his principles ; and, in 1522, executed a German translation of the New Testament. The new doctrines spread rapidly through all parts of the empire, particularly Hesse and Saxony. A diet was held at Spires in 1529, where, as the Lutherans protested against the decree that would have crushed the new opinions, they acquired their name of Protestants. The diet of Augs- SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 397 burg, in 1530, which elicited a confession of their faith, proved that all hope of reconciling the two parties was futile. In 1532, the emperor for the first time agreed to conclude a religious peace at Nuremberg; hut, not long after, his opponents were so much reduced, as to submit to accept a re-establishment of nearly all the abuses they had renounced, 1548. This was the crisis of the German reformation. A peculiar combination of circumstances induced Maurice of Saxony to declare for the Protestant cause; and, in 1555, Charles was compelled to grant, in the diet of Augsburg, a complete toleration of the Lutheran doctrines. The Helvetic reformation, commenced by Zuingle in 1518, was com- pleted by Calvin in 1541. A separation from those who adopted the articles of Augsburg grew out of a difference of opinion respecting the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. The tenets of the reformers began to make way in France in 1519. They were condemned by the Sorbonne in 1521, but still found advocates in every class of society, particularly among the members of the learned professions. The views of Cabin, as proclaimed by his celebrated Institutes, 1536, were generally adopted. The progress of ecclesiastical reform in England and Scotland has been described elsewhere. In Poland, the freedom of the government allowed the adversaries of the Trinitarian doctrine to form a church, which has received its name from Socinus. In Spain and Italy the Reformation was crushed with the most unrelenting severity. The Council of Trent. — The Protestants, on their condemnation by the bull of Pope Leo X., had appealed to a general council, which was prevented from assembling by the troubled state of Europe. At length Paul III. convoked the long-wished-for assembly, which met at Trent in 1545, and did not close till 1563, in the pontificate of Pius IV. As might have been anticipated, the decisions of this convocation were far from allaying the religious differences. Doctrines depending on the credit of tradition alone were there sanctioned and defined ; and cere- monies, venerable only from their antiquity, were pronounced essential parts of worship. Among the articles decreed by this council to be implicitly believed, are: — The celibacy of the clergy; the equal authority of Scripture and tradition, including the apocryphal and cano- nical books; confession and absolution; communion in one kind only; the continuance of miracles; the worship of images and relics; the intercession of saints ; the adoration and immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary ; purgatory, or the intermediate state of punishment between death *md judgment, from which the souls of men can be delivered by the prayers, alms, or penance of the faithful ; and transubstantiation, or a belief that the consecrated wafer (or host) is absolutely changed, in the Lord's Supper, into the real and substantial body and blood of Christ. The Jesuits. — The rapid dissemination of Protestantism throughout Europe gave rise to a great increase of zeal among the adherents of the ancient worship. Several monastic orders were established at this period, solely to combat the spirit of innovation ; and of these the most celebrated arose in Spain. By the chivalrous enthusiasm of Ignatius Loyola, a Biscayan gentleman, the society of Jesuits was founded in 1534, and sanctioned by Rome in 1540. At his death in 1556, the order h?d diffused itself over most of the Catholic countries of Western 34 398 MODERN HISTORY. Europe, and its missionaries were scattered throughout India, Ethiopia, and Brazil. The object of this association was the control of public opinion, by which power they hoped to oppose the new doctrines and the freedom of the intellect, supporting at the same time the highest assumptions of the papacy. Their principles were diffused by means of missions, confessionals, and the instruction of youth in seminaries under the control of the order. The good done by them in the propaga- tion of religion, and in various branches of science, is not to be depre- ciated ; but the political historian has not much to say in their favour. The order was suppressed in 1773 by a papal bull, and revived by another in 1814. LETTERS, ARTS, AND SCIENCES. The invention of printing, in the preceding century was followed almost as a consequence by the Protestant Reformation in the present ; and these two great events communicated an incalculable impulse to the cause of literature and science. The study of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue by the mass of the people, and by scholars in the original Hebrew and Greek, was the initia- tory step to various other departments of knowledge, and led to investigations in history, laws, geography, and antiquities, not less than in theology. Amid the intellectual excitement thus occasioned, principles were evolved destined to change the face of society, to lead science forward to the great discoveries of modern times, and to impart to literature a degree of vigour and originality rivalling the models of classic genius, as well as an influence on the progress of society hitherto unexampled. England. — During the first half of the sixteenth century, England could only boast of two distinguished poets, — Thomas Wyatt (d. 1541),* who com- posed sonnets in the style of Petrarch; and the unfortunate Surrey, 1547, the first English writer who made use of blank verse. Under Elizabeth flourished that accomplished soldier and patron of letters, Sir Philip Sydney, 1586, the author of the Arcadia; Raleigh, 1618, at once historian and statesman, poet and navigator; Dorset, whose political cares did not render him averse to the Muses, and who, in 1561, caused Gordubuc to be played, the first piece in verse that had been represented in London ; Daniel, 1619, an historian and the poet of the Wars of the Roses ; Southwell, 1595, whose verses are quoted for their elegance and noble sentiment ; Davies, 1626, whose poem on the Immor- tality of the Soul was the type of the Essay on Man; Drayton, 1631, whose elegiac, historical, and religious essays have been a great storehouse for suc- ceeding writers ; Spenser, 1599, whose Faery Quee?i has placed him in the foremost rank of English literature; and a greater genius still, the " honey- tongued" Shakspeare, 1616 ; with Gascoigne and Marlow, 1577 and 1593, his predecessors ; Beaumont and Fletcher, 1616 and 1625, Massinger, 1640, and Ben Jonson, 1637, his contemporaries, rivals, and sometimes his equals. The Ecclesiastical Polity of Hooker, 1600, has been justly famed; and the cele- brated Institutes of Coke, 1634, are still the standard authority on English law. The first document in the form of a newspaper is believed to have been pub- lished by Elizabeth's order, 23d July 1588. France. — The age of Francis I. is the first of the three literary eras of his country. The Italian expeditions had increased his taste for the fine arts, and he invited to his court Leonardo da Vinci, Andrea del Sarto, and Rosso. Las- caris, a learned Greek, was employed to form the king's library at Fontaine- bleau, and to introduce professors of his language into the university of Paris. At the solicitation of the learned Budaeus, 1540, the king established the Col- lege of France for the study of the sciences and of those recently cultivated languages which had no professor in the university. Literature was also ♦The year of decease will be always given, as serving to mark more exactly the period at which the individual may be supposed to have flourished. SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 399 adorned by the names of Marot, 1544, the inventor of the rondeau ; Rabelais, 1553, the witty but impure author of the adventures of Pantagruel and Gar- gantua; Ronsard, 1585, an elegant poet and sonnetteer, especially distinguished by Francis I. ; Montaigne, 1592, the garrulous but sceptical essayist ; and Malherbe, 1628, some of whose poems are the most touching in the whole range of French literature. Philology was honoured by the printers and cri- tics, Robert and Henry Stephens, 1559 and 1598 ; by the learned Scaliger, 1609; and by Casaubon, 1614. The names of Calvin, 1564, and the correct Beza, 1605, have distinguished the theology of France. Italy — This century was the famous Medician era of Italian literature. In il flourished the poets Ariosto, 1533, author of Orlando Fur ioso; Vida, 1566, who wrote the Christiad in Latin verse ; Tasso, 1595, celebrated for the epic of Jerusalem Delivered ; Guarini, 1612, the author of the Pastor Fido ; and Tassoni, 1635, the witty writer of the Rape of the Bucket. History was adorned by the acute Machiavelli, 1527, whose name has passed into a proverb ; by Guicciardini, 1540 ; by the Latin history of Venice by Bembo, 1547, who oc- casionally strayed into the field of poetry ; and by Sarpi, 1623, better known as Father Paul, the historian of the Council of Trent. Scholars and critics still respect the names of the printer Manutius Aldus, 1516, whose editions of the classics are highly prized ; of Sannazarius, 1530, whose poem De Partu Vir- ginis, is said to have occupied him twenty years ; and of the learned Joseph Scaliger, 1609. The unequalled paintings of Leonardo da Vinci, 1520; of Raphael, 1520; of Corregio, 1534; of Titian, 1576; and of the two Caracci, 1609 and 1618, adorn the churches of Italy and the galleries of Europe ; while Michael Angelo, 1564, courted with equal success the rival muses of painting, sculpture, and architecture. Cardan, 1576, facilitated the operations of algebra, by his method for the solution of equations of the third degree. Spain. — The great exploits of Spain were celebrated by various eminent writers. The Jesuit Mariana, 1624, wrote a general history of that country ; Herrera, 1625, was the chronicler of the reign of Philip II. and of the Castilian conquests in the Western World; Garcilasso, 1536, revived the lyric poetry of the nation ; Ercilla, 1596, the most celebrated epic poet of the peninsula, composed, in 1590, the Araucana, in which he describes the wars he had shared in the New World. John de la Cueva, Christoval de Virues, Father Ojeda, and Zorate, each wrote an epic poem. Lope de Vega, the greatest poet of this era, 1635, also composed an epic on the conquest of Jerusalem ; but it was in the drama that he unfolded the full resources of his genius. Calderon, 1687, who, with the poet just mentioned, scarcely belongs to this century, ranks in the very first class of tragic writers. The romance of Don Quixoto, by Cervantes, 1616, has become part of the standard literature of every civilized nation. Mendoza, Boscan, Louis de Leon, and Quevedo, have attained a European celebrity. Portugal. — The first Portuguese writer of merit was Ribeyro, 1521. Camoens, at once the glory and shame of his native land, died a year before Portugal was subjected to the Spanish crown, 1579. His great poem, the Lusiad, was written during his exile at Macao : it is a description of the dis- coveries and exploits of his countrymen in the East. Germany and Holland. — Albert Durer, 1528, the father of the German school of painting and engraving, after studying the Italian models, formed his style in the school of Bruges. Luke of Leyden, 1533, founded the Dutch school. Erasmus of Rotterdam, 1536, prepared, by the freedom of his popular writings, for a considerable change in the opinions of Europe. In poetry, the Minnesingers, the popular troubadours of Germany, were distinguished. Luther himself was no contemptible poet, and one of the chief writers of the day, 1546; and Zuingle the Swiss, 1531, and Melancthon, 1560, also adorned theology. Paracelsus alone, 1541, was conspicuous in natural philosophy, and Mereator, 1594, in geography ; Lipsius, 1606, and Buxtorf, 1629, were cele- brated for their learning and philological studies. Almost all that was pro- duced in this century, of whatever is elevated and precious, arose from the inspiration of Germany. Copernicus of Thorn in Poland, 1543, by comparing 400 MODERN HISTORY. he ancient notions of astronomy, hypothetically discovered that system of the planets which was afterwards demonstrated by Newton. Tycho Brahe, 1601, even when rejecting the suppositions of Copernicus, contributed to the advance- ment of astronomical science by the improvement of his optical instruments and his accurate observations, 1546-1601. Kepler, 1630, united the speculations of Copernicus with the method of Brahe, and, by his immortal labours, established the foundations of modern astronomy. In Switzerland, the physician Gesner introduced the study of the natural sciences, 1516-1565. Table to be fdled up by the pupil with notes on any personage the tutor may select. Name. Born and Died. Where. Performances. Critical Opinion or Remarks. ' N. B. — The other literary periods may be studied according to this model. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. Great Britain. — 1603, The Stuarts: James I.— 1605, Gunpowder Plot. — 1621 Whigs and Tories.— 1625, Charles I.— 1638, Solemn Covenant; Long Parliament. — 1641, Irish Rebellion. — 1643, Episcopacy abolished. — Civil War.— 1649, The Commonwealth.— 1653, Cromwell Protector.— 1660, The Restoration : Charles II. — 1665, 1666, Plague and Fire of London. — 1679, Habeas Corpus Act. — 1688, Revolution: House of Orange. — 1694, Trien- nial Act. France. — 1610, Louis XIII. — Richelieu and Mazarin.— 1643, Louis XIV.— 1659, Peace of Pyrenees. — 1668, Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. — 1685, Edict of Nantes revoked. — 1697, Peace of Ryswick. Spain and Portugal. — 1610, Moors expelled. — 1621, Philip IV. — Decline of Spain.— 1640, Revolution of Portugal.— Braganza Dynasty — 1668, Indepen- dence of Portugal. Italy. — 1647, Massaniello. — 1645, Candian War. Germany. — 1618, Thirty Years' War. — 1648, Treaty of Westphalia.— 1682, Insurrection of Tekeli. — 1683, Siege of Vienna by the Turks. — 1687, Hun- gary becomes hereditary in the Austrian Family. Holland.— 1609, Truce with Spain.— 1618, Synod of Dort— 1648 Treaty of Munster.— 1678, Treaty of Nimeguen.— 1689, William III. of Holland be comes King of England. Denmark.— 1588, Christian IV.— 1611, Swedish War.— 1648, Frederick III. Sweden. — 1611, Gustavus Adolphus. — 1632, Battle of Lutzen ; Christiana; Abdicates in 1654.— 1697, Charles XII. Poland.— 1632, Ladislaus IV.— 1647, Cossack War.— 1674, John Sobiesky; Raises the Siege of Vienna, 1683.— 1686, Treaty ot Leopol. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 401 Russia.— 1613, Romanof Dynasty: Michael.— 1645, Alexis.— 1667, Revolt of the Cossacks. — 1689, Peter the Great; Turkish War. Ottoman Empire. — 1645, Candiau War. — 1669, Conquest of Candia ; Mo- hammed IV. — 1699, Treaty of Carlowitz. The East. — Shah Abbas.— 1694, Hussein Mirza. — 1644, Tartar Dynasty in China.— 1611, Dutch Trade with Japan. — 1659, Aurengzebe ; The Mah- rattas. Colonies. — 1600, East India Company. — 1623, Dutch Cruelties at Amboyna. — 1648, Factories at Madras and Hoogly ; 1699, Fort- William at Calcutta. — 1674, Colonies on Guinea Coast. — 1625, Barbadoes and St. Kitt's. — 1641, Sugar-cane planted in West Indies. — 1655, Conquest of Jamaica. — 1627, Boston founded.— 1630, Rhode Island.— 1632, Maryland.— 1680, Carolina. 16S2, Pennsylvania. — 1664, French West India Company ; Buccaneers. — 1650, Dutch settle at Cape of Good Hope. — 1656, Ceylon. Church. — 1638, Jansenism. — 1709, Port Royal suppressed. — 1650, Quakers. Inventions, &c. — 1602, Decimal Arithmetic. — 1610, Thermometer; Satel- lites of Jupiter. — 1614, Logarithms. — 1625, Barometer. — 1628, Circulation of Blood demonstrated; Tea, Coffee, Chocolate, and Sugar introduced.— 1658, Pocket Watches.— 1686, Newtonian Philosophy. GREAT BRITAIN. The Stuarts, 1603. — The death of Elizabeth terminated the main line of the Tudors, who had now filled the throne of England one hun- dred and eighteen years. The popular voice declared James VI. of Scotland heir to the crown, notwithstanding the claims of other com- petitors ; and the new sovereign accordingly removed from Edinburgh to London, and quietly assumed the sceptre by the title of James I. England and Scotland were thus at length united under one sovereign; and, at the suggestion of the king, who wished to obliterate all distinc- tion between them, the two countries henceforth received the common designation of Great Britain. The character of James was in many respects singular. To great capacity for learning, and abilities by no means contemptible, he united a degree of meanness, pusillanimity, and vanity, which accorded but ill with his lofty ideas of the divine rio-hts and authority of sovereigns. He was equally disposed with his prede- cessor to govern despotically ; but he was signally deficient in the vigour and tact which enabled Elizabeth to rule in the hearts as much as over the persons of her subjects. At the same time, the discontents of the Catholics, the fears of the church party, and the energy of the popular spirit, manifested particularly in the acts of the Puritans^ ren- dered the position of the monarch by no means an easy one. The latter party desired to make great alterations in the government and worship of the church; and, in the strictness of their manners and the fervour of their devotions, bore a striking resemblance to the Scottish Presbyterians. While, therefore, the nation was making rapid advances in wealth and intelligence, and trade and maritime enterprise flourished, causes were at work which threatened the stability of regal government, and led to the great national convulsions in the next reign. Gunpowder Plot. — Soon after the accession of James, a plot had been discovered to place Arabella Stuart, lineally descended from Henry 34* 402 MODERN HISTORY. VII., upon the throne ; but the conspirators, who were in correspondence with the Pope and Spain, were arrested and executed. In 1605, some disappointed Roman Catholics, at the head of whom were Robert Catesby and Thomas Percy, formed a conspiracy to destroy by gunpowder the king and assembled Parliament; and sixty-four barrels of powder had been actually deposited in the cellars beneath the house. This atrocious scheme was happily discovered, and the principals were severely punished. The famous Oath of Allegiance, 1606, was drawn up in con- sequence of this attempt; it asserted the supremacy of the sovereign relative to ecclesiastical matters, denying the Pope's right to depose him or absolve his subjects from their allegiance. The timidity of the monarch's temper, however, prevented him from taking further advan- tage of this circumstance to increase the persecution of the Catholic party. The most laudable act of James' reign was the settlement and planta- tion of the north of Ireland. Previously, the legislative authority of England had been circumscribed within a small district called " the Pale," — the rest of the country being abandoned to the sway of lawless native chiefs. The king extended the English law over the whole country, passed an act of indemnity for former offences, and procured the settlement in Ulster of thousands of English, Scotch, and well- disposed Irish, who contributed greatly to the pacification of the coun- try, 1609. While in Scotland, James had been governed by favourites, and he did not change his habits in England. He raised a Scotchman of the name of Carr from obscurity to the earldom of Rochester ; but he was subsequently neglected for the handsome George Villiers, who rapidly passed through every grade of nobility, and became Duke of Bucking- ham, invested with many of the principal offices of the kingdom. In 16*21, the king summoned a parliament, in which already were seen the two parties known as Whigs and Tories, — the former for the people, the latter for the king. His last moments were disturbed by war. The Princess Elizabeth had been married in 1613 to Frederick, Elector Pa- latine; this prince had afterwards the misfortune to lose his dominions, in consequence of his having accepted the sovereignty of Bohemia,* not- withstanding the aid of his father-in-law, who took part in his favour against Austria and Spain. King Jaines died in 1625. One of the first acts of Charles I. was to marry the Princess Henri- etta Maria, daughter of Henry IV. of France, and a Catholic. The war with Spain still continuing, the king applied to parliament for aid ; but was there met with so keen a spirit of liberty, and so many complaints as to his government, that he was led to revive a practice of former sovereigns of levying taxes called benevolences and ship-money, by his own authority. These acts, coupled with his arrogant assertion of the arbitrary principles held by his father, excited a universal spirit of dis- content throughout the nation. In 1623, the Commons presented to him an act called a Petition of Right, limiting the powers of the crown, which not without difficulty he was prevailed on to sanction ; but the disputes with Parliament soon after ran to such a height, that he dis- * Sophia, youngest: daughter of this dethroned pair, having married the D-jke of Brunswick, was the ancestress of the family which now reigns in Britain. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. I). 403 solved it in a fit of indignation, resolving never again to call another. About this time the Duke of Buckingham was assassinated ; and Laud, archbishop of Canterbury, together with the Earl of Strafford, became the chief advisers of the king. The Petition of Right was now alto- gether disregarded, great numbers of persons were dragged before an arbitrary court, called the Star-chamber, and frequently subjected by its sentence to the greatest indignities and tortures for the most trifling offences. In 1637, the attempts of Charles to introduce into Scotland the Epis- copalian form of worship, as more favourable to royalty than Presbyte- rianism, drove the Scots to rebellion. In 1638, they framed the cele- brated Covenant to maintain their ecclesiastical liberties, and took up arms against the king. A dreadful rebellion about the same time broke out in Ireland, in which thousands of Protestants were barbarously mas- sacred. Under these circumstances the Long Parliament assembled, and declared its sittings permanent until the popular grievances were redressed. This act, which deprived the king of one of his highest pre- rogatives, was fatal to the monarchy. The ministers, Strafford and Laud, were impeached and beheaded, the one in 1641, the other in 1644. The Presbyterians, who were a majority in the Commons, procured the exclusion of the bishops from the Upper House, 1641 ; an act w 7 hich was followed up in 1643 by the entire abolition of Episcopacy. Civil War. — The differences between the king and parliament had now come to a crisis. The former was generally supported by the no- bility and landed gentry, the Catholics, and the high church party ; while the latter found its chief strength in the mercantile and middle classes, and the lower orders of the great towns. Both parties resolved on an appeal tc arms. In August 1642, the royal standard was raised at Nottingham ; and for three years numerous engagements took place between the forces of the king and the parliament, the latter aided by the Scottish army. At length his majesty received a final overthrow at Naseby, 1645; and, unable longer to keep the field, he threw himself upon the protection of the Scots, then encamped at Newark, by whom he was soon after surrendered to the English parliamentary leaders, 1647. The whole power of the state had now fallen into the hands of the Inde- pendents, a fanatical sect, who declared for democratic government both in church and state. At the head of this party was Oliver Cromwell, general of the army, a man of great talent and address, and who seems now to have formed the design of obtaining supreme power. Havincr forcibly succeeded in excluding from parliament about tw T o hundred members of the Presbyterian party who were supposed favourable to royalty, Cromwell and his associates resolved on the death of the king, 2 648. He was accordingly brought to trial, condemned, and executed, 1649 ; an act which struck Europe with amazement, and has been generally condemned as alike illegal, sanguinary, and impolitic. The Commonwealth. — The parliament, known by the appellation of the Rump, now administered the affairs of the country ; but all real power lay in the hands of Cromwell and the army. During the progress of the civil war, an attempt had been made in Scotland to produce a diversion in the king's favour by the chivalrous Marquis of Montrose, who gained several victories, but was eventually defeated and forced to *mit the kingdom. The royalists were still in considerable force in 404 MODERN HISTORY. Ireland under the Duke of Ormond, and a large body of Catholic insur- gents were not indisposed to join them ; but, before any such union could be effected, Cromwell repaired thither with an army, defeated all his opponents, and rapidly overran the whole country, 1649. In the following year, the Scots having proclaimed Charles II., he crossed the Tweed, and gained a signal victory at Dunbar; and, though the young prince, after wards led a Scottish army into England, he was defeated at Worcester, and compelled to take refuge in France, 1(351. The victo- rious general now dissolved the Long Parliament, and governed by his own authority under the title of Lord Protector. The struggle for popu- lar rights had therefore ended in a military despotism, distinguished, however, for great vigour and ability. On the seas, the fleets of Crom- well were successful against the Dutch, whom he compelled to strike their flag to the English, 1053. Uniting with France against Spain, 1655, he took the valuable island of Jamaica; and, in 1658, the port of Dunkirk was delivered to him. Under the Protector, England became both respected and feared throughout Europe; but his power at home was crumbling to pieces, and he eventually sank under the anxieties of his position, in September 1658. The Restoration. — Cromwell was succeeded by his son Richard in his dignity of Protector; but, finding himself incapable of resisting the intrigues of the various parties and the cabals of the army, he quietly abdicated, and retired into private life. The dissensions that followed were terminated by General Monk, commander of the forces in Scotland, who marched with his army to London, and assembled a free parlia- ment, which unanimously invited King Charles to return to the throne of his ancestors. Accordingly, on the 29th May 1660, the anniversary of his thirtieth birthday, the monarch entered London. Charles II., at the beginning of his reign, used every method to con- ciliate his subjects, forming his council indiscriminately of men of all parties. A general amnesty which had been promised was confirmed, those only being excepted who were considered as the promoters of the late king's death, ten of whom suffered capital punishment.* Charles then disbanded the army of Cromwell, restored the Episcopal clergy to their benefices, and rewarded those who had contributed to his return. In 1662, he married Catherine of Portugal, an unhappy union, contracted with interested views. In personal character the king was licentious, indolent, and careless of religion; and he spent his time almost exclu- sively in the indulgence of the basest appetites. The liberal civil list afforded him by parliament proved altogether insufficient for his expen- diture ; and he basely accepted £10,000 from Louis XIV., as the price of the surrender of Dunkirk, and even condescended to receive a secret pension from that prince. With the view of obtaining parliamentary subsidies, he also engaged in a naval war with Holland, which, though generally favourable to the British, had, in 1667, nearly led to the de- struction of London by the Dutch fleet. Plague and Fire of London. — In the summer of 1665, London was visited by a dreadful pestilence, which swept off about 100,000 people, and abated little till the approach of winter. Houses were rendered * The most, illustrious victim was the Martinis of Argyle in Scotland, who had placed (he crown on the kind's head at Scone in 1(551. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 405 tenantless, grass grew in the streets, and the whole city presented one wide scene of misery and desolation. This was succeeded in the fol- lowing autumn by a conflagration, which raged a whole week, destroy- ing 13,200 houses and eighty-nine churches. The night was as clear as day to the distance of ten miles round ; and even on the Scottish border its strange effect upon the sky was perceptible. In the end, however, this latter calamity was advantageous to London; the city has never since been visited by pestilence ; and the widening of the streets, improved drainage, and stricter police regulations, now render it one of the healthiest capitals in the world. Persecution in Scotland — Popish Plot. — The great object of Charles was the re-establishment of Popery and arbitrary power ; and though still himself professing adherence to the Reformed doctrines, his brother James, duke of York, openly affiliated with the Jesuits. An iniquitous attempt had been made to force Episcopacy upon the people of Scotland, and upwards of 300 Presbyterian ministers were expelled from their livings. The people then began to hold conventicles in the fields, where they attended the services of their expelled pastors ; but the execrable barbarities employed to overcome their opposition to the new arrangements at length drove them to insurrection, which was sup- pressed by a war of extermination.* The prejudices and fears of the English people began now to be effectually aroused. In 1673, the Test Act was passed, imposing a religious oath upon all who entered the pub- lic service. This was followed in 1678 by a panic equally foolish and deplorable. The infamous Titus Oates succeeded in propagating a general belief in a pretended Popish Plot for the massacre of the Pro- testants ; and, in the midst of the ferment thus occasioned, many inno- cent Catholics were judicially massacred. The Parliament now became more and more intractable : they passed the celebrated Habeus Corpus Act; and the Commons even prepared a bill for the exclusion of the Duke of York from the succession. This latter measure seems to have produced a temporary reaction in the king's favour, who dissolved the nouses, and reigned by his own arbitrary authority, 1681. A plan was now formed by the late majority to raise simultaneous insurrections in London, the west of England, and Scotland. This was discovered ; and the leaders, Russel, Sydney, and others, becoming implicated also in the Rye-house Plot for murdering the king, perished on the scaffold, 1683. Charles II. died in 1685. The Revolution, 1688. — The commencement of the reign of James II. was sufficiently favourable: the Commons voted him an ample reve- nue; the university of Oxford and the Scottish Parliament recoo-nised his "sacred, supreme, and absolute authority." The character of the new king was much more respectable than that of his brother; but he was deficient in those popular and showy qualities by which Charles, notwithstanding his tyranny and vices, had succeeded in making him- self agreeable to his subjects. James had all along been an avowed Catholic ; and, though he began his reign by professing an intention to govern according to the laws, it soon became apparent that he had set *On a ir.onumental stone in the Greyfriars Churchyard, Edinburgh, may be seen an inscription, which states that, between 16G1 and 1088, 18,000 persons are "computed to have suffered death for their faith. 406 MODERN HISTORY. his heart on overthrowing the established religion. An unfortunate expedition of the Duke of Monmouth, natural son of the late king, to etFect a rising in the west of England, and of the Duke of Argyle in Scotland, which ended in the execution of both, gave him additional confidence in the prosecution of his design. He proceeded to dispense with the Test Act, by proclaiming a general toleration in favour of the Catholics ; and six bishops who opposed his proceedings were impri- soned, but subsequently liberated on trial. The Romanists were now openly admitted to the royal councils, chapels being everywhere erected ; and he even held a correspondence with the pope for the pur- pose of placing England once more under the dominion of the holy see. The fears of the people were excited to the highest pitch by the birth of a Prince of Wales ; and all ranks uniting with the clergy and nobility, William, prince of Orange, who had married the Princess Mary, was invited to England to defend the Protestant cause. On the 5th of No- vember, the prince landed at Torbay with an armament; soon after which, the chief persons in the kingdom flocked to his standard, and the troops of James went over to him. His majesty himself, deserted on all hands, made his escape to France, leaving the crown, without a struggle, in the hands of his son-in-law. GENEALOGY OF THE HOUSES OF ORANGE AND BRUNSWICK. 24. James I., b. 156(5; k. Gr. B. 1G03; d. 1625. t Elizabeth, b. 1596. 25. Charles I. k. 1625 ; beh. 1649. 26. Charles II., Mary, m. William 27. James II., k. 1685; Henrietta Maria. k. 1660, d. 1685. II. of Orange, dep. 1689 : in. 1. Anne 1641, d. 1661. Hyde ; 2. Mary of Modena. 28. William III., p. of Orange, b. 1650 = 28 Mary, 29. Anne, James Edward, q. 1689. 1702. the Pretender. \ Elizabeth, m. Frederick V., elect, pal., 1613, d. 1661. Sophia, dec. heiress to throne, 1700, m. Ernest Augustus, el. of Hanover, 1658, d. 1714. HOUSE OF HANOVER? 30. George I., k. 1714. House of Orange. — The bloodless revolution of 1688 established the great principle, that "when a government, by its aggravated abuses, has ceased to command the support of the people and to be an instru- ment of good, it is no longer entitled to obedience." The accession of William terminated the persecution in Scotland ; the Presbyterian church was established by law ; and, excepting among the Highland clans, who made some resistance under Viscount Dundee, the new government was at first very popular. On the other hand, the Catholics in Ireland made common cause with the deposed monarch, who landed in that country in the spring of 1089, and soon found himself at the head of a large but undisciplined army. He was defeated hy his antagonist at the battle of the Boyne, and immediately returned to France; while his adherents acceded to the new order of things by the treaty of Limerick, signed soon after. William's great operations against Louis XIV. prevented him, had he been so disposed, from impeding the liberal measures of Parliament, and the Triennial Act was accordingly SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 407 passed, 1694. In 1691, for a merely legal offence, an atrocious massacre was perpetrated in the Highlands on the clan of Macdonald of Glencoe, from which the sovereign was never able altogether to clear himself; and the affections of the Scottish people were further alienated by the obstacles thrown in the way of their commerce at the instigation of the English merchants, particularly in regard to an expedition fitted out to colonize the isthmus of Darien, in which many hundred persons lost their lives, and a large capital was irrecoverably lost, 1699. The Jaco- bite party consequently became strong in Scotland, while not a little dissatisfaction prevailed in the south ; and, though the peace of Rys- wick, 1697, enabled the king" to spend the remainder of his days in peace, he was subjected to much domestic inquietude. FRANCE. On the death of Henry IV. in 1610, the crown of France descended to his son Louis XIII., a minor, under the regency of the queen, Mary of Medici. In October 1614, the prince was declared to be of age; and in the year following, he married Anne, daughter of Philip III. of Spain. Sully having retired, an Italian named Concini, a creature of the queen- mother, possessed the direction of affairs. The nobility, disgusted by his insolence, began a civil war, headed by the Prince of Conde, but were appeased by concessions, 1615. The king himself, become im- patient of the rule of his parent and the favourite, by the advice of a young courtier named Luines, procured his assassination ; his wife was condemned to death on a charge of magic ; and the queen-dowager was sent to Blois under arrest, 1617. Louis, who, during the whole of his reign, was altogether incapable of conducting- affairs, now became a passive instrument in the hands of Luines, who was raised to the highest rank and offices in the state. Richelieu. — Some years after, Mary escaped from Blois, and being- supported by the Duke of Epernon and other nobles, a civil war broke out; but it was composed by the mediation of Armand du Plessis, bishop of Lucon, known afterwards as Cardinal Richelieu, who effected a reconciliation between Louis and his mother. In 1620, an attempt having been made to invade the liberties of the Protestants, they flew to arms ; and in the hostilities that followed, Luines, now Constable, lost his life, when a peace was concluded, confirming' the edict of Nantes, 1622. The haughty Richelieu now became prime-minister, and soon displayed the possession of abilities of the highest order, with an unscrupulous perseverance in the prosecution of his designs. There were three parties whom he resolved to humble; — the nobility, the Huguenots, and the house of Austria. With these views, he concluded a marriage between Charles, prince of Wales, and the king's sister, Henrietta, and effected an alliance between the two monarchs and Hol- land. A war with Spain was the consequence, 1625, which, however, led to no important results. The Protestants having rebelled, he laid siege to Rochelle, their great stronghold, which was forced to surrender, 1628; and they were eventually compelled to yield all their fortified towns. The French dissenters were now effectually subdued, and the whole kingdom brought under the supreme authority of the crown. Richelieu 408 MODERN HISTORY. ruled the country with a rod of iron ; he negotiated with the King of Sweden, and aided the German Protestants against Austria ; attacked the latter power in Italy ; and assisted in re-establishing the indepen- dence of Portugal. But his ambition was of an exalted kind: to him France was indebted for the establishment of the Academy ; he liberally encouraged literature and the arts, and promoted the revival of national commerce, ruined by two centuries of domestic war. In spite of all enemies, the cardinal retained the administration of affairs till his death, 1642, at the very time when the combined forces of Sweden and France had utterly humbled the pride of the house of Austria. Louis XIII. died a few months after. Mazarin and the Fronde. — The subtle policy of the Italian Mazarin succeeded the energetic rule of Richelieu, and was continued during the minority of the young king, Louis XIV., 1643. The new minister had the satisfaction of concluding the treaty of Westphalia, which termi- nated the thirty years' war, France gaining thereby several important acquisitions, 1648. The early part of this reign was however disturbed by the troubles of the Fronde, as they were called, headed by the Car- dinal de Retz. A war was begun against the minister, while the rebels proclaimed their unbroken attachment to the crown. These disorders, which served only to embroil the nation, without leading to any decisive result, were terminated by the king's majority, 1653; and during the nine succeeding years, Mazarin's attention to the finances prepared the way for great military exertions. The Spaniards, in the war terminating 1648, had been severely defeated at Rocroi: by the Duke d'Enghien, and near Gibraltar by the French fleet under the Duke de Breze ; besides which they lost many strong places. But they did not accede to the treaty of Westphalia, and the war still continued in the Low Countries, Turenne commanding the French troops, while the Prince of Conde, who had been exiled during the late troubles, fought on the side of the Spaniards. At Arras and Valenciennes, the talents of the rivals were alike conspicuous, 1656. Mazarin now formed an alliance with Cromwell, and Turenne gained the famous victory of Dunes, 1658. This led to a pacification in the ensuing year, known as the treaty of the Pyrenees, by which France gained Artois, Roussillon, part of Flanders, Hainault, and Luxem- bourg ; Louis at the same time married the Infanta Maria Theresa, and agreed to pardon Conde. In 1667, six years after the death of Mazarin, began those aggres- sions which alarmed all Europe. In 1657, that minister had made an unsuccessful attempt to get Louis elected emperor, which led to a long and bitter animosity between Leopold and the French king. The minister, Colbert, had largely multiplied the resources of the country, and the war department was systematized and brought to a high state of efficiency by Louvois. On the death of Philip IV. of Spain, Louis laid claim to the duchy of Brabant in right of his wife, and entered Flanders with 40,000 men. His success led to a triple alliance between Britain, Sweden, and Holland, which compelled him to accede to the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1668 ; but having resolved to revenge himself on Holland, he succeeded in breaking up the confederacy, by securing the alliance of Charles II. Under the most frivolous pretences, both monarchs declared war against the United Provinces, 1672; a combined SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 409 fleet of a. >re than one hundred sail put to sea, while the French king invaded the frontiers with an army of 120,000 men. The Dutch de- termined to make a vigorous resistance : the Prince of Orange was placed at the head of the land forces, and the gallant De Ruyter com- manded 130 ships. The hostile fleets came in sight of each other in Southwold Bay, where a desperate engagement was fought, with no decisive advantage to either party. The French army, however, commanded under Louis by Turenne, Conde, and Luxembourg, was more successful. Having passed the Rhine, Nimeguen and Utrecht opened their gates, and all the provinces, except Holland and Zealand, were forced to submit. The former broke down the sluices and laid the country under water ; the Prince of Orange was declared stadtholder; and all idea of submis- sion was abandoned. The prospects of the Dutch now began to brighten. The combined fleets were driven from the coast of Holland by violent storms, and three naval actions, vigorously contested, termi- nated rather in favour of De Ruyter and Van Tromp. In the mean time, the troops of the empire having united with the Prince of Orange, the electorate of Cologne was conquered; and the communication between France and Holland being thus cut off, Louis was forced to recall his army and abandon his conquests, 1673. The King of Spain now declared war against France, and Charles II., unable to get sup- plies from his parliament, made peace with the United Provinces. Five bloody but indecisive campaigns followed ; the preponderance of success by land, however, lay on the side of the French, while the Dutch and Spanish fleets were defeated in the Mediterranean. The peace of Nime- guen put an end to the contest, Louis obtaining Franche-Comte and sixteen fortresses in the Low Countries, 1678. Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, 1685. — The character of the French monarch was essentially absolute. His favourite expression was, " I am the state ;" and, on this principle, having determined that nothing should oppose his supreme authority, he stript the parliament of their privileges, and regarded the body of the nation as the mere instruments of his ambition. He hated the Protestants from religious bigotry, but still more because he regarded them as rebellious subjects. Influenced by these motives, and instigated by Louvois, Madame de Maintenon, whom he had privately married, and the Jesuits, he resolved on the wicked and disastrous measure of revoking the Edict of Nantes. This act, by proscribing Protestantism in France, deprived that country of thousands of its most industrious and enterprising subjects, and produced general alarm throughout Europe. Children at the age of seven years, by apostatizing, were declared independent of their parents ; military execu- tions were employed to enforce uniformity of worship ; voluntary exile was prohibited ; and the declaration of the illegality of Protestant marriages rendered the issue illegitimate. Consequences. — The terrible effects of this measure are not easily described, and they are such as France has never recovered. Before the revocation, from 14,000 to 15,000 persons had removed to the commercial cities of Hamburg and Amsterdam, most of whom were wealthy and respectable, and engaged in commerce. But the number of refugees was alarmingly increased by the recall of the edict. Within a few years, nearly one million of individuals went into exile ; in one season, the Prince of Orange raised three regiments and manned 35 410 MODERN HISTORY. three ships of war with French Protestants. Not less than twenty millions sterling of property left the country ; and, in the loss of her active and enter- prising population, France suffered the worst consequences of civil war. In the course of five years, the inhabitants of Tours had dwindled away from eighty to thirty thousand. The silk manufacturers, so hospitably received in England, laid the foundation of the great works of Spitalrields ; and Picardy Place in Edinburgh still marks the site of the factories there established. Louis was at this time the most powerful prince in Europe, and the necessity of restraining his encroachments was felt by every surrounding state. The Grand Alliance of 1689, the result of the elevation of Wil- liam of Orange to the English throne, included the Emperor, Holland, Spain, the northern powers, and Savoy. The French king sent two large armies into Flanders; a third was opposed to the Spaniards in Catalonia ; reinforcements were given to James II. in Ireland ; while his troops in Germany perpetrated one of the most barbarous deeds on record, in the wanton destruction of the Palatinate. In 1691, his fleet defeated the combined English and Dutch off Beachy-head ; but the conquerors in their turn were vanquished near La Hogue in the follow- ing year. The forces of the allies, commanded by the King of England, were worsted by Luxembourg at Landen, 1693 ; while Catinat overthrew the Duke of Savoy near the river Cisola. Meanwhile, the resources of France were becoming exhausted ; agriculture and commerce lan- guished ; and the two following campaigns were indecisive. All parties being now tired of hostilities, the treaty of Ryswick was at length con- cluded, Louis acknowledging the title of William III., and restoring his principal conquests, 1697. