j.A.JOSEPhl INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY UNITED STATES BY J. A. JOSEPH u PRESIDENT OF CENTRAL NORMAL COLLEGE ">*»ic DANVILLE, INDIANA INDIANA PUBLISHING COMPANY 1897 ijt *b rigdon's Grammar of the English Sentence 90 c. English Grammar for the Common School . . . . 60 c. English Grammar for Beginners 40 c. Methods in Arithmetic 25 c. Infinitives and Participles 25 c. Outline of Psychology 25 c. JOSEPH'S Instilulional History of United States $1.50 Outline of United States History 25 c. lind's Lessons in Physiology for Public Schools and Colleges $1.25 Lessons in Physiology for Beginners 60 c. ^- INDIANA PUBLISHING COMPANY, DANVILLE, IND. Ooi'YiuoiiT, 1S97, By JONATHAN UIGDON. Novfaoooti }0ifS0 J. S. Cusliin;; .1; Co. - Berwick & Smith Norwood ami Doston Mass. U.S.A. DEDICATED €a Ha Miiie anti ©au(jf)ter WHOSE CRITICISMS AND SUGGESTIONS HAVE BEEN MOST HELPFUL TO ME IN THIS WORK, AND WHOSE LIVES ARE A CONSTANT INSPIRATION IN ALL MY EFFORTS PREFACE. I HAVE studied long and hard to write this preface. So far I have thought of nothing I wanted to say. Of course this book fills a " long-felt want," and will " answer the needs of many people." I sincerely hope so. Its mistakes are all my own, and its imperfec- tions are not without a parentage. If you, reader, get as much good from the book in reading it as I have received from writing it, you will feel amply repaid. Five years of labor on its thought and style have taught me some valuable lessons. I hope my readers will not wish that those years had taught me one more, — not to have published the result of my labor. I cannot do better than mention the names of the books used in preparing the Institutional His- tory, and then allow my friends to write its preface. The book is a departure in history writing, but I hope a useful one. J. A. JOSEPH, President Central Normal College. Danville, Ind., March, 1897. LIST OF BOOKS USED IN THE PREPAEATION OF THIS WOEK. Rogers : Constitutional History as seen in American Law. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. Stevens : Sources of the Constitution of United States. Macmillan & Co., New York. Brown : Dictionary of American Politics. A. L. Burt, New York. Schaff: Church and State. Scribner's Sons, New York. Payne : History of America. Macmillan & Co., New York. Bryce : American Commonwealth. Charles H. Seyel & Co., Chicago. Bancroft : History of the Constitution. D. Appleton & Co., New York. Larrabee: The Railroad Question. Schulte Publishing Co., Chicago. V vi LIST OF BOOKS USED. Hubert, Jr. : Inventors. Scribner's Sons, New York. Williams : History of the Negro Race in America. Putnam's Sons, New York. Dunbar: Currency, Finance, and Banking. Ginn & Co., Boston. Justin Winsor : Narrative and Critical History of America. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New York. Hinsdale : How to Study and Teach History. D. Appleton & Co., New York. Scott : Development of Constitutional Liberty. Putnam's Sons, New York. Von Halle : Trusts. Macmillan & Co., New York. Prescott : Conquest of Mexico. John W. Lovell Co., New York. Prescott : Conquest of Peru. John W. Lovell Co., New York. Davidson: Reference History of the United States. Ginn & Co., Boston. Taussig : Tariff History of the United States. Putnam's Sons, New York. Harrison: The Meaning of History. Macmillan & Co., New York. Fiske : Critical Period of American History. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New York. Furber : Which? Protection or Free Ti-ade. Park Publishing Co., Hart- ford, Conn. Century Company : Cheap Money. Century Co., New York. Parkman : Montcalm and Wolfe. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. Lodge : Short History of English Colonies. Harper & Brothers, New York. De Tocqueville : Democracy in America. John AUyn, Boston. FisKE : Beginnings of New England. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New York. NicoLiNi : History of Jesuits. College Book Store, Danville, Ind. FiSKE : American Political Ideas. Harper & Brothers, New York. Parkman : The Jesuits in America. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. Hodgin: Indiana and the Nation. D. C. Heath & Co., Chicago. Cochrane : Wonders of Modern Mechanism. J. B. Lippincott, Philadel- phia. Gilman: History of American People. Estes & Lauriat, Boston. Norman : AVorld's Metal and Monetary Systems. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. Campbell : The Puritan in England, Holland, and America. Harper & Brothers, New York. Thompson : Personal Recollections of Sixteen Presidents. Bowen-Merrill Co., Indianapolis. Columbia College : Studies in History, Economics, and Law. Columbia College, New York. Bancroft : History of United States. D. Appleton & Co., New York. Rabbeeno : American Commercial Policy. IVLacmillan & Co., New York. Rhodes : History of United States. Harper & Brothers, New York. Parkman: Half-century of Conflict. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. Sherwood: History and Theory of Money. J. B. Lippincott, Philadelphia. Moore : American Congress. Harper & Brothers, New York. Curtis : United States and Foreign Powers. Flood & Vincent, Mead- ville, Pa. LIST OF BOOKS USED. Vll Sterne : Constitutional History and Political Development of the United States. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York. McCoNNELL : History of the American Episcopal Church. Thomas Whit- taker, New York. Dkaper : Civil Policy of America. Harper & Brothers, New York. Baird : The Huguenot in America. Dodd, Meade & Co., New York. Trainer : How to Study United States History. A. Flanigan, Chicago. Adams : Three Episodes in Massachusetts History. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New York. Carleton: Boys of '61. Estes & Lauriat, Boston. Coffin : Old Times in the Colonies. Harper & Brothers, New York. Coffin : Building of the Nation. Harper & Brothers, New York. McM ASTER : History of the People of United States. D. Appleton & Co., New York. Frothingham : Rise of the Republic. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. HiLDRETH : United States History. Harper & Brothers, New York. Bryant and Gay : Popular History. Scribner's Sons, New York. LossiNG : Encyclopedia of United States History. Harper & Brothers, New York. Sparks : American Biography. Harper & Brothers, New York. Cyclopedia of American Biography. D. Appleton & Co., New York. Cooper : Naval History of United States. Armstrong & Son, New York. Johnston : History of American Politics. Henry Holt & Co., New York. Henry: Voice of the People. J. E. Sherrill, Danville, Ind. Von Holst : Constitutional History. Callaghan & Co., Chicago. Schouler : United States History. Dodd, Meade & Co., New York. Adams : United States History. Scribner's Sons, New York. Blaine: Twenty Years in Congress. College Book Store, Danville, Ind. Stevens: History of the Confederacy. College Book Store, Danville, Ind. Davis : Rise and Fall of the Confederate States. College Book Store, Dan- ville, Ind. Grant's Memoirs. College Book Store, Danville, Ind. Life of Lincoln. College Book Store, Danville, Ind. Life of Garfield. College Book Store, Danville, Ind. Sherman's Memoirs. College Book Store, Danville, Ind. Delmar : History of Monetary Systems. Charles H. Kerr & Co., Chicago. Treaties and Conventions of the United States. U. S. Report. Larnard : History for Ready References. C. A. Nichols Co., Springfield, Mass . Ingram : History of Slavery. College Book Store, Danville, Ind. ScHAFF : History of the Christian Church. Scribner's Sons, New York. Fisher : History of the Christian Church. Scribner's Sons, New York. Ridpath : History of Mankind. Jones Brothei'S Publishing Co., Cincinnati. Ridpath : History of the World. Jones Brothei'S Publishing Co., Cincinnati. Martin: Civil Government. A. S. Barnes & Co., Chicago. Andreavs : Civil Government. American Book Company, Cincinnati. Townsend : Civil Government. American Book Company, Cincinnati. Vlll LIST OF BOOKS USED. WiLsox : The State. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. Headley : Washington and his Generals. Hnrst & Co., New York. RosEKRANZ : History of Education. Appleton, New York. RosEKRANZ : Philosophy of Education. Appleton, New Y^ork. Prescott : Ferdinand and Isabella. Hurst & Co., New Y'ork. Old South Leaflets. I). C. Heath & Co., Boston. State and United States Records and Constitutions. MacConx : Historical Geography of United States. Silver, Burdett & Co., Boston. ScuDDER : American Commonwealth. Houghton, INIifflin & Co., New York. American History Leaflets. A. Lovell & Co., New Y'ork. Parkman : Pioneers of New France. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. Doyle : The English in America. Henry Hall & Co., New Y^ork. Ellis : Red ]\Lan and White. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. Parkman : Conspiracy of Pontiac. Little, Brown & Co., Boston. Eggleston : Montezuma. Dodd, INIeade & Co., New Y'ork. AnnoTT : Cortez. Dodd, Meade & Co., Now York. FiSKE : Discovery of America. Houghton, IMitHin & Co., New York. Schoolcraft : Thirty Years with Indian Tribes. Lippincott, Philadelphia. FisKE : American Revolution. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., New York. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. PAGE IhsTORY Study and Teachixg 1 CHAPTER n. Pre-Columbian Discoveries 22 CHAPTER III. Pre-Columbian Civilization . 26 CHAPTER IV. Jesuits and Indians 33 CHAPTER V. Colonial Government , ... 57 CHAPTER VI. Growth of Government 74 CHAPTER VII. Making and Ratifying the Constitution 91 CHAPTER VIII. Judicial Department 104 CHAPTER IX. Congress . . ......... 113 ix X CONTENTS. CHAPTER X, PAGE Executive Department 121 CHAPTER XL Elections 132 CHAPTER XII. Tauikf and Revenues 130 CHAPTER XIII. PaI'EK INIONEY 153 CHAPTER XIV. Com 165 CHAPTER XV. Hanking 170 CHAPTER XVI. Slavery 187 CHAPTER XVIL ¥> 01') Education "A- CHAPTER XVIII. Religion 230 CHAPTER XIX. Journalism 244 CHAPTER XX. Diplomacy . 2.54 CONTENTS. Xi CHAPTER XXL FAGB Political Parties 258 CHAPTER XXII. Customs 270 CHAPTER XXIU. Amusements 281 CHAPTER XXIV. Sickness and Medicine 286 CHAPTER XXV. Territorial Growth 288 CHAPTER XXVI. Manufactures 294 CHAPTER XXVII. Mail 300 CHAPTER XXVIII. The Farmer 305 CHAPTER XXIX. The Laborer 308 CHAPTER XXX. Lotteries 310 CHAPTER XXXI. Witchcraft 313 ^ xii CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXXII. PAGE Crime and Punishment 317 CHAPTER XXXIII. Inventions 321 CHAPTER XXXIV. Transportation 339 CHAPTER XXXV. Statk and Local Government 352 CHAPTER XXXVI. Governments of the World 365 INSTITUTIONAL HISTOEY OP UNITED STATES. CHAPTER I. HISTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. Definition of History — Reasons for studying it — Methods — Teacher — Mastery — Enthusiasm — Knowledge — When and where to begin — The Grades — Text-books — Division — Colonization — Causes op the Revolution — Story of — Critical Period — National Period — Civil War — Southern Government — Story of Civil War — Since the War. " "TF the present be the fruit of the past, " there is no study more JL valuable than history. However, it is a difficult matter to determine the comparative value of studies, for one person will make them more or less valuable to himself or to others according to his ability to study or present them. In studying or teaching a subject one ought to ask himself first, why and second, lioio it should be studied or taught. This shall be the plan of this chapter. First, why should history be studied at all? Second, how should it be studied? Cicero says, "History is the witness of times, the light of truth, the mistress of life." Diodorus calls it "the handmaid of Provi- dence, a priestess of truth, and a mother of life." Dionysius says, "History is philosophy teaching by example." Guizot defines it thus: "History is a great school of truth, reason, and virtue." These definitions are not good as definitions, and are not intended to be taken as such. They are given that the student may feel he is entering upon a field embracing life itself in all its thought, feel- ing, and will ; that history does " present all times, all truths, all life " ; that it is " Providence working and philosophy teaching " ; and is truly a "great school of truth, reason, and virtue." Why man works and at what he works, why he worships and what he 2 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. "worships, why he studies and what he studies, the causes and effects of his oratory, wars, law-making, moral progress, and political development, all are history. Leave any one of these out and we do not study history. Facts, dates, etc., are the least part of the whole, and yet they, too, are necessary. If I were defining history for advanced pupils, — and I would not define it for lower grades at all, — I would say, " History is a record of the past." It is a simple definition certainly, and may be old-fashioned, but it includes all thought, all feeling, all willing, as they are recorded in the progress of the ages. There are six reasons for studying history. First, it should be known for its guiding value. There is much truth in the old say- ing, "History repeats itself." There are certain inevitable truths controlling the ages. The things which destroyed Greece would destroy America; the force which united the world under Eome would unite the world again; the evils which caused Rome to fall would cause any empire in any age to fall. The statesman reads the future like an open book, the moralist foretells the doom of nations, the prophet depicts the fate of his race, because they "read the future by the past." It is in history we are warned against the errors of the world, and are taught what the future will be. Second, history, when taught even in the driest, poorest way, by simply repeating facts and dates, is an excellent training for the memory; and if presented in all its truth and life, it yields to none in the developing of that faculty. Memory should receive from the study of history its most valuable help. Third, history, when led beyond dry details, becomes a vivid picture and develops the imagination. One should see the great forces at work and take a stand on all the mental, moral, and physi- cal battle-fields, to watch their results. The study of history should be made a man-picturing and world-building process. Fourth, history trains the judgment. The Revolution is a single fact, but how complex are its origin, effects, etc. ! All simple facts are probably complex and require an analysis to fully understand them. We must compare, contrast, judge, analyze, and make deci- sions, if we would fully understand history. To all questions there are two sides. There are so many forces at work that one cannot easily say that this is so or that is so. Our ideas depend so much on our training, environment, and interest, that it is difficult to form a correct judgment. Uncertainty is so great a factor in history, and HISTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. 3 the element of probability is so important, that it is certainly true that in history we secure the needed discipline for the judgment. Fifth, as a means of broad and liberal culture history has but one superior, and that is literature. Culture comes from a knowl- edge of men and of the world. History gives that knowledge. Last, but not least, perhaps foremost as a practical reason for history study, is the development of patriotism and love of country. When we think that a large per cent, of our children do not study history at all, and that many thousands of foreigners settle among us each year with no ideas of our institutions, we feel the need for something that will give the young pupil some idea of his country, and will make the foreigner acquainted with the nature of the land which he has adopted. We are most patriotic when we know what our country has cost in blood and money. I would have every boj^'s and girl's blood mount to the cheek, heart throb more quickly, eyes flash with patriotic fire and love, when they hear, proud America's song. I would have every foreigner's loyalty exercised on his American home; there is no quicker, easier way to do this than to teach the children the magnificent history of their native or adopted country. History should do and does do, when rightly studied, all the above and much more. Much depends upon the method of study, however, and in discussing that part of our work it is best to take up first the chief force — the teacher. If in any branch of study the teacher needs to be the living voice, the real life of the class, it is in history. Method is good, and a study of methods is valu- able and needful to the highest success of the teacher, but it is secondary to one factor in teaching. There are teachers who can never be successful, however much they study methods ; and no one can be successful who makes methods the chief factor. Above all method, and above all other qualifications of the teacher, is that of mastery of the subject. It is absolutely impos- sible to teach history successfully if the teacher does not know the study. He should throw books to the wind and stand before his class prepared to handle the lesson without any reference to books and any hesitancy in decisions. Mastery of the subject, as far as the class in hand need it, is the first requisite. If one is not willing to acquire that, there is nothing in this or any other work that will help him. But that done, one may be successful without any very systematic study of methods. If one would be a great teacher 4 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. of history, let him first knoAV history. Holding that to be the first and great requirement, I cannot do better than to quote a few other helpful qualifications : " Retentive memory; logical power to analyze and group facts; enthusiasm for the subject; sound judgment; clear insight into character and life; devotion to truth; persistence; vivid imagination; and a copious supply of clear and simple lan- guage." ^ The teacher needs enthusiasm in his work. In history we can well say, as is the teacher so is the pupil. In arithmetic and a few other studies some degree of interest might manifest itself in spite of tlie teacher, but that will seldom be true in history; the fire must be lighted from the teacher's own heat. Enthusiasm means to put the soul into the work. The teacher should live in close contact with current events ai... be a student of them. In this country he has an excellent oppor- tunity to do so. The daily paper carries to his door the news of government, religion, education, and politics, so that he may learn history as it is made, and may teach it so. He shoul 1 familiarize himself with local history, old landmarks, battle-fields, noted build- ings, and important men. By drawing current events, local history, and government into the study, history becomes a reality. Every pupil should be taught to give a little time each day to public affairs. Mere book knowledge is insufficient. AVe must experience history to know it and to teach it well. A knowledge of general literature is helpful to the teacher. He should study poems, novels, speeches, biographies, etc. It will help, to study a poem in connection with the history lesson. "Bar- bara Frietchie," "Evangeline," "Hiawatha," "Miles Standish," "Green Mountain Boys," Cooper's works, Henry's, Webster's, and Clay's speeches, "The Scarlet Letter," "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and many other valuable works should be in common use. Tlie ideal of the teacher should be high, even though he should never reach it; the fact that he has an ideal will make him a better teacher. No labor should be thought too difficult, and no reasonable expense too much to require of one's self, to be able to do Avork right. The consciousness of doing work well is worth the trouble and expense of so doing it. A forty-dollar teacher who will not try to do work worth one hundred dollars will likely never secure that amount. 1 HiDsdale. HISTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. 5 Before taking up the subject of methods and devices, it should be understood that no cast-iron, scratch-book methods are believed in. After ten years' experience, the writer should have gathered a few facts on the subject and some general truths that may help some one; but no two teachers can use successfully one method, nor can the same teacher use one method successfully for two different pupils or classes. The author frankly says to the teacher, that if he is reading this chapter that he may use the suggestions just as given, he will and ought to fail. Study it carefully, take from it what seems good for the purpose, apply it as the needs seem to demand, and if help is received by any one, the intention of the author is fulfilled. The first question that presents itself in teaching a subject is, j^'^hen should we begin, and where? We should begin teaching United States History the first year of school, and the place to begin should depend on the thing that interests the child most. The work of this grade, of course, must all be story-telling. The teacher should tell those stories that afford the most pleasu.re to the child. Sometimes it will be best to read the story as told by some one else. The teacher must be the judge of all these things. During the first two years this kind of work only can be done. Time, place, and geography have no part in the work so far. Dates should not be mentioned, and the stories should be of the nature of the heroic, giving examples of kindness, self-control, courage, patriotism, jus- tice, etc. The chief aim should be to interest the child. Myths and legends are good for this purpose. Pictures also are helpful. The teacher should have one or all of the following books : Mon- roe's "Story of Our Country," price 66 cents, published by Lee and Shepard, Boston; Pratt's "American History Stories," 4 vols., each 36 cents, published by Educational Publishing Company, Bos- ton; Eggleston's "Pirst Book of United States History," 60 cents, published by American Book Company, Cincinnati; Wright's "Children's Stories in American History," price $1.25, published by Scribner's Sons, New York; and "Children's Stories of Ameri- can Progress," same author, publisher, and price. Porthe first two years these books would answer all purposes. The teacher can easily find time for the work. Two lessons a week, fifteen minutes to one-half hour in length, would be sufficient. By having the child report, in its own way, Avhat it remembers of the story, the exercise would make a good language lesson. 6 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. The third year's work should differ from the first and second more in degree than in kind. If the teacher feels it right to do so, the work should be advanced slightly, but still it must be made up of the story and biography. The child is now, perhaps, nine years old, and is able to grasp some system in the work. I would not take up more time than in the previous grades, and would use the lesson in much the same Avay. The pupil now can make more indi- vidual use of the story, and be more independent of the teacher; but the teacher should not forget the value of a well-told story or one well read. Let the pupil work in that period which he likes best, and hear those stories that most interest him, without regard to the order of taking them up. Some such method or system of placing the history into periods as the following would be good: first period. Exploration ; second, Colonization ; third, Wars ; fourth, National Period. Blaisdell's "Stories of the Civil War," sold by Lee and Shepard, Boston, price 35 cents; Johonnot's "Stories of Our Country " and " Stories of Heroic Deeds," 30 cents and 40 cents each, American Book Company, Cincinnati, Ohio; and Moore's "Pilgrims and Puritans," Ginn & Co., Chicago, 60 cents, would be good books for this grade. In the fourth year geography and history should be connected. All points of interest should be located on the map, and local geog- raphy and history should be studied. It would certainly be best to continue grouping history into periods. Sub-grouping the periods would prove useful also. A few of the most important dates should be learned, such as 1492, 1607, 1776, 1789, 1861, etc. Manners and customs can be introduced to advantage. The pupil will become intensely interested in studying the dress, furniture, amusements, and mode of living generally among the colonists. Eggleston's History is an excellent book for this part of the work, as are also Higginson's and Scudder's. McMaster's work is the best authority on this line of history, but it is too voluminous and costly for the average teacher. The books mentioned for the third year are suited to the work in this grade also. Dodge's "Stories of American History," Lee and Shepard, Boston, price 35 cents, would be a good book to introduce at this time. The language lessons may be made more valuable from the fourth grade on than before that time. Let the pupil Avrite or repeat the stories he reads or hears read. Criticise the work carefully. It is not necessary to deal minutely with the fifth, sixth, and HISTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. 7 seventh grades, since T could but repeat much that has been given for the fourth grade. Each year should add a little more system and a few more dates. Oilman's Historical Readers, 3 vols., 36 cents, 48 cents, and 60 cents, respectively, publislied by the Inter- state Publishing Company, Boston, and Lee aud Shepard's Young Folk's Series added to the books already named, will be useful and inexpensive. Much of the work in these grades could be given as supplementary reading and language work two or three times a week. Poems, speeches, and articles written for special events should receive attention. Many important dates, events, and quo- tations should be learned. The teacher, always on the alert, will be able to introduce many things useful and interesting. Up to this time the pupil has used no text-book, and has not really studied history in the sense he should now take it up. But what a wonderful amount of information has been gathered ! The pupil is now from twelve to fifteen years old, and is ready to begin a careful, systematic text-book work on history. He has reached the age when he should be able to enter into causes and effects, and the logical relations of things. If he has done the work as indi- cated above, he is in excellent condition for the work to follow. He already has facts and ideas ; and more, he loves and appreciates his country. Many teachers will have pupils who have never studied history, or who do not like it. The teacher then has a delicate task before him. His duty is to make a future citizen of our country love its history. The writer has succeeded in doing this a few times under very adverse circumstances. It was done by seeming not to do it, — by arousing the interest of the pupil in such way that he did not know the end aimed at, and seemed to be following only his own inclinations. Let the teacher have on his desk such books as Barnes' History, Eggleston's, Higginson's, or Coffin's. Let him inciden- tally place one of these in the hands of the pupil, over which the latter may pass a few minutes in looking at the pictures or reading some parts of the book. Gradually his interest will awaken, and by judicious handling he will often volunteer to take up the work. During the text-book period, the topic or outline system should be used. Let the outline follow some certain text in most part; but no one text-book should be made to answer for all the work. In- vestigation should be made necessary, and the pupil should be taught to find his information from every source. He should handle 8 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. books and should learn their contents. It is by this plan that he will secure that ability to find his information quickly from any book by use of the index or contents. This is in itself an educa- tion. No student should be satisfied until he learns to get from a book, quickly, all that he wants. The outline system is a great help to that end. On general principles every teacher should make liis own topic list for the lesson. He knoAvs the needs of his class and can thus fit his outline to their ability and advantages. A good text-book is a very necessary aid to the best work in history. The lower grades are well furnished with good books, but the higher grades certainly lack a suitable book, unless this, as the author hopes, shall prove to be one. However, if the teacher thinks some other should be used, he has a good list from which to choose. Johnston's United States History is, as far as the writer knows, the best text-book of its kind up to date. Montgomery's is good. " The Voice of the People," Johnston's "American Politics," and the "Dictionary of American Politics " are a few of the books to which the teacher and pupil should have access. A good division of United States History, for its study, is the following: Discovery and Exploration, 1492-1 GOT; Colonization, 1607-1776; Continental Government, 1776-1789; and National Period, 1789- . Taking these up in the order given, each should be treated as fully as its importance requires. Compara- tively little time is necessary for the Period of Explorations. Much of the work of this period is a mere matter of memory. It is a good exercise to have the pupil write in a given time — one minute or two minutes — all the dates from 1492 to 1607, which ho remembers, and of which he can tell. something. As a review have him name the English, French, Spanish, and Dutch explorers, and give the dates of their discoveries and explorations. The teacher should also have a spelling exercise on the names of persons and places. iJy all means he should use the geography, and should give si)eeial study to the life of Columbus and to the Indians. In a few days' drill, the class will have fixed these names, places, and dates in their memory, and can leave them for tlie next period. Do not for- get the value of reviews; every day a few minutes should be used in fixing more certainly some fact. Now the class is ready for the second period. Colonization, from 1607 to 1776. This is a most important part of the history work. It is best to study the colonies separately, and in the order of their HISTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. 9 settlement, beginning with Virginia and ending with Georgia. Time, purpose, place, education, religion, and government are the important points to learn. Many other things enter into the Avork, but these are the leading facts to bring out. By studying these facts and discussing them, other things of importance will be noted. The boundary of each colony should be understood, as should the claims of each of the nations. After going over each colony carefully and learning the particular nature of each, all should be compared and contrasted, bringing out the like and unlike parts. The Northern Colonies should be compared with the Middle Colonies and Avith the Southern Colonies; also the Middle Colonies with the Southern Colo- nies. The laws of each colony, and the exact government of each just before the Eevolution, should be understood. Slavery, intem- perance, the money system, banking, and trade are all important. Now is the proper time to give attention to the influence of the geography and climate, and to the causes for English success, and French, Spanish, and Dutch failures. Several religious sects also should have our attention, — the Jesuits, Huguenots, and Pilgrims especially. The Churchmen of Holland, the Quakers, Catholics, Churchmen of England, Presbyterians, Methodists, etc., are impor- tant to understand. The Germans, Irish, and Scotch form an ele- ment in the progress of the colonies. By this study, the pupil Avill secure a living and personal idea of colonial life. He will have placed himself in close sympathy with it and have studied it from the standpoint of the colonists themselves. The teacher will feel amply repaid for any extra work it may have cost. In this period we have several wars that affect us more or less, but none of them needs much attention except the Prench and Indian War. This war is important from the fact that it was the final struggle between the tAvo leading European nations for supremacy in the 'New World. No more critical period lies anywhere in the four centuries of our history than in this struggle for the NeAV World between the French and English. Parkman's " Fifty Years of Conquest " and his " Montcalm and Wolfe " are excellent books on this important period. They are sold by Little, BroAvn & Co., of Boston. When the pupil sees and feels that this War means much, he then is ready to take up its parts. First, notice the objective or important points for which the struggle was made. Never- study a war just for the sake of the Avar, but for its causes and effects. Again, 10 INSTITDTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. never study a battle just for the sake of the battle, but to leani its cause, and the effect it has on the struggle at hand. Fort Duquesne, Crown Point and Ticonderoga, Quebec, Niagara, and Louisburg, all iu the beginning of the struggle held by France, were not important in themselves, but were to the nations at war. Fort Duquesne was the key to all the territory in dispute, — the Ohio and Mississippi valleys. The same way it should be shown that the party holding Crown Point and Ticonderoga held the pass from Canada into New England; and that Niagara was the key to the lakes and to a great fur region ; that Quebec was the American Gibraltar and the key to the St. Lawrence; while Louisburg controlled the fisheries of the river and gulf. Stirring incidents were located at those points, and American patriotism first found place in American history there. In closing the study of a war the teacher should always pay care- ful attention to the treaty of peace. Notice the treaty that closed the French and Indian AVar. By it France was practically swept off the continent, Spain's territory Avas enlarged, and England's ex- tended to the Mississippi and from Florida north into Canada. Holland had given up her territory long before. After having completed the study of the French and Indian War, the next step would lead us into the causes of the Kevolution. The Stamp Act was the real beginning of the trouble between the colonies and England. In this one act of Parliament there is a good lesson. First, what was the Stamp Act? What effect had it on the colonists? Study the Colonial Assemblies, the Stamp Act Congress, and the different organizations that grew out of the efforts of the people in their resistance. Note why the people resisted so bitterly and what effect the resistance had on Parliament. See that after the repeal of the Stamp Act the people still resisted because of the Declaratory Act in the repeal, showing that they were not resisting taxation but non-representation. The " Six Years' Ilesistance " began in 1770. Parlianicnt imposed commercial taxes, placed Boston under military government, and sought to deceive the people on a tea tax. These acts were followed by the Boston Massacre, Boston Tea Party, Five Intolerable Acts, resistance in Philadelphia, Rhode Island, New York, Charleston, etc., all culminating at last in the First Continental Congress, which petitioned the king, hoi)ing he wo\ild lend his influence to aid the colonists in their figlit with I'arlianient. Receiving no aid from him, the people sent delegates to the Second Continental Congress HISTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. 11 in 1775. The teacher should have the pupils understand why and how the Continental Congresses met; how the delegates were ap- pointed; how long each Congress lasted; what each did; and how the Second Continental Congress became the National Legislative House during the War, made the Declaration of Independence, Arti- cles of Confederation, and otherwise controlled and governed the country as it had power. These are very interesting as well as important topics, and should be understood. AVith the hope of assisting the teacher, I will give the story of the Revolution, as it may be presented to a class. Lexington and Bunker Hill have been fought, we will suppose, and the pupil has located them on the map which he must always keep before him. Their causes are understood and also their effects. We now stand with Washington overlooking Boston, which has been held for six years by the British. Howe is moving out under agreement that he shall not be disturbed, and in return he agrees not to burn Boston. Why this agreement? Why did not Washington capture Howe if he were strong enough to drive him out, or Howe move out and take Washington if he were strong enough to make terms with him? And why did Howe move up to Halifax? First, Howe was not strong enough at this time to defeat Washington, and he thought it a wise plan to retreat, if possible, until England should have time to reinforce him. This he could better do if AVashington did not interfere. In turn, Washington could not capture Howe without the latter burning Boston, as he threatened to do if any attempt were made to capture him. Howe retreated to Halifax because he had supplies and reinforcements there. England now entered into a systematic plan of warfare, and Washington placed himself on the defensive. The plan of the British was a good one. Howe, the General, seconded by Clinton on land, and Howe, the Admiral, on the sea, was to move on New York, capture that place, and then move westward towards Phila- delphia and take that city, the seat of government. Burgoyne was to move southward through New England and join Howe, thus cut- ting the North from the South, and annexing the former to Canada. Washington met this plan of attack by placing his own aimiy at New York, and a second force in the North to meet Burgoyne. After the battle of Long Island he retreated northward with the hope of drawing Howe from Philadelphia. Not entirely succeeding, he began tlie famous " Retreat " to protect Philadelphia. He cap- 12 Institutional history of united states. tured Treutou and Princeton more to inspire and encourage his men than for any other reason. The Delaware being obstructed by the Americans, the British brought up their forces by the Chesapeake Bay and the Brandywine Creek to Chad's Ford. Washington moved south of Bhihidelphia to meet them, but was defeated. The British then moved into Philadelphia, and Washington attacked tliem soon after at Gerraantown. Howe accomplished his purpose, but what of Burgoyne? Gates by this time, 1777, had taken charge of the army in the North, and had succeeded in harassing Burgoyne by cutting him off from his supplies, etc., until nothing remained for him to do but to surrender. This surrender should appear in full force to the student of the War. Saratoga is classed as one of the world's decisive battles. If Eng- land had won, Burgoyne, unopposed, would have moved southward, and Avith the aid of Howe have captured Washington and thus prac- tically have ended the War. J^ut the Americans won. Then France, on the strength of the victory, acknowledged the independence of the colonies. This was helpful, but she soon went further and made a treaty of alliance with them. This alliance, bringing on war between England and France, called Spain into the struggle against England because of their natural enmity and because Spam, having great possessions on this continent, considered it bettei" for her that the colonies should be independent. The next year, 1780, Holland joined the alliance against England purely for commercial reasons. Holland had become a great commercial nation. She needed the Mediterranean, the waters along the coast of South America and Mexico, and the Mississippi River. The great coast nations of Europe, — France' and Spain, — with their colonies, were open to Holland if she joined the alliance. To keep her industry unimpaired, she joined an alliance that could not work her much harm. These, then, were the conditions: at home England was at war with France, Spain, and Holland; in her colonies she was at war with the Americans, who were assisted by the French. France, immediately after making the alliance, prepared to send a fleet to America. Clinton, who had succeeded Howe, ordered the British troops to tlie coast, where they could cooperate with the Eng- lish fleet in o])])Osing tlie French. Washington followed them closely and attacked then\ at Monmouth. He then })laced his army around New York to watch Clinton, who was in the city. The two armies held those positions until just before the surrender of Yorktown. filSTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. 18 The English gave uj) all hope of conquering the Northern States after Burgoyne's surrender, and carried the war to the South. Corn- wallis, after the battles of Camden, Cowpens, Eutaw Springs, etc., was ordered by Clinton to move to some place on the coast con- venient to New York, to cooperate with the English fleet and to be near Clinton's army. Lord Eawdon was left in the South to hold the territory already gained. Yorktown was the place chosen by Cornwallis for his army. Now began a series of brilliant move- ments. The French fleet prevented the English from sending assist- ance to Cornwallis by sea. Washington ordered a part of the forces in the South to come up to Yorktown, and by a series of strategies made Clinton believe he was preparing an attack on him, while he was really planning a move on Yorktown. When it was too late, Clinton saw his mistake, and started northward, hoping to draw Washington after him. He could not reach Cornwallis by land without passing through Washington's army, and he could not reach him by sea because of the French fleet. Cornwallis could not leave Yorktown for the same reasons. He could only surrender. The rest is soon told, as this practically ended the War. Peace came, and a new star rose in the constellation of the world's great nations. The class should now study what Mr. Fiske calls our " Critical Period," — the period from 1783 to 1789. They should see how the Articles were insufficient and why a new government was necessary. The Federal Convention and its work should be carefully studied. Then if they will give proper attention to the ratification of the Constitution, to the manner of changing from one government to the other, and to the Constitution, they will be well prepared to enter on the study of the National Period. They should give a few days to the study of our governmental departments, — the Executive, Judicial, and Legislative. Beginning with Washington's, it will be found a good plan to take up the administrations in their order, discussing the topics under each; but the teacher should be sure that unity is preserved. The pupil should see the banking system as a whole, and understand its parts as well; the admission of states in their order should be memorized; political parties should be traced and their principles understood; slavery should form a well-connected story in all its causes and effects ; the tariff should be studied in the same way ; and the money system in all its phases should have the most thorough study. Draw out the difference between the banking system of 14 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. the first forty years of ovir national history and that of the present. Study the state, private, and corporation banks. Familiarize the class with the paper money of the present. The bank-note, silver certificate, gold certificate, greenback, treasury note, and currency certificate should be understood in their origin, value, and security. This is not too much to ask the teacher and pupil to know. The teacher should feel that history is to be understood, not merely memorized. The different wars, of course, will have a part in the work on administrations. It will not require much time to dispose of the War of 1812 and the Mexican War. Use the same methods as in the Revolution, and notice carefully the treaties. In this connection it is proper to speak of the different extensions of our boundary lines. This is too important to receive only a passing notice. Keeping in mind our boundary in 1783, the growth of the country should be a matter of careful study by the class. The one great fact in the National Period is the Civil War. It is the most difficult subject in United States History to teach, chiefly because we are likely to feel that there is nothing in a war to understand ; that it is all mem- ory. Battles! Battles! Battles! What is there to understand! There is where we make our mistake. There is much to understand in a war, after which there will be little necessity for memorizing. With causes that date back to our beginning as a nation, and with effects that never shall be erased, what is there not to i;nderstand in our Civil War! Taking up the War, the class should be drilled on l^uchanan's administration, that it may learn the steps leading directly to that event. The political parties of the campaign of 18G0 should be studied, that the pupil may know the policies of the time and the direct result of the election. Soutli Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas seceded just after the elec- tion because of the success of Lincoln. Tliese seven states called conventions for the purpose of deciding on secession ; and when the power had thus passed from the hands of the people into the hands of the conventions, the people had little, directly, to say concerning disunion, though they manfully followed the lead of the delegates through a struggle unparalleled in history. When the delegates, elected to the state conventions by the people, met, they decided to hold a national convention at Mont- gomery, Alabama, to which they sent delegates. Here the Con- HISTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. 15 federate States of America were formed, and Jefferson Davis and Alexander Stephens were elected provisional President and Vice- President, to serve one year, or until a permanent constitution was made, providing that was done within a year. A provisional con- stitution was formed to stand until a permanent one was made. If the permanent one were not made, however, before the time, — one year from the inauguration of the provisional president, — then the provisional constitution was to cease. The provisional constitution placed all legislative power in the Montgomery Convention and placed the executive power there also until the president should be inaugurated. The permanent constitution, which was adopted Feb- ruary 22, 1862, and under which Mr. Davis and Mr. Stephens were elected President and Vice-President, was very different from the provisional constitution. Two houses of Congress were organized with much the same poAvers and duties as those under the United States Constitution, and their members were elected the same as United States congressmen are. The President and Vice-President held office for six years and were elected the same as the President of the United States. In all things except slavery, state rights, and tariff, the Confederate Constitiition agreed materially with the United States Constitution. Slavery and state rights were the corner-stones of the Confederation, and a protective tariff was made impossible. This brief survey of the Confederate government is given here, somewhat out of place perhaps, that the teacher may be sure to make it a part of his work and may enter on the study of the War with an understanding of both governments. The pupil may now begin the study of Lincoln's administration, where the different steps will soon bring him to the Declaration of War by the Mont- gomery Convention. When the Confederacy fired on Fort Sumter and forced it to surrender, though defended so heroically by Major Anderson, of Tennessee, the Union made a call for troops to put down the Rebel- lion. This call being met easily, and preparations for war being made rapidly by the Union, four more states seceded, — North Car- olina, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Virginia. These seceded, not because Lincoln was elected, but because the government intended to make war on sister states for seceding. They claimed that while it was best to be in the Union, no part of the states had a right to force any other part to stay in it. Through sympathy and the doc- 16 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. triue of state rights, these states joined their fate with the Confed- eracy, which now consisted of eleven states. Kentucky, Maryland, and Missouri voted to remain neutral, but found to their sorrow that there was no neutral place to fill in the awful contest at hand. Each of the three states sent soldiers to both armies, but all re- mained in the Union. Missouri's legislature voted that state out, but the people brought it back into the Union. Mr. Lincoln issued his Blockade Decree, closing the Southern ports. The South, looking upon itself as an independent govern- ment, immediately declared war. Thus the curtain rises, and before it falls four acts are played, in which a million men die and blood flows like water. I sluill tell the story of the Civil War as I would present it to a class. I hope it may help many over this most ditticult period. By all means do not forget the value of the maps. Trace out every movement of both armies, locate all battles, and learn the causes and effects of each. It will be helpful to follow each division of the Union Army throvigh the entire war, thvis keeping a connected story and making it more easy to remember. Twenty miles below Washington is the ill-fated field of Bull Run, twice the scene of the defeat of a Union Army. On this field was a confident Southern Army looking towards Washington and the North. Above it was a careless but confident Union Army that sought to defend Washington, prevent an invasion of the North, and capture Eichmond. The result is well known. The Union learned a bitter lesson ; the South had hers put off four years, but it was only the more bitter when learned. General Scott, who had fought through two wars, and was made lieutenant-general in 1859, was acting commander-in-chief of the Union Army. General McClellan succeeded him soon with the title of major-general. General Beauregard was acting commander-in-chief of the Confederate forces, and had charge in person at Bull Run. After the battle of Bull Run the two generals spent until May, 1862, organizing and drilling magnificent armies, for all knew that a terrible war was just ahead. To conceive the position held by the Confederate Army at the beginning of 18G2, take the map and draw a line from Island No. 10 on the Mississippi to Forts Henry and Donelson, Bowling Green, Mill Springs, Cumberland Gap, eastward to Bull Run and the coast. In the west and center the line was in command of Albert HISTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. 17 Sidney Johnston. It was the purpose of the Union Army to break the defense, open the Mississippi River, complete the blockade, and take Richmond. General Halleck was department commander of the West, General Grant had a small army of 15,000 men at Cairo, and General Buell was in Central Kentucky with 100,000 men. In the East was General McClellan with 200,000 men, a magnificently drilled and equipped army. General Joseph E. Johnston, acting commander-in-chief of the Confederate Army, had command in person in Virginia. The Johnstons stationed their men on the military chessboard and placed them well. McClellan, seconded by Halleck, and the latter by Grant and Buell, was to take the " king, " Richmond. The place to strike the Confederates, concluded McClellan, Halleck, and Grant, was at Fort Henry. That place taken, the Southern Army would have to retreat southward to cover its base of supplies at Corinth and to protect the railroad running from the West across to Atlanta, carrying supplies to the East from the great Soutlnvest. Grant moved on Fort Henry, but the Southern forces escaped and crossed to Fort Donelson, twelve miles east. On February 12, 1862, Grant and Foote, acting together, forced Fort Donelson to surrender with 14,000 prisoners. This broke the line of defense. The center moved back into Tennessee, and Corinth was made the point of warfare by both armies, it being the base of supplies for the Southern Army; but before reaching that place there occurred the first great battle of the War, — Shiloh. Grant's army, increased to 40,000 men, moved by boat up the Tennessee River and camped at Pittsburg Landing. Buell was ordered to join him. Tennessee was now under military government, with Andrew Johnson as military governor. To pre- vent the junction of Grant and Buell, General A. S. Johnston re- solved to surprise Grant and defeat him before Buell arrived. In the engagement the Union Army at first suffered from its disadvan- tages, but was saved from defeat by the gunboats. Buell arrived just at this time, and the Confederate Army was driven from the field. Its great commander, A. S. Johnston, was killed, and was succeeded by Beauregard. The victory was claimed by both armies ; but the Union Army held the field, and no doubt had the advantage, though it had lost 13,000 men, and the Confederate but 11,000. The former had 57,000 men in the engagement, against 40,000 of the latter. General Halleck now took command of the Army of 18 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. the West in person and proceeded to Corinth, the great railroad center, which Avas defended by Beauregard. As Halleck advanced, Beauregard evacuated, and Corinth fell into the hands of the Union forces. In the meantime New Orleans had fallen, Island No. 10 was taken, and Memphis had surrendered, so that the Mississippi lliver was open except at Vicksburg and }*ort Hudson. The Army of the West had done its work well. Pass now to the center, where Buell was opposed by Bragg, who had superseded Beauregard as commander of the Confederate Army in the West. Bragg resolved to invade Kentucky for the purpose of holding it for the South. He and Buell started on a race for Louisville, and the latter reached it one day in advance of the for- mer. Bragg remained in Kentucky about a month gathering plun- der, and then fought the battle of Perryville with Buell. The result was indecisive, though the Confederates escaped to Chatta- nooga with a wagon train of booty forty miles in length. Buell was removed from his command for his lack of generalship, and Rosecrans was placed in charge of the army at Nashville. Again Bra"-"- started northward, and Rosecrans met him at Murfreesboro and drove him back into Chattanooga. In the East affairs were in a serious condition in 1862. General McClellan, in moving against Richmond, went by boat to Fortress Monroe, to evade the rivers, swamps, and fortified Confederates. To protect Washington, he left General McDowell, with a part of the army, at Fredericksburg, and placed Banks in the Shenandoah valley. General Johnston moved southward rapidly to protect Richmond. Yorktown was the first fortified place between Fortress Monroe and Richmond, and was attacked by McClellan. From here the Confederates moved to Williamsburg, where they were driven back into Richmond itself. The Union gunboats held the James River to witliin eight miles of Richmond. McClellan placed his men on both sides the Chickahominy, to be near McDowell, protect Washington, and also watch Richmond. The river rising while his army was divided, he found it impossible to join the two divisions, and Johnston attacked one at Seven Pines and Fair Oaks. Johnston was wounded at the latter place, and Lee succeeded him in command of the Southern Army. The Union Army was outgeneraled for a while following the battle of Fair Oaks. Jackson threatened Washington by going up the Shenandoah, and Stuart made a raid around the Union Army, HISTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. 19 doing much damage. McDowell was called back to protect Wash- ington, and McClellan's plan was thus destroyed. He was left with his divided army to extricate himself. Lee ordered Jackson back to Richmond, and prepared to strike McClellan north of the Chicka- hominy and cut him oft' from his supplies on the York. This was attempted at Mechanicsville and Gaines' Mill, in the Seven Days' Battle. McClellan moved his army southward to the James to unite it again. In this retreat he fought battles at Savage Station, Frazier's Farm, and Malvern Hill, where he succeeded in uniting his forces. Pope, in the meantime, had taken charge of the forces near Washington, and Lee had sent Jackson north to attack him, where again on the Bull Run battle-field the Union forces were com- pletely routed. McClellan, after the defeat at Bull Run, was ordered North by boat to take charge of the forces around Washington. Lee also moved northward, pressed closely by McClellan, who forced a fight at Antietam, where Lee was compelled to give up his plan of invad- ing the North. McClellan was censured for allowing Lee to escape, and was superseded by Burnsides, who attacked Lee at Fredericks- burg, mainly because the War Department ordered it and the North clamored for a battle. He knew he would be defeated, as Lee had every advantage. So he was, after which Joseph Hooker took charge of the army. There were some changes made in the leadership of the North- ern Army in the year 1862. At Corinth Halleck was put in com- mand of the whole Army of the Union, and Grant was placed in command of the West. Halleck went to Washington as an advisory chief of the War Department. Grant took Vicksburg, July 4, 1863, and then Avent to Chattanooga, where an interesting move had been made. We left Bragg in Chattanooga surrounded by Rosecrans. When Grant went over there, Rosecrans was besieged by Bragg. Why this change? Bragg skillfully moved out of Chattanooga in hopes to draw Rosecrans after him. The ruse succeeded. Bragg turned on Rosecrans at Chickamauga and drove him back into Chattanooga, where he was compelled almost to surrender before being reinforced by Grant. The battle of Chattanooga was a vic- tory for the Union Army, and Grant went east to take charge of the Army of the Potomac, with full command of all the armies in the field. Sherman was left to oppose Bragg, who retreated south- ward to Dalton, Georgia, where General Johnston was put in com- 20 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. mand. Thus we leave 1863 with the advantage very much in favor of the Union on hind, though no great gains had been made on the sea. The year 18G4 opened badly for the South. It had but two great armies, — Lee's, of 62,000 men, and Johnston's, of 75,000. Grant, with 116,000 men, was o})posed to Lee, and Sherman, with 100,000 men, was against Johnston. The South was now drafting men between eighteen and forty-five years of age, and none but women, children, and old men were left at home. No cattle could come in from west of the Mississippi, as the railroads were destroyed. Grain could not be sent from Virginia and Tennessee, as the Union Army was too strong there. Sugar could not come from Louisiana, nor salt from the coast. No cotton could be sent away on account of the blockade. Paper money was so plentiful that it was practically worthless. The soldiers were fed and clothed poorly. The conflict was a hopeless effort after 1863, but the Southern Army met it all bravely and fought desperately. The War was converted into one great siege at the beginning of the year 1864. Grant ordered a concerted move, and -Sherman drove Johnston back into Atlanta, where Hood succeeded him and was defeated by Sherman. From Atlanta Sherman began Ids famous "March to the Sea," and entered Savannah at the close of the year. Grant started in at the Wilderness, and moved down through Spott- sylvania and Cold Harbor, into Petersburg. Sheridan destroyed the Shenandoah valley, and Hood's army was annihilated at Nashville by Thomas. Mobile surrendered. In spite of treason and lassitude in the North, the end was now near. Sherman, in January, 1865, was at Savannah, ready to march northward. Grant was at Peters- burg, the last defense of Richmond. Lee was in Richmond and Johnston was between Sherman and Grant. Petersburg fell early in 1865, and Richmond, the " king " on the chessboard, fell soon afterwards. Lee sought to escape to the mountains, join Johnston, and prolong the war, for every delay now was dangerous to the Union; minutes, even, were precious. Sheridan was sent across the country to head Lee, and Grant followed closely after Lee's army from Rielimond. At Appomattox Slieridan was in front of the Confederates and Grant was beliind them. There was but one thing to do. Lee, the magnificent general, surrendered to a man generous to a fault, the great citizen-soldier, U. S. Grant. A few days afterwards, Johnston surrendered to Sherman, and the drama HISTORY STUDY AND TEACHING. 21 was over, the curtain dropped. May it ever hide strife and dis- union. After the War, the great question was the coming back into the Union of the seceded states. The class should study this struggle carefully, together with the amendments to the Constitution. In the recent administrations look to the work on tariff and money legislation. In these the teacher has an excellent opportunity to bring in current events, and to make the pupil a student of history as it is made. CHAPTER 11. PRE-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES. Belief of Columbus — Ancient Theories — Middle Ages — Claims. WHY dost tliou falter in thy trust in God? He gave thee India! " In a fever on his last voyage home from Amer- ica, Columbus, in his despair, cried out these words. And in the belief that he had found India, he died. Pie thought Hayti to be Cipangu ; and Cuba, Cathay, the east coast of India. The discovery of the error created greater surprise than the discovery of the islands. It was when the Pacific Ocean was known that the world knew that another great water lay between Columbus and his hopes. The world could scarcely believe that the boasted knowl- edge of the ancient Greeks had left undiscovered so great a fact. Since trade was the industry that moved the wealth of Spain to seek a water route to India, the commercial world saw the new world only as a disappointment and an obstruction to overcome. The error had been in the estimate of the size of the earth, and not in its shape. Ancient Greece had looked on the world as a plain with the ^gean Sea as the center and surrounded by the river Oceanus. Beyond Oceanus there was a vast realm of dust and darkness which even fancy could not penetrate. About the sixth century b.c. the philosophy of nature began to be studied, which finally ended in the belief of the sphericity of the earth. It is not certainly known who first taught it, but as far as known the Pythagoreans have the honor. It was by no means a scientific discovery. They looked on the earth as a sphere because tliat was the most perfect body. They placed it in the center of the universe because that was the place of honor, and it was motionless, they thought, because a state of rest was more dignified than that of motion. Plato took up the theory and made it more or less popu- lar, and Aristotle made it seem to be a fact. From Greece, Rome 22 PRE-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES. 23 took it; from E,ome, it passed to the barbarians of the north and into the school-books of the Middle Ages, on down to us. Men differed as to the size of the earth. Aristotle thought it was 50,000 miles in circumference; Archimedes, 37,500; the libra- rian of Alexandria, in the third century, by a scientific measure- ment made it 31,000; and the size accepted by the Middle Ages and by Columbus was even smaller, about 8000 miles in diameter. But a small portion of Europe, Asia, and Africa was known, and that was thought to be an island about 10,000 miles long and half that width. Men often talked in a mythical way of a land in the arms of the great ocean, and a southern hemisphere, in all things much like the northern. The geography of the Middle Ages, as Columbus knew it, claimed that the earth was a sphere, an idea that had come down through at least 2000 years of tradition. It gave the circumference as about 25,000 miles, and taught that the temperate zones were inhabitable, though only the northern was known to be inhabited, and that one could never pass through the heat of the torrid zone to know whether the south temperate zone was inhabited or not. These things belonged to Columbus, not as inventions or inspirations, but rather as mythical truths. Indeed, science had little or nothing to do with them. An early historian said of this information : " In some future time perhaps our pains may lead us to a knowledge of these countries, but all that has hitherto been known must be con- sidered as mere fable or invention, and not the fruit of any real search or genuine information." Every country of East Asia has laid claim to the discovery of the New World. Siberia, Tartary, Japan, Malay, and Polynesia, each has claimed this great honor for itself; nor can their claims be passed over lightly. The narrow Behring Sea just separating the two continents, it is no stretch of the imagination to suppose that by accident or intention one or all of these peoples at different times in ages past may have seen this continent. Though there perhaps exist no proofs, there do exist indications that such is true, even to colonizing our western coast as far south as South America. On the European side there are as good indications. In the sixth century King Arthur conquered Iceland, and in the ninth century an Irish colony and monks were in possession of the island. Indications point to the fact that Iceland was then a much warmer and more agreeable place of abode. Columbus, in 1477, visited the 24 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. island and found no ice. So a thousand years ago Iceland must have been a pleasant home. In 875 Ingolf, a Northman, planted a colony on the island, and the Irish left rather than associate Avith the Northmen. About fifty years after this time 70,000 people were living there, governing tliemselves as in a republic. At this time Eric the I\ed was banished from the place and went over to Gunnbiorn's Land, so named from its discoverer, who sighted it three years before. Eric came back in a short time, and, in order to secure colonists for the new country, he described it in glowing terms and named it Greenland. Thirty-five ships started to the new land, but only fourteen reached the place. For a time immigration was steady. In 999 Leif, son of Eric, went back to Iceland and found the people had all embraced Christianity. He soon accepted the new worship and Avas given a priest, whom he carried back to Green- land, and thus introduced Christianity to this continent at this early age. Churches were built, ruins of which are standing to this day, and both Iceland and Greenland became christianized. In 986 a.d. Herjulfson was driven by a storm to the south of Greenland so far that it took nine days to sail back. He reported that he came in sight of a broad, level country, and the Popular Science Monthly of May, 1885, gives his route as entering south into the St. Lawrence Gulf and passing out through the Strait of Belle-Isle. Fourteen years later, Leif started out to explore the country seen by Herjulfson. He reached land probably as far north as New England, and named it Vinland because he found some grapes growing. Permanent settlements were made here, in whicli trade was active and immi- grants numerous for three hundred years, and then all were aban- doned and forgotten. These colonists had all the necessaries of life, horses, sheep, oxen, beeves, buildings of stone, etc. Just what was the result of these efforts nothing certain is known. About 1350 the Eskimos appeared, and tlieir hostility, with sickness and royal tyrann}^, no doubt hastened the end. A bull of Pope Nicholas V., published in 1448, stated that the barbarians had destroyed the colonies thirty years before. Another authority gives the last remnant as being destroyed by the closing in of ice packs. However it was, the Northmen lost all hold on the continent about 1375. In the eleventh century the Welsh made a settlement, about which there exists little information, and near the same time the Arabs started westward on the Atlantic to explore its limits, and PRE-COLUMBIAN DISCOVERIES. 25 reached the Azores, and possibly saw this continent. Italy comes in with her story of the Zeni brothers. Near the fourteenth century two brothers of Venice, Nicolo and Antonio Zeni, in a voyage on the North Atlantic, were wrecked, and lived at a place they called Fris- landa. AVhile here, a sailor returned who had been gone twenty-six years and who said he was driven by storm to an island called Estotiland, where he found people who used Latin books and did not speak ISTorse. Farther south he found a region inhabited by cannibals, and still farther south a great country of temples and cities. This information in its minuteness was sent to the home of the Zeni and put in book form with maps in 1558. It has never been certainly known what island was Frislanda and it is probably mere fiction cited by national pride. A Dutch navigator claimed to have discovered Newfoundland in 1463, and a Polander laid claim to the discovery of Labrador in 1476, while a Northman claims to have been on the South American coast in 1488. As has been said, these are shadowy facts, if facts at all, in Pre- Columbian discoveries, but some of them are certainly founded on truth. Little doubt remains but that persons from many nations saw the New World before Columbus did. Evidence points more or less clearly to the fact that missionaries roamed over the greater part of the Rocky Mountains before 1492, and China lays strong claim to her discovery earlier than that date. It is a story that need not worry the American student ; for after all facts are sifted and all the good preserved, the Old World knew the New One through the unparalleled patience of Columbus; and the grandeur of our country is due to the untiring energy of the Genoese sailor. For some cause unknown to us, all other countries allowed their knowledge of the New World to sink back into its former oblivion. All other men perhaps secured their honor at too little cost for such a gift and too soon forgot it. After the insults, privations, and sufferings almost superhuman, of eighteen years, and then the awful dangers of such a voyage, the world would hardly be so cruel as to forget such a man as Columbus. CHAPTER III. PRE-COLUMBIAN CIVILIZATION. Early Man — Legends and Myths — Toltecs — Aztecs — Their Civiliza- tion — Fall — Guatemala and Yucatan — Evidences of Civilization — Incas — Their Territory — Origin — Religion — Festivals — Civili- zation. WE know very little of early man on the Western Continent. Before Columbus facts are vague, and no historian has been bold enough to place himself on record as speaking unqualifiedly of them. Bancroft relates some stories, which hold a place in history much like the stories of the Pelasgians of South Europe, or those of the iEolians, lonians, and Dorians in their legendary age. In the New World as in the Old, giants stand in the dim back- ground, around which are legends and myths, dusty with age and uncertain with time. A native historian makes the statement that the first people were called Ininames, who were swallowed up in a great earthquake. A few who escaped this fate were absorbed by other early Mexican races called Olmecs and Tlascalans. Another author gives us the following story: "The first people were giants, who were followers of a demi-god, Votan. They came from over the sea to America, and settled at Xibalba, which was located some place in Central America. Emigrating nortlnvard, they formed a vast empire on the Mexican plateau." Bancroft says there was such an empire as given above, and tliat from it came, about the time of Christ, the early IMaya natives of Yucatan, the Quiches of Guatemala, and Nahuas of Mexico. He also says that emigration in primitive times was from the south to the north, instead of from the east to the west. The Quiches claimed that there was once a great power in Central America, from which there went out many migratory bands. One of these settled Guatemala; another, Mexico; and anotlier, Yucatan. Another account gives it that the early Mexicans came from Asia across the Behring Strait 26 PRE-COLUMBIAN CIVILIZATION. 27 on south to Mexico, aud that they peopled the Mississippi valley as Mound-Builders and the Rocky Mountains as Cliff-Dwellers. Such are the stories of early life in America. None is very certain, but it must be true that hundreds of thousands of people roamed over our fair land at least fifteen hundred years before Columbus knew it. The Toltecs appear in history about the sixth century of the Christian era, and form the real beginning of Mexico. For the next five hundred years the history of Mexico is very uncertain. Peace and war, religious revivals and awful corruption, followed each other rapidly until the eleventh century, when the barbaric Chichimecs overran the country, which, like Rome, fell in vice and misery. The stories of this conquest are marvelous, but possibly true. Mil- lions of people are said to have come rushing into the territory. They founded towns, made vassals of the conquered Toltecs, formed alliances, married with their more civilized victims, and adopted many of their customs and arts. The Toltecs were not to go una- venged, however; for while their territory was being overrun by the Chichimecs, the latter were being threatened by the Aztecs or Mexicans, who had settled at Chapultepec. These were a brave people and made good warriors. In 1325 they founded Mexico City, where, in their religion of human sacrifice, and under rather good government, they lived until Cortez destroyed them. The Montezumas came into prominence from being the reigning family of the Aztecs. It is said that the first of the Montezumas was at the head of an army of about 400,000 men. This gives us some idea of the population of the country, which must have been many millions. The people were prosperous and possessed a good degree of civilization. Causeways, canals, aqueducts, temples, palaces, gardens, and other evidences of wealth and skill were numerous. Vast harems of 2000 women and more were kept by the kings. War was carried on either for conquest or to secure victims for sacrifice. Their religion required eighteen sacrifices of human beings per year. In one war they are said to have captured 6000 victims for this purpose. The more captives a king secured, the more honor he received. About the year 1500 there was a lack of energy among the Aztecs. Soothsayers and prophets were foretelling direful things, which all believed; plagues, famine, and earthquakes were so numerous that nature herself threatened destruction. Superstition was draining 2S INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. the vigor of the nation. Scarcely anything occurred but that an evil omen was read into it. Even conquest, the spirit which had been so prominent for two hundred years, was dying. Just in this period of superstition and degeneracy came the Spaniards. Grijalva landed at the present site of Vera Cruz in 1518, and Cortez, the *' Attila " of the Mexican world, came in 1519. In his white-winged vessels, as the prophecy had said, he appeared. Learning that the people were expecting a hero-god of their nation to come to destroy them, he claimed to be that god. The story of the Mexican con- quest, of Montezuma's death, and the destruction of the Mexican nation by Cortez is an old one to the American history student, and will not be repeated here. There were two other centers of civilization of Middle America, — Guatemala and Yucatan. The history of Guatemala goes back but a few centuries, but its origin is too much in dispute for more than a brief consideration. In the early annals migration followed migration. The first very certain traces of the i^eople appeared when Montezuma sent a messenger to them to inform them of the landing of the Spaniards. They carried on war about as the Aztecs did, and possessed a civilization not quite as good as those people had. We have no more certain knowledge of the people of Yucatan in their primitive condition than of those of Guatemala. Their origin is uncertain and mythical. Zamara, to whom all things were ascribed, was their creator. This being was a semi-god re- sembling the Votanic god. Their civilization was about the same in kind and degree as that of the Guatemalans. The archaeological remains of Mexico and Central America are very numerous. The Pyramid of Cholula was three-fourths of a mile in circumference and was about two hundred feet high. It was built of adobe brick laid in clay. The purpose of the pyramid is a debatable question. Some claim it to have been a memorial ; some, a refuge; some, a defense; and others, a place of worship. Cortez had his fiercest conflict with the INIontezumas around it, at wliich time its demolition began. It now looks much like a natural hill, on wliich stands a modern chapel. The jMexican calendar stone, which was found by the Spaniards, showed a better knowledge of solar time on the part of the Mexi- cans than the Spaniards possessed. The court of the Mexican museum was a bridge of stone spanning a twenty-foot space. The ruins of Yucatan show sculpturing, carving, old manuscripts, hiero- PRE-COLTJMBiAN CIVILIZATIOJT. 29 glyphics, bas-reliefs, etc., which tell of a civilization that one is more likely to underestimate than overestimate. At some time more definite knowledge of these people may be found, though enough is known to certify that a wonderful degree of advancement was reached before the days of Columbus. Cortez destroyed abetter civilization than he brought with him from his Spanish home. It was different from his, of course ; but there certainly could be as much good come to the world from the Aztecs as from the Spaniards in 1500. The New World needed neither very much, if at all. The Incas showed the highest development in civilization among American races. Their civilization resulted from welding the prog- ress of several tribes, which were all of one race. The Incas came into contact with no foreign element. Their country, Peru, was favorable to an early civilization if not to a permanent one. The dense forests of the great Amazonian valley gave work for the hunter and fisherman only; but up on the Andes the plateaus furnished a vast plain suitable to a prosperous tillage, and afforded a climate rigorous enough to force a civilization from the people inhabiting them. In a territory nearly fifteen hundred miles long, extending from two degrees north to twenty degrees south of the equator, and bounded on the west by the Pacific Ocean, and on the east by the forests and plains of the Amazon, the Incas, in the noontide of their greatness, made their home. Here they had all temperatures and physical outlines. Skill and hardihood were necessary to subsis- tence. Like the ancient Greek world, the Incas' country was cut up by ranges of mountains, gorges, and rivers, so that many small dis- tricts, each leading a more or less isolated existence, made up the whole; and this condition led the inhabitants into customs very similar to those of the Greeks. To form a union many natural ob- stacles had to be overcome, so that such effort was long and hard. The Incas consisted at first of four tribes and lived around Lake Titicaca. The Incas proper were a strongly built race, about five feet four inches in height, and were of a light-brown color. They wore no beards. South of this tribe were the Collas, who dwelt in stone huts, tended flocks of llamas, and raised potatoes. The Urus dwelt among the reeds of the lake and were known as the " lake- dwellers." They lived in canoes and fed on fish and potatoes. An agricultural tribe lived near the coast. The origin of the Incas, like that of the Aztecs and their ances- tors, is involved in myth and legend. I shall relate three stories 30 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. concerning the origin of their ancestors, the Piruas. First: the Deity created men out of stone and clay and placed them under the earth. He caused them to pass out from caves, rocks, fountains, etc., thus forming different nations. Second: four brothers with their four sisters came out of a cave. One brother showed great strength in hurling a stone from a sling, and the others grew jealous of him. They persuaded him to return into the cave, where they closed him in forever. Soon afterwards, another brother was turned into a stone idol. The two remaining brothers went to the present site of Cuzco and founded a nation. The third legend combines the other two partially. After man was created, as the first myth relates, a superior being appeared and divided the earth among four kings. So much for the mythical origin of the Incas. Entering the realm of facts, the best authority makes the Piruan dynasty exist as early as 470 B.C. It fell into the hands of the Incas, one of the Piruan tribes, in 840 a.u. This would give the empire an existence for thirteen hundred and ten years under the Piruas and nearly seven hundred years under the Incas. History records no such a parallel. Tlie religion of the Incas was a worship of a supreme being and of ancestors and natural objects. They thought that all things pos- sessed souls, to which they might pray for help. It is said that this was a belief among the ignorant only, but it is certain that the learned as well believed in the double nature of things. Even the crops had spiritual doubles which had to be worshiped. The people offered their first prayers and invocations to God; then they prayed to their ancestors, and to the sun, moon, and thunder to intercede for them. They preserved the dead body, clothed as when alive, and surrounded it with special furniture and utensils. After several centuries mummies have been found in good preservation, even, it is said, appearing to be alive. The daily life of the people was closely connected with tlieir religious ceremonies. The months and seasons were celebrated. Astronomical knowledge was necessary to the priests. They had names for many of the stars, whose movements were studied, as were also those of the sun and moon. The people distinguished between the lunar and solar years; and the time of the solstices and equinoxes was noted by eight pillars placed on the east and west side of the city in doiible rows. Tlie shadows of these Avere noticed, and when they fell on a certain line the time was deter- PRE-COLUMBIAN CIVILIZATION. 31 miued. It is thouglit that they also used a zodiac with the twelve signs corresponding to their twelve months in the year. They added five days to the lunar year to make up the solar year, and every fourth year a correction was made. Their year began on the 22d of June. They celebrated the day with a great festival. Three other festivals were given during the year, one at each of the equinoxes and one at the winter solstice. Raymi, or the festival of the winter solstice, was in honor of the sun and came after harvest, when granaries were filled with the labors of the year. Sacrifices of llamas, lambs, and the first- fruits of the earth were offered, accompanied by prayers, songs, and dancing. The second festival, called Situa, was held at the vernal equinox, the beginning of the rainy period, which was a season of sickness. The object of the festival was to drive away diseases and evils. The ceremony was interesting. Four hundred armed warriors stood in a square, facing the four boundaries of the empire. The priests issued from the temples, crying, "Go forth, all evils." This cry was taken up by a band of soldiers, who ran until they reached another band of warriors, who were waiting for them. These then took up the cry and proceeded until the rivers were reached, into which they plunged and bathed. The evils were supposed to be thus driven into the rivers. All the people bathed at night, after which they lighted great fires of straw and marched to the river and threw them into it, thus freeing themselves of nocturnal evils. These ceremonies, with singing, dancing, and careful eating, made up the festival. The third festival was at the summer solstice, and was the occa- sion of admitting the youths to a rank much like the knighthood of Europe. After a severe ordeal of fighting, which required per- severance and endurance, and in which many fell, those passing through were admitted as warriors. The month following the third festival was the time for a strange ceremony, called the water sacri- fice. The people preserved all the ashes and cinders of the festivals of the year, and, after prayers and sacrifices, freed a great body of water, which had been kept back by dams, and allowed it to wash away all the remains of the festivals. A sacred fire was kept burning throughout the whole year by the Virgins of the Sun; and the ceremony of the annual renewal of these fires at the autumnal equinox was the fourth festival. The fire 32 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. was reproduced by focusing the sun's rays on a metal mirror. There were the usual sacrifices and prayers in this festival. Besides the national festivals of the Incas, there were also family ceremonies and worship. The household gods were numerous and held a prominent place. The religion was thus very complicated. At the head were a pope and many priests and bishops, all in an organization much similar to the Roman Church. Intellectually the Incas were superior to the other primitive people on the continent. Their literature was mostly destroyed when the empire fell. The visual mode of preserving their history and literature was by handing down, orally, from one generation to another, such things as were popular and useful. Records and ac- counts were kept by means of knots in roj^es; and this was so intel- ligently done that it then excelled England's system of recording. The medical fraternity were intelligent, and that surgery was well developed is shown by a trepanned skull which has been found. The sovereign was the center of government, knowledge, civilization, and religion. Indeed, he was looked upon almost as a deity. Great wealth poured in on him, and the greatest deference was paid to him. Architecture was superior, as is shown in buildings, walls, drain- age, monuments, and ruins of many kinds. Of these space will not allow a description. Lands were highly cultivated; the produce was divided among the king, priest, and laborers, though not in equal shares. All tillable lands were used, and the cities were built on rocky and untillable soil. By means of irrigation the Incas controlled droughts and even wet seasons. The irrigating canals show great skill in their con- struction. The result of all this labor was the best of crops. The finest potatoes which the world has ever seen were grown. Their inaize has never been equaled. Cocoa, cotton, pepper, and fruit were peculiar to the region, and all were highly cultivated. Flocks were large and numerous. The valuable alpaca wool is the product of the Peruvian shepherds. There were excellent roads over and through mountains and across ravines, connecting all points of the empire. These brief points show partially the real condition of the Incas. Recent years are adding rapidly to the knowledge we have already gained of them. It is certain that they worked out the completest civilization on the new continent up to that time, and are the only people wlio have ever succeeded, as far as history shows, in creating a successful socialistic government. CHAPTER IV. JESUITS AND INDIANS. Algonquins — Iroquois — Hueons — Women — Customs — Central New York — Councils — Crimes — Religions — Jesuits — Nature — Origin — Work among the Indians — Difficulties — Patience and Skill — Prog- ress — Reception — Assossane — Trials — Neutrals — Success with the HuRONS — Disputes — Quebec — College — Montreal — Association of Montreal — Hundred Associates — War — Peace — Destruction. COLUMBUS discovered a country which rivaled his own or adopted land in the warmth of its romance and the cruelty of its hate. Clans and nations were being absorbed and were absorbing; languages were being lost and originated; and homes were being destroyed and rebuilt. Change, rebellions, and revolutions were as much a part of the life of the people he discovered as of that of the people he left. At the discovery of America two great tribes of Indians held the territory east of the Mississippi. From the head waters of the Mississippi across the country east around the lakes, and north to Hudson Bay, then south along the coast to the Carolinas, were the great Algonquins. In the heart of this territory, mostly in New York, lay the family of Iroquois or Five Nations, surrounded on three sides by the Algonquins. The Iroquois was the progressive tribe of the continent, and without the intervention of the white men would doubtless have conquered its neighbors. The Mohicans, Pequods, Narragansetts, Wampanoags, Massachusetts, and Penna- cooks were tribes of the Algonquin family, and it was these that were so troublesome to the Puritans and Virginians. Around the lake which bears their name dwelt the Hurons, an Iroquois tribe. They were more civilized than their neighbors, had towns and fortifications, and tilled the soil. According to the record of the Jesuits, there were 20,000 Hurons in 1639. The towns were irregular, and the houses were generally thirty to thirty- D 33 34 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. five feet square, but sometimes more than two hundred feet long. They were built by planting saplings in double rows and bending them near together at the top, interlacing them with other branches, and covering them with bark. The fire was built in a row down the center of the house, around which the Indians slept promiscuously. IVIany times twenty families would live in one house of one room, filled with dogs, mosquitoes, and fleas. Around the village the Indians felled trees, piled bark, and sank palisades, and around all made a ditch for a fortification. Private ownership of land was not known. Each man used as much as his squaw could till. Corn, beans, pumpkins, tobacco, sunflowers, and hemp were raised. Every few years the tribe moved in order to secure fresh soil. Corn was the chief food. Wampum was the great medium of commerce. Tlie dress was of fur in the winter, and often nothing was worn in summer except the moccasins. It is common and romantic to think of the Indians as possessing the highest virtue. But virtue was not known among them, espe- cially among the Hurons. There was no bright side to the woman's life. A wanton as a girl and a drudge as a wife, she had no peace till death ended her misery. Polygamy was the exception, yet the utmost freedom in divorce was granted to either party. There was also the custom of experimental marriages, lasting for a certain time, often but a few days. These temporary marriages were performed by the bridegroom giving a piece of wampum to his choice. This act did not bind either party to any adherence to virtue, but allowed unbounded license. In March and April the squaw gathered the wood for the next winter, and then began the planting. The men hunted until early winter and by Christmas gathered in the village. Though they knew nothing of Christmas, it was a great feast time for all. There were many kinds of feasts, the most prominent being the social, medi- cal, and religious. To the social feast, which was given by some one individual, every one had to go. In a religioi;s or medical feast each one had to eat all that Avas placed before him regardless of quantity ; not to do so was an outrage to the tribe. The fiercest barbarians have some law to regulate their own affairs. They live together in a peaceable way, that civilized races have never done. Among the Indians of Korth America custom was law. There was a complete surrender to superiority. Great respect and love were manifested toward one another. When an Indian maiden was JESUITS AND INDIANS. 35 married, the women of the tribe furnished her with wood enough for a year. If a family were without shelter, the tribe gathered and built it a house. No one suffered for food while there was any to be had by any one. While there were the two classes, rich and poor, and there was private ownership of food, yet it was all freely given to those less fortunate. The Indians were sociable among themselves, had their dances, made visits, joked, and possessed all the social qualities and the means for gratifying the same that the white man had. A very strange feature of their civilization is that all inheritance was through the female line. The son inherited nothing from his father. He might become chief, but never because his father was chief before him, though the place was often inherited through the mother. All the property of the father went to his brothers or to the sons of his sisters, because they Avere descended from the same mother. This has been explained as coming from the very lax virtue of the race. In Central New York were the Mohawks, Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayugas, and Senecas, all being of the Iroquois nation. Tradition has it that at first they were united, then came discord and disunion. Finally a celestial creature came among them advising union for defense and conquest. Each of the Five Nations was divided into eight clans or families represented by some animal, as the Wolf clan, Bear clan. Hawk clan, etc. All the people of a clan claimed descent from a single mother. A clan had from eight to fourteen sachems, whose duty it was to install chiefs, and form, the laws for the government of the tribe. There was also a "Council of Old Men," which, though not hereditary, exerted great influence over the tribe. Then the young men and the women had a council, which could be represented at either the Council of the Old Men or at the national council of the sachems. All questions of interest were respectfully heard and commented upon. Each orator had not only to be able to give exactly the question at issue, but had also to repeat accurately the speech of the opponent he wished to answer, so that there could be no misunderstanding. After a decision was reached, every one was satisfied and acquiesced. Crime was not often punished. If a murder were committed, a reconciliation was made by means of presents to the clan of the murdered man. Thirty presents of value were given if a man were murdered, and forty if a woman were. If the presents were refused, the murderer was given over to the friends of his victim to be a 36 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. slave. Witches were killed by any one at any time. Traitors were murdered by some one appointed by the council for that purpose. The material world was an intelligent being to the Indian. He believed that animals could hear and heed prayers ; that spirits dwelt in lakes and rivers; and that even inanimate things could influence life. There was awful mystery in the forest and on the mountain. Nothing uninfluential existed. Every species of animal life had its god, which was a type of itself. The Indians delivered orations over the slain body of the deer or bear to propitiate the god of the beast. Each Indian also had his manitou, or guardian spirit, and wore about him some portion of the body of the same, to which he prayed and gave offerings. About the age of fourteen the boy was sent into the woods to fast until he found his manitou. The first thing that appeared in his dreams was to till that place. The great spirit of the Algonquins was named Manabozhe, whose father was the west wind, and whose mother was a great-grand- daughter of the moon. He was sometimes known as a wolf or a bird, but generally as a very large hare. At one time he was the destroyer of all evil, at another time the very acme of wickedness. There is a legend of the Deluge connected with him that is interest- ing. One day while hunting with a wolf, which was his brother, or by some accounts his grandson, the wolf fell through the ice and was eaten by serpents. To be revenged, Manabozhe turned himself into a stump, and slew the king of the serpents. The serpents in their anger caused the water of the lake to rise until it covered all the earth, and Manabozhe saved himself by climbing a tree and caus- ing it to grow as the water rose. As he was almost submerged, he asked a loon near by to dive to secure a little mud. It dived, but found none ; then a muskrat tried it, secured a small amount, and from this the world was made anew. Many legends remain about the Creation. The following is taken from a noted author on Indian lore. " In the beginning of things Manabozhe, in the form of a great hare, was on a raft surrounded by animals. He ordered the beaver to dive for mud to form land; it did so, but came to the surface senseless, the otter tried and failed; the muskrat tried next, and after a day and a night came to the sur- face apparently dead but with its paws tightly closed; on opening them a grain of sand was found, and from this Manabozhe created the earth." Another story has its place as follows : Manabozhe once gave a bundle of sticks to an Indian with the order never to open it. JESUITS AND INDIANS. 37 The Indian's wife, however, through curiosity, opened it and out flew the precious gift of immortality which had been tied in the bundle. The Iroquois and Hurons had another explanation for Creation. " While yet the earth was water there was a heaven of land and water above. Here a spirit, named Ataentsic, and her dog were chasing a bear, which fell through a hole down to earth ; the dog followed, and Ataentsic, through despair, jumped after them. The animals in the water below saw her coming, and called a council to consider what to do. The case was left to the beaver, and the beaver gave it into the care of the tortoise. The tortoise ordered all the other animals to bring mud and put it on his back, and thus formed an island on which Ataentsic fell. The back of the tortoise grew into a world of plenty, and Ataentsic ruled over it. Two boys were born, one of whom killed the other. The surviving boy was known as the benevolent spirit, and Ataentsic as the malignant spirit. Areskoui was the god of war. There was another god who always appeared in dreams. Hiawatha instructed the race socially and politically." Some writers claim that the Indians had no belief in a supreme spirit. Perhaps the best evidence is on that side. At most, it was a very barbarous and finite conception of a being, who did not at all give out justice, but left all such to subordinate spirits. In the Indian language there was no word to express the idea of God. The " Manitou " was anything. The Indian believed that each race of animals had its king, and through the efforts of the Jesuits this thought was broadened until he conceived of a power over all. He believed in immortality, and sometimes in a future reward and pun- ishment. The brave should pass to the happy hunting-ground, while the cowardly should be driven into darkness and gloom to eat ashes and serpents. The Hurons collected their dead about every ten years and put them into one common pit. It was supposed that their immortality began from this time and that the spirits began their journey to heaven. Dreams were realities to the Indians. They told them of torture and misfortune. There were professed dreamers and interpreters of dreams. Dream feasts were common. Sorcerers, medicine-men, diviners, and all mysterious beings and conditions were very real. Superstition bound the people in its agonizing toils. Anything or everything might mean life or death. The Indian mind never soared 38 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. liigh. Poets dream of the noble red man, but it was only a dream. He never knew law nor intellect. When the wind blew, tlie water lizard had crawled out of his pool; when the lightning flashed, the thunder bird was restless in her nest; when corn failed, the corn spirit was angry, and if the beaver could not be caught, it was because it was angry that the bones of one of its race had been fed to a dog. The Indian god never rose higher than the Indian, and possessed bodily form and attributes. Such were the people the Jesuits found and came to save. To pierce the dark cloud of such superstition and ignorance Avas too much even for the never-tiring, ever-sacriflcing Jesuit, whose life in North America shall now be a subject for study. For three hundred years America was a vast altar of human sac- rifice. Men not only died, but what is often worse, suffered without dying. Heroes lived and suffered in the dark woods of the land before the Pilgrim Fathers set up the first corner-stone of the gov- ernment. There were souls, that some men longed to save; they dared the sternest dangers, and bore the most awful hardships, that they might place a dampened finger on the brow of a dying babe, and murmur a few words of confession for a fleeting soul's salvation. This is, in short, a history of the Jesuits in America. No name in religion carries with it darker traces of darker deeds or higher examples of heroic attempts and sacrifices. Believing in the prin- ciple tliat man is but a machine in the hands of a superior, who may do his will, the Jesuit knows no motive nor desire of his own. He does not confine himself to cells and caves, he is not a hermit, he does not persecute the body to save the soul, but goes out into every corner of the world and persecutes his body to save another's soul. He takes the vow of stability and pledges himself to obedience, pov- erty, and chastity. The individual is nothing, but the Order is everything; the man loses himself in his work. He does not seek fame, he is not ambitious for self, but is like a corpse without will or understanding. Pie yields himself to the hands of his superiors to be molded like wax. One writer likens the Order to a naked sword whose hilt is at Rome, and point, everywhere. Ignatius Loyola was wounded in battle in 1552 and carried to a castle, where he lay and worked out the system and order of the mighty Society of Jesus, whose power every corner of the eartli has felt. He knew little of books and was an undisturbed believer in Romanism. He sought to make mankind the unquestioned tool of JESUITS AND INDIANS. 39 a guiding hand. He was not a monk or hermit, but a man of action ; there was no dreaming in the camps of the Jesuits. A greater or stranger purpose — to rob a man of his will and yet make him an in- strument of great design — was never held. There was no submis- sion, that the Jesuit would not make ; there was no task, that he would not undertake; there was no statement, that he would not believe when made by a superior. He was everywhere : in the king's palace controlling the master of nations, in the schoolroom, in the study, in the home of the savage, in every known clime, — Europe, Asia, Africa, North America, South America, — now a soldier, then a priest, a mathematician, a Mohammedan, a Brahmin, a Buddhist, a follower of Confucius, using every means that gigantic intellects could devise to sweep the world into the Koman Church. He stooped to the lowest depths of vice and poverty, and climbed to the highest pinnacle of sacrifice and heroism for that one end. As soon as the Jesuits were well organized, they turned their attention towards the savages of New France, now Canada, and the Mississippi valley. It was at Quebec that the first mission was started in 1G32. Six Jesuits made up the mission. These six men looked out from their hovel on the St. Charles and beheld a continent dark with the ignorance, superstition, and savagery of centuries. Six men stood out against a world of heathen. No wonder they cried, "The harvest is plentiful and the laborers are few." The leader of the first mission was La Jeune, and the beginning of the Jesuit work in this country was the teaching of an Indian boy and negro by him. Neither one could understand the language of the others. The greatest obstacle to success was in learning the Indian language, especially that of the Algonquins, among whom the Jesuits began their work. Sometimes, for a joke, the Indians would teach them the words in a wrong meaning, and when they thought they were telling of their mission they may have been cursing in the most horrible manner. But the language Avas learned in an imperfect way, aird then winter came on them with its attendant sufferings. La Jeune had but two pupils, whom be taught to pray in Latin, but the next summer quite a large class came to him each day. The sorcerers among the Indians, being antagonists of the Jesuits in their religious beliefs, gave them a great deal of trouble, espe- cially in teaching the missionaries the foulest words in the language for the best. In numerous petty ways they annoyed the priests until La Jeune said he would frequently pass whole days without uttering 40 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. a word for fear of saying something that would harm. The wander- ing habits of the Algonquins made missionary work very hard among them. Being in the far north and living on game entirely, they roamed from place to place in search of food, which habit in that north latitude caused much suifering in winter time when game was scarce. La Jeune and his followers decided to go to the home of the Hurons, who were more fixed in their abode and more intelligent than the Algonquins. Through this tribe they hoped to save all the nations of the country. Hundreds of miles had to be traveled on foot and in canoes to reach the Hurons. Champlain was at this time at Quebec, and a party of Hurons had come down to trade with him. He gave the care of the priests into the hands of these traders, who afterwards refused to take them. It was one year from this time that three of the party secured the help of three Indians for the voyage. For nine hundred miles each man was carried in a canoe by a savage, whose only oars were his hands, and who could neither speak nor understand a word of French. The instruction given the priests for their guidance on this journey was as follows: "Love the Indian like a brother. Take a flint and steel with you to light their pipes and fires. Try to ea,t their food as they cook it, bad and dirty as it is. Do not carry water or sand into their canoe. Wear no shoes nor stockings in their canoes. Do not make yourself troublesome. Bear their faults in silence, and always appear cheerful. Do not let the brim of your hat bother them ; perhaps you had better not wear your night-cap. Remember that it is Christ and the Cross you are seeking." It was thus the French Jesuits worked among the Indians. To their honor it may be said they were the only people who sought to help the Indian. The Spaniard murdered him, the Englishman neglected him, but the Frenchman helped him. The Jesuits made good use of the Hurons' ignorance of household furniture, especially the clock, which they called the captain. The Indians would gather around it and wait for it to strike. When the last stroke was made, a priest would order it to stop, and to the great wonder of the Indians it obeyed. A hand-mill was another wonderful thing, as was also a magnifying glass. Tlie Hurons were respectful, but did not take hold of the new faith, saying it was good for Frenchmen, but was not their own cnstom. The missionaries also had trouble Avith the sorcerers, and when winter came on the tribe was too busy with its festivities to pay much attention to the JESUITS AND INDIANS. 