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL Spain. — Philip III., 1598, was not "destitute of amiable qualities, but he was excessively indolent, and fully equalled his father in intolerance. The chief circumstances of his reign were the virtual recognition of the independence of the United Provinces by a truce of twelve years, 1609, and the expulsion of the Moors from Spain. The former event was brought about not less by the heroic resistance of the Netherlanders, than by the absolute exhaustion of his resources. As if desirous of consum- mating the ruin of his kingdom, he yielded so far to the Inquisition and the advice of his feeble and bigoted minister, the Duke of Lerma, as to issue an edict commanding all his Mohammedan subjects to leave it within thirty days, 1610. The Moors, in despair, flew to arms ; they were subdued, and a million of industrious subjects driven into exile. Philip IV., 16-31, possessed even less energy than his predecessor, and was entirely controlled by his minister Olivarez, a man of some ability, but conceited and ambitious. W nile the resources of the coun- try were daily declining, and agriculture and trade suffered from exces- sive imposts, this politician resolved upon plunging into war, notwith- standing the discontent of all classes of the people. His intrigues were among the causes which led to the sanguinary contests in Germany ter- minated by the treaty of Westphalia, and to the struggle with France till the peace of the Pyrenees, ten years later. All his measures were eminently disastrous. The English took Jamaica and Dunkirk ; while the French signally defeated his forces on the plains of Rocroi. A dan- gerous insurrection in Catalonia was followed in 1640 by the revolt of SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 411 Portugal. In consequence of this vicious administration, the country became so poor that the government was compelled to have recourse to copper money, to which a value was attached equal to that of silver. To complete the humiliation of Philip, the independence of Holland was fully acknowledged, 1643. Portugal. — The revolution which restored the independence of Por- tugal was brought about mainly by the weakness of Spain. The people had long been exasperated by the despotism of their foreign rulers ; the want of troops had compelled Olivarez to withdraw great part of the garrison from Lisbon; and the country at large was occupied by a very small force. When the revolt took place in Catalonia, orders came from Madrid for the Portuguese nobility to take arms for its suppression. But a plot which had long existed now broke out. The conspirators, headed by the Archbishop of Lisbon, met in secret, and resolved on the eleva- tion of their legitimate prince, the duke of Braganza, to the throne. He was accordingly proclaimed king by the title of John IV., 1640, the whole nation at once eagerly acknowledging him. A similar revolution was accomplished with equal facility in all the colonies in India and Africa. The treaty of the Pyrenees, 1659, left Spain free to attempt the reco- very of Portugal, which was obliged to form a defensive alliance with England. Alpiionso VI. had succeeded his father in 1656, and strength- ened his position by marrying his sister, the Infanta Catherine, to Charles the Second. France also felt it to be her interest to support the cause of the Portuguese against Spain. In the course of the war, which was vigorously conducted on both sides, Alphonso was forced to abdicate in favour of his brother, Peter II., who immediately concluded a peace with the Spanish monarch, by which the independence of his own coun- try was acknowledged, 1668. Philip IV. of Spain was succeeded by his infant son, Charles II., in 1665, the queen-mother being appointed regent. During this reign, the same vicious administration prevailed which had already been so disastrous to the nation ; its internal affairs were reduced to the most miserable condition, and its arms abroad were exposed to continual reverses. Three successive wars with France ended severally in the treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1668; Nimeguen, 1678; and Ryswick, 1697, at each of which Spain was compelled to resign some portion of her territories in Flanders to her powerful and ambitious neighbour. ITALIAN PENINSULA: The Reformation entirely destroyed the political importance of Italy. The Pope was no longer a sovereign whose alliance could turn the fate of a campaign ; and Spain, mistress of the Two Sicilies and of the Mi- lanese, dictated to the other petty states of the peninsula. In 1647, Naples w T as the scene of a remarkable event. It was governed by depu- ties appointed by the court of Madrid, whose cruelties and extortions at length drove the people to insurrection. A fisherman, named Massa- niello, who put himself at their head, was raised to the supreme power; but, intoxicated or maddened by his elevation, he indulged in such ex- cesses as led to his speedy abandonment by his own partisans, and he was assassinated by the viceroy's orders. The Neapolitans then placed 412 MODERN HISTORY. themselves under the protection of the Duke of Guise, who Mas not expelled without difficulty. Similar causes led to a rehellion at Messina in 1674, the citizens proclaiming Louis X1Y. king of Sicily. A naval war followed in the Mediterranean; but, by the treaty of Nimeguen, 1678, the Messenese were abandoned to the mercy of their former mas- ters. Venice. — In 16*24, a law was passed in this republic, bestowing the exclusive jurisdiction over patricians, in criminal matters, on the Council of Ten. The senate made a vigorous resistance to the claims of Paul V., by forbidding the erection of additional monasteries, or the alienation of property for spiritual purposes without the consent of government; they also successfully vindicated their sovereignty over the Adriatic, which, with the connivance of Austria, had been infested by Dalmatian pirates. In the latter half of this century, the republic carried on two wars with Turkey. The first, in Candia, was protracted twenty-five years, and closed in 1669 by the capitulation of the chief city, after a heroic resistance, and the loss of the island. In the second contest, how- ever, commencing in 1684, the commonwealth reconquered the Morea; and in 1699, that province, with the isles of Egina and Santa Maura, and several fortresses in Dalmatia, were secured to her by the peace of Carlowitz. But the resources of Venice were exhausted, and the affec- tions of the Greeks alienated by an unseasonable zeal against the Eastern church. The Turks took advantage of the dissatisfaction thus created; and a war commenced in 1715, ending with the peace of Passarowitz, 1718, whereby Greece once more returned to its Mohammedan masters. GERMANY. Rudolph II. was succeeded, in 1612, by his brother Matthias, who had already obtained the sovereignty of Hungary and Bohemia. This prince had hitherto favoured the Lutherans ; but the liberal spirit gene- rated by their principles being opposed to the despotic maxims of the house of Austria, he now resolved to curb them ; and, with this view, a family compact was formed with Spain, while his cousin Ferdinand, Duke of Styria, was chosen successor to the crowns of Hungary and Bohemia. The subjects of the latter were soon in open insurrection, in consequence of the intolerant proceedings of the Bishop of Prague, who had demolished several Protestant places of worship; and a general feeling of distrust was excited throughout Germany. This was the com- mencement of a sanguinary and protracted conflict. Thirty Years' War. — Ferdinand II. succeeded Matthias in the imperial dignity, 1619. The Bohemians, however, having been refused satisfaction for the outrages committed on their churches, declared their crown vacant, and offered it to Frederick V., elector-palatine, who, con- trary to the advice of his father-in-law, James I. of England, agreed to accept it. He was supported by most of the Protestant princes of the empire, by a body of British and Dutch auxiliaries, and by Bethlehem Gabor, prince of Transylvania ; while the Catholic electors and the King of Spain were ranged on the side of Ferdinand. Spinola, then com- manding the Spanish forces in the Low Countries, led 24,000 men into the palatinate; and Frederick himself was defeated at the White Moun- tain, near Prague, by the Duke of Bavaria, 1620. He and his adherents SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 413 were put to the ban of the empire ; and his dominions having been en- tirely overrun by Count Tilly, the Bavarian prince received the dignity of elector. Another Protestant confederacy, 1G25, at the head of which was Christian IV. of Denmark, having in view the restoration of the palatinate, was equally unfortunate. In two successive campaigns, the imperial troops, led by Tilly and Wallenstein, were everywhere triumph- ant; Christian was driven into his hereditary dominions, and forced to sue for peace, 1629. The emperor, flushed with success, now conceived that he had found a favourable opportunity for reducing the German princes to the condi- tion of nobles in other countries ; but he resolved to begin with the Pro- testants. He accordingly abolished the exercise of their religion in Bohemia, exiled or put to death their leaders, confiscating their property ; seven hundred noble families were proscribed, while the common people were forced to conform to the Romish worship. In Germany, however, he proceeded more cautiously. He began by excluding the Calvinists from the benefits of the general toleration formerly granted, and passed an edict commanding the restoration of the church lands seized by the Protestant princes subsequently to the treaty of Passau. Even the Catholic electors opposed the execution of this edict, having themselves also obtained no small amount of ecclesiastical property ; and the diet held at Ratisbon insisted that the emperor should reduce his army and dismiss his commander Wallenstein, who had become hateful by his arrogance and the disorders of his troops. Meanwhile, the Protestants had formed a secret alliance with Gusta- vus Adolphus, king of Sweden, who resolved to take up arms in defence of religious toleration, 1630. Cardinal Richelieu engaged to furnish him with an annual subsidy of 1,200,000 livres; he was joined by 6000 men under the Marquis of Hamilton ; and numerous volunteers from Britain repaired to his standard. On the first appearance of Gustavus in Pomerania, the Protestant princes hesitated to join him ; but the energy and success of his operations speedily secured their adherence. In the course of eight months, he had taken eighty fortified places ; and, being joined by the troops of Saxony, he advanced towards Leipsic, and pre- pared to encounter the imperialists under Tilly. The hostile armies met on the 7th December 1631; the battle was long and obstinately contested ; but at length the skill of the Swedish monarch and the valour of his soldiers gained a complete victory. The whole country was now rapidly overrun : Tilly, disputing the passage of the Lech, was killed, 1632; and Gustavus entered Munich in triumph. Wallenstein was again put at the head of the imperial forces ; he succeeded in recovering several places taken by the enemy, and eventually engaged Gustavus at Lutzen, where the Swedes gained another victory, too dearly bought with the life of their heroic sovereign, 1632. Notwithstanding the dismay occasioned by the death of Gustavus, the contest continued to be prosecuted with vigour till 1634, when the severe defeat of the Swedes at Nordlingen revived the hopes of Austria. The German princes now made a separate treaty with Ferdinand, in which he departed from his former demands as to the church property ; and the weight of the war fell upon the Swedes and French. Ferdinand III. succeeded his father in 1637; and, though naturally a wise and temper- ate prince, he felt himself under the necessity of pursuing the same 35* 414 MODERN HISTORY. policy. In the four following- campaigns, the fortune of war was de- cidedly against the imperialists; and in 1641, the Swedish general, Banier, had nearly taken the emperor prisoner while holding a diet at Ratishon. Ferdinand's armies were defeated one after another ; his family were forced to flee from Vienna ; and at length the victory of Zummerhausen, gained by Turenne and Vrangel, compelled him to think seriously of terminating the contest. This was finally brought about by the peace of Westphalia, 1648, which secured some important advantages to France and Sweden. By this celebrated treaty, the Lu- therans and Catholics were placed on a footing of equality; six Pro- testants were to be admitted into the Aulic Council, and equal numbers of each party were to be summoned to the diet and to have seats in the Imperial Chamber. The remainder of the reign of Ferdinand was spent in tranquillity ; his death took place in 1657. His son, Leopold I., had been proclaimed King of Hungary in 1655; of Bohemia in 1657; and notwithstanding the rivalry of Louis XIV., was chosen emperor in 1659. The Turks, having made an inroad into the former country, were defeated, and a truce of twenty years concluded. But the intolerance of the Austrian court constantly furnished matter of irritation to the Hungarians; and, in 1682, the malcontents broke out into open insurrection, under Count Tekeli, whose father had previously been executed for a conspiracy, along with some other noblemen. The rebel was immediately acknow- ledged by the Porte as Prince of Hungary, tributary to the sultan ; and, regardless of the truce, the vizier joined him with an army of 150,000 men.* The confederates, having defeated the imperial troops near Raab, advanced to Vienna, which was invested on the 15th July 1683 ; a long and desperate siege w T as nearly terminated by its loss, when at length the Poles, under John Sobieski, appeared for its deliverance. On the 12th September, the Turks were defeated under the walls of the city ; two or three well-fought campaigns drove them out of Hungary ; and, with the view of humbling the nobility of that country, the crown was declared no longer elective, but hereditary in the house of Aus- tria, Joseph, Leopold'js son, being ordained king, 1687. The Turkish contest was at length concluded, after a complete victory gained by Prince Eugene near Zenta, by the peace of Carlowitz, 1697. During this century Leopold took part in two wars against Louis XIV., which have already been noticed under the head France. The last of these, disgraced by the most atrocious cruelty on the part of the French generals, was ended by the peace of Ryswick, 1697. The reign of this emperor was signalized by the establishment of a ninth electorate in favour of Ernest Augustus, duke of Brunswick and Luneburg, who became the first Elector of Hanover, 1692; and by the assumption of the regal title by Frederick, elector of Brandenburg and Duke of Prus- sia, in 1701. A permanent diet was also established, attended not by the electors in person but by their representatives. HOLLAND. After the battle of Turnhout, Philip II., who had begun to suspect the hopelessness of the contest, transferred the sovereignty of the Low * It came to be: known afterwards that Louis XIV., imitating his predecessor, Francis, 8VH8 the chief instigator of this Turkish invasion of Austria. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 415 Countries to his daughter Isabella, and her husband the Archduke Al- bert; but, as the northern states refused to acknowledge these new rulers, the war continued to be prosecuted with vigour both by sea and land. Great part of the Portuguese East India trade fell into the hands of the Dutch, who had become at least the second maritime state in Europe. Prince Maurice of Orange, acknowledged to be the first captain of his day, defeated the forces of the archduke near Ostend, 1600; and the siege of that city, four years after, cost the Spaniards nearly 70,000 men. Spinola, now made commander-in-chief, after two fruitless campaigns, at length gave it as his opinion that the conquest of the United Provinces was impracticable ; and Philip III. agreed to sign a truce of twelve years, 1609. Synod of Dort, 1618. — The republic had hardly secured external peace, ere it began to be troubled with domestic dissensions ; religion being, as elsewhere in this age, the ostensible matter of dispute. The disagreements in question arose out of a difference of opinion between two professors of divinity at Leyden, Francis Gomar and James Armi- nius ; the former of whom maintained the tenets of Calvin in their most rigorous form, while the latter advocated a milder system. But this religious schism was not unconnected with political motives. The Prince of Orange, with the established church and the majority of the people, were Gomarists ; the Arminian party was chiefly supported by the Grand Pensioner Barneveldt and the higher classes, who suspected the ambitious designs of Maurice; and both parties sought, under colour of these polemical contests, to forward their respective views. Riots and disorders broke out in various places, and the Gomarists loudly clamoured for a national synod to settle the differences ; which accord- ingly met at Dort in November 1618. This body, as might be expected, secured the triumph of the prince and his party : the Arminian preachers were banished ; the patriotic Barneveldt, at the age of seventy-two, was brought to the block, Grotius and others were thrown into prison, and their followers were in general treated with great cruelty and injustice. The decisions of this assembly excited the utmost horror and disgust throughout Protestant Europe ; and the reaction in Holland itself might have proved fatal to the ascendency of Maurice, had not the resumption of hostilities with Spain rendered his military services indispensable to the safety of the republic, 1621. The prince was opposed to his old rival, Spinola, and conducted the warlike operations with great skill till his death in 1625. Frederick Henry succeeded to all his brother's titles and employments, and commenced his career by exercising various acts of clemency in favour of the persecuted Arminians, while he nobly sustained in the field the high military reputation of his family. His son, William II., became stadtholder in 1647; and, in the following year, this long contest was brought to a termination. By a treaty signed at Munster, Spain fully recognised the independence of the United Pro- vinces, and abandoned all the places she possessed in Brabant and Flanders. Ever regardful of commercial interests, the Dutch insisted upon closing the Scheldt, by which Antwerp was ruined and the com- merce of the remaining Spanish provinces excluded fiom the sea. After a brief and inglorious rule, distinguished merely by an abortive attempt to render his power absolute, William II. died in 1650, leaving the state without a stadtholder and the army without a chief. The birth 416 . MODERN HISTORY. of a son by the widowed princess, a week after, did not prevent a resump- tion of most of the sovereign prerogatives by the people; and the direc- tion of the military force now devolved on the states-general. About this time the English parliament passed the celebrated Navigation Act, which, though expressed" in general terms, was specially directed against the commerce of Holland, and gave rise to a sanguinary naval war be- tween the two republics, in which Van Tromp and De Ruyter were compelled to yield to Blake, Dean, and Monk, 1652, 1654. In the paci- fication which followed, the Dutch, besides consenting to strike their flag to the English, were compelled to promise that neither the infant Prince of Orange nor any of his family should ever be elevated to the dignity of stadtholder. In 1661, after the restoration of Charles II., the national jealousy of Holland, and the cupidity of the monarch, again plunged the two countries into war. The Pensioner De Witt, who now directed the affairs of the republic, foreseeing the designs of England, had formed an alliance with France; several desperate sea-fights took place, with varied success; in 1665, Admiral Opdam was totally de- feated by the Duke of York, while, in 1667, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Thames, and burned several ships of war at Chatham. The treaty of Breda, concluded the same year, at length terminated this absurd and fruitless war. The general alarm excited by the invasion of Louis XIV. in 1672, effected an immediate revolution in Holland. In a paroxysm of popular phrensy, the great and good De Witt and his brother were torn to pieces, and William III., now twenty-two years of age, and conspicuous for the abilities which had distinguished his race, was raised to his father's dignities, with even greater powers. The heroic defence conducted by the young prince has already been noticed under the head of France. Peace was restored by the treaty of Nimeguen, 1678; and, in 1689, William, who was nephew of James II., and the husband of his daugh- ter Mary, became King of England, and brought the great resources of his new sovereignty to restrain the renewed encroachments of the French monarch. DENMARK. Christian IV., 1588, reigned several years in profound tranquillity; but his warlike disposition displayed itself in a contest with vSweden about the right to the barren soil of Lapland, 1611-1613. For some time after the conclusion of peace, the king applied his talents to pro- mote the commercial interests of his country ; but, in 1625, he was in- duced to put himself at the head of the Protestant league for the rein- statement of the elector-palatine. After some temporary successes, the fortune of war turned so decidedly against him, that he was obliged to sign a humiliating peace, 1629. During the course of hostilities in Germany, terminated by the treaty of Westphalia, certain unfriendly demonstrations on the part of this king led to a contest with Sweden. In a naval engagement near the Isle of Laaland, the combined Swedish and Dutch fleets defeated his armament with great loss, 1644 ; and next year, after some farther operations by land, "a peace was concluded, exempting Sweden from the payment of the Sound dues, and securing other important advantages to that country. Frederick III., 1618, engaged in a contest with Sweden, whose SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 417 sovereign, Charles Gustavus, invaded and overran his dominions ; and he was at length forced, hy the treaty of Copenhagen, 1660, to cede several important districts. He was consoled for these reverses by an act of the three estates of the realm, who, in the same year, proclaimed him and his successors absolute sovereigns of Denmark, and established the fundamental law of settlement which still prevails. Christian V. succeeded his father in 1670, and shortly after joined in a league against the Swedes, which led to a sanguinary war, the rival princes frequently heading their troops in person. The treaty of Fontainebleau, 1679, led to the re-establishment of peace; and, in 1689, the convention of Altona settled a long-pending dispute between Denmark and the Duke of Hol- stein. During this reign, a West India Company was established, and settlements made in the West Indies and Tranquebar in Hindostan, while the attention of the monarch to manufactures and commerce, and the improvement effected by him in the condition of the humbler classes, contributed even more than his military talents to render him the idol of his people. Frederick IV., 1699, renewed hostilities with Sweden, which were brought to a successful close by the peace of Stockholm, 1720, — the claim of Denmark to the sovereignty of Sleswick being fully recognised, and the right of exemption from the Sound dues abandoned by the others. SWEDEN. Charles IX. expired in 1611, leaving the sceptre to his son, Gustavus Adolpiius, then only seventeen years of age. A war with Denmark, in which his father had been engaged, w r as terminated by the young prince in 1613 at Knaerod, to the satisfaction of both parties. Meanwhile, he restored the exhausted finances, filled his ports with ships, disciplined the army, and already gave promise of the highest political and military genius. The deposed monarch, Sigismund of Poland, had not ventured, during the lifetime of his uncle, to disturb the settlement in Sweden ; but the inexperience of the youthful ruler encouraged him to renew his claims on the crown. He accordingly invaded the country in behalf of his son Ladislaus, then a minor; but this war only served to develop the great talents of Gustavus and the bravery and attachment of his people. He defeated the Czar of Russia, who had taken up arms as the ally of his rival, and also Sigismund himself; and at length, by the mediation of England and Holland, a peace w r as concluded in 1629, by which the right of the young monarch was secured, and the important town of Riga, with great part of Livonia, annexed to his territory. The high character acquired by Gustavus in these operations now fixed the atten- tion of Europe ; and the persecuted Protestants of Germany looked to him eagerly for support and protection. He had a rational attachment for the reformed doctrine, and regarded with horror the atrocious cruel- ties inflicted on its professors in Bohemia ; while the arrogant ambition of Ferdinand, who did not conceal his intention of subjugating Scandi- navia itself, added the motive of personal interest to his dislike to the house of Austria. He accordingly put himself at the head of the Lu- therans, 1630, and began that career of victory which has been noticed under Germany, terminated by the battle of Lutzen, 1632, where he fell at the very moment when the army of the empire recoiled before the valour of his troops. 418 MODERN HISTORY. The crQ\vn now devolved on his daughter Christiana, a child five years of age. During her minority, the government was administered by a regency, at the head of which was the Chancellor Oxenstiern, an experienced and enlightened statesman, by whom the war in Germany was carried on sixteen years longer. The queen took affairs into her own hands in 1644, when she speedily brought the hostilities with Den- mark to a successful termination, and, though contrary to the wishes of her minister and others, pressed on a peace with the emperor. She eventually became a chief party in the treaty of Westphalia, 1648, by which, in consequence of the victories of her troops, she received several millions of dollars, the cession of Pomerania, Bremen, Verden, and Wis- mar, and three votes in the Germanic diet. The character of this prin- cess is one of the most extraordinary on record : she possessed but little of the gentler qualities of her sex, affecting the society of scholars and learned men, and displaying almost a mania for the collection of books, medals, and philosophical instruments. Grotius, Descartes, the fore- runner of the modern philosophy, as also D'Herbelot and Bochart, dis- tinguished for their oriental studies, experienced her protection. In her twenty-eighth year, with the wish, apparently, of indulging her tastes or caprices at perfect liberty, she formed the singular resolution of re- signing her crown and retiring into private life ; and this event took place with great solemnity in May 1654, her cousin Charles Gustavus be- coming her successor by the title of Charles X. The Swedes were now gradually losing much of their warlike cha- racter, and, with the view of sustaining the military reputation of his kingdom, the new monarch, after putting the finances in a better condi- tion, resolved on a war with Poland, the sovereign of which had offended him by a reassertion of his right to the Swedish throne. At the head of the veteran bands of Adolphus, he rapidly overran that coun- try, the terrified Casimir being compelled to take flight; but the Poles, aided by Russia, speedily rallied in defence of their national independ- ence. Frederick III. of Denmark having at the same time taken up arms against him, Charles effected a retreat through Pomerania, invaded Holstein, and speedily subdued the whole peninsula of Jutland. The Dane was forced to conclude a humiliating peace at Roskilde, 1658 ; but Charles, who seems to have been bent on the entire subjugation of that country, '.gain invaded it in the following year. In the midst of these ambitious schemes, however, he was suddenly cut off, 1660, leaving the throne to his son Charles XL, then a minor. Peace was now con- cluded on all hands : that of Oliva terminated the feud between the Ca- tholic and Protestant branches of the house of Vassa; the negotiation of Kardis put an end to the war with Russia ; while the contest with Denmark was closed by the treaty of Copenhagen, which mainly con- firmed the previous conditions of 1658. On attaining majority, Charles became a member of the triple alliance for restraining the encroachments of Louis XIV. ; but being speedily detached from it by the intrigues of the latter monarch, he found himself again involved in a war with Den mark and with Holland, which was terminated in 1679, by the compact at Fontainebleau, the Swedish monarch receiving in marriage the Danish Princess Ulrica Eleanora. Charles now applied himself to the internal affairs of his government, reforming the abuses which had crept into the administration, and adjusting the imposts and burdens to SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A . D. 419 which so long a period of military conflict had subjected the people. Some of these measures gave great offence to the nobility, and they attempted to remonstrate against them ; but their opposition only tended to hasten the downfall of the aristocratic order, an act being passed by the states in 1693 declaring the king absolute.* The remainder of this monarch's life was passed in the praiseworthy endeavour to establish peace in Europe, the congress of Ryswick being brought about in a great degree by his mediation. He was succeeded in 1697, by his son Charles XII., the extraordinary events of whose career, however, be- long to the next century. POLAND. The reign of Sigismund III. was a uniform succession of errors, re- sulting from the intense religious bigotry which he carried into all his transactions. Taking advantage of troubles in Russia, his general Zol- kiewski invaded that country, and succeeded in having his son Ladislaus proclaimed czar, 1610; but the Polish monarch having refused to ratify the liberal conditions then granted, the Muscovites flew to arms and ex- pelled the invaders, allowing them, however, to retain Smolensk and other provinces, 1618. When the Bohemian insurrection broke out, which paved the way for the thirty years' war, he naturally sided with Austria, sending a force into Hungary against the Prince of Transylva- nia ; but this interference involved Poland in hostilities with Turkey, in which General Zolkiewski was slain, 1620. In a peace concluded the following year, Moldavia was ceded to the Moslem; while the war with Sweden, carried on with little interruption since 1618, was terminated by the cession of Livonia to that country, 1629. The reign of this sove- reign sowed the seeds of future calamities for Poland : the free spirit of the Reformation was stifled by his intrigues ; the adherents of the Greek church, numerous in the south-eastern provinces, were exposed to much persecution ; and the best interests of the country sacrificed to the endea- vour, in which he was sufficiently successful, of establishing the absolute ascendency of Popery. Ladislaus IV., 1632, was elected without oppo- sition. Immediately after his coronation, he took arms against the Muscovites, who had invaded his frontiers, defeated them in battle, and reduced .several towns. These successes led to a treaty in 1634, by which the terms of the truce in 1618 were confirmed ; peace was also concluded with the Turks, and the suspension of hostilities with Sweden prolonged for twenty-six years. The country, therefore, enjoyed tran- quillity during the remainder of his reign, while his virtuous and en- lightened character, and aversion to religious intolerance, seemed to promise a settlement of intestine disorders. But the Jesuits had become too firmly established during the long administration of his father, to enable him to put a stop to their persecu- tion of the followers of the Eastern church ; and the results of this un- happy circumstance were soon apparent in an insurrection which broke * It is a striking fact, that both in Sweden and Denmark the legal establishment of despotism was brought about by the deliberate suffrages of the people stimulated by a hatred of the aristocracy. Tn each country the tyranny of this class seems to have been carried to the highest pitch, the burghers and peasants being little better than slaves ; and there can be no doubt that these changes, though different from the course pursued in constitutional states, really contributed to the improvement and happiness of tho people at large. 420 MODERN HISTORY. out among the Cossacks of the Ukraine a short time before his death, 1648.* Under his brother and successor, John Casimir, this rebellion raged with increased fury, the Cossacks, aided by the Tartars of the Crimea, committing great ravages in his dominions; and in 1654 Alexis of Muscovy sent a numerous army to their assistance. In the midst of these troubles the king had been so foolish as to protest at Stockholm against the right of Charles Gustavus to the Swedish crown; and that prince, who only wanted a pretext for invading Poland, and being more- over encouraged by some discontented noblemen, speedily made himself master of the distracted country, the king being forced to take refuge in Silesia. This acquisition might have been permanent, but for the arro- gance of Charles, who, affecting to hold the territory by right of con- quest, refused to convoke the diet for his election. In consequence, the people exerted themselves vigorously for the restoration of their monarch ; and the Czar of Muscovy having concluded a truce with them, the Swedes were compelled to evacuate the country. The Elector of Bran- denburg, who had at first aided this invasion, now made terms with John, and turned his arms against his former allies ; in return for which he was declared independent of the Polish crown, 1657. Peace was at length confirmed in 1660, by which the king resigned his claims on Sweden, and matters otherwise were placed on the same footing as be- fore the war. Meanwhile, the Cossacks had returned to their duty on receiving- ample guarantees for their religious and political liberties ; and the hostilities with Muscovy, renewed in 1658, were terminated in 1667 by a treaty which deprived Poland of the acquisitions she had made during the reign of Sigismund. This was one of the most unfortunate epochs in the history of that country : incessant war and pestilence depopulated the land, and thousands were driven into exile by a fanatical persecution. John Casimir having abdicated in 1668, was succeeded by Michael, prince Wisniowietzki, who was reluctantly compelled to accept the crown, and whose reign was constantly disturbed by faction. f The Turks at this time invaded Poland with an immense army; and, not- withstanding prodigies of valour and military skill performed by the heroic John Sobieski, they succeeded in obtaining possession of the Ukraine, with the promise, besides, of an annual tribute of 22,0130 ducats, 1672. The diet were indignant at these humiliating conditions; the war still continued ; and, in 1673, Sobieski gained a brilliant victory at Choczim. Michael died the following year, and the gallant leader, who had stept in for the salvation of the country, was unanimously elected his successor, by the title of John III. This truly great man now set *This people were of Scythian origin, and dvvplt on both sides of the Dnieper, below Kiev, where, distributed into military companies under a hetmann or commander-in- chief, they had served Poland as a frontier guard against the Turks and Tartars. t The throne of Poland was indeed no very desirable possession : the turbulent and factious character of the nobles, the almost independent .jurisdiction they possessed in their respective estates, and the rivalry of the different orders, rendered the royal authority little better than nominal, while the great mass of the people were exposed to all the evils of feudal oppression and anarchy. At each recurring vacancy of the throne, the electoral diets became more ungovernable : the nobles assembled, armed and on horseback, in the order of their palatinates, and each king was compelled to grant new immunities to the privileged classes; and thus, with a show of liberty, the country actually suffered under evils more intolerable than could have been inflicted by the worst hereditary despotism. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 421 himself to complete the work he had begun; by extraordinary exertions, he contrived to augment the military force, and, in a series of brilliant achievements, succeeded in reconquering two-thirds of the Ukraine, 1676. In 1683, he riveted the attention of all Europe by the total defeat given to the enemies of Christendom under the walls of Vienna, — a blow from which the Ottomans never altogether recovered. But these efforts served but to throw a temporary splendour over the waning destinies of Poland. All the exertions made by him for the internal improvement of his kingdom were frustrated by the turbulent nobility, by means of the veto which each possessed, and whereby the most useful measures could be opposed by the dissent of a single chief. The treaty of Leopol, 1686, by which the aid of Russia was secured against the Turks and Tartars, was only purchased by considerable cessions of territory ; and at the close of a stormy diet in 1688, he confessed with tears in his eyes his inability to save his country from the ruin which he foresaw was but too surely overtaking her. He died in 1696, and with him the greatness of his native land may be said to have ended. RUSSIA. ' During the preceding centuries, this hitherto barbarous empire had acted a very unimportant part in European politics. In 1605, during the reign of Boris, an individual assuming to be the late king's brother Demetrius, who had been assassinated, as was supposed, by the conni- vance of the existing monarch, succeeded in seating himself on the throne. But he was himself slain in a popular tumult a year after, when various pretenders and impostors aspired to the sovereignty ; the Swedes and Poles simultaneously invaded the country, and the latter actually succeeded in placing the crown on the head of their young prince Ladislaus, 1610. But the bigotry of the Polish ruler, who refused to confirm the conditions by which his son had gained this elevation, and the dread that their territories would be seized, roused the national spirit of the Russians; the invaders were expelled from Moscow, after a sanguinary conflict, 1613 ; and, in the year following, Michael Roma- nof, a descendant by the female line from the house of Rurik, was placed on the throne by the unanimous consent of the whole people. The accession of this dynasty was the true commencement of the European greatness of Russia, which henceforth began to assume a growing importance among the monarchies of Christendom. Michael, however, was obliged to purchase peace from Sweden by the cession of the whole of the Baltic coast, Archangel on the White Sea being now his only port; while Smolensk was delivered to Poland as the price of a fourteen years' truce, 1618, and which was again ceded in 1634, after a fruitless effort to recover it by force of arms. But the prudent admi- nistration of this prince more than compensated for these serious losses: he erected fortresses, invited foreign officers to enter his service, formed his army upon the European model, and gave a new impulse to trade by concluding advantageous treaties with France and England. The early years of his son and successor, Alexis, 1645, were disturbed by an in- surrection of the nobles, in consequence of the unpopularity of the regent ; but these disorders were composed when the prince attained majority, 1648. In 1654, he aided the Ukraine Cossacks in their revolt against 422 MODERN HISTORY. Poland ; and, by the truce of Wilna, 1656, succeeded in recovering Smolensk from that country ; while a renewal of the contest ended by securing to him additional advantages, 1686. Meanwhile the internal peace of his dominions was disturbed by seditions arising from various causes ; and in 1667, a revolt of the Don Cossacks, under a chief named Razin, threatened the dismemberment of the empire. Having proclaimed liberty to the serfs, immense numbers flocked to the rebel standard, and their leader, seizing on Astracan, assumed the style of an independent sovereign ; but he was at length defeated and put to death, along with many of his followers. The remainder of the reign of Alexis was de- voted to improving the condition of his subjects. He promulgated a revised code of laws, established manufactories of linen, silk, and iron, and endeavoured to open a communication with China. He was suc- ceeded by his eldest son Theodore, 1676, whose short reign is chiefly remarkable for the first war between Russia and the Ottomans, which terminated in 168*2 by the final cession of the Ukraine to the former. In 1689, Peter, surnamed the Great, a younger son of Alexis, and then seventeen years of age, became sole monarch, his brother Ivan, who had been proclaimed along with him, being set aside from incapa- city. The first exertions of this prince were directed to the disciplining of the army and the improvement of his resources; and in 1691, he took Azof from the Turks, aided by a flotilla on. the Don, which was the first Russian navy. Three years after, he quitted his dominions, and travelled through Holland, England, and other countries, with the view of gaining a knowledge of shipbuilding and mechanical science, and engaging artisans to aid him in the great designs he had already begun to form. OTTOMAN EMPIRE. The Turkish power, though manifestly declining, was still very for- midable. The janissaries were at once the cause of its strength and its weakness, for this irregular but warlike militia usurped over the throne an authority equalling that possessed in Rome by the praetorian guards. Five successive sultans reigned during the first half of this century, and with two exceptions, Osman and Murad, were sunk, during their short periods of authority, in pleasure and sensual indulgence. Achmet, 1603, was succeeded by Mustapha in 1617; and he being next year deposed by the janissaries, gave place to Osman, who, when defeated by the Poles in 1621, was strangled a year after by his merciless troops. Mus- tapha was again restored, only to suffer the same fate in 1623; and his successor Murad, a warlike prince, who conquered Bagdad from the Persians, 1638, was sacrificed soon afterwards. The next sovereign, Ibrahim, was equally unfortunate, being in turn strangled in 1648. Three years before this event, a rich Turkish vessel, that had put into a Candian port, was captured by Maltese cruisers ; and Ibrahim conse- quently commenced hostilities against Venice, which were continued by his abler and more fortunate successor, Mohammed IV. Twenty-three languid campaigns, however, elapsed before the contest was brought to a consummation by the siege of the capital of Candia, 1667. On its capitulation, two years after, only 2500 survived of the original garrison of 30,000 men, while the loss to the besiegers amounted to 1 18,000. This conquest was mainly- due to the famous vizier, Achmet Kouprili. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 423 The reign of Mohammed presents little else than one unvaried series of wars, of which that in Hungary proved in the end most disastrous to the Ottomans. In 1672, he accepted the sovereignty of the Cossacks, and maintained it against Poland, but was forced to resign it to Russia in 1682. A powerful league formed between Austria, Poland, Russia, and Venice, followed upon the defeat of the Turkish forces under the walls of Vienna by John Sobieski ; and in 1687, they were again van- quished at Mohacz, and finally driven out of Hungary with immense loss, while great part of Southern Greece became the possession of Ve- nice. Mohammed having been deposed in 1687, was succeeded by Soliman III., by whom the war was continued, the fortress of Belgrade twice changing masters, but remaining finally in the hands of the Turks. Under Achmet II., 1691, the fortress of Great Waradein surrendered to the Austrians: and his successor, Mustapha II., 1695, after being forced to yield the town of Azof to Russia, sustained a final overthrow from Prince Eugene of Savoy at Zenta, 1697. The treaty of Carlowitz, 1699, at length terminated this disastrous war, and completed the humiliation of the Porte; Transylvania, Sclavonia, and Hungary, were preserved to the emperor; Podolia, with part of the Ukraine, remained in the possession of Poland ; Russia retained her conquests on the Black Sea; and the Morea was ceded to Venice. THE EAST. Persia. — The great Shah Abbas was succeeded by his grandson Saffi, a sanguinary tyrant, who reigned from 1627 to 1641, under whom Persia lost the acquisitions gained from Turkey by his predecessor. The rule of the two next monarchs, Abbas II., 1641, and Saffi II., 1666, was uniformly peaceful, and the arts and commerce flourished ; but the court was enervated by luxury, and the martial spirit of the people suf- fered from inaction. In 1694, Hussein Mirza, a weak and bigoted prince, ascended the throne. After reigning nearly twenty years in peace, his kingdom was invaded and taken from him by the Afghans (i. e. destroyers), a warlike people on the confines of India, he himself being forced to place the royal diadem on the head of their chief Mah- moud, 1722. China. — The Mongols, who had been expelled from China by the founder of the Ming dynasty, took refuge among the Tartars of the north- east ; and this union eventually gave rise to the Mantchoos, who were destined at length to expel the native line of princes, and establish a permanent dominion. The ability of the earlier monarchs long averted this catastrophe, and the seat of government was transferred to Pekin, apparently with the view of restraining their encroachments; but the usual degeneracy seems to have overtaken their successors, and the country becoming involved in great disorders, these warlike enemies, first called in to assist in the settlement of internal differences, succeeded in seizing the throne for themselves, 1644. Happily for the country, however, Chun-tchi, the new Tartar emperor, guided by experienced counsellors, showed himself a generous and enlightened monarch, ab- staining from all interference with the prejudices of his subjects, and exerting himself vigorously for their improvement, His son and suc- cessor, Kang-hi, 1661, was one of the most illustrious sovereigns that 424 MODERN HISTORY. ever ruled in China, having been conspicuous for almost every virtue Jiat can adorn a throne ; and to his exertions are mainly owing the peace and unity which the empire has ever since enjoyed. During this reign, the Jesuit missionaries made some progress, being employed by him to reform the calendar; but he was afterwards induced to discourage them, and is said to have particularly derided the spiritual supremacy claimed by their leaders for the Pope. Japan. — The islands of Japan were probably settled by the Chinese; their rulers, until about 660 b. c, being, so far as the imperfect accounts are to be credited, the same as those of that empire. Afterwards, the country seems to have been governed by chiefs called Dairis, who united in their persons both the spiritual and temporal authority. But all offices, public or private, being hereditary, the military commander gra- dually obtained so much influence, that, in 1585, he was able to seize on the entire power, leaving to the other merely the control of ecclesias- tical affairs. Thus Japan has since had two sovereigns, the former residing at Jeddo, the latter at Miaco, under whom the country appears to have enjoyed a large amount of prosperity and peace. During this century, the Roman Catholic religion was introduced by the Portuguese, whose intercourse dates from 1541 : at first it made great progress, but was eventually rooted out by cruel persecutions, and entirely forbidden. The Dutch succeeded in establishing a trade with the natives in 1611; and they are now the only Europeans allowed to enter their ports. India. — On the death of Akbar in 1605, the Mogul empire descended to his son Selim, who assumed the pompous title of " conqueror of the world." This designation was certainly anything but appropriate; for during his reign the Persians took Candahar, the Usbecks obtained possession of Cabul, the Afghans in the north revolted, the Rajpoot princes began a struggle for independence, and even his own heir, Shah Jehan, rebelled against him. He appears, however, to have been a weak rather than a bad ruler, protecting the Hindoos in the exercise of their religion, and encouraging literature and the arts. The British East India Company, having sent an embassy to his court, obtained from him many advantageous grants. His successor, Jehan, 1627, was doomed to experience a severe requital for the ingratitude he had displayed to him, being dethroned in 1659 by his own son Aurengzebe, who detained him in prison till his death. This prince was the last powerful Mogul sovereign, having conquered the cities of Golconda, Hydrabad, and Bejapore, and extended his rule almost to the limits of the Carnatic. His reign, as it had been begun, continued to be distinguished by great cruelty; he endeavoured to establish Mohammedanism throughout his dominions, by destroying the Hindoo temples and imposing a poll-tax on every individual not professing Islaniism. The Mahrattas now began to assume importance in India, having succeeded in conquering great part of the Deccan ; and though frequently defeated in the low country by the troops of Aurengzebe, he was unable to make any permanent impression on their mountain territory. Sevajee, the founder of the Mahratta sovereignty, was succeeded by his son Sambajee in 1(582, who was taken prisoner by the Mogul emperor, 1689, and subjected to a cruel death. This monarch was undoubtedly one of the most powerful of his day, his revenue being computed by .Major Rennel at more than SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 425 thirty-two millions sterling, in a country where productions are a fourth less in value than in England; hut, after his demise in 1707, the wealth and influence of the Moguls rapidly declined. COLONIES. English. — In 1600, Queen Elizabeth granted a charter of exclusive commerce with the East Indies to a company of London merchants, who made several profitable voyages, and, in 1611, received permission from the government of Delhi to establish factories at Surat, Camoay, and other places, though their attempts to obtain a share of the spice trade by a settlement at Amboyna were resisted by the Dutch, who even put some settlers to death, 1623. In 1624, the company received extensive judicial authority, being permitted to try their servants when abroad either by civil or martial law ; and, though exposed to considerable opposition from the rivalry of other mercantile associations, who at vari- ous times acquired permission to infringe the original monopoly, they continued steadily to advance, and eventually thwarted all competitors. Their first settlement at Madras was formed about 1648, and they ob- tained another valuable position on the western coast by the gift of the island of Bombay, which formed part of the marriage portion received by Charles II. with the Princess Catherine of Portugal, 1668. Seven years previously, by a new charter, the company, besides a confirmation of all their former privileges, received the further authority to make peace or war with any people not being Christians, and to seize all un- licensed persons who should be found within their limits, and send them to England. In 1664, they first came into hostile collision with a native power, having repelled an attack upon Surat by Sevajee, the founder of the Mahratta empire ; on which occasion the Mogul expressed his thanks for their conduct, and considerably extended their trading privileges. Fort William at Calcutta was erected in 1699. Many African companies were successively incorporated ; but none succeeded in obtaining exclusive privileges. About 1674, the English founded on the Guinea Coast the ports of St. James and Sierra Leone. Their colonies in the West Indies began to flourish in the early part of the century. Private merchants established factories in Barbadoes and St. Kitt's in 1625; but little importance was attached to these places until the sugar-cane, transplanted from Brazil in 1641, began to be suc- cessfully cultivated. The conquest of Jamaica, 1655, opened a new and abundant source of wealth to British commerce in those regions. On the North American continent, in 1620, the state of Massachusetts owed its first settlement to a small body of Presbyterians, who had resolved to seek freedom of worship on those distant shores, where, six years later, they founded the city of Boston. The increasing persecu- tions of the Puritans and Catholics, and the internal convulsions of England, drove great numbers across the Atlantic. Rhode Island was colonized by the former in 1630; and Maryland, in 1632, by the latter. About 1662, Charles II. granted to a body of noblemen the lordship of the country now known as Carolina; but the first permanent settlement was not made till 1680, on the site of Charleston. The shores of Chesa- peake Bay were first occupied by the Swedes; their colony subsequently fell into the hands of the Dutch, who finally ceded it to England in 1664 36* 42C MODERN HISTORY. In 1681, the country was granted to the celebrated William Penn, who in the following year founded the city of Philadelphia. By the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, Great Britain acquired Newfoundland and Nova Scotia, with the entire commerce of Hudson's Bay and the Straits. French. — The minister Colbert, whose attention was much directed to commerce and maritime speculations, established East and West India Companies in 166-1; and between 1685 and 1690, a French settlement formed at Pondicherry obtained considerable importance. Their first permanent occupation of Canada took place in 1608, on the spot now covered by the city of Quebec, where a valuable trade in fish and pel- tries was established. Spanish. — The immense empire founded by Spain in the New World had now become consolidated, and the wealth derived from the rich mines of gold and silver excited the envy of all Europe. During the wars of this century, the plate fleets, as they were called, laden with the annual tribute of those regions, frequently fell into the hands of the Dutch, French, or English cruisers; and the colonies also suffered much from the predatory attacks of the Buccaneers, a body of lawless adven- turers who established themselves in a small island in the West Indies, whence they long continued to be the terror of the Spanish Main. The Jesuit missionaries succeeded in acquiring immense influence in South America, and made great efforts for the benefit of the natives ; but, in general, the condition of the aboriginal population continued to be the most miserable that could possibly be conceived. Portuguese. — After her separation from Spain, Portugal retained little of her East Indian possessions besides Goa and Diu. Her valua- ble settlement of Brazil had previously to that period been exposed to various attacks, particularly from the Dutch, who, between 1620 and 1640, under prince John Maurice of Nassau, obtained possession of nearly the whole colony; but by the peace of 1660 they subsequently resigned all claim to it. About the year 1700, the accidental discovery of the rich mines of Villa Rica gave increased importance to this pos- session. Dutch. — In 1650, the Dutch seized on the Cape of Good Hope, where they founded the capital Cape Town; and in 1656, they drove the Portuguese out of Colombo, a valuable settlement in Ceylon, de- priving them of the principal seat of the pearl-fishery. In 1605, they had wrested from the same people the possession of the Moluccas or Spice Islands, and continued to maintain them against all competitors ; and their colony of Surinam in South America, founded about 1590, became highly flourishing SETTLEMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. [The oldest town in the United States is St. Augustine, in Florida, having been settled by the Spaniards in 1565, as was related in the his- tory of the sixteenth centurv. [Gosnold in 1602, Pring' in 1603. and Weymouth in 1605, explored the whole New England coast, but failed to make any settlement. The first permanent settlement made by the English was that of Jamestown, in Virginia, in 1607. The first settlers, 105 in number, were chiefly SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 427 commercial adventurers. They experienced all the hardships incident to their situation, and were several times on the brink of destruction ; but were repeatedly rescued by the genius and daring of Captain John Smith, one of the most remarkable men in American annals, and justly called the father of Virginia. [The same year that Jamestown was founded, the Plymouth company sent out a hundred emigrants for the purpose of establishing a settlement in New England. They effected a landing near Kennebec, in Maine, where they remained nearly all winter ; but, discouraged by the hard- ships which they had to endure, they abandoned their settlement the following year, and returned to England. The Plymouth company were unsuccessful in their subsequent efforts to plant a colony under the charter they had received, until at length a congregation of English Pu- ritans, whom oppression had driven to Holland, formed the resolution of seeking the civil and religious liberty which they wished by removing in a body to the New World. Having returned to England to make the necessary arrangements for their departure, they finally sailed from Ply- mouth for the river Hudson, on which they intended to settle; but being carried further north, they landed near Cape Cod, December 1620, at a place to which, in honour of the port from which they sailed, they gave the name of New Plymouth. These emigrants, 101 in number, are known in history as the Pilgrim Fathers. They were soon followed by others, who, with them, laid the foundation of all the New England States. [Roger Conant, one of the pilgrims from New Plymouth, with only three companions, in 1626 made choice of Salem as the most convenient place of refuge for their persecuted brethren in England; and they boldly resolved on establishing themselves there as the sentinels of Puritanism. They were not long left alone. Endicott joined them in 1628 with a company of one hundred Puritans from England ; seven of whom, with characteristic enterprise, detached themselves from the rest, and imme- diately commenced a new settlement at Charlestown. A company of two hundred men, among them Francis Higginson. went over in 1629. In the same year the friends of the cause succeeded in getting a new and more liberal charter, and, what was more important, in getting the cor- poration itself, which had hitherto existed in England, transferred to the colony, the members of the corporation becoming the actual colonists. The effect of these movements was to direct the attention of the whole body of English Puritans to the subject of emigration ; and in the fol- lowing year, 1630, no less than seventeen ships, containing fifteen hun- dred emigrants, with John Winthrop. at their head, landed at Salem. Such was the origin of Massachusetts. The Puritans who settled it were men of a superior character to any that had yet come as colonists to the shores of America ; a large portion of them gentlemen of fortune and education, who sought the New World, not in the spirit of commer- cial adventure, but to found a free commonwealth for themselves and their posterity. [The names of Sir Ferdinand Gorges and Captain John Mason are inseparably connected with the history of New Hampshire. Under the patent obtained by them, a settlement was commenced on the Piscataqua river in the year 1623. The oldest towns built were Portsmouth and Dover. The colony was replenished partly by settlers from England 428 MODERN HISTORY. under grants from Mason and Gorges, and partly by emigrants from Massachusetts; and suffered probably more than any other, both from In- dian hostilities, and from disputes about conflicting titles to the land. [On the coast of Maine attempts at a settlement were made very early by both the French and English, but without success until 1628, when. under the influence of Gorges, a few trading-houses were planted near the Penobscot. A charter, with ample proprietary powers, was granted to Gorges in 1635, and a general court was held at Saco in 1640. This colony, like that of New Hampshire, was early taken under the protec- tion of Massachusetts, and suffered greatly from the claims of conflicting jurisdictions. [Roger Williams, a Puritan divine, illustrious for his political wdsdom as well as his benevolence, proclaimed opinions respecting freedom of conscience in matters of religion of the most liberal and comprehensive character, and, consequently, far in advance of the age in which he lived. Being exiled on this account from the colony of Massachusetts, in 1(536 he retired alone into the recesses of the forest to a place which he called Providence, where he was soon after joined by others, and became the founder of Rhode Island. [Connecticut was settled chiefly by emigrants from the older colonies. The people of New Plymouth built a trading-house at Windsor in 1633, and settlements were commenced soon after at Hartford and Wethersfield by pioneers from Massachusetts. In 1636 a large company from the same colony, led by Hooker and Haynes. emigrated to the banks of the Connecticut. This emigration was made under authority of a grant ob- tained from the proprietaries by the younger Winthrop ; a man so highly esteemed in England, that lie was enabled afterwards to obtain for Con- necticut the wisest and most liberal of all the charters granted by the Stuarts. He may justly be considered the founder of Connecticut, as his father was the father of Massachusetts. [In 1609, the great navigator Henry Hudson, sailing on a voyage of discovejy in the service of the Dutch, entered New York harbour, and the noble river which bears his name. Having explored the river as far as Albany, he published such an account of these regions, which had never before been seen by any European, as led in the following year to a voyage for the purpose of traffic with the natives. In 1614, the first rude fort was erected on the southern point of Manhattan Island, and in Kilo the first permanent settlement at Albany began. The object of the Dutch was commerce rather than colonization. Political dissensions at home, however, soon caused the emigration of a large number of settlers from Holland. The New Netherlands, under its brave governors Wouter Van Twiller, William Kieft and Peter Stuyvesant, continued for half a century to be a thriving and important colony of the Dutch West India Company. In 1664, however, it passed into the hands of the English, and has since been known by its present name of New York. [The first settlement in Delaware appears to have been made by the Dutch. Certain wealthy proprietors in Holland, who had purchased of the natives the title to the lands around the mouth of the Delaware river in 1630 set on foot an expedition for the purpose of taking possession of their new territories. De Vries, the conductor of the expedition, reached Delaware bay and planted a colony of thirty souls at Lewistown in 1631. Gustavus Adolphus, the illustrious king of Sweden, in 162* SEVENTEENTH CENTUKY A.D. 429 projected a plan for colonizing these regions by his own subjects; and the commencement of their colony has been generally assigned to that year. No actual emigration, however, took place till 1638, when a small company of Swedes and Finns entered Delaware bay, and having pur- chased from the natives all the land from its mouth to the falls of Trenton, built a fort and commenced a settlement on Christiana creek. Emigrants multiplied, and Swedish settlements were formed along the Delaware as far as Tinicum Island, within a few miles of Philadelphia. They were, however, conquered by the Dutch in 1655, and, with the rest of the Dutch possessions in North America, passed into the hands of the Eng- lish in 1664. [William Clayborne, an English surveyor, under license of Charles I., formed a trading establishment on Kent Island, in Maryland, as early as 1632. The same year Sir George Calvert, Baron of Baltimore, ob- tained a royal charter, which, in consequence of his death before the patent had passed the great seal, was made out in the name of his son Cecil, granting to him and his heirs proprietary rights to the soil of Maryland. This charter, which was Avritten by the elder Lord Balti- more, was» -onceived in a spirit of moderation and of civil and religious toleration much in advance of the age. Under its wise and liberal pro- visions, a large body of English Catholics, gentlemen of birth and qua- lity, embarked in the enterprise of colonizing Maryland. The first town founded by them was St. Mary's, 1634, where their first legislative assem- bly was held the following year. They experienced bitter opposition from Clayborne, whose establishment was broken up, but continued with various success under the proprietary government until the Revolution. [In the year 1663, some of the independent planters of Virginia esta- blished themselves on Albemarle Sound, and a few hardy sons of New England began an infant colony on the banks of Cape Fear River. These were the first beginnings of the permanent settlement of the Caro- linas. The same year Lord Clarendon obtained for himself and some others a charter constituting themselves proprietors of the soil. The celebrated Ashley Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, and John Locke the philosopher, afterwards, in 1669, prepared for this province a constitu- tion and frame of government, which, however, never went fully into operation. [On the surrender of the New Netherlands in 1664, the territory be- tween the Hudson and the Delaware was granted, under the name of New Jersey, to Lord Berkley and Sir George Carteret, as proprietors. Settlements had already been commenced by detached bodies of Swedes, Dutch and English. As early as 1664, a few families of Dutch were found about Burlington, and of Quakers on Raritan Bay ; and in the following year a considerable number of New England Puritans were settled at Elizabethtown, ami plantations were begun at Middletown and Shrewsbury. Just, ten years later, West Jersey was purchased by a company of English Quakers, who immediately made settlements at Salem, Burlington, and other places on the Delaware. East and W^est Jersey continued divided until 1702, when they were again united into one province. [Pennsylvania was founded by William Penn, who obtained a royal charter for the purpose in 1681. Small settlements had already been made by the Swedes and Finns. Markham was sent over, therefore, by 430 MODERN HISTORY. the proprietary to take possession of the province, and make preparations for settling it on a more extended scale. Perm himself came over in 1682 with about two thousand settlers, mostly Friends. Having first agreed upon a constitution at Chester for the government of his colony, including the previous settlements of the Swedes and Finns, having concluded his famous treaty with the Indians at Shackamaxon, now called Kensington, and having purchased of the Swedes the ground occupied by them near the mouths of the Delaware and Schuylkill, Penn proceeded to lay out and build the city of Philadelphia according to a plan designed by himself before leaving England. Penn's charter con- tained the same features of civil and religious liberty which character- ized that of Lord Baltimore; and Penn himself was distinguished by a liberality of opinions, a moderation of conduct, and a wise political fore- cast, which have placed him in the first rank of human legislators. [Georgia was founded in the following century, 1732, by a company of settlers under the direction of General James Oglethorpe.] THE CHURCH. The Jansenists. — This sect, which sprung up in the Romish church about the middle of the century, owed its origin to Jansenius, a bishop of Ypres, who died in 1638, leaving behind him a work entitled Augus- tinus, in which he had treated of the opinions of St. Augustine concern- ing predestination and grace. Several years after his death some Jesuit theologians discovered in his volume five propositions embodying principles closely resembling Calvin's doctrine of predestination, and which they denounced as heretical. After much discussion, Pope Inno- cent X. condemned the same tenets as blasphemous, 1653 ; but various learned men, who disliked the Jesuits, undertook to prove that they did not, in fact, exist in the work, at least in the sense attributed to them. Three years after, however, the book itself was condemned by Alexan- der VII. ; while Arnauld, Pascal, and others, from their retreat at Port Royal, near Paris, continuing to maintain the orthodoxy of the author, received the name of Jansenists. A formula having been afterwards drawn up, which all ecclesiastical persons in France were required to sign, many refused ; and a schism consequently arose in the Gallican church, the followers of Arnauld pointing out various corruptions in dis- cipline and morality, and accusing the Jesuits as the cause of them. Much controversy arose from these differences ; and the influence of the latter body in European affairs gave even a political importance to their antagonists. The excitement subsequently died away ; and the monas- tery of Port Royal was suppressed by Louis XIV. in 1709. An immense number of different bodies arose among the Reformers, which it would be tedious even to enumerate. In England, about 1650, first appeared the Quakers, at that time regarded as a sect of visionary fanatics, and owing their origin to George Fox, a shoemaker. Barclay, their great apologist, and William Penn, are, however, to be considered the real founders of the society. LITERATURE, ARTS, AND SCIENCES. England. — The literature of England during this century presents a galaxy of great and imperishable names. Bacon, 1626, laid down the principles of the SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 431 modern or inductive philosophy in his Novum Organon, and thus led the way to the great discoveries of Newton and Davy. In the struggles of these times, Algernon Sydney, 1683, Hobbes, 1679, and Milton, 1674, are celebrated as the defenders of popular principles. The Essay on the Human Understanding by John Locke, 1704, still retains the highest rank among metaphysical productions. Poetry was illustrated by the names of Waller, 1687, Denham, 1668, Butler, 1680, Otway, 1685, and Dryden, 1700, to whom the perfection of English ver- sification has been ascribed. Milton, the greatest poet of his time, composed his Comus before the Civil War; his Allegro and Ptnseroso were written in the midst of its contentions ; and, when withdrawn from the political world, and even deprived of sight, he produced that imperishable monument of his fame, Paradise Lost. Lord Shaftesbury, 1713, and Atterbury, 1732, were cele- brated as elegant prose-writers, and Lord Clarendon, 1674, as an historian. In 1645, a number of learned men in London, agreeing to meet at stated times and communicate their discoveries in science, laid the foundation of the Royal Society. Harvey, 1657, first demonstrated the circulation of the blood ; and the practice of medicine owed a signal improvement to Sydenham, 1689. The steam-engine was invented by the Marquis of Worcester, 1667, and ap- plied to practical purposes by Savary, 1696. Drebbel, a Dutch peasant, con- structed the thermometer, 1634 ; and the reflecting telescope owes its origin to James Gregory, a native of Scotland, 1675. Mathematical science received a valuable contribution in the invention of Logarithms, by Baron Napier of Merchiston, 1617. France. — At the beginning of the seventeenth century, the French language was yet unformed. Malherbe, 1628, had just shown how far it was capable of strength and elevation in poetry ; and the affected Balzac, 1654, had done the same thing for its prose. Both species of composition were brought to maturity in the reign of Louis XIV. Corneille, 1684, was the first who elevated the literary genius of France by creating its theatre ; Racine, 1699, exalted the drama to its highest degree of elegance and dignified expression, though it still remained a feeble copy of the Grecian stage. Fenelon, 1715, author of Tele- machus, gave to French prose its utmost degree of refinement. Moliere, 1673, is still admired in his own peculiar branch of comedy ; as is Lafontaine, 1695, for the exquisite simplicity and sly humour of his fables. The pulpit was adorned by the eloquence of Bourdaloue, 1704, of Bossuet, 1704, and Massil- lon, 1742. Philosophy was successfully cultivated by Des Cartes, 1650, Pascal, 1662, and Malebranche, 1715. Among the philologers' of the day are found the names of Bochart, 1667, Anne Dacier, 1720, and Huet, 1721. Boileau, 1711. was celebrated as a critic and satirist ; and Bayle, 1706, the father of free dis- cussion in modern times, was conspicuous in the same walk. The French school of painting was upheld by the judicious Le Sueur, 1655, and by the cor- rect designs of Charles Le Brun, 1690. Sallo, 1669, conducted the first literary journal established in Europe ; and Gallois, 1707, assisted in projecting the Journal des Savans. The Academie Frangaise owed its origin to Richelieu in 1635. Italy. — During this century Italian literature and science began to share in the degeneracy of the nation, although in the first part of it their painters were still the most celebrated in Europe. We recognise the name of one original prose-writer, Caracciolus, marquis of Vico, 1744; and the historians Sarpi, 1623 ; Davila, 1631 ; and Bentivoglio, 1644. Poetry was much disfigured by euphuism and affectation in Marini, 1625 ; and Tassoni, 1635. Painting was illustrated by the delicate and beautiful pencil of Guido, 1642; Albano, 1660, celebrated for the grace of his figures ; Domenichino, 1641, whose correct and lively designs have been much admired ; and Salvator Rosa, 1673, conspicuous for the wild and gloomy magnificence infused into his conceptions. Modern astronomy and physics owe a debt of gratitude to the celebrated Galileo, 1642, who demonstrated the truth of the Copernican philosophy, by discovering the motions of the planets, and he is also known as the inventor of the pendulum ; the barometer owes its invention to his pupil Torricelli, 1647; and Cassini, 1712. was renowned for his astronomical discoveries. . 132 MODERN HISTORY. Spain. — The literature of Spain presents no celebrated names beyond those mentioned in the last century ; Lope de Vega, Cervantes, and Calderon, being still iis chief writers. Murillo, 1682, and Alfaro, 1680, were conspicuous as painters. Germany. — Notwithstanding the appearance of several eminent writers, Ger- many as yet showed few indications of the high literary and scientific renown which she" has since attained. In philosophy and politics, there were Conring, 1681 ; Puffendorf, 1694; and Leibnitz, 1716: in poetry, Opitz, 1639; Balde, 1668 ; Canitz, 1699. Bauer, 1640, was celebrated as a painter and engraver ; Sandrart, 1688, was favourably known for historical pieces; Lely, 1680, and Kneller, 1723, both of whom died in London, were eminent portrait painters. In addition to the valuable contributions to science of Kepler and Tycho Brahe, mentioned in the last century, may be noticed the important invention of the air-pump by Otto Guerike, 1686 ; and Glauber, 1668, famed for his chemical investigations, and in particular for the discovery of the salt which bears his name. Holland. — In this century, Holland gave birth to Spinosa, 1677, a cele- brated sceptic, and to Grotius, 1645, who gave a scientific form to morals, and demonstrated iheir application alike to social and individual man. The depart- ment of philology was illustrated by a number of eminent writers, among whom may be mentioned Voss, 1649 ; Heinsius, 1655 ; Schrevelius, 1667 ; and Go- lius, 1667. In Flanders was formed that celebrated school of painting from which emanated the masterly productions of Rubens, 1640; Vandyck, 1641 ; Rembrandt, 1674; and the two Teniers, 1649 and 1694. Mathematical science was cultivated by Ludolph of Cologne, 1610 ; physiology by Wale, 1640, and Sylvius, 1672; and Huygens, 1695, is eminent for his improvements on the telescope, and for the invention of the pendulum clock. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Great Britain. — 1700, Act of Succession. — 1702, Anne. — 1707, Scottish Union. — 1704, Victory of Blenheim; Gibraltar taken. — 1706, Ramillies ; 1708, Oudenarde ; 1709, Malplaquet. — 1714, House of Brunswick ; George I.— 1715, 1745, Scottish Rebellions.— 1716, Septennial Act.— 1718, Quadru- ple Alliance. — 1720, South Sea Bubble; Walpole. — 1743, Victory at Det- tingen. — 1748, Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. — 1759, Conquest of Canada. — 1763, John Wilkes ; American War ; ended 1783 ; Fox and Pitt. — Naval Victories of Howe, 1794 ; Duncan and Jervis, 1797 ; Nelson, 1798. — 1798, Irish Rebellion. France. — 1700, War of Spanish Succession. — 1715, The Regency of Orleans. —1718, Mississippi Scheme. — 1733, War of Polish Succession. — 1740, War of Austrian Succession. — 1756, Seven Years' War. — 1764, Jesuits sup- pressed. — 1774, Louis XVI. — 1789, States-General. — Revolution: 1793, King beheaded. — 1794, The Directory. — 1798, Egyptian Expedition. — 1799, Consulate ; Bonaparte. Spain.— 1700, Philip V. of Anjou ; Cardinal Alberoni.— 1746, Ferdinand IV. —1761, Family Compact.— 1788, Charles IV. Portugal. — 1703, Methuen Treaty. — 1706, John V. — 1714, Portuguese Aca- demy.— 1750. Joseph I. ; Marquis of Pombal. — 1755, Earthquake at Lisbon — 1758, Jesuits expelled. Italy. — Victor Amadeus II. of Sardinia. — 1737, Francis of Lorraine, grand duke of Tuscany. — 1767, Jesuits expelled from Sicily. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 433 Germany.— 1705, Joseph I.— 1711, Charles VI.— 1724, Pragmatic Sanction.— 1740, Maria Theresa ; War of the Austrian Succession.— 1748, Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. — 1763, Treaty of Paris.— 1777, Bavarian Succession; 1779, Peace of Teschen.— 1780, Joseph II.— 1792, Francis II.— 1797, Treaty of Campo Forrnio. Holland. — 1713, Peace of Utrecht.— 1747, William IV.— 1751, Regency.— 1787, Revolution ; William V.— 1795, Batavian Republic. Denmark.— Frederick IV.— 1720, Peace of Stockholm.— 1746, Frederick V. ; Bernstorf. — 1766, Christian VII.; Affranchisement of Serfs. — Struensee beheaded, 1772. Sweden. — 1700, Charles XII.— 1709.— Defeat at Pultowa.— 1738, Factions of Hats and Caps.— 1771, Gustavus III.— 1792, Gustavus IV. Poland. — 1697, Augustus II. — 1763, Stanislaus Poniatowski. — Religious Quarrels.— Partitions, 1772, 1793, 1795. Prussia.— 1701, Frederick I.— 1740, Frederick II.— 1756, Seven Years' War. —1786, Frederick William III. ; War with France. Russia. — Peter the Great. — 1700, Defeat of Narva. — 1725, Catherine I. — 1762, Catherine II. ; Turkish War. Turkey.— 1715, War with Venice.— 1718, Treaty of Passarowitz.— 1730, Re- volution ; Mahmoud I. — Treaties of Kainardge, 1774; of Jassy, 1792. Persia. — 1727, Nadir Shah. — 1738, Invasion of Hindostan ; Kingdoms of Cabul and Candahar.— 1797, Futteh Ali. India. — 1707, Sikh Wars. — 1756, Black Hole of Calcutta. — 1757, Battle of Plassey.— 1766, Hyder Ali ; Warren Hastings.— 1799, Tippoo Saib killed. United States. — 1773, Disturbances at Boston; War of Independence. — 1777, Burgoyne capitulates. — 1783, Independence recognised by England. — 1787, Federal Constitution. Hayti. — 1794, Rebellion of Slaves ; Toussaint l'Ouverture. Church. — 1773, Suppression of Jesuits. — 1793, Abolition of Religious Worship in France. — 1740, Methodists in England. Discoveries, &c— 1720, Fahrenheit's Thermometer; Reaumur, 1731.— 1713, Ruins of Herculaneum.— 1750, Ruins of Pompeii. — 1759, Eddystone Light- house built; Lewenhoek's Microscope.— 1781, Planet Herschel.— 1783, Air Balloon by Montgolfier ; Lightning Conductors. — 1791, Galvanism; Gal- vanic Battery. — 1794-1798, Vaccination. GREAT BRITAIN. Act of Succession. — William and his sister-in-law Anne being both childless, parliament in 1700 passed the famous Act of Succession, by which the crown, failing them, was settled upon the next Protestant heir, Sophia, duchess of Hanover, daughter of Elizabeth, eldest daughter of James I. About this time the causes of a new war arose out of cer- tain disputes as to the inheritance of the crown of Spain, which had been left by the will of the last monarch to the grandson of Louis XIV.; and England, Holland, and the Empire, accordingly became parties to a Grand Alliance, as it was called, having in view the preservation of the balance of power in Europe, supposed to be endangered by this arrangement. In 1701, James II. died in France, leaving his pretensions 37 434 MODERN HISTORY. to his son of the same name;* and Louis, in spite of the treaty of Rys- wick, immediately recognised this young prince as King of Great Britain, thereby adding materially to the hostile feelings which animated William and his peoole. War was accordingly in preparation when the latter sovereign died in 1702, in consequrnee of a fall from his horse. His reign is remarkable for the commencement of the national debt, and for the lirst le<_ral support of a standing army. Banks for the deposit of money and the issue of a paper currency were also first established in his time; the Bank of England having been incorporated in 1694, and that of Scotland in the following year. Queen Anne, 1702. — This princess, who was the second daughter of James II., had married Prince George of Denmark in 1083, by whom «he had several children, though none of them lived to maturity. On her accession to the crown, she found it necessary to maintain her place in the Grand Alliance; and the Duke of Marlborough was sent to the Continent with a large army to prosecute the designs of the confederates. In Germany and Flanders, under this able commander, the British army achieved some signal successes, particularly at Blenheim, 1704. and Ramillies, 1706; while a smaller force in Spain, under the chivalrous Earl of Peterborough, performed important services, the strong fortress of Gibraltar, the key of the Mediterranean, also falling into the hands of Britain, 1704. The war, however, was one in which the country had little real interest, and the Tory party, in 1706, attempted to bring it to an end ; but Marlborough, who found his account in its continuance, succeeded in averting a treaty for some years. Treatv of Union, 1707. — The Scottish nation had been deep.y in- censed by the fate of their Darien expedition, and being now intent on a fair participation of trade, their parliament passed, in 1703, an Jet of Security, by which it was declared that the successor of her majesty in Scotland should not be the same as in England, unless a free commer- cial intercourse was permitted between the two countries ; while a measure was at the same time adopted for arming the people. In these circumstances the English ministry, fearful that the northern crown might fall into the hands of the Pretender, resolved upon effecting an incorporating union; and for this purpose a treaty was drawn up by commissioners chosen from each country, for the purpose of joining the two legislatures ; the Scots to send forty-five members to the Commons and sixteen to the Upper House, and to retain their judicial and ecclesi- usticnl establishments. These terms, though regarded by the Scottish people as miserably inadequate, were nevertheless carried through their parliament, May 1, 1707; and thenceforth England and Scotland formed one state, under the title of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Meanwhile the continental war continued, the victory of Oudenarde, 1708, being accompanied in the same year by the surrender of the islands of Majorca and Minorca to the British, and followed by the triumph at Malplaquet, 1709. But the Whigs, under whose auspices this contest had been protracted, were now becoming unpopular, and the influence of the Tory party began to be felt in the queen's councils. Their entire * James became henceforth known by the appellation of the Pretender, a term having its rise from an assertion made at bis birth, that lie was a supposititious child. Subse- fluent writprs. having no doubt that he was the real son of James II., have employed i» simply to designate bis pretensions to the Rritish throne, EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 435 ascendency was at length achieved by the trial of Henry Sacheverell, a divine of inferior note, who had preached an inflammatory sermon, call- ing upon the people to take arms in defence of the church, w r hich he pronounced to be in danger from the principles of toleration acted on by the ministry. This person, though subjected merely to a nominal pun- ishment, was regarded as a martyr; and the queen being herself deeply imbued with High Church principles, Hariey, afterwards Earl of Ox- ford, and St. John, afterwards Lord Bolingbroke, obtained the seals of office at the head of a decidedly Tory government, 1710. These states- men speedily exerted themselves to bring about a peace, which, after much negotiation, was signed at Utrecht, 1713, Britain gaining little by her exertions except the retention of her conquests of Gibraltar and Mi- norca. Anne died suddenly in the following year. House of Brunswick, 1714. — The late queen and her ministers were supposed not unwilling to have set aside the Act of Succession, and thereby reinstate the direct Stuart line; but her sudden death prevented any steps being taken for that purpose, and the Elector of Hanover, son of the Duchess Sophia, was accordingly proclaimed under the title of George I. The new king, knowing well to which party his elevation was owing, immediately raised the Whigs to power, while he treated their opponents with great harshness, and even suffered articles of im- peachment to be drawn up against the heads of the late administration. The Tories, however, still succeeded in fomenting popular disturbances in favour of High Church principles, which w r ere met by an enactment called the Riot Ad, permitting a military force to be used in dispersing a crowd after the act itself shall have been read by a magistrate in their hearing. Thrust out. from all hope of office and power, and deeply resenting the treatment of their leaders, the same party now resolved to bring in the Pretender, otherwise called the Chevalier St. George, by force of arms; and accordingly the Earl of Mar, secretary of state in the late government, put himself at the head of 10,000 Highlanders, while a simultaneous rising took place in the north of England under the Earl of Derwentwater, September 1715. The movement, however, was but slenderly supported by the nation, while all hope of aid from France was disappointed by the death of Louis XIV. ; so that, before the prince could arrive to encourage his partisans, his Scottish adherents had been defeated by the Duke of Argyle at Sheriffmuir, while the southern insur- gents were forced to surrender themselves prisoners at the town of Pres- ton in Lancashire. The Highland army now rapidly dispersed, the chevalier and Mar making their escape into France, while Derwentwater and about twenty other prisoners suffered by the hands of the executioner. The successful suppression of this rebellion tended greatly to the sta- bility of the Hanoverian dynasty; and the ministers took advantage of the disturbed state of the country to extend the duration of parliament from three to seven years. 1716. In 1718, Britain became a party in a Quadruple Alliance, along with Holland, France, and Germany, for the purpose of repressing an attempt- on the part of Spain to regain her Italian possessions. Admiral Byng was despatched with a squadron to the Mediterranean, where he defeated the Spanish fleet near Sicily ; while the failure of an expedition fitted out to invade England in favour of the Pretender, compelled the Catholic monarch to accede to the terms of the allies, 1719. 