41 priests; so with characteristic patience they waited, and the next summer began their work. A Jesuit never disturbed a custom nor interfered in any practice until the person was won over. By the end of the summer season the priests had gained the confidence of the Indians, and they labored on with the hope of one day romaniz- ing the whole country. The Huron territory became the most hope- ful field the Jesuits possessed, and many more priests began to come in a few years. In 1636 the smallpox broke out in the tribe and carried death to hundreds. With the zeal of their faith, the priests visited every village and house, bringing help to the body and soul. They allowed no person to die in peace, but to the last breath would exact the confession. The great difficulty to overcome with the Indians was to satisfy them that they would not starve in paradise. They feared that the French would not feed them there. One woman, on being asked which she would choose, heaven or hell, responded, "Hell, if my children are there, as you say." Confession was hard to get from them, for they denied having ever sinned. When the priests bap- tized an enemy, the Indians feared he would get to heaven first, and would not let them in. The baptizing of children just before death made the Indians believe that the baptizing killed them, so it was forbidden. Every device to baptize was used by the Jesuits. In one instance the priest, in order to get near the child, whose parents were carefully watching to see it was not baptized, asked to give it a little sugared Avater; the infant being asleep, the priest, after secretly dipping his finger into the water, asked the mother to give it, and they both drew near to see if the child were really asleep. Under this pretense the priest laid his dampened finger on the babe, mentally gave the confession, and the child was saved. Such morality may be doubtful, but when we follow the Jesuits through winter's snow and poverty, into loathsome hovels of misery and want, ministering and nursing, we must forget something of means, and remember more of the purposes and sacrifices which attended them. The Hurons were induced to build a mission-house. In this was a chapel with the altar, crucifix, vessels, and ornaments belonging to it. They also represented the last judgment, where dragons feasted on the wicked, and demons scourged them into the flames of hell. The Indians gathered by the hundreds to see the wonderful house. Another important step was gained; for five years the 42 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. priests had been baptizing dying babes, but now a strong, full- grown man offered himself to be baptized. To the Jesuits it was the harvest of their long toil, but their work was not yet over. The sorcerers had become jealous of their success. The Indians looked on the priests as supernatural beings, who controlled the weather and the crops, and even life and death. The sorcerers began to make the people believe that the Jesuits were the cause of the pesti- lence that had just destroyed so many of them. Their love turned to hate, and they passed resolutions of death on the priests, but no one would be the executioner. Yet the Jesuits went on. Under every pretext they entered the home of the dying, and baptized with the skill and adroitness of professionals. They narrowly escaped death in many forms, but with a courage truly superhuman they labored among these savages, cruel in their ignorance, and snatched many a dying soul from the fangs of the " Infernal Wolf." Indeed, the missionaries fretted that not one of them was murdered, in order that blood might be spilled, and thus the church be made more sacred by the "blood of its martyrs." Yet they consoled them- selves that the misery and persecution of their lives would at least amount to martyrdom. With the snakes, fleas, filth, and dogs, which they called little images of hell, and the cold and hunger, their lives many times suffered all the pangs of death, perhaps more. In some places the missionaries were quite a curiosity to tlie Indians. Crowds of children would gather around them curiously, examining their dress, taking off their shoes and hats and trying them on themselves, all through curiosity. The Jesuits lived in rude huts filled to sutfocation with smoke, and ate their meals on a log for a table. Their food was mostly mush made of pounded corn and boiled with smoked fish. It was like the paste used on wall- paper. Sometimes a pumpkin or squash Avas baked in the ashes, which varied the diet slightly. No salt was to be had, as it was impossible to bring food through the territory of the Indians. The missionaries did not cultivate the soil, save a small patch of wheat for sacramental use. They bought the food of the Indians, trading them different articles for it. They rose at four o'clock a.m. from their beds of bark, and held mass and devotional services until eight o'clock A.M., when they called the Indians in and taught them the catechism as they found them in humor for the same; for they never intruded themselves on the people except in death and baptism. JESUITS AND INDIANS. 43 They had dinner at two o'clock, when grace was said in the Indian language; while eating, one of the Jesuits would read aloud from the Bible. At about five o'clock they dismissed the Indians and spent the evenings in study, devotional exercises, and considering the duties of the day. It was thus day after day, in all seasons, that these earnest people gave their lives to their calling and worked for a race too low to attract the attention of any other religion or nation. The principal mission was called Assossane, and was located in the Hudson country. There were many local missions near. No limits in territory were placed on the work. But at Assossane the converts had so increased that twelve carpenters were brought from Quebec in 1638 to build a chapel. There were some sixty converts at this mission, naked, half-starved, miserable wretches. They were converted by peculiar means. Pictures, altars, sacrament, and various objects, that would excite their curiosity and superstition, were used. The missionaries would make such orders as follows to the church at Eome : " Send me one picture of Christ without a beard," the Indians being prejudiced against beard- wearing; "also send the picture of the Virgin, and souls in perdition." Pictures of demons, dragons, flames, etc., were the most used. A picture of souls in bliss was not needed so much as one showing a soul in tor- ment. Flowers and animals were not allowed in the picture, for they detracted from the meaning to the Indians, and only such por- traits were used as looked with wide-open eyes straight at the beholder. The brightest colorings were put in them to excite the interest of the natives. These were all means of drawing the Indians to the Jesuits, who in turn were ever gentle and kind to them, never assuming control of their actions, but always conforming to their customs and habits except in some points of morality. The missionaries insisted on the converts taking but one wife, and preached against murder and cannibalism. The older missionaries advised that the younger ones should marry the Indian girls by the formal rites of the church. This pleased the Indians very much, though they could not under- stand the use of so much formality in the marriage. " If the young missionaries want the Indian girls, why do they not come and get them and not trouble us so much by their ceremonies?" Thus said the Indians, with whom marriage was a very loose and easily broken agreement. 44 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. The great hindrance to converting the Indians was their super- stition, together Avith their natural laziness and pride. They could understand very well all that was told them, but were too lazy to think, too proud to believe, and scorned to bow to a God in humble adoration; and they were so superstitious that every mystery was a supernatural phenomenon. The Jesuit priests had first for their plans the forming of sepa- rate mission posts in every Huron village, and placing them on an equality one towards the other; but the danger and risks of division were found to be too great, so they established a central mission and let others radiate from this center. Here were kept all sup- plies, and from here the priests set out on their missions, coming back for relief or help of any kind. Here also they gathered the converts and kept them from the evil influences of their old life and companions. This place was called Santa Marie. The mis- sionaries visited the Hurons' towns and named them after some patron saint, and then divided the territory into four districts, adding the Tobacco Nation for a fifth. To each district there were assigned two or more priests. To give an idea of the work that all had to do, and the hardships of all, the trials of two are here related. Two priests, named Garner and Jogues, were assigned the Tobacco Nation for missionary work. This was about fifty miles distant from the central mission. It was winter, and snow was falling and lay deep on the ground. No guides could be secured, and the two men started out alone in the trackless, and to them unknown, wilderness. They lost their bear- ing and found themselves at night in a great swamp, where they slept on bark and boughs, and, as one of them said, " passed a very good night." They made their breakfast on a piece of corn-bread and started on their journey, walking all day without food. Late that evening they reached a miserable outside village of the Tobacco Nation. Their coming was very unwelcome. The children screamed and hid themselves, crying out that the pest and pestilence had come again. The Indians had heard of the missionaries, and hated and feared them. They closed the doors of their rude bark huts on them, but the famished men pushed their way inside, where they found a typical Indian household : a half-dozen fires burning on the earthen floor, surrounded by old and young, children and dogs, to the number of a score or more. The older Indians scowling darkly, children JESUITS AND INDIANS. 45 screaming in fear, and dogs growling threateningly, all made a very uninspiring greeting for the men. Indeed the most wonderful thing was that the Indians did not at once kill the two men. But down in the ashes and filth knelt the two priests and prayed in desperate earnestness for the souls of the wretched inmates of the hut. It was thus that they were welcomed in all these towns, particularly those of the Tobacco Nation. In two of the towns, St. Peter and St. Paul, they were successfully fastened out of all the houses, and they had naught to do but to turn back into the woods, where tliey were fol- lowed by a band of men armed with hatchets to kill them; but the darkness and woods favored the missionaries, and they returned home safely. What was known as the Neutral Nation, lying just north of Lake Erie and extending around into New York, was the fiercest tribe on the American continent, famed far and wide, both in Indian and white circles, for its ferocity. The Indians believed that insanity was but the exercise of superhuman power, and that those inflicted with it were raised above the common things of life and placed beyond the jurisdiction of man. The Neutral Nation had many of these beings in their midst, who raved through the villages naked, and destroyed all in their way. Many pretended insanity for destructive purposes. This, added to the natural ferocity of the people, made any attempt to change their natures and customs doubly dangerous. Yet these things did not deter the unconquer- able zeal of the Jesuits. The nation was about one hundred and fifty miles from the mission center. The Hurons feared to kill the priests on account of the French at Quebec, so they sought the same end by encouraging the Neutrals to do the deed, for which they were to receive nine hatchets. Everywhere in this nation the missionaries were met with per- secution and revilings ; were spit upon and tortured by the maniacs ; and had all doors closed to them. But in their councils the Indians could not bring themselves to kill the priests, partly through fear and partly through superstition. *' Leave our country," said the chief, "or we will put you into the kettle and make a feast of you." The young men said : " We have had enough of the dark flesh of our enemies. We want to try the taste of white meat." After this kind of treatment for four months, the two priests left the Nation and returned to Santa Marie. Their mission here was apparently fruitless} by a miracle almost they were alive. Yet they were not 46 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. discouraged. They looked to darker fields and wider territories for action. Success seemed never to attend their efforts. They now were losing more than they had gained. Their converts at the principal mission were decreasing. After seven years' work but fifty persons remained in the fold. When the mission was started, seven years before, there were sixty. With hardships untold, per- secutions unnamed, and zeal unsurpassed, the work was carried on under greater perils and into bloodier territory. Among the Hurons more success was had. For a few years war raged among the tribes and between the Indians and whites. The Hurons during this time had become more easy to influence, and the Jesuits reaped a wonderful harvest, sometimes converting the majority of whole tribes. Churches Avere built, and bells were hung, generally in a tree near the church. Every morning the people were called to mass by this bell and at evening to prayers. On Sunday the services lasted the whole day. Great good was done among the people. The practice of burning prisoners was stopped by the converts. Upon one occasion, when an Iroquois prisoner was being burned, a convert bitterly and earnestly denounced the torturers for the deed and preached a sermon against it. At the same time he exhorted the burning wretch, who demanded baptism, to repentance. The convert, amidst the hoots and jeers of the Indians, ran with a cup of water, and in the death agony of the victim's horrible sufferings administered the rite of baptism. The priests did not preach against torture to any great extent. Tlieir mission was the soul, and suffering to the body was too insig- nificant for much attention; so while they did not publicly counte- nance burning, yet they did not strongly forbid it. But they most earnestly denounced and forbade cannibalism. The Indians might torture the body, but they must not eat it. The Huron, when he became a convert, gave up his feasts and dances, but until he became a convert the priesfe very judiciously refrained from breaking up the practices. Among tlie many stories told to injure the work of the Jesuits, was this : A baptized Huron girl died and came to life, Avhen she related a horrible story of her treatment by the French in heaven. As soon as she reached heaven, she said, she was seized and chained to a stake and tormented with all the barbarous cruelty the French could invent. "They did this," she said, "to all the Hurons; that the inhabitants of heaven took their recreation in tormenting the JESUITS AND INDIANS. 47 Hurons who came to their heaven; that the Jesuits had been sent among them to baptize them, so they might go to heaven to serve as entertainment for Jesuit cruelty." After she had been tortured a long time, the story went, an unknown friend of the girl showed her a hidden path back to earth that she might warn her people of their fate in believing the Jesuits. To the superstitious mind of the Indians this story had a great influence and was hard to overcome. To show the manner of settling disputes and damages between the Jesuits and Hurons, the following is related: "In the woods near the mission of Santa Marie a young man in the employ of the mission was murdered by some Indians. Of course it would have been natural to demand blood for blood, but according to the charac- teristic nature of the Jesuits they simply demanded Huron justice, — giving presents to the friends of the murdered man until justice was appeased. The Hurons called the grand council, to which they invited the missionaries, when an aged orator of the tribe rose, and in eloquent terms said: 'My brother, behold all the tribes of our league assembled,' naming them one by one. 'We are but a handful; you are the prop and stay of this nation. A thunderbolt has fallen from the sky and rent a chasm in the earth. We shall fall into it if you do not support us. Take pity on us. We are here not so much to speak as to weep over our loss and yours. Our country is but a skeleton, without flesh, veins, sinews, or arteries ; and its bones hang together by a thread. This thread is broken by the blow that has fallen on the head of your nephew, for whom we weep. It was the demon of hell who placed the hatchet in the murderer's hand. Was it you, Sun, who led him to do this deed? Why did you not darken your light, that he might be stricken with horror at his crime? Were you his accomplice? No, for he walked in darkness, and did not see where he struck. He thought, this wretched murderer, that he aimed at the head of a young French- man, but the blow fell upon his country and gave it a death wound. The earth opens to receive the body of the innocent victim, and we shall be swallowed up in the chasm; for we are all guilty. The Iroquois rejoice at his death and celebrate it as a triumph, for they see that our weapons are turned against each other, and know well that our nation is near its end. '"Brother, take pity on this nation. You alone can restore it to life. It is for you to gather up all these scattered bones and close this chasm that opens to engulf us. Take pity on your country. I 48 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. call it yours, for you are the masters of it; and we are come here like criminals to receive your sentence, if you will not show us mercy. Pity those who condemn themselves and come to ask for- giveness. It is you who have given strength to the nation by dwell- ing with it, and if you leave us we shall be like a wisp of straw torn from the ground to be the sport of the wind. This country is an island drifting on the waters, for the first storm to overwhelm and sink. Make it fast again to its foundation, and posterity will never forget to praise you. "'When we first heard of the murder, we could do nothing but weep, and we aro ready to receive your orders and comply with your demands. Speak, then, and ask what satisfaction you will, for our lives and our possessions are yours; and even if we rob our children to satisfy you, we will tell them that it is not of you that they have to complain, but of him whose crime has made us all guilty. Our anger is against him, but for you we feel nothing but love. He destroyed our lives, and you will restore them if you will but speak and tell us what you will have us do.' " The speech was replied to, and then the French gave a bundle of sticks, signifying that as many presents would be required as sticks in the bundle. An equal number of sticks was given to each tribe, and the council adjourned to collect the presents. No assess- ment was made; each Indian gave what he wished, and there was no attempt to punish the murderer. His shame and disgrace arose from his people being required to pay damages for his deed. "When all the presents were gathered, another assembly Avas called. The Indians came loaded with presents, worthless in any eye save their own. In giving the presents they presented one piece for every clause in the presentation si^eech, and then nine were given to repre- sent the scaffold, crosspieces, and pillow of the murdered man, fol- lowed by eight to represent the eight Huron tribes. The French then made a present to the Indians, and the next day the grand ceremony took place when the fifty presents of the atonement were made. Quebec was the " Garden of Eden " to the Jesuits. It was the ambition of the French Jesuits to go to the wilds of Canada and reap the vast harvest of souls. Quebec was the stronghold and headquarters. The letters and pamphlets of the Jesuits at Quebec were read throughout all France, and kindled an ambition in many hearts. Delicate women gave their lives to the cause. In one con- JESUITS AND INDIANS. 49 vent thirteen nuns devoted themselves to converting the Indian women and children. A school was founded, and a hospital was built for the natives. The French king joined hands with the Jesuits and linked Church and State in one common cause. Religion became a fashion, and missionary work a fad. The Jesuits were in the noonday of their popularity, and all power in America, both civil and religious, was given them. Beyond them there was no appeal. In 1640 a college and seminary were started. Aside from the fur trade, all the life of Quebec was taken up in its missions, con- vents, hospitals, and schools. The company that had agreed to settle all this territory was known as the Hundred Associates, which bound itself to settle four thousand colonists in the country before 1643. But the Jesuits had such absolute control that, desiring none but Catholics, the number was not made up. The company had to provide religious worship, which was directed by the priests. From a worldly view the colony was a failure, but religiously if was a great success. It was here it was said " that the atmosphere was almost celestial. In this climate one learns perfectly to seek God." Another said, " If one who dies in this country goes to perdition, he is doubly guilty." The Jesuits turned even their amusements into instruments for saving souls. Holidays and birthdays of princes were commemorated in a religious way. The mediaeval spirit of Christianity was resurrected, and the Jesuits hoped to build a vast religious monarchy on the foundations of Quebec. It may be an interesting fact to know the origin of the different religious institutions at Quebec, especially as they were begun before there were many people in the colony. The priests first advocated a seminary for Indian boys, and the civil authorities thought it a good plan ; for by such means they could, when necessary, hold the boys as hostages for the good behavior of the parents. In 1669 a wealthy and childless widow of France, enthused with the mission- ary spirit, founded a seminary for Indian girls in Canada. This woman, through a sham marriage and other deeds not of the nicest honor, secured a large fortune, which she devoted to the Jesuit cause in Canada. Another, called the "holy woman," because she claimed to be the bride of Christ, was made superior of the new convent. These two women, with a third, took possession of a massive convent of stone and began a work creditable in its zeal and purpose. B 50 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Montreal soon became a worthy rival of Quebec. It was founded particularly for religious purposes and soon became, from its natural position, a favorite home for the priests and nuns. Its origin is strange. The Jesuits believed that God often spoke to men, and many a priest and nun had come to Canada on an inspiration direct from God. A tax-receiver of Anjou, a devotee and mystic, who persecuted himself by beating his shoulders with heavy chains and wearing a belt with twelve hundred sharp points, and by tormenting himself in various other ways, heard a voice in his devotions order- ing him to found a new order of nuns to control a hospital on the Montreal island, in Canada. But there were no civilized people there at that time, and it would be necessary to send out a colony, whicli the tax-gatherer had not the means to do. Near the same time a young priest of Pau had the same kind of an order, and it is said that these two men, wholly ignorant of Canadian geography, became suddenly possessed of full knowledge of the country. Soon after these incidents they met, and knew each otlier at first siglit, even to the revelation each had received. They immediately laid plans and began work in earnest. It was their object to found at Montreal three religious communities: one to convert the Indians; one of nuns to nurse the sick; and the third, of nuns to teach the children. But to get the colony was the question. Both men were poor, but the Jesuits never faltered before an obstacle. Six men formed a society, called the Notre Dame de Montreal Society, and raised f 75,000 to plant the colony. The society pledged itself to seek no returns for the money expended. Quebec was at this time in serious danger from the Iroquois, and Montreal, being wholly unprotected and in the center of the Iroquois nation, which held the French in bitterest hatred because of Cham- plain, was certainly a dangerous place to seek to plant a mission. The new company was now called the Association of IMontreal, and a large per cent, of the money in this enterprise, as in the others, was furnished by women of France. Indeed, in the settlement and convents at Montreal island a woman was one of the moving factors. This woman, Jean JVIance, made a vow of perpetual chastity, and was early called to Canadian territory. She started to the future settlement with the forty men who were to begin the work, but refused to complete the journey until two of the men took with them their Avives. A young girl, also enthused over missionary work, escaped from her relatives and embarked on one of the vessels. JESUITS AND INDIANS. 51 Thus did forty men and four -women start on their voyage to the home of the " dark demon " of Canada. They reached Quebec too late in the season to go on to the island, and remained at that port during the winter. Here there was a great deal of jealousy and envy shown them, and every means used to induce them to stay in Quebec, but to no avail. They all felt, as one of the company said, "I would go to Montreal if every tree were an Iroquois." The people of Quebec in many cases refused to shelter them. Starvation almost overtook them through the crazy notions of one of the women, who had charge of the poultry and domestic animals. She would inquire of the animals if they loved God, and when they did not answer, she would kill them, saying their impiety deserved no better fate. The next spring the little band left Quebec for the unknown wilds of their new home, where danger and death lurked behind every tree, and on the seventeenth day of May, 1642, they landed on the island, where the city of Montreal began its existence in the zeal of religious fanaticism. They were not discovered by the Iroquois before they had made themselves safe from an attack. Things prospered the first season, but the next winter a flood almost destroyed all that had been done. The chief had made a vow during the rise of the flood that if it should recede without destroying the people, he would plant a cross on the summit of the mountain, carrying it up there on his own shoulders, which he proceeded to do after the flood passed away. This was a great worshiping place ever after. They were reinforced in 1643 by a company from home, with whom was a woman who had made a vow on her death- bed, as she thought, to spend the rest of her life in Canada among the heathen if spared. She immediately became strong, and soon after set out for Montreal, and did great service for her religion. By this time the affairs at Quebec had changed. The company of the Hundred Associates had given their entire resources and debts to the people, who were to give a certain amount of fur per year to the company in return. In 1647 they established a council composed of a governor-general, the superior of the Jesuits, and the governor of Montreal, who were invested with all power, — judicial, legislative, and executive. The expense of defending the town depended on the governor-general, who often allowed the defense to grow very weak. On this account a new organization was made, consisting of a governor, superior of the Jesuits, and three princi- pal inhabitants, who were elected every three years by the council 52 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. and syndics. The syndics were officers elected by the inhabitants of the community from which they came. Quebec was now a colony of merchants, or a corporation which directed its own affairs. The place liad many hospitals, convents, and school buildings, and pos- sessed an air of progress, while INIontreal seemed losing its energy. In 1641 New France meant Quebec, Montreal, and Three Kivers, with a few scattered missions, — all together about three hundred people. Over these few people at this time could be seen the dark cloud of war. Thirty-two years before, Champlain had attacked the fierce and warlike Iroquois, and they had never forgotten it. All these years they but waited their opportunity. That one rash act of Champlain in 1609 was the death-blow to French rule in the new continent. The Dutch traders were in full sympathy with the Iroquois, and supplied them with arms and ammunition. The Iro- quois tribes were a confederation of five nations, with a government more or less democratic, and with chiefs partly elective and partly hereditary. The Mohawk division was the fiercest of the nation and the one in hostilities with the French. One morning in August, 1642, twelve canoes of Jesuits and Hurons, among whom the Jesuits mostly worked, were ascending the river going up to a Huron mission. When near some small islands, a warwhoop arose out of the surrounding forest, and many Iroquois canoes pushed out from their hiding-places and fell upon the Jesuits. The Hurons fled in a cowardly panic, and the French could not long hold out. The Jesuits would not desert their friends, so they were all captured, with many of the Hurons. Even in tliis condition they did not forget their work, but immediately began baptizing some of the captives, preparing them for the certain death awaiting them. In the excitement an Indian was killed by a Jesuit, upon which a number of Indians seized a few of the missionaries, tore out their finger nails, and gnawed their fingers like dogs. Two lines of men were formed, between which the captives were made to pass, being beaten, some of them almost to death; fire was set to them, their hair and beard were pulled out, and wounds opened anew. Thus in such torment the captives were taken south to the Mohawk towns, where the torture was renewed. The missionaries here received more horrible treatment than before. The fingers were cut off with clam shells, one by one. At night they were tied to the ground, and the children poured live coals and red-hot ashes on the quivering Avounds. These horrible sufferings the Jesuits JESUITS AND INDIANS. 53 named "The Road to Paradise." While one of the missionaries was hanging by his wrists, two Hurons were brought in for torture to death. In strange pity the missionary was at last cut down near death's door and an ear of green corn thrown him to eat. On this ear a few drops of rain were clinging. The Jesuit shook the drops into his hand and with them baptized the two Hurons. In the very gates of death the missionaries never forgot their calling. One of these men met his death because he persisted in teaching and baptizing the Indian children. Another, named Jaques, passed through torments of demons and bore them like a god. He finally, amid all his suffering, was taken to Fort Orange (now Albany), a Dutch trading-post owned hj Eensselaer, where a chance to escape was given him. He took one night in prayer to decide whether to go or not. He decided to go the next morning, and by the aid of the Dutch, and after six weeks' suffering, reached New York City, and in 1644 reached his home in France, where priests and ladies of the court kissed the lacerated hands and did him great homage. All this time war was going on among the Indians, and with much suffering the Jesuits were working. It was priesthood against Iroquois. The latter were everywhere ; no man was safe out of his home. One priest said : " I had as lief be beset by goblins as Iro- quois. One is as invisible as the other. Our people on the Riche- lieu and at Montreal are kept in a closer confinement than ever were monks or nuns in convents." The Hurons and Algonquins were being decimated. Many were captured by the Iroquois and eaten, and others suffered such horrible cruelties that the track of an Iroquois moccasin drove them in terror to the forts. Babes were placed over fires and burned to death before the mother's eyes. Women suffered every torture fiends could invent, more than dying many times before death at last relieved them. The Iroquois were the scourge of the infant church. A priest named Bressani wrote to Rome from the Iroquois country : " I do not know if your Pater- nity will recognize the handwriting of one whom you once knew very well. This letter is ill written because the writer has only one finger of his right hand left entire and cannot prevent the blood from his wounds, which are still open, staining the paper. His ink is gunpowder mixed with water and his table is the earth." The writer then proceeded to tell further of his sufferings and tor- ture, such as being made to walk on hot stones, burning off his fingers one joint at a time, and suffering other such things as only 54 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. an Indian could think of. These horrible persecutions and the hardships that naturally came from a new and savage world made the Jesuit's path full of suffering and misery, but never retarded his zeal. But now, 1645, there seemed a silver lining to the cloud, though it lasted but a short time. A temporary peace was brought about in the following manner. The Hurous and Algonquins captured a few Iroquois and made ready to return all the suffering that had been received from that nation; but Jesuit teaching had done its work, and Jesuit influence did not fail here. The Iroquois were saved from torture and instead were treated with the greatest cour- tesy. The Jesuits would allow no torturing, though the Indians begged to "caress," as they called it, their enemies. The governor of Canada called an assembly and set the Indians free, upon which one of them arose and said : " Ononto, I am saved from the fire ; my body is delivered from death. You have given me life. I thank you for it. I will never forget it. All my country will be grateful to you. The earth will be bright, the river calm and smooth. The shadow is before my eyes no longer. You are good. We are bad, but our anger is gone. I have no heart but for peace and rejoicing." Seizing a hatchet, he threw it into the fire, saying: "Thus I throAv down my anger. Thus I cast away the weapons of blood. Farewell, war. Now I am your friend forever." Ambassadors met from all the tribes, and peace was restored in a grand council with many speeches and gifts. • These orators of nature could be eloquent and pathetic, could move to anger or pity. They were great actors as well as forcible speakers. Now for the first time, in nearly forty years, there seemed to be perfect peace among all these people, and, though many fears remained with the French, they still had hope that at last their nearly half century's work was established. But Indian peace and forgiveness are not strong, and the traditional hate between the Algonquins and Iroquois could not be forgotten even by the influence of the missionaries, who went to these tribes to preserve the treaty. Among the Iroquois was the Jesuit Jogues, the greatest priest on the continent. On leaving the tribe for a short time, he left with them a box of personal trinkets, Avhich they came to believe held some sort of witchcraft, as the caterpillars were eating up the corn, and sickness prevailed throughout the tribe. The result was that the missionaries were captured, tortured, and killed, and the war JESUITS AND INDIANS. 55 again commenced, 1646. The same horrible butchery went on, the same suffering was undergone. It is needless to relate it again. Through it all one little band hoped on, even courted the dangers of the missions and sought death by the tomahawk or torture by Indian ingenuity. They worked on, nor was their influence unfelt in all the northern part of the continent. The wars of the next century were not nearly so cruel nor barbarous because of the work of the Jesuits in Canada and the Northern Colonies in the seven- teenth century. The missions failed, it is true, because the Indians ceased to exist; but they were raised a degree higher in civilization by Jesuit zeal. Civilization had touched the hem of their garments, though the two great tribes were tearing at each other's throats. It was war to the ruin of one or both tribes. The Hiirons suffered most; pesti- lence and war together left them but a remnant of their old strength and courage. An effort was made to turn the whole nation against the Mohawks, but it was a failure. Another treaty of peace was attempted, but that too failed ; there was nothing left but ruin. In 1647 a party of Hurons dared to go to the French settlements for trade and were attacked, but defeated the Iroquois. A little later the town of St. Joseph was attacked and burned to ashes, many Indians and priests being murdered. Another town soon met the same fate; the Hurons were gasping their last breath, and with them the Jesuit hopes were dying. The next spring St. Louis was burned. No heart seemed left the Hurons ; they lay quietly and watched their doom fall, and in one fierce battle their knell was sounded. Ruined as a tribe, their towns burned, they sought homes in other tribes, and the Huron nation ceased to exist. Famine and disease now took up the work and made the wreck more complete. The Hurons were agriculturalists, and having been driven from one place to another so rapidly, they had had no time to raise food; so starvation added its woes to their other miseries. On the St. Charles at New Lorette live the last of the Hurons, mingling their blood with the French, and so fading gradually away and ceasing existence entirely. But what of their victors? The whoop of the Iroquois became the lion's roar in the jungle. All animals alike quaked in fear upon hearing it. They made war against the Fries and utterly destroyed them. The Andartes were worthy foes for a short time, but they met a like fate with the others. Peace now reigned, but it was the peace of solitude. There were no more 56 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. worlds to conquer for the Iroquois. In between the French and English colonies like a wedge lived these people, masters of the Indian world. How merciful that they fought each other and not the whites ! Iroquois fierceness destroyed Jesuit hopes in America and thereby the French control. In these dark centuries of America's early life where so much is hidden, what a tragedy was played! What a scene of crime, bloodshed, zeal, fanaticism, lost hopes, and human suffering ! There sounded the death-knell of religious rule and intoleration on the continent. The Jesuit dream of a vast empire doing the will of the church entire might have become a reality but for the cruelty and hate of the Iroquois. The Mississippi valley now would be ruled by priests instead of a great, free people, and when the dark days of 1776 had come, it would have been liberty against liichelieu and Loyola instead of one England and liberty fighting another. Liberty owes her debt to the Iroquois. Wondrous are the ways of destiny. CHAPTER V. COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. Forms — London Company — Government of Virginia until 1624 — Royal Rule — Judiciary — Local Government — Massachusetts Company — Government — Judiciary — Other New England Colonies — New York — Patroons — English and Dutch Contest — French — Govern- ment OF New York — Maryland — Connecticut — Rhode Island — Delaware — North Carolina — New Jersey — South Carolina — Pennsylvania — Georgia. THE government of the different colonies was much the same in nature, though there were three classes, Royal, — Proprietary, and Charter. The people had nearly equal rights under each of these. It was not long after settlement until each colony had its representative form of government under one or the other of these classes. In the Charter Colonies — Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut — the people were given the privilege of governing themselves, which they did under a pure republican system. In the Proprietary Colonies — Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland — the proprietor appointed the upper house and the governor and the people elected the lower house. It was the same in the Royal Colonies — Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, New Jersey, New York, and New Hampshire — except that the king appointed the upper house and governor. In 1606 the king of England gave to two companies, the London and Plymouth, all the territory between the thirty-fourth and forty- fifth degrees north latitude as follows : the London Company was to make settlements from 34 degrees to 41 degrees ; and the Plymouth, from 38 degrees to 45 degrees. But neither company was to form a settlement within one hundred miles of the other. All the terri- tory was called Virginia at first, but later that part belonging to the London Company was given that name. The king appointed a Superior Council of thirteen members for 67 58 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Virginia, to reside in London, and the latter appointed thirteen resident members to form the Inferior Council. The latter council chose its own president and tried all cases of law that were not jury cases. The Superior Council had the general management of the colony. The company had the right to coin money for its own use, and was to receive four-fifths of all gold and fourteen- fifteenths of all copper, mined; the remainder was to go to the king. It was to collect a revenue for twenty-one years from all the vessels entering its ports. For five years the productions of the soil were to remain a common stock from which the colonists were to live, and the company Avas to receive what was left after the living was deducted. The great principle of the charter, although ruthlessly disre- garded, was the following: "All and every the persons, being our subjects, which shall dwell and inhabit within every or any of said colonies and plantations, and every of their children which shall happen to be born within the limit precincts of the said several colonies and plantations, shall have and enjoy all liberties, franchises, and immunities within any of our other dominions, to all intents and purposes as if they had been abid- ing and born within this our realm of England." The colonists were given the same rights as Englishmen at home, and although the Crown in future directions abused these rights, the time came when the people remembered them. In 1G09 a second charter was given the company, abolishing the Inferior Council and allowing the Supreme Council to appoint a governor instead. In 1612 another charter was granted giving the stockholders the right to govern the colony. They held meet- ings weekly, or oftener if necessary, for minor affairs, and held four "Great and General Courts" yearly to provide for more important things. The stockholders appointed a governor and council to reside in the colony. The colonists petitioned the company, in 1618, to remove Governor Argall, a tyrant of greatest severity. Not only did the company remove him, but went further and granted the colonists representation. Thus was formed the House of Burgesses in 1619; and in 1621 the company granted a constitution to the peoi)le, insuring them their rights forever. Under the new governnu^nt the company appointed the governor and council of state, and the people elected the lower house. The council of state and House of Burgesses acted together for a time, COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 59 and formed tlie General Assembly, whose laws had to be ratified by the company at home in its " General Courts " ; also the laws of the company had to be ratified by the Assembly to make them valid. The king, growing jealous of such liberal government, destroyed the company in 1624, and placed Virginia under royal rule, though he did not destroy the form of government. He took the place of the company in appointing the governor and council of state. In the first Assembly under royal rule the right of taxation rested in the lower house. The governor had much power; he was an executive officer, commander of the militia, admiral of the navy, lord chancellor, chief-justice, and really bishop. He had veto power; could convoke, prorogue, and dissolve the Assembly; and appointed sheriffs and coroners for the counties. In 1680 the council of state ceased to sit with the lower house and formed an upper house or Senate. There were twelve members of this branch of the legislature, and they soon secured an equal share in legislative work. They became judges, colonels of counties, naval officers, collectors of revenues, and farmers of quit-rents. An act, to become a law, had to pass both legislative houses, and be signed by both the governor and king. The Judicial Department of Virginia originated soon after the House of Burgesses was organized. Until 1621 cases were tried by the governor and couucil. In 1622 inferior courts were organ- ized, and these with quarter-sessions of the governor and council made up the judicial system principally until 1776. The governor and council formed an appellate court. County Courts were estab- lished in 1765, sitting once a month. The governor appointed the judges, of whom there were eight. All criminal cases except capi- tal ones were tried by these courts, which had final jurisdiction in all cases involving less than twenty pounds. They were also courts of probate. In cases involving more than twenty pounds, an appeal could be taken to the General Court, consisting of the governor and five members of the council ; and in cases involving more than five hundred pounds, an appeal could be made to the king. In all criminal cases, trial by jury was allowed and might be demanded in all other cases. The sheriff selected the jury, consisting of six of the "best gentlemen" of the country. A jury- man had to be a freeholder to the value of one hundred pounds. Lawyers played no part in cases until near the Revolution. On account of unscrupulous lawyers, fees were limited, license to 60 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. practice was necessary, and " Mercenary " attorneys were expelled. For a short time after 1646 lawyers' fees were prohibited. In all the colonies the common law of England was the law. Local government in the South differed from that in the North. In the New England colonies it was town government, while in the South the county was the basis. Agriculture being the voca- tion, the plantation was the factor of prominence, instead of the town, as in New England, where commerce was the principal line of w^ork. At the head of each county in the South was a lieutenant appointed l)y the governor; there was also a sheriff appointed by the same officer, but nominated by the county judge. The lieu- tenant was general executor of the county, and chief of the military forces. The justices presided over the county courts, levied county taxes, appointed surveyors, and divided the county into precincts. MASSACHUSETTS. In 1620 a new company was organized in England, called " The Council Established at Plymouth, in the County of Devon, for the Planting, Ruling, Ordering, and Governing New England in America." The Plymov;th Company, spoken of above, failed after planting the colony of Sabine at the mouth of the Kennebec River. This new company was an incorporation of the old Plymouth Company, with a few additional rights given it, to place its settlements on an equal footing with the Virginia colony. The privilege of fishing being the main object of settlement, it was made a strong princii^le of the charter. The company came into disrepute as a monopoly, and gave up its charter in 1625. In 1628 a new company was formed, called the " London Planta- tion of Massachusetts Bay in New England," which was given the right to establish a colony on that soil, and manage the affairs of the same. Endicott was appointed first governor. While it was the in- tention of the charter that the real government should be in Eng- land, yet in a short time it was moved to Massachusetts and silently took the place of the local government with John AVinthrop as governor. The charter gave the freemen the right to elect, annually, a gov- ernor, deputy governor, and eighteen assistants, who should make the laws for the government of the colony. Freemen meant, under the decision of the court, those belonging to the church ; and citizenship COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 61 was not broadened until 1691. Provisions were made for a court- general, with both judicial and legislative powers. The Plymouth people governed themselves according to the Compact formed on the Mayflower, until 1691, when they and the Massachusetts Bay Colony were united and governed together. The freemen of Massachusetts Bay Colony elected two delegates from each plantation in 1632 to confer with the eighteen assistants about raising a " public stock." This was done because in 1630 the company had given almost the entire government into the hands of the assistants, who were officers for life unless removed for cause, and were given the right to continue the governor and deputy governor in office. They levied a tax for fortifications in 1632, to which the freemen objected and, to prevent it, resumed the right of electing a governor, and also elected the delegates mentioned above, thus originating the lower house of the Legislative Department. By 1634 the colony had increased to four thousand people in sixteen towns, who then established the representative form of gov- ernment with the two houses and a governor, all of whom they elected annually. In 1642 the Oath of Allegiance to the king, taken by the magistrates, was abandoned; and in 1643 a division of the two branches of the Legislative Department was permanently made, and counties were established. Also in this year was formed the New England Confederation called the " United Colonies of New England." Rhode Island and Maine were excluded from the union. The gov- ernment continued in this way until 1686, when Audros was sent over as governor-general of the American colonies. Massachusetts, having always been a leader in opposition to the king, and being the most independent of the colonies, was made to suffer most by Andros. He instituted an absolute rule until the reign of William and Mary, 1691, when Massachusetts was given a new charter, under which the king appointed the governor, deputy, and secretary, who in turn appointed the judiciary. The assent of the governor was necessary to laws, and he could dissolve, sum- mons, and prorogue the Assembly. The upper house, or council, was chosen by the lower house, and approved by the governor ; and the lower house, which had the sole power of taxation, was elected by the people. The religious test of citizenship was abolished and replaced by a property qualification. Plymouth was annexed to the Massachusetts Bay Colony, as were also Maine and Nova Scotia. There was no material change made in the government from 1691 to 1776. 