436 MODERN HISTORY. South Sea Bubble, 1720. — A Scotsman of the name of Law, after almost ruining France by the famous Mississippi scheme, was the means of inspiring the British people with a similar visionary project. It originated in a proposal tti" the ministry to reduce the interest of the national debt, amounting to upwards of fifty millions, from six to five per cent., when Sir John Blount, one of the directors of a company professedly formed for trading to the Pacific, projected the purchase and management of all the government liabilities. The company was accordingly empowered to raise funds by means of shares, which, by various tricks and manoeuvres, unintelligible unless explained in detail, were rapidly enhanced to ten times their original value. During this seeming pros- perity, many realized large fortunes by selling their shares to others at enormous premiums ; but in a short time the unsoundness of the whole scheme was dis- covered, the price fell, and thousands were utterly ruined. A committee of the Commons, with great difficulty and by an extremely complicated adjustment, succeeded in restoring credit by equalizing ns far as possible the state of gain and Loss among the innocent sufferers ; and Sir Robert Walpole, who had been mainly instrumental in effecting this arrangement, became prime-minister, 1721. Consult : Lord Mahon's Hist. England, ch. ix. Geohge II., 1727. — George I. was succeeded by his son of the same name, a prince of respectable character and moderate abilities, under whom Walpole continued at the head of affairs. The love of peace being the distinctive feature of this minister's policy, he exerted his influence in developing the commercial resources and arranging the finances of the country; but his parliamentary career was marked by an extensive system of bribery, alike disgraceful to the members and to himself. At length the Spaniards, with the view of putting a stop to the illicit traffic which had sprung up with their American colonies, began to insist on a right of searching all vessels sailing in the South Sea; and this indignity being offensive to the country, Walpole was forced to declare war against that people, 1739. Hostilities, however, were languidly conducted, the chief exploit being the taking of Porto- bello at the outset of the war, which was more than balanced by an unsuccessful attack on the town of Oarthagena in the following year, involving a loss of 20,000 men. The war between France and the Queen of Hungary had now broken out, and the English king, alarmed for the safety of his German dominions, resolved upon taking up arms in behalf of that princess, 1742. The premier, who was strongly op- posed to this measure, retired from office, which was given to the chief of his parliamentary opponents; and his majesty himself, with the Earl of Stair, led an army to the Continent, where he gained a victory over the French at Dettingen, 1743. In a subsequent campaign the British forces, under the young Duke of Cumberland, were less successful, being subjected to a severe repulse at Fontenoy, and forced to retreat, 1715. Rebellion of 1745. — Meanwhile the court of Louis, with the view of effecting a diversion in favour of their army in the Netherlands, had fitted out an expedition in support of the exiled Stuart family. Their fleet, however, having been driven back by a storm, Charles Edward, eldest son of the Pretender, resolved on prosecuting the enterprise un- aided, trusting solely to the attachment of his friends in Britain; and he accordingly landed in Inverness-shire in July 1745. A number of the Highland clans speedily repaired to his standard, and the prince having descended with his tumultuary followers into the Lowlands, took pos- session of Edinburgh, and defeated the royal forces at Prestonpans. He EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 437 shortly after entered England, where he penetrated as far as Derby, but was then compelled to retire towards the north; and being 1 now opposed by the Duke of Cumberland with large reinforcements, at length expe- rienced a total overthrow at Culloden, 1746. Charles, after a variety of adventures, reached France in safety, while numbers of his unfortu- nate adherents perished on the scaffold or by military execution. Mea- sures were then taken to prevent similar attempts, by suppressing the hereditary jurisdictions in the Highlands, and the tartan dress was pro- hibited ; the army and other public employments were opened to the gentry, and the Scottish people at large treated in a milder spirit. Dur- ing the remainder of the war in which the confederates were engaged with France, the forces of the latter were generally successful by land, while the British fleets were triumphant at sea; but all parties willingly listened to overtures of peace, which terminated in the treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle, 1748, leaving matters in precisely the same condition in which they stood before the commencement of hostilities. Seven Years' War. — The British colonial empire had now attained an unexampled pitch of prosperity both in India and America; and their lucrative commerce provoked the cupidity of the French, who commenced a series of encroachments, particularly in the latter continent, which eventually led to hostilities, 1756. The King of Prussia, being at the same time involved in a war with Louis and other continental sove- reigns, received the support of an English army and large subsidies. On the accession to office of Mr. Pitt (afterwards Earl of Chatham), 1757, the war was carried on with great vigour, all Canada submitting to the British, though at the expense of the life of the brave General Wolfe, while their arms in India were signally triumphant under Colo- nel Clive. At sea, the naval victories of Sir E. Hawke, 1759, and Cap- tain Elliot, 1760, rendered the British maritime supremacy indisputable. These triumphs, however, were somewhat counterbalanced by the French invasion of Hanover, in the course of which a body of 40,000 men, under the Duke of Cumberland, were compelled to lay down their arms, 1757, leaving that country for a time in the hands of the victors. George III., 1760. — In the midst of these contests the king died, and was succeeded by his grandson, then in his twenty-third year, by the title of George III., who at that time began one of the longest and most remarkable reigns in English history. Mr. Pitt soon retired from office, with a peerage and a pension, and M T as succeeded by the Earl of Bute, a man of peaceful dispositions, under whom, however, the war continued to be prosecuted. The French power in India was nearly destroyed, and a rupture again occurring with Spain, in consequence of the signa- ture of the family compact with France, Havannah and Manilla were taken, 1762. At length, by the peace of Paris, tranquillit}' was re- established in a manner highly favourable to Great Britain ; the Spa- niards ceding Florida and Minorca, while France gave up Louisiana, Canada, and various islands in the West Indies, 1763. But the national debt had now increased to 43110,000,000. The signal success which had so generally attended this war, rendered it highly popular with the people; and the Earl of Bute, who had all along been odious from his Scotch extraction and Tory principles, was assailed with the most violent abuse for the treaty now concluded, and 37* 438 MODERN HISTORY. speedily forced to retire from office. One of the most virulent of his opponents was Mr. John Wilkes, member for Ailesbury, and editor of a paper entitled the North Briton. Mr. Grenville, successor of Bute, in- stituted a prosecution against this personage for a libel contained in the forty-fifth number of his paper, in which he had directly accused the king of falsehood. He was apprehended on a general warrant issued by the^secretary of state, and committed to the Tower, but was released again in a few days, as being a member of the House of Commons. Though expelled from parliament, and his paper ordered to be burnt by the hands of the common hangman, Wilkes commenced an action against the secretary for illegal imprisonment, which terminated in a verdict of damages, and a declaration by Chief-Justice Pratt, that general warrants were inconsistent with the laws of England.* The .celebrated Letters of Junius belong to this period. American War. — The war in which Britain had recently been en- gaged, having been undertaken in a great measure for the defence of the North American colonies, the ministry now resolved upon taxing those provinces, as a means of relieving the burdens of the parent state. Mr. Grenville accordingly procured the enactment of the celebrated Stamp Act, 1765, which was strongly resisted by the Americans, on the plea that they were not represented in the Imperial Parliament, and that their charters and privileges secured to them the sole right of taxing them- selves. In consequence of the strenuous opposition thus excited, the government consented to repeal the obnoxious statute, though still asserting a right to impose taxes on the colonies, which was acted on in 1767 by a duty on tea, glass, and paints; but, in 1770, during the ministry of Lord North, all these imposts were abandoned except that on tea, which it was determined to retain, as an assertion of the right of parliament to tax their dependencies. The unavailing remonstrances of the inhabitants at length led to the struggle detailed under the head United States, and which, aided by France and Spain, terminated in the treaty of Versailes, 1783, when those colonies were finally acknow- ledged by England as "free, sovereign, and independent." At the same time, the Irish volunteers, a large body of armed men assembled for the defence of that country, procured the recognition of the independence of their parliament, and the extension to the people of the right of habeas corpus. The national debt now amounted to nearly 267 millions ster- ling. This formed altogether a most tremendous epoch in the history of the British empire. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the gradual develop- ment of her vast commercial and military resources had excited the wonder and jealousy of surrounding states; and France, in particular, could not easily for- get the triumphant peace she had dictated in 1763. '['hat power was therefore readily induced to promote the independence of the British colonies, and to send a force for their assistance, 1778; Spain, conceiving the period for her humilia- tion had at length arrived, declared war against her in the following year ; in * Mr. Wilkes at this time found it prudent to retire to the Continent, whence he sub- sequently returned during the ministry of the Duke of Grafton, and was elected member for the county of Middlesex, 1768. Tl; ■ Commons formally expelled him from the house , but he was again returned a second and a third time, and as often rejected. The cry of "Wilkes and Liberty" now became general; forty-eight peers, including all the great Whig chiefs, publicly protested against the injury supposed to be done to the cause of popular representation; and from the agitations thus produced may be dated the lon« strucxle for Parliamentary reform in England EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 439 1780, Holland was added to the number of her enemies ; while Russia, Sweden, and Denmark formed an armed neutrality indirectly hostile to her cause. In 1779, 300,000 men, 300 armed ships, and twenty millions sterling annually, were found no more than enough to meet the enormous force brought to bear against her ; and even these unexampled exertions were insufficient to prevent the unwonted spectacle of a hostile fleet riding unopposed in the Channel. These fearful difficulties from without were aggravated by internal disorders of an alarming nature. In 1778, in consequence of the repeal of certain severe penal statutes against the English Catholics, formidable riots took place in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and other cities ; and, in 1780, a mob assembled by Lord George Gordon retained uncontrolled possession of the metropolis during five days, setting fire to the city in various quarters, and pillaging and demolishing ill every direction. But the inherent strength of the empire was found fully equal to the crisis. The internal disorders were speedily composed ; Gibraltar, besieged four years, proved invulnerable to the attacks of France and Spain, 1779-1783; Rodney vanquished the Spanish fleet in 1780, and that of France near Dominica in 1782 ; and though the peace of Versailles terminated in the dismemberment of the empire, and was followed by some colonial concessions to her European enemies, Britain afterwards attained, partly by this very dis- memberment, an unexampled height of commercial prosperity, and her navies annihilated the maritime resistance of the world. The ministry of Lord North had been succeeded by one under the Marquis of Rockingham in 1782; and, on the death of this nobleman shortly afterwards, the seals of office were transferred to the Earl of Shelburne, by whom the peace of Versailles was signed in the folio wirier year. The celebrated Charles James Fox, and William Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, now appeared on the theatre of parliament; and in 1783, the Coalition Ministry was formed, Mr. Fox and Lord North be- coming joint-secretaries of state. These associates having attempted to obtain the entire patronage of India by means of a measure called the India Bill, the king, sanctioned by the voice of the nation, raised Mr. Pitt to the office of prime-minister, who remained at the head of affairs till the end of the century. The new premier, who had hitherto pro- fessed liberal principles, signalized his entrance into office by a motion for reform in parliament, which was rejected by a large majority, 1785, and by the promulgation of the well-known scheme of a sinking fund for reducing the national debt, 1786. At the same.time commenced the trial of Mr. Warren Hastings for alleged cruelty and robbery in India, which extended over several years, but ended in his acquittal. In 1788, the king first began to display symptoms of insanity; and the question of a regency gave rise to animated discussions in parliament between Fox and Pitt, which were terminated by his majesty's recovery, 1789. Meanwhile, the course of events on the continent of Europe w T as pre- paring for England a contest of unexampled severity and duration. The French revolution began in 1789, and rapidly advanced to a consumma- tion in the execution of Louis XVI., 1793. At this period, a great number of democratical societies existed in Britain, for the purpose of obtaining a reform in parliament ; and there can be little doubt that the apprehension of scenes at home similar to those which had so fearfully distinguished the neighbouring country, rendered the ministry not averse to a war in defence of ancient institutions. The French envoy was ac- cordingly ordered to quit England, which was immediately followed by a declaration of hostilities on the part of the convention ; while Pitt formed alliances with the powers who had already declared against the Jepublicans. The first military operations on the Continent were unfa- 440 MODERN HISTORY. vourable to England and her allies; but France lost all her colonial possessions; her fleets were defeated by Howe, 1794, and by Nelson, 1798; three expeditions to Ireland failed; Jervis vanquished a Spanish squadron oif Cape St. Vincent, and the Dutch navy was annihilated by Duncan at Camperdown, 1797. The Cape of Good Hope was taken from Holland, and Trinidad from Spain. A mutiny of the Channel fleet, 1797, was fortunately composed without loss to the nation ; while a rebellion in Ireland, 1798, was speedily suppressed, and a body of French troops sent to aid the insurgents taken prisoners. At the same time, with the view of attaching Ireland still more closely to the British crown, an incorporating union, similar to that formed with Scotland a century before, was effected, 1801, by which that country became an integral part of the empire, and George III. assumed the title of sove- reign of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. •' Nine years of peace had enabled Great Britain to recover, in a great degree, the losses and exhaustion of the American war. If she had lost one empire in the Western, she had gained another in the Eastern world: the wealth of India began to pour into her bosom ; and a little island in the west of Europe already exercised a sway over realms more extensive than the arms of Rome had reduced to subjection. A vast revenue, amounting to £7,000,000, was already derived from her Indian possessions ; and although nearly the whole of this great sum was absorbed in their costly establishment, yet her rulers already looked forward with confident hope to the period, now never likely to be realized, when the empire of Hindostan, instead of being as heretofore a burden, should be a source of revenue to the ruling state, and the wealth of India really become that mine of gold to Britain which it had long proved to numbers of her children. Her national debt, amounting to £244,000,000, and occasioning an annual charge of £9,317,000, was indeed a severe burden upon the industry of the people ; and the taxes, though light in comparison of what have been imposed in later times, were still felt as oppressive ; but, nevertheless, the resources of the state had augmented to an extraordinary degree during the repose which had prevailed since the conclusion of the former contest. Com- merce, agriculture, and manufactures, had rapidly increased ; the trade with the independent states of North America had been found to exceed what had been enjoyed with them when in a state of colonial dependence ; and the incessant exertions of every individual to better his condition, had produced a surprising effect upon the accumulation of capital and the state of public credit. The three per cents., from 57 at the close of the war, had risen to 99 ; and the overflowing wealth of the capital was already finding its way into the most cir- cuitous foreign trades and hazardous distant investments. The national revenue amounted to £16,000,000, and the army included 32.000 soldiers in the British isles, besides an equal force in the East and West Indies, and thirty-six regi- ments of yeomanry ; but these forces were rapidly augmented after the com- mencement of the vvar, and. before 1796. the regular army of Britain amounted to 206,000 men, including 42.000 militia. More than half of this force was required for the service of the colonies; and experience has proved that Britain can never collect above 40,000 men upon any one point on the continent of Europe. The real strength of England consisted in her inexhaustible wealth, in the public spirit and energy of her people, in the moral influence of centuries of glory, and in a fleet of 141 ships of the line, which gave her the undisputed command of the seas." — Alison's History of the French Revolution, vol. i. p. 516-518. FRANCE. War of the Spanish .Succession. — Scarcely had the treaty of Rys wick given peace to Europe, and promised a period of repose to the exhausted rssources of the French empire, ere the elements of a new EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A. D. 441 struggle arose, destined to destroy the long supremacy of her ambitious sovereign, and to cloud his declining days with ruin and disaster. Charles II., king of Spain, was now on the brink of the grave, without any immediate successors, and the nearest heirs to the throne were the Emperor Leopold, on behalf of his second son the Archduke Charles; Philip, duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis; and the Prince of Bavaria, also a relative of the Emperor. It was at first agreed, with the consent of the English monarch, to partition the Spanish territory among the contending claimants ; but this arrangement was at once set aside when it was found that Charles II. had bequeathed the entire succession to the French prince, 1700. The new monarch, supported by his grand- father, was immediately acknowledged by the people as Philip V. ; while on the other hand, Germany, England, and Holland, formed an offensive alliance, which was afterwards joined by Prussia, Portugal, and Savoy, 1701. War now broke out in all quarters; the imperialists, under Prince Eugene, invaded Italy, where the French were signally defeated ; while the celebrated Duke of Marlborough was appointed to lead the armies of the allies in the Netherlands, where he compelled Boufflers, the French general, to retreat, and captured Venlo, Rure- monde, and Liege. The treasury of Louis was exhausted, and, to add to his distresses, a formidable insurrection of the Protestants took place in the Cevennes, 1702 : while in the same year his fleet was utterly destroyed at Vigo by the English and Dutch. The signal defeat at Blenheim, 1704, was next year followed by the almost complete con- quest of Spain by the Archduke Charles and the Earl of Peterborough; and though these conquerors were in 1707 defeated at Almanza by the forces of Philip V., under the Duke of Berwick, a natural son of James II., Louis had still to regret the disaster at Ramillies, which placed the entire Netherlands at the feet of his enemies, and the decisive battle of Turin, gained by Prince Eugene, which almost annihilated his Italian army, 1706. An abortive attempt to invade Scotland in behalf of the Stuarts, and the defeat of Oudenarde, 1708, which appeared to open the way to Paris, now forced the French monarch to sue for peace; but the demands of the allies were so exorbitant, that he resolved to hazard an- other campaign, in which he was signally discomfited by Marlborough at Malplaquet, 1709. Again he solicited an accommodation, offering yet more favourable conditions, which were still haughtily rejected ; and the total ruin of this once powerful prince seemed impending, when the accession of the Tories to office in England, in 1711, deprived Marlbo- rough of his command, while the Archduke Charles in the same year became Emperor of Germany, and thus entirely changed the aspect of affairs. The European powers were even more unwilling to see Spain in the hands of Austria than in those of the Bourbons, and the cause of Philip V. having now gained a decided preponderance in that country, peace was at length signed at Utrecht with England and the other allies, 1713, and in the following year with the emperor at Rastadt. By these treaties the right of Philip to the Spanish crown was recognised, but with the stipulation that Spain and France should never be united under one sovereign ; while England received large territories in America ; Naples, Milan, and the Spanish Netherlands, fell to Austria; and the Duke of Savoy obtained the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Louis him self died in. 1715. 442 MODEltN HISTORY. Louis XIV. was a great but a bad sovereign, and his reign proved a source of incalculable evils to France and to Europe. His most valuable qualities — power of application to business, quickness in discovering and applying the abilities of others, and skill in attaching them to his service ; even the senti- ment of religion which he seems to have possessed — became with him the meru instruments of ambition and intolerance. In his long reign of seventy-two years, he reared the fabric of absolute monarchy in France ; and the ruling principles of his government, uniformity and centralization, survived even the storms of the revolution. With him began the great military system of Europe ; and his immense standing armies, clothed in uniform, and armed with the bayonet, set a fatal example to surrounding states. From 1672 he maintained a lorce of 180,000 regulars ; and afterwards, including the marine, there were in arms not fewer than 450,000 men. The revenues of his kingdom were at the same time raised to the enormous sum of thirty millions sterling; and at his death he bequeathed a debt of more than two thousand millions of livres. Unhappily, his abilities, by no means extraordinary, were nevertheless of that theatrical and showy cast, so likely to create admiration in an excitable people ; and to the passion for false glory engendered during his reign may be traced that course of events which, in the next century, after unparalleled bloodshed, placed France once more prostrate beneath a military despotism. The Regency, 1715. — Louis XV., great-grandson of the former so- vereign, and nephew to Philip V. of Spain, was a feeble infant on his accession to the throne, and the regency in consequence devolved on Philip, duke of Orleans, who had been nominated to that office by the will of the late king. The regent, though regarded as a man of unprin- cipled character, began with several salutary measures. He reformed many of the most glaring abuses of the late reign, liberated a number of individuals who had for years been immured in the prison of the Bastile ; while he at the same time reduced the army, enforced economy, and endeavoured to maintain peace in Europe. This was partially dis- turbed by the ambitious projects of Cardinal Alberoni, prime-minister of Spain, who wished to displace the regent, and recover the Italian territories given up at the peace of Utrecht; but Philip was speedily forced to dismiss the priestly statesman and accede to the Grand Alli- ance, 1720. Mississippi Scheme, 1718. — Meanwhile, the disorder in which he had found the finances, and the grievous deficiency in the revenue, induced the duke to listen to a wild project propounded by the celebrated John Law, which even- tually involved the nation in wide-spread bankruptcy and ruin. This plan con sisted in the establishment of a bank of issue, the shares of which were offered to the national creditors in exchange for their stock ; while, with the view of inducing the public to purchase these shares, the bank was conjoined with ;. company having a monopoly of trade with the Mississippi territory and Canada io the former of which great numbers of planters and artisans were removed for the cultivation of tobacco and other produce, 1718. In the following year, the East India and Senegal Companies were incorporated with the Mississippi Company ; and the prospect of the advantages thus held out was so great, that its stock speedily rose 1200 per cent. The corporation bad now obtained the fanning of the entire public revenues and an exclusive privilege of coining, and had actually advanced large sums to government in payment of the national debt. In 1720, its stock rose to the enormous height of 2050 per cent. ; but this was the climax of the delusion : the hopes of profit were found to be erroneous, and, in the course of a few weeks, the bank suspended payment of its notes. By this step thousands of wealthy persons were reduced to indigence, and Law retired in disgrace to Venice, where he died in poverty. The same period was conspicuous for a calamity of a different kind, the plague at Mar- seilles, by which fully half of the inhabitants were swept away ; an even* eighteenth century a. d. 443 illustrated by the heroic labours of the "good bishop," Belzunce, who exerted nimself day and night to relieve the distress of the inhabitants. The regent died in 1723, at which period the young king came of age ; and, by the advice of the Duke of Bourbon, now become prime-minister, he was induced to marry the Princess Maria, daughter of Stanislaus, ex-king of Poland, who had taken refuge in France, 17*25. The duke was dismissed in 1726, to make way for the Cardinal Fleury, a man of pacific disposition, and possessing great influence over the mind of the king. The cardinal made every exertion to restore order in the finances, and promote the revival of credit and commerce, endeavouring with this view to maintain peace in Europe. Nevertheless, a war broke out in 1733 against Russia and Austria on behalf of Stanislaus ; but the real strength of France was directed towards Italy and the Rhine, at the latter of which the Austrians under Piince Eugene were opposed by the Duke of Berwick, who fell while taking the town of Philipsburg, 1734. In Italy, also, the French arms were successful under Marshal Villars, wf Russia, where, on the 22d June, he formally declared hostilities. Crossing the river on the 24th, he soon after took possession of "Wilna, and arrived at Witebsk about the end of July. On the lfith August, the two armies met under the walls of Smolensk ; but that city, after a vigorous contest, was abandoned by the Russian general, who continued to retreat upon Moscow. At length, on the 7th September, a great battle was fought at Borodino, a village near the banks of ths river Moskva, where, after fearful slaughter on both sides, the French had the advantage. KutusofT, the Russian commander, now resolved t<> aban- don Moscow to its fate, rather than weaken his arm} r by another con- flict ; and the invader accordingly entered that capital on the 14th September. Here, however, was the limit of his advance, and from this moment may be dated the destruction of that mighty host which he believed to be invincible. The city was found to be deserted by all but a few of the lowest class of people, and soon after the entrance of the French it was observed to be on fire in various quarters. The soldiers, flushed with success, were too intent on plunder to take any effectual steps to arrest the flames, which, fanned by a high wind, raged on the night of the 15th with fearful fury. On the third day the army was NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 501 compelled to evacuate the city, which it could not re-enter until the 21st. Napoleon then took up his residence in the Kremlin ; and it was found that a sufficient number of houses had escaped the conflagration to afford quarters for his men. Here, however, destitute of all other supplies, they were compelled to subsist upon the flesh of their horses ; and Napoleon, despairing of his position, was compelled to sue for peace. Kutusoff, to whom the proposal was made, nobly answered, that no terms could be entered into while an enemy remained on the soil of Russia ; and at length, all hope of an accommodation being at an end, the French army, though in the face of a northern winter, received orders to retreat. The main body quitted Moscow on the 19th October, followed by a long train of carriages laden with spoil, and closely pursued by the Russian forces. In a severe encounter at Malo Jaroslavetz, the French had the advantage on the whole; but they were soon to bear the assault of an enemy against which skill and valour were of no avail, — the snows of winter began to fall on the 6th of November. From this period the history of the retreat presents an unbroken series of calamities unparal- leled in the annals of human suffering. Of 120,000 fighting men who had left Moscow, hardly 12,000 reached the banks of the Beresina; 40,000 horses had dwindled away to 3000. Here, joined by 50,000 of the reserve under Victor and Oudinot, Napoleon prepared to cross the river; and in this enterprise, being opposed by the enemy, he lost one- half of the army thus reinforced.. Soon after, leaving the miserable remnant in charge of Murat, he set out in a sledge for Paris, where he arrived at midnight on the 18th of December, and where the news of these awful reverses, which fell on the French nation like a clap of thunder, had but shortly before preceded him.* Napoleon made prodigious exertions to organize a new army ; and though fresh levies could but poorly replace the veterans lost in Russia, he contrived, by the spring of 1813, to collect a force of 350,000 men. The King of Prussia had now allied himself to Alexander, who was also joined by Sweden; and the confederates' advanced as far as the Elbe. Nevertheless, the French emperor, still undismayed, repaired to Germany, and on the 2d of May gained a victory at Lutzen, followed a fortnight after by that of Bautzen. These battles, however, were not decisive; and, on the mediation of Austria, an armistice was agreed to, July 1, and a congress met at Prague to consider terms of peace. Bona- parte, still confident in his fortune, would listen to nothing calculated to limit his power; the armistice expired on the 10th August; and Austria immediately joined the allies. After various desultory engagements fought in the neighbourhood of Dresden and in Bohemia, during which his enemies were constantly gaining strength, Napoleon retreated upon Leipsic, where he determined to make a final stand. On the 16th Sep- tember a sanguinary conflict took place, with no decisive result; but on the 18th the French were signally defeated, and began a retrograde movement towards the Rhine. At Hanau, the army, completely disor- ganised, w r as forced to fight its way through the troops of Bavaria, which had now joined their enemies ; and on the 7th November, the emperor * Of the immense force which crossed the Niemen at the outset of the campaign, it has been calcu'sted that 1*25,000 perished in battle, 132,000 died of fatigue, hunger, and cold, and 193 000 were taken prisoners, including 43 generals and 3000 inferior officers. 502 MODERN HISTORY. re-entered France with a remnant of only 70,000 men. About 80,000, left to garrison the Prussian fortresses, now surrendered to the allies ; while Holland threw off the yoke, and recalled the Prince of Orange. Nevertheless, the authority of the emperor, which was still great with the French people, enabled him to procure a new levy of 300,000 men, and he prepared with the utmost ardour for another campaign. Prince Schwartzenberg, commander-in-chief of the Austrians, along with the Russian generals Barclay de Tolli and Wittgenstein, were advancing on the Swiss frontier with 150,000 men; Blucher, the Prussian leader, was approaching with 130,000 from Frankfort; Bernadotte, with 100,000, converged towards the Netherlands; and the English, under Welling- ton, were near Bayonne. The confederates crossed the Rhine at the beginning of the year. In these circumstances, Napoleon had only one chance of preserving his crown and empire. In January 1814, confer- ences were held at Chatillon, when it was proposed to fix the limits of France as they were in 1792 ; but to this he would not listen, and there- fore lost all. At the end of the month he began a campaign, which has always been regarded as the most striking proof of his extraordinary military genius. The body of the French nation, exhausted by their previous sacrifices, had at length become dissatisfied with the headlong proceedings of their ruler, and both taxes and conscription were but par- tially collected. Nevertheless, with a force vastly inferior in number, he kept at bay the various hostile armies during two months, gained several brilliant successes, and electrified all Europe by the rapidity and skill of his movements. But the odds were too great; and while, by a bold stroke, he threw himself in the rear of the invaders, they at once marched to Paris, and on the 30th of March, after a severe contest, took possession of the line of defence which protected that city. The follow- ing day Paris capitulated ; and on the 2d of April the senate decreed that " Napoleon Bonaparte had forfeited the crown, that the hereditary right in his family was abolished, and the people and army released from their oaths of fidelity." On the 6th of the same month, Louis XVIII. was solemnly pro- claimed ; while the deposed emperor, finding that his generals would not join him in a last desperate attack on Paris, signed at Fontainebleau, on the 11th, an act of unconditional abdication, and shortly after set out for his new principality of Elba, where he was to enjoy a pension of six million francs, and retain the imperial title. Louis XVIII. made his public entry into Paris on the 3d of May, having previously given his assent in general terms to a constitutional charter drawn up by the senate. On the 30th, he concluded a formal peace with the allies, by which the continental dominions of Franct were restricted to what they had been in 1792; but England restored al. her colonial conquests, except the West India islands of St. Lucia and Tobago, and the isle of Mauritius. France thus obtained much bettei terms than could have been expected, after the intolerable evils she had so long inflicted upon Europe; and indeed, throughout all the arrange- ments, every care seems to have been taken by the conquerors to spare the feelings and honour of the nation. On the 1th of June, the king pre- sented to the legislature a constitutional charter, on the basis of that formerly drawn up by the senate, which was unanimously accepted, and became the fundamental law of the kingdom. Notwithstanding this, NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 503 the boastings of the returned emigrants and various other circumstances, soon gave rise to a suspicion, which seems, however, to have been with- out foundation, that the court nourished the design of reverting to the despotic principles of the old monarchy. The faction of Bonaparte, still strong, and embracing the great mass of the soldiery, besides the im- mense number of veterans recenlly released from foreign prisons, loudly fomented the discontent; and at length a wide-spread conspiracy was organized for the recall of their banished leader. He, on his part, gladly responding to the invitation, left Elba towards the end of February 1815, and on the 1st March landed at the small town of Cannes, with about 1000 men of his old guards. Advancing to Grenoble, he was there joined by Colonel Labedoyere and the 7th regiment of the line; soon after, Marshal Ney, who had been sent to stop his progress, went over to him ; and by the time he reached Fontainebleau, nearly the whole military force was once more under his standard. On the evening of the 20th March he re-entered the Tuileries, Louis XVIII. having left the capita early in the morning, whence he fled to Ostend, and afterwards to Ghent With the exception of Augereau, Marmont, Macdonald, and a few others nearly all the officials, civil and military, readily embraced the imperia cause, and Napoleon once more seated himself on the throne, by one of the most rapid transitions recorded in history. After a futile attempt to negotiate with the allies, he made gigantic exertions to maintain his recovered dignity by force of arms. He endeavoured also to strengthen his popularity, by engaging to govern as a constitutional sovereign; but as his chief resource lay in the army, it was clear that, should he be able to maintain his position, matters would soon revert to their former condition. The allies, on their side, having declared the usurper out of the pale of national law, prepared actively to oppose him; and an army was speedily assembled in the Netherlands under Blucher and Wellington. Bonaparte, desirous of fighting them before their forces could be united, hurried across the frontier at the head of about 125,000 select troops, June 15. On the 16th, Blucher, after a bold resistance at Ligny, retreated to Wavre, while on the same day Marshal Ney attacked the English at Quatre Bras.* Preparations were then made for concentrating the allied forces at Waterloo, and on the ever-memorable 18th of June, Napoleon found himself face to face with a soldier whose fame only yielded to his own. This great battle has been already noticed under Great Britain ; at the close of the day, the hero of Marengo, abandoning his army, escaped with difficulty to Paris, the herald of his own discomfiture. The capital of France was once more occupied by foreign troops ; Bonaparte abdi- cated a second time ; and after vainly attempting to escape to America, surrendered to the English, and was sent b)' the allies to the island of St. Helena, where he died on the 5th May 1821. The eloquent Channing thus writes concerning this remarkable man ; and his opinion, as being a native of a country that never was engaged in war with France, may be considered an impartial one : — " Bonaparte was brought up in a military school ; his first political association was with the Jacobins ; his first command he secured by turning his arms on the people. His campaigns in Italy compel us to bestow the admiration due to a superior power- But mili- *The Duke of Brunswick, son of him who had commanded the Prussians at the outset of the Revolution, was killed in this battle. 504 MODERN HISTORY. tary talent is one of the lower forms of genius ; the office of a great general not widely differing from that of a great mechanician, whose business it is to frame new combinations of physical forces, to adapt them to new circumstan- ces, and to remove new obstructions. — Bonaparte's intellect was distinguished by rapidity of thought. He understood war as a science ; but his mind was too bold to be enslaved by the technics of his profession. His unforeseen and impetuous assaults astonished and paralysed his enemies, and breathed into his own soldiers the enthusiasm of ruder ages. The signal success of his new mode of warfare had no small agency in fixing his character, and determining for a period the fate of empires. To astonish as well as to sway by his enef gies, became the great aim of his life. Power was his supreme object, — n Eower to be gazed at as well as felt. In peace he delighted to hurry through is dominions ; to project in an instant works that a life could not accomplish, and to leave behind the impression of a superhuman energy. His history shows a spirit of self-exaggeration unrivalled in enlightened ages. He had no sympathies with his race, and this was the chief source of his crimes. Trea- ties only bound his enemies : no nation had any rights but his own France. His original propensities, released from restraint and pampered by indulgence, grew up into a spirit of despotism as stern and absolute as ever usurped the human heart. Beyond the camp he showed no talent superior to that of other eminent men. With regard to the scruples expressed as to the right of ban- ishing him to St. Helena, there are great solemn rights of nature which precede laws, and on which law is founded; there are awful periods in the history of our race, which do not belong to its ordinary state, and which are not to be judged by ordinary rules. Such was that when Bonaparte, by the infraction of solemn engagements, had thrown himself into France and convulsed all Europe ; and they are wrong who confound this with the ordinary events of history, and see in Napoleon an ordinary foe to the peace and independence of nations. Our sympathies are not for the inconveniences and privations which he endured at St. Helena, but for the other and more terrible sufferings of which he was the cause. We have no tears to spare for a fallen greatness, founded on crime and reared by force and perfidy." Louis XVIII. once more returned to his capital on the 8th of July ; and on the 20th of November a second treaty of Paris was concluded, nearly on the basis of that contracted a year before, but with some resumptions of territory by the allies on the boundaries of the Nether- lands, Germany, and Savoy. The French frontiers were to be occupied during three years by an allied force of 150,000 men, and 700 millions of francs were to be paid as an indemnification for the last contest. The monuments of art, which successive armies had torn from all parts of Europe, w T ere now restored ; and the bridge of Jena in Paris, when already undermined by the enraged Prussians, was only saved from destruction by the interference of Wellington. Louis XVIII., in reas- cending the throne, conferred upon his subjects the most valuable of gifts, — a free constitution. As embodied in the Charter, it had much in common with its English original — a king with plenary executive power, and who was the source of legislation ; responsible ministers ; a chamber of peers; and a house of representatives or deputies. SPAIN. The government of Spain continued till the close of 1807 to be administered by the contemptible favourite Godoy, whose folly and ambition made him a passive instrument in the hands of Napoleon. The resources of the country were placed almost entirely at the disposal of the latter, internal improvement was neglected, and the disastrous NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 505 contest with England which this line of policy induced, annihilated the foreign and colonial trade, and exposed the navy to signal reverses, — the severe blow at Trafalgar, in 1805, being one from which her marine has never recovered. In 1807, a secret treaty for the partition of Por- tugal was concluded between France and Spain at Fontainebleau, by which, among other stipulations, the provinces of Alentejo and Algarve were to be erected into a principality for the favourite, in return for aid to the French invasion of that country. But no sooner had the army under Junot established itself in Lisbon, than the emperor refused to ratify the conditions of the treaty, and immediately began to foment the dissensions already existing in the royal family. Ferdinand, prince of Asturias, had refused to marry a relative of Godoy's, and addressed a letter to his father, King Charles, exposing the abuses of the govern- ment, and requesting to be allowed to share in it. The favourite im- mediately took advantage of this circumstance to persuade the king that his son had formed a conspiracy against his life ; and on the 29th Octo- ber, the latter was apprehended on this charge, and kept a close prisoner. But the nation at large were not so easily deceived, and the junta con- vened for his trial unanimously acquitted him. Meanwhile, the French had been allowed to place garrisons in several of the principal fortresses of the kingdom, and a strong division entered Madrid under Murat, without experiencing any opposition from the king or the minister. But the people of that city, driven to desperation, flocked to Aranjuez, where the court then resided, and burned the palace of the obnoxious func- tionary ; while the king himself, terrified at the position in which he had allowed the country to be placed, publicly abdicated in favour of Ferdinand, March 20, 1808. This latter arrangement, however, by no means suited the views of the French emperor. The country being now virtually in his hands, he prevailed on the new sovereign to meet him at Bayonne, 15th April; where he immediately threw off all disguise, treated the young king as a prisoner, and insisted upon a formal cession of the Spanish crown. Charles IV., his queen, and Godoy, shortly after arrived ; and Charles, who declared that his abdication had been extorted by popular violence, was easily induced to make the required surrender (May 5), an act to which Ferdinand was after a brief space compelled to accede. In the following June, Napoleon nominated his brother Joseph sovereign of Spain, at a time when the spirit of the nation, exasperated by the inso- lence of the French troops, had become thoroughly roused. An insur- rection in the capital, on the 2d of May, was the signal for a general rising all over the country ; Ferdinand VII. was proclaimed king ; juntas were everywhere established to act against the invaders ; and though the usurper Joseph was able, by the aid of French soldiers, to enter Madrid on the 20th July, his power never extended beyond the outposts of the armies by which he was maintained in his position. The people, though nearly undisciplined and rudely armed, performed prodigies of valour : a French squadron was compelled to surrender in the harbour of Cadiz ; Dupont was forced to capitulate with 14,000 men at Baylen ; and the citizens of Saragossa, after sustaining a siege of sixty-three days, drove the troops of the new king from the walls, while in a second siege, in 1809, the city was only reduced after immense bloodshed. 43 506 MODERN HISTORY. Aided by Britain, the people continued to maintain the contest till 1813, when the triumph of Wellington at Vittoria finally freed the Pe- ninsula from its invaders. In that year Ferdinand VII. was set at liberty by Napoleon, and immediately returned to his dominions, where he was received with enthusiastic demonstrations of joy. The expecta- tions which had previously been formed of his character, however, were soon disappointed. A meeting - of the cortes, convoked at Cadiz by the central junta at the close of 1810, had formed a liberal constitution for the country, abolished the inquisition, and decreed various ecclesiastical reforms. The restored monarch refused to take the oath to observe this new constitution, dissolved the cortes, which he declared to have been illegally assembled, and resumed the powers of absolute government. The inquisition was of course re-established, and the liberty of the press abolished ; and the nation became once more subjected to the same vicious system of administration from which it had already suffered such manifold evils. PORTUGAL. The pacification of Amiens, 1802, allowed Portugal to resume her commercial intercourse with England ; but on the breaking out of hos- tilities in the following year, Bonaparte required, through his ambassa- dor, that the ports should again be closed. After various attempts to elude this ruinous demand, the prince-regent was compelled to purchase exemption from it by the payment of £ 10,000 sterling monthly to France during the continuance of the contest. The neutrality thus disgracefully obtained was permitted to exist until 1807 ; when Bonaparte, determined that all Europe should acquiesce in his continental system, not only insisted on the cessation of the trade with Britain, but on the confisca- tion of all English property in the country. To this demand Prince John could not be brought to consent ; and Napoleon, declaring the dynasty of Braganza at an end, sent Junot with an army to invade the country. A British fleet in the Tagus was provided to convey the royal family to Brazil ; and as no measures whatever had been taken for the national defence, the French general obtained possession of Portugal without difficulty, treating it in all respects as a conquered province. This state of affairs greatly exasperated the people. In the northern provinces, numerous bodies took up arms in defence of national inde- pendence; a junta was established at Oporto to conduct the government; and on the 21st August 1808, the British auxiliary army under Sir Ar- thur Wellesley defeated the troops of Junot, and prepared the way for the celebrated convention of Cintra, and the evacuation of the country by the invaders. The Portuguese were afterwards greatly distinguished throughout the whole of the Peninsular war. In 1810, on the death of Maria Isabella, the regent was called to the throne as John VI.; but he still continued to reside in Brazil. The peace of Paris, in 1814, gave little satisfaction to the Portuguese, who were obliged to restore some portion of French Guiana, which they had conquered during the war, while seVeral harassing disputes with Spain also arose. The king, after an absence of nearly fourteen years, returned to his native country in 1821, having previously to his landing confirmed a constitution demanded by the people. NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 507 ITALY. Naples. — The kingdom of Naples did not escape the contagion of the French revolution. After an ineffectual endeavour to oppose the pro- gress of the invading armies, the king was compelled to make peace with Napoleon in 1796, and close his ports against the enemies of France. A popular insurrection, 1799, ended in the temporary establish- ment of the Partkenopean Republic ; but it was soon after replaced by the old government. Ferdinand IV. joined in the coalition of 1800 against France ; but his aid was of little value, and his continental terri- tories were speedily occupied by hostile armies. In 1805, when these were withdrawn to operate against Austria, a combined Russian and British force landed at Naples, but speedily retired ; a circumstance which Napoleon made the pretext for sending a new army into the coun- try, and conferring the crown on his brother Joseph, March 1800. It was in Calabria that the revived system of attacking in column, so ad- mirably suited for raw levies, and which had hitherto led to victory, was found unavailing against a line of British soldiers, Sir J. Stuart with a small force defeating Regnier at Maida, 4th July. On the transference of Joseph Bonaparte to Spain, Murat became king of Naples, 1808, all whose attempts to reduce Sicily were frustrated by General Stuart and Admiral Martin. In 1812, Lord W. Bentinck was instrumental in form- ing a new and liberal constitution for that island. Murat, who had ne- gotiated both with the allied sovereigns and the French emperor during the hundred days, ultimately sided with the latter, and invaded the Papal territories, threatening also Northern Italy. The rout at Waterloo de- cided his fate : exiled from his throne, he perished in a rash descent on Calabria, 1815; Ferdinand IV. having shortly before been reinstated in his dominions. Upper Italy. — During the contests of the Republic and the Empire, this portion of the peninsula became the theatre of great events, which, together with the changes undergone by its various states, have already been incidentally noticed under France. The congress of Vienna, 1815, again re-established the preponderance of Austria, and erected northern Italy into the following six governments: — 1. The kingdom of Sardinia, under Victor Emmanuel, who regained the whole of his continental territories except Savoy, together with the duchy of Genoa ; 2. The Venetian provinces, with Mantua and Milan, were erected into the kingdom of Lombardy and Venice, and given to Austria ; 3. The house of Austro-Este was replaced in the sovereignty of Modena ; 4. The sovereign duchy of Parma became a principality for the ex-empress, Maria Louisa; 5. The Archduke Ferdinand of Austria was reinstated as grandduke of Tuscany ; and, 6. Lucca became a sovereign state for the ex-queen of Etruria. Sardinia was afterwards increased by the addition of Savoy, taken from France at the second peace of Paris. Switzerland. — This country underwent the same vicissitudes as its neighbours, Italy and France. At last, after several petty revolutions, general tranquillity was restored, and a new federal compact formed at Zurich, 1815. The cantons were increased from nineteen to twenty-two by the addition of Geneva, Neuchatel, and Vallais, all recovered from. France. 508 MODERN HISTOliY. GERMANY. Francis II. succeeded to the dominions of Austria and the imperial title at the period of the first war of the revolution, 1792, in which he struggled long, and at last successfully, against a most formidable enemy. By the battle of Marengo, 1800, and of Austerlitz, 1805, Ger- many was twice laid prostrate at the feet of Napoleon. The main result of the latter defeat was the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine, under the protectorate of the French ruler; and as this event put an end to the old German or Roman empire, after a duration of a thousand years, Francis assumed the title of Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary and Bohemia. He now availed himself of an interval of peace to repair the ravages which war had made in his dominions, and felt bound to maintain neutrality in Bonaparte's contest with Prussia, while he made every exertion to augment his own financial and military resources. The French monarch, on his part, effected various changes in the constitution of the confederacy, conferring new titles on several of the princes, while his own general, Murat, was created Grandduke of Berg; and in order to complete the humiliation of the country, various counts and princes were mediatized, that is, deprived of all immediate government in their respective states, and their sovereign rights given over to contiguous princes. The embarrassments of the French in Spain in 1809, again induced the Austrian government to make an effort for the independence of Ger- many. The war which then took place differed in character from for- mer contests, inasmuch as the people generally took part against the French, who were annoyed on all sides by vigorous and enterprising corps of partisans under various leaders. The Archduke Charles de- feated Bonaparte in person at Aspern ; and though fortune again changed sides at Wagram, the Austrians retired in good order to Bohemia, where an armistice was concluded, followed by the peace of Schonbrunn. Shortly after, Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor, was married to the Emperor of France. By the treaty of Presburg, 1805, the mountainous district of the Tyrol had been ceded to Bavaria; but early in 1809, the inhabitants com- menced an insurrection under a native chief named Hofer, aided by the Austrians. A murderous conflict was sustained against the Bavarians and French with varying success, until the end of November, its ulti mate issue depending on the greater contest decided in the two dreadful days of Wagram. The cruel execution of Hofer and others of his heroic associates, after an amnesty had been proclaimed, added another stain to the. reputation of Napoleon. After the battle of Waterloo, the restoration of the Austrian monarchy was effected at the congress of Vienna by means of the dissolved king- dom of Italy, of the reconquered Illyrian provinces, and by the recovery of the cessions formerly made to Bavaria. The battle of Lnipsic and the subsequent disasters of the French in 1813 dissolved the Confederation of the Rhine; and the congress of Vienna, after indemnifying Prussia and other powers at the expense of those princes who had most eagerly supported the invader, by an act dated 9th June 1815, formed the German states, including portions of the dominions of Austria, Prussia, and- the Netherlands, with the free NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 509 cities, into a new federal relation called the Germanic. League. This union, which was left without any acknowledged head, has in view the preser- vation of the security of Germany, and the independence of the respec- tive states ; the members of the confederation have equal rights, and meet in diet at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. HOLLAND. From 1795 this country continued in a state of hopeless dependency on France, losing her commerce and colonies in constrained hostilities with Britain. In 1806, the Batavian Republic was converted jnto the kingdom of Holland, and Louis Bonaparte placed upon the throne. This prince was of an amiable character, and really exerted twe little power reposed in him for the benefit of his subjects. In particular, he readily connived at the evasion of the decrees of his imperious brother, prohibiting intercourse with England ; but this policy, so consonant with the true interests of his people, soon exposed him to such a series of reproaches as to render his position insupportable. In 1810, he abdi- cated in favour of his eldest son ; but this change not meeting with the approbation of the head of the family, Holland was without ceremony incorporated with France. At length the people, whose dreams of liberty had been fearfully dispelled by the painful realities of despotism, in the shape of the conscription and the most grinding exactions, rose against the oppressor ; the popular cry, " Up with the house of Orange !" once more resounded over the land ; and a provisional government being formed at Amsterdam, William Frederick of Nassau arrived from England, and was proclaimed sovereign of the United Netherlands in December 1813. In October 1814, a treaty of peace was concluded with Great Britain, by which that country was allowed to retain the Cape of Good Hope, Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice, but restored Batavia, the Moluccas, Surinam, and all other places taken from Holland during the war. The congress of Vienna,- by an act dated 31st May 1815, reunited the ten provinces of the Low Countries, formerly subject to the Dukes of Bur- gundy (now the kingdom of Belgium), under the authority of William Frederick, who thereupon assumed the title of King of the United Netherlands. The government was declared a limited hereditary monarchy, with a representative legislature. DENMARK. During the French wars, Denmark twice suffered from the arms of Britain: her fleet engaged in the defence of Copenhagen was sunk, burnt, or captured by Nelson, 1801 ; and after the bombardment of the capital by an armament under Admiral Gambier and Lord Cathcart, all her ships of war were surrendered, 1807. On the fall of Napoleon, she was compelled to cede Norway to Sweden, in exchange for Swedish Pornerania and the Isle of Rugen; but by the treaty of Vienna, June 1815, these districts were transferred to Prussia, the Danish king receiving the duchy of Lauenburg as a trifling compensation. 43* 510 MODEKN HISTORY. SWEDEN. Gustavus IV. attained his majority in 1796 ; but his conduct showing that he laboured under mental derangement, he was deposed in 1809, and his uncle, Charles XIII., proclaimed king. The aristocracy took this opportunity to effect several modifications in the constitution, tend- ing to diminish the power of the crown; the general outline remaining as settled in 1772. Charles now concluded the war which had broken out with Russia and Denmark in the preceding year, ceding to the former power the whole of Finland, with East Bothnia and Aaland ; an arrange- ment which stripped the country of one-fourth of its territory and one- third of its inhabitants. After this heavy blow, he joined the continental system of Napoleon, 1810, receiving back, as a reward for his adherence, the district of Pornerania, which had been wrested by the French from his predecessor. In the same year, on the sudden death of Prince Christian, who had been nominated to succeed Charles, the diet elected Bernadotte, prince of Ponte-Corvo, one of the ablest of Bona- parte's marshals, as successor to the throne, under the title of Charles John. The crown-prince saw too clearly the real interests of his country to allow it to remain long in the state of subserviency to France to which it had been brought; and he was easily induced to abandon the conti- nental system on the first favourable opportunity. In 1812, the Swedish ports were again thrown open to all nations; and early in 1813, he formed an alliance with England, and soon after openly entered the field against his former commander. In return for the important aid thus afforded to the allies, he was gratified by obtaining the valuable territory of Norway at the peace of Kiel with Denmark in 1814, the natives being permitted to retain their own constitution. The people, who were much attached to their Danish rulers, made some opposition to this arrange- ment, and set up Prince Christian Frederick of Denmark as their king; but they were speedily compelled to yield. Bernadotte attained the crown of the united kingdoms, as Charles XIV., in 1818. PRUSSIA. Frederick III. succeeded his father in 1797, prudently announcing his design to maintain the peace with France. He applied his attention to the re-establishment of the finances, by introducing a wise economy into all parts of the administration, hoping thereby in a few years to pay the debts left by his father, and even part of those of Poland, with which he had been charged by the last partition. After a long neutrality, the country was rashly hurried into a war with Napoleon, when the double defeat at Jena and Auerstadt, 1806, placed it at the mercy of an unspar ing conqueror. By the peace of Tilsit, 1807, Prussia lost half her terri tories : Westphalia was given to Jerome Bonaparte; Warsaw, erected into a grand-duchy, was placed under the protection of the king of Saxony; Dantzic was declared a free town; and the other remaining ports were closed against the commerce of England. This last stipula- tion was but the prelude to the most oppressive pecuniary exactions, md every species of insult and degradation. In no one of the subjugated European states was the insolence of the French domination carried NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 511 to a greater height, and in none did it produce so bitter a feeling of exas- peration. Accordingly, in the beginning of 1813, the whole population rose en masse at the call of their sovereign, resolving, in the emphatic terms used at the time, that this new contest should end either " in an honourable peace or a glorious destruction." The newly armed levies, or landsturm, as they were called, filled with patriotic enthusiasm, de- feated at the point of the bayonet 30,000 French under Eugene Beau- harnois, at Mockern. The battles of Lutzen and Bautzen led to an armistice on the 4th of June, during which a foul attempt was made by Arrighi, a countryman of Napoleon's, to cut off Lutzow's free corps near Leipsic, where Korner, the patriotic poet, was severely wounded. On the resumption of hostilities, August 17, the Prussian arms attained a series of brilliant successes. The renowned Blucher, whom his soldiers afterwards styled Marshal Forwards, defeated Macdonald on the Katz- bach, and drove him from Silesia; Vandamme was taken prisoner, and his army annihilated near Culm; and Ney, to whom the crown of Prus- sia had been promised, was totally defeated at Dennevitz, September 6, and pursued to the Elbe. These triumphs, together with the storming of General Bertrand's fortified camp by Blucher, October 3, enabled the allies to unite before Leipsic, and to contend for three days against the emperor in person (16th, 18th, and 19th October), who never recovered from the terrible blow here inflicted on him. France was now in her turn condemned to be trodden down by invading armies, and the war was prosecuted with varying but hardly doubtful success. Napoleon's forces were indeed increased, and from acting on an internal line, were easily concentrated in overwhelming numbers on any point. The valour of Blucher, however, at the battle of Laon, 9th March 1814, decided the campaign, and Paris was soon after entered by the allies. Much of this success must be attributed to the patriotic exertions of Baron Stein, prime-minister in 1808, and to a secret patriotic association formed at that time, called the Tugendbund (or bond of virtue), which led to the formation of voluntary corps, as well as to the promise of political insti- tutions in accordance with the spirit of the age. By the congress of Vienna, 1814, Prussia recovered what it had resigned at Tilsit, and in exchange for sacrifices in Poland, received half of Saxony, and a considerable accession of provinces on the left bank of the Rhine. RUSSIA. The odious tyranny of the Emperor Paul, which seemed to verge on insanity, became at length insupportable to his subjects ; and in March 1801, he met the fate of many other despotic princes, being murdered in his palace by a band of conspirators. Alexander I., his son and suc- cessor, began his reign by various judicious and patriotic measures ; while, by agreeing to an amicable convention, he put a stop to the im- pending hostilities with England, consequent on his predecessor's scheme of armed neutrality. The peace of Amiens, 1802, was the almost imme- diate consequence; but the young monarch refused to acknowledge the title of the French emperor, and, joining the Austrian coalition against him, was present in person at the great defeat, of Austerlitz. In 1806, he endeavoured to continue the war in alliance with Prussia; but the rapid overthrow of that power, and the severe Josses of his own troops 512 MODERN HISTORY. at Eylau and Friedland, led to an armistice in June 1807, during which the two emperors met personally on a raft placed in the middle of the Niemen. The result of this interview was an apparently warm friend- ship between Alexander and Napoleon, and the celebrated treaty of Tilsit, July 7, by which the former joined the continental system, and soon after declared war against England and Sweden, the latter of which countries was forced to cede, in 1809, all Finland, East Bothnia, and Aaland. Three years previously to this period, an alliance between Turkey and France had been used as a pretext for declaring war with the former state ; but the hostilities were languidly conducted till 1809, when they were resumed with fresh vigour. The Russians easily passed the forti- fied line of the Danube ; but the Turks, being strongly encamped at Shumla in Bulgaria, were assailed without success, and the grand-vizier routed one-half of the invaders, 1810. These last were then driven bad across the Danube, when the vizier, having imprudently crossed in pursuit, was surprised and defeated by Kutusoff, he himself escaping with difficulty. Peace was soon after concluded at Bucharest, through the mediation of England, when Turkey relinquished all claims on the left bank of the Pruth, 1812. Meanwhile, the effects of the continental system had become con- spicuous in the ruin of the national commerce, and excited a universal feeling of discontent throughout Russia. At the end of 1811, a dispute arose with the court of Paris in consequence of the seizure of the terri- tories of the Duke of Oldenburg by Napoleon ; and it speedily became evident that a rupture was impending. Accordingly, on the 19th March 1812, having previously formed an alliance with Sweden, Alexander declared war against the French emperor, who on his part announced his intention to drive back the Russian monarchy to Asia. The tremen- dous contest that followed, so important for the independence of Europe, has already been detailed under France. The steady valour and heroic sacrifices of the Russian people saved their country and preserved the liberties of mankind; and an unprincipled and insatiable ambition received its most awful lesson amid the horrors which attended the retreat from Moscow. After this period they experienced an almost un- interrupted triumph, till, on the 31st March 1814, their victorious troops, in conjunction with those of the other allies, took possession of the French capital. Their sovereign obtained a considerable share of the fruits of these signal successes. By the congress of Vienna, in 1815, the city of Warsaw, with a large adjacent territory, was erected into the kingdom of Poland, and annexed to his empire ; several provinces bordering on Persia had previously (1813) been ceded to him by the peace of Goolistan ; whilst the important acquisition of Finland, obtained from Sweden in 1809, proved a source of great benefit and security to his northern dominions. The remainder of his reign was passed in various useful measures of internal improvement. TURKEY. The unprovoked invasion of Egypt by the French, and then subse- quent successes, compelled Sultan Selim to form a defensive alliance with Russia and England in 1798, and the great exertions of the latter NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 513 power at length restored that important province to the dominions of the Porte. Meanwhile, the introduction of modern tactics into the army, and the favour shown to the new corps disciplined after this manner, which were known by the designation of the Nizam Djedit, had excited the deadly hostility of the janissaries, who foresaw in the advancement of this body a presage of their own downfal. In the midst of these dis- contents, the intrigues of France so far prevailed in the Ottoman councils as to precipitate a war with their late allies, England and Russia, 1806. The latter power immediately occupied the provinces of Moldavia and Wallachia ; while an English fleet, under Admiral Duckworth, passed the Dardanelles and approached the capital, but was speedily compelled to retreat. A strong force being now sent under the vizier to the Rus- sian frontiers, the janissaries seized the opportunity to give vent to their long-cherished resentment, and with loud cries demanded the deposition of the sultan. Mustapha IV., his nephew, was accordingly raised to the throne, the whole authority, at the same time, passing into the hands of the leaders of the insurrection, who conducted themselves with the utmost insolence. This state of things, however, was speedily put an end to by Bairactar, pasha of Rustchuk, who hastened to the capital at the head of 40,000 Albanians ; and though too late to prevent the assas- sination of his former master Selim, whom he desired to reinstate, he pulled the usurper from the throne, to which he immediately elevated Mahmoud II. By way of avenging the death of the late sultan, the usual barbarous executions, or rather massacres, now took place ; but the janissaries still retained so much influence as to procure, some time after, the death of Bairactar himself. In 1812, the war with Russia was brought to a close by the peace of Bucharest; and the sultan, now at liberty to devote himself to the internal affairs of his empire, began to display those qualities of energy, courage, and political talent, which marked him as one of the ablest potentates of his time. He resolutely prepared to reduce his rebellious viceroys in the provinces, abolished the hereditary pashaliks, and at length entirely suppressed the insolent janissaries, who had so long held the capital in thraldom. The reduc- tion of the Wahabees in Arabia was intrusted to Mehemet Ali, viceroy of Egypt, who had some time before made himself absolute master of that important province by a barbarous massacre of the Mamelukes; and, after two years of dangerous warfare, his son Ibrahim entirely sub- dued the enthusiastic sectarians, and took their chief prisoner. In 1820, a struggle arose in the Morea, which, after ten years of warfare, terminated in the independence of Greece, — in the first instance as a republic under the presidency of Count Capodistria, and eventually, in 1833, as a limited monarchy under Prince Otho of Bavaria. BRITISH INDIA. The progress of the British power in Hindostan during the preceding century, so marvellous in every point of view, is particularly striking from the fact that it took place against the direct wishes of the govern- ment at home ; and that almost every successive war and negotiation terminated, as it seemed inevitably, in that very extension of territory which had been so anxiously deprecated. Hardly, therefore, had the conquest of Mysore freed the Company from a powerful enemy, and 514 MODERN HISTORY. promised an opportunity of peacefully pursuing those commercial objects which were always deemed paramount in importance, ere another career of conquest was opened up. This event arose from the jealousy of their late allies, the Mahrattas, now the most formidable native power in Hindostan, both on account of the personal qualities of the chiefs who ruled the confederacy, and from having French officers employed in their armies. Scindia, one of these princes, had pushed his conquests so successfully in the north, as to obtain possession of the provinces of Delhi and Agra; and eventually, by the reduction of the city of the former name in 1788, the person of the Mogul himself fell into his hands, the conquered territories being placed under the government of General Perron, a French officer in his service. The powerful chief, having taken offence at a treaty formed by the British with the Peishwa of Poonah, declared war against them in 1803, in which he was joined by the Rajah of Berar. General Lake immediately took the field in the north, where he was opposed by Perron; but having soon after captured the important fort of Allighur, he succeeded in inducing that officer to quit the service of Scindia, rapidly overran the northern provinces, and took possession of Delhi and of the person of the Mogul. In the south, where the operations were conducted by Major-general Wellesley (after- wards Duke of Wellington), the success was if possible still more decisive. At the great battle of Assaye, fought on the 23d September, with a force of 5000 men, he totally defeated 60,000 under Scindia and the rajah in person, gaining one of the most complete victories recorded even in the annals of Indian warfare. A peace was the immediate con- sequence, by which the victors obtained extensive territories in central Hindostan, including Delhi and Agra, with the custody of the Mogul emperor, who henceforth subsisted on a British pension till his death in 1807. This treaty was scarcely concluded, ere a new contest broke out with Holkar, another powerful Mahratta sovereign, 1804. He made a rapid incursion into the Doab, and attempted to seize Delhi by stratagem, but was gallantly repulsed; his infantry were defeated by Major-general Fraser at Dieg, while Lord Lake, having pursued the cavalry to Fur- ruckabad, took them by surprise, and routed them with great slaughter. His territories were now speedily occupied by the British troops; but in 1805, in consequence of a change of policy on the part of the victors and the removal of Lord Wellesley from the post of governor-general nearly the whole were restored to him. The pacific policy of Sir George Barlow and Lord Minto, the lattei of whom devoted himself chiefly to the conquest of the French posses- sions in the eastern seas, began to produce its invariable effects upon the native chiefs, who increased in insolence in exact proportion to the bupineness of the British. Accordingly, the Marquis of Hastings, who arrived as governor-general in 1813, felt the necessity for a display of vigour in order to repress their encroachments. His first operations were directed against the Gorkhas, a warlike people who had established themselves in the alpine regions of the Himmalehs, whence they were continually making encroachments on the Company's frontier; and in two active campaigns their territory was entirely subdued, and a large mountain-tract permanently retained, 1816. The depredations of the Pindarees, an association of freebooters, who were secretly aided by the NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 515 Mahratta chiefs, were next punished by several successive defeats, and the utter dispersion of their hordes. The Peishwa of Poonah, Holkar, and the Rajah of Nagpore, having taken part in this contest, were all finally subdued, and their territories occupied ; so that in 1818, the power of the British was extended over the entire peninsula, leaving only some small states, too weak even if hostile to make any formidable resistance. Hindostan, or India within the Ganges, contains 1,280,000 square miles, with a population of 134 millions ; the immediate territories of the Company amounting to 512,900 square miles, with about eighty-five millions of inhabi- tants. This numerous people, besides various national distinctions, is divided into two great religious classes, Mohammedans and Hindoos, in the proportion of one to seven. The supreme deity of the Hindoos is the ineffable Brahm, who is worshipped in the triple form of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva ; the two last being believed to have undergone a number of avatars or incarnations, and each successive avatar furnishing a new object of religious homage. Boodh or Buddha is the ninth avatar, but he is worshipped in a different manner from Brahma. Besides these deities, every object in nature has its presiding divinity, and nothing is believed to take place without the intervention of some superior power. The direct objects of Buddhist worship are a sort of heroes or demi- gods — men of saintly life, who have been translated to a state of supreme bliss. The people are divided into four castes or tribes : the Brahmins, teachers and ministers of religion ; Khetries, magistrates or warriors ; Bice, merchants and husbandmen ; and Soodras, artisans and servants of every class. There is also a race of Pariahs, outcasts from their original rank, and who are in the lowest state of degradation. The government of British Hindostan is very peculiar, being under the direc- tion of the East India Company and the ministers in England. Twenty-four directors manage all the Indian correspondence and confer all the patronage ; the former being, however, subject to the Board of Control, nominated by the sovereign, and the latter requiring the royal approbation of the selected govern- ors and commanders-in-chief. Each of the three presidencies has a governor and council, the governor-general residing in Calcutta. All the officers, civil and military, except in the lower ranks, are Europeans, who go out in early youth, and are frequently appointed to the most important charges, in propor- tion to their merit, while others of the same age at home have scarcely left the school or university. The united army amounts to upwards of 200,000 men, partly Europeans, and partly natives called sepoys, under British officers. The laws are Mohammedan, varying in each locality ; but the English system of jurisprudence is established in certain districts. The revenues are estimated at fourteen millions sterling. UNITED STATES. During the scenes of violence and bloodshed which desolated Europe at the beginning of this century, the United States, remote from the scenes of warfare, and guided by the cautious policy of their rulers, preserved a strict neutrality, and continued to advance steadily in the career of commercial and agricultural prosperity. With the exception of several unimportant civic disputes and contests between the two great national parties known as republicans and federalists, which were carried on, however, with considerable warmth, no event occurred to disturb the internal tranquillity of the republic. In 1801, Mr. Adams was succeeded in the office of president by Mr. Thomas Jefferson, cele- brated as the author of the Declaration of Independence ; and in 1803, this statesman concluded a treaty with France, by which the immense territory of Louisiana was ceded to the republic for a payment of fifteen 516 MODERN HISTORY. millions of dollars. The number of states was also increased from se- venteen to twenty-four, by the elevation of various western territories to that rank ; and by a census taken about this time, it was found that the population had increased to five and a half millions, or nearly double what it was at the period of the revolt from England, while the exports, imports, and revenue presented a still more gratifying result. In 1803, a naval expedition was fitted out against the piratical state of Tripoli, \vhich had greatly annoyed the American commerce in the Mediterra- nean ; and after several vigorous operations, the bashaw was compelled to sign a favourable peace. Unfortunately for both nations, causes of difference with Great Britain now began to arise. That country claimed a right of searching the vessels of neutral powers, with the view of ascertaining whether they were not employed in carrying military stores for the assistance of her enemies; and she also subjected American ships to a rigorous scrutiny, in order to recover British seamen liable to impressment. These claims, and the abuses to which they almost inevitably gave rise, were very unwillingly acquiesced in by the republicans ; and their feelings of ex- asperation were excited to the highest pitch, when the decrees of Napo- leon and the British orders in council virtually put an end to their commerce both with England and the continent of Europe. At length, in 1809, Mr. Madison being president, an act was passed by the federal government, prohibiting all intercourse as well with France as with Britain for one year, or until either country should recall her edicts. This measure produced the desired effect with France before the close of 1810, but England still adhered to her orders in council ; and finally, after various unsatisfactory negotiations, and some hostile encounters between ships of the two countries, war was declared against Great Britain in June 1812. Brigadier Hull was immediately despatched with an army to invade Canada ; but he was repulsed, pursued, and compelled to surrender his whole force to Major-general Brock at Fort Detroit. A second expedition for the same purpose met with no better fortune ; but at sea the Americans were generally triumphant. In consequence of the superiority of their frigates in number of men and weight of metal, they succeeded, when singly opposed to British vessels of the same class, in effecting several captures ; while their opponents could only boast one instance of naval victory, which was gained after a sanguinary encounter between the ships Shannon and Chesapeake. The following year was chiefly spent in conflicts on the Lakes and their vicinity, the preponder- ance of success being there also in favour of the republicans ; but in 1814, a detachment of British troops was sent to America under Major- general Ross, who, co-operating w T ith Admiral Cockburn, took the city of Washington and destroyed its public buildings. At the close of the season, however, another army of nearly 14,000 men, under Sir Edward Packenham, which made an attack on the city of New Orleans, was re- pulsed with great loss by an inferior force under General Jackson. A few days previous to this event, a treaty had been concluded at Ghent between the two powers, December 21, which, though it left the matters in dispute undecided, was highly desirable for both parties. In 1817, Mr. Madison was succeeded as president by Mr. James Monroe, who shortly after obtained the cession of East and West Florida from the Spanish government; which important districts were formally NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 517 taken possession of in 1821. The territories of the states now extended from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific; their progress in wealth and population continued to be very great, while their commerce spread over every sea. BRAZIL. When the French invaded Portugal in 1807, the royal family of Bra- ganza removed, under British protection, to their transatlantic capital, Rio Janeiro, where they remained until 1821, at which period John the Sixth was recalled to Europe by the cortes. During his residence in Brazil, that prince raised the colony to the rank of a kingdom ; while the ports were thrown open to all nations, and other efforts made to im- prove the condition of the country. It soon became evident that a terri- tory larger in extent than Russia in Europe, and far more richly endowed by nature, could not long remain in dependence on so feeble a power as Portugal, after the departure of the sovereign. John had left behind him his eldest son, Don Pedro, to administer affairs in the quality of regent, having shortly before his retirement agreed to a constitution similar to that established in the mother country. But the cortes having signified an intention to recur to the old system of monopolizing the Brazilian trade, the colonists took the alarm ; and on the 12th October 1822, they adopted the decisive step of a declaration of independence, while the prince-regent, who had the sagacity to yield to the course of events, was elevated to the dignity of emperor. He succeeded without difficulty in compelling the Portuguese troops to embark for Europe; and this important revolution was accomplished with no other blood- shed than a slight skirmish at the town of Bahia. By a constitution finally agreed to in 1824, Brazil was declared an hereditary monarchy, with two legislative bodies, a senate and chamber of deputies, the one appointed by the emperor, the other chosen by the people. The Roman Catholic faith was established as the religion of the state ; but all other Christian sects are tolerated. SPANISH COLONIES. From the period of their first settlement till the end of the eighteenth century, the colonists of Spain remained in a state of quiet submission to the government of Madrid, which was carried to a pitch of despotism almost beyond belief. From the viceroys to the lowest clerks, every official situation was filled with persons sent from Europe, by whom justice was unblushingly bought and sold, while, in other respects, the utmost venalty everywhere prevailed. Commerce of all kinds was made a complete monopoly for the benefit of the home country, which compelled the colonists to take its commodities in exchange for bullion ; and, in order to put an effectual stop to all improvement, intercourse of every kind with other nations was strictly prohibited. After the sup- pression of the Jesuits, the ranks of the priesthood were recruited by monks of the lowest description from the Spanish monasteries, who, by maintaining superstition and ignorance, formed the strongest props of the degrading policy adopted by the ruling faction. As a matter of course, printing and liberty of discussion were altogether unknown. 44 518 MODERN HISTORY. But notwithstanding all this machinery of tyranny, the new principles evolved by the American and French revolutions began to gain ground even in those darkened regions; and, so early as 1806, Miranda, a Mexican officer who had served under Dumouriez, attempted with a small force to create an insurrection in Caraccas. This effort, which seems to have been premature and ill-considered, failed ; but the dispo- sition to shake off the tyranny of Spain continued to increase in strength, till at length, in 1810, the liberals deposed the captain-general and assembled a congress to organize an independent government for the state of Venezuela. This conduct was soon after imitated at Bogota, the capital of New Grenada. In the contests which now took place with the European troops, the most frightful atrocities were committed on both sides ; but the eminent abilities of Simon Bolivar, who com- manded the liberating armies, eventually achieved the task of inde- pendence. Buenos Ayres threw off the Spanish yoke in 1816; and in 1818 its example was followed by the patriots of Chili. Mexico, Peru, and Guatemala were not declared independent till 1821. At length, in December 18*24, the united forces of the patriots, under Generals Sucre and Miller, totally routed the Spaniards in the great battle of Ayacucho, and placed the freedom of the colonies beyond further opposition from that quarter. It is much to be regretted that tranquillity is even yet far from being established in these new republics. Throughout the contest, the diffi- culties of the leading chiefs were greatly increased by disunion and want of confidence, the great Bolivar himself being frequently exposed to the most injurious suspicions ; and since that time, they have shown themselves signally deficient in that political talent and moral worth which are so necessary to secure the prosperity of states under every form of government. LITERATURE, ARTS, AND SCIENCES. Britain. — The most striking feature in the literature of England during the early years of the nineteenth century, is the splendid array of poetical genius which it displays. The severe but truthful delineations of Crabbe, 1832 ; the glowing fancy of Shelley, 1822 ; the gorgeous chivalric legends of Scott, 1832 ; the lofty but misanthropic muse of Byron, 1824 ; together with the contribu- tions of other great writers, some of whom are still living, as Moore, Camp- bell, Southey, and Wordsworth, present a combination unparalleled in any former age. An entirely new character was imparted to the romance and the novel by the genius of Scott, who produced a succession of works in this department, wonderful alike for their masterly sketches of character and for the extraordinary facility with which they were composed. Senatorial oratory may also be mentioned here as a new department of English literature ; and in the preserved speeches of Burke, Fox, Pitt, Sheridan, Erskine, Grattan, and others, may be seen the revival in modern times of the glories of classic elo- quence. Stewart, 1828, and Brown, 1820, though perhaps contributing little to the researches of former writers, threw over the department of metaphysics the refinements of literary taste and elegant composition ; Ricardo, 1823, and Malthus, 1834, have contributed valuable assistance to the science of political economy; Playfair, 1819, and Leslie, 1832, were distinguished in the study of mathematics and natural philosophy. To no other philosopher does the science of chemistry owe such deep and manifold obligations as to Sir Humphry Davy 1829 : Wollaston, 1828, was also celebrated in the same pursuit. Natural his- tory, which was extensively prosecuted at this period, presents the distinguish.ee name of Sir Joseph Banks, 1820 ; medicine was cultivated by Gregory, 1821 NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. 