62 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. The judicial system was practically the same in all the New England colonies. In Massachusetts, under the original charter, the people assumed the right to elect judges, as they did all other officers. The General Court (governor, deputy, and two legislative houses) exercised the judicial and legislative authority and decided cases by a majority vote. Inferior courts Avere established in 1639, leaving ajDpellate powers to the General Court in certain cases. The Court of Assistants, composed of the governor, deputy, and assistants, was the highest court. It had appellate jurisdiction, tried cases of divorce, and exercised admiralty jurisdiction. In 1673 it was em- powered to try certain cases without jury. Below this court was the County Court, with jurisdiction over civil and criminal cases, except over capital and divorce cases. It was composed of an assistant secretary in the county, aided by the commissioners, who were nomi- nated by the freemen, and appointed by the General Court. It had legal powers, could lay out highways, license public houses, see to the support of an able ministry, admit freemen, and exercise pro- bate powers. Below the County Court was the local tribunal, corre- sponding to the Court of Justice of the Peace. It was held by an assistant if such lived in the town, or ])y commissioners of small causes elected by the people, or by the selectmen ; and it tried cases of minor importance. Outside of the general system was a "Merchant's Court," held by the governor or deputy, and ten magistrates, for the benefit of strangers trading with the colony. Chancery jurisdiction was ex- ercised by the General Court until 1685, when a Chancery Court was organized, composed of the magistrates of the County Courts, from which an appeal could be made to the Court of Assistants. Under the new charter of 1691, the judicial system was simpli- fied and wholly separated from the Executive and Legislative de- partments. The lower courts tried all cases where less than forty shillings were involved, if the suit were not over land. The justice of the peace of the county held sessions each quarter. He cared for roads, bridges, inns, and had the criminal jurisdiction of the County Courts of the old charter. The civil jurisdiction was given to Courts of Common Pleas, composed of four judges appointed by the gov- ernor. Above all these was the Superior Court, consisting of a chief- justice and four associate justices, appointed by the governor, and dependent on the legislature for their salaries. It had appellate jurisdiction, had power to issue the writ of habeas corjius, and also COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 63 exercised equitable jurisdiction. The governor and council formed the Supreme Court of Probate and appointed probate judges for each county. There was a Vice-Admiralty Court, very unpopular, Avhose judges were appointed by the king. The judicial system of the other New England colonies differed very little from that that has already been given of Massachusetts. New Hampshire had a Court of Appeals in the council of twelve members, or the upper house. Connecticut had one Supreme Court with a chief -justice and four associate justices, sitting twice a year in each county; while the County Court consisted of one judge and two or more justices of the peace. There were eighteen probate districts with a judge for each; also there were justices in every town; and a sheriff and king's attorney in each county. Rhode Island did not differ materially from Connecticut in her Judicial Department. The bar of New England was not prominent in the first century's colonization, but near the Revolution it was graced by such men as John Adams, Otis, etc. Litigation was frequent and fees were good. A jury could consider several cases at once, and could roam about at will. Special pleadings and demurrers were not admitted. A lawyer had to practice three years in the loAver courts before he was admitted to the superior courts. Later, three years' study was made necessary to be an attorney; two more to be a counselor; and two more to become a barrister. In the local government of New England the town was made the unit, which developed into a colony, as Plymouth into Massachu- setts, Newport and Providence into Rhode Island, New Haven into Connecticut, colonies at first being scarcely more than town leagues. Each town made its own government. The officers were much the same in name and duty as in England, and were elected by the people, except the sheriff in Massachusetts, who Avas appointed by the governor. Selectmen cared for the public business of towns. Towns gradually lost themselves in the colonial government; but the townships, originating in New England, have since been the unit of government in the United States. Townships grew into counties for judicial purposes; and counties, into colonies for legislative purposes. Towns sent delegates to the legislature. 64 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Until 1679 New Hampshire was under the control of Massachu- setts, Avhose government has been described. The Mason claims were a disturbing factor in New Hampshire until 1677, when the Court of the Crown decided that neither Massachusetts nor INIason had any claims on the colony. It became a royal province in 1679, after which the king appointed the governor and council, and tlie people chose an Assembly. Mason kept up the light with the Crown, which caused the colonists much suffering. The people had all their politi- cal rights taken from them in 1683-84. Following this act revolts were frequent over attempts to collect taxes, levied by the governor or king. The king then annexed the colony to Massachusetts in 1688. William and Mary, however, separated them, in 1691, and placed New Hampshire under her former government of 1679. The history of New Hampshire as a colony was a stormy one, but also a glorious one. She carried on a continuous struggle for rights of Englishmen; and the "Rangers" and "Green Mountain Boys " became household words in New England. NEW YORK. New York was the only dangerous settlement in the New "World, dangerous to the rights of Englishmen, and to the dominion of that people on the Western Continent. It was founded wholly for trade and by trade. Dutch commerce early saw the advantages of control- ling the fur trade in this immense region. The Dutch West India Company, which was organized in 1621, formed settlements in New York in 1623, by sending out a company of Walloons, who had been driven from their homes by Spanish persecutions. The company established tlie Patroon system, which gradually grew too strong for it because of the great size of the estates. To make these smaller the patroons were ordered to take partners, but they neutralized the order by one patroon going into partnership with another, thus doubling the size of their estates and also their power. The company ordered the patroons to do all their trading with it, but they disobeyed the order, and the company could not enforce it. Then the territory was thrown open to all comers, and immigration set in. This restricted the patroons so that they were finally limited to a one mile water front and to two miles back. The governor, appointed by Holland, had, most of the time, COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 65 absolute control, though he sometimes called a council. Holland formed a burgher government for New York under Stuy vesant ; but he evaded it and appointed all the officers himself. There was too much selfishness in the company to give personal freedom to the colonists, so it continually obstructed any movement in that direc- tion. But help came from another, and, to the company, a very unwelcome source. The English claimed the territory, and, about 1660, began laying plans to take it. The Duke of York sent out Nicolls, in 1664, to conquer the territory. By guaranteeing protec- tion of life and property, religious liberty, freedom of trade, immi- gration, and representative government to the colony, the conquest was made easy. A code, called the Duke's Laws, was drawn up, which instituted a Court of Assizes, Court of Sessions, county officers, and town overseers, and confirmed religious liberty, though it did not much favor popular representation. Offices were distributed between the English and Dutch. In 1673 Holland reconquered the colony in the war then raging between England and Holland. The change back to the Dutch rule was made with very little excitement and much content, as the Duke of York had not given the people a representative government. The next year New York was given back to England, and Dutch rule forever disappeared from the continent. Andros, whose ambition extended to the governorship of all the colonies, and who originated the scheme that the Duke of York, when king of England, sought to carry out, was made governor, and was on the whole a good officer. In 1683 a charter of privileges was granted, which provided for a governor and council appointed by the Duke, and an Assembly of eighteen members elected by the people. No tax was to be levied without the consent of the Assembly ; and trial by jury and religious freedom were allowed. But since no act was to become a law with- out the consent of the Duke, and as he consented to no laws and revoked the charter as soon as he became king, in 1685, the new government was short-lived and of no effect. The French were continually making war on the colonies, and James, being a Catholic, favored the French for religious reasons. New York was thus left to guard itself against the French and main- tain its allegiance with the Iroquois, the only hope of the people, as the Jesuits were making the greatest efforts to draw these Indians away from the English, and thus turn them against the colony to destroy it. 66 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OP UNITED STATES. New York was ruled by a governor and council appointed by the king, until IGDl, the accession of William and Mary, when a repre- sentative body was allowed the people. The government was more arbitrary and corrupt, and the representative principle feebler than in any other colony. The governor was still appointed by the king, and the council of twelve members, formerly the upper house, was appointed by the governor and possessed a negative on legislation. The Assembly, consisting of twenty-seven members elected by the freeholders of the counties, was convened by the governor. These things left much of the power in the hands of that officer, who of course Avas a royalist. The judicial system was made up of different courts. The lowest court was that of the Justice, who was appointed by the governor. He tried cases involving less than five pounds. Next were the Court of Sessions and Common Pleas, composed of three judges, who held court twice a year and were appointed by the governor to serve dur- ing his pleasure. The Supreme Court consisted of a chief-justice and two associate justices, who sat four times a year, were appointed by the governor, and held office during good behavior. There was a Vice-Admiralty Court with one judge, appointed by the governor. In cases involving over three hundred pounds, an appeal could be made to the governor and council. Equity lay with the governor. The Probate was also an appointment by the governor. The judges were largely the creatures of the governor, and were of little good to the people. This is a brief review of the third great principle in the develop- ment of the American colonies, Virginia's government being the first, and Massachusetts' the second. The second represented the forces of town principles ; the first represented plantation or county forces ; and New York, the third, represented parts of both of these. Agri- culture and commerce both were factors in the civilization of New York, and both added their influence. MARYLAND Maryland presents two new elements in the colonization of the New World. She was the first proprietary colony, and lays claim to being the first state to give religious toleration. The disputes on the latter are many, and opinions differ. The charter formed a govern- ment partly on feudal principles. The proprietor had sole right, COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 67 except he must not interfere with the legal rights of Englishmen. He made the laws by and with the advice, assent, and approbation of the freemen or their delegates. The people were given the right to elect an Assembly, and the proprietor appointed a council. The history of the colony was largely made up of religious dis- turbances, and the strife between Clayborne and Baltimore. At times the governor or proprietor and the Assembly fought over some question of privilege. The peace of the colony also depended very much on peace in England. The Puritans were strong and some- times controlled affairs. Ontside of religious controversy Maryland had no important events ; the government was good and quiet. The proprietor was captain-general and the head of the church; he appointed all officers, religious and civil, military and naval, and held a veto on all laws; he also had the power to pardon. He, or the governor appointed by him, could summon, prorogue, or dissolve the Assembly.* The coun- cil consisted of twelve members, who received nine shillings per day as salary. There were sixteen counties in the colony, with four bur- gesses each, besides two from Annapolis. Elections were held every three years, and a property qualification existed for citizenship. The legal system was simpler in Maryland than it was in other colonies. There were County Courts whose magistrates were ap- pointed by the governor and which met quarterly. Cases of less than forty shillings' value were tried in these. The Provincial Court sat twice a year at Annapolis, and tried important cases. The provincial judge was also appointed by the governor. There were a Court of Appeals and a Chancery Court, over which the governor and council presided, and from which an appeal could be taken to the king. The legal profession was able, generally, though somewhat loose; and litigation was frequent. Taxes were light. Tobacco was the medium of exchange and was made legal tender, in 1733, though a mint was established in 1662. CONNECTICUT. The charter of Connecticut was perhaps the most interesting one given to the colonies. The people had all rights of govern- ment. The freemen elected a governor, deputy-governor, a council of twelve, a general assembly, and magistrates. The last had both judicial and legislative powers. Nineteen persons formed a corpora- 68 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. tion with the privilege of admitting others, and secured a charter which was granted to the "Governor and Company of Connecticut." Indian wars and the struggle to hold the charter made up the chief events of Connecticut as a colony. The government was made for and by the people. The charter appointed John Winthrop governor, and also appointed a deputy and twelve assistants to serve six months ; thereafter the people elected the officers. Two times a year, or oftener if necessary, the Assembly met. This Assembly, composed of the lower house, governor or deputy governor, and at least six of the council, had full power to make any and all provisions in any and all lines of government. The judicial system and local govern- ment were formed after the Massachusetts system. RHODE ISLAND. Koger Williams, fleeing from banishment, founded llhode Island in 1636, and for two years the colony governed itself democratically, and elected a judge and secretary. It was rather disorderly, and bore the condemnation of the other New England colonies. Williams, that he might form a more definite government, procured a charter from the king allowing the colony to govern itself as it chose. But there were such fanaticism and disorganized sentiment, that the people could form no government that helped matters much. The colony became a home for the turbulent class from all the other colonies, and anarchy was the nearest rule they had. ISIot until 1664 was a compact government organized. The Quaker contro- versy, Indian wars, and boundary disputes formed the chief events. The complete religious license made the colony a continual nest of fanatical bigotry with a weak government and loose laws. Citizen- ship was limited to freeholders worth one hundred pounds. The freemen elected the governor and upper and lower houses. Williams was rather a dangerous man politically, and it was for political reasons he was banished from the Massachusetts colony. His ideas of religious toleration were not developed until after his banishment. He denied the rights of the colonists to their land, and also denied the king's right. He preached against punishment for Sabbath-breaking, denounced women for appearing unveiled, and incited Endicott to cut the cross from the flag. He denied the right to administer an oath to the unregenerate. His principles, carried out, led him to that great principle he fostered in his own colony, — COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 69 liberty of conscience, and separation of Church and State. However, this liberty of conscience was sometimes interpreted to mean freedom from civil restraint, because of which Rhode Island was constantly in trouble. DELAWARE. Three nations — Holland, Sweden, and England — contended for Delaware. The Dutch formed the first settlement, a mere trading- post, in 1623. The great Swedish king, Adolphus, in 1624, formed the Swedish West India Company with the purpose of gaining a foothold in the Kew World. But the great battle of Protestantism was to be fought out on the German soil, and Adolphus gave his life to that cause at Lutzen, without realizing his ambition on the Western Continent. Sweden's effort to form a settlement was made in 1638 against the protest of the Dutch, but the opposition extended only to a protest, as it was not safe to oppose vigorously the Swedish soldiers who had been trained by their king, Gustavus Adolphus. The government was a commercial monopoly, and under govern- ment patronage, though the people were well treated. The fight for the territory between the Dutch and Swedes continued until 1655, when the Dutch conquered and ruled both the Hudson and Delaware valleys. Then a dispute for the territory arose between the Dutch and English, and Sweden was well avenged. In 1674 the Dutch quietly gave up the territory to the English under the Duke of York, who sold Delaware to Penn in 1682. Erom this time until the Revolution Delaware was governed as a part of Penn- sylvania. Pennsylvania had bought the territory that she might have an outlet to the ocean. The population was mixed: Dutch, Swedes, Germans, Irish, and English, all settled there. • The Irish immigration was so heavy that it was stopped by legislation in 1719. Delaware had an Executive and Legislative body. The legisla- tive was vested in one house only and was elected by the freemen. The proprietor appointed the governor and council, but the latter was only an advisory board and not an upper house. The freemen elected the county officers, and all financial officers were either elected by the people or the Assembly. The governor made judicial appoint- ments, and had power to pardon in all cases except in murder and treason. The Assembly could not be dissolved by the governor. All taxpayers were freemen, and a property qualification was neces- 70 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. sary to a seat in the Assembly. The governor had less power than most other officers, but he could appeal to the king. The judicial system Avas vested in lower courts, held by magistrates appointed by the governor; the County Courts, composed of three judges; and the Supreme Court, consisting of a chief-justice and three assistants. Appeals in cases of fifty pounds or more could be made to the king. There were a Court of Probate and a Court of Deeds in each county ; also there was a Vice-Admiralty Court, from which there was an appeal to the king. 'J'he bar was good, and the practice of law was simple. It was the intention of Penn that Delaware and Pennsyl- vania should govern themselves together, but the assemblies could not agree well, and Delaware was governed most of the time as an independent colony. * NORTH CAROLINA. North Carolina was granted to eight proprietors in IGGS, and com- prised what are now North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, west- ward to the Pacific Ocean. It, like Phode Island, became a place for the lawless. Men from Virginia, Massachusetts, and England were scattered over the territory in 16G3, when the king gave it to eight men as a personal favor. The government, in 1669, was made up of a governor appointed by the proprietors, and a council of twelve, of which one-half were appointed by the governor, and one- half were elected by the Assembly, which consisted of twelve dele- gates elected by the people. The great politician, Shaftesbury, and the great philoso})her, Locke, drew up a form of government, in 1669, never equaled on this continent for its absurdity. It was an attempt to plant feudal- ism in the New World. There were lords, vassals, manors, and estates. The chief power was vested in a nobility which did not exist. The people were to be serfs. Naturally they resisted, with the result that in 1693 tlie proprietors gave iip the "Eternal Consti- tution," and allowed the ])eople to govern themselves. Tlie broils and revolts under the constitution almost unfitted North Carolina for any governuient at all, especially since the general laws of the colony had drawn many lawless spirits to it. Things went from bad to worse under vicious and incompetent governors, who Avonld not recognize the Assembl}^, until 1731, when the colony was sold to the Crown. Down to 1765 the history of the people is made up of fights and COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 71 strife between the governor and council, and the two legislative houses. Nothing was settled nor could be depended upon. The general government, as it was in theory, consisted of a governor, council, and Assembly. Land property was a necessary qualifica- tion to hold office, and only freeholders could vote. This system continued until North Carolina became a state. Senators had to own at least three hundred acres of land; representatives, one hun- dred acres; and a voter, fifty acres. The Judicial Department con- sisted of six districts and thirty-two counties. There were two courts: a Supreme, which sat twice a year at each district town; and the County Courts, which met monthly. The governor and council composed the Chancery and Admiralty. All these, however, were lax. As Bancroft says, " There were no lawyers and no laws." Laws were not printed, but were read in the market-place; and courts met anywhere, in private houses, taverns, etc. NEW JERSEY. The Dutch first settled this colony in 1617 merely as a trading point; but it was not until 1C64, when the Duke of York granted it to Berkeley and Carteret, that its real history began. Gradually there came Protestants from New York, Quakers from England, and Puritans from New England, and formed a new colouy for the Eng- lish. The first form of government was the " Concessions," in which the proprietors appointed the governor and council, and the people elected the Assembly. Affairs moved rather quietly except for a few broils between the governor and Assembly. The colony was divided in 1676, Carteret holding East Jersey; and a company of Quakers, who had bought out Berkeley, holding West Jersey. It became royal in 1702. The usual royal government — a governor and council appointed by the Crown, and an Assembly elected by the people — was formed ; and the usual struggles between the gov- ernor and Assembly were frequent. Monthly courts were held in towns, and County Courts were established. The Scotch added a Court of Common Right. There was also a Court of Appeals, consisting of a member of the council and the justices of the peace. Cases of certain value involved, could be appealed to the Supreme Court and to the king. All judges were royally appointed, and the profession of law was of a high standard. 72 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. SOUTH CAROLINA. The proprietors sent out a colony of English settlers in 1670. They governed the colony as a proprietary colony nntil 1729, Avhen it became royal under the usual royal form of government. A prop- erty qualification was necessary to office-holding and voting. The judicial system was like that of North Carolina. PENNSYLVANIA. The home of the Quakers was governed by a governor appointed by the proprietor. A provincial council of seventy-two members was elected by the people. One-third of the members retired each year. The Assembly was composed the first year of all the free- men of the province, and after that of two hundred freemen chosen annually by the voters. The governor presided over the council; bills originated in the council and had to be assented to by the Assembly to become laws. The governor and council were the executive power. • All Christians, except bond-servants and con- victs, who held land or paid taxes, were freemen. Penn relinquished all rights except a triple vote in the council; but afterwards, he secured the veto power and the right to appoint officers. The judicial system was as follows : There were three courts, — County, Orphans', and Provincial. The County Courts were com- posed of justices of the peace. The justices also presided over the Orphans' Courts, which controlled estates. The Provincial Court was composed of five judges. It tried higher cases and was a Court of Appeals. In 1688, because the council had been loose in its work, Penn appointed a lieutenant-governor. Affairs did not improve, and, in 1701, a new charter was granted, in which greater liberty was allowed the people. The Assembly, consisting of four members from each county, was elected annually; and the council had only advisory power. This gave the colony but one legislative body. Other offices continued as before; and the usual strife between the governor and Assembly was prominent. GEORGIA. Georgia was settled for the debtor class by a company of trustees. Government under them was rather narrow. The charter was given for twenty-one years. The trustees served without pay, and were COLONIAL GOVERNMENT. 73 given the power to raise money, govern and defend the colony, make laws and establish courts, all of which was to be done with the rights of Englishmen in view. But the Rum Act, slavery prohi- bition, and Catholic enmity were constant causes of trouble. Slaves were admitted to the colony in 1747; and in 1753 the colony was given to the Crown. Then it grew rapidly. The trustees had ruled badly. In some places there was no government; and in others, bad government. The legislation consisted of religious and moral meddling and became very unpopular, so that the trustees gladly gave the colony to the Crown. Then the royal and repre- sentative form of government was instituted, and the usual royal judicial system was carried out. Property qualifications were neces- sary to citizenship. The reader now should consider the spirit of liberty as worked out in the colonies. In all of them there was a constant struggle between the royal idea of government and the popular idea. The people had less power in reality than in theory; but not once did they relinquish their theory, and constantly worked to make it real : though it took a revolution to make it so. Generally the judicial system, the governor, upper house, and much of the local govern- ment were not in the care of the people, who ever reserved the con- trol of the Assembly or lower house, which was always true to the people. Universal suffrage was not allowed anywhere; but greater liberty was given in this country than England herself gave. From 1607 until 1783, one hundred and seventy-six years, the fight for just government went on. It was a long school day, but bitter expe- rience was the teacher, and the lesson was well learned. Let us hope it will never be forgotten. CHAPTER VI. GROWTH OF GOVERNMENT, Ancient Government — First Government — Moots — Folkmoots — Feudal- ism — America's Work — Virginia — Unit — Rights — Union of 1643 — From 1660 to 1678 — Condition of 1690 — Board of Trade and Plan- tations — Fenn's Plan — Albany Congress — Opposition to the Stamp Act — TowNSHEND — Commercial Tax — Virginia — Articles of Asso- ciation — Tea Tax — Royal Instructions — Correspondence Commit- tees — 1774 — First Continental Congress — Plan of Union — Second Continental Congress — Independence — Action of States — Articles — Flag — Emblem — Admiralty Courts — Federal Convention. WHEjST America was discovered, the two great elements in her future government — localism and nationalism — had existed for centuries. Our ancestors passed through all the stages of gov- ernment previous to 1492. Democracy, republicanism, and mon- archy each in turn had ruled over Europe. Family ties were the first bonds of statehood. These ties formed villages which governed themselves, and which are the origin of the towns of New England and the townships of the states of to-day. The ancient .villages OAvned the land as villages and not as individuals, but it was allotted to individuals for private use. Magistrates were elected by village meetings called Moots, and Avere greatly limited in authority. The Moot was the strong elem.ent of government, and was composed of the men of the village. It meted out justice, made the laws, elected officers and gave them their duties. Local government or localism had its origin in the villages of ancient Europe. The origin of nationalism lies in the inter-communal government of the tribal villages mentioned above. For protection or some other purpose, the villages joined themselves together to better control common and foreign questions of politics. These united assemblies were called Folkmoots, and were simply a congress of a confedera- tion, having no autliority over the local government. 74 GROWTH OF GOVERNMENT. 75 As society changed into feudalism, the Moot gave way to the local government of the estate, in which the people had no power, and the Folkmoot became the Witenagemot or congress of the nobles. Localism was the supreme principle of government in feudalism. In the next change, to monarchy, nationalism was the vital force, and the Moot entirely ceased. It was America's purpose to unite the two elements of govern- ment; for it is only in a proper union of localism and nationalism that man can secure his best government. The former was the principle of New England government. The " Compact " recog- nized the Pilgrims' dependence on the king, but provided for government by the old Moot of the German barbarians. The town meeting was the popular expression of the people. Because of the number of inhabitants all the time increasing, Moots were changed into representative government, and finally to the old Folkmoot or state control, which then was little more than the old inter-communal government, or town league. These colonial assemblies, like the old assemblies, were not given greater power at first than the persons electing them held. This, however, was soon changed, and exclusive power to act for the people was given the representatives. There was much discontent in Virginia until 1619, when the people were given representative rights by the London Company. The inauguration of the House of Burgesses was due to the desire instinctive to have a voice in government. Each colony, soon after its beginning, instituted such an assembly. These assemblies, or lower houses, never relinquished their right to control local affairs. The unit of government was the town in New England and the borough or county in the South. Towns leagued together, and formed states North, while counties or boroughs made the state South. Each state was distinct and separate from all the others. A common danger from the English Crown, or Indians, often drove the colonies to band together, but the local government was held supreme. I shall try to analyze carefully the movements in colonial gov- ernment that lead up to the Constitution. The New England Con- federacy of 1613 was the beginning of unions on this continent. The king and Parliament had as yet paid but little attention to the colonies, the London and Plymouth companies having so far con- trolled colonization. In 1634 a board of commissioners, called the 76 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. "Lords' Commissioners of Foreign Plantations," was appointed by the king to make laws affecting the colonies. It was a part of the king's plan to unite all government, foreign and domestic, into one power, and that power himself. Citizens of the colonies had more rights in their government than the citizens of England had in theirs. Sovereignty was aimed at beyond doubt, thought Arch- bishop Laud, who was president of the Lords' Commissioners of Foreign Plantations, and he took steps to destroy the local govern- ment of the people. These attempts and the Indian massacres served to unite the colonies. As early as 1637 a union was pro- posed by Connecticut; in 1639, 1640, and 1642, it was attempted at Boston. The Narragansett Indians became dangerous in 1643, and delegates from Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Haven, and Ply- mouth met to form a union for defense. The three former signed Articles of Association, and the Plymouth delegates, instead of signing, carried the Articles back to their Assembly or General Court, which submitted them to towns, where they Avere ratified by the people. This act of Plymouth formed a precedent in the gov- ernment that has ever been a strong one. As soon as the people had ratified, the court signed the Articles, and thus the United Colonies of New England was formed, with thirty-nine towns in the confederation and about 24,000 people. A preamble and eleven articles made up the agreement signed by the four colonies. It stated that the people came to the new country for a common end, and being surrounded by hostile nations and receiving no protection from England, they conceived it their duty to enter into an association for mutual help and strength. It was a league of friendship, of offense and defense, but each colony had jurisdiction over itself in all cases. No colony could be ad- mitted without the consent of all in the league, nor no two should join in one jurisdiction. The expenses of Avar were to be appor- tioned according to the number of males from sixteen to sixty years old in each colony. Each colony chose two commissioners to meet once a year to consider affairs belonging to the confederation. Six might determine any question, but the board was prohibited from meddling with the government of any colony. In an emergency four commissioners could determine on war. This board could plan and advise, but had no executive power. The commissioners had to be church-members, and no colony having a different basis for citizenship could be admitted. Thus it Avas a kind of theocracy; GROWTH OF GOVERNMENT. 77 for which reason Maine could not be admitted, and for this and other reasons Ehode Island never was. So it was that the first step towards union in America was not even broad enough to embrace all the New England colonies. The Kestoration changed the policy of England towards the colonies. The young, fun-loving Charles II. was aristocratic but not business-like, so his rule did not interfere greatly; but his brother, James II., was just the opposite and was filled with abso- lute ideas. These were days of shame at home for England and hardship for her colonies. The commonwealth idea in America was a distasteful one to James II., and he determined to stop the prog- ress of liberal government by centralizing all the rights enjoyed by the people in the Crown, and enforcing strictly the Navigation Act. He revoked the charter, which act was a blow to the confederation. While he allowed rights to the people, yet they were forced to look to him for power rather than to themselves. Local self-government was destroyed, or, rather, the idea of supremacy in the people was swept away for a time. The foreign ministry took the following steps towards destr03dng self-government in America: from 1660 to 1667 the colonies were brought more under the direct supervision of Parliament; from 1667 to 1673 this policy was intensified under the leadership of the Duke of York, afterwards James II. ; from 1673 to 1678 the policy was still further intensified, Virginia was given away, and New York was again granted to the Duke of York; it was also decided to abolish the colonial assemblies and town meetings and rule the people with a governor and council appointed by the king. About this time Charles II. died and was succeeded by his brother, James II. His policy was more bitter than his brother's. All the colonies between Georgia and Nova Scotia were joined in one empire, whose ruler was the king. Town meetings were abol- ished, and assemblies were either prohibited or limited. The theory was absolutism. But there was help near. The Revolution in England unseated James and seated William and Mary. In the confusion most of the colonies went back to the old government. Because of this event and the general confusion arising from it, and the invasion of the Erench and Indians, a general congress was called in 1690. Only five colonies were represented, but they pro- vided for a call of men to prevent the Erench from gaining New- York and the region to the north. 78 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Such was the condition of government in America in 1G90. Out of the confusion attending the attempt to destroy local government, all the colonies emerged as dependent on the Crown. Seven of the colonies — Virginia, New York, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Con- necticut, Rhode Island, and Delaware — were continued in their original government, but the king changed the other five. He granted a charter to Massachusetts, including Plymouth and Maine, and took away from the people the right to choose a governor. He formed New Hampshire into a separate government, united East and West Jersey, divided Carolina into North and South, formed the territory of Georgia, and anade all these royal provinces, under which arrangement they remained until 1776. The king also or- ganized the Board of Trade and Plantations, in 1696, which existed until 1776. It had the general oversight of the colonies and was the means of intercourse with them. Because of the increasing tyranny of England, the efforts of France for supremacy in the New World, and a desire for a commer- cial union, William Penn proposed a plan of union in 1698 like the following: each province should appoint two delegates to a general congress, to meet once per year or oftener in time of war, and once in two years in time of peace, to regulate national affairs. The king should appoint a commissioner, who should act as president of this body. Anuing the several duties of this body were the follow- ing: To adjust differences between provinces; to prevent injuries to commerce; to make provisions for the general safety. Other plans were proposed, and while none was adopted, yet they showed the trend of thought. The Crown often called general assemblies or conventions during the Indian wars, but these were outside issues and had little influence on the people's ideas of union. In 1744, 1748, and 1751, congresses were held, but by call of royal authority. In all these years the idea of self-government remained strong. Advertisements to Europeans to move to a country where the peo- ple managed their local affairs were often scattered among those people and drew many to the New World. These liberties were held under the Crown and became more dear year by year as they were embodied in the institutions of the people, who always strongly maintained their allegiance to the king. There were frequent struggles between the royally appointed governors and councils and the representative body of tlie Assembly. It was tlie constant effort of the former to restrict popular government; but without entering GROWTH OF GOVERNMENT. 79 into details, it will suffice to say that the people lost but little ground, and finally settled the question in the Revolution. As a result of the French trouble and danger of Indian invasions, the Albany Congress was called in 1754, as proposed by Franklin. It was proposed in this Congress that the local institutions be held inviolate, and a grand council, composed of delegates from the colonies, should be elected every three years, to meet once a year. It should choose a speaker and could not be dissolved, prorogued, or continued longer than six weeks without its consent or the demand of the Crown. It should make treaties with Indians and regulate trade with them, levy duties, imposts, and taxes, nominate civil officers to act under the Constitution, and approve all military officers. The executive power was to be vested in a president- general, appointed and supported by the Crown. The plan was not liked in America because it was too royal, and the Crown dis- liked it because it was too liberal. By this time, 1754, it reqiiired no statesman to depict the political future of the colonies. The drama of the Eevolution had for its prologue the Stamp Act in 1765; its epilogue was the Constitution of 1789. Between these what a tragedy! Liberty, like a Prometheus, was bound on the rock-like ideas of a tyrant king, whose vultures were continually eating at the life organs of the chained victim. The story of its release is written in blood and suffering, but its release has blessed millions of human souls. Boston was the leader in opposition to the Stamp Act. It sug- gested a general congress, and sent out circulars to all the colonies proposing the same. This act was the greatest unionizing force yet in the history of the colonies. Virginia and Massachusetts linked arms in the contest and led the battle. The Stamp Act Congress convened October 7, 1765, in New York, there being twenty-eight delegates present from nine colonies. These delegates were chosen by the colonial assemblies. Virginia, New Hampshire, Georgia, and North Carolina did not send delegates, but heartily sympa- thized with the movement and promised assistance. This notable Congress was the first meeting of many of the patriots. After eleven days a Declaration of Rights and Grievances was agreed upon and inserted in the journal. This was the earliest embodi- ment of principles by an American Congress, and consisted of a pre- amble and fourteen resolutions. The delegates acknowledged their subordination to the king and Parliament, but denied most vehe- 80 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. mently the riglit of taxation Avithout representation. So bitter was the resistance that Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 176G. It was an occasion of great joy. The first fruits of the final victory of intlependence had been won. The period from 17G6 to 1775 was one of constant endeavor to tax the people. In the repeal of the Stamp Act Parliament declared it had a right to govern America in all things as it saw proper, thus annulling the effect of the repeal ; for it was the principle and not the tax the colonists opposed. The Townshend ministry succeeded that of Pitt, and the colonies felt the force of the change. Town- shend was never a friend to the self-governing idea of America, and always opposed it while a member of the Board of Trade. On June 3, 1776, he spoke as follows: "It has long been my opinion that America should be regulated and deprived of its militating and con- tradictory charters, and its royal governors, judges, and attorneys be rendered independent of the people. I therefore expect that the present administration will, in the recess of Parliament, take all necessary previous steps for compassing so desirable an event." The commercial taxation by Parliament began immediately after the repeal of the Stamp Act. On the 20th of November, 17G7, duties were laid on glass, paper, painters' colors, etc. A board of customs was established at Boston to collect the revenue for all America, and writs of assistance were legalized. It was arranged that governors, councils, and judges should be independent of the people, and the assemblies were to be denied the right of legisla- tion. Again was revived the attempt of 1660-90 to take away and destroy local self-government. The whole matter was designed to prove the right and ability of England to tax America. There was no need of the revenue and no principle in it more honorable than that of might. Townshend died before the tax was enforced, but Lord North was a worthy successor, and proceeded to collect the revenue. America showed a different spirit in her resistance noAv than she did in 1765 against the Stamp Act. Then it was largely of that purposeless, intense, biit short-lived mob-like spirit; but now it took on the form of eternal and determined resistance. Massachusetts took the lead, as usual, by sending a circular letter to all the other colonies advocating united resistance. This letter was warmly received except in those colonies Avhose royal governors interfered. Virginia sent a letter along with the one from Massachusetts, and these did much to unify tlie sentiment of GROWTH OF GOVERNMENT. 81 the people. Towns and counties called for a union, continued cor- respondence, and for a general congress. Parliament resolved to make an example of Massachusetts, and took steps to send an army there to enforce the law. It adopted another plan with Virginia, which was as forward as its northern sister in disobeying the laws of Parliament. Virginia was to be flattered into compliance, that the North and South might be separated. A governor was sent to reside in Virginia, as one had not resided there for many years. He feasted the burgesses and otherwise sought to influence their vanity, but Washington, Jefferson, Randolph, Lee, and Henry were in the House at the time, and no king nor his courtiers could flatter these men into submission to tyranny. The governor hinted that he would be pleased if the burgesses would remain silent on politi- cal questions for a while, but they answered him by resolving "That the right of taxation was vested in the House of Burgesses." Vir- ginia thus led in making common cause with Massachusetts against the Crown. The spirit of resistance was so universal that from Maine to Georgia one idea only remained in vogue ; thus originated the nationalizing force of the Revolution. The Articles of Association were agreed to by all the colonies, and it became the style not to use English goods. Parliament saw the fatal step it had taken, and postponed the enforcement of the act depriving the colonies of their local government, and also repealed the tax on all articles except tea. The Tea Tax was the resort of Parliament to establish its right to tax America. England had an import tax on tea. She removed this and sent the tea to America. A tax of threepence per pound was placed on the Ameri- can importation, and Parliament deluded itself that the people would buy the tea, because it was cheaper though a tax was on it. Thus the right to tax America would have a precedent. Patriotism, Parliament thought, in America was worth about threepence per pound of tea. This act was meant by the king to be a fight to death, the last struggle in America between liberty and tyranny. The East India Company was given the monopoly of the trade. Now the three years' opposition to royal instruction, which had been local, changed to the privilege of representative rights which brought all the colonies to a common interest, and the fire of opposition was quickly aroused. The Port Act inflamed the spirit of resentment and caused all the other colonies to join Massachu- setts in resistance. The two acts, the Tea Tax and the Port Bill, G ■ 82 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. one the sequence of tlie other, changed forever the purpose of America. From that time forth there Avas union in tlie oppressed country. The fight continued for ten long years. It presents the noblest picture of human history. No student of America can yet read the events of those ten years without a sense of wrong and pride. More than one hundred years have passed, but not one page of that glorious resistance to absolutism is lost. May it ever re- main to the American student as a mark of eternal and complete freedom. As the outgrowth of the resistance to the Tea Tax, there fol- lowed three years of royal instructions and resistance to those instructions by the colonies. The first instruction ordered that the provincial militia should be removed from Castle William and the king's troops placed there. This was followed by instructions to dissolve the assemblies or to remove them to out-of-the-way places, and to provide means for supporting local officers, thus overthrow- ing self-government entirely. These instructions were different to different colonies and were met in different ways, as no concerted action could be taken against them. The war of the Regulators followed in North Carolina, and the burning of the ship Gaspee, in Rhode Island. All the colonies were ordered not to oppose the slave-trade, and Virginia petitioned the king, in which petition she spoke of the system as inhuman. The king held his instructions to be law, but everywhere the people resisted them. Internal strife was going on also. The colonies had agreed not to trade with England until she had removed the taxes, but New York circulated a letter against the agreement that almost destroyed it. Ncav York carried her })oint, and her people became known as revolters. Georgia, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island weakened and caused dissension. Dispute as to territory also gave trouble. Parliament rejoiced when New York broke the non-importation agreement. That seemed to destroy all united action, and the country slipped back into indifference. Except for a few leading men, the question of freedom in America might have been checked for many years by New York's traitorous act. But a few men yet exposed the danger to the people in accepting the king's personal instructions as law. The cloud no larger than tlie hand these men still saw in the seemingly clear sky, and with prophetic vision they foretold tlie awful storm to follow and the magnificent day after the clouds had cleared away. GROWTH OF GOVERNMENT. 