519 and by many eminent coadjutors, among whom the highest place must be assigned to Jenner, 1823, whose great discovery of vaccination has conferred the highest practical benefits upon mankind. The interesting astronomical dis- coveries of Herschel, 1822, belong also to this period. The most liberal pa- tronage was given by all classes to the cultivators of the fine arts, who increased beyond enumeration ; among the most eminent may be mentioned the well- known names of Lawrence, 1830, Wilkie, 1841, and the eminent sculptor, Chantrey, 1841. France. — The stormy period of the Revolution undoubtedly tended even- tually to give a powerful impulse to the literature of France, which, since the Restoration, has produced a vast number of eminent authors; but, during the period here more particularly embraced, its effect was unfavourable, littie else besides journals and political pamphlets being in demand. Among the literary characters who lived within the limits of this era, may be mentioned Deirile, 1813, whose poetry, however, belongs to the old monarchy; and St. Pierre, 1814, author of the well-known Studies of Nature, and several elegant and beautiful tales. In the latter department may also be mentioned the names of Madame Cottin, 1807, and Madame de Genlis, 1830. Another female writer who has exercised a powerful influence on the modern literature of France, is Madame de Stael, 1817, daughter of the finance minister Necker, distinguished both in history and fiction. The travellers Volney, 1820, and Denon, 1825, deserve to be recorded, the latter especially in connexion with the splendid work on the antiquities of Egypt, compiled after the return of the French expe- dition to that country. In mathematics appears the illustrious La Place, 1827 ; Cuvier, 1832, possesses a European reputation for his researches in natural history, particularly for many splendid discoveries among the remains of those species of animals now extinct ; and Jussieu, 1836, by his natural system of botany, ranks among the most distinguished prosecutors of that science. Germany. — The extraordinary development of intellectual power manifested in Germany towards the close of the eighteenth century, continued to increase in the nineteenth ; and at this moment the literature of that country presents a spectacle of mental energy, activity, and genius, unequalled in any other quarter of the world. In metaphysical research, a study in which the Ger- mans are pre-eminently distinguished, the short period here embraced presents the illustrious names of Fichte, 1819, Schelling, and Hegel, 1831, who have conferred the highest reputation on their country. The researches of Dr. Gall, 1828, have excited great interest throughout Europe, as laying the foundations of what is believed to be a new mental science — phrenology. In dramatic literature the number of aspirants almost exceeds belief; and translations besides exist of every eminent foreign author, Shakspeare and Calderon being perhaps more extensively read and admired in Germany than even in their own countries. In other departments of poetry and imaginative writing are found the names of Korner, 1813; Chamisso, Heine, Schenkendorf, 1817, Tieck, and Uland. Richter, 1825, is celebrated as a humorous and original novelist; F. Schlegel, 1829, was successful alike in the novel, poetry, and history. In this last branch the scholars of Germany have produced many great standard works : Herder, 1803, Von Muller, 1809, were distinguished towards the end of the eighteenth century ; Heeren and Eichhorn have written eminent works both on ancient and literary history ; Niebuhr, 1831, is admired for his History of Rome. Heyne, 1812, and Wolff, may be mentioned among a host of cele- brated critics. The distinguished traveller, Humboldt, whose numerous works have been translated into various European languages, is also a native of Ger- many. In theology this country has produced an extraordinary number of able writers, who have brought to their peculiar subject an immense amount of learning and critical acumen. Olbers, the well-known discoverer of the asteroids, and Blumenbach, 1840, are conspicuous among a vast array of emi- nent scientific characters. The other European communities, though possessed of many respectable writers, offer nothing during this period to be put in competition with the litera- ture of the three great dominant languages just alluded to. The United States 520 MODERN HISTORY. are yet too young as a nation to possess a distinct position in this respect, apart from that of England, though the histories of Bancroft and Prescott, with the lighter works of Irving and Cooper, are creditable to transatlantic talent. Italy can boast of Denina, author of a history of Italian Revolutions; Foscolo, eminent in poetry and the drama ; and the great sculptor, Canova, 1822. Danish literature presents the name of Rask, a man of astonishing philological acquirements ; and Malte-Brun, 1826, well known throughout Europe for his work on geography : the celebrated sculptor, Thorvaldsen, also belongs to this country, the capital of which he has decorated with many fine specimens of his genius. CONCLUSION. SUMMARY OF CONTEMPORARY HISTORY" SINCE THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA. The important arrangements effected by the representatives of the European powers at the Congress of Vienna, as well as the sufferings and exhaustion consequent on twenty-five years of bloodshed, laid the foundations of a lasting peace ; and the era thus signalized affords a fixed and definite point, at which the record of modern history may be appropriately closed. Still, it may not be improper, by way of conclu- sion, to take a rapid glance at subsequent events, many of which spring from that awakening of the democratic principle, of which the revolt of the British North American colonies may be regarded as the first strik- ing indication, but which neither the fearful scenes of the French Revo- lution, nor the sanguinary contests of the Republic and the Empire, have been able to allay. This spirit, indeed, in whatever light it may be regarded, is now the most active political element in civilized society, and its progressive development in different states, constitutes the main fact, as well as the chief interest of contemporary history. At no former period of the world have the principles of civil and religious liberty been more widely diffused, or their blessings more generally enjoyed; and there seems good reason to hope, that, guided by the lessons of experi- ence, a career of improvement, peaceful and gradual, will effectually check those fiery ebullitions which have hitherto agitated and terrified mankind. The reign of Louis XVIII. , after his restoration to the throne of France, in 1815, presents no domestic event of importance, though tran- quillity continued from time to time to be disturbed by growing disputes between the royalist and liberal parties, to the former of whom the court showed an obvious partiality.* In 1824, Louis was succeeded by his brother, the Count d'Artois, as Charles X. ; but this monarch, who was decidedly inferior in ability to his predecessor, from the first identified himself with the legitimists, and in 1829 placed the administration of affairs in the hands of Prince Polignac, an extremely unpopular per- sonage. On the 26th July 1830, this minister, with singular infatuation, induced his majesty to issue six ordinances, by which the liberty of the press was abolished, and the constitution of the chamber of deputies * In 1823, Louis, in concert with the allied sovereigns assembled at Verona, sent an army into Spain, under his nephew the Duke of Angouleme, to aid Ferdinand in quell- ing the political discontents of that country. CONCLUSION. 521 entirely remodelled. These measures being a palpable subversion of the character which the king had sworn to maintain, were not long in producing results that might easily have been foreseen. The people of Paris immediately rose in insurrection ; and after a three days' contest in the streets, during which they were joined by several regiments of the line, the royal forces were compelled to evacuate the city. A pro- visional government having been formed, and the national guard placed under the command of the veteran La Fayette, the deputies invited the Duke of Orleans to place himself at the head of the government, by the title of Lieutenant-general of the kingdom. On the 2d of August, Charles was compelled to sign an act of abdication, and shortly after departed for England ; while, on the 9th, the chambers, after a thorough revision of the charter, bestowed the vacant throne on the duke, by the title of Louis Philippe, King of the French, declaring the succession hereditary in the direct male line. Ever since, the new sovereign has conducted the affairs of government with great firmness and ability.* The second revolution, thus suddenly effected in France, produced a powerful sensation throughout Europe. The Belgians, who had never assimilated with the Dutch, judged the period favourable for dissolving the union between the two countries. In the month of August, the populace of Brussels rose against the royal troops, who were compelled to retire to Antwerp, where they were subsequently besieged by a French army, and forced to capitulate. Meantime, Bel-gium was declared an independent kingdom, and so recognised by all the great European powers. On the 21st July 1831, the crown was conferred on Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. The patriotic party in Poland, also, were encouraged to attempt the reassertion of their national independence. On the 29th November 1830, an insurrection took place at Warsaw, headed by the pupils of the mili- tary school. Being joined by the army, their efforts were at first suc- cessful : a provisional government was formed ; the army placed under the command of Chlopiki, a veteran general ; and the Grand Duke Constantine, brother to the Russian emperor, compelled to resign his authority. But immense bodies of Russian troops were speedily poured into the country; and though the Poles, who were subsequently headed by Prince Adam Czartoriski, behaved with great gallantry, they were at length overwhelmed by superior numbers, their capital being entered by the enemy, 8th September. The most severe measures were now taken by the victors for extinguishing the national spirit, while numbers of the insurgents were sent to Siberia, or retired into voluntary exile. In Britain, during the first years of George IV., few events of national importance occurred. The year 1824 was signalized as a period of extraordinary speculation among the mercantile community, and was followed in 1825-1826 by an equally great amount of bankruptcy and depression. At the same time, the public mind was violently agitated by the question of Catholic emancipation ; and at length, in 1829, the Duke of Wellington being at the head of the administration, a bill was carried through both Houses under his auspices, by which Romanists * In May 1830, the Polienac ministry sent a formidable armament against Algiers, which was taken possession of and declared a Colony of France. Much fighting has since occurred between tlv: French troops and Hie natives of the country, who are yet far from being subdued. 44* 522 MODERN HISTORY. were declared eligible to seats in Parliament, and to other civil and political offices from which they had hitherto been excluded. George IV. was succeeded in 1830 by his brother, the Duke of Cla- rence, as William IV., the Duke of Wellington being continued as prime-minister. But the desire for parliamentary reform, long cherished by the liberal party, had now become so powerful with the nation, that the elections to the new House of Commons were eminently unfavour- able to a Conservative cabinet, and another administration was accord- ingly organized under Earl Grey. Notwithstanding the most strenuous opposition on the part of the Tories, this statesman, supported by the. general voice of the nation, at length succeeded, in 1832, in carrying through Parliament the celebrated Reform Bill, by which the electoral franchise was placed chiefly in the hands of the middle classes, whose general influence has since been greatly augmented by reforms of the municipal corporations in the three kingdoms. In the following year, an act was passed for the abolition of slavery in the colonies, twenty millions sterling being given to the planters as an indemnification for the loss of property thereby occasioned. In 1837, King William was succeeded by her present majesty, Queen Victoria, who, in 1840, mar- ried her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. The year of her majesty's accession was disturbed by a rebellion in Canada, which was speedily suppressed; but the chief grievances complained of have since been removed. * The Peninsular kingdoms, during the whole period since 1814, have presented a scene of great disorder. In 1820, an insurrection of the sol- diery compelled Ferdinand VII. of Spain to abandon his absolute prin- ciples and adopt the constitution of 1812; but the monarchical party, aided by the monks, contrived so to foment disorder, as to afford a pre- text for the French invasion in 1823. The patriots made a stout resist- ance, but were eventually compelled to yield ; and the appearance of tranquillity was for some time restored. A still more sanguinary strug- gle arose on the death of the king, who, having no male heirs, had abro- gated the salic law in favour of his infant daughter Isabella, thereby depriving his brother Don Carlos of the succession. The Queen-mother Christina had also been appointed regent; while the disappointed prince, at the head of a powerful party, prepared to maintain his pretensions by force of arms. A dreadful civil war was the consequence, during which the prisoners taken on both sides were frequently massacred in cold blood; while the queen-regent, who found her chief support in the libe- ral party, after adopting various popular measures, finally embraced the constitution of 1812. Her majesty received assistance, indirectly at least, both from France and England ; the contest continued to be waged with various success till 1839, when the cause of Don Carlos began tc lose ground; and finally, in 1840, a general pacification was effected. In the same year the regent resigned her authority, and the cortes con- ferred that dignity on General Espartero,| duke of Vittoria, who, how- * During the disturbances in Canada, the stream of emigration, which had hitherto flowed into that country, was directed towards the islands of Eastern Asia. The pro- gress made in the colonization of Australia, Van Diemen's Land, and New Zealand, has been rapid beyond all precedent ; and these distant but valuable dependencies now form a most important field for the unemployed capital and population of the mother-country. t General Espartero was a man of humble origin, who owed his elevation mainly to his CONCLUSION. 523 ever, retained his power but for a short period, being driven into exile in 1843, and the government reverting once more into that condition of disorder and uncertainty which has for so many years marred the pros- perity of this unhappy country. The adjoining kingdom of Portugal has been a prey to nearly similar commotions. John VI. survived his return to Europe nearly six years, during which the country was distracted by the intrigues of the Infante Don Miguel, who, at the head of what was called the apostolical party, contrived, though contrary to the wishes of his father, to procure the abrogation of the constitution adopted in 1820. On the death of his majesty in 1826, the crown fell to Don Pedro, emperor of Brazil, who, however, resigned his right in favour of his infant daughter, Donna Maria, at the same time granting a liberal constitution to the country, and appointing Don Miguel regent. But this prince was no sooner installed in his new dignity than he began openly to aspire to the throne ; and having assembled the cortes in 1829, succeeded in getting himself proclaimed sovereign of Portugal. Don Pedro, on his part, prepared to assert the rights of his daughter; and, having repaired to Europe, vigor- ous preparations were made to dethrone the usurper, in which he was aided by Britain and France. A sanguinary struggle of two years was waged between the forces of the royal brothers, till, in 1834, a treaty was signed at Lisbon between France, Spain, and England, for the ex- pulsion of the younger from the Portuguese territories. The contest was soon after terminated by the capitulation of Miguel at the conven- tion of Evora, by which he gave up his pretensions, and was permitted to leave the kingdom unmolested. The young queen was now firmly seated on the throne, her father being appointed regent ; but the state of his health having shortly after induced him to resign that office, the cortes declared Donna Maria of age, who, having taken the oath to the charter, assumed the exercise of the royal authority. The country has since that time been comparatively tranquil. The revolution in Greece forms another interesting episode in con- temporary history. When the insurrection broke out in the Morea and Archipelago in 1820, the cause of the Greeks was enthusiastically advo- cated throughout Europe, and particularly in England, where the me- mory of their ancient renown, as well as classical associations, induced many to volunteer in their cause. A barbarous intestine warfare con- tinued to be waged about six years, till in 1827, England, France and Russia united to put a stop to its horrors. The Porte, however, refused to accede to negotiations, and additional reinforcements were brought from Egypt, under Ibrahim Pacha, for the final reduction of the insur- gents. The armament of this chief, which consisted of ninety-two sail, including transports, found itself intercepted off Navarino, where the Turkish fleet was also at anchor, by a combined fleet of British, Rus- sians, and French, assembled for the protection of the Greeks. An armistice of twenty days was soon after agreed on ; but in consequence of an accidental collision, a fierce engagement ensued between the op- posing squadrons, which ended in the entire destruction of the Ottoman own exertions during the civil war. In 1836 he succeeded Cordova in the command of the Queen's armies, after which time his power and influence steadily advanced until he was temporarily placed at the head of the government. 524 MODERN HISTORY. armament. The sultan now declared war against the three powers, and a sanguinary contest took place between the Turks and Russians, the latter °of whom were finally successful. After a long series of internal disorders, Greece was at length erected into an independent kingdom, and its crown conferred on Prince Otho of Bavaria in 1833. In conse- quence of the lengthened degradation and ignorance of the people, the country cannot yet be said to be in a prosperous condition; but there is reason to hope that a continuance of peace and regular government will yet develop its great internal resources. As for the Turkish empire itself, it is only prevented from falling to pieces by the mutual jealousies of the great European cabinets. The province of Egypt alone, under the able government of Mehemet AH, seems to be advancing in civilisa- tion; and though that prince has recently been compelled by the Chris- tian powers to abandon his pretensions to supreme sovereignty, and to acknowledge a nominal subjection to the Porte, the pashalic has been declared hereditary in his family, and he still retains all the weight of an absolute ruler. The states of Germany, since 1815, have continued to advance steadily in the career of prosperity. In 1833, an important commercial league, called the Zollverein, under the auspices of Prussia, was entered into by most of the governments, by which internal trade was freed from all restrictions, and a uniform system of duties agreed on. This union, though entirely commercial in its character, owes its origin in some measure to a general desire for nationalization, and cannot fail to exer- cise a material influence on the future destinies of the country. Prussia, in particular, under the wise and paternal rule of Frederick-William IV., has made a surprising progress in wealth and intelligence; while the recent grant of a representative legislature (1842), though under great restrictions, ranks her among the number of constitutional monarchies. Events of considerable interest have also taken place in the East. In India, in 1824, during the presidency of Lord Amherst, a war broke out with the Burmese, who had for many years annoyed the eastern frontier of the British territories. An expedition was sent to Rangoon, which in the second campaign advanced nearly to Ava, the capital, and the Bur- man government were glad to purchase peace in 182t> by the cession of Assam, Aracan, and the Tenasserim provinces. In 1840, the necessity of securing the western frontier from encroachment involved the Indian government in a dangerous contest with the rude tribes of Afghanistan, which has, however, been happily brought to a termination. The opening of the China trade to all British subjects, by the aboli- tion of the East India Company's monopoly in 1833, gave rise to a series of disputes with the native rulers, which at length led to open hostilities. These disputes, relating at first mainly to the legal rights and immunities to be enjoyed by the commercial superintendents ap- pointed by the British cabinet, came eventually to be merged in the greater question touching the traffic in opium, which had all along been in some measure declared contraband by the Imperial government. It was not, however, peremptorily prohibited till 1836; and even after- wards, through the connivance of the inferior authorities, an active smuggling trade continued to be carried on till 1839, when the Imperial Commissioner Lin, determined on its forcible suppression, seized the CONCLUSION. 525 persons of the British merchants at Canton, and of Captain Elliot, the superintendent. That functionary was then compelled, by threats of personal violence to himself and fellow-prisoners, to issue an order for the surrender of all the opium on board the vessels in the vicinity of Canton, which, to the value of above £2,000,000 sterling, was accord- ingly given up to the Chinese, who destroyed it, — the captain at the same time pledging the faith of the English government for compensa- tion to the merchants. After various fruitless attempts to obtain satis- faction for this outrage, or even an accommodation by which the regular trade might be resumed, the cabinet of London resolved on hostilities. These, which have since been vigorously prosecuted, have given the Chinese a salutary lesson as to their inferiority to Europeans in military science and discipline ; and they have ended in a peace, signed August 29, 1842, by which the emperor agrees to pay twenty-one million dollars by way of compensation, to open five of his principal ports to foreign commerce, and to surrender the island of Hong-Kong to the British crown for ever. THE END QUESTIONS TO WHITE'S UNIVERSAL HISTORY, DY JOHN S. HART, A.M. Principal of the Philadelphia High School, and Professor of Moral and Mental Science, Member cf the American Philosophical Society, Sec PHILADELPHIA: LEA AND BLANC HARD. lb'47. QUESTIONS TO WHITE'S UNIVERSAL HISTORY. INTRODUCTION. Into what three portions is Universal History divided? What are the dates and events that mark these three periods ? How may Ancient History be subdivided ? What are the dates and events that mark these four pe- riods ? Give similar answers in regard to the subdivisions of the Middle Ages and Modern History. FORTY-FIRST CENTURY B. C. (Page 13.) What are the leading events of this century as described by Moses? What account of creation is given by geologists ? THIRTY-NINTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 14.) Give the history of Cain and Abel. Describe the descendants of Cain and Seth. What progress in the arts during this century ? THIRTY-FOURTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 14.) What was the great event of this century ? Describe the Deluge. What was one of the most remarkable consequences of the Deluge ? Describe the progress of mankind after the Deluge. TWENTY-THIRD CENTURY B. C. (Page 15.) How was the world divided among the descendants of Noah ? Give an account of the origin of Babylon. What do we learn from Scripture respect- ing the Abyssinian empire. What was the probable origin of the Chinese ? What nations have sprung from Japhet ? What from Shem ? What from Ham ? What were the three primitive languages, and what have sprung from each ? TWENTY-SECOND CENTURY E. C. (Page 17.) What is the character of early Egyptian history ? Give the substance of what is known in regard to the first settlement of Egypt. With whom does Egyptian history properly begin ? What have been the conjectures in regard to Menes ? What is the account of him given by Herodotus ? What was the leading doctrine of the Egyptian religion ? What were its leading deities ? What are some of its extravagancies ? What traits of Egyptian superstition are found in subsequent Jewish history ? Give some account of the government of Ancient Egypt. What proofs remain of the progress of the Egyptians ? What is said of the hieroglyphics of Egypt ? (3) 4 QUESTIONS TO TWENTIETH CENTURY E. C. (Page 19.) When was Abraham born, and why did he leave his native country ? In what military expedition was he engaged after settling in Palestine ? What great catastrophe did he afterwards endeavour to prevent ? Give an account of Ishmael and his descendants. What striking evidence of piety did Abra- ham afterwards give ? When and at what age did he die ? Give his cha- racter. NINETEENTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 20.) What kingdom was founded in this century ? What great event of Egyp- tian history is supposed to have happened in this century ? Give some account of the invasion of the Shepherd Kings. What are some of the con- tradictory statements in regard to these events ? EIGHTEENTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 91.) Give the character and history of Isaac. Give the history of Jacob and Esau. How were the possessions of Isaac divided between them ? What were the circumstances that brought the Israelites at this time into connec- tion with the Egyptians ? What are some of the measures of Joseph while governor of Egypt? Why was Goshen selected for the residence of the Israelites ? What was the condition of Egypt at this time ? What other nation besides the Hebrews had their refugees in Egypt during this cen- tury? What elements of science and art did both the Hebrews and Greeks derive from the Egyptians ? SEVENTEENTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 22.) Give the conclusion of Jacob's and Joseph's history. What change in their mode of living was effected by their residence in Egypt ? What two branches of the Pelasgic race first settled Greece ? What is the origin of the Ionians ? What is said of the Hellenes ? What barbarous tribes occasionally mingled with these ? What was the character of the Scythians ? What remains of Pelasgian architecture exist, and what is its character ? What foreign influences gave the first impulse towards civilizing the Pe- lasgians ? What became of the Pelasgians, or primitive Greeks, after the settlement of the Egyptians under Cecrops and Inachus ? What other colo- nies reached Greece during this century, and what was their character ? SIXTEENTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 23.) What happened to the Israelites after the death of Joseph ? Give the history of Moses to the time of his divine appointment as leader of the Israelites ? What distinguished patriarch flourished in Idumea about the time of Moses ? Give some account of Job. What are some of the con- jectures as to the time that he lived ? What cities of Greece were founded about this time ? What circumstances in Egypt added new colonies to Greece ? Describe two remarkable inundations or floods that occurred in Greece at this age. When and by whom was the Amphyctionic C< uncil established ? Give some account of this famous Council. What was the most celebrated exertion of its authority ? FIFTEENTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 25.) How was the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt accomplished ? What signa 1 deliverance did they experience just after leaving Egypt? white's universal history. 5 What was the number of Israelites at this time? Describe the events of the first three months after their march. What happened at Mount Sinai? Why did they not proceed at once to Palestine ? What was the penalty of this disobedience ? What were the circumstances of the death of Moses ? How was Moses esteemed by tbe ancients ? What is said of the Pentateuch, and the institutions of Moses ? What evidence is given in the Pentateuch of the progress of the arts among the Hebrews ? Give an account of the entrance ot* the Israelites into Canaan, and the capture of Jericho and Ai. In what manner did Joshua divide the land of Canaan after its conquest? What took place after his death? What are the leading features of Jewish polity and religion, as unfolded by Moses in the Pentateuch ? What great Egyptian hero nourished during the wanderings of the Israelites in the wilderness ? Give some account of the character of Sesostris. Where is Phoenicia, and what was its oldest city ? What were some of the commercial enterprises of the Sidonians? What progress had they made in the arts? What was the great city of Phoenicia ? What religious festival of the Athe- nians was instituted in this century ? Give some account of the Areopagus. What other Grecian city was founded in this century ? What great event in the history of Grecian literature occurred in this century? What great event in its religious history ? What great men and events were contempo- rary with the introduction of the letters of Cadmus and the oracle of Delphi into Greece ? Give some account of the Greek language and its dialects. FOURTEENTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 29.) What were the leading features of the Jewish government after the death of Joshua ? What is the character of their history for the next three or four centuries ? What signal deliverance at the hands of a woman during the fourteenth century ? What, beautiful pastoral narrative belongs to this period ? Give the story of Ruth. What famous lawgiver flourished soon after the death of Moses ? What were the principal features of the legisla- tion of Minos ? In what respects was the commonwealth of Crete similar to that of the Hebrev^s ? Whence the similarity between the legislation of Minos and of Moses ? What celebrated architect about half a century later, and what extraordinary work did he execute ? THIRTEENTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 30.) What deliverance did the Jews experience in the thirteenth century? What events succeeded the death of Gideon ? What are the circumstances relative to the building and early history of Corinth? What famous expedi- tion occurred about this time ? What were the circumstances and the prin- cipal adventurers in the Argonautic expedition ? What two Grecian heroes were contemporary with Gideon and the Argonautic expedition ? In what relation does Theseus stand to Athens ? What were the leading measures in the administration of Theseus ? TWELFTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 31.) Give the story of Jephtha and his daughter. How is this event signalized in Grecian fable? What now deliverer appeared to the Jews soon after the death of Jephtha? Give the story of Sampson. What fabulous accounts of other nations seem based upon the history of Sampson ? What celebrated war occurred about this time ? What has given so much celebrity to the Trojan war? What was the origin of this war? What was its result? What was the subsequent career of its leaders ? What was its general influ- ence upon Grecian civilization ? 1 * 6 QUESTIONS TO ELEVENTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 33.) What distinguished personage appeared in Judea early in this century ? In what relation did Samuel stand to the judges and the prophets ? What change of government took place in Judea under the administration of Sa- muel ? Give some account of the conduct and exploits of Saul, the first king of Judea? What were the circumstances attending the succession of David to the throne ? What extensions did he give to the territories of Judea ? What were some of his domestic difficulties ? What general change took place in the civil and religious polity of the Jews under the administration of David ? What is remarked of the lyric poetry of the Jews at this period ? Give some account of the life and actions of Solomon. What is remarked of his political talent and performances ? Give some account of the return of the Heraclidaa to the Peloponnesus. What act of heroic patriotism in Athe- nian history about this time? What change in the government of Athens occurred upon the death of Codrus ? Give some account of the origin and progress of Grecian colonization in this century. What was the condition and character of the colonies in Asia Minor ? Enumerate the leading Gre- cian colonies in the world at the close of this century. TENTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 37.) What schism in the government of Judea on the death of Solomon ? What were the leading events in the history of the kingdom of Judah from the division of the kingdom to the end of the tenth century ? What religious deterioration did the kingdom of Israel experience after its separation from Judah? What were the leading events in the kingdom after its separation? What two great poets flourished in Greece about this time ? Give some account of the life and writings of Homer. Of Hesiod. What are the lead- ing features of the Grecian mythology, as found in the writings of Homer and Hesiod ? What was the condition of Syria at this time ? What was the career of Hadarezer ? OfRezon? Of Benhadad I.? OfHazael? NINTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 41.) What signal deliverance did the kingdom of Judah experience during the reign of Jehoshaphat ? What particulars are related of his successor Jeho- ram? What loss of territory was experienced in the reign of Jehoram ? What was the fate of his successor ? What circumstances are related of Joash ? Of Amaziah ? What was the religious condition of the kingdom of Israel at this time? What was the career of Ahaziah, king of Israel? Of his brother Jehoram ? In what manner was the siege of the capital of Moab raised? What remarkable deliverance did Jehoram subsequently experience? What were the character and career of Jehu? Of Jehoahaz ? OfJehoash? Of Jeroboam II. ? What distinguished prophet flourished in this century ? What famous Grecian lawgiver was contemporary with Elisha? From what sources did Lycurgus derive many of the principles of his legislation ? What was there peculiar in the mode of their introduction ? What had he in view probably in some of the leading provisions of his con- stitution ? What were the provisions of his constitution in regard to reli- gion ? Honours to the dead ? Form of government ? Division of property ? Money? Mode of living? Children? Education? Dress? Military stratagems? Literature? What was the great defect in the legislation of Lycurgus ? How was the population divided? How were the powers of the state distributed ? What was the condition of some of the social virtues among the Dorian race ? AVhat famous queen was contemporary with Ly- curgus and Elisha? Describe the origin and early history of Carthage. Its WHITE S UNIVERSAL HISTORY. 7 civil polity ? Its religion ? Its commerce ? What empire afterwards famous traces its origin to this centnry ? EIGHTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 45.) Judea. — What successful enterprise did Azariah, king of Israel, undertake ? What was his end ? What were the character and history of Jonathan ? Ahaz ? What danger threatened Judah during the reign of Ahaz ? How was it averted ? What was the subsequent career of Ahaz ? What religious reforms were effected by his successor Hezekiah ? What did the kingdom suffer from foreign oppression during his reign ? What unexpected deliverance did they experience ? What events succeeded the destruction of Sennache- rib's army ? What distinguished prophet nourished in the reign of Hezekiah ? What was the general condition of the kingdom of Israel during the first part of this century? What are some of the leading events of its history * What were the circumstances and the date of its melancholy termination ? Where were the inhabitants carried ? What was the origin of the Sama- ritans ? Greece — What was the origin of the Greek Olympiads? Give some account of the Grecian games. Assyria. — What account is given in the Bible of the origin of Assyria ? Give some account of the intervening history from Ashur to Ninus. What conquests did Ninus achieve ? What great projects were exe- cuted by his queen and successor, Semiramis ? What is known of the Assyrian empire from Semiramis toSardanapalus? What was the character of Sardanapalus ? What was his fate? How was the Assyrian empire di- vided on the death of Sardanapalus ? Who was the first king of the Ninevite portion of this empire, or the new Assyrian monarchy ? What steady line of policy was pursued by Pul and his descendants ? Give some account of his successor Tiglath-Pileser. Of Shalmanezcr. Of Sennacherib. Who was the first king of the Babylonian portion of the old Assyrian empire, or the new Babylonian empire ? What doubts have been raised in regard to Belisis and Nabonasar ? What else is known of the next Babylonian empire in this century ? — [N. B. The third, or Median portion of the old Assyrian empire, will be noticed in the following centuries under the title of Media, or the Median empire.] Lydia. — What are some of the traditions respecting the kingdom of Lydia ? With what monarch does the genuine history of Lydia begin ? What natural phenomenon is celebrated in this period of Lydian his- tory ? What was the character of Croesus, and the subsequent history of Lydia ? Rome. — What are some of the earliest traditions of Italy ? What was the origin of Rome ? What line of policy did Romulus and the Romans after him adopt towards conquered nations ? Who was the successor of Romulus, and what was his character ? Give the dates of the following personages and events: Isaiah, Hezekiah, Sardanapalus, Gyges, Romulus, the captivity of the ten tribes, the first Olympiad, the downfall of the old Assyrian em- pire, and the building of Rome. SEVENTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 53.) Judea. — What disasters befel Judea after the death of Hezekiah? What Ivas the conduct of Manasseh after being restored to the throne ? What 8 QUESTIONS TO deliverance was experienced by the Jews at the hands of a woman ? What were the principal events of the reign of Josiah ? What ensued from the death of Josiah to the captivity of Judah ? Assyria. — What were the principal events in the second empire of Nine- veh, under the reign of Esarhaddon ? Saosduchin ? Saracus ? What were the principal events in the second empire of Babylon, in the beginning of this century ? In the reign of Nabopolasar ? What were the circumstances of Nebuchadnezzar's first expedition against Jerusalem? Media. — What circumstances indicate the early importance and civilization of Media? What is known of its history prior to Deioces ? What hap- pened under Deioces ? Phaortes ? Cyaxares ? What has in all ages been the character of Asiatic revolutions? Persia. — What circumstances are known of the early history of the Per- sians ? What was their condition at the time of their subjugation by the Medes? What were their religious opinions and customs? Give some account of Zoroaster and his opinions. Egypt. — What notices of Egyptian history are found from the time of Solomon to that of Psammitichus ? By what means did the latter succeed to the throne of Egypt ? What circumstances render his reign one of peculiar interest? What great plan of conquest was undertaken by his successor, Pharaoh Necho ? In what other great undertakings did he engage ? Greece. — What Athenian lawgiver flourished in this century? What were the character and fate of the laws of Draco? What circumstances led to the appointment of Solon as supreme lawgiver of Athens ? What circumstances are known of the early history of Messenia ? What was the origin of the quarrei between the Messcnians and the Lacedaemonians ? What were the principal occurrences of the first or twenty years 1 war ? What was the condition of the Messcnians for the next thirty years ? State the events and melancholy termination of the second war. What Grecian colonies were founded about this time ? Rome. — What military achievements were accomplished by the Romans under Tullius Hostilius ? What works of peace were executed under his successor, Ancus Martius ? What were the leading events in the history of Tarquin the Elder ? SIXTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 61.) Judea. — What led to Nebuchadnezzar's second expedition against Jerusa- lem ? What was its result ? What were the circumstances attending his third expedition against the sacred city ? How and when did the captive Jews return and rebuild the city and temple ? What change did the seventy years' captivity effect in the character of the Jews? What change took place also in their language ? What are some of the facts in the history of the Jews that go to illustrate the character of Divine Providence ? What interesting episode in Jewish history occurred during the time of their residence at Ba- bylon ? Assyria. — What was the condition of the Babylonian empire under Nebu- chadnezzar the Great ? What were his conquests ? What works of peace did he execute? What signal calamity befel him? What distinguished pro- phet flourished at his court ? What were the character and history of Evil- Merodach ? Nenglissar ? Belshazzar ? Queen Nitocris ? What were the white's universal history. 9 circumstances of the capture of Babylon by Cyrus ? What is the conjecture of Dr. Hales in regard to the death of Belshazzar ; and the succession of Cya- xares, or Darius the Mede ? Persia. — What was the career of Daniel after the capture of Babylon ? What further particulars of the history of Cyrus are gathered from the sacred writings ? What are the origin and early history of Cyrus, as gathered from the Greek historians ? Who succeeded Cyrus the Great ? What are the principal events in the life of Cambyses ? What events occurred under his successor, Darius Hystaspes ? What change took place during this cen- tury in the mode of life and policy of the Persians? Egypt. — In what manner did the family of Psammitichus in Egypt ter- minate ? Give an account of the revolt of Amasis. What line of policy did he pursue towards the Greeks ? What were some of the rest of his acts ? What befel Egypt soon after his death ? How does its subsequent history fulfil the prediction of Ezekiel? Greece. — What famous Athenian lawgiver flourished early in this cen- tury ? What provision did Solon make respecting the relation between debtor and creditor ? Where did he establish the sovereign power ? What division of the people did he make ? How did his legislation compare with that of Lycurgus? Give the character and history of Pisistr-atus ? What events followed his death? What is said of Harmodius and Aristogiton? What difficulties arose from the contentions of Clisthenes and Isagoras ? What successes did the city obtain, notwithstanding its internal dissensions ? What was the condition and history of Lacedaemonia at the same time ? Enumerate the seven wise men of Greece. Rome. — What wise measures were adopted in Rome by Servius Tullius ? What was the policy of his successor, Tarquin the Proud ? What were some of his public acts ? What were the principal features in the constitution of Rome as it existed at this time ? China. — What account is given of Confucius? FIFTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 71.) Judea. — What was the origin of the expedition of Ezra to Jerusalem ? What was its result? What further is related of Judea? Greece. — What led to the invasion of Greece by Darius ? What great battle ensued ? What circumstances of that battle are given ? What was the subsequent career of Miltiades ? What tw T o individuals now took the lead in Athenian affairs ? What more formidable invasion of Greece fol lowed ? What particulars are related of the battle of Thermopylae ? What great naval battle soon followed ? What were the particulars of this battle ? What defeats did Mardonius experience after Xerxes returned to Persia ? What were the general results of the Persian invasion upon Grecian affairs ? What distinguished writers flourished about this time ? What was the ca- reer of Themistocles after the victory at Salamis? What was the character of Cimon ? What were some of his exploits ? Who was his rival ? What dreadful catastrophe befel Sparta about this time ? What are some of the particulars of that event ? What other imminent peril ensued, and how was it avoided ? What was the character of Pericles ? What was the condition of Athens under his administration ? What celebrated war grew out of the rivalry between Athens and Sparta ? What were the real grounds of this rivalry ? In the Peloponnesian war, what states were found on the side of 10 QUESTIONS TO Athens ? What on the side of Sparta ? What was the great event of the war ? Who were the great men engaged in it ? What great calamity befel Athens during the early part of the war ? What distinguished leader died of the plague ? What terrible domestic tragedy occurred at Lacedaemon at this time ? What was the character of Alcibiades ? What was the origin of the Sicilian expedition ? What were its results ? What victories were won by the Athenians after the recal of Alcibiades ? What great naval victory was achieved by the Spartans soon after, under the conduct of Lysander? How did Lysander follow up his victory? What terms did he prescribe to the vanquished city ? What were the general effects of the Peloponnesian war upon Greece ? What was the condition of literature and the arts in Greece at this time ? What effort was made by Thrasybulus to restore Athens to her former condition ? How did Alcibiades terminate his career ? What mode of banishment existed at Athens ? What instances are given of Athenian ingratitude ? Persia. — What notices of Xerxes are given besides his expedition into Greece ? What were the events of the empire under Artaxerxes Longima- nus ? What were the particulars of the expedition of Cyrus the younger, and the retreat of the ten thousand ? Rome. — What were the particulars of the attempts to restore royalty at Rome ? What contentions ensued between the Plebeians and the Patri- cians ? What were the origin and object of the office of tribune ? In what manner did Coriolanus distinguish himself? What was the origin of the Agrarian laws ? To what controversies did they give rise ? To what new office did these contentions lead ? What was the history of the decemviri ? What was the general result of the disputes between the Patricians and Ple- beians ? Give some account of the Volscian and Veientine wars. Give some account of the twelve tables, and of the origin of Roman jurisprudence. Carthage. — What is said of the extent of the Carthaginian possessions at this time ? What contests between the Greeks and Carthaginians ? What was the origin of the long contest between the Romans and Carthaginians ? FOURTH CENTURY B. C. (Page 82.) Greece. — What great philosopher flourished in Greece in the beginning of this century ? What was the character of Socrates ? What was the Socratic mode of philosophizing ? On what charge and how did he die? What were the two great schools of philosophy ? Into what sects was the Ionian school subdivided, and who were the principal philosophers in each sect ? Give a similar account of the Italian school. What was the character ofAgesilaus? What were the principal transactions between the Greeks and the Persians during his reign ? What new line of policy did Persia adopt towards the Greeks about this time ? By what circumstances was Thebes first brought into notice ? What was the career of Epaminondas ? Give some account of the early history of Macedon. What led to the Sacred War ? What were its consequences ? What course was pursued by De- mosthenes in this war ? What was the first expedition of Alexander the Great ? What terrible vengeance did he execute upon Thebes immediately after ? What preparations did he make for the invasion of Asia ? Describe the battle of the Granicus ? What were the immediate consequences of this battle ? What are the particulars of Alexander's progress through Syria ? Egypt ? His return to Persia ? His last great battle with Darius ? His march to Babylon? To Persepolis ? What adverse events occurred in white's universal history. 11 Greece during this victorious career of Alexander abroad ? How- did Darius finally die ? What conspiracy was formed against Alexander's life ? What instances of ungovernable passion did he exhibit? What means did he take to consolidate and perpetuate his conquests ? Where and how did he die ? What was the condition of the empire after his death ? What commotions arose in Greece after his death ? What were the circumstances of the death of Demosthenes ? What were the character and fate of Phocion ? Deme- trius Phalereus ? Demetrius, son of Antigonus ? How was the empire finally partitioned among the generals of Alexander ? What account is given of Grecian architecture? Sculpture? Painting? Music? Poetry? Writing? Eloquence? History? Philosophy? What errors have been propagated respecting the character of Alexander ? What was the influence of his reign upon the human race ? Rome. — What was the condition of the Gauls when first brought into con- tact with the Romans 1 Give some account of the capture of Rome by the Gauls under Brennus. What measures were taken to rebuild Rome after its destruction by the Gauls ? What account is given of the Licinian laws ? Of the wars with the Samnites ? What alterations were effected in the con- stitution of the commonwealth ? Judea. — What account is given of the crime of the High Priest Jonathan ? Of the treatment of the Jews by Alexander ? By Ptolemy Soter ? By Pto- lemy Philadelphus ? What is the history of the Septuagint translation of the Bible ? Of the completion of the ancient Scriptures ? Persia. — What account is given of the condition of Persia after the retreat of the ten thousand ? Under Artaxerxes ? Under Ochus ? What was the character of Darius III. ? THIRD CENTURY B. C. (Page 95.) Rome. — What account is given of Tarentum ? The war on its account between the Romans and Pyrrhus ? Syracuse ? The origin of the first Punic war ? The condition of Rome on entering upon these wars ? The events of the first Punic war ? The conflicts between the Romans and the Gauls ? The origin of Hannibal ? His line of policy ? His victorious ca- reer in Spain and Italy ? The conclusion of the war ? The subsequent career of Hannibal ? His death ? The influence upon Rome of her contests with Greece and Carthage? The state of the world at the end of the second Punic war ? The affairs of Macedon after the death of Alexander ? The expedition of the Gauls into Greece ? The Achaean League ? Egypt. — What account is given of the affairs of Egypt under Ptolemy Soter ? Ptolemy Philadelphus ? Ptolemy Euergetes ? Ptolemy Philopator ? Ptolemy Epiphanes ? The general condition of Egypt under the Ptolemies ? Parthia. — What account is given of the origin of this kingdom ? Its contests with the Romans ? Its political institutions ? SECOND CENTURY B. C. (Page 1010 Rome. — What account is given of the conquest of Macedon ? The origin of the war with Antiochus ? The events of the war ? Its results ? The renewal of hostilities in Macedon ? Their termination under Paulus iEmi- lius ? The terms prescribed to the vanquished Macedonians ? The conquest of Greece ? The origin of the third Punic war ? Its bloody termination ? The character of the Spaniards ? The origin of the contest between them 12 QUESTIONS TO and the Romans ? The events of the war under Sempronius ? Cato ? Paulus ^Emilius ? Sempronius Gracchus ? Piso? Nobilior ? Mummius ? The victories and death of the peasant Viriathus ? The conclusion of the war under Scipio iEmilianus ? The invasion of Italy by the Gauls under Hamilcar ? The success of the Romans ? The final conquest of Cisalpine Gaul under Scipio Nasica ? The origin of the Ligurian war ? The conduct ofPopilius? A remarkable incident in the conquest of Istria ? The effect upon Rome of the downfall of her enemies ? The influence of Greece and the East upon Roman manners ? The efforts of Cato to revive the ancient manners ? The oppression of the provinces ? The struggles for office among the nobles ? The altered condition and character of the plebeian order ? The struggles between the Senate and the Knights ? The circumstances calculated to aggravate these disorders ? The condition and extent of slavery in Italy ? The Servile war ? The origin of Tiberius Gracchus ? His pro- ject? His fate? The measures of Caius Gracchus? His fate? The measures of the aristocratic party after the death of the Gracchi ? The Jugurthine war ? The invasion of Gaul by the Cimbri and Teutones ? Their defeat by Marius ? His triumph 1 His innovation in favour of the lowest populace ? Judea and Syria. — What account is given of the affairs of Judea under Ptolemy Lagus ? The persecutions of the Jews under Antiochus Epiphanes ? The sufferings of Eleazar and his seven sons ? The successful enterprise of Judas Maccabaeus ? The subsequent struggles of the Maccabees with Anti- ochus Eupator and Demetrius ? The death of Judas Maccabaeus ? The subsequent career of Jonathan ? Of Simon ? Of John Hyrcanus ? Of Aristobulus ? FIRST CENTURY B. C. (Page 112.) Rome. — What account is given of the decline of Marius in popular favour ? His intrigues to maintain his ascendency ? The progress of the democratic principle ? The attempts of Livius Drusus to reconcile the parties ? His fate ? The bloody struggles between the metropolis and the Italian towns ? The character and resources of Mithridates? His conduct towards the Romans ? The struggle between Marius and Sylla ? The expedition of Sylla against Mithridates ? Its result ? The outrage of the Marian party at Rome during Sylla's absence ? death of Marius ? return of Sylla ? His revenge? His dictatorship? His resignation and death? The state of parties in the republic at this time ? The popular faction under Lepidus and Brutus? The Sertorian war ? The servile war under Spartacus ? Its ter- mination by Crassus ? The contention between Crassus and Pompey ? The good fortune of Pompey ? The character of Verres ? His misconduct in Sicily ? His trial and condemnation ? Pompey's war against the pirates ? The renewal of war by Mithridates ? The operations against Mithridates by Cotta ? By Lucullus? By Pompey? The extraordinary project of Mithridates ? His death ? The foreign and domestic condition of the re- public on the downfall of Mithridates ? The character of Catiline ? His conspiracy ? Its defeat by Cicero ? Cicero's exile and recall ? The parti- tion of power by the Triumvirate ? The death of Crassus ? The state of affairs at Rome during Caesar's absence in Gaul ? Caesar's campaigns in Gaul ? His policy at the close of the Gallic war ? The proceedings of Pompey and his party against Caesar ? The hesitation of Caesar before " crossing the Rubicon" ? His entrance into Italy ? His success in Spain ? His pursuit of Pompey ? His victory at Pharsalia? His subsequent suc- cesses in Egypt and Spain ? His triumphs ? His promotion of the arts of peace ? His death ? His character ? The conduct of Antony after the white's universal history. 13 death of Caesar? The horrors of the second triumvirate? The death of Cicero ? The defeat and death of Antony ? The progress of Augustus to universal dominion ? The birth of Jesus Christ? The history of Roman literature ? The policy of Augustus towards writers ? The writers of the Augustan age distinguished for Eloquence ? Poetry ? Tragedy ? Comedy ° Satire ? History ? Philosophy ? Judea. — What account is given of the contentions between Alexander Jannaaus and the Pharisees ? The interference of the Romans in favour of Hyrcanus ? The establishment of Herod upon the throne of Judea ? The extent of his dominions? His cruelties? The birth of the Saviour? FIRST CENTURY A. D. (Page 124.) Rome. — What account is given of the extent and condition of the Roman empire under Augustus ? His character ? The domestic troubles of his later days ? The mode by which he perpetuated his power ? His adminis- tration of the empire ? The contrast between him and Tiberius ? The sycophancy of the Senate ? The cruelties and death of Sejanus ? The rapa- city of Tiberius ? His death ? The death of Jesus Christ ? The foreign wars of the Romans under Tiberius ? The character and reign of Caligula ? The mode in which Claudius succeeded to the empire ? The beneficial acts of his government ? The reign of Nero ? Galba ? Otho ? Vitellius ? Vespasian ? The destruction of Jerusalem ? The events of the empire during the reign of Titus? The reign of Domitian ? The character of the twelve Caasars, as described by Gibbon ? Judea. — What account is given of the reign of Archelaus ? The reign of Pontius Pilate ? The life of Herod Agrippa ? His remarkable death ? The condition of the Jews under their various governors ? Their condition under Claudius Felix ? The atrocities of Florus ? The origin of the rebellion ? The conduct of the Christians in this emergency ? The progress of Vespa- sian against Jerusalem ? The circumstances of its siege and capture by Titus ? The Church. — What account is given of the life and death of the Saviour? The progress of Christianity after the death of Christ? The constitution of the church ? The first persecution ? The second persecution ? Britain. — What account is given of the invasion and conquest of this island ? The means taken by the Romans to perpetuate their conquest ? The original inhabitants of Britain? Their condition, mode of life, religion, &c. ? SECOND CENTURY A. D. (Page 134.) Rome. — What account is given of the mode of Trajan's succession to the empire ? His manners and administration ? His foreign wars ? The revolt of the Jews ? The character of Trajan ? The character and acts of Adrian ? The reign of Antoninus Pius? The calamities of the empire under Marcus Aurelius Antoninus ? The character and excesses of Commodus ? The influence of the Praetorian Guards ? The events of the empire after the death of Commodus? The condition of the empire at this time ? The Church. — What account is given of the spread of Christianity ? The third persecution under Trajan ? The martyrdom of Simeon and Ignatius? The fourth persecution under Marcus Aurelius ? The reasons that led so 2 14 QUESTIONS TO humane a prince to be the most fatal persecutor of Christianity? The mar- tyrdom of Polycarp, Justin Martyr, Pothinus and Blandina? THIRD CENTURY A. D. (Page 139.) Rome. — What account is given of the rise of Septimius Severus to supreme power? His cruelties as emperor? His death ? The cruelties and death of Caracalla ? The character and late of Heliogabalus ? The administra- tion of Alexander Severus? The influence of his mother Mammaja and the lawyer Ulpian ? The success of their attempts to maintain the vigour and integrity of the empire ? The origin and character of Maximin ? His cruel- ties and death ? Gordian III. ? Philip the Arabian ? Valerius ? Gallie- nus? Claudius? Aurelian? Tacitus? Probus ? The condition of the common people during these frequent changes of administration ? The great change in the form of government under Diocletian? His abdication? Its causes 1 Palmyra. — What account is given of the origin of Zenobia ? Her capi- tal ? Her contests with the Romans ? Her misfortunes ? The critic Lon- ginus ? Persia. — What account is given of the exploits of Artaxerxes ? The restoration of the religion of the Magi? The character and reign of Sapor 1 The struggles of Chosroes, king of Armenia, and his son Tiridates, against the Persians ? Barbarian Invasions. — What account is given of the origin of the Goths who invaded the empire under Decius ? their language and religion ? The Franks? The Allemanni ? The Church. — What account is given of the fifth persecution under Seve- rus ? The sixth persecution under Maximin? The seventh under Decius ? The eighth under Valerian ? The ninth under Aurelian ? The tenth under Diocletian? The cruelties of Galerius towards Christians? his death ? The death of Maximin ? FOURTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 147.) Rome. — What account is given of the partition of the empire on the death of Diocletian ? The elevation of Constantine to the purple? The elevation of Maxentius and Maximin? The administration of Galerius? The admi- nistration of Maxentius ? His overthrow by Constantine ? The overthrow of Maximin by Licinius ? The progress of Constantine to the command of the whole empire ? The change of the capital ? The domestic troubles of Constantine ? His partition of the empire ? His death ? The administra- tion of the empire under Constantine ? The state of the finances ? The disorders of the empire on the death of Constantine ? The progress of affairs till Constantius became sole emperor ? The conduct and death of Gallus ? The education of Julian ? His elevation to the purple ? His apostasy > His reforms ? His death ? His character and administration ? Eastern Empire. — What account is given of the government of the Eastern Empire under Valens ? The battle between him and the Goths at Adriano- ple? The elevation of Theodosius? His success against the Goths ? The other events of his reign? His character? Western Empire. — What account is given of the inroads of the barbarians under Valentinian ? The affairs of the Western Empire under Gratian ? Valentinian II. ? The condition of the Western Empire at this time ? The settlement of the Ostrogoths and Visigoths under Aurelian ? The first ap- white's universal history. 15 pearance of the Huns in Europe ? Their character and previous history ? Their entrance into Europe ? The Church. — What account is given of the progress of the Church under persecution ? The Arian controversy ? The constitution of the Church in this century ? The errors of Arius ? The general councils on this subject? The assumption of authority by the Church of Rome in this century ? The circumstances which tended to increase it ? The benefits resulting from the establishment of Christianity by Constantine ? The errors of the Gnostics ? The Manichees ? The Carpocratians ? The Nicolaitans ? The Montanists ? The names of the different heresies concerning the nature of Christ ? The heresies respecting the will and original sin ? FIFTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 158.) Eastern Empire. — What account is given of the affairs of the Eastern Empire under Arcadius ? The invasion of the Visigoths under Alaric ? The administration of Pulcheria ? Theodosius ? Marcian ? Leo the Great? Zeno ? Anastasius ? Western Empire. — What account is given of the successes of the armies of Honorius, under Stilicho, against the Visigoths ? The death of Stilicho ? The capture and sack of Rome by Alaric? The events of Europe after the death of Alaric ? The progress and power of Genseric the Vandal in Africa ? The progress of the Huns under Attila against the Eastern Empire ? Their irruption into the Western Empire ? The battle between the Huns and Visigoths in Gaul ? Attila's inroads into Italy ? His death ? The sack of Rome by Genseric the Vandal ? The attempts of Majorian to restore the empire ? His successors ? The peaceful measures of Odoacer ? His over- throw and death ? The change in the aspect of the world on the downfall of the empire of the West? Venice. — What account is given of the origin of this republic ? Gaul. — What account is given of the early inhabitants of Gaul ? The inroads of the northern barbarians in the fifth century? The settlement of the Franks in Gaul ? The foundation of the French monarchy ? Britain. — What account is given of the contests between the Britons and the Picts and Scots ? The occasion of calling in the aid of the Saxons ? Their establishment in the kingdom? The Church. — What account is given of the origin of Monachism ? Paul of Thebes ? St. Anthony? The propagation of Monachism by the disciples of St. Anthony ? The causes which contributed to the rapid spread of Monachism ? The excesses to which it led ? The conversion of the north- ern barbarians ? The character of the barbarian converts ? The spread of Christianity in the East ? History of Literature. — What account is given of the Alexandrian school ? The New Platonists ? Their suppression under Constantine ? Theii revival under Julian ? Hypatia ? Proclus ? Sacred literature ? Clement? Origen ? Justin Martyr ? Tertullian 1 Irenseus ? Early translations of the Scriptures ? Gregory Thaumaturgus and Cyril of Jerusalem ? Cy- prian ? The golden age of ecclesiastical literature ? The character of the early fathers of the Church ? The character and writings of Athanasius ? Eusobius? Basil? Gregory of Nyssa ? Gregory of Nazianzen ? Chrysos- tom .' The other Greek fathers ? Arnobius and Lactantius ? Hilary ? 10 QUESTIONS TO Ambrose? Jerome? Augustine? Dionysius the Little ? Profane learning in the West? Claudian ? Priscian ? Ammianus Marcellinus ? Gildas ? Bede? Boethius ? Philology? Poetry in the East? Romance? History? Geography ? Philology ? Mathematics ? SIXTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 173.) The Middle Ages. — How many centuries are embraced in this period ? Flow are the first five of these characterized ? What was the condition of Europe about the middle of this period ? What common bond of union among all the minute fragments into which the Western Empire had been broken ? What great enterprise cemented this union ? What were the leading national affairs from the Crusades to the Reformation ? Greek Empire. — What account is given of Belisarius? His successes against the Persians ? His success against the Vandals in Africa ? Against the Goths in Italy ? His second command in Italy ? His services at Con- stantinople ? His death ? Narses ? His expedition and government in Italy ? His recall ? The factions of the circus ? Their excesses ? The earthquakes in the time of Justinian ? The plague ? The introduction of silk into Europe ? The Justinian Code ? The alliance of the Turks with Justinian ? The character of his reign ? The reign of Tiberius ? Of Maurice ? Persia. — What account is given of the Sassanian dominion in Persia ? The reign of Chosroes ? Of Hormisdas ? The general Varanes ? The deposition of Hormisdas? The succeeding events of the empire? Italy. — What account is given of Theodoric's appointment to the kingdom of Italy ? His success against Odoacer ? His reign ? His enlargements of the territory ? His general administration ? The affairs of Italy under Totila and Narses ? The invasion of the Lombards ? The circumstances of the death of Alboin ? The subsequent events among the Lombards ? The propagation of Christianity among them ? The origin of the feudal system ? France. — What account is given of the dominions of Clovis ? The other provinces of Gaul ? The successes of Clovis against Syagrius ? Against the Allemani ? The conversion of Clovis ? His expedition against the Visigoths ? His investiture by the emperor Athanasius ? The affairs of the kingdom after his death ? The civil wars of France after the death of Clo- taire? The Frank laws ? Spain. — What account is given of the invasion of Spain by the barbarians ? The foundation of the Gothic monarchy in Spain by Ataulphus ? His sue- cessor Wallia ? The power and success of Euric ? The affairs of Spain after the death of Euric ? Its conversion to Christianity ? Britain. — What account is given of the foundation of the Saxon Heptar- chy? The character and exploits of King Arthur ? The disasters attending the settlement of the Saxons in Britain ? The conversion of the Saxons to Christianity ? The Church. — What account is given of the British Church previous to the mission of Augustine ? The precise object of that mission ? The origin and result of the fifth general council ? The rise of Gregory the Great ? His character and administration? The Benedictines? Their condition and discipline ? The services done by them to society ? white's universal history. 17 SEVENTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 186.) Greek Empire. — What account is given of the oppressions and death of Phocas ? The accession of Heraclius ? The assaults upon the empire by Chosroes II. ? The invasion of the Avars ? The ignominious terms im- posed upon Heraclius by Chosroes ? The subsequent successes of Heraclius ? His triumphal return from the East? The exhausted condition of the em- pire ? The first appearance of the Mussulmans in Europe ? Their successes against Heraclius ? The affairs of the empire under his successors? Persia. — What account is given of the successes of Chosroes II. ? His reverses ? His death ? His magnificence ? Arabia. — What account is given of the Arabs ? Their political condition ? Their religion ? The various attempts to conquer them ? The early history and character of Mohammed? His first converts? The Hegira? His authority and influence at Medina ? His line of policy ? His successes in Arabia ? His death ? The reputed origin of the Koran ? Its contents ? Mohammed's definition of his religion ? Some further particulars of its doctrines and ceremonies ? Its progress under the first four caliphs ? The conquest of Syria under Abubeker ? The capture of Arrestan ? The con- quest of Egypt under Omar ? The capture of Alexandria ? The destruc- tion of the Alexandrian library ? The progress of the Mohammedans in the East ? The contest between Ali and the rebel Moawiyah ? Its result ? The two great sects of the Mohammedans ? The proceedings of Moawiyah against the Africans ? Against the Greeks? The Greek fire ? The com- munications of the Arabs with China and India ? The conquest and con- version of Africa under Hassan? Italy. — What acconnt is given of the exarchate of Ravenna? The Lom- bard kingdom in Italy ? The doge of Venice ? The other particulars of the political constitution of Venice ? The establishment of its hereditary aris- tocracy ? France. — What account is given of the reunion of the French monarchy under Clotaire II. ? The origin and powers of the mayors of the palace ? The reign of Dagobert ? The Sluggard Kings 7 Spain. — What account is given of Gondebert and his successors ? The proceedings of the fourth council of Toledo ? The affairs of Spain under Chintilla ? Recesvind ? Wamba ? Erwiga ? The conspiracy and subse- quent sufferings of the Jews? The archbishops of Toledo ? The Church. — What account is given of the progress of the Eutychian heresy ? The triple crown ? EIGHTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 199.) Greek Empire. — What account is given of the termination of the Hera- clian dynasty ? The origin of Leo III. ? His successes ? His zeal against image- worship ? The reign of Constantine V.? Of Leo IV. ? The resolu- tions of the second council of Nice respecting image-worship ? The career of the empress Irene? Arabia. — What account is given of the attempts of the caliphs to extend their dominions westward ? The overthrow of the Omniades ? The eleva- tion of the Abassides to the caliphate ? The family of the Omniades in Spain? The cruelties of Almanzor? The persecution of the descendants of Ali? The elevation of Haroun Al Raschid to the caliphate? His war with the Greeks ? His embassy to Charlemagne ? His cruelty to the family 18 QUESTIONS TO of the Barmecides ? His patrona gc of letters ? The condition of Arab civil- ization in this century ? Spain. — What account is given of the conquest of Spain by the Arabs? Their policy towards the conquered Christians ? The elevation of Abdalrah- man to the caliphate of the West? The magnificence of Hassan I., caliph of Cordova? The affairs of Christian Spain under Pelayo ? Alphonso the Catholic ? Fruela ? Alphonso the Chaste ? The salutary effects of the residence of the Moors in Spain ? Italy. — What account is given of the reign of Luitprand ? The extinc- tion of the exarchate of Ravenna? The origin of the Pope's temporal sove- reignty ? The condition of the papacy under Gregory III. ? The elevation of Astolphus to the throne of the Lombards ? The interposition of the Franks in behalf of the Pope and against the Lombards ? The bestowal of the exarchate upon the Pope ? France. — What account is given of the victory of Charles Martel over the Saracens ? The division of the Frank dominions on the death of Charles Martel? The elevation of Pepin to the regal authority? His efforts to strengthen the kingly power ? The union of the entire Frank monarchy under Charlemagne? His wars with the Saxons? With the Saracens* His visit to Rome in defence of Pope Leo III. ? The extent of his domin- ions ? The influence of his imperial title ? His political reforms ? His literary character ? His private life ? The condition of the Western Em pire in his time ? The Eastern Empire ? The empire of the caliphs ? Denmark ? Sweden, Russia and Poland ? Bohemia ? Spain ? Rome 9 Venice ? England ? The Church. — What account is given of the grounds of difference between the Greek and Latin Churches ? The efforts of Leo the Iconoclast to abolish images? The result of the council of Constantinople ? The proceedings of Gregory II., Bishop of Rome, in reference to the use of images ? The council of the Lateran? The second council of Nice ? The disposition and conduct of Charlemagne towards the Church ? The conduct of the Gallican clergy towards the Iconoclasts ? The several decisions in regard to the pro- cession of the Holy Ghost ? The progress of the temporal power of the Popes in this century ? The increase of their ecclesiastical power ? The influence of Christianity in the earlier ages upon the arts ? The origin of the pointed or Gothic style of architecture '! The destruction of public libraries during the first part of the middle ages ? The service rendered to literature by the monks ? NINTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 212.) Greek Empire. — What account is given of the reign of Nicephorus I. ? Michael I. ? The disasters of Leo V. ? His subsequent successes ? His administration of the empire? His assassination? Michael II.? Theo- philus the Unfortunate? Michael III.? The origin of Basil 1.? His elevation to the empire ? His administration ? His death ? Basil II. ? Arabia. — What account is given of the decline of Haroun Al Raschid's power? His death? The state of learning under A Imam on ? The war between Al Motassem and the Greeks ? The heresy of the Karidjies ? Of Djcad Ibn Dirkhem ? Of Achmet Ravendi ? Of Hakem ? Of Babek ? The introduction of the Turks into the service of the caliphs ? The increas- ing weakness and divisions of the caliphate? The heresy of Abdallah and the Karmathians ? white's universal history. 19 Spain. — What account is given of the naval expeditions of the Saracens under Hakein I. ? The sedition in Cordova 7 The ravaging of Italy by the Moors ? The successes of the Christians in Spain ? The career of Alphonso the Great ? France. — What account is given of the reign of Louis the Debonnaire ? The division of the empire after his death ? The reign of Charles the Bald ? His coronation by Pope John VIII.? Louis III. and Carloman ? The union of the French and German kings against the nobles and the North- men ? The victory of Louis III. over the Northmen? His death ? Charles the Fat ? The elevation of Eudes to the crown ? His victory over the Northmen ? The origin and religion of the Northmen ? Their earliest incursions into Southern Europe ? Their ravages after the death of Charle- magne ? The conversion of the pirate chief, Rollo ? His establishment as Duke of Normandy ? Germany. — What account is given of the struggles of Louis the German against the Sclavonic tribes ? His other enterprises? The division of the kingdom on his death ? Its reunion under Charles the Fat ? His difncul ties with the Northmen ? His deposition ? The vigorous measures of Arnulph ? Italy. — What account is given of Bernard, the son of Pepin? Louis, the son of Lothaire ? The incursions to which Italy was exposed ? The mea- sures of defence adopted at Rome ? The object of the Italian league ? The false policy of Louis ? Its consequences ? His subsequent attempts to repair the mischief? The temporal independence of the Pope ? The succession to the empire after the death of Louis ? Disputes for the kingdom of Italy between the dukes of Spoleto and Benevento ? Britain. — What account is given of the formation of the Heptarchy under Egbert? The inroads of the Danes? The accession of Alfred ? The con- dition of the kingdom under his reign ? His legislation ? The literary character of Alfred ? His private character ? The Anglo-Saxon consti- tution ? The Church. — What account is given of the general decline of piety and learning in the Church ? The elevation of Photius to the patriarchate of Constantinople ? The causes of schism between the Greek and Roman Churches ? The rise of saint worship ? The increase of dangerous doc- trines ? TENTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 225.) Greek Empire. — What account is given of the accession of Constantino VII.? His deposition by Romanus ? Restoration of Constantine ? The incursions of the Bulgarians ? Of the Russians ? The successes of Nice- phorus ? The energy of the empire under John Zimisces ? Basil II. ? Italy. — What account is given of the adventures of Adelaide, Lothaire's widow? The condition of the papacy? The interference of Otho in the affairs of Rome ? The deposition of the pope, John XII. ? The demagogue Crescentius ? France. — What account is given of the deposition of Charles the Simple " The usurpation of Rodolph ? The extinction of the Carlovingian dynasty ? The elevation of Hugh Capet ? The consolidation of his power ? Robert the Wise ? His difficulties with the Pope ? The character of Constance i The origin of the feudal system ? The threefold division of the lands undei 20 QUESTIONS TO that system ? The obligations of liegemen to their superiors ? The mea- sures which abridged the power of the nobles? Germany. — What account is given of the elevation of Conrad to the king- dom of Germany ? His death ? Henry the Fowler ? His enlargement and consolidation of the kingdom ? The successes of Otho the Great ? His attempts to consolidate the monarchy ? His checks upon the nobles ? Otho II.? Otho III.? Britain. — What account is given of the reign of Edward the Elder ? The accession of Athelstan ? His successes? The growing importance of Eng- land ? Foreign refugees in England ? The foreign connexions of Athelstan? His beneficent administration ? The miseries which succeeded ? The inter- ference of the monks ? Dunstan and the princess Elgiva ? Spain. — What account is given of the Moorish empire in Spain ? The administration of Abdalrahman III. ? His defeat at Simancas 1 His sub- sequent successes ? Almanzor ? The successes of the Christians under Ramires II.? Their subsequent defeats and final triumph ? Arabian Empire. — What account is given of the condition of the caliphate ? The office of Emir al Omra ? Obeidaltah and the Fatimites ? Origin and condition of the Egyptian caliphate ? The progress and conquests of the Mussulmans in the East? The origin of the Turks? The Church. — What account is given of the general character of this century ? The extent of Christianity at this time ? The degeneracy of the clergy? The condition and claims of the papacy? The dispersion of monks by the Normans ? Its influence upon learning ? The Eenedictines ? The panic respecting the end of the world ? The origin of penance ? Its ex- cesses ? The World. — What account is given of the Greek empire ? The caliph- ate ? The Frank kingdom ? France ? Germany ? Spain ? England ? Italy ? Rome ? ELEVENTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 236.) Greek Empire. — What account is given of the reign of Constantine VIII. ? Romanus III. ? Michael IV. ? Michael V. ? Constantine IX. ? The in- vasion of the Bulgarians ? The Comneni ? The elevation of Isaac by the army? The short-sighted policy of Constantine X.? The war of Romanus IV. ? The encroachments of Soliman upon the empire ? Deposition of Michael VII.? The accession of Alexius Comnenus? His biographer? His character ? The difficulties with which he had to contend ? Italy. — What account is given of the first visits of the Normans to Italy ? Their success against the infidels in Italy ? The difficulties between them and the Pope ? The projects of Robert Guiscard ? His death ? The suc- cesses of his brother Roger in Sicily ? Roger's line of policy ? The origin of the Italian republics ? Their condition ? Venice? Genoa? Pisa? Germany. — What account is given of the accession of Henry II. ? His coronation at Rome ? Conrad II. ? Henry III. ? His interference in the affairs of Rome? Henry V. ? Gregory VII. ? The controversy between Gregory and Henry respecting the right of investiture ? The course of the German aristocracy in this controversy ? Its result ? Subsequent troubles of Henry ? France. — What account is given of Robert, and the revolts of his sons 7 The persecution of heretics ? The character of Robert ? The accession of white's universal history. 21 Henry I. ? His contests with the duke of Normandy ? The reign of Philip I. ? His quarrels with the Popes ? Spain. — What account is given of the condition of the Moorish empire in Spain ? The origin of the Almoravides ? Their expeditions into Spain ? The Christian empire in Spain ? The successes of Ferdinand against the Arabs ? The Cid ? Arabian Empire. — What account is given of the conquests and policy of Togrul-Beg ? The victories of Alp Arslan ? The reign of Malek-Shah ? The condition of the empire at his death? Britain. — What account is given of the succession of Sweyn to the throne of England ? The reign of Canute the Great ? His character ? The cha- racter and reign of Edward the Confessor ? The expedition against Mac- beth ? The accession of Harold ? His expedition against the Norwegians? The invasion of the Normans? The battle of Hastings ? The consequence of this invasion? The capture of London? The general confiscation of property ? Policy of William towards the Saxons ? His visit to Normandy ? His expedition against Malcolm Canmore? The Norman constitution? Doomsday Book ? The revolt of William's son Robert ? The reign of Wil- liam Rufus ? The phrase " benefit of clergy" ? The events of Scotland ? The Church. — What account is given of the character of the papacy and the clergy ? The character and policy of Gregory VII. ? His controversy with the Emperor Henry IV. ? The doctrine of transubstantiation ? The order of Chartreuse ? The " Truce of God" ? The disuse of the vernacular languages in worship ? The Crusades. — What account is given of the origin of the Crusades ? The expedition of Peter the Hermit? The first crusading army ? Its num- bers ? Its progress through Asia Minor ? The capture of Antioch ? Of Jerusalem ? The new kingdom of Jerusalem ? Chivalry. — What account is given of the institution of chivalry ? Its objects and character ? State of the World. — What account is given of the condition of Rome and Germany ? France ? Spain ? England ? The other European states ? The Greek empire ? The caliphate ? TWELFTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 255.) Greek Empire. — What account is given of the prowess of Manuel I. ? The early career of Andronicus ? His elevation to the throne ? His cruel- ties ? His deposition? The reign of Isaac Angelus ? The capture of Con- stantinople by the crusaders ? The East. — What account is given of the Attabeks ? The power and successes of Saladin ? Italy. — What account is given of the attempts of Frederick Barbarossa to establish his power in Italy ? The league against him ? Arnold of Brescia? The Venetians ? The marriage of the Adriatic ? Germany. — What account is given of the contentions between Henry V. and the Pope about the right of investiture ? The origin of the Guelfs and Ghibellines ? The plans of Frederick Barbarossa in Italy ? The close of his career ? Henry VI. ? France. — What account is given of the reign of Louis the Fat ? Louis VII. ? Philip Augustus ? The early deliberative assemblies of the French? The impulse given to the commons by Louis the Fat? The origin and his- tory of the States General ? 12 QUESTIONS TO Spain. — What account is given of the progress of the Christians in Spain ? The kingdom of Portugal ? The military orders of Spain ? Britain. — What account is given of the progress of English liberty under Henry I. ? The contest for the crown between Matilda and Stephen 1 The «eign of Henry II.? The progress of popular liberty in his reign? The character and exploits of Richard I. ? The early history of Ireland? The sarly history of Scotland ? The Church. — What account is given of the advancing power of the pa- pacy under Paschal II.? Adrian IV. ? Alexander III. ? Innocent III.? The origin of the second crusade ? The march of the crusaders ? Their successes ? The origin and leaders of the third crusade ? The siege and capture of Acre ? The result of the crusade ? The parallel between it and the Trojan war? The Assassins ? The Druses? THIRTEENTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 266.) Greek Empire. — W r hat account is given of the interference of the crusaders with the affairs of Constantinople ? The establishment of Alexius at Trebi- zond? Theodore Lascaris at Nice? Michael Paleeologus? The contro- versies in the Church ? Andronicus the Elder ? Germany. — What account is given of the accession of Frederick II. to the empire ? His contests with the papacy ? The interregnum after his death ? The double election of Richard of Cornwall and Alphonso of Castile ? The growth of commercial cities ? The election of Rodolph of Hapsburg ? His reign ? The Hanse towns ? The evidence of their wealth and power ? Italy. — What account is given of the Italian republics ? The misfortunes of the house of Hohenstaufen ? The Lombard leagues? Their contests with the emperor? The contentions in Italy after the death of Frederick? The affairs of Florence ? The commercial advantages accruing to Venice from the crusades ? The growth of the aristocratic influence in their con- stitution ? The history and power of Genoa ? Of Pisa ? The contest be- tween Genoa and Pisa ? The prosperity of the Italian commercial cities ? The attempts of the Popes to wrest Naples from the empire? The contest between Charles of Anjou and Manfred? Between Charles and Conradin? The subsequent cruelties of Charles? The insurrection and massacre ? The subsequent events of Sicily ? France. — What account is given of the difficulties between France and England ? The crusade against the Albigenses under Louis VIII. ? The character and reign of Louis IX. ? The influence of his reign ? The in- crease of the kingdom under Philip the Bold ? Under Philip the Fair ? Britain. — W T hat account is given of the circumstances which led to the adoption of Magna Charta? The value of Magna Charta ? The disasters attending the close of King John's reign? The character and reign of Henry III. ? The rebellion of Leicester and the barons ? The character of Edward I. ? His expeditions into Scotland ? Spanish Peninsula. — What account is given of the wars between the Moors and Christians in Spain ? The condition of Christian Spain at this period ? The successes of Alphonso X. ? His subsequent troubles ? The successes of Sancho IV. ? The events of the kingdom during the minority of Ferdi- nand IV. ? During his reign ? The attempts of the kings of Arragon to conquer the Balearic Isles ? The conquest and continued possession of Sicily ? The East. — What account is given of the affairs of Egypt? The Mame- lukes ? The conquests of Ghengis Khan ? The further progress of the Mongol power ? white's universal history. 23 The Church — What account is given of the rise and progress of the Franciscans ? The other mendicant orders ? The history of the Inquisition ? The origin and persecution of the Albigenses ? Crusades. — What account is given of the fourth crusade ? The crusade of children ? The fifth crusade ? The sixth crusade ? The seventh cru- sade ? The eighth crusade ? The immediate effect of the crusades ? Their effect upon the Church ? Their political effect ? Their effect on commerce and industry ? Their effect on knowledge ? FOURTEENTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 286.) Greek Empire. — What account is given of the continued losses of the empire ? The diasters occurring in the reign of John Palaeologus ? The narrow bounds of the empire? The origin of the Ottoman empire? The establishment of the Janizaries ? The successes of Bajazet ? His cruelties ? His defeat? The disorders of the Mongol empire? The early history of Tamerlane? His eastern conquests? His contest with Bajazet? His pro- jects for universal dominion ? Germany. — What account is given of the affairs of Germany ? The origi- nal condition of the Swiss towns ? Their first efforts at independence ? The story of William Tell ? The battle of Morgarten ? The conduct of the fifty exiles ? The heroism of Arnold Struthan in the battle of Sempach ? The extent of the Helvetic confederacy ? The attempts of Henry VII. to restore the imperial authority in Italj? ? The contests between the Emperor Louis and the Popes ? The Golden Bull? The other events in the reign of Charles IV.? The condition of the country under Wenceslaus? The termination of his reign ? Italian Peninsula. — What account is given of the condition of Italy at this time ? The attempts of the Romans to resist the political power of the Popes ? The condition of Rome during the residence of the Popes at Avig- non ? The revolution attempted by Rienzi ? The causes of its failure ? The affairs of Genoa ? The condition of Venice? The condemnation and exe- cution ofFaliero? The interference of Venice with the affairs of Constanti- nople ? llie contests between Venice and Genoa ? The affairs of Tuscany ? The affairs of Florence ? The contentions between the Guelfs and Ghibel- lines ? The contentions between the greater arts and the less arts ? The affairs of Lombardy ? The affairs of Sicily and Naples under Frederick of Arragon ? Subsequent events in Naples ? France. — What account is given of the Flemish war ? The quarrels be- tween the French King and the Popes? The destruction of the Knights Templars ? The reign of Louis Hutin ? The Salic law ? The claims of Edward III. of England ? The sedition in Flanders ? The battle of Cressy ? The interposition of the Pope ? The arbitrary measures of the French King ? The States General ? The battle of Poictiers ? The Jacquerie ? The peace of 1360 ? The renewal of the war? The condition of the kingdom under Charles VI. ? Britain. — What account is given of Gaveston, earl of Cornwall ? The battle of Bannockburn? The rebellion of Lancaster? Rebellion of the Pembroke party ? The deposition of Edward ? The first steps of Edward III. after his accession ? The battle of Sluys ? The battle of Cressy ? Of Poictiers ? The treaty of Bretigny ? The Black Prince ? The general affairs of the kingdom ? The march of the earl of Buckingham through France ? The condition of the kingdom during the minority of Richard II. ? The rebellion of Wat Tyler ? The expedition against Scotland ? The de position and death of Richard ? The great Plague ? 