83 Royal instructions and the conceit and tyranny of an ignorant king were the acme of English misrule. How the hearts of America must have throbbed with anger and resistance toward arbitrary rule in place of constitutional law! Samuel Adams, the untiring op- poser of these instructions, labored by letter, speech, and press, until he had aroused in his countrymen the same fire that burned in his own breast. On the 4th of September, 1772, was announced the most tyrannical instruction that had yet come from the royal lips. The men implicated in the burning of the Gaspee were ordered arrested and taken to England for trial. This order violated the very basis of civil rights, which allowed a man a trial by jury and on the grounds where the crime was committed; and it aroused all the colonies. Correspondence committees were organized, and a general call for a congress went over the country. Virginia passed resolutions of resistance, which were adopted by many of her sister provinces. After this show of opposition Parliament became fright- ened and repealed the Transportation Act, the last of the royal instructions which served to unite the people against royalty and hastened the crisis many years. The right of trial by jury was preserved as the inherent right of an Englishman. The momentous year, 1774, approached with a plan for a general congress arranged. The Port Bill was in force, and the Massachu- setts Act and Quebec Act were passed by Parliament. A move- ment was again on foot to abolish the town meeting, regulate juries, invest the appointments of governors and councils in the Crown, and limit the assemblies. The Regulating Act of May 20, 1774, provided for all these. It took away the power to elect the council from the charter colonies, and provided that the council should con- sist of not fewer than twelve nor more than thirty-six members and should be appointed by the Crown. The governor also was to be appointed by the Crown and to have the power to remove judges of inferior courts, justices of the peace, and other minor officers. He should aj^point and remove the sheriff, who had the power to select a jury. Town meetings were forbidden without the consent of a governor, except to choose officers. Offenders were to be trans- ported to England or to other colonies for trial. This act was "the straw that broke the camel's back." A people who would live under such infamous legislation would not deserve freedom. It Avould require too much space to tell of the manner of resisting this act and the Massachusetts Act; suffice it to say that 84 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. the people resisted. It was June when the news of the passage of the act reached America and August when enforcement began. In September the First Continental Congress met. There were fifty- five delegates from twelve colonies present. Georgia did not send delegates, but sent a promise to concur in the actions of the meeting. Kandolph of Virginia was chosen president. Each colony had one vote, and the convention was held behind closed doors. On the 2rSTTTUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. any convention, and it was the same in 1800. But in the election of 1800 the Republican party (now Democratic party) were not agreed on a candidate for Vice-President. The Eepnblican members of Congress held a secret caucus and nominated Aaron Burr. From 1804 to 1828 the representatives and senators of the respective par- ties in Congress chose the presidential candidates. But this was not satisfactory. It was taking all power in the executive out of the hands of the people, and they objected. In 1828 the legislature of Tennessee nominated Jackson, and other gatherings accepted him. J. Q. Adams was accepted as the opposing candidate Avithout any nomination. In 1831 and 1832 the Anti-j\Iasons and Whigs held national conventions, to which delegates were sent by most of the states. The conventions nominated candidates for President and Vice-President. These were the first national conventions for this purpose in the nation's history. A national convention of young men met in 1832, adopted the Whig candidates as their own, and formed ten resolutions, which became the Whig platform. This was the first party platform made by a nominating convention in the history of the United States. The Democrats nominated Jackson and Van Buren in the same way, in 1832 and 1836. The Whigs held no convention in the latter year. In 1840 the Democrats, Whigs, and Abolitionists all held national conventions, since which time the system has been in use by all parties. The different systems for nominating candidates have been as follows: 1789 to 1800, no nominations made; 1800 to 1824, nomina- tions made by congressional meetings; 1824 to 1840, nominations made by state legislatures and popular meetings; and from 1840 to the present, nominations made by national conventions. These first national conventions were more mass meetings than representative bodies. But now delegates are regularly appointed and bear creden- tials from the proper political authorities. A delegate is often instructed to vote for certain persons, and while he might disobey the instructions yet lionor would generally hold him to follow the same, as he is supposed to carry out the people's wishes rather than his own. Each state delegation has its chairman, who announces in the convention the vote of his state ; but the delegates may challenge his announcement, and then a poll is taken of the delegates. Of late the Republican party has had its delegates vote individually, but the Democratic party holds to the "unit rule," which forces a state to vote for one man only. It can- EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 125 not divide its vote. Territories and the District of Columbia send delegates to conventions, but they are not allowed to vote. The national convention for nominating a presidential candi- date is held sometime during the summer preceding the election, and it proceeds to business according to the customary rules of such bodies. The chairman of the party's national committee calls the house to order, and a permanent chairman and such other officers and committees as are necessary are elected. When all is ready, the roll of states is called for nominations for President. After nomi- nations cease, balloting for candidates begins. The roll of states is called, and each state announces its vote, unless the nomina- tion is by acclamation, which seldom happens. It sometimes re- quires several days to nominate a candidate. Van Buren and Clay were nominated by acclamation. Grant was nominated on first ballot both times ; Blaine, on the fourth ballot; Cleveland, on the second; Garfield, on the thirty-sixth; and Scott, on the fifty- third. The power and duties of the President are as follows: he is commander-in-chief of the army and navy, and of the state militia when called into the service of the nation; has power to make treaties with consent of two-thirds of the Senate present; appoints ambassadors, consuls, supreme judges, and other Federal officers with the consent of the Senate; grants pardons and reprieves, except in impeachments; calls special sessions of Congress, and informs it of the foreign and domestic conditions ; receives foreign ambassadors; executes the law; commissions officers; and vetoes, signs, and retains bills of Congress. If the President veto a bill, he must send it back to the house originating it, with his objections. Congress may then pass it over his veto by a two-thirds vote of the members present. As an advisory branch of the Executive Department, we have the President's cabinet. This body is chosen by the President with the consent of the Senate. The cabinet officers are created by acts of Congress and are dependent on that body for existence, salary, duties, etc. The first administration had four cabinet officers, — Secretary of State, Secretary of Treasury, Secretary of War, and Attorney-General. The last had no department, but he was a mem- ber of the cabinet. The department over which he now presides was organized in 1870, and is called the Department of Justice. The Secretary of the Navy was made a cabinet officer in 1798; 126 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OP UNITED STATES. Postmaster-General, in 1829; Secretary of Interior, in 1849; Secre- tary of Agriculture, in 1888. There are now eight departments. The Secretary of State is the most important cabinet officer. In 1781 the Continental Congress established the Department of For- eign Affairs, and appointed R. R. Livingston secretary of the depart- ment. This department was the origin of the Department of State which was organized in 1789, under the name Executive Department, which name was soon changed to Department of State. The Secre- tary of State keeps all papers pertaining to treaties, laws, and corre- spondence with foreign powers ; affixes the seal of the United States to commissions signed by the President; conducts correspondence with foreign powers ; communicates with governors of states and ter- ritories ; and presents foreign ministers to the President. His salary has varied. It was $3500 in 1789; $5000 in 1799; $6000 in 1819; $8000 in 1853; $10,000 in 1873; and has been $8000 since 1874. An assistant secretary was given the department in 1853 ; a second, in 1866; and a third, in 1874. Robert Morris was our first Secretary of Treasury, appointed in 1781. The dej^artment then was called Department of Finance, and the chief officer, Superintendent of Finance. The department as known to-day was organized in 1789, and the chief officer was called Secretary of Treasury. It is his duty to look after the expenses of the country after they have been provided for. His salary has always been the same as that of the Secretary of State, and he has two assistants. The Treasury Department has under its control several officers. They are the first comptroller, second comptroller, first auditor, second auditor, third auditor, fourth auditor, fifth audi- tor, sixth auditor, treasurer, register, commissioner of customs, comptroller of currency, commissioner of internal revenue, and the chiefs of the Bureau of Statistics, Mint, and Bureau of Engraving and Printing. The first comptroller was appointed in 1789. He examines the accounts of the first and fifth auditors; countersigns warrants drawn by the Secretary of Treasury; decides any appeal from the sixth auditor; and superintends the recovery of debts for the United States. The second comptroller examines the accounts of the sec- ond, third, and fourth auditors, and countersigns Avarrants drawn by the Secretaries of War and Navy. The office was organized in 1817. The first auditor was appointed in 1789. Four more were added in 1817, and in 1836 a sixth was named. The auditors have EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 127 charge of accounts: the first, of civil officers; second, of the pay of the army; third, of the subsistence of the army; fourth, of the navy; fifth, of the Department of State, census, and internal reve- nue ; sixth, of the Post-office Department. The treasurer and register were first appointed in 1789. The former keeps all the money of the nation, and pays it out on the order of the Secretary of Treasury; the latter keeps and registers accounts, and both must sign the bonds and notes the government issues. The commissioner of customs was appointed in 1849. It is his duty to oversee the collecting of tariff and internal revenues. The Bureau of Currency was organized in 1863 and is directed by the comptroller of currency, who has the national banks in charge. The Bureau of Internal Revenue was established in 1862. The name suggests the purpose. Collectors of revenue are appointed in each revenue district. The Bureau of Statistics, whose chief is called director, was organized in 1866. The director makes annual reports on commerce and navigation, and prepares and has published monthly reports of numerous statistics. The Mint, provided for in 1791, was made a Bureau of the Treasury in 1873. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing was established in 1874. It prints revenue stamps, bank and other notes, and bonds and securities of the gov- ernment. The Coast Survey is connected with the Treasury Depart- ment. It surveys and makes charts of the coast. The surveys of the Great Lakes are made by the War Department. The Light- house Board was organized in 1852. Appointments to these sub- offices are in the hands of the President. The War Department, as it is now known, was created in 1789. It was a part of the Continental government, however. Benjamin Lincoln was its first officer, appointed in 1781. The salary was made |3000 in 1789, and $4500 in 1799. Since 1819 it has been the same as that of the Secretary of State. Officers under the Secretary of War are adjutant-general, quartermaster-general, com- missary-general, paymaster-general, surgeon-general, chief of engi- neers, and the chiefs of the Ordnance Office, Signal Office, and Bureau of Military Justice. The War Department has charge of the Military Academy which was organized in 1802, at West Point, New York. It contained but ten cadets yearly until 1812, when the number was increased to two hundred and fifty. At present there is a cadet for each congressional district, one from eacli territory, and ten at large. To enter the Institute one must be of sound body, 128 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. fair education, and of an age not less than seventeen nor more than twenty-two. He must be appointed by the President on the recom- mendation of the Secretary of War. The ten cadets at large are appointed by the President without any recommendation. To simplify matters the national representatives are each allowed to recommend a person from their districts, whom the President appoints. Tlie representative may, if he desire, hold a competitive examination in his district, to decide whom he shall recommend. The cadets, with the consent of the parents or guardians, must pledge themselves to serve in the army eight years unless dis- charged, and they must pass an entrance examination on the com- mon branches and algebra. The course-of study, which is four years long, consists chiefly of mathematics, history, geography, and the modern languages. The discipline is military and, of course, rigid, but it is an excellent training for a young man. The cadet receives $5-40 per year during his school course and is commissioned second lieutenant when he graduates. The pay of officers of the army is regulated by Congress. The major-general receives $7500 yearly; brigadier-general, $5500; colonel, $3500; lieutenant-colonel, $3000; major, $2500; captain, mounted, $2000; captain, not mounted, $1800; adjutant, $1800; quartermaster, $1800 ; first lieutenant, mounted, $1500 ; not mounted, $1400; chaplain, $1500. Every commissioned officer below brigadier-general has his pay increased 10 per cent, for every five years' service, though the increase cannot exceed 40 per cent. Officers retired from service receive 75 per cent, of their regular pay. All officers are retired at sixty-four years of age. The pay of privates is $13 per mouth, with a dollar per month added for the third year's service, one for fourth year, and one for fifth. After serving thirty years a private is retired on three-fourths pay. The Navy Department was established in 1798, until wliich time the duties had been a part of the War Department. The Secretary of Xavy is the chief officer. His salary has always been tlie same as that of the Secretary of War. There are eight bureaus to this department, the chiefs of which are appoiuted by tlie President. The Bureaus are as follows, and the name will suggest the duty: Yards and Docks, Equipment and Recruiting, Navigation, Ordnance, Medicine and Surgery, Provisions and Clothing, Steain-engineering, Construction and Repair. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 129 The Naval Academy at Annapolis is a part of this department. It originated and had its growth under the Navy Department with- out an act of Congress. George Bancroft, the historian, was the chief promoter of the school. He was Secretary of the Navy in 1846, when Congress first made appropriations to the Academy. A person must be between fourteen and eighteen years old to enter the institution. There is a cadet for each representative district, and each territory, one for the District of Columbia, and ten at large. The last eleven are appointed by the President, and the others by the Secretary of the Navy on the recommendation of the repre- sentatives. The course of study covers six years, four in school and two on the sea. Five hundred dollars annually are paid to the cadets for expenses. On graduation they are made midshipmen, and are promoted as vacancies occur. The Department of the Interior was established by act of Congress in 1849. Its duties have come to it from the other departments. The Patent Office and Census Office were given to it from the Depart- ment of State ; the Land Office and Mines, from the Treasury ; Indian Affairs, from the Departments of War and Navy ; and the care of Public Buildings, from the Executive Department. The Bureau of Education belongs to the department also. An assistant secretary was given the department in 1862. The Patent Office is under the charge of a commissioner, who has an assistant. The commissioner receives $4500 annually, and his assistant, $3000. The salary of the Secretary of Interior is f 8000 yearly. The Pension Office was created in 1835 for two years, and was extended from time to time until 1849, when it was made a perma- nent part of the Department of the Interior. The Land Office was organized in 1812, and was made a part of the Interior when that office was created. The Census Office is in charge of the superin- tendent of the census. It is not a permanent office, since the census is taken but once in ten years. The Secretary of Interior has charge of the prisons in all territories, and he has also all the powers and duties pertaining to the territories, that belonged to the State Depart- ment before 1872. The Department of Agriculture was organized in 1872. In 1888 the chief was made a cabinet office. The name of the department suggests its duties. The Secretary receives the same salary as the other cabinet officers. The Post-office Department was first organized in 1692, It was 130 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. under the care of the Crown until the lievolution. Benjamin Frank- lin was the most successful superintendent of the office in that period. lie was appointed by the Crown in 1754, and held the place until 1774, Avlien he was removed for rebellious sentiments. The Second Continental Congress reappointed him in 1775. He was our first Postmaster-General. The department was made a cabinet office in 1829. The salary of the Postmaster-General has varied. In 1792 it was made $2000; in 1799, |3000; in 1819, $4000; in 1827, $6000; in 1853, $8000; in 1873, $10,000; in 1874, $8000. There are four assistant postmaster-generals, appointed by the President and Senate. The first assistant has general charge of post-offices, postmasters, general correspondence, free delivery, money order offices, and the dead letter office. The second assistant sees to the carrying of mail, time of arrival, departure, distribution, etc. The third assistant has charge of the finances of the department, provides stamps, and receives the returns of post-offices. The fourth assistant establishes post-offices, appoints postmasters, except those for presidential post-offices, and supervises inspectors. The Department of Justice, as said above, was established in 1870, and the Attorney-General was made its chief officer. He must prosecute and conduct all claims and suits in the Supreme Court, in which the United States is a party. He is also an advisory officer for the President and the other cabinet officers. In 1861 his duties were increased by placing in his charge the attorneys and marshals of judicial districts. An assistant was appointed in 1859. In 1868, a second Avas added; in 1871, a third; and later a fourth, fifth, and sixth were given the department. The salary of the Attorney- General was $1500 until 1850, when it was made the same as that of the other members of the cabinet. The Department of Justice must not be confused with the Judi- cial Department. They are very different. The latter is one of the three divisions of the government, while the former is only a depart- ment of a division, the executive branch. Besides the officers named above there are a great many clerks in the different departments at Washington. They are divided into classes known as first, second, third, and fourth. The first class receive $1200 per year; the second, $1400; the third, $1600; the fourth, $1800. Female clerks and copyists receive $900 yearly, and messengers, $840. Lower officers receive $720. EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT. 131 An enormous amount of labor and duty belong to the Executive Department. It becomes quite complicated in all its divisions. As a rule, the officers are a dignified and able body of men. Our Presi- dents have been able and honest officers. They have not always been our ablest men, but the country has seldom been disappointed in its chief officer. An office which can name as occupants Wash- ington, Jefferson, Madison, Lincoln, Grant, and Garfield is one that may not only be great in its duties and positions, but great, also, in its men. Our best statesmen have filled cabinet offices. Hamilton, Adams, Jefferson, Madison, Clay, Webster, and Blaine, the most brilliant characters of our continent, and the equal of the world's great men, have honored that department of government. CHAPTER XL ELECTIONS. Qualification for Voting — Holding Office — Increasing the Rights — Ohio — Women — Present Qualifications — Calling Elections — Nomi- nations — Proxy Voting — Systems op Voting at the Present. VIKGINIA holds an enviable place among governments. She was the first state in the world to declare that taxpayers shonld have the right of suffrage, even though the tax were only a jioll. During her Colonial Period all white taxpayers residing in the colony voted, and non-resident whites voted if they owned real estate within her boundaries. Qualifications for voting varied among the colonies. In all, the age of beginning manhood Avas twenty-one; and residence was necessary in all, except in A^irginia, as given above, and in S(nith Carolina, which also permitted non-residents who owned property within the colony to vote, but required all voters to be white Prot- estants, and to own at least fifty acres of land or thirty pounds. Church-members who owned real estate that yielded an income of not less than three pounds, or possessed property valued at sixty pounds or more, could vote in Massachusetts. No color line Avas drawn in that colony, as also there was not in any except Georgia, South Carolina, and Virginia. In the first of these, any white owning property, or Avith a trade, voted. All Christian taxpayers Avere A'oters in Pennsylvania, and all Protestant property-holders were, in Ncav Hampshire. North Carolina required her electors to have at least fifty acres of land or thirty pounds. Maryland had the same qualifications for hers, and Delaware made hers be property-holders who believed in the Trinity and the Bible. Rhode Island asked that men be property-holders to be suffragists, and Connecticut required an income of $7 or more, or an estate worth at least $134. A voter in New York had to show his tax receipt for at least forty shillings, or had to oavu at least twenty pounds, 132 ELECTIONS. 133 and had to have his name on the tax list. New Jersey, by an over- sight, gave universal suffrage at first, but later limited it to males owning an estate worth at least fifty pounds. All the colonies had property qualifications for holding ofiice, and most of them some religious standard also. The governors of New Jersey, New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Vermont had to be Protestants. New York, Delaware, and Maryland did not allow a priest or a minister to hold any office, and Georgia excluded the same class from a seat in the Assembly. Massa- chusetts and Maryland required their officers to be Christians ; and South Carolina, North Carolina, and Georgia, that they be Protestants. Pennsylvania's officers were believers in God and the Bible ; Delaware's, in God and Christ ; and Rhode Island's, New York's, New Jersey's, and Virginia's, in God. Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland demanded their officers to be Christians. Thus were voting and office-holding restricted at the close of the Revolution and even until 1800. But leaven was working, and the future brought a change. The religious qualifications went first, and the Ordinance of 1787 made no qualification necessary in the Northwest Territory for governors, judges, secretaries, and voters, except age, residence, and ownership of land in the territory. The Constitution followed next and seemed to step backwards, since voting for Federal officers was limited as the different states limited their own voters. However, in ten years after Washington's admin- istration, eight states widened their suffrage qualifications. Penn- sylvania threw away her religious test ; South Carolina opened the polls to Catholics ; and New Hampshire did away with her religious qualifications, abolished her poll-tax qualification, and allowed every male inhabitant twenty-one years old or more to vote. Delaware abolished belief in a Trinity and the Bible as a qualification for voting. Kentucky and Vermont recognized manhood suffrage, the first states to do so in the history of the Avorld. Kentucky allowed any free white man to vote ; and Vermont allowed any man, black or white, twenty-one years old, and a resident for tAvo years, to exercise the right of suffrage. Georgia did away with her religious qualifications for holding office, and her property qualifications for voting. Between Washington's inauguration and his death many political limitations of man Avere effaced from the laws. Democratic principles seemed to have completely conquered. 134 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. When Ohio knocked at the door of the Union for admission, she presented a constitution formed under the new principles. In other states, up to this time, old abuses needed reforming. Ohio, freed of these abuses, could set up a government wholly of new ideas, the first state in the Union to have that privilege. The Thirteen Origi- nal States, and the three new ones, had had to work out the new from the old. But when Ohio was ready to join the sisterhood, this had been done. It marks a beginning of an era in government in the New World, and shows the difference between the old and new in government. The Ohio constitution contained the principles of the older ones, but incorporated new ideas. The governor was stripped of all i)0\ver and patronage. He could make no nominations, had no veto, signed no bills, had no share in legislation, and had no appointments save that of the adjutant-general, or when there was a vacancy during a recess of the legislature. The House and Senate in joint sessions filled civil offices and elected judges to serve for seven years. Dela- ware, South Carolina, and Tennessee gave no veto power to their governors. Rhode Island, North Carolina, and Tennessee did not allow theirs to appoint any officers. Connecticut, Rhode Island, Ver- mont, New Jersey, and Georgia appointed judges for shorter terms than life. But Ohio's was the first constitution in the history of the world that joined the three in one. After this reform by the constitution of Ohio, the movement towards complete and universal male suffrage, based on age and residence, was gradual. Before the new republic was much more than half a century old, manhood was the only qualification required of the voter in general elections. Church and State were finally separatetl, and all men were equal in their political rights. America broke the religious and political chains which fettered human kind. When she includes the other half of humanity in her political rights, she will have completed the victory now but half won. This is being done rapidly. Women have voted on an equal- ity with men in Wyoming, since 1870. Kansas allows full munici- pal suffrage to women. Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Vermont, Wisconsin, Delaware, Illinois, North Dakota, South Dakota, Texas, Washington, Montana, Oklahoma, and Arizona give equal suffrage in school elections under certain conditions as to property, marriage, etc. Women vote on the sale ELECTIONS. 135 of liquor in Arkansas and Missouri. Utah, Idaho, and Colorado allow equal suffrage. States regulate the qualifications of voters within their own limits, so there are various standards for voting. Citizenship is based on a residence in a state of from three months to two years. Eighteen states allow only citizens to vote ; fifteen allow citizens and aliens who have declared their intention to become citizens; Connecticut requires citizenship, good moral character, and the ability to read the Constitution or statutes ; Delaware requires the paying of a county tax after the age of twenty -two; New York requires citizenship for ten days previous to the election ; Pennsylvania, citi- zenship of United States for one month and payment of a tax, if twenty -two years old or more ; Rhode Island, foreigners must hold property worth $137, or pay $7 rent a year. The American colonies originated, for the English people, the secret ballot, for election of representatives. Most of the colonies voted in that way. Royal colonies were not so given to that system as Proprietary and Charter colonies were. The colonies had two well-defined methods for calling elections : one was the constitutional provision which fixed days for an election, generally in the spring ; the other was by order of the king, who was not limited in any way except that he could not extend the time over a certain period ranging from two to seven years. One or two of the colonies combined the two systems, i.e. they fixed a day by law and also issued writs. Plymouth held elections on January 1 until 1636. From then until 1658 the first Tuesday in March was fixed as the day, which was then changed to the first Tuesday in June. From 1691 the last Wednesday in June was provided as the day. Massachusetts held her election generally on the second Wednesday in May ; and Connecticut, on the last Wednesday in May. South Carolina set aside the first Tuesday in September of each alternate year, and if a change were to be made, a writ had to be issued thirty days before election. North Carolina elected on the first Tuesday in September. So most colonies had their days for elections set aside, which were subject to change, especially in the royal prov- inces. Certain hours were fixed for elections. They began usually at nine o'clock, sometimes at eight, and a few were held between cer- tain hours. The polls were closed sometimes as early as two o'clock if the votes were all in. Outside of New England the sheriff was generally the chief 136 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. officer at elections, acting as the presiding and returning officer. The provost-marshal Avas manager in Georgia ; the churchwardens, in South Carolina; the mayor, recorder, and alderman, in Maryland; and the coroner, in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and North Carolina, if the sheriff could not act. The nomination of candidates was not by parties, as parties did not exist. But preliminary elections were often held to reduce the number of candidates. There was another system used in Connecti- cut a short time. Each freeman handed to the proper committee twenty names of persons whom he considered to be qualified for the office. Then all were counted and the twenty receiving the highest coimt stood as candidates. Generally, however, in a pre- liminary election each voter was allowed to hand in twenty names, and the twenty -six names receiving the most votes were the candi- dates. In New Jersey the people placed a list of eligible names in a box, and a boy drew out fifty. These fifty were put back and twenty-tive drawn out, and the twenty-five remaining in the box were the nominated candidates before the general election. New England used mostly the proxy system of voting, which originated in Massachusetts. There was but one place to vote in a general election, and that was at the capital of the colony. As settle- ments spread, it became very troublesome to go there every year to vote, and in times of danger from Indians, all freemen could not leave home. Such were allowed to vote by proxy, i.e. send their votes to the capital by some friend. Connecticut and Rhode Island tried another system in 1641, which included both the proxy and repre- sentative principles. The freemen of each town elected a deputy for every ten voters. These deputies went to the capital and voted for their towns. While the proxy system was not liked, yet, after repeated attempts to change it, the peojjle of New England always fell back to that plan. South Carolina followed the same for a while, but the authorities forbade it in 1G83, and declared that every man must deliver his own vote. At first the general plan of taking the vote in New England was by the raising of hands and counting them, but after 1634 the names of candidates were written on paper. In 1643 white and black beans were used for voting; the former meaning yes, the latter, no. Finally the secret ballot became the universal method in New England. In the royal provinces the ballot Avas never known. England ELECTIONS. 137 herself did not use the ballot until 1872. She used the " show of hands " or " viva voce " vote. The sheriff decided on the election by viewing the hands or from the voices. Sometimes a poll was taken if the candidates were not satisfied with the sheriff's " view." These systems extended to the royal provinces in America. In Virginia, in early times, the sheriff went from house to house and took the votes. The House of Burgesses passed a law in 1G39 that no freeman Avas to be made to go off his plantation to cast his ballot. The sheriff was to bring around a paper, or a proxy was to be sent. The poll was often used in A^'irginia. The clerk kept a book with the names of candidates written in it, and under the name of each candidate he wrote the names of persons voting for him. Penn- sylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, North and South Carolina, and Georgia combined the ballot and poll system. They polled the free- men, and then on voting each voter presented a ballot. If the voter could not read, the poll clerk opened the ballot and read the names to him, and asked him if they were the ones for whom he wished to vote. If so, the ballot was accepted. North Carolina adopted the secret ballot in 1744, practically the system of voting we have to-day. Because of the alarming amount of corruption at the polls, in buying and selling votes, and in coercing voters, as well as by making false returns, the states are now adopting new systems of voting, the most popular of which is the Australian system. The voter goes into a booth by himself and arranges his ballot by stamping the square at the head of his ticket if he wishes to vote a "straight" ticket; but if he desires to vote a "mixed" ticket, he must stamp the square at the end of the name of each candidate for whom he votes. The voter then folds his ticket so as to show the initials of the clerk, and hands it to the proper officer, who places it in the ballot box. All this being done secretly, it is supposed that it prevents the buying of votes ; that a man so lost to honor and to patriotism as to sell his vote would also be dis- honest enough to refuse to vote the ticket that had bought him. Both suppositions are false, as has been demonstrated. Corruption still prevails at the polls in too great a degree. Many states are adopting machines for voting, which, it is thought, will prevent frauds. It is sincerely to be hoped that some way will be dis- covered to make our elections fair, but it will l)e hard, I fear, to invent a " machine " that will make men be honest. It is to be 138 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. regretted that we possess a vote that can be bought, and that we have men who will buy it. A man who sells his vote has no right to the franchise, and a man who buys is as dishonest and unpatriotic as the man who sells, and should lose his right to full citizenship also. The pages of history tell, over and over, how countries fall when their people lose honor and patriotism, !My fellow-citizen, America's fair land will be no exception imless we check these things. You, reader, and I are responsible. Every vote sold hastens our end because it degrades our manhood, and every vote coerced or bought quickens our destiny because national honor and justice are outraged. That we could fully realize that it is manhood that makes a nation great and gives it long life ! CHAPTER XII. TARIFF AND REVENUES. Raising Revenues — Theories — Colonial Pursuits — Tariff Law of 1789 — Condition from 1808 to 1815 — Bill of 1816 — 1819-23 — South's Change — Bill of 1828 — Bill of 1830 — 1832-1833 — 1842-1810 — 1857 — 1861 — 1862 — 1864 — By 1865 — 1 867 — 1870 — 1875 — 1879 — 1883 — Mills Bill — McKinley Bill — Wilson Bill — Internal Taxes — Virginia — Maryland — North Carolina — South Carolina — Georgia — Pennsylvania and Delaware — Neav Jersey — New York — New England — Revolutionary Period — National Debt — Hamilton's Place — Funding the Debt — Payment — 1794 — 1797 — 1802 — 1813 — Amount — Civil War — Present — Direct Tax — Income Tax — Amount collected — National Debt — 1895 — 1896. THE nation raises its revenues mostly by indirect taxes, such as internal taxation, and import duties or tariff. Public lands, patent fees, and postal receipts have always been fruitful sources of revenue. Twice in its history the government has levied a direct tax ; and twice, an income tax. International taxes are laid usually on manufactured goods, such as spirits, tobacco, etc. There are three theories in regard to international trade, — the protective, the revenue, and the free trade. Advocates of protection hold that it is the duty of a nation to assist not only a business that may have natural advantages, but to foster and protect others also, that can be made profitable by keeping foreign manufacturers from competing with the home trade. This is done by taxing the foreigner's goods. Protection, it is claimed, gives a people varied industries, better prices for labor, and in the end saves money for them. Revenue advocates believe that it is the duty of a government to place such a tariff on goods as will allow them to be imported, and thus secure enough money to meet its expenses ; but that it should not place a tariff higher than that rate, because to do so is to foster high prices and disturb natural conditions. 139 140 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Free trade ■would place no restrictions of any nature on trade. It means absolute freedom of trade among nations as it exists among the different states of the United States. Each country would pro- duce the thing it could best make, and "would let alone such interests as are foreign to its climate, soil, or other natural resources. The colonies carried on agricultural pursuits mainly. Of course the artisan existed, since the people must have the ])lacksmith, carpenter, mason, etc. ; but these lived largely through the interests of the farming class. Ship-building was carried on in New England, which furnished natural advantages and much necessity for such an occupation. The colonists manufactured nothing they could import. For imported goods they traded the produce of their farms. Conditions remained so until after the Revolution. Agriculture, commerce, and the necessary mechanical arts were the pursuits of the people until 1808. Then foreign trade presented better opportunities than before, and the United States took advantage of them. The French wars offered a fine foreign market for the American farmer's produce, and increased the use of American ships. Farming and commerce being so profitable, manufactures did not increase rapidly, so that the tariff did not become an important issue until 1816. It was changed by nearly every Congress before that time, but on account of conditions abroad rather than at home, and to secure a revenue for the government. It did not become a very strong party question. The first tariff law, 1789, is a fair sample of all the laws made concerning tariff for the first twenty -five years of the nation's life. It placed an ad valorem duty, which averaged 5 per cent, on most imported articles. The rate was higher on luxuries. Carriages were taxed 15 per cent., and hemp, cordage, nails, iron, and glass were slightly protected. There existed a very unnatural state of affairs in the world from 1808 to 1815. The Berlin and Milan Decrees, the Orders in Council, the Embargo Act, and the Non-Intercourse Act, with the War of 1812, all caused a most abnormal condition, which had to be met by means as abnormal. Trade practically ceased part of the time, and manu- factures started up like mushrooms. The iron, glass, woolen, cotton, and pottery industries had their birth then ; and a belief in protec- tion began to form. The heavy war debt also made it necessary to raise a large revenue. Thus it was that, in 1816, the tariff came more prominently before the lawmakers than ever before. But there TARIFF AND REVENUES. 141 was a feeling that the existing conditions would not be permanent, and that Congress should provide only a temporary law. The bill of 1816 raised the tariff to an average of 20 per cent., and provided for it to be decreased on many things in 1819. Before that time changes had come in the industrial conditions of Europe. Good crops were raised, and the English Corn Laws were passed in 1816. These made it necessary to rearrange internal affairs in the United States, and brought about a four years' crisis, out of which developed the American system of protection for home manufactures. Congress tried to pass bills in 1820, 1821, and 1822, but failed to secure a majority in favor of them; but in 1824 a pro- tective duty was placed on iron, lead, wool, and hemp. The South opposed the bill, and New England was divided on it, while the Mid- dle and Western states supported it. The Senate defeated a tariff bill in 1827 ; and in 1828, the famous '' Bill of Abominations " brought on the first intensely bitter fight over the tariff rate. The Middle and Western states were the stronghold of high tariff, since New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Ken- tucky were great agricultural states and had suffered most in the panic of 1819-23. They believed that protection would restore their former prosperity by giving them a home market. Wool, hemp, flax, wheat, corn, rum, molasses, and iron were the articles they were most anx- ious to have protected. There had been a long fight in New Eng- land between manufacturers and merchants, which was won by the former for protection. The South was greatly in favor of a high tariff in 1816, but in 1828 it bitterly opposed it. The Missouri Compromise probably influenced the stand the South took on the tariff after 1820. Slavery and free trade became allied then, and never separated until the death of the former. With slavery they could not have manufactures. Their goods, then, had to come from either New England or England. If from New England, protection would make them higher and would also cause England to retaliate. Until 1828 the tariff question had been sectional rather than po- litical, but then it entered politics. The Adams men, or Whigs, supported protection, and the Jackson men, or Democrats, generally opposed it. It was proposed to defeat the bill of 1828 by a little Congressional "log-rolling." The bill placed heavy duties on raw materials, and thus was popular in the Middle and Western states, but it Avas very unpopular in New England. All the Jackson men, North and South, were to unite to defeat any proposed amendment ; 142 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. and when voting time came, the members from the South were to vote against the measure, although it was proposed by them. They, with New England, would kill it, and there would be no tariff legislation. To the surprise of its authors, the bill passed essentially un- changed. Duties were changed as follows : pig-iron from 56 to 62|- cents per hundred ; bar-iron, from 90 to 112 cents ; and rolled-bar, from f 30 to f 37 per ton. Hemp was raised from f 35 to $15 per ton immediately, and was to be raised $5 annually until it reached f60. Flax was raised to $60 per ton. Wool, on which was the great fight, was assessed 4 cents per pound with 40 per cent, ad valorem in 1828, 45 per cent, in 1829, and 50 per cent, afterwards. In 1830 there was a change made, but that of 1832 was the greater one. Hemp was lowered to $40; flax was put on the free list; and pig-iron and bar-iron were put back to the 1824 rates. But still the duty was not satisfactory, and the trouble with South Carolina arose, which was settled by the act of 1833, providing for a constant reduc- tion in the tariff for ten years. This reduction was as follows : all duties in excess of 20 per cent, were to have one-tenth of the excess removed January 1, 1834 ; one- tenth more, January 1, 1836 ; one-tenth more, January 1, 1838 ; and one-tenth more, January 1, 1840. This would take off four-tenths of the excess by 1840. On January 1, 1842, one half the remaining excess was to be removed ; and on July 1, 1842, the other half was to be taken off. After this there should be an average rate of 20 per cent. The compromise went into effect, and was followed out as planned until 1842, when another protective measure was passed. This ended the great fight that began in 1819, and so nearly dis- membered the Union. The period from 1819 to 1842 was one of transition in the country's industrial condition. From agricultural and commercial it became more manufactural. It was natural that agitation should attend this change. The economic forces became more varied and then became settled in their tendency, so that the tariff legislation, from 1819 to 1832, was from motives quite different from those that brought on legislation for a time after 1832. In the former period, foreign conditions brought on most of the legislation ; while in the latter, domestic affairs and politics were responsible for it. The bill of 1842 was a Whig measure, and was protective. Cal- houn said of it, " It was passed to give contention to the politicians TARIFF AND REVENUES. 143 and not to help the people." On account of the quarrel between Tyler and Congress, it was neither carefully nor wisely made. In 1846 the Democrats passed a measure moderating the protective principle. Articles were scheduled A, B, C, D, E, etc., and each schedule paid a certain rate. All in A paid 100 per cent. ; B, 40 per cent. ; C, 30 per cent. ; D, 25 per cent. ; etc. Metals, wool, woolens, etc., were classed in C ; and these were the articles of greatest controversy. Cottons were in D, and tea and coffee were exempted. This bill remained in force practically until 1857, when another reduction Avas made, which gave us almost free trade. Be- cause of the excessive revenue, this bill was not made a political measure, and so passed easily. Pennsylvania was the only state that opposed it. Again the domestic conditions of the country changed in 1860, and there followed the most abnormal period the United States had yet known. In 1861 the Morrill tariff act began the change towards protection. It was the intention to bring the rates back to the 1846 tariff, and not to pass a war measure. In fact the War had nothing to do with this bill. It was an increase of tariff on the common articles of use, — wool, iron, etc. With this bill or soon afterwards came the Civil War ; and from then until 1865 scarcely a month passed that some change was not made in the tariff, so necessary was a heavy revenue. Great and important changes grew out of this period. Currency was inflated, a national banking system was organized, a great system of internal taxation was created, and duties on imports were enormously increased and broadened. These were all closely allied, and the reader should study all to understand any one. By 1862 the country knew the immensity of the War at hand, and began to look about earnestly for means to support it. Two meas- ures were enacted, — the internal revenue act and a new tariff bill. The latter was intended to increase duties on such articles as were taxed by the internal revenue bill, and thus protect the manufac- turers of those goods. Thus under cover of necessity for revenue and a desire to repay taxed manufacturers, the tariff bill of 1862 easily became a law. Greater needs called for greater revenues, until June 30, 1864, when was passed what is probably the greatest tariff act of the world's history. It included three measures : first, the internal-tax system was enormously extended; second, import duties were correspondingly increased; and third, a loan of $400,000,000 was authorized. 144 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. The tariff act was carried through by Mr. Morrill, who was the great tariff manager of War times. His principle was, that when the internal tax was increased and extended, it should be offset by an import duty. He instituted this principle in the bill of 18G4, which was made to answer three purposes : to raise the enormous revenue needed ; to offset the internal taxation ; and to afford pro- tection. The average rate of tariff became 47.06 per cent., raised from 37.2. The bill practically remained in force for twenty years without any reduction, and to this day many of its provisions are not materially changed. At the close of the War revenue acts were in a chaotic condition. The inflated currency was to be contracted, and internal taxes were to be reduced and narrowed. By 1872 all such taxes as had close re- lation with import duties were wholly removed. But the tariff was not so easily and readily decreased. The protective idea had become deeply rooted and was hard to change. Each year bills were pre- sented for reductions which most persons felt should be made ; but the individuals directly interested siicceeded in putting off such legislation. So it was that a protective policy, formed because of a great war, became for a time the permanent policy of the govern- ment. In 1867 a bill was proposed that would reduce the tariff rate and leave it still strongly protective. The death of the bill made the war system more permanent and checked tariff legislation for some time. In 1870 the duties on some articles, such as coffee, tea, sugar, molasses, spices, and wines, were lowered ; and other articles were put on the free list. The duty on pig-iron was lowered from $9 to $7 per ton. The same bill increased the rate on several protected articles. In 1872 feeling became very strong against such an unwarrantedly high tariff, and the country opposed it with less regard for politics than usual. The West was for reduction. Its agricultural districts were suffering from low prices while imports were heavy. Also there was a large amount of surplus money — about $100,000,000 — in the Treasury, for which there was no im- mediate use. These things demanded and brought about a reduc- tion. The bill of 1872 made an average decrease of 10 per cent, on all tariff. In 1875 this bill was repealed and duties were put back to the rate of 1870. The panic of 187.'-> caused imports to fall off and revenues decreased alarmingly. The measure of 1875 was passed to arrest the decrease, and to build up the financial condition of the TARIFF AND REVENUES. 145 coiintry. From 1875 to 1883 there was no very decided attempt to modify the tariff, except that the duty on quinine was abolished in 1879. Up to 1883 we still had practically the one system of protec- tive tariff developed during the Civil War. Usually the condition of the Treasury has been a cause for tariff legislation. An overflow of money in the Treasury was cause for a reduction ; and a deficit, cause for an increase. There had been a large surplus revenue annually for some years, and in 1882 Congress appointed a committee to report at its next session on any desired changes in the tariff. The report was made, but Congress passed it in an amended form, containing much less reduction than was at first proposed. Fine grades of cloth were raised to 40 per cent, ad valorem by the bill. Cotton laces, etc., were raised from 35 per cent, to 40 per cent. Steel was really raised, though apparently reduced. The rule was to advance the rate of protected articles. The ad valorem duties on wool were removed and the specific duties on woolen goods were reduced from 50 cents to 35 cents. Other reduc- tions were made, but as a whole the bill was protective and was a victory for that policy, for a decided reduction had been demanded. It was a measure to appease the tariff reform cry, and yet keep the system as nearly as possible as it was. Bills for reducing the tariff were proposed in 1884 and 1886, by Mr. Morrison. The one of 1884 was the " Horizontal " tariff bill. In 1887-88 a new condition presented itself. Mr. Cleveland, in a message to Congress, advocated a general reduction of tariff, and the placing of raw materials on the free list. This outspoken policy committed the Democratic party to tariff reform, and threw the tariff question distinctly into politics, where it had not wholly been since the War. The Democrats prepared the Mills Bill, making sweeping reductions, and passed it in the House distinctly as a party measure ; and the Republicans prepared a bill in the Senate favoring high protection. Both bills were intended to influence votes and not to become laws. The Republicans elected Mr. Harrison President, thus winning a victory which was used with suicidal effect. The leaders of the Republican party looked on the victory as a complete vindication of a high protective policy. To be consistent, such a bill must be passed. The result was the McKinley Bill of 1890. The bill is too voluminous to be given in this connection. There was considerable change made, but the protective policy was 146 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. preserved and extended. Indeed it never had been so distinctly stated in the history of the country. For some reason which need not be discussed here, the people repudiated the bill at the first opportunity, and the Democratic party, on a revenue basis, carried the country for tariff reform in 1892. When the Democratic party found itself in full power in both legislative branches and the executive chair also, it looked upon it as a victory for tariff reduction. The party introduced the Wilson Bill, which made the most radical reduction in tariff since the War. When the bill came to the Senate, it was greatly amended, and passed with a protective policy very much in evidence. The party could not agree within itself, since its most influential members had indi- vidual and pet articles that they wanted protected. Whiskey, sugar, iron, and coal were the main articles of contention. The bill cared for these as the manu.facturers desired. The only aim in this discussion has been to give a clear presenta- tion of the tariff as it has shown itself in our history. Principles have been discussed only when they must be understood to get the history. The tariff is a good thing to be let alone by our legislators ; and if it must be changed, let it be changed carefully, out of politics, and by a board Avhose sole duty it is to regulate tariff laws. If it is fair to the people to protect some articles and build up certain inter- ests, let us do so. If we need revenue, let us judicially get it from imports. If free trade on any article is to the welfare of the people, then such an article should be free. Everything should be for the greatest good to the greatest number. Turning our attention to internal taxes, the second great source of our revenue, we must begin with the Colonial Period. Alrginia collected taxes for three purposes, — for the king, for the colony, and for William and Mary's College. The first received quit-rents ; the second, export duties on tobacco sent out of the country, port duties on vessels, and a poll tax ; the third, export duties on tobacco shipped to other colonies. The colony made three levies yearly: first, the parish levy by the church officers; second, the county levy by the county judges ; and third, the levy by the Assembly. All these were paid in tobacco and were collected by the sheriff. In Maryland the projirietor held a title to all the land. He re- ceived all the (piit-rents, duties on tobacco, and fines and forfeitures. Taxes were regulated by the lower house, and generally were not very high. TARIFF AND REVENUES. 147 North Carolina raised her revenue by quit-rents, tonnage duties, duties on rum and wine, and met provincial expenses by direct taxa- tion, — tolls, tithes, and taxing free negroes, and liquor. South Caro- lina and Georgia had similar taxes. Pennsylvania and Delaware were governed together. The pro- prietor received the quit-rents. Direct taxes were assessed and excise duties and tonnage duties were collected, the latter of which were used to construct lighthouses. There was no navy, and the militia cost the public nothing. New Jersey raised her duties mostly by taxing the land. New York suffered most in her revenues. The government was often ill- managed and expensive ; the frontier was much exposed to Indians, Avhich made the defense expensive ; consequently taxes were high, and were levied on negroes imported, other importations, and on real and personal property. In New England the system was different. All property was as- sessed without any distinction. Real estate and stock in trade were assessed according to the value put upon them by the town magis- trate. Artisans and mechanics paid taxes according to the estimated gains of their business. Each male person sixteen years old or more was taxed Is. 8d. The assessments were made in the autumn ; but transient settlers might be collected from at any time. Ministers were free from taxes. Taverns paid a duty on wine sold. An ad valorem duty of 5 per cent, was laid on all imported goods, except fish, wool, cotton, and salt. As the reader knows, taxes could not be raised during the Revolu- tion very successfully, since the nation had no power to collect them. OtRces were established in the states, and the people were asked to lend money to them for the expenses of the government. Two kinds of certificates were issued for these loans : one, payable in specie ; and one, payable in paper money. Of course the former kind drove out the latter. The government managed to borrow enough money from Europe to pay the interest on these loans. This made the people eager to lend their money to the nation. France, Holland, and Spain let the United States have money, and the Bank of North America often made loans to it, while Robert Morris many times borrowed money for the government on his own credit. In these ways and by issuing bills of credit the government carried the war to a successful end. But the reader must remember that all these plans were increasing the government's obligations, and that it was 148 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. left to JTaiuilton, after the Constitution was adopted, to really pro- vide means for paying this long-standing debt. This, then, was the first great question before the people in the National Period. Hamilton was ordered, as Secretary of the Treas- ury, to make a report on the public debt, to the next session of Con- gress. There were two kinds of debts, — foreign and domestic. The foreign was due France, Holland, and Spain. There was no trouble over this debt, as all knew what it was, and how it was contracted ; and all agreed that it should be paid. But the domestic debt caused trouble. There were three parts to it. One part included the debt made by the Continental Congress, which was held by the creditors in the form of certificates. This debt raised two questions. Many persons had bought these certificates of original holders for a sum much less than their par value. Now should the government pay the holders more than tliey had paid for them, and if full value were paid should not the difference go to the original holders ? Hamilton argued that the full value should be paid, and to the present holders, Madison and Jefferson argued that it should not, but Hamilton's views were adopted. The second part of this debt was incurred by the states in carry- ing on the War. This caused a bitter fight. The debt incurred by states amounted to $25,000,000. Congress had often promised to equalize this debt among the states, and the states ratified the Con- stitution with that understanding. The North had the greatest part of the debt, and wished to equalize it ; the South did not. Finally Congress assumed $21,500,000 and divided it equally among the states according to Hamilton's plan. This was put through Con- gress by a trade that gave the Capital City to the South, if it in turn would assist in adopting the assumption measure. The third part of the debt consisted of money given the states l)y Congress and vice versd. A committee was appointed to deter- mine the amount due by each to the other, after which it was to be paid. It was determined to fund the debt in the following way : the first branch, or foreign debt, was to bear G per cent, interest on two-thirds of the amount after 1790, and the same per cent, on the other third after 1800. Three per cent, interest was to be paid on the interest which had already accumulated on the debt. The government could redeem 2 per cent, annually of the portion bear- ing 6 per cent, interest, and the portion bearing 3 per cent, when- TARIFF AND REVENUES. 149 ever it wished. The first and second parts of the domestic debt were funded as follows : four-ninths should bear G per cent, inter- est after 1791 ; three-ninths should bear 3 per cent, after the same time J and two-ninths, 6 per cent, after 1800. The third part of the domestic debt, consisting of amounts due the states by Con- gress and due Congress by the states, was adjusted by the commit- tee, and found to stand as follows : Congress owed New Hampshire f75,055, Massachusetts $1,218,881, Rhode Island $299,611, Con- necticut 1619,121, New Jersey if 49,630, South Carolina $1,205,978, Georgia $19,988; New York owed Congress $2,074,846, Pennsyl- vania owed $76,009, Delaware owed $612,428, Maryland owed $151,640, Virginia owed $100,879, North Carolina owed $501,082. The amount Congress owed the states was funded in the same man- ner as the other part of the domestic debt. The part dvie Congress by the six states named above was never paid. Thus the entire debt was funded, though it cost many bitter fights that were dan- gerous to the best interest of the new republic. The debt being funded, it was the next duty to arrange for some plan to pay both interest and principal. The sinking fund theory was a popular one and was used at this time. In 1801 a fund of $7,300,000 was provided to be set aside for reducing the debt. In 1803, $700,000 was added to the sinking fund on account of the purchase of Louisiana. During the first ten years the debt was not decreased. There had been so much expense in the way of Indian wars, insurrections, trouble with the Barbary States and France, and so much of the internal tax had been evaded, that the govern- ment succeeded in meeting just its actual expenses. But in the next eleven years $46,022,810 was paid, leaving $46,154,189 yet to be paid. To secure the money to pay the debt incurred by the Revolution, bonds were sold. This of course paid the obligations as they were due then, but it did not lessen the debt, so that the sums given above were in the form of a bonded debt, made to run a certain time. While the government may secure money for immediate needs by selling bonds, or by issuing some form of paper money, neither way lessens the debt, but rather increases it, since interest will have to be paid on the bonds, and probably on the paper money. The bonds of 1791 were to be paid by the import duties, as already described, and by an internal tax on distilled spirits. In 1794 taxes were levied on domestic carriages, snuff, sagar, auctions. 150 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. and the retail selling of wine and foreign liquors. In 1797 a tax was placed on stamped vellum, pai'climent, and paper. In 1802 all internal tax was repealed, and none was levied again until 1813, when one was placed on iron, sugar, snuff, spirits, candles, playing- cards, umbrellas, beer, ale, harness, boots, plate, furniture, and gold and silver watches. The tax on all these was abolished in 1818, and no internal tax was levied again until 1801. The amount of revenue raised by this system of taxing, previous to 1801, was $22,000,000. By 1834 the debt incurred by the War of 1812 was all paid. AVlien the Civil War began, the government was in debt only $60,000,000. Before that period the debt had never been higher than $130,000,000, an insignificant sum compared to the great debt that was made from 18G1 to 1865. Our internal taxes from 1861 to 1891 amounted to the enormous sum of $3,965,451,451. The greatest sum collected in any one year was in 1866, when $346, 911,760.48 was raised, and $179,000,000 was raised the same year, by the tariff. The internal tax was levied on the principle, said one, " that whenever you see a head, hit it, and whenever you see a commodity, tax it." During the Civil War nearly all trades and sales were assessed. There was not a manufactured article of any importance but was taxed. Legacies, deeds, bank checks, drafts, orders, vouchers, etc., were all put on the tax list. By acts of 1866, 1867, 1868, 1872, and since, the vast mnnber of taxed articles, trades, and professions that existed during the Civil War has been reduced to four, — tobacco, liquors, bank circulation, and oleo- margarine. During the war the average internal tax was 5 per cent. Only in a few cases has the nation levied a direct tax. In 1797 a direct tax of $2,000,000 was apportioned among the states according to the population, and was levied on dwelling-houses, slaves, and land. This was but for one year. In 1813, 1815, and 1816 direct taxes were again levied for one year each, and on the same articles as in 1797, The tax of 1797 caused the Hot- Water Rebellion. The houses were taxed according to their size, number of rooms, doors, and windows. AVhen the proper officer came around to measure the houses, he was often met by resistance from the women, who sometimes poured hot water on him. Thus the name of the rebellion. During the Civil War a direct tax of $20,000,000 was levied on the states and each state was allowed 15 per cent, for collecting it. All the states made the collection except DelaAvare ; and all the territories, except Colorado. Territories had not been asked to con- TARIFF AND REVENUES. 151 tribute a direct tax before this time, except in 1815, when the Dis- trict of Columbia was inchided. The United States has collected nearly $30,000,000 by direct taxation. But this system is not well thought of by the people in general. The policy is to allow the nation to raise its revenue by indirect taxation ; and to let the states, counties, townships, cities, and towns meet their expenses by the direct tax. One other mode of raising revenues is yet to be mentioned, and then the list is complete, — the income tax. Only twice has such a tax been levied ; first, in 1861, and second, in 1894. In 1861 a tax of 3 per cent, was levied on all incomes of $800 or more. In 1865 the tax was changed to 5 per cent, on incomes of $600 or more ; and to 10 per cent, on those of $10,000 or more. In 1866 the amount collected by the law of 1865 was $72,982,159. In 1871 the tax was changed to 21 per cent, on an income of $2000 or more. The Avhole amount of income tax collected from 1861 to 1872, when the law was repealed, was $346,911,760.48. The second income-tax law was passed in 1894, but has been declared unconstitu- tional and is therefore not in force. It levied a tax of 2 per cent, on all incomes of more than $4000. If the reader will make a rough estimate of the amount of money necessary to run our government, he may be surprised. Perhaps the greatest sum ever collected in any one year was in 1866, when the government's expenses were more than $1,000,000 per day. In that year the income tax was $72,982,159 ; the internal tax was $346,911,760.48 ; and the tariff collection amounted to $179,000,000, making a total of $598,893,919.48 for that one year alone. Of course, never before nor since have we collected so much or needed so much, though our expenses for the year 1896 were $352,179,446. Our national debt in 1896 was $1,769,840,323. In 1866 it was $2,773,236,173.69. It may help the reader to understand the revenue system to give some figures. We collected by the internal revenue system from 1789 to 1895, $4,716,760,904; by duties on imports, $7,415,871,509; by direct tax, $28,131,994 ; from public lands, $289,726,591 ; from other sources, $763,202,129. This makes a total of $13,213,693,127. Our expenses for the same time were, for miscellaneous purposes, $2,767,569,284 ; war, $4,980,773,259 ; navy, $1,327,407,789 ; Indians, $309,200,401; pensions, $1,950,403,063; interest, $2,791,537,714, — a total of $14,126,891,510. 152 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. In 1895 we collected, by the tariff, ^152,158,017 ; by internal reve- nues, $143,421,072; by sale of public lands, $1,503,347; from other sources, $16,706,438, making a total of $313,790,074. In that same year we spent, for miscellaneous items, $03,279,730; for the War Department, $51,804,759; for the Navy Department, $28,797,79(1 ; for the Indians, $9,939,754 ; for pensions, $141,395,229; for inter- est, $30,978,030, — a total of $356,195,298, leaving a deficit of $42,405,224, to meet which bonds were sold. The receipts for 1896 were a little more than for 1895, and the expenditures a little less, making the deficit $25,000,000, in round numbers. The receipts and expenditures of the Post-office Department are nearly equal, each amounting to about $85,000,000 yearly. The Patent Office is also a self-supporting institution, bringing in more than $1,000,000 per year. Of our internal revenue, liquors and spirits pay more than $100,000,000 yearly; tobacco, nearly $30,000,000; and oleomarga- rine, less than $1,000,000. The reader will get some idea of the magnitude of the United States government from these amounts, and will realize the enormous revenues needed every year to meet necessary expenses. Include the expense of running the state, county, township, and city govern- ments, which is met by a direct tax, and we have millions more to pay. CHAPTER XIII. PAPER MONEY. Definition — Kinds of Money — Paper Monet — Kinds — Revolution — Fight over Paper — Paine — Banks — Constitution — From 1789 to 1811 — From 1811 to 1816 — From 1816 to 1836 — From 1836 to 1860 — Treas- ury Notes — Greenbacks — Cost of War — President Grant — Confed- erate Currency — Present Notes. MONEY is a medium of exchange and a measure of value. Many things besides the precious metals have been used as money. The Greeks and Romans used cattle (pecus). The Romans' first coin was the copper ses. Cattle, beans, salt, silk, furs, tobacco, fruit, wheat, rice, oil, cotton cloth, shells, iron, copper, platinum, nickel, silver, and gold have all been used as money, and are but a few of the many things thus used. Tobacco was the money of Virginia and Maryland for more than a century. The first-named colony used tobacco certifi- cates and crop certificates, i.e. certificates issued on a deposit of tobacco or other produce in the warehouse. Massachusetts used corn for fifty years, though paper money and beaver skins were more popular. That colony made musket balls legal tender for sums not greater than 12 pence. Wheat, rye, barley, peas, dried fish, and cattle were all used at different times in the colonies. Taxes could be paid with any of these. A constable once collected 130 bushels of peas in Massachusetts for taxes. Wampum was used among the Indians, and also by the whites, as money. New York used beaver skins and wampum, and South Carolina used rice. These were legal tender, i.e. debts might be paid Avith them. If the creditor refused to accept them, the debtor could deposit the right amount in court and be freed from his debt. Because of the inconvenience and uncertain value of such articles and the lack of coin in the Colonial Period, paper notes or bills of credit came into use. Massachusetts was the first colony to issue 153 154 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. paper money. Four tliousantl pounds were issued and made legal tender in 1692, to pay the soldiers returning from Canada. The bills depreciated, but specie was exchanged for some and the re- mainder were made to circulate at face value for private debts and at 5 per cent, premium for public debts. This brought them to par and even to a premium. The other colonies soon followed the example of Massachusetts. They issued bills of credit, redeemable at long periods, and loaned them on land mortgages at a low rate of interest. The borrower paid the interest to the state, and that constituted part of the reve- nue. South Carolina issued such bills in 1712 to the amount of £52,000. In 1714 Massachusetts issued £50,000 and placed it in the hands of five trustees to be let out on real estate mortgages at 5 per cent. They were to be paid back in five annual payments. In 1716 it issued £100,000 more to twenty trustees for circulation. By 1720 paper money became so plentiful, and consequently so worthless, that each governor was notified to sign no more bills except those required for the actual support of the government; but the order was disobeyed, and every colony except Virginia continued the circulation. Rhode Island put out £40,000 in 1721. The interest was payable in flax or hemp. In 1738 paper money circulated in New England at 25 per cent, of its face value ; in the Middle States, at 50 per cent. ; and in the South, at 10 to 15 per cent. Specie passed out of circulation altogether, and depreciation of paper grew so alarmingly that Parliament interfered, though with little effect. The colonists guarded such matters as revenue and taxation most jealously ; but they themselves grew alarmed over the condition of their finance, and made efforts to change it. Massachusetts tried to call a national convention to regulate paper money issues. Not succeeding, it then arranged to redeem its own l)ills at from twenty-five to fifty cents on the dollar, and became a "hard money" colony. There were several different kinds of bills of credit during the Colonial Period : (1) interest-bearing bills that were not legal ten- der; (2) interest-bearing bills that were legal tender for their face value, and sometimes for their interest also; (3) non-interest-bear- ing bills that were legal tender; (4) bills that were legal tender for future debts only; (5) bills that were legal tender for public dues only. These issues had the following effects and qualities, as a PAPER MONEY. 155 rule : they caused the disappearance of specie ; made counterfeiting easy; brought on repudiation; wore out quickly; and depreciated greatly. When the colonies declared their independence, there was imme- diately a great need for money. They were poor and had not yet recovered from the French and Indian War. The paper money in circulation had stretched their individual credit to its limit. Con- gress had no certain powers, so it could not help them much. The result of the War was very doubtful, which fact alone would have given them very poor credit. The issuing of paper money seemed the only recourse, since the people refused to be taxed. One mem- ber in Congress said, " I will not consent to tax my people when I can send to the printer and get a wagon load of money." The colo- nies had often issued paper money; and Congress, it was thought, could do the same thing. This it did. The first issue was for f2, 000, 000; soon afterwards there was one for $1,000,000; and soon again one for 13,000,000. These notes were secured only by a promise to pay, and this promise was made by a government unrecognized by the world; consequently, as one would expect, they depreciated within a year. Some now pro- posed borrowing, but money was needed for immediate wants, and Congress again resorted to the printer. A call was made on the states, to which they did not respond. Paper circulation went on until f!2, 000, 000, 000 was put out. It was made legal tender, and the prices on articles to be sold were fixed by law so that the money would not depreciate so greatly. The states began issuing money, and this caused a greater depreciation of the national paper. Coun- terfeiting was a great source of annoyance, and helped make the currency worthless. Affairs continued in this way until the money depreciated so greatly that it passed entirely out of circulation. Congress then, as if it had not learned its lesson well enough, passed a law that the states should make new bills and it should counter- sign them. These bills did not circulate largely, for the people had not forgotten the disasters of previous issues. In spite of the financial hardships which the inflation of currency has always brought about, men have always claimed that a govern- ment stamp makes money good. The country was full of such men just after the Kevolution. It was hard for them to see that a hundred thousand dollars' worth of paper money did not add that much to the wealth of the country. Men remembered when it took forty dollars 156 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. to buy a hat, but thought a debased currency, which Avas plentiful, was better than a little coin which many of them never saw. In the election following the Revolution the jDaper money advocates won the victory, and proceeded to make laws for issuing paper money and for compelling its circulation. In Maryland, where opposition to paper money was strong, the fight was very bitter. The lower house passed a bill favoring the issue, but the Senate was for " hard money," and defeated it. Thus the paper money system was held in check in Maryland. Penn- sylvania did not oppose paper strongly. In 1785 seven thousand pounds of credit bills were issued by the state and loaned on real estate mortgages. The next year they depreciated 12 per cent. Kortli Carolina put large amounts of these bills of credit in circula- tion in several different ways. Some were loaned on real estate; some were paid to creditors of the state; and others were paid out for tobacco at a double price. The money was made legal tender, but in a short time the depreciation amounted to 30 per cent. South Carolina tried to enforce the circulation of bills at full value by a Hunt Club, whose duty it was to hunt out any one who refused the money, and severely punish him. The merchants bound themselves to accept it, but in spite of all that could be done depre- ciation followed. Legislators thus found it was one thing to "make " money and another to sustain its value. Georgia strove to enforce her law witli stringent measures. The workingman, how- over, refused to take the paper for more than it was worth in coin. The merchants resolved it should be done. No produce was allowed to leave the colony if the planters refused to take paper )uoney in l)ay. It was so throughout the Soutli, except in Virginia, in which colony the rage for paper money was never very strong. New York had its fight, and won for paper with the usual results, though the opposition was so strong there that certain limitations were set around it, and the effect was not so severe. Tom Paine, who had made a world-wide reputation on his essays, "Common Sense " and the " Crisis,'" wrote an article against the measure, from which 1 quote the following: "Money is money, and paper is paper. All the inventions of man cannot make it otherwise. Gold and silver are the emissions of nature, paper is the emission of art. The value of gold and silver is regulated by the quantity which nature has made in tlie earth. The fact that these metals were stampetl into coin added much to their convenience, but nothing to PAPER MONEY. 157 their value. Their worth was in the metal and not in the stamp. Of the many sorts of base currency, paper is the basest. It has the least intrinsic value of anything that could be put in place of specie." In spite of such sentiment, however, New York " made " money, and suffered the consequences. New Jersey placed thousands of bills in circulation, which depre- ciated heavily. Rhode Island, the most fanatical of all the colonies, had a severe fight over the paper policy. It was ever ready to try any scheme. Nothing was too absurd for the little state to attempt; and nowhere else on the face of the globe was there such a per cent, of grumblers and fault-finders. The colony was founded in a hot- bed of dissatisfaction and whims, and held to its peculiar rights to the same for many years. Her scheme was, in 1784, to establish a bank of paper money. Moneyed men and creditors objected, but debtors and poor people favored the bank. It was defeated for the time, but in the election of 1786 it was victorious, and Avork began on the line proposed. The land tax was abolished, the excise law was suspended, and a paper bank of one hundred thousand pounds was established. The bills issued by the bank were to be loaned on real estate mortgages, which were to be of double the value of the amount loaned, and were to be paid back in fourteen years. The money was quickly put into circulation, but as soon as it began to be offered by the first holders, who gave mortgages on their lands for it, a heavy discount was placed on it. Then followed a forcing act which provided that any one who refused to take the money at its full value should be fined one hundred pounds, and lose the rights of a freeman. The result of this law was bad. Nobody would sell anything. The merchants shut up store. Traders closed shop, or bartered. Business almost stopped. The farmers retaliated on the merchants and traders and would bring no produce to town, hoping to starve out the merchants. In some places much distress followed. A butcher was arrested for not accepting the money, and his was made a test case. The forcing act had made it lawful for such offenders to be tried within three days after com- yjlaint, Avithout a jury. Three judges should make a quorum, their decision should be final, and any man disobeying it should be sent to jail. The case was tried, and the law was declared unconstitu- tional. A special session of the Assembly was called, and the judges were brought before it and severely reprimanded. The legislature, however, continued in its blindness. The money 158 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. was still in the hands of the first holders, as they could find no one who would take it at its face value, and there were many who would not have it at any price. The Assembly forced the Test Oath, which was an oath binding a man to take the paper at its full face value and to support it. Ship-captains were forbidden to go out or come into the ports until they had taken the oath. Lawyers could not practice, men could not vote nor be candidates for office, and officers could not take their seats, until they declared that the paper note was as good as gold, and that they would so take it. Still the money depreciated. It took six dollars of paper to buy one dollar of gold, and men who had mortgaged their land for the money now hastened to redeem their homes, but it was not easily done. Affairs remained in such a state in Rhode Island until the Constitution of the United States was adopted. In the other New England states matters were not nearly so bad, but the principle was the same with all. The experience of the colonies had been bitter, but it remained to be seen just how much the people learned from it. The Constitution, adopted in 1789, has these words: "No state shall emit bills of credit," and "No state shall make anything but gold and silver legal tender in jiayment for debts." The purpose of these clauses was to forever abolish state currency, and it is sup- posed by some that the intent was also to abolish national paper notes. Good authorities say that the latter was the chief pur- pose. The paper money in circulation for twenty years after 1789 was made up of small notes and bills of individuals, corporations, and state banks of only local circulation, and some remains of the old state paper of 1785. The history of currency before 18G1 presents many experiments and errors. Paper issues by corporations and individuals grew to alarming proportions in some states and were limited by legislation. The note of the National Bank was always good, but when the bank's charter expired, the period following was one of "Wild Cat " money or paper, issued by entirely irresponsible banks, corporations, and individuals on promises to pay in specie, though having none on hand. The money was mostly local in its value. Five hundred dollars of such money in Indiana might not be worth one-fourth of that sum in some other state, or even in some other locality in that state. The money might be good one hour and worthless the next. It was truly the "dark age" of national currency. In the Middle PAPER MONEY. 159 and New England States the Suffolk system existed until 1861. It was a system by which the banks not only redeemed their notes over their own counters, but also at a central bank in Boston. This gave a wider circulation of their notes and a greater degree of con- fidence in them. From 1791 to 1861 the government issued no paper money except treasury notes, which bore interest and were redeemed in a short time. The first of these issues was in 1812, when the President was given the right to issue treasury notes not to exceed $5,000,000 altogether, whenever he deemed them necessary. The notes bore interest at 5|- per cent., and were to be redeemed in one year after issue. A like issue was made in 1814; and one for $25,000,000, in 1815. This issue of 1815 was made payable to order or to bearer as the President directed. If payable to order, all notes of $100 or more bore interest at 5| per cent., but notes of less than the $100 denomination bore no interest. These notes were redeemed in 6 and 7 per cent, bonds. Treasury notes were always legal tender, and the government has often borrowed money on them. Issues were made in 1816 and 1817. In 1822 treasury notes were made redeemable at the Treasury only. There were no issues of paper by the government between 1817 and 1836; but the National Bank's charter expiring in 1836, it was thought necessary to make another issue, in 1837, of $10,000,000, in denominations of not less than $50. The notes were redeemed in one year with interest. The Treasury Act was extended in 1810, 1841, 1842, and 1843, for $22,000,000 altogether. In 1846, 1847, and 1858 acts were passed ordering $53,000,000 worth of treasury notes issued. Several millions were issued during the Civil War, after which the greenback was authorized; and interest-bearing, short-time notes have not been used since. The greenback was the first legal tender note payable on demand and to bearer without interest after 1791. It was a currency issued against the better judgment of the government, but the demand and necessity seemed to justify the end, and the Supreme Court recognized its legality. The necessity was brought about in the following way : In 1861 Congress ordered the suspension of the sub- treasury system enacted in 1846, and ordered that all government offices should receive nothing but specie for debts. The banks desired this, as it would insure their interest in specie, and also would furnish a good plan for circulating the gold. But Mr. Chase 160 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. refused to suspend the system or force the government to receive specie only, but ordered that the banks shoukl pay in gokl. They began to do so under the promise that the government woukl not place in circulation the .f 50,000,000 -worth of treasury notes it had just prepared. It was not long until the notes began to circulate, and the banks decided that, while they would have enough gold to redeem their own circulation, they could not back the treasury notes, so they suspended specie payment, December 30, 1861. This forced the government to do the same, and all the plans of the financial department were brought to an end. It was thought by some that if Mr. Chase had cut off the sub- treasuries, withheld the issuing of the treasury notes, and received nothing but gold for public debts, the banks could have furnished all the gold needed, and thus put off the greenback issue until much later, if not altogether. ]>ut now the banks held the gold, refused to pay it out, paid off their loan to the government in treasury notes, and forced the sale of bonds, thus crippling the government and making money for themselves. The crisis was met by an issue of $150,000,000 in greenbacks, which were a simple promise to pay, bore no interest, and were payable on demand to bearer by the government. Tliey were called greenbacks because of their color. Soon another $150,000,000 was issued and put into circulation. At the same time $500,000,000 worth of bonds, bearing interest at 6 per cent., payable in gold, was issued, payable after five years and within twenty. The bonds sold slowly, and Congress made two loans : one by issuing certifi- cates at 6 per cent., for one year or a shorter time; and the other, by a deposit in the Treasury by the banks of $100,000,000 of treasury notes payable on demand after thirty days, and bearing not more than 5 per cent, interest. The bonds began to sell well through the house of Jay Cooke & Co., but the secretary stopped the sale of the Oper cent, bonds, and put 5 per cents, on the market; these would not sell. Mr. Chase would not change his policy, so another issue of $100,000,000 of greenbacks was made to meet the emergency. Senator Tessenden succeeded Mr. Chase in 1864, and followed the policy of issuing per cent, treasury notes, payable in one, two, and three years, interest to be paid in coin. During the remainder of the War expenses Avere met mostly by these notes, though of course they did not lessen the debt. The student gets some idea of tlie War by knowing that the actual PAPER MONEY. 161 cost to the states and nation was $6,189,929,908, a sum one cannot comprehend. More than $1,000,000,000 is still hovering over us as a nation, though for many years, until recently, the government decreased the debt at the rate of $12,000,000 per month. At times, during the War, the expenses of the government amounted to $1,000,000 per day. Not the least battle to win was the financial one in the Treasury Department at Washington. Beginning in almost a bankrupt condition, $60,000,000 behind, it carried to a successful end the greatest war of history, when money was counted and demanded by the billions. This was all done without depreciat- ing the credit of the country seriously. The financial history of the war period should be carefully studied by every citizen. It may be full of mistakes ; but if so, it is still a glorious record of mental achievement. After the War the great question was the limiting and drawing in of the inflated currency, of which billions of dollars existed in treasuiy notes and greenbacks. Congress soon ordered the treas- urer to retire $4,000,000 of treasury notes per month, which he did for twenty-one months, when the law was repealed. Specie payment was not resumed until January 1, 1879. Since that time there has never been any trouble in redeeming all notes in specie. The results of such money as the greenback are probably not yet apparent, though we have an opportunity now to see some of the effects. Four hundred and fifty millions of greenbacks were issued during the Civil War, which have kept our financial system in an unnatural condition since that time. The fact that $100,000,000 in gold is kept in the Treasury to redeem these notes, and that bonds have had to be sold to keep up this fund, is good proof that greenbacks are not good money. The greenback served one good purpose, — it furnished money at a time when it Avould have been difficult to borrow it and dangerous to raise it by taxation. But there is certainly very little excuse for keeping a currency in circulation that must be backed by so much good specie for its redemption. While it has been the most successful paper money the government has ever put out, to just what condition it may lead is yet to be determined. It is a debt, dollar for dollar, and the people must pay it. It would have taken less money to meet the expenses of the war if raised as needed, than to have " made " money which must finally be redeemed with heavy interest. Except the danger there would have been in taxing the people heavily 162 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. enough to have met the war debt as it was made, there is no good excuse for the existence of greenback currency. In 1874 President Grant vetoed a bill to issue $14,000,000 worth of greenbacks. His wise statesmanship saw the danger in educat- ing the people to believe that the government has the power to grind out money in any amount and at any time. Governments, like individuals, must earn their money; they cannot create it. This attempt was made during the crisis of 1873, at which time men theorized most wildly about money. The Specie Resumption Act followed in 1870, when greenbacks passed to par, towards which they had been tending for ten years. In 1870 gold was only 110^; in 1876, 107; in 1877, 102i; and in January, 1879, it stood at par. The equality of gold and paper frightened some legislators, and they feared greenbacks would be retired. To prevent this, a law was passed in May, 1878, which requires the Secretary of Treas- ury to reissue greenback notes whenever they are redeemed. The law still stands, but it is sincerely to be hoped that soon a law will permit us to redeem and destroy them, and that never again will we resort to such unsound financial policy. CONFEDERATE CURRENCY. The treasury notes of the South during the Civil War Ave re not always made legal tender. The first issue was for f 2,000,000, in denominations of not less than $50. It was redeemable one year from date of issue, bore 3.65 per cent, interest, and was payable to order. This issue was a mere loan and was not classed as currency. The next issue was for $20,000,000, which bore no interest, and was redeemable in two years in specie or could be funded into 8 per cent, bonds, which were exchangeable for the notes at the option of the holder. This issue was legal tender for all dues except export duties on cotton. The issue of the treasury notes increased; within a year nearly $300,000,000 had been placed in circulation. Not only these Avere issued, but the states, counties, cities, toAvns, private companies, and individuals issued bills, though they were not legal tender. The amount of such currency became alarming, and several plans were outlined to lessen it. The states attempted to make a loan to the general government to redeem the treasury notes; but they Avere in as poor condition as the government; the parts, of course, were not stronger than the Avhole. In spite of all PAPER MONEY. 163 attempts to stop the issue, or rather to make it unnecessary, it went on at the rate of $50,000,000 per month. In December, 1863, there were $700,000,000 worth of treasury notes in circulation, and gohl and paper stood 1 to 26. By 1865, the close of the War, these notes were worth one cent on the dollar. Thvis again a part of our coun- try found it impossible to " make " money. *' Money is money and paper is paper." The present notes of the United States consist of greenbacks, gold and silver certificates, treasury notes, bank notes, and cur- rency certificates. The greenbacks, or United States notes, were first issued in 1863, and their limit now is $310,081,016. They are issued in denominations of $1000, $500, $100, $50, $20, $10, $5, $2, $1; are a legal tender, except where otherwise contracted; are exchangeable for all kinds of money except gold certificates; and are redeemable in coin in sums of fifty dollars and over at the sub- treasuries in New York and San Francisco. Gold certificates were first issued in 1882, and there is no limit to the amount that can be circulated as long as there is $100,000,000 worth of free gold in the Treasury. If the gold falls below that sum, the certificates are not issued. They are issued in denomina- tions of $10,000, $5000, $1000, $500, $100, $50, and $20; are not a legal tender ; are receivable for all public dues ; are exchangeable for gold coin or any other money at the treasuries ; are redeemable in gold coin at the Treasury; and are issued on gold deposits. They bear no interest and are payable on demand. Silver certificates are issued on silver deposits in the Treasury, are payable on demand to the bearer without interest, and are not a legal tender. They were issued in 1878, in the same denominations as the greenbacks. These certificates are receivable for all public dues, are exchange- able for dollars or smaller coin at the Treasury, and are redeemable in silver dollars. Currency certificates were ordered issued in 1872, and their limit is the same as that of the greenbacks. They are issued in the denomination of $10,000 only, are not a legal tender, are not receiv- able, are exchanged for greenbacks, and are redeemable in green- backs at the sub-treasury that issued them. These certificates are in use by National Banks in clearing house transactions. Treasury notes bear date of 1890, and were issued on a deposit of silver in the Treasury. The limit of the issue is $156,044,615, 164 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. The denominations are $1000, $100, $50, $20, $10, $5, $2, $1. They are a legal tender unless otherwise contracted, are receivable for all dues, are exchangeable for all kinds of money except gold certificates, and are payable in coin at the Treasury. The treasury note is payable on demand, without interest. Bank notes were provided for by law in 18G3. They are limited to 90 per cent, of the par value of United States bonds owned by national banks, and are issued in denominations of $1000, $500, $100, $50, $20, $10, and $5. The bank note is not a legal tender, and is receivable for all dues except duties on imports and interest on the public debt. It is exchangeable for silver and minor coin, and is redeemable in " lawful money " at the Treasury or bank of its issue. Bank notes bear no interest, and are payable on demand. The student should study the nature of money, and no better way is open than by the study of its history. It makes no differ- ence about theory. If theory has not worked, we should not be carried away by it. Kemember the statement of Paine, '* Money is money and paper is paper." The stamp does not make the value. Let every dollar be worth that sum on the market as merchandise. Otherwise it is not a good dollar and will certainly bring evil results. CHAPTER XIV. COIN. Qualities — Ouigin — Colonial Period — Foreign Coins — Standard Weights and Ratio from 1772 to 1834 — Clipping — Uncertain Value — Plans — War on Foreign Coin — Standard Weight and Ratio in 1834 — Effect — California — Coins before 1860 — Act of 1853 — "Crime of 1873" — Trade Dollar — Bill of 1878 — Sherman Act — Re- peal — Present Condition — Theories — Present Coin — Total Coinage — Double Eagle — Eagle — Half-eagle — Quarter-eagle — Gold Dol- lar — Silver Dollar — Trade Dollar — Half-dollar — Columbian Half-dollars and Quarter-dollars — Quarter-dollar — Twenty-cent Piece — Dime — Half-dime — Three-cent Piece — Five-cent Piece — Three-cent Piece (Nickel) — Two-cent Piece — Copper Cent — Nickel Cent — Bronze Cent — Half-cent — Cost — Silver Agitation — Elec- tion OP 1896, "VTOT everytliing makes good money. Writers generally agree -1-^ that money to be good must have six qualities : (1) portabil- ity, the quality of being easily transported in sums of great value ; (2) homogeneity, the quality of uniformity in value ; that is, if a part is worth a certain sum, a part twice as large would be worth twice as much, etc. ; (3) durability, the quality of wearing well ; (4) divisi- bility, the quality of being divisible into smaller quantities; (5) cog- nizability, the quality of being easily and quickly recognized in its value, something that will bear stamping plainly in order to make it easily recognized ; (6) stability, the quality of remaining very nearly of one value. Nothing has been discovered yet that possesses all these quali- ties perfectly. Experience has taught that silver and gold very nearly do, and the gold more nearly than the silver. Gold, in small quantities, is valuable ; it is homogeneous ; it is reasonably durable, though not as nearly so as it should be, as without alloy it wears away very rapidly ; it is easily divisible ; it is recognized without trouble ; and it is the most stable metal in value. 165 1G6 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Money had its origin in necessity. Man, in the early stages of society, bartered. One man had a cow; another, a hog. The first wanted pork; the second, beef. They would make the exchange. But as civilization developed and industries multiplied, bartering became too inconvenient. This man has wheat, and he wants corn. This one has corn, but wants oats. Another has oats, but wants hogs ; and another has hogs and wants none of the property of his neighbors. What shall they do ? They will be forced to agree on a convenient measure of value that will pay for everything. Then these men could sell their wheat and buy corn, or sell oats and buy hogs Avith this medium of exchange. Thus money is a necessity of civilization, and man has developed it from force of circumstances. Most metals are either too scarce or too plentiful to be used as money. Iron is too plentiful, and hence too cheap. Diamonds are too scarce, and therefore too vahiable. Money is stamped simply for convenience; otherwise it must always be weighed when paid out, which would be very inconvenient. One might almost say there was no coinage during the Colonial Period. Marjdand had a mint in 1660. Massachusetts coined a little money in 1651, but it did not circulate widely. The Spanish dollar and half-dollar were the chief coins in circulation in the latter part of the Colonial Period, and they circulated long after the Revo- lution. United States has not coined money extensively until since the Civil War. Men are still living who can remember a time when our coin was not national in use, but local. Fifty years ago the coin in small change was mostly foreign. The eighth and sixteenth of the Spanish milled dollars were most used, and had many different names. In New York and North Carolina the eighth was a shilling; from New Jersey to Maryland it was valued at 11 pence and was called eleven-penny bit, or the levy ; and for the same reason it was named pence in New England. In New York the sixteenth was called sixpence ; in Pennsylvania, five-penny bit or fip ; and in New England, fourpence. The people in Louisiana called it a picayune. Sixpence in Massachusetts meant 8^ cents ; and a shilling, 16|. Two and threepence equaled 37|- cents. Three shillings made oO cents; four and sixpence, 7/) cents; and nine shillings, .'i^l.50. The English guinea, crown, shilling, and pence, with French, Spanish, and (Jerman coins, circulated in the colonies. The people were most familiar with the Spanish coin because a heavy trade was carried on with Sj^iain and her American possessions. The Spanish COIN. 167 milled dollar was the unit of value. The coin called the joe, short for Johannes, was worth $16. The doubloon was valued at $15; the half-joe passed for $8; the double pistole, $7|f; and the pistole at one-half that amount. The moidore was worth $6 ; the English guinea was worth $4||; the French guinea was valued at $4f|-; the carolin, at f4||; the chequin, at $164.96. These coins, with their fractional pieces, made up the gold coin in circulation doAvn until 1830. Change consisted of silver money. The Spanish milled dollar, the half, quarter, eighth, and sixteenth, the English and French crown, the shilling and sixpence were silver. The cent and French sou were copper. In 1772 the silver dollar of 377^ grains pure silver was made the unit. The weight was made 375.64 grains in 1785. The Spanish dollar contained 386|^ grains at that time. The weight of the Ameri- can silver dollar was made 371^ grains pure silver with 44| grains alloy in 1792, making 416 grains standard, which weight was made up of 1485 parts silver, and 179 parts copper as alloy. This remained the weight until 1837. The gold standard was made 24| grains fine gold in 1792, which remained the standard until 1834. The alloy, consisting of silver and copper, was Jg- part, making the gold dollar contain 27 grains. This made the ratio 15 to 1. Because of counterfeiting, coin was weighed. The tricks of counterfeiters were many and hard to detect. " Clipping " was much practiced. The clippings were sold and the clipped coin was passed at its stamped value. This practice became so common that Washington once said, "A man must yet carry a pair of bal- ances in his pocket or run the risk of receiving money of which it would take five quarters to make a dollar." Again, there was no national standard of value. A man, starting on a tour from Boston where six shillings made one dollar, must pay eight for a dollar in ISTew York ; in Pennsylvania he must pay seven shillings and six- pence ; and down in Charleston, four and sixpence. So many dif- ferent standards of value were very inconvenient. The j^eople needed money worth as much in Georgia as in New York or Boston. Except the copper cent there was no such coin. Gouverneur Morris, the father of our coinage system, presented a plan for securing this, and advocated that three things be ob- served : first, the new coin should closely resemble the old, that people would be readily familiar with it ; second, the unit should be very small ; and third, that money should increase in decimal 1G8 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. ratio. Two years after tins plan was presented, a committee, the fhairman of which was Jeiferson, made substantially the same re- port to Congress, except that the smallest change should be the one- hundredth part of a dollar. Mr. Morris had recommended that the fourteen hundred and fortieth part of the dollar should be the smallest piece of money. The dollar was adopted as the unit, and the decimal system was taken as the plan of subdivision. Eight coins were to be struck, — a gold piece equaling ten dollars, the silver dollar, half-dollar, double-tenth, tenth, five-copper piece, and copper and silver live-pieces. The half-penny was added to the number in 1785, and this system, originated by Morris, amended by Jefferson, and added to by Hamilton, became the coinage system of the United States. The attempt to drive out foreign coin was not successful. All such money was declared not legal tender after 1797. The law drove out of circulation millions of dollars. Had it been faith- fully obeyed, the people must have fallen back to bartering, since the United States had not coined quite $740,000 before 1797. It was disobeyed everywhere, though under the restriction great dis- tress followed, until the government relented in favor of French crowns and finally in favor of all. The same law was reenacted in 1809, except that the Spanish milled dollar was then not inter- fered Avith. The use of foreign coins continued in spite of the law, and in 1811 United States coin was the rarest coin in circu- lation in the country. Such was true for thirty years longer and even until the Civil War. Comparatively little coining was done by the United States before 1870. The ratio between gold and silver, as stated above, was 1 to 15 from 1792 until 1834, and then Avas made nearly 1 to IG (1 to 15.988 Avas the exact ratio) by fixing the standard Aveiglit of the tAvo metals. That of the gold dollar was fixed at 25.8 grains Avith standard fineness y''^. This standard made the fine gold in a dollar 23.22 grains. The other one-tenth, consisting of silver and copper, was alloy. The standard Aveight of the silver dollar Avas made 412^- grains, one-tenth of Avhich Avas copper as alloy, making the pure silver in a dollar 371^ grains. The gold standard Avas fixed in 1834, and the silver standard in 1837. These standards still remain as fixed then. Under the preceding ratio, 1 to 15, gold Avas undervalued 4|- per cent. ; i.e. the amount of gold it took to buy fifteen ounces of silver in the United States COIN. 169 "would buy 4|- per cent, more silver in the markets of the world, the market ratio being 1 to 16^. Debts were paid in silver and gold was exported, since ^100 of gold would buy $104.50 worth of silver in Europe. Owners of gold would export it, buy silver, import that and pay their debts with it, or buy gold for export^ thus making $4.50 on the hundred dollars. This, of course, drove gold out of circulation at home. But when the ratio became 1 to 16, the metals changed in the use made of them. This ratio began what is known as the gold period. The ratio meant that one ounce or pound of gold was worth sixteen ounces or pounds of silver for debt-paying pur- poses. Silver now, instead of gold, was cheapened by this ratio; i.e. it was undervalued, compared to the value the markets of foreign countries put on it. It took only 15.73 ounces of silver to get one of gold in Europe. In this country it took 15.988 ounces to buy the same amount. It paid owners of silver to send it abroad, buy gold with it, and bring the gold to this country and buy silver for export. They cleared .258 ounce of silver on every ounce ex- ported. Of course it was exported and gold alone circulated. The small coins were mostly of the Spanish and Mexican money. When the great gold fields of California began placing their produce on the market, gold became much more plentiful and there- fore was cheaper. As it cheapened, silver advanced when measured by a gold value, and owners of silver found it much more profitable than ever to export it and use the cheaper money to pay debts. To keep our small change from wholly leaving the country. Congress passed a law in 1853 making the halves, quarters, dimes, and half- dimes, 7 per cent, lighter, and legal tender in sums not exceeding $5. This overrating of silver change stopped the exportation and placed silver in circulation along with gold. Now that the small coin in silver were 7 per cent, lighter, they were worth no more abroad than here, so men did not melt them and send them abroad to purchase gold. DoAvn to 1860 one hundred and seventy-four different denomina- tions of silver coin and many gold coins circulated in the United States. From 1793 to 1834 the gold coins of England, Portugal, France, Spain, and their dominions, were legal tender in this coun- try. The Spanish silver dollar and French crown, with their frac- tional parts, had the same legal quality. From 1834 to 1860 the gold coins of Great Britain, l*ortugal, Brazil, France, Spain, Mexico, and 170 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Columbia, and the silver dollar of Spain, Mexico, Peru, Chili, Central America, and Bolivia, with the five-franc of France, Avere legal tender. From 1805 to 1836 no dollars were coined by the United States. Its dollars, previous to 1805, Avere 2^ grains lighter than the Spanish dollar. The American dollar would buy just as much in the West Indies as the Spanish dollar. The dollar of the United States was then worth more in the West Indies than at home. Very naturally, it was sent to the Indies and traded for the Spanish dollar, Avhich was brought back to the United States and put in circulation, making the trader 2^ grains on the dollar. Our mints were coining dollars rapidly, and yet they were not in circulation. Jefferson then ordered the mints to cease coining them. After the act of 1853, which made silver change lighter, as men- tioned above, there was no radical legislation on silver until 1873. The act of that year bears the name, " The Crime of 1873." It is claimed by silver adherents that the bill was fraudulently and secretly passed by Congress. The reader, if he understand the Avorking of Congress, cannot believe that it was secretly done. It would be impossible to pass any bill in that manner. Every bill must be printed, and read before each house several times. This one Avas printed thirteen times, and the daily proceedings concern- ing it came out in the Congressional Kecord, in which every one might read them. Also the bill Avas before