24 QUESTIONS TO Spanish Peninsula. — What account is given of the reign of Alphonso XI. ? The cruelties of Pedro ? His deposition ? The interposition of Edward the Black Prince ? The death of Pedro ? The reign of Henry II. ? His sue cessor John I.? The reign of Henry III.? The affairs of Aragon? The affairs of Portugal under Dionysius ? Under Pedro I. ? The subsequent events in Portugal ? The Church. — What account is given of the projects of Boniface VIII. ? His controversy with Philip the Fair ? The " Babylonish captivity ?" The great schism ? The attempts of Wickliffe to reform the Church ? The Flagellants ? The Bianchi ? Inventions. — What account is given of the mariner's compass? The invention of paper ? FIFTEENTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 306.) Greek Empire. — What account is given of the reign of John Palaeologus II.? Constantine Palaeologus ? The siege and fall of Constantinople ? The dissolution of the empire? Ottoman Empire and Turkey. — What account is given of the invasion of Tamerlane ? Subsequent successes of the Turks ? The exploits of John Huniades ? The abdication of Amurath ? His return- to power and final success ? His second abdication and return to power ? The exploits of Scanderbeg ? The reduction of Constantinople by Mohammed II. ? His attempt upon Rhodes ? The siege of Belgrade ? The reduction of Athens? The expedition against Rhodes ? The character of Mohammed ? The dis- pute between Bajazet II. and Zizim ? Germany. — What account is given of the attempt of Robert to re-establish his authority in Italy? The elevation of Sigismond ? The council of Con- stance ? The Hussite war? The policy and conduct of Albert II., duke of Austria ? The concessions of Frederick III. ? His negotiations with the Pope ? The affairs of Saxony ? The negotiations between Frederick and Charles the Bold ? The consequences of the death of Charles? The acces- sion and marriage of Maximilian ? The decrees of the diet of Worms ? France. — What account is given of the condition of France under Charles VI. ? The rival factions of Orleans and Burgundy ? The civil wars ? The invasion of Henry V ? The battle of Agincourt ? The cruelties of the dominant party in Paris ? The assassination of the duke of Burgundy ? The treaty of Troyes ? The death of Henry V. and Charles VI. ? The accession and conduct of Charles VII. ? The condition of his kingdom ? The character and early history of Joan of Arc ? Her success ? Her capture and death? The successes of Charles? The consequences of the marriage of Margaret of Anjou with Henry VI. ? The policy of Suffolk ? The vic- tories of Dunois ? The character of Charles ? The accession of Louis XI. ? The troubles from opposing factions ? The hostility of the duke of Bur- gundy ? The manoeuvre of Louis to divert him from his purpose ? Tho treachery of the duke towards the king? His cruelty towards Liege? The interference of Louis and Charles in the affairs of England ? The reverses of Charles ? His death and character ? The advantages of his death to Louis ? The history of his daughter Mary? The death of Louis? The character and policy of Louis ? The regency of Anne ? The opposition and revolt of Orleans ? Of Maximilian ? The marriage of Charles ? His expedition into Italy ? His projects ? The coalition against him ? His return to France? His victory and death ? Britain. — What account is given of the difficulties of Henry IV.? The accession of Henry V. ? His expedition against France ? The battle of white's universal history. 25 Agincourt ? His second campaign in France ? The treaty of Troyes ? His death and character ? The progress of the war under the duke of Bed- ford? The siege of Orleans ? Joan of Arc? The decline of the English arms ? The earl of Warwick ? The feeble conduct of the king ? The rebellion of Cade? The usurpation of Richard, duke of York? His over- throw and death ? The success and cruelty of the earl of March ? His accession to the throne ? His marriage and its consequences ? The conduct of Warwick? Restoration of Henry VI. ? The intrigues and downfall of Warwick ? The death of Henry and restoration of Edward IV. ? His sub- sequent history? Edward V.? The usurpation of the duke of Gloucester ? His reign ? The accession and marriage of Henry VII. ? The abolition of " maintenance" ? The origin of the " Star Chamber" ? Henry's invasion of France? The insurrection of Perkin Warbeck ? The disorders of Scot land during this period ? The policy of James III. towards the barons ? Their conspiracy ? The interposition of Gloucester in favour of Albany ? The conduct of the nobles towards the king ? The revolt of the duke of Rothsay ? The reign of James IV. ? Italian Peninsula. — What account is given of the wars between the Anjou and Durazzo families ? The elevation of Alphonzo to the throne of Naples ? His character and administration ? The contests between Ferdinand and his nobles ? The restoration of the Medici family in Florence ? John de Medici ? Cosmo ? Pietro ? Lorenzo ? The downfall and bankruptcy of the family ? The papacy ? The council of Basle ? The pragmatic sane tion ? The attempts to excite a new crusade? Sixtus IV. ? Innocent VIII.? Alexander VI. ? The affairs of Cyprus ? The interference of Venice ? The continental aggrandizement of Venice ? The origin and rise of Sforza ? The history and aggrandizement of his son, Francis Sforza ? The affairs of Genoa ? Ludovico the Moor ? The other Italian states ? The genera, condition of Italy ? Spanish Peninsula. — What account is given of the kingdom of Navarre? The generosity of Carlos to his father, John II. ? The birth of Ferdinand the Catholic ? The intrigues of the queen against Carlos ? The successive attempts of Carlos to regain his rights ? His death ? The death of Blanche ? The feelings of the Catalonians towards John ? The affairs of Aragon ? The affairs of Castile? The minority of John II.? The reign of Henry IV. ? The rebellion of the nobles ? The concessions of the king ? The marriage of Isabella ? The various tyrannical measures of the king ? The contest for the crown at his death ? The reforms at the accession of Ferdi- nand and Isabella? The war against the Moors ? Abulhassan ? Boabdil ? The siege and capture of Granada ? The articles of capitulation ? The persecution and expulsion of the Jews ? The family alliances of the mo- narchs ? The affairs of Portugal ? The reign of John I. ? Alphonso V. ? His claims to the throne of Castile ? His disgust with royalty ? John II. ? Discoveries and Colonies. — What account is given of the maritime entei. prises of the Portuguese ? The discovery of Madeira ? Its value ? The Canary islands ? The Portuguese discoveries around Africa ? The Indies ? The discovery and settlement of America by the Scandinavians? The pro- ject of Columbus ? His various repulses ? His first voyage and return ? His second and third voyages ? His death ? His remains ? Americo Vespucci. The Church. — What account is given of the great schism ? The council of Constance ? The conduct of Martin Luther ? The council of Basle ? The Pope's opposition ? The pragmatic sanction ? The concessions of Frederick ? The decrees of the council of Basle ? The persecution of the Franciscans ? Wickliffe ? Huss ? The council of Constance ? The in- 3 2C QUESTIONS TO dignation excited by the execution ofHuss? The Taborites ? Tbe council of Florence ? The attempt to unite the Roman and Greek Churches ? Appendix to the Middle Ages. — What account is given of the commerce of Western Europe ? The principal commercial marts ? The trade with India? The causes of the decline of Venice ? The commercial routes ? The progress of commerce in England ? The woollen trade ? The fisheries ? The naval code ? Banks? Gunpowder:' Printing? The Great Plague? The Gipsies ? The revival of the arts ? The condition of learning after the death of Charlemagne? The languages of Europe ? The universities ? The Ro- mance language ? The English language and literature ? The Italian ? The influence of the downfall of Constantinople upon learning ? The do mestic measures of the age ? The sumptuary laws ? The evidences ot domestic and social comforts ' The condition of agriculture in England ? The prices of various articles ? The comparative value of money ? SIXTEENTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 350.) Modern History. — What account is given of the inventions that preceded and marked the era of this Reformation ? The influence of race and lan- guage ? The rise of the middle class and the decline of feudalism in the different states of Europe ? The comparative condition and strength of the leading European powers during the seventeenth century ? The leading events of the eighteenth century ? Its close ? Britain'. — What account is given of two important marriages at the be- ginning of this century ? The accession of Henry VIII.? The conduct of Wolsey ? The foreign politics of Henry ? Crafty policy of Wolsey ? Henry's theological discussions? The battle of Pavia, and consequent treaty ? Henry's passion for Anne Boleyn ? His proposals to the Pope ? His treatise on his marriage with Catherine ? Policy of the Pope ? Dis- grace of Wolsey ? Advice of Cranmer ? Proceedings of Convocation and Parliament in regard to the king's marriage and the Anglican Church ? Subsequent proceedings of Henry ? The abolition of the monasteries ? The death of Anne Boleyn, and marriage of Jane Seymour ? The discontents in England, and their consequences ? The " bloody statute" ? The death of Jane Seymour, and marriage of Anne of Cleves ? The disgrace of Cromwell and the queen ? Catherine Howard ? Catherine Parr ? Henry's attention to Wales ? The affairs of Ireland ? Henry's measures towards Scotland and France ? His death ? His character? The minority of Edward VI. ? The policy of Somerset ? Winchester? Proceedings of Somerset in Scot- land ? The progress of reform ? The projects and death of Lord Seymour? The downfall of Somerset? The ambitious views and projects of Warwick ? Lady Jane Grey ? The accession of Mary ? The intentions and policy of Mary ? Her measures for the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic reli. gion / Cardinal Pole ? The persecution of Protestants ? Death of Mary ? Her character ? Education of Elizabeth ? The pretensions of Mary Stuart ? The restoration of the Protestant religion ? Elizabeth's policy towards Scot. land? The oath of supremacy ? The thirty -nine articles ? Mary's flight into England ? The duke of Norfolk ? The bull of Pius V. ? lis effect? Foreign and domestic troubles of Elizabeth? Death of Mary' Warlike preparations of Spain? Successes of Drake ? The "invincible Armada"? Conduct of Elizabeth ? The preparations for defence ? Failure and destruc- tion of the Armada? Irish affairs? James IV.? James V. / Cardinal Beaton? John Knox? The Scottish reformation? Troubles and vicissi- tudes of Mary ? The union of Ireland with England ? Tne influence of Henry and Elizabeth upon Irish affairs? France. — What account is given of Louis XII. ? His character and p.'licy ? His marriages ? The state of the government and kingdom during white's universal history. 27 his reign ? His foreign alliances ? His Italian expedition ? His attempts* upon Naples ? War with Venice ? Gaston de Foix ? Proceedings ol Francis I. ? Rivalry between Francis and Charles ? The Constable Bour. bon ? The battle of Pavia ? Subsequent treaty ? Its violation ? Subse- quent hostilities ? Interview between the monarchs ? Alliances of the French and Turks ? Religious disturbances of Germany ? The history of Henry II.? Francis II. ? The factions during his reign ? The conspiracy ofAmboise? Charles IX.? The Huguenots ? The first civil war ? The second civil war ? The massacre of St. Bartholomew ? The policy of Henry III. ? The Catholic League ? The " sixteen" ? The " barricades" ? The assassination of the duke of Guise? The disturbed condition of the king- dom? The assassination of the king ? The accession of Henry IV. ? The proceedings of parliament ? The edict of Nantes ? The subsequent course of the king ? • Italian Peninsula. — What account is given of the measures of Ferdinand of Spain to get possession of Naples ? The subsequent events in Italy ? The parties that favoured the French cause ? Jerome Savonarola ? The difference between the French and Italian soldiery ? The condition of Italy during these wars ? The affairs of Savoy and Piedmont? The conspiracy in Genoa? Andrew Doria ? Affairs of Genoa after his death ? The coali- tion against Venice ? Its results ? The affairs of Tuscany ? Alexander de Medici ? Cosmo ? Ferdinand ? The condition of the states of the Church ? Caesar Borgia ? Julius II. ? Leo X. ? Clement VII. ? Paul III. ? Paul IV. ? Gregory XIII. ? Sixtus V. ? The affairs of Parma ? Spanish Peninsula. — What account is given of the Spanish sovereigns ? The character of Ferdinand ? The accession of Charles? The cause of his unpopularity among the Spaniards ? The subsequent discontents ? The change in the Cortes? The accession of Philip II. ? His severity? Its consequences ? The affairs of Portugal ? Sebastian ? The union of Por- tugal with Spain ? The " invincible Armada" ? The Netherlands. — What account is given of the rise and power of the dukes of Burgundy ? The union of the seventeen provinces with Spain under Charles V. and Philip II. ? The revolt of the Flemings ? The proceedings of the duke of Alva? The prince of Orange? The continuation of the war under Louis Requesens ? The pacification of Ghent ? The formation of the United Provinces under William, prince of Orange ? The affairs of the Low Countries ? The interference of England ? Conclusion of the contes* ? The causes of the success of the Dutch against Philip ? Germany. — What account is given of the reign of Maximilian? The ele- vation of Charles V. ? Hostility of Francis ? The league against him ? His defeats? His capture? The Holy League ? The imperial forces in Italy ? Sacking of Rome ? The treaty of Cambray ? Martin Luther ? The progress of his doctrines ? The diet of Augsburg ? The policy oJ Charles? His brother Ferdinand ? The expedition of Charles into Africa \ The Anabaptists ? French and Italian wars ? The second expedition into Africa ? Renewal of hostilities between Charles and Francis ? The peace ofCrespy? The plans of Charles against the Reformers? His success? The subsequent revolt and success of the Reformers under Maurice ? The abdication of Charles ? The reign of Ferdinand I.? Maximilian II.? Ru- dolph II.? Hungary and Bohemia. — What account is given of the early history of these states ? The invasion of Hungary by the Turks ? The opposition of the Bohemians to the Austrian dominion ? The origin of the Croats and Pandoors ? 28 QUESTIONS TO Poland and Russia. — What account is given of the early history of Poland ? The reign of Alexander ? Sigismund I. ? Sigismund II. ? The confedera- tion of 1573? Henry? Battori ? Sigismund III. ? The early history of Russia? Ivan III.? Vasili IV.? Theodore? Boris? Denmark, Sweden and Norway. — What account is given of the early his- tory of these countries ? Christian II. ? Gustavus Vasa ? Frederick I. ? The Reformation ? Sweden and Denmark ? The recess of Colding ? Erik? John ? Sigismund ? Charles ? Ottoman Empire and the East. — What account is given of the internal disturbances of the empire ? Selim ? The war with Persia ? The conquest of Egypt ? Soliman I. ? The capture of Belgrade ? The reduction of Rhodes? The invasion of Hungary ? Khair Eddin Barbarossa ? Subse- quent events by land and sea ? Domestic troubles of Soliman ? Amurath III. ? Sheikh Eidar in Persia ? Ismael ? Tamasp ? Mohammed Mirza ? Abbas ? The early history of India ? The Mohammedan conquests and power in India? The Ghoriar dynasty ? Tamerlane? Baber? Akbar? The early history of China ? The Han dynasty ? The Tang dynasty ? The Song dynasty ? Kublai-Khan ? Colonies and Discoveries. — What account is given of the West Indies ? Mexico ? Peru ? Brazil ? North America ? [Discoveries and Settlements in North America. — What account is given of the Cabots ? Ponce de Leon ? Varrazani ? Gomez ? Cartier ? Ferdinand de Soto ? Ribault? Melendez? Frobisher ? Sir Francis Drake and the Oregon territory ? Sir Humphrey Gilbert ? Sir Walter Raleigh's first expedition ? His second expedition ? His third expedition ? His fate ?] Colonial System. — What account is given of the condition of the Spanish colonies ? The Portuguese dominion in the East ? Causes of its decline ? Colonial policy of England ? The Church. — What account is given of the religious movements that preceded the Reformation ? Indulgences ? Luther's first opposition ? Eras- mus ? Leo X. ? The progress of the new opinions ? The diet at Spires ? The diet of Augsburg? Maurice of Saxony? The Helvetic Reformation ? The progress of the Reformation in France ? In other countries ? The council of Trent ? Its decrees ? The Jesuits ? Letters, Arts and Sciences. — What account is given of the consequences of the invention of printing? English writers ? French? Italian? Spa- nish ? Portuguese ? German and Dutch ? SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A. D, (Page 400.) Great Britain. — What account is given of the accession of James I. ? His character ? His troubles ? The Gunpowder Plot ? The oath of alle- giance ? The pacification and settlement of Ireland ? Buckingham ? The state of parties ? Death of James ? Accession and marriage of Charles I. ? Ship-money? Petition of right ? Laud and Strafford ? The Star Chamber ? The Scottish Covenant ? The Long Parliament ? The parties in the civil war? Its issue ? Cromwell ? Death of Charles ? The Rump Parliament? Montrose ? Ormond ? Charles II. ? The Protectorate ? The success of British arms? Death of Cromwell? His son Richard? Restoration of Charles II. ? His first measures ? His marriage and character? The sur- render of Dunkirk ? War with Holland ? The plague in London ? The great fire ? The persecution in Scotland ? The Test Act ? The Popish Plot ? Further measures of Parliament ? Accession of James II. ? His character ? The rebellion of Monmouth and Argyle ? The attempts of James to introduce the Catholic religion ? The accession of William, prince white's universal history. 29 of Orange ? The influence of the revolution upon the internal affairs of the empire ? The disposition of the Catholics towards William ? The proceed- ings in Scotland? France. — What account is given of the minority of Louis XIII. ? Con- cini ? Luines ? Flight and insurrection of Mary ? Insurrection of the Protestants ? The character and designs of Richelieu ? His measures of foreign policy ? His domestic administration ? Mazarin and the Fronde ? The war between France and Spain ? The treaty of the Pyrenees ? The ambitious projects of Louis XIV.? The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle? The preparations for war with the United Provinces? The progress of the war? Its termination? The despotic character of Louis? The motives which led to the revocation of the edict of Nantes ? The persecuting measures of government ? Their consequences ? The grand alliance against France ? Progress of the war ? The treaty of Ryswick ? Spain and Portugal. — What account is given of the character and reign of Philip III. ? Philip IV. ? The disasters of his reign ? The Portuguese revolution? John IV. ? Alphonso VI. ? Peter II.? Italian Peninsula. — What account is given of the influence of the Refor- mation upon Italian affairs ? The contests of Venice with the Pope ? With the pirates ? With Turkey ? Germany. — What account is given of the affairs of Germany under Mat- thias ? Ferdinand II. ? The parties to the Bohemian war ? Its progress ? The Protestant confederacy of 1625? Designs of the emperor upon the liberties of the German princes ? His proceedings in Bohemia ? In Ger- many ? Resistance of the diet of Ratisbon ? The preparations for war under Gustavus Adolphus ? The progress of the war ? The defeat of Tilly ? The defeat of Wallenstein ? Consequences of the death of Gustavus ? Pro- gress of the war under Ferdinand III. ? The peace of Westphalia ? The accession of Leopold I. ? The confederacy of the Turks and Hungarians ? The siege of Vienna ? The electorate of Hanover ? The kingdom of Prussia? Holland. — What account is given of the contest between the Spanish and the Dutch? The origin of the Synod of Dort? Its decrees ? The resump- tion of hostilities with Spain ? Frederick Henry ? William II. ? The war with England ? Humiliation of the Dutch ? Renewal of the war under De Witt? William III.? DeniMArk. — What account is given of the reign of Christian IV. ? His participation in the Protestant League ? The war with Sweden ? The reign of Frederick III. ? Christian V.? The foreign commerce? Frede- rick IV. ? Sweden. — What account is given of Gustavus Adolphus ? The attempt of Sigismund of Poland? The interposition of the Czar? The proceedings of Gustavus in Germany ? The minority of Christina ? The part taken by her in the treaty of Westphalia ? Her character ? Her resignation of the crown ? The reign of Charles X. ? His war with Poland ? With Denmark ? The general pacification after his death ? The course of Charles XI. on attaining his majority ? His domestic administration? Poland. — What account is given of the interference of Sigismund in the affairs of Russia? In the thirty years' war? The general influence of his reign? Ladislaus IV.? His relations with Russia? Turkey? The in- fluence of the Jesuits? The reign of John Casimir ? Invasion of Gustavus? Bad policy of Gustavus? The part taken in this dispute by the elector of Brandenburg? Relations with the Cossacks and Muscovites? The acec?- 30 QUESTIONS TO sion of Michael? The invasion of the Turks ? The election of Sobieski as John III. ? His character and achievements ? The domestic troubles of Poland ? Russia. — What account is given of the state of Russia? The invasion of of the Swedes and Poles? The elevation of Romanof? His pacific policy? His internal administration ? The minority of Alexis ? His foreign rela- tions and successes ? His domestic troubles ? The rebellion of Razin ? The internal administration ? The reign of Theodore ? Peter the Great ? Ottoman Empire. — What account is given of the state of the empire? The character of its sovereigns ? Osman ? Mustapha ? Murad ? Ibra- him ? Mohammed IV.? The capture of Candia ? The war in Hungary ? Soliman III.? Achmet II. ? Mustapha II.? The treaty of Carlowitz? The East. — What account is given of the affairs of Persia under Sain ? Abbas II. ? Hussein Mirza ? The origin of the Mantchoos ? Their rise to supreme power in China ? The policy of Chun-tchi ? Kang-hi ? Tive early history of Japan ? Its form of government? The Catholics ? The Dutch? The Mogul empire? Its disasters under Selim ? Jehan ? The reign of Aurengzebe ? The Mahrattas? Condition of the Mogul empire? Colonies. — What account is given of the origin of the British East India Company? The extension of their powers in 1624? Their progress ? The African companies ? The West Indies ? The settlements in North Ame- rica ? The French colonies ? The Spanish ? Portuguese ? Dutch ? [Settlement of the United States. — What account is given of the settle*, ment of St. Augustine ? Of Virginia ? New Plymouth ? Massachusetts ? New Hampshire? Maine? Rhode Island? Connecticut? New York? Delaware ? Maryland ? Carolina ? New Jersey ? Pennsylvania ? Georgia ?] The Church. — What account is given of the origin of the Jansenists? The hostility of the Jesuits ? The interposition of papal authority ? The schism among French theologians ? The Quakers ? Literature, Arts and Sciences. — What account is given of their condi- tion in England ? France ? Italy ? Spain ? Germany ? Holland ? EIGHTEENTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 432.) Great Britain. — What account is given of the Act of Succession? The grand alliance? Hostile movements of the French? Death of William ? Incidents of his reign? The accession of Anne? The successes of Marl- borough ? The taking of Gibraltar ? The Scottish Act of Security ? The treaty of union ? The continuance of the war on the continent ? Trial of Sacheverell ? Accession of the Tories to power? Supposed intentions of Anne and the Tories ? Accession of George I. ? His policy towards the tories? The Riot Act? The rebellion in favour of the Pretender? Its suppression? The Quadruple Alliance? The South Sea bubble? The accession of George II. ? The policy of Walpole ? War with Spain ? The affair of Portobello and Carthagena ? The war in behalf of the queen of Hungary ? The rebellion of '45 ? Its progress ? Its termination ? Its consequences to the Highlanders ? The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ? The con- dition of the British colonies ? The assistance to Prussia? The progress of the seven years' war under Mr.Pitt ? Accession of George III. ? The progress and termination of the war under Bute ? His retirement ? The career of John Wilkes ? The origin and object of the Stamp Act ? The ground of opposition to it? The concessions of the ministry ? The issue of the con troversy ? The affairs of Ireland ? The national debt ? The difficulties that beset the empire during the American war ? The parliamentary lead white's universal history. 31 «;rs ? The coalition ministry ? Elevation of Mr. Pitt ? His first measures ? Warren Hastings ? The regency discussion ? The French revolution ? Commencement of hostilities ? The successes of the English? The union of Great Britain and Ireland ? The condition and resources of England during the war of the French revolution ? Her Indian possessions ? Her national debt? Her commerce with the United States? Evidences of wealth ? Sources of her power ? France. — What account is given of the question of the Spanish succes- sion ? The will of Charles II. ? The offensive alliance against Philip V.? The success of Eugene and Marlborough ? Embarrassed condition of Louis ? The successive victories of the allied powers ? The attempt at negotiation ? Renewal of it? The change in European affairs? The peace of Utrecht? The character of Louis XIV. ? His principles of government ? His army and revenues? The regency of Orleans ? The Mississippi scheme? Its plan? Its extent ? Its result ? The majority and marriage of Louis XV. ? The policy of Fleury ? The war against Austria and Russia? Treaty of Vienna ? The Pragmatic Sanction ? Its violation by Louis ? The war with Austria? Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ? The subsequent events of his reign? The state of the kingdom ? The accession and marriage of Louis XVI. ? His character ? His first acts ? Treaty of alliance with the United States ? The meeting of the Notables ? The proposition of Calonne ? The assem- bling of the States General ? Measures of the Third Estate ? Formation of the National Assembly ? Dismissal of Neckar ? Formation of the Na- tional Guard ? Action of the National Assembly ? Attack of the palace at Versailles ? Condition of the royal family ? Further proceedings of the assembly ? Attempted flight of the king ? Dissolution of the assembly ? Character and proceedings of the new assembly ? Action of Austria and Prussia? Condition of Paris and the royal family? The National Conven- tion? Execution of the king? Hostile attitude of the republic? Progress of the war ? First appearance of Napoleon Buonaparte ? The reign of ter- ror ? Its atrocities 1 Its impieties ? Downfall of Robespierre ? Military operations of the republic ? The Directory ? State of the war ? Napoleon's campaign in Italy ? Political changes consequent upon the peace of Campo Formio ? Napoleon's expedition into Egypt ? Expedition into Palestine ? His return to France ? Downfall of the Directory ? Influence of the French revolution upon English and continental politics ? Upon France ? Spain. — What account is given of the accession of Philip V. ? The war of the succession ? Its results upon Spain? Alberoni and Elizabeth Far- nese ? Their projects ? Internal administration of Alberoni ? The Quad- ruple Alliance? Abdication and resumption of the crown by Philip? Sub- sequent wars of Philip? The policy and administration of Ferdinand VI.? Accession of Charles III. ? War with England ? Colonial losses ? Internal administration ? Accession of Charles IV. ? Godoy ? War with France ? Treaty of alliance with France? War with England? Portugal. — What account is given of the reign of Peter II. ? Relations with England? The character and reign of John V. ? Joseph I. ? Cha- racter and measures of Pombal ? The earthquake of 1755 ? The expulsion of the Jesuits ? Accession of Maria ? Her measures ? Her melancholy death ? Italian Peninsula. — What account is given of the reign of Victor Ama- deus II. ? Charles Emanuel III. ? Victor Amadeus III. ? The affairs of Tuscany ? Of the Two Sicilies ? Of Venice ? Church affairs under Cle- ment XI. ? Benedict XIII. ? Benedict XIV. ? Clement XIII. ? Clement XIV.? Pius VI.? 32 QUESTIONS TO Germany. — What account is given of the reign of Joseph I. ? Charles VI.? The treaty of Utrecht ? Successes against the Turks? The Prag- matic Sanction ? Reverses towards the close of this reign ? Claimants to the sovereignty of the Austrian dominions ? Proceedings of Maria Theresa and the European powers ? Election of Charles VII. ? Position and treaties of Maria Theresa? Hostilities with Prussia in 1744? Elevation of her husband as Francis I. ? Progress of the Austrian arms in Italy ? Internal administration of the queen ? The seven years' war? The reign of Joseph II.? Disputes about the electorate? Character and influence of Maria Theresa ? Ambitious designs of Joseph ? His reformations in the govern- ment ? Impolicy of some of his measures ? War with Turkey ? Leopold II.? His measures? Measures of Francis II. 7 Holland. — What account is given of the position of William III.? The confederacy against Louis XIV. ? Its result ? The change in the govern- ment ? The character and administration of the grand pensioner, Heinsius ? Condition and progress of Holland after the peace of Utrecht? Banishment of the Jesuits ? The danger from the dykes ? The circumstances which led to the re-elevation of the house of Orange ? The minority of William V. ? Relations of the Dutch towards the United States ? Reverses ? Discontents ? Interposition of Prussia in favour of the Stadtholder ? Invasion of the French? Change of government? • Denmark. — What account is given of the administration of Frederick IV.? The salutary reforms of Christian IV.? The prosperous condition of the kingdom under Frederick V. ? First measures of Christian VII.? His marriage ? His travels ? Character and administration of Struensee ? His downfall? The regency of Frederick? Sweden. — What account is given of the accession of Charles XII. ? Ag. gressions of the neighbouring states? Prompt measures of Charles towards Denmark ? His successes over the Russians ? His measures in Poland ? The Russian campaign of 1708 ? His defeat in 1709 ? The stay of Charles in Turkey? His return, measures and death? Elevation of Ulrica Elea- nora? Subsequent treaties of peace? Politic administration of Frederick ? Factions of the Hats and Caps ? Rupture with Russia ? Its consequences ? Measures of Adolphus Frederick ? Measures of Gustavus III. ? Dispute with the army ? Subsequent events ? Poland. — What account is given of the elevation of Augustus II. ? His forced abdication ? His return to power ? Condition of the country ? Ele- vation of Augustus III. ? His measures? Election of Stanislaus ? Inter ference of Catherine in Polish affairs ? The civil war ? The project for partitioning Poland? Its accomplishment ? Efforts of the Polish govern- ment at internal reforms ? New interference of foreign powers ? Second partition ? Effort of Kosciusko to regain national independence ? His fail- ure ? Third and final partition ? Character of this transaction ? Prussia. — What account is given of the origin of Prussia ? The title of Margrave ? The house of Brandenburg ? Albert ? Frederick William ? Assumption of the royal title by William I. ? Administration of Frederick William II. ? State of the country at his death? Character and accession of Frederick II.? The war of the Austrian succession? Internal adminis- tration ? Confederacy against Prussia ? Measures of Frederick in this emergency ? Progress of the war ? Battle of Zorndorf ? Of Kunersdorf ? Capture of Berlin ? Critical position of Frederick ? Death of Elizabeth ? Elevation and policy of Peter III. ? Termination of the war ? Condition of the kingdom at his death ? His character and policy ? Reign of Frede- rick William II. ? white's universal history. 33 Russia. — What account is given of the insurrection of the Strelitzes? The inferiority of the Russian soldiers in the war with Sweden ? The founding of St. Petersburg ? Success of the Russian arms in 1709 ? Catherine Alex- ina ? Her successful intrigues with the Porte ? Successes of Peter ? His promotion of the arts ? His character ? Reign of Catherine ? Peter II.? Elevation and reign of Anne ? Of Elizabeth ? Peter III. ? Elevation of the Empress Catherine ? Her character and measures ? Her contest with Turkey ? Internal administration ? The Armed Neutrality ? Further encroachments and conquests ? Her Polish policy ? Measures of Paul I. ? Turkey. — What account is given of the reign of Achmet III. ? The war about the Morea ? Its result ? Persian conquests ? Elevation of Mahmoud I. ? Persian affairs ? European war ? Reign of Osman III. ? Measures of Mustapha III. ? Accession of Abdul-Hamid ? War with Russia and Austria? Character of Selim III. ? Progress of the Austrian and Russian arms ? Interposition of the other European powers ? Condition of the em- pire ? Attempts at reform ? Persia. — What account is given of Mahmoud ? Tamasp ? Ashraff ? Nadir Kouli? His talents and power? Election of Abbas III.? Assump- tion of supreme power by Nadir Shah ? His victories in Afghanistan ? In India ? In Bokhara? His tyranny and death ? Condition of the empire ? Elevation of Kereem Khan ? His administration ? Lootf Ali Khan ? Aga Mohammed Khan ? Shah Futteh Ali ? India. — What account is given of the accession of Shah Aulum ? Trou- bles during his reign ? Character of Jehanda Shah ? Elevation of Moham- med Shah ? Imbecility and misfortunes of his reign ? Invasion of Nadir Shah ? Reign of Ahmed Shah ? Subsequent troubles ? Contest between the Afghans and Mahrattas ? First collision between the French and Eng- lish in the East? Project and measures of the French governor, Dupleix? Counter movements of Lord Clive ? Growing importance of Calcutta ? Its capture by Surajah Dowlah ? The black hole ? Successes of Clive ? Intrigue with Meer Jaffier ? Victory of Plassey ? Its results ? War between the French and English in the Carnatic ? Decline of the French ? Deposition and restoration of Meer Jaffier ? Progress of the English power ? Legisla- tion of Parliament in regard to British India? Warren Hastings? Eiforts of Hyder Ali ? His defeat ? Administration of Cornwallis ? Shore ? Weilesley ? United States. — What account is given of the origin of the United States? The government of the colonies ? Their growth and importance ? The proceedings of the colonists in regard to the shipments of tea? The Boston Port Bill ? The Congress of 1774 ? Their measures ? Battle of Lexington? Congress of 1775 ? Battle of Bunker's Hill ? The appointment of General Washington as commander-in-chief? Expedition into Canada ? Evacua- tion of Boston ? The Declaration of Independence? Successes of the Bri- tish ? Capture of Burgoyne ? French alliance ? Movements of General Clinton ? The British and French fleets ? Success of Clinton in the Caro- linas ? Subsequent success of Greene ? Capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown? Treaty of peace ? Conduct of Washington? State of the country ? Con- vention to form the constitution? Outline of the form of government? Character and administration of Washington ? Hayti. — What account is given of the history and condition of this island? The state of public opinion concerning slavery ? Decree of the Constituent Assembly ? Disastrous consequences ? Elevation of Toussaint? His over- throw and death ? Revolt of John James Dessalines? The division of the island ? Its reunion under Boyer ? State of the island ? ,34 QUESTIONS TO The Church. — What account is given of the progress of infidel opinions? Dictionnaire Encyclopedique ? Voltaire? Other French writers? The suppression of the Jesuits ? Breaking down of the papal authority ? The measures of the French infidels ? The origin of the Methodists ? Their character and influence? Literature, Arts and Sciences. — What account is given of Prior, Young, Pope, &c. ? NINETEENTH CENTURY A. D. (Page 490.) Great Britain. — What account is given of the union of Great Britain and Ireland ? Progress of the French on the continent ? Success of Nelson ? Change of Russian relations? Events in Egypt ? Treaty of Amiens ? Re- newal of hostilities ? Designs of Napoleon ? Measures of Pitt ? Battle of Trafalgar ? Battle of Austcrlitz ? The British ministry ? Carrying off of the Danish navy ? Other acts of the new ministry ? Power of Napoleon on the continent ? Reaction of public opinion against him ? Events in the peninsula under Wellesley ? Dalrymple ? Moore ? Recall of Wellesley to the peninsula? His success? The Walcheren expedition? Position of Austria? Battle of Busaco? Torres Vedras? The Regency? Progress of the British arms under Wellington ? Distress of the nation ? Change of ministry ? War with the United States? Successes of the northern powers? Wellington's campaign of 1812? 1813? 1814? Progress of the allies ? Abdication of Napoleon ? Proceedings of the allied sovereigns ? Renewal of the war ? Battle of Waterloo ? Exile and death of Napoleon ? Evils resulting from his ambition ? Its lesson to nations ? Efforts for the im- provement of the race ? France. — What account is given of the elevation of Napoleon ? His pro- position to England and Austria? Progress of the war in Germany ? In Italy ? Battle of Hohenlinden ? Treaties of peace ? Aims of Napoleon ? Domestic troubles ? Re-establishment of religion ? Legion of Honour ? General administration of affairs? Hostile measures on both sides ? Mur- der of the duke of Enghien? Coronation of Napoleon as emperor of the French ? Coalition against him ? His invasion of Germany ? His suc- cesses ? Terms of the treaty of Presburg? His progress towards universal dominion? War with Prussia ? Activity and success of Napoleon ? Berlin decrees ? War with Russia ? Peace of Tilsit ? Arrogant proceedings towards Portugal? Spain? Renewal of the war by the Austrians? Its result? His marriage ? Extent of his power? Preparations lor war with Russia? Capture of Smolensk ? Battle of Borodino ? Capture and burning of Moscow? Position of Napoleon ? Retreat from Russia? Attempts to reinforce his army ? New victories ? Reverses of Napoleon ? His retreat to France ? New levy ? The allied forces ? Genius displayed by Napoleon in this emergency 1 Result of the campaign ? Elevation of Louis XVIII. ? Terms of the peace ? Discontents in Paris ? Return of Napoleon ? His attempts to maintain his position? Forces under Blucher and Wellington ? Battle of Waterloo ? Character of Napoleon by Dr. Channing ? General pacification at Paris ? Spain. — What account is given of the condition of Spain under the admi- nistration of Godoy ? Secret plot lor the partition of Portugal ? Intrigues of the French in Madrid ? Abdication of the king ? Forced cession of the crown to France ? Nomination of Joseph ? Popular insurrection ? Inter- ference of the British ? Restoration of Ferdinand ? His illiberal policy? Portugal. — What account is given of the policy of Napoleon towards Portugal ? The occupation of the country by the French ? Their expulsion by the British? Subsequent movements of the royal family ? white's universal history. 35 Italy. — What account is given of the interference of the French in the affairs of Naples? The career of Murat in Naples ? The settlement of upper Italy agreed upon in the Congress of Vienna? Switzerland ? Germany. — What account is given of the contest between Napoleon and the Emperor ? The Confederation of the Rhine ? Humiliation of the Ger- man princes by Napoleon ? Successes of the Archduke Charles? Settlement of Germany established by the Congress of Vienna? Holland. — What account is given of the French interference in the affairs of Holland? Character and policy of Louis ? His abdication ? Revolution in favour of the house of Orange ? Settlement of the provinces by the Con. gress of Vienna ? Denmark. — What account is given of the affairs of Denmark ? Sweden. — What account is given of the accession of Charles XIII.? Ces- sions to Russia ? Alliance with Napoleon ? Election of Bernadotte ? Al- liance with England ? Settlement of the country ? Prussia. — What account is given of the administration of Frederick III.? Harsh terms of Napoleon ? His oppression? The popular feeling? Suc- cesses of the Prussians under Blucher and others ? The Tugenbund ? Set- tlement of the country by the Congress of Vienna? Russia. — What account is given of the character and death of Paul ? First measures of Alexander ? Meeting with Napoleon ? Its consequences ? War with Turkey? Hostile feelings towards France? Declaration of Napoleon? The progress of the Russian arms ? Settlement of the Congress of Vienna ? Turkey. — What account is given of the foreign relations of the Porte ? The discontents of the Janissaries ? Hostilities with England and Russia ? Elevation and deposition of Mustapha IV. ? Elevation of Mahmoud II. ? His character and measures? Mehemet Ali ? Ibrahim? Greek inde- pendence ? British India. — What account is given of the policy of the British in India'.' The Mahrattas? Movements of Scindia ? Successes of General Lake ? Of Wellington ? The result of these victories ? New war with the Mahrattas ? Policy of Lord Minto ? Proceedings of the marquis of Hast- ings ? The extent and population of British India ? Religion of the na- tives ? The government ? United States. — What account is given of the condition of the United States ? Political parties ? Increase of power, territory and population ? Expedition against Tripoli ? Difficulties with England ? The non-inter- course act of 1809 ? Its results? Declaration of war ? Expeditions into Canada ? Naval battles? Proceedings of General Ross ? Defeat of Pack- enhum? Extension of territory under Monroe? Brazil. — What account is given of the revolution in Brazil ? Its present form of government? Spanish Colonies. — What account is given of the state of the colonies? Attempt of Miranda ? Congress of 1810 ? New Grenada ? Bolivar ? The rising of the other Spanish states ? Present condition of the South American states ? Literature, Arts and Sciences. — What account is given of Crabbe, Shelley, Sic. &c. ? Conclusion. — What account is given of the Congress of Vienna ? The progress of democratic principles ? General condition and prospects of the world ? The reign of Louis XVIII. ? Charles X.? Prince Polignac ? In- surrection in Paris ? Change of government ? Elevation and administration 36 QUESTIONS. of Louis Philippe? Revolution in Belgium ? Insurrection in Poland? Com- mercial reverses in Great Britain ? Catholic emancipation ? Accession of William IV. ? Administration of Earl Grey ? Reform Bill 1 Abolition of slavery in the British West Indies ? Accession of Queen Victoria ? The condition of the peninsula ? Contest between Don Carlos and Christina ? Interference of France and England ? Appointment of Espartero ? Contest in Portugal between Don Miguel and Don Pedro ? Interference of England and France? Treaty of 1834 ? Majority of Donna Maria ? The public feeling in regard to the Greeks ? Battle of Navarino ? War between the Turks and Russians ? Present condition of Greece ? Of Turkey ? Of Egypt ? Commercial league of Germany ? Condition of Prussia ? Pro- gress of British power in India? Origin of the dispute with China? Pro- ceedings of Lin ? Hostilities against the Chinese ? Treaty of commerce ? END OF THE QUESTIONS K 716 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proc Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: » pp ni PreservationTechnologi A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVA 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724)779-2111