Congress and the country thirty-four months. These facts Avould indicate that secrecy Avas no part of the " Crime." I am not able to say about the fraud. There may have been such, and there may not. It is too true that our lawmakers are not ahvays honest. It is probable also that many congressmen did not knoAv the full import of the bill ; but if so, it was due to their oAvn negligence, Avhich is often a characteristic of lawmakers. The law did not demonetize the standard silver dollar, and neither did it mention it, but substituted the trade dollar for it. The sih'er already coined Avas not disturbed by the bill. Because it did not mention the standard dollar, and prohibited the coinage of money not mentioned, the standard dollar Avas not coined for a fcAv years after 1873. The trade dollar had 420 grains Troy. This dollar and the half, quarter, and dime Avere made the silver coins by the act of 1873, and were legal tender for sums not exceeding f 5. The trade dollar Avas intended for foreign trade, and Avas given the extra COIN. 171 weight that it might satisfy such, since the standard dollar did not, because it was too light. The price of silver steadily declined, until 420 grains were worth less than a dollar, and it became profit- able to circulate trade dollars in the United States instead of ex- porting them. To prevent this, the legal tender value was taken away from them in 1876, and the coinage of the same limited to export demands. They then circulated at their market value, and speculators gathered them up, expecting the government to redeem them at their stamped value. This it did by the act of 1887, which provided that all such dollars should be exchanged for stand- ard dollars, dollar for dollar, if presented within six months. In 1878 a bill became a law to coin the standard silver dollar of the weight of 4121 grains Troy, and to purchase not less than two million dollars' worth, nor more than four millions' worth of silver bullion per month, and coin it into standard silver dollars with full legal tender value, except when stated otherwise in a contract. This bill created a seigniorage in favor of the government ; i.e. the difference between the market price and legal tender value was in favor of the government. If the government should buy f 5000 worth of silver bullion and make $7000 worth of silver dollars out of the amount, the difference, $2000, would be in favor of the government, and would be called a seigniorage. The same law provided that one might deposit his silver in the Treasury at Washington, and receive in return silver certificates in denomina- tions of not less than $10 each. There was $378,166,793 coined under this act, of which only $57,000,000 circulated in metal. The rest was issued in certificates. The Sherman act of 1890 provided that the Secretary of Treas- ury should buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver bullion each month if offered for sale, and if not offered, so much as should be, at market price, except the price must not exceed one dollar for 371.25 grains pure silver, equal to $1.2929. Treasury notes were to be issued for the bullion deposited, which were to be redeemed in silver or gold at the will of the Secretary of Treasury. The same bill provided for the coinage of 2,000,000 ounces per month into standard silver dollars until July 1, 1891. After that time, enough should be coined to redeem the treasury notes, and the seigniorage should be paid to the United States. Following the pas- sage of this bill came the largest exportation of gold in our history. To make matters worse, India demonetized silver, and it became 172 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. cheaper than ever. It was said that the Sherman act caused the panic of 1893. The President called an extra session of Congress, which repealed the purchasing clause of that act, October 30, 1893. If this clause were the cause of the panic, its repeal did not seem to materially help it. Oiir gold continued to go abroad. To keep up the $100,000,000 reserve fund for redeeming greenbacks, and to meet our running expenses, $250,000,000 worth of bonds have recently been sold. The present agitation (189C) is intense on the coinage question. One faction, mainly the West, desires free and unlimited coinage of silver, while the East leads in the effort to demonetize it, or to limit its coinage. Free coinage, as generally used in the United States, does not mean free absolutely, but free to the extent that silver shall be coined at actual cost. The owner of silver shall be allowed to take it to the mint and by paying the necessary expense have it coined into such money as he likes and returned to him. As it has been, the owner of such uncoined silver must sell it to the govern- ment at a certain price, and the government coins it into dollars whose legal tender value is worth much more than their market or intrinsic value. " Thus," say free coinage advocates, " the govern- ment gains the difference, while under free coinage the individual Avould have it." Unlimited coinage means that all silver mined shall be coined if the owners desire. In the discussion of finance we have the two theories, lUmetalism and Monometalism. Tlie latter means there can be but one standard, either silver or gold, and that, whichever metal is accepted as this standard of value, the other must be measured by it. Believers in l'>imetalism advocate a double standard: let both gold and silver, at a fair ratio, be measures of value. We have at present the following coin : gold, silver, copper, and nickel. The gold coins in circulation are the $20, $10, $5, and $2.50 pieces. They have an unlimited coinage, are received for all dues, and are exchangeable for certificates under the limitations of the law. The silver coins are the $1 piece and the subsidiary coins. The $1 is coined to redeem treasury notes and is limited to that purpose. It is a legal tender unless otherwise contracted, is received for all dues, and is exchanged for silver certificates or smaller coin at the Treasury. It may be redeemed by depositing it for a silver cer- tificate. The subsidiary coins are the 50-cent, 25-cent, and 10-cent pieces, and are issued according to the needs of the country. They COIN. 173 are a legal tender for sums of $10 or less, are exchangeable for minor coins, and are redeemable in " lawful money " at the Treasury in sums of $20 or any multiple thereof. Minor coins are the five-cent piece and the one-cent piece. They are issued according to the needs of the government, are legal tender for sums of 25 cents or less, are not exchangeable, and are redeem- able in " lawful money " at the Treasury in sums of $20 or more. The five-cent piece weighs 77.16 grains and is 75 per cent, copper and 25 per cent, nickel. The one-cent piece weighs 48 grains and is 95 per cent, copper and 5 per cent, tin and zinc. From 1792 to 1896 the total coinage of American mints was : of gold, $1,732,552,323 ; of silver, $681,909,619.15 ; of bronze, copper, and nickel, $26,481,531.79, making a total of $2,440,943,473.94. This sum includes the $2,501,052.50 in Columbian souvenir half- dollars, and the $10,005.75 in souvenir quarter-dollars. The double eagle (gold) was authorized March 3, 1849, and weighed 516 grains. There has been $1,210,703,700 coined in this denomination. The eagle (gold) was authorized in 1792 and Aveighed 270 grains. In 1834 the Aveight was changed to 258 grains. Before 1896 there had been $259,127,230 coined in gold eagles. The half-eagle (gold) was first coined in 1792 and weighed 135 grains. This was changed to 129 grains in 1834. There has been $212,921,675 coined in this denomination. The quarter-eagle (gold) was coined in 1792 at 67.5 grains. It was changed to 64.5 grains in 1834. The amount of gold that has been coined into quarter-eagles is $28,681,005. There has been $1,619,376 worth of gold coined in $3 pieces. This denomination was authorized in 1853, and weighed 77.4 grains. The coinage of this piece was dis- continued in 1890. The gold dollar was authorized in 1849 with 25.8 grains in it. There has been $19,499,337 worth of gold coined into $1 pieces. This coinage was discontinued in 1890. The silver dollar was authorized in 1792. Its different weights, etc., have already been given in this article. There has been $430,457,987 worth of silver coined into $1 pieces. Of this amount but $8,031,238 was coined before 1873, when the coinage of the dollar was discontinued for five years. The trade dollar was author- ized in 1873. The coinage was limited to the export demands and was discontinued in 1887. The amount coined was $35,965,924. The half-dollar was first coined in 1792. Its weight was 208 grains. In 1837 the weight was lowered to 185.625 grains. Again 174 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OP UNITED STATES. it was changed to 192 grains in 1853, and to 192.9 grains in 1873. There has been $132,259,041 coined in half-dollars. The Columbian half-dollars were coined in 1892, with the same weight as the regular half-dollars. There were 5,002,105 of these pieces coined, making $2,501,052.50. The quarter-dollar was provided for in 1792 and weighed 104 grains. In 1837 it was changed to 103^ grains, in 1853 to 96 grains, and in 1873 to 96.45 grains. The value of the quarters coined is $48,183,179.25. The Columbian quarter had the same weight and fineness that the standard had. It was coined in 1892 to the amount of $10,005.75. The amount of the Columbian quarters and half- dollars is included in the amount of the regular coinage given above. The 20-cent piece was coined by act of March 3, 1875. It contained 77.16 grains. The coinage was prohibited in 1878, when only $271,000 had been coined. The dime was provided for in 1792, and weighed 41.6 grains. It was changed to 41^ grains in 1837, to 38.4 grains in 1853, and to 38.58 grains in 1873. By 1896 there had been $28,610,171.30 coined in dimes. The half-dime began its career in 1792, and then weighed 20.8 grains. In 1837 it weighed 20f grains, and in 1853, 19.2 grains. It was discontinued in 1873. The total amount coined was $4,880,219.40. The three-cent piece was author- ized in 1851, and weighed then 12| grains. In 1853 it weighed 11.52 grains ; and in 1873 it was discontinued. There was $1,282,087.21 coined into these pieces. This completes the list of silver coins. I shall now speak briefly of the minor coins. The five-cent piece (nickel) was first coined in 1866, since which time $13,553,730.50 has been coined. The three-cent piece (nickel) was authorized in 1865 and weighed 30 grains. It was composed of 75 per cent, copper and 25 per cent, nickel. The coinage was stopped in 1890, up to which time $941,349.48 was coined. The two-cent piece (bronze) was first coined in 1864 and weighed 96 grains ; 95 per cent. Avas copper and 5 per cent, was tin and zinc. The coinage was stopped in 1873, when $912,020 had been coined. The copper cent was ordered coined in 1792. It then weighed 264 grains. In 1793 it weighed 208 grains; in 1796, 168 grains; and was discontinued in 1857, after $1,562,887.44 had been coiijed. The nickel cent was coined first in 1857 and weighed 72 grains. It was composed of 88 per cent, of copper and 12 per cent, of nickel. The coinage was dis- continued in 1864. The amount coined then was $2,007,720. The present cent piece (bronze) was authorized in 1864 and weighs 48 COIN. 175 grains. Its per cent, of copper, tin, and zinc is given above. There have been $7,463,898.26 coined in one-cent pieces. The coinage of the half-cent was begun in 1792. It was of copper and weighed 132 grains. This was changed to 104 grains in 1793, and to 84 grains in 1796. The coinage was discontinued in 1857, after $39,926.11 had been coined. The average cost of coining money ranges from .02203 to .00871 dollar per dollar. To-day our coin is in an unsettled condition. Silver advocates are earnest and untiring in their demands for a place in our coinage for silver equal with gold and on a ratio of 16 to 1. Gold men are as earnest that this shall not be, and thus legislation is practically blocked in our National Congress. The Senate is the hope of the silver advocates. There, senatorial courtesy sometimes amounts to trickery, and men far in the minority can prevent any and all legis- lation. The next few years must see some settlement of the money question, now the most unsolved problem in our politics. The people, by ballot on November 3, 1896, overwhelmingly said that gold should be the single standard of money in the United States and that silver should be coined to an extent that would keep it on a parity with gold. They elected congressmen to solve the financial question for them on those principles; what they will do is to be seen. For humanity's sake it is hoped that *'We the people" shall have a rest soon from such dangerous and harmful politics. CHAPTER XV. BANKING. MASSVCHrSETTS — COLEMAX'S ScHF.ME — Nkw HAMPSniRE — BaXK OF 1740 — Bank OF North America — Orrosirios — National Bank ok 1701 — Re- newal of Disaster — State Banks — Kesilts — Bank of ISIG — Specie Payment — Jackson's Policy — Banking from 18o(> to ISOo — Safety Find System — Ohio — Free Banking — Indiana and Illinois — National Bank of 1S6o — Clearing House. THE tirst discussion in the colonies in regard to a bank was in ^lassaclnisetts in 1052. A lack of coin made the people feel that a bank should be established to issue paper money. The bank was not established at that time, but thirts* years afterwards one was founded with power to issue bills on real estate and personal propery as seciirity. About 1695 Coleman's scheme was considered. His theory was that the amount of paper money in circulation in a country should equal the value of its real estate, and that a man should be allowed to borrow the money to the value of his real estAte. The '* scheme " was not tried then, but theories almost as absurd were put into practice later. A land bank was organized on a similar pi-inciple in 1741. The Massachusetts legislature sought to neutralize the effect of such an institution by issuing bills of ci"edit bearing interest. Also it jxissed a bill prohibiting any company from issuing bills of credit without an order from the court. But with all that could be done against the land bank, its bills were issued and it soon had 110,000 pounds in circulation, redeemable in silver at 10 shillings per ounce. New Hampshire organized a similar bank, which was very unpopular with the government and Parliament. The}' fought it constantly and finally forced it to cease operating in 1708. It also had the ill feeling of ^rassachiisetts, which would not permit the money of the bank to circulate in her territory. In 1740 a specie Ixink was formed in Massachusetts. Its notes 176 BANKING. 177 were redeemable in fifteen years in silver at 20 shillings per ounce, or in gold at a pro rata value with silver. Parliament was hostile to the bank and it ceased business in 1742. Such theories of bank- ing as mentioned above were very popular during the Colonial I'eriod, a pai-t of which time many banks were organized. A bank was no more than an institution for issuing bills, and Coleman's plan of loaning these bills on real estate was the favorite. The first bank that became anything like national in its opera- tion was the Bank of North America, organized according to the }»lans of Ivobert Morris in 1781. The bank was provided for by an act of Congress, which the states ratified; they also made laws for- bidding any rival institutions. The notes of the bank were redeem- able in gold and silver on demand, and were receivable for taxes, duties, and debts due the government. The capital was $400,000, which could be increased to 310,000,000. The superintendent of finance was made inspector of the bank. When it began business, it had only $40,000 in specie. So critical was the condition that persons were employed to follow those who had drawn out specie and persuade them to return it. The bills of the bank began to circulate at 10 to 15 per cent, discount, but under the management of Eobert Morris they rose to par and remained there, and became even more popular than specie. For the first time in the history of banking in America, a bank was able to redeem its notes at par on presentation. The second year the bank did a business amounting to nearly $37,000,000. So great was the success that men became envious of those who had made investments in the bank and sought to organize a rival institution, Ijut did not succeed. To pacify the opposition, the directors agreed to increase the capital from $400,000 to $2,000,000, and allow the originators of the new bank to become stockholders in the old one. There was ill feeling towards the bank in Pennsylvania because of the issue of paper money. Its bills were much more popular than the state's, consequently the latter's depreciated. The bank could issue a certain amount only, and because its bills drove out state issues, the people of Pennsylvania believed that it made money scarce, since the state could issue bills in unlimited amounts. The opposition was powerful enough to take the Pennsylvania charter from the bank in 1785; but it had other charters from different states and so it continued business, though its credit was impaired, and its bills fell G per cent, below par. In 1789, when 178 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. the Constitution was adopted, the bank preferred to become a state institution rather than remain a national one. As soon as the new government began, there arose a strong feel- ing for a national bank, to give order and security to the financial system. There were three banks in the country Avhen Hamilton pro- posed his plan for the National Bank. They had about $2,000,000 capital all told, and did not issue legal tender bills, so they offered very little security to the finances of the government. The new bank met with strong opposition from the Anti-Federalists, on the ground that it was not necessary and therefore Avas unconstitutional; but the opposition failed, and a charter was granted in 1791 for twenty years. The capital could not exceed $10,000,000, of which the government subscribed one-fifth, payable in specie, and in turn borrowed a like sum from the bank to be returned in ten annual installments. Interest on loans made by the bank could not exceed G per cent. The stock belonging to individuals was i)ayable, one- fourth in gold and silver, and three-fourths in G per cent, govern- ment bonds, or in 3 per cent, bonds at one-half the value of the () per cents. The bank could issue money of its own for circulation in amounts not to exceed its capital stock plus its deposits for safekeeping, pro- vided it had no debts save its deposits. If it had other debts, its money in circulation had to be decreased correspondingly. It was permitted to establish offices of discount and deposits onl}^, in the several states, and its bills were to be received for dues to the gov- ernment, if they were payable on demand, in gold and silver. It could sell the government stock subscribed, but could not purchase any of it. Five million seven hundred thousand dollars' worth of the stock was reserved for the main bank at Philadelphia, while the balance was divided among tlie eight branches established in the chief cities of the country. Within two hours after the stock was placed on sale, all was sold and four thousand additional shares applied for. Unless by special provision of Congress, the bank could not lend more than f 100,000 to the United States, or more than $50,000 to a state; and it could not lend any sum to a foreign prince or country. Laws were often made granting larger loans to the government in anticipation of duties on imports and tonnage. By 1795, $0,000,000 had been borrowed, a sum over which the bank was very impatient, but it could not help itself, since such loans had to be made when Congress demanded them. BANKING. 179 The government derived much benefit from the bank. It was a place of deposit for the surplus, and through it money could be transmitted easily, and revenues collected advantageously. It was a punctual paymaster, and gave great aid in its loans to the govern- ment, towards which it was always well disposed. As a place of deposit for government revenues, it held the place in our financial system now held by the sub-treasury. In 1808 a renewal of the charter was asked, but was strongly opposed on constitutional grounds and because foreigners held some of the stock; it was also claimed that the system centralized the money power too much. The matter floated along until 1810, when it could be put off no longer. The fight coming into Congress, the House defeated the bill by one vote. The vote in the Senate was a tie, and Clinton, the Vice-President, voted against renewal. Thus the bank ceased to exist in 1811. As was said above, three state banks existed at the time the National Bank was chartered: one in Massachusetts, founded in 1784; another in New York, founded the same year; and the Bank of North America in Philadelphia, which became a state bank at the adoption of the Constitution. They made gold and silver the standard values and redeemed bills in specie, $3 in paper being redeemed in Massachusetts with $1 of specie. No one of these banks could lend more than $3000 to one man at a time, and all together they could not lend more than $5000 to one person. A loan could be made for sixty days upon merchandise, bullion, or other securities as collateral; or for thirty days on personal obligations with two securities and no renewal on any terms. Banking was at this time a profitable business; 8, 10, and even 15 per cent, being often declared as a dividend. When the charter of the National Bank expired, its circulation was called in, there being about $5,000,000 of it out. The effect of this contraction of the currency was lessened by the state bank issues. From 1811 to 1813, one hundred and twenty banks began business. They were scattered everywhere and added nearly $30,000,000 to the banking capital already existing. Yet the addi- tional amount Avas only imaginary and not in any sense real. In organizing a bank, the first installment was paid in, then the bank opened and made promissory notes for the balance of stock. As soon as this was known, paper money began to depreciate every- where except in Ncav England, Avhere bankers were more careful. 180 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. There they were liable to a line of 24 per cent, annually for not paying their notes, and consequently kept a reserve fund for that purpose. The Southern and Middle states' banks were without specie, and when Washington was captured in 1814 nearly all failed. All over the country, save in New England and one bank in Tennessee, the banks failed totally, not a cent remaining for any one, depositors or currency holders. The failures did not affect the gold and silver standards much, since the money was not based on anything but promises, or, if backed by specie, there was no specie in the bank. While the affairs were as stated above, there came a proposition to establish another national bank. Opposition to it by the state banks was strong. They were doing so well under the weakened condition of finance that they wanted no change. They did not promise to redeem their bills in specie, so they were not responsible for their issues, which depreciated heavily. This depreciated money was much desired by banks and exchanges, since they could issue money at par value and redeem it after it depreciated, at a much lower value. But the opposition was defeated. The new bank had a capital stock of f 35,000,000, one-fifth of which was taken by the government and the remainder by individ- nals. The government paid its subscription in specie or in 5 per cent, bonds, interest payable quarterly. The bank had the privi- lege of selling the bonds subscribed in any amount not exceeding $2,000,000 worth. The individual subscriptions to the bank were paid, one-fourth in specie and three-fourths in specie or United States bonds. Six per cent, bonds were taken at par; 3 percent., at ^Or) per hundred; and 7 percent., at $100.51 per hundred. The bank was chartered for twenty years, and had twenty-five directors. Five of these were appointed by the President of the United States with the consent of the Senate, and twenty were elected by the stock- holders. The directors elected a president for the bank annually. Only resident citizens of the United States and stockholders in the bank could be directors. It could issue its own money on the same principle that the bank of 1701 did. Congress, however, could change the amount of circulation for both banks if it wished. The bank of 1816 could sell United States bonds, but could not buy them, and could not charge more than G per cent, interest. It could not lend the United States more than $500,000, or a state more BANKING. 181 than $50,000, without the consent of Congress. No note could be issued of less amount than five dollars, and all notes payable on demand in specie were legal tender. The bank served as a place of deposit for the revenues of the government, unless the Secre- tary of Treasury wished otherwise. No other national bank could be organized, but the main bank, located at Philadelphia, could organize sub-banks of discount and deposits. One million five hundred thousand dollars were paid the government by the bank for the charter. Two things were needed in the country in 1816, — a restoration of specie payment, and a money equally good anywhere in the United States. It was believed that the bank would satisfy these needs. In the restoration of specie payment there was also a desire to redeem in silver and gold those bills of credit that were not made redeemable in specie. This was a most gigantic task, since the banks from 1811 to 1816 had issued bills at any discount that would put them into circulation. In order to redeem them in specie, the following plans were carried out : (1) Congress in 1817 declared that only bank notes should circulate with a legal tender value; (2) when the government's money was to be taken out of the state banks, where it was deposited from 1811 to 1816, and put into the National Bank, the latter received the checks of the state banks on one another in payment of such deposits; thus many state banks transferred bad debts to the National Bank and saved themselves from bankruptcy; (3) if sums belonging to the National Bank still accumulated in the state banks after the first transfer of the jDublic money, and such amounts could be loaned on good security for sixty days, the National Bank was not to call for this money until it had discounted an equal amount of bills for banks not owing it; thus banks not owing the National Bank or government Avere able to secure something for their issues of money; (4) if the amount accumulated were not needed for lending to individuals, it was taken by the National Bank and loaned to state banks. By the National Bank thus accepting checks of one state bank on another, by it not collecting balances due it until certain dis- counts were made for other banks not owing the government, and by lending money to weak banks, it was proposed to establish specie payment, and the plans succeeded. Exchanges were also equalized. The circulating medium was now made nearly uniform over the entire country. According to a report made in 1830 by a committee 182 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. appointed for the purpose, "No country in the world had a more uniform currency nor one more convenient." The policy of Jackson towards the bank is well known and need not be reviewed. He claimed that the government's deposits were not safe in the bank and removed them to the state banks, and also vetoed the bill to recharter the bank. It then ceased as a national bank and became a state institution. For twenty years it had held the currency at par and made it uniform, and when it ceased, the history of finance from 1811 to 1816 repeated itself. Again the financial condition of the country was placed at the mercy of all men and all projects, and for twenty-five years after 1836, the cur- rency was under the control of irresponsible state banks and private corporations. When the National Bank was rechartered in 1816, the state banks continued business as usual. Though the government did not keep its deposits in them, yet it did not interfere seriously with tlieir affairs, and with tlie help of the National Bank they easily resumed specie payment. Some changes began to appear among tliem by 1834. The Boston banks, in that year, agreed to accept the bills of country banks at the same value as they accepted their own. This put the entire currency of New England on an equality. To assist the Boston banks in exchanging the money of the country districts for their own, the Suffolk banks agreed, in 1825, to act as banks of settlement between the Boston banks and country banks. When the city banks wished to call in their notes, they could take the notes of the country banks and exchange them at a Suffolk bank at par for city money ; or the country banks could make the same kind of exchange for their money. To have a central place for these exchanges was very convenient and saved time and money, as with- out such a place each bank must have visited every other bank whose bills it held, and made the exchange individually. The Suf- folk system of banking thus made itself a clearing house. It was also a forerunner of our present national banking system, as it was an organization of banks accepting one another's notes at equal value, so that the bills of such banks had much more than local circulation. The Safety Fund Banking System was adopted in 1829, in New York. It was the principle of the banks belonging to this organiza- tion to pay into a fund deposited with the state treasurer an annual sum equal to one-half of 1 per cent, of the capital stock of each bank, until the deposit amounted to 3 per cent, of their capital. BANKING. 183 This money stood as a fund to be used to redeem the notes of any bank in the organization if in a bankrupt condition. The plan was a success for several years ; but it chanced that ten of the banks, whose capital was $2,800,000, broke at one time, and the others of the organization could not redeem so much money, so the system was abandoned. Ohio adopted the Suffolk system in 1845. Its state bank had a capital of more than $4,000,000, and had several branches, all under the supervision of a board, which furnished the notes for circula- tion. The circulating notes were limited to an amount equal to twice the first $100,000 of the capital, one and one -half times the second $100,000, and one and one-fourth times the third $100,000 or any part of that sum. Each branch had to deposit with the board of control 10 per cent, of the amount in circulation, to redeem the notes of a bankrupt bank. The deposit had to be of coin, or state and United States bonds. It was not a successful plan, however, since the fund did not usually redeem more than 50 to 75 per cent, of the circulation. The year 1838 was the beginning of the Free Banking System, similar to the one of the present time. It was first advocated in 1827 by a professor of Columbia College. He held that three prin- ciples belonged to safe banking: (1) the banking business should be so arranged that any one, who desired and should meet the require- ments, could enter it; (2) one-tenth of the capital should be of such property as the stockholders desired, and nine-tenths should be in government bonds, to stand as security for the circulation; (3) each bill issued should bear on its face the amount of security, and the issue should never exceed the pledged stock. These three princi- ples were embodied in the banking system of several of the states, and finally were made the basis of the present national banking system. Indiana and Illinois established a banking system much like that of Ohio. In Indiana each branch had $160,000 capital, and all were liable for the losses of one. The banks could not issue notes of less denomination than $5. The directors furnished the bills for circulation, which were limited to twice the value of the capital stock. The state subscribed one-half the capital in bonds bearing 5 per cent, interest. In 1837 specie payment was suspended, but was resumed in 1841. From that time the banks were successful during their chartered life. 184 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Illinois had to learn by bitter experience the utter impossibility of giving value to things of no intrinsic worth. She declared in her constitution that no bank should be chartered except state banks and those then existing. In 1819 a bank was incorporated for twenty- five years, with a capital of .f4, 000, 000. It was never operated, and in 1821 another bank, owned by the state and managed by the legislature, was chartered for ten years with f 500,000 capital. It issued )S?300,000 to be loaned on mortgages for one year, and in amounts not greater than $1000 to any one individual. The bills bore 2 per cent, interest, and the borrower paid 6 per cent, on the loan and could renew on payment of 10 per cent, of the principal annually until the charter expired, when the remainder was due. The bills of the bank were legal tender for the taxes and public debts of the state. The first issue fell to seventy-five cents on the dollar and kept decreasing until it was worth but twenty-five cents on the dollar. One authority states that at one bank, a branch, two pieces of specie were received and kept as curiosities. The result of the system was deplorable in many ways, and certified the fallacy of legislative banking. Still the state did not learn its lesson well; for in 1835, a bank of $1,500,000 capital was established with the state as part- ner, which issued $2,000,000 worth of bonds to make up its share of the capital. The bank lent money regardless of security, and the result was that in a few years the state burned more than $3,000,000 worth of bonds in the public square at Springfield as the easiest way to free itself from the partnership. It was easier and as profitable to burn its share of the stock as to try to collect the money due the bank. Such was state banking from 1836 to 18()3. The government distributed its money among the state banks for a few years after 1833. The crisis of 1837 left the banks, government, and the people in a bankrupt condition. By 1811 the banks recovered from the crisis, and the states began to adopt the Free Banking System and to watch their bills more closely. But the crash of 1857 found the banks in a careless, weakened condition, and the curses and tears of men and women, who had lost their all, told tlie story again of the result of an insecure financial system. The government was on the verge of bankruptcy and money had no certain nor universal value. There were IGOl state banks in the country with more than ten thou- sand different kinds of bills having only local circulation. A great war, whose expenses would grow to $1,000,000 per day, was to be BANKING. 185 fought, and the treasury was practically empty. It was in those dark days that men remembered the theory of the Columbian pro- fessor, in 1827, and gave to the United States the Free Banking System it enjoys to-day. The act authorizing the present National Banking System also authorized the issue of $300,000,000 in bank notes, which sum was to be 90 per cent, of the par value of United States bonds, deposited with the Treasury at Washington for redemption of these notes in cases of bankruptcy. This security, under the free banking law, has proved to be an ideal system with minimum losses to depositors and stockholders, and no losses on circulation. The bank note is as good in Maine as in California, and in the Dakotas as in Texas; what is more, it circulates at its face value. The law governing the present National Banking System has often been changed since 1863, but is clear and simple. As it is now, there is a comptroller of the currency appointed by the President of the United States by and with the consent of the Senate. He holds office for five years witli a salary of f 5000 per year, and must give bond for $100,000; and his deputy, for $50,000. Any number of persons, not fewer than five, may, with the consent of the comp- troller, enter into the banking business. The capital must be at least $50,000 in any city with fewer than 6000 persons; at least $100,000 in a place of fewer than 50,000 and more than 6000 per- sons; and at least $200,000 in a place of more than 50,000 people. The Secretary of Treasury must consent to the organization of a bank in a place of fewer than 6000 people. There must be at least five directors, one of whom shall be the president, and each must own at least ten shares of stock free of any claims. Each share- holder has one vote for each share held by him. A share is $100. A bank is organized to do business for twenty years, at the end of which time it may reorganize for another twenty years. Fifty per cent, of the capital stock must be paid up before the bank can begin business. The remainder of the stock must be paid in not more than five installments as frequently as once per month. There must be deposited in the Treasury at Washington, United States bonds to an amount equal to one-fourth the capital stock paid up, providing the capital is not more than $150,000; but if the capital be more than that sum, there must be at least $50,000 worth of bonds deposited. The bank then has the privilege of issuing bank notes to the extent of 90 per cent, of the market value of the 186 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. bonds, but not more than to the extent of 90 per cent, of their par value, nor more than 90 per cent, of its paid-up capital stock. Really but 85 per cent, of the bonds can be circulated in bank notes, since 5 per cent, must be deposited at Washington, for redeeming any notes that might be offered for redemption. If the bonds deposited in the Treasury at Washington should depreciate until their market value were less than the amount of bank notes issued on them, the comptroller must receive from the bank other United States bonds, or cash to the amount of the depre- ciation, to be held while the depreciation continues. A national bank cannot hold real estate except for its own use in business or that taken to secure a debt previously made. It must keep on hand 25 per cent, of its deposits in large cities, and 15 per cent, of the same in small cities. A national tax of 1 per cent, is placed on a bank's circulation. A state tax is levied on the shares of the bank. To know the condition of national banks, the bank inspector may examine them as often as he chooses, and may close them if all is not right. The Clearing House System was organized in 1853, and is a sys- tem to assist the banks of a large city in making quick settlements Avith one another, and to give mutual protection. The system is not created by law, but out of the needs of banks, and every large city now has its clearing house located in some convenient part of the city, where clerks meet in the forenoon for the purpose of learn- ing the standing of the individual banks with all the others as to money due by one to the other. When each clerk learns what his bank owes to others, or what is due it from them, he reports tlie same to his bank and then returns to the clearing house in the afternoon to settle the difference. Thus there is a daily settlement made by the banks of a city with one anotlier, which is necessary with the great amount of business done, and two clerks can attend to all of it under the Clearing House System. If each bank had to send a clerk to every other bank to make a settlement, it would require a great number of clerks and a transfer of mucli money, Avhich would be expensive and dangerous. CHAPTER XVI. SLAVERY. Ancient Slavery — Middle Ages — Beginning of African Slavery — African CojMpany — Sentiment Against Slave-trade — Virginia — Rights of the Slave — New York — Massachusetts — New England — Marriage — Negro Intellect — Pennsylvania — Georgia — Revolu- tion — National Era — Slave-trade — Societies — Fugitive Slave Law — White Slavery — Quadroons — Indiana and Illinois — Siberia — Colonization Society — Free Soil — Garrison, etc. — Admission of States — Texas — California — Missouri Compromise — Cuba — Seces- sion — Civil War — Schools — Freeing of Slaves in Other Countries — Serfdom. THE slavery of the ancient world was very different from that of the modern period. It was just as degrading and had less humanity in it. The misfortunes of war and of life in general Avere the bases of ancient slavery, while color alone made men modern slaves. Greece had six bases for slavery: (1) birth, a child of a slave parent was a slave ; (2) purchase, free parents could sell their children into slavery ; (3) crime, debtors could be sold in slavery, and criminals could be punished in like manner ; (4) war, captives in war were made slaves; (5) kidnapping, people were stolen and sold into bondage; (6) commerce, persons were carried from one country to another and sold. Some slave markets disposed of 10,000 slaves per day. Delos and Athens were both great markets. In Greece there were at least three slaves to one freeman, and some authorities give the proportion as being much greater. Slaves in Greece were fairly well treated except at Sparta, where the Helots were in horrible bondage. Slaves were very numerous in Rome. Her wars furnished them by the tens of thousands, many of whom were learned and able in literature, medicine, law, etc. They rose in rebellion on two differ- ent occasions, causing what are known as the Servile Wars. The Roman state had four ways of freeing slaves : (1) by adoption ; 187 188 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. (2) by testament ; (3) by census ; (4) Ijy vindieta. liy adoption means that a freeman could adopt a slave and make him free; by testament, that the master by will might free the slave; by census, that the master could present the slave to the censor and have him inscribed as a citizen ; by vindieta, that the master could turn the slave around and speak " Uher esto " in the presence of the pnetor, and then strike him with a rod, thus making him free. Slaves who became free save by a process of law remained clients of their master and were protected by him, and in turn tlie client gave aid to the master, when necessary. These freedmen, or clients, became numerous and rose in importance until they Avere admitted to the Senate. Under the Empire, slaves were better protected, and freedmen secured greater privileges. Christianity, even in the second century, made its influence felt for the slave on the side of humanity. The barbarous invasions of Italy from the third century on to the fall of Rome tended to decrease the number of slaves and thereby to increase the advantages of their condition. Slaves, being scarce, were dear, and therefore were more kindly reared. From the same cause free labor became more popular. Again Rome instituted a system of labor which became almost a caste ; each man was forced to follow the trade or i)rofession of his father ; the state, by thus choosing a man's occupation, gradually lessened the difference be- tween the freeman and slave. A system of landholding was developed in the fourth century, which created a class called colon i cnUivafors, who belonged to the estate, from which they could not be removed. Their children were held to the same conditions ^ it was a system of seini-slaveiy. The coloniis was under the control of his master, l)ut was also allowed to own some property. Slavery passed gradually into servile conditions that were about half .slavish. The serfdom of feudalism was a development from the old Roman state. Throughout the Middle Ages the prominent servile condition was that of the man who was attached to his lands, . of which he could not dispose save by consent of the master. The serf was thus part of the land which was his to use but not to own in fee-simple. There were also slaves during the same time, but they became so through the misfortunes of war. The close of the Middle Ages ushered in tlie modern system of servitude. As serfdom disappeared, negro slavery began, and the SLAVERY. 189 change was a losing one for coming humanity save in this fact : it was the man of the other color now in bondage, where before it was the man of our color and race. As America first lay uncovered to European sight and knowledge, the same people to whose cupidity and daring was due the credit of the great discovery originated an institution that was to bathe the fairest and bravest of the continent in blood and carnage. African slavery and the American continent linked their interests together ; from Hispaniola, where negro slavery was first introduced, to Appomattox, where its death-blow was given^ three hundred and sixty-three years, their interests were intertwined. Appomattox, the Waterloo of slavery, freed America from its awful curse, and by gigantic strides the quarter-century since has out- strijiped the preceding century. Ovando became governor of Hispaniola in 1502, and brought a number of negro slaves to that place with him. This was the begin- ning of African slave-trade in America. In 1510 Ferdinand of Spain sent a great many slaves to the same colony to work the mines. Columbus had tried to enslave the Indians before this, and had sent 500 of them to Spain in 1494, to be sold as slaves, but Isabella sent them back to America. The Spaniards enslaved the natives of the islands in large numbers. Some authorities say that the populace was decreased from 1,000,000 to 60,000 by working the people in the mines. Charles V. of Spain granted a patent to a favorite, giving him the right to furnish 4000 negroes annually to the islands of the West Indies. This was the beginning of the systematic trading in slaves between Africa and America. John Hawkins was the first Englishman to engage in slave- trade. He brought 300 negroes to Hispaniola in 1502. For a long time the Spanish colonies received all the negroes that came to the New World. The year 1618 is given as the date of the introduction of slavery into British America. This was in Vir- ginia, which in 1790 had 200,000 slaves. Until 1690 slave-trade was limited to a few companies, but William and Mary at that time opened the trade to everybody. The African Company was a great monopoly in the business ; in 1713 it received the privilege of procuring 4800 negroes annually for the Spanish colonies. Because of the Line of Demarcation, Spain could not secure negroes from the African coast so conveniently and had to depend on foreign trade. The African Company was the principal source of supj)ly. It brought 140,000 negroes to America between 1680 190 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. and 1700. By 1789 more than 600,000 slaves were brought to Jamaica alone. It is estimated that the total importation of slaves before the National Period was 2,130,000. Just before the Revolu- tion there were one hundred and ninety-two ships engaged in the traffic with the British ports alone ; these carried about 50,000 negroes. Trade decreased during the Revolution, but immediately revived at its close. A sentiment against slave-trade was felt in the European coun- tries about this time. Denmark abolished the foreign trade in 1802. England followed in 1808 ; and Napoleon, during the Hundred Days. United States came next, January 1, 1808. Sweden closed her trade in 1813; Holland, in 1814; Spain, in 1820; Brazil, in 1830 ; and Portugal, in 1836. In the Treaty of Ghent, 1814, United States and England bound themselves to extinguish the traffic. France and England made a similar agreement in 1833. The South Ameri- can states generally abolished the trade on gaining their indepen- dence. Thus, by 1835, there was scarcely any slave trading legalized in the world, but there was much smuggling of negroes in spite of all the care used to prevent it. After the trade was abolished, it was the next duty to prohibit the holding of slaves. Mexico did this in 1829, and England in 1833 ; by 1838, the latter and her colonies held no slaves. Prance freed the slave in 1848. Portugal passed an act in 1858, providing for the freeing of the negro in twenty years. Holland emancipated her slaves in 1803. As this chapter is chiefly concerned with slavery in the United States, the remarks so far have been made to show the condition of the world on the slavery question, that the student may make some comparisons. This country suifered the greatest evils of this curse on humanity. While other countries quietly emancipated their slaves, it took millions of money and lives, and awful suffering, to do it in the United States. Virginia is the '' Mother of Presidents," and it may also be called the mother of slavery ; but it became so through a humane act. In August, 1618, fourteen negroes were taken by the colony of Virginia in exchange for food given to starving sailors who had landed on Virginia shores. It was an era in which slavery existed all over the civilized Avorld. Men and women were stolen and sold without regard to color. It is no wonder then that it took firm hold of society in the New World, though for a time it grew slowly. In SLAVERY. 191 1622 there were but twenty -two slaves in Virginia, and by 1648 there were only 300 negroes among 15,000 inhabitants. But the trading worki, always on the lookout for an enterprise that offers wealth, found out at last that Virginia, with her climate, soil, and products, would furnish a good market for the sale of negroes ; and the outlying districts of Africa, into which the weak tribes of natives were pushed by the strong, furnished an easy source for securing cargoes of these people. As negro slavery increased, the people began to draAV lines of distinction between the white slaves and black. In 1639 the first law of that kind was passed in Virginia. All persons, except negroes, had to procure arms and ammunition, or be subject to fine. In 1662 the law recognized slavery as an institution by declaring that the children of slave mothers should be slaves. In 1670 a law was passed making a distinction between the Indian and negro. It was legally affirmed that " All slaves coming by land shall serve until they are thirty years old, if boys and girls when captured, but if men and women they shall serve twelve years ; but all slaves coming by sea shall serve for life." In this early law one sees the effort to distinguish between the Indian and the negro, as the latter could come only by sea, and the former only by land. However, in 1682, the law was repealed and the Indian was placed on the same footing with the negro. In 1705 a law was passed declaring the negro, mulatto, and Indian slave to be real estate. Before that time they had been considered as chat- tels. In 1751 the king repealed the law, and the slave became a chattel again, though much against the will of the Virginia planter. A duty was laid on each slave imported. The occasion for im- posing this tax was as follows : The government buildings at James- town were destroyed by fire in 1699, and the Assembly passed an act fixing a duty on " servants and slaves imported," fifteen shil- lings on the servants and twenty on the slaves. The duty was to go towards rebuilding the Capitol. When that was completed, the people could not easily give up the revenue and the system was continued. It finally became such a burden to the planter that the duty was limited by law in 1760, but the law was rej^ealed and the duty raised in 1772. The different laws mentioned above are the main ones only, that were passed by the Virginia Assembly between 1619 and 1775. There was nowhere any attempt made by the people to rid themselves of the system, but, on the other hand, there was an earnest effort to secure from the traffic lackstone, Eobertson's "Charles V.," and Ferguson's "Essays." Magazines and reviews were published. There were one German and two English newspapers giving space to foreign news. There were two public libraries in Philadelphia, which was second only to Poston as a literary and news center, and was first as a scientific center because it was the home of the wonderful Franklin. The charter given to Penn provided that he should erect and care for all public schools, and reward the authors of the useful sciences and inventions in said province. Pennsylvania and Delaware were made up of such a heterogene- ous population that no established system of schooling could be founded. Swedes, Dutch, English, Catholics and Protestants, Churchmen and Quakers, all with ideas, and no two alike, made it 216 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. impossible to systemize schooling very perfectly. Christopher Dock was an early pioneer, and the first "American Pedagogue." He is often called the " Father of American Pedagogy." There were many good teachers, but the advancement of education was all individual and local. There was no public school system. The teaching in the elementary branches was done by churches or by individuals. NEW YORK. New York lays claim to the first public school system in America. In 1630 the States-General of Holland advised and ordered that patroons should carefully furnish schoolmasters, and pay the same. A tax, to be paid by each householder, was levied for this purpose. In 1C33 the first schoolmaster came, and the first tax was levied. Thus Brooklyn claims to have originated the public school system in America. The school founded in 1633 still exists. It was an elementary institution, and was mostly managed by the Dutch church, though it was often assisted by the public treasury. The first classical school of the colony was founded in 1658. Teachers had to be examined, and had to secure the sanction of both the civil and church authorities. A teacher was not only the schoohnaster, but usually here and in New England clerk of the town, chorister, official visitor of the sick, and court messenger to serve summons. It was his duty also to conduct certain services of the church, to ring the bell for public worship, to dig graves, etc. Then as now he was a man for all occasions, and the pay then as noAv was poor enough. There were private, parochial, and public schools in New York. The Dutch showed much more interest in education than the Eng- lish, and their schools were both public and parochial in nature; that is, they were under church discipline, and the public treasury gave the means for their support. New York had a better system than any southern colony, and as good as any other of the middle colonies. The elementary branches were taught. In 1732 a Latin school was formed, which was the beginning of Columljia College. It gave instruction in the higher branches, and charged tuition fees. It did not grow rapidly. In 1773, at the commencement, but five students graduated. One drawback to schools in New York was the church and race dissension. The college was established on an Episcopal basis, which of course aroused the enmity of the dis- EDUCATION. 217 senters. The Dutch always opposed all English education. All in all, education did not reach the people to help as it should. The rich sent their sons to New or Old England to finish their educa- tion, while the daughters remained at home, and the poor took what elementary education they could get from the different kinds of schools throughout the colony. NEW JERSEY. The school system among the English in New Jersey was much after the New England town system. Three men were elected to levy the taxes, and to pay the schoolmasters. A grammar school was opened at Elizabeth, and the people showed a desire for an educa- tion. The Presbyterians, in 1746, established a college at Prince- ton, which enrolled one hundred students yearly, and gave excellent instruction. This bore the name for a long time of the " Log Col- lege," because of the rudeness of the schoolhouse. It is now the famous Princeton College of New Jersey. In 1693 a law was passed legalizing schools in any town of the colony, whenever a majority of the inhabitants consented to pay their share of the expenses. This gave no permanence to the schools, however, and no better system was established for a hun- dred years. In 1758 a magazine was published. The Neio Jersey Gazette was published during the Kevolution. In literary labor New Jersey did not rank high. There were no native books of importance. NEW ENGLAND. The Puritan's idea of education was distinctly different from that of any other people in the New World. By 1049 education was compulsory in all New England except in Rhode Island. New England and education began and grew together. The schoolhouse went up alongside the meeting-house, which was always the first house built. Teachers at first were not plentiful, and families were forced to teach their children at home. In New Hampshire and in out districts this was true down until the Revolution. This home teaching was followed by dame's schools, by the instruction of itiner- ant teachers, and sometimes by officers of the town teaching children until they could enter the grammar school. These latter schools steadily developed into the public school system of to-day. In 1776 218 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OP UNITED STATES. to find an illiterate person in Xew England, except in Maine, was almost impossible, so systematic and general was education. Here was the origin of the great public school system of America. Seven years after Endicott landed was founded the great Har- vard College to train up " Learned " and " Godly " ministers, and which by 1776 afforded as complete an education as could have been secured on either continent. Theology, Philosophy, and the Classics were the special studies. The professors were profound and learned men. The college had a library of 5000 volumes, and a set of astronomical and philosophical apparatus. A brief history of this college may be helpful. The Massa- chusetts Assembly voted £400 toward a college. This is said to have been the first representative body to have voted money for such purposes. Twelve men were appointed trustees. Mr. Harvard gave half his estate and his library towards the enter- prise. This was followed by donations from other sources and people. Anything of value was subscribed: cattle, books, money, spoons, etc. All gave of their substance, so Harvard College grew up from and of the people. At first it was a school scarcely aspiring to the rank of a college. About 1G60 the requirements for admission were made more rigid. A student to enter had to be able to read Tully extempore, and make and speak Latin. There was a three years' course. For a half-century the college was not much more than a training-school for ministers, yet there was seldom if ever anytliing to check the freest thought. Logic, Esthetics, Politics, Arithmetic and Geome- try, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and Syriac were the important studies. Latin was finished before entrance. The Bible was carefull}^ studied. History was taught by lectures, as was Botany. The first commencement was in 1642, at which time nine young men graduated. Increase Mather took the first Doctor's degree in 1692. The college became so popular that English parents fre- quently sent their sons there to finish their education. In the first century one-half the graduates became ministers. The college was chartered in 1650, which charter it still holds. For a hundred years the salaries of the teachers were mostly paid froni the public treas- ury, all the New England colonies assisting. Tliere were a few donations. In this time, however, there was much trouble finan- cially. Teachers were not always paid, and l)uildings were old and Avorn. New Hampshire's help and })rivate donations from England EDUCATION. 219 were the only sure aid the college had much of the time, but the eighteenth century saw it more prosperous. The curriculum was changed, and admission was made easier. Latin, Greek, Logic and Metaphysics, and Mathematics and Natural Philosophy were the four lines of study. The college received in private donations about £15,000, 1000 acres of land, and many books, yet it was a poverty-stricken institution with bankrupt officers and teachers, and religious con- troversies preventing its usefulness. The entire income from state and gifts amounted to about £750 in 1732, yet it kept bravely on through all fights, — financial, religious, and political, — and was then, as it is now, a leading institution of the country. Massachusetts and her sister New England colonies made educa- tion a law, binding on all and giving all free access. Though the honor is claimed by other colonies, yet Massachusetts was the first colony to institute such a system. In New York the system Avas local ; in Pennsylvania, charitable; in Virginia, parental; but in Massachu- setts it was national. In 1647 a law was made forcing all communi- ties of fifty householders to provide a teacher for the children of the same, and in the same act a grammar school was provided for in towns of one hundred householders. In all the world's history there had been nothing just like it. The school first mentioned was rudimentary, and led up to the grammar school, where the pupil was prepared for Harvard. Any neglect to carry out the law was punishable. Connecticut, in 1690, passed a law much like the Massachusetts law. Every town of fifty families had to provide an elementary school ; and of one hundred families, a grammar school, and neglect was punishable. Later, towns of thirty families had to provide the former; and of seventy families, the latter; and the schools had to continue eleven months in the year. In this colony was established Yale College. Connecticut had assisted in establishing and maintaining Harvard, but had always hoped for a like college herself. In 1647 an attempt was made to establish a college, but failed, and the money raised was turned over to Harvard. But the idea still lived, and in 1688 was again put in force. Ten clergymen were selected as trustees to erect and govern the college. In 1700 each trustee brought sev- eral volumes of books and gave to the enterprise, and Yale College began its wonderful career. There were only forty volumes of these 220 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. books. A cliavter was secured the next year, and in March, 1701, the school was opened. It was not then called a college, and in September there was but one student. There was yet no fixed existence for the school. It was scattered in a half-dozen different places at once. The students were allowed to find instruction wher- ever they could get it; so the seniors would be in one town, the juniors in another, etc. The work continued in this way until 1718, when the college was fixed at New Haven. Elihu Yale, John Davenport, and Cotton Mather were the main movers in the enter- prise. The Mathers did not like Harvard for religious reasons, and so favored Yale. Connecticut, down to 177G, gave about $25,000 to the institution. The college has largely been supported by pri- vate means. The course of study was similar to Harvard's; and like that of that institution, largely theological at first, though there was a greater variety of work done at Yale. Khode Island did not attempt a school system until after the Revolution. There were schools, but no organization. Maine existed as a, part of Massachusetts until 1820, but being an outly- ing colony it did not have the advantages in education that the latter had. New Hampshire had a public school system much like that of Massachusetts or Connecticut, and Vermont had only local and chance schools prior to the Revolution. All New England was characterized, however, with an educational feeling. Dartmouth College in New Hampshire, and Brown College in Rhode Island, founded later, were both strong factors in the development of civili- zation. From all this interest the people received, of course, excel- lent results. Learned men were numerous. Illiteracy was more imcommon than pauperism. One could nearly say every one could read, write, and cipher. The greatness of New England thought was shown best in the theological controversies. Cotton, the Mathers, and Williams, etc., were leaders in this thought. Some poetry was written, but was not of much value. The first news- paper in the New World was published in Boston in 1690. The highest literary thought of the times was the study of the scholars, and in 177G there was a library in every township. As a summing up, and to carry the line of development into the National Period, a few words on the condition of schools during the Revolution will be added. Generally the Free Scliool system was not popular. Free schools -were called charitable schools. The policy of the government in most of the colonies was not to interfere EDtrCAtlON. 221 with elementary instruction. Those who could pay should do so, but if the parents were too poor to pay, the state should educate the child. This was a general principle. The poor, of course, despised this public display of their poverty, and in many cases would not accept the favor. Teachers were not well paid, so of course were not well quali- fied. In many cases convicts and bond-servants were the teachers, and even in the colleges there Avere not enough men of ability. But the people were learning in the wide world of experience, with the Parliament and king as teachers. Their circumstances directed their activities into other channels, consequently schools were not well nor rapidly developed. Text-books were not plentiful nor suitable. Reading and spelling generally went together, and usu- ally there was added to the same, elementary instruction in grammar. Academies were numerous at this period. New York had nine- teen, and every colony or state had one or more. The principal colleges founded prior to the Revolution were Harvard, William and Mary's, Yale, Princeton, King's College (now Columbia), Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, Brown University, Dartmouth College, and Rutgers. By the end of the century sixteen more had been estab- lished: three in Maryland, two each in Vermont, Virginia, and Tennessee, and one each in Massachusetts, Maine, North Carolina, New York, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, and District of Columbia. Four of them were founded during the Revolution and the others soon afterwards. Many of them have practically failed. Five only have become great. Harvard became a university, and all the col- leges became more liberal in thought. The majority of the colleges founded during this period were non-sectarian. With education thus expanding, the country entered upon its National Period, in which, from the first, education has received a due degree of assistance. The Free School system now, as before, was not a universally popular one, especially for elementary work. It Avas still rather generally believed that paupers should have schooling free, but that others should pay for theirs. In most places public schools were "pauper schools." New England had a town- ship system of free schools, but the idea was not wholly popular even there. The distinction drawn between the rich and poor by these schools was a harmful one, and one not wholly eradicated for many years afterwards. A teacher was not well thought of, and not much was expected of him. He was often a foreigner, 222 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. and had little learning and great vices. One authority says, in 1788, that the teacher was often a low-bred, intemperate adven- turer of the Old World. Transported felons and indentured ser- vants frequently taught when they could get nothing else to do. It became the practice for the ship captain to advertise some of his indentured servants as school teachers. While things were so to a great extent, yet there were learned men in the work. Still, among the common schools the teacher, as a rule, lacked every requisite for that great profession. This is the period of text-book introduction. The New England Primer had been the popular book in schools of the century. It was a spelling and reading book with the Catechism added. The New England Psalm-Book was also in use during the Revolution, and the Dilworth Spelling-Book furnished the reading and grammar for the last half of the century. There were a few other spellers for different grades, and in 1783 Webster's Spelling-Book was pub- lished. It grew into use both for its worth and because it was wholly American, since Webster had planned the work partly be- cause he was too patriotic to use an English speller. Webster's Third Part Reader was published in 1785, and was the most popular reader, though there were several others. Hodder's Arithmetic was the one in most use until 1785, when Pike's took its place. Daboll's Arithmetic in 1785, and Dilworth's in 1790, were popular. Pike's contained some algebra. Murray's Grammar, 1790, was long the most popular text on that subject. More's Geography, 1784, was the only geographical text. Schools for boys were plentiful, but then, as too often now, parents considered an education for the girls useless. The girls had been given instruction during the boys' vacation or the noon liour for a long time, and some institutions of higher learning were organized for girls, but the matter was not nuich noticed. In 1787 Mr. Caleb Bingham opened a school in Pennsylvania for girls, where they were taught reading, spelling, arithmetic, and grammar. More applied than could be accommodated. The " double-lieaded " system was organized to accommodate both sexes. The girls and boys were allowed to attend school in separate buildings, and the girls were given schooling six months in the year. This system is still in practice in many colleges, and in some cities East and South, while it continued everywhere almost as late as the Civil War. Another part of the school system was the grammar school, hav- EDUCATION. 223 ing its origin early in colonial times. This was a school preparing young men for college, and many colleges of the period had such schools annexed. They stood between the elementary schools and the colleges, and served the double purpose of preparing for college, or giving the pupil some classical learning beyond the elementary work. Latin and Greek were taught, and the Mathematics received much attention. The opening of the present century witnessed a change in the school system of the country; for twenty years there was a remark- able growth in every way. Great men, great political questions, and great events were prominent, and education of course was a great aid in the advancement. It was in a sense a renaissance. In 1805 the Public School Society of New York City was formed. Primary edu- cation was urged. Boston and New York, in 1818, provided county supervisors of schools. High schools, manual training schools, mechanics' institutes, seminary institutes, and educational journals, all had their origin the first thirty years after the Revolution. A great step in educational progress was the creation of the school fund, which is made up by township, city, and state taxes, land-grants, fees, sale-bills, private funds, fines, etc. In 1786 New York set aside two lots in each township for educational and reli- gious purposes, and in 1801 gave the proceeds of half a million acres of land to the school fund. New Hampshire levied a tax of one- half of 1 per cent, on the banks of the state for a fund, in 182J.. Maine gave the proceeds of twenty townships of land to her fund. New Jersey made bank stock and her funded debt the school fund, which she applied to the common schools. Rhode Island, Vermont, and Pennsylvania had no fund, but set aside a sum of money each year for the common schools: Rhode Island, $100,000; Vermont, about the same; and Pennsylvania, $1,000,000. The South moved more slowly in making such appropriations for her schools. Delaware set aside bank stock and state bonds as a school fund in 1837. Virginia raised her fund by legislative appropriation. South Carolina in 1811, and North Carolina in 1825, did the same ; these funds, however, were used for the poor, so the results were not good, Alabama, Florida, and Georgia made appropriations of land. Tennessee did the same in 1806, but in 1816 bank stock became the fund. Kentucky and Louisiana granted lands. In 1821 Kentucky appropriated one-half her profits from state banking:. 224 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. From one-half to three-quarters of a century ago, lotteries were a popular method for raising school funds. (See article on the Lot- tery.) These were legalized, and were looked upon as honorable means of raising money for any good purpose. Columbia College was founded by a lottery in 1747. Williamstown Academy of Massachusetts was organized in the same way in 1790. The Uni- versity of the state of New York had a like beginning in 1794. Seven-eighths of the proceeds of lotteries in New York went to the common-school fund. Vincennes Uiiiversity of Indiana was partly so founded. William and Mary's, Brown, and Harvard were all helped by like endowments. Till 1840 nearly every enterprise of a public nature received state aid through a lottery. Improvements in city schools and colleges, libraries, churches, etc., largely received the aid of one or more lotteries, established by the state or city for that purpose. The general government also took much interest in the educa- tional work. In the Northwest Territory, Congress reserved the central section of each township for school purposes. This was Jefferson's plan. It was proposed that the section north of the central be used for religious purposes, but the movement to so apply it was defeated. Ohio received three townships on her admission as a state, to found a university, and the sixteenth section in eacli township for the common schools. Indiana, Illinois, and INIichigan received the same. Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Ten- nessee received three townships each. Maine, Missouri, Arkansas, Florida, Texas, Wisconsin, and Iowa received a section in each township. In 1841 500,000 acres of land were given to each of the following states: Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, INIis- souri, Nebraska, Nevada, Oregon, and Wisconsin. Three million acres of this land went to the common schools. In 1848 the number of acres was doubled, and California, Minnesota, Oregon, Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, and Nevada received the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections of each township for educational purposes. All new states, since 1848, except West Virginia, received the same. From 1849 till 1800, Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illi- nois, Iowa, Indiana, Louisiana, IMichigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, and Wisconsin received 11,000,000 acres of swamp land for school purposes. EDUCATION. 225 In the first one hundred years of its life, the government granted 80,000,000 acres of land to schools; a territory as large as Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois together. About four-fifths of this went to the common schools. Besides all this, millions of money from taxes, and sales of public lands, were given for educational pur- poses. Nebraska now has 2,500,000 acres', which she must sell at J^7 per acre, and a tax on 24,000,000 acres as a school fund. When Jackson put the government's money in the state banks, many of the states appropriated it for educational purposes. At present the sum spent yearly in United States for school purposes is iff 120, 000, 000, and the amount is constantly increasing. The gov- ernment takes charge of the education of the Indians, and of the people in Alaska. It furnishes schooling to many soldiers' orphans, and provides for the military and naval institutes. The tendency in educational circles to-day is the centralizing of power. All the states and territories, except Delaware and New Mexico, have a state superintendent. Most states have also Boards of Education. North Carolina organized the first in 1825. City superintendency is now a certainly established plan for city schools. Many of our large cities, however, have just entered upon this sys- tem, Philadelphia, for one, as recently as 1883. County supervision has taken its place alongside the other improvements. This organization of our schools, from the lowest on up to the highest, has given our educational life such an impetus, that it advances by leaps where it once could only creep. Like one great union of forces, all go at one pace and to the same end. The forces at work on the teacher are so numerous, and the pressure placed upon him so intense and open, that no thorough discussion of the present system shall be attempted in this work. Institutes, private and state normal schools, pedagogical institu- tions for higher training, and books and periodicals by the thou- sands, all speak of the opportunity and work of the teacher. His work is recognized as a profession calling for special training and study, and right nobly do the teachers take up the work. They are rapidly becoming skilled professionalists, and the tendency is towards something far superior to any good yet reached. In 1867 the National Bureau of Education was organized by act of Congress. It is the duty of the Bureau to collect statistics that will show the condition of education in the states and territories, and to spread a knowledge of school systems and educational plans 226 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. among the people. It makes an annual report wliicli is a valuable history of the schools. Discussions are made in these reports on different school systems and on educational topics of general inter- est. It has collected a valuable library of nearly 25,000 volumes, and has established an educational museum. One of the interesting facts of education is the founding of the Smithsonian Institute, at Washington. John Smithson of England died in 1829, and left his fortune to his nephew with the proviso that if the latter died without heirs the money should be used to found an institution at Washington, United States of America, for the spreading of knowledge among men. The nephew died without heirs in 1835, and the money, amounting to $518,318, was appropri- ated as provided. It took Congress until 1844 to decide just what was meant by Smithson in his bequest, as the only condition given was "to diffuse knowledge among men." It was first tliought that a college was tlie proper means of doing this, and that the money sliould be the nuclevis of a great American university, which has been the ambition of Americans since 1790. Again, it was proposed to use the money to establish a museum or a library. Others thought it should go to the schools of Washington, and still others to pri- mary schools and to Sunday-schools. It was proposed to use it to make geographical explorations. Finally, under the leadership of J. Q. Adams, the amount was used to found an institution for physical research in all departments, — agriculture, war, architec- ture, engineering, mining, manufacturing, and commerce. In 1847 the formal act Avas passed, the persons to form a board being the President, Vice-President, the members of the cabinet, chief-justice, commissioner of patents, mayor of AVashington, and such others as they might elect. The supervision now rests with the Vice-President, chief-justice, mayor of Washington, three senators, three representatives, and six others. The Institute includes a museum, chemical laboratory, library, gallery of art, and lecture rooms. It makes an annual report, which is very valu- able, and answers an important purpose in the research of the physical world. Another department in the government's supervision of educa- tional interests is the United States Coast Survey. It was insti- tuted in 1807, under Jefferson's administration. Its design is to make accurate maps of the coast, to place signals, to mark the course of currents, tides, and winds, and to perform any other dut}' that EDUCATION. 227 will increase the safety of commerce. This work has grown to huge proportions, and has furnished a fund of valuable information. Geographical surveys, Geological surveys, the Signal Service, Naval expeditions, the Naval Observatory, and Bureau of Agriculture, all are under the direct supervision of the government, and are of untold value, both practically and theoretically. The grading of schools is now a prominent feature in the educa- tional world. Before 1818 public schools were mostly grammar schools, or at best mixed schools. They were more intended to fit boys for college than to teach the very young. The " Infant School Society " opened up the first low grade school in the city of New York, in 1828, which soon after became part of the public school system. This primary work is now receiving great attention in the educational circles, and all states have such schools. The high school was founded first in Boston, in 1821. It filled a place beyond the grammar school for such as did not want to take a college course. Philadelphia, in 1837, Baltimore, in 1839, and New York, in 1849, started such schools. Rhode Island opened up a high school for both boys and girls in 1843. Boston tried the high school for girls, in 1826, but abandoned it in a year because it was too expensive. Philadelphia admitted girls to a separate high school in 1840. Cincinnati founded her high school in 1847; St. Louis, in 1853; Chicago, in 1856; and Detroit, in 1858. By 1860 the East, North, and West had such schools. The Freedman's Aid Society, organized in 1861, established many schools in the South from 1861 to 1869. It had then 600 teachers and several thousand pupils. The Preedman's Bureau was another great factor in the same work. It soon put into the field more than 1000 teachers and 100,000 pupils, and by 1869 spent over $5,000,000 for buildings, etc. Missionary societies have helped greatly in this work. The American Missionary Association was organized in 1866, and has spent more than f 6,000,000 in schools in the South. The Freedman's Aid Society of the Methodist Epis- copal Church, organized in 1866, had four purposes : (1) to prepare ministers; (2) to prepare teachers ; (3) to educate physicians ; (4) to elevate the colored women of the South. It now has charge of seven universities: Central Tennessee College; Clark University, Geor- gia; Cloftin University, South Carolina; New Orleans University; Phelander Smith College, Arkansas; Rust University, Mississipj)i; and Wiley University, Texas. It also supports three theological 228 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. schools, one medical sclaool, two normal schools, and eleven semi- naries and academies, has more than $500,000 in school property, and has paid out more than $2,000,000. Other churches, Presby- terian, Baptist, etc., have work of a like character. The Peabody Fund of $3,100,000, given by George Peabody, the great philantliropist, was of greatest importance to the common school system of the South. The Slater Fund of $100,000 has been of great assistance to the needy of the same section. These two benefactors have never been equaled in their purpose, and it is safe to say that every dollar given has already brought am})le returns, though its usefulness is just beginning. The states of the South have been quick to help themselves. By 1870 all except Delaware had legislation for a public school system. Now there are normal schools, universities, and public free schools in all the states, and the great question of universal and free schooling is being rapidly settled by that section. So far in this discussion of the educational history of the United States, one system of schooling has been left out, that of the Inde- pendent or Private Normal colleges. Because they are based on a principle of self-existence, are usually a little more modest in their outward presentation, and are comparatively young, they stand out- side of most discussions of the school system of the country. But the good done by these institutions, and being done every year, is incalculable; and while not endowed nor supported by State or Church, they have furnished a higher life to many young men and women, whose poverty would not alloAv them to enter another insti- tution. Tliough charging a small fee as tuition, and holding from forty-eight to fifty weeks per year, the yearly expenses of the student are not nearly so great as those of other institutions of shorter terms and no tuition fees. Because they are thus cheap, and furnish courses for those who can attend a college but a short time for a line of work of their choice, these independent normals have met a great want in the educational interests of the AVest. Their field is not that of universities, nor of professional schools wholly, but it is as important, — the education of the farmer boy or girl Avho can save enough money to attend school one or more years only, or simply desires a few months for some special work. While many of these schools are of little importance, and others make loud and dishonorable professions, yet the leaders are reliable, and do all tliey claim for the student. Many a graduate of these EDUCATION. 229 schools has conquered life's diiSiculties manfully alongside the uni- versity graduate. Between the state college and endowed institu- tion on the one hand, and the independent normal on the other, there should be no contention and no comparison; for each has its peculiar field, and each has enough to do in that field. The private normal has usually two years of Latin work, one year of Greek, one year in General History, one in Sciences, one in Mathematics above Algebra, one in Philosophy, and a thorough course in the common branches. Recently some have added an excellent course in Pedagogy and Psychology. The full course is four years. The originator of the system is President Alfred Holbrook of the Lebanon Normal College, Lebanon, Ohio. In 1856 he began his own school, and such has been its success that now many institu- tions of the same nature and in a prosperous condition exist. The charge of sham work is often made against these schools, but with- out foundation, as they do what they attempt to do as well as any other schools. There are now a half-dozen or more schools in the Central States, of national reputation, which are patronized by every state in the Union, and enroll more students than the average state and endowed schools. The pioneer has been mentioned, and in the same state is the Ada Normal. In Indiana are the Northern Indiana Normal College at Valparaiso, and Central Normal College at Dan- ville ; in Illinois is the Dixon Normal. Many more could be men- tioned of true worth, fulfilling a grand purpose, and a great factor in the educational progress of these states. In future years when the real history of education is written, a prominent space will be given to the independent normal school, whose work and field are suited one to the other. While all are justly proud of the great schools of our different states, and the magnificent men and women they give to the world, and while all are truly glad these exist and reach so many, yet there is a feeling of pride and gladness that there are many poor boys and girls, whose lives are lifted to a higher plane and ambition by the humbler though useful independent normal college. CHAPTER XVIII. RELIGION. Causes of Emigration — Founding of English Church — Calvinism — Virginia — Laws — Clergy — Toleration — Southern Colonies — The Wesleys and Whitefield — Methodism — Puritans and Pilgrims — Set- aratists — Church Government — New York — Maryland — Quakers I — Effect of the Revolution — Organization of Church — Churches of the Present. lyjEAE. the beginning of the seventeenth century, two facts pro- -L 1 nioted emigration from England to America, — the cessation of war with Spain, which left the wild sea-fighter without an exciting occupation ; and the enforcement of the " Uniformity Act," which made it necessary to worship according to the teachings of the English Church. Nearly one-half of the people of England were affected by the law. The English Church differed very little from the Roman Church. Henry VIII. withdrev\^ the church in England from the Roman Church in 1534, and because of the spirit of the times — the reforming spirit — he was able to establish a new Church and make himself its head, the position the pope had held until that time. He did not, however, make other material changes. This was the founding of the English Church, against which the Puritans rebelled, and on account of which some came to this coun- try to secure religious freedom. The man whom the Puritans revered and whose teachings they believed, was not an Englishman, but a Frenchman, John Calvin, the most intellectual of the sixteenth century reformers. The five points of Calvinism are these : Unconditional Election, Limited Atonement, Complete Impotency of the human will, Irresistible Grace, and the Perseverance of Believers. America felt tliese doc- trines in her religious progress as they were brought to her by the Puritan and Pilgrim of England, Huguenot of Prance, Presbyterian of Scotland, and the Dutch Kefonned Churchman of Holland. John •2\H) RELIGION. 231 Calvin's doctrines controlled a good part of the religious beliefs of America all through the colonial days, and even down to the days of the Beechers and Channing. The contest in England was between the Church of England, nearly Catholic, and the principles of Calvin as the Puritans accepted them. To them, the Established Church was only a half- way reform. Not only did they oppose the English Prayer-Book, which they considered a •' covenant with hell " ; but many people not religiously inclined, and therefore careless of form, opposed the Uniformity Act because it opposed the rights of Englishmen. The Church and State of England were planted in the New World first in Virginia soil. In 1606 the little band of colonists under the military command of John Smith and the spiritual con- trol of Robert Hunt, sailed for America. They started for Baleigh's old settlement ; but, losing their reckoning, they landed at the pres- ent site of Jamestown. By the charter the Church of England was made the established worship. The first act on land was to kneel while Chaplain Hunt read the prayers and thanksgiving for a safe voyage. A church house was built, which is described as " a pen of poles with a sail for a roof and a bar lashed between two trees for a pulpit." In this rude building the English Church held its first ser- vice in America, June 21, 1607. It was an attempt to plant the Church as a whole ; but the conditions in America were different from those of England. The people were in earnest, however, and they received help from England in the way of Bibles, Prayer-Books, and communion plates. Missionaries were sent among the Indians with good results, but that work was stopped by the massacre of 1622. Non-attendance at church on the Sabbath was punishable by a fine. Ministers received tithes, and were forbidden to drink to excess, or to play cards. They charged two shillings for perform- ing the marriage ceremony, nothing for christening, one shilling for churching, and one for officiating at burials. It was their duty to present the names of swearers, drunkards. Sabbath-breakers, slan- derers, and persons who did not catechise their children to the Midsummer Assizes. People dared not speak ill of the magistrate or minister. As time passed, the clergy of Virginia and the South lost some of its ability and purity as a class. Salaries increased to 16,000 pounds of tobacco per year, besides fees from marriages, etc., and a 232 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. parsonage aiul lot. Fonn in worship was as strict a principle as ever, but it came to be a hollow mockery, llacing, hunting, card play- ing, and revels were important parts of ministerial life. One minis- ter fought a duel in the graveyard. Another called to his warden at the sacrament, "Here, George, this bread is not fit for a dog." Another put in his time during the week thrashing his people in regular style, and then preaching to them on Sunday from the text, "And I contended with them, and cursed them and smote certain of them, and plucked out their hair." Another married in the colony, although he had a wife living in England. Of course there were good men among the number, but dissenters were numeroiis and the Church declined, so that in the days of " '76," when the English State fell, the Church went with it. Toleration in the colonies followed about the same trend as in the mother country. Separatists' meetings were broken up and nonconformists were expelled. Catholics and Quakers suffered most. The former could not hold office, and the latter were fined, imprisoned, or exiled. Under the Restoration this intolerant spirit grew more tyrannical. The meetings of the Moravians, New Lights, and Baptists were forbidden, and their ministers were imprisoned. In spite of all this spirit two-thirds of the people in Virginia were dissenters by 1776, a fact for which the Presbyterians were mostly responsible. The other Southern colonies had a history very much like that of Virginia. The Church of England was the established church. The Presbyterians were strong and increased rapidly. The people were tolerant because they cared little for religious belief. Metho- dism was a strong factor in their civilization. It had its origin in the Church of England, in 1729. At first it was not the intention of the founders, the Wesley brothers and Whitefield, to separate from that Church. These three men, while at Oxford College, formed a society for the cultivation of piety and for doing good. They set apart regular hours for a certain kind of work, such as prayer, meditation, reading, visiting almshouses and prisons, etc., and because of this rigid living w^ere named Methodists by their fellow-students. In 1736 John and Charles Wesley came to Georgia as mission- aries. Their stay was short, but while there they came into contact with some Moravians, or United Brethren, in whom they were deeply interested. In the meantime AVhitefield met with the same RELIGION. 233 class of people in England with like effect to himself. The three began preaching to the prisoners and lower classes in England, as a result of their association with the Moravians. They soon sepa- rated from those people, however, and formed the "United Society." Never during their whole lives did they intend to leave the Eng- lish Church. John Wesley's dying words were, "I live and die a member of the English Church." Whitefield and he soon sepa- rated, because their beliefs were very different. The former held to the Calvinistic doctrines of the " elected " ; and the latter, to the Arminian doctrine that atonement is for all, though all may not accept. Man may refuse if he wish. Georgia was the starting-point of Methodism in this country, from which, even in colonial times, it spread to every colony. It was the first religious sect to begin its independent life in America. It came into the world just when it needed some invigorating spirit. The Church of England had sunk to its lowest level, and it seemed that the spirit of the Kef ormation had risen only to sink again into worse darkness. But with the theory of conscious conversion, Wesley and Whitefield furnished just that enthusiasm and energy which the religious world needed. When the English Church lost the Puritans, it lost its reality ; and when it lost the Quakers, it had left no enthusiasm. There was nothing remaining to the Established Church but a stagnant pool of Deism. The skeptics — Hume, Bolingbroke, and Shaftesbury — were the public teachers of the people. The sordid reign of the Georges forgot even the com- mon decencies of life. This was the time that a bill was intro- duced into Parliament to erase the word " not " from the Ten Commandments. How fortunate it was that the leaven of Metho- dism was set to work just then ! The Wesleys and Whitefield were wonderful preachers. It is said that 30,000 people listened to their preaching. Whitefield Avould preach all night, and in the morning 10,000 people would still be standing earnestly listening. Charles Wesley, the sweet singer, tuned their emotion to song ; Whitefield stirred them with his ora- tory ; and John Wesley, the great organizer, placed them into classes and governments, and sent preachers throughout half the world. In the lifetime of these three men Methodism spread into Scotland, Ire- land, West Indies, France, and America. In 1767 the first Metho- dist Society in America was organized in New York. The bishop of London was asked by Wesley to send a bishop to 234 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. the American colonies. He refused to do so. On that refusal origi- nated the Methodist Church. "Wesley ordained Uvo men, and sent them as superintendents of the Methodists in America. They, in spite of Wesley's advice and anathemas, took upon themselves the office of bishop, and led out 100,000 souls from the English Church. By its own weight Methodism broke the tie between itself and the English Church. The result may be read in the Methodist Church of to-day, perhaps the leading church in influence, and certainly more perfectly organized than any other Protestant church. The Pilgrims were those Puritans who left the English Church. The name "Pilgrim" was given from their wandering disposition, as they lirst went to Holland, and afterwards came to America. They made the second move not so much for religious freedom, for that Holland gave them, but to establish English customs, and to give to their children the English language, education, and ideas of liberty in their purity. In itself the little band had not much influ- ence, as it grew slowly and prospered poorly. P)ut it became a i)art of the Puritan colony and with that colony did its share of good work in the New World. Their form of worship was Congrega- tionalism. The Puritans settled Massachusetts Bay Colony. They were not Separatists, but desired to reform the English Church. There were 250 persons in the settlement at first. Coming as they did, so loyal to the Church, why should they so soon leave it ? In truth, it was only one step from the Puritan to the Separatist. As an Englishman, the Puritan loved freedom in all things. He did nut like the English theory of Church and State, and it did not take him long to leave both when oOOO miles of water lay between him and them. The growth of the Puritan colony was rapid and prosperous. They were the Israelites in a ])romised land. Church membership was necessary to citizenship, and Catholics and Quakers were denied the colony. The Sabbath began at six o'clock Saturday night, and lasted until sunset on Sunday. It was forbidden to sweep, cook, or shave on that day, and mothers were advised not to kiss their chil- dren then. A Frenchman, a soldier in the Kevolution, was heard playing the flute on Sunday, and it was by hard work that he was saved from harm at the hands of the angry citizens. Whii)ping was the punishment for being absent from worship; banishment, for questioning the truth of the Bible ; and having the tongue placed in RELIGION. 235 a split stick, for speaking ill of the minister. Travelers were not entertained on Sunday, and the taverns were closed Saturday even- ing and remained so until Sunday evening. The Puritans required the best of order. One girl was threatened with banishment for smiling in church. Sermons were from two to five hours long and prayer from one to two hours. The music was congregational sing- ing, and the people strongly resisted the system of singing by note. Either the drum or the horn called the people to church, to which all went armed. The government of the Puritan church was by the members. They chose the x^astor, lecturers, elders, and deacons. Synods were held at irregular intervals to advise as to the general good, but they never interfered in the control of local churches. All that has been said of Massachusetts will apply to Connecti- cut, except it was less tolerant than Massachusetts. New Hamp- shire was the same as Massachusetts. Rhode Island introduced a new principle in both the government and religion of the world. Its founder, Eoger Williams, boldly proclaimed that the Church and State are, by nature and purpose, separate, and that a man's con- science should be his only dictator in religious matters. In 1639 he was baptized at Providence. He in turn baptized ten persons, and then and there established the Baptist Church in this country. He favored that church because it had already declared that con- science should be man's guide in religious matters. The Baptist Church was the principal chvirch in Rhode Island, and was congre- gational in government. New York also gave us a new church at the beginning of the seven- teenth century. The Dutch belonged to the Dutch Reform Church of Holland. They were the most tolerant people on the continent or in the world. New York, under the Dutch, gave absolute reli- gious freedom from the beginning. There every human being had a home. The first Jew in the country was in New York. The Lutherans, Puritans, Presbyterians, Huguenots, and Quakers all lived in the colony undisturbed, except while Stuy vesant was governor, who for a short time persecuted the Quakers and Lutherans ; but the people did not aid him nor sympathize with him. In 1692 the Assembly of the colony divided the province into parishes, and made an assessment to sustain the public worship. It also placed it in the governor's hand to nominate a "Worthy Protestant Minister " in each parish. The governor took advantage 236 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. of this to nominate a minister of the English Church in each, an act Avhich the Dutch did not resent. Thus was established the Church of England in New York. The Huguenots and Swedes also had churches there. The former were French Protestants and were more numerous in North Carolina, while the latter were followers of Luther and had their principal church in New Jersey. The Hugue- nots and the Dutch were followers of Calvin and governed them- selves by presbyters. For a long time it depended entirely on the sovereign as to whether the Catholics or Protestants w^ere persecuted in England. Tf the king or queen were a Protestant, the Catholics were perse- cuted ; if a Catholic, the Protestants were. Since most of the rulers Avere Protestant, the Catholics suffered most. Because of this Lord Baltimore desired to found a home where they could worship in their own faith without harm. The territory granted him was called Maryland, of which I^ancroft wrote "there, in 1G34, religious liberty obtained a home, its only home, in the wide world." But this is often a disputed point and one not easy to settle. It is too true of the Catholics of that century, as it was of other religious sects, that toleration was unknown. Cotton Mather said, " Tolera- tion is a doctrine of the devil," and it was so looked upon by all the world except Holland. At that time there was but one people who Ijelieved in absolute religious freedom, and that Avas the Dutch. In the seventeenth century no other sect, Protestant or Catholic, can lay claim to this distinction. So if any colony, except the Dutch colony of New York, gave religious freedom in this country, it was for causes foreign to its real principles. The Catholic Church can justly lay no claim to toleration in Maryland, just as the Protestant Church cannot in Ehode Island ; for both churches believed in intolerance, and practiced it where they dared. Calvert received his charter from a Protestant king who acted under the advice of a Protestant council. This council gave up its OAvn claims that Calvert might have the territory. He sought first to make a settlement in Newfoundland, but his brothers in religion, the French, would not permit him to do so. It would seem, then, that Calvert was under greater obligation to the Protes- tant king than to the Catholic Church. This is further shown by the clause in the charter, Avhich provided that all churches should be dedicated and consecrated according to the ecclesiastical laws of tlic kingdom of England, and that all laws should be intrr- RELIGION. 287 preted to the advantage of Lord Baltimore, provided always that no interpretation was made by which " God's holy and truly Christian religion shall suffer." The king was a Protestant, and the Church of England taught his " Holy and truly Christian religion." Calvert could not have done otherwise than give freedom of worship to all. The Protestants soon outnumbered the Catholics in Maryland. There was no obstacle in the way of Protestant worship, but all official advantage was given to Eome. After the Restoration, the Protestants asked for and received all the offices of the province from the king. After 1G90 the royal rule was established most of the time, during which the Catholics were persecuted severely. In 1700 there were about 22,000 inhabitants in Maryland, nine-tenths of whom were Protestants. The Church of England was established by law, and forty pounds of tobacco were assessed each house- holder for its support. The ministry was poor in morals and ability, and the people petitioned the London bishop for more and better ministers, signing themselves Protestant-Catholics. After the Eng- lish Church was established affairs were about the same as in other colonies having the same church. The seventeenth century was an age of dreams and visions, and the people were poorly satisfied with the old Church, in which sal- vation was so mixed with creed and form that the common people could not understand it. It was such a time as this that George Fox proclaimed, that man shoidd find God withiu himself ; that the spirit of God bears witness with man's spirit; and that the "Inner Light " is the sole guide to follow. These were so simple that the people, starving for spirit, accepted them eagerly. Because they feared and quaked when the light shone within them, they were called Quakers. Every man's hand was against them, persecution drove them mad, and like madmen they roamed over the civilized Avorld. The Quakers bearded kings and rulers, priests and monks, all persons of dignity and influence, and bore their testimony before them. They were fairly crazed for persecution, and sought it in every form. They broke into jails; clamored to be hung; and suffered the severest persecutions with ecstatic joy. Women, naked, Avalked the streets of New England towns, and entered churches smeared with soot and filth. Five thousand Quakers Avere placed in jail at one time, and made to suffer ducking, cropping of ears, mob- bing, and pelting with stones ; they were laid in the stocks, shut up 238 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. in mad-houses, and hanged. Their fanaticism finally ran its course, but because of it the Quakers became marked people and were per- secuted everywhere. Their mistake was that the spirit only was worthy of care. They denounced the sacrament, and in other ways placed themselves in opposition to all other Christian sects. l>ut time has taught the woi-ld the real worth of the Quakers, and now, it, once so ready to persecute them, accords them universal respect and esteem, which they have won by an upright, honorable exist- ence. Their church government was congregational, and they gave freedom of worship to all Christians. America became the goal for this persecuted sect. In 1073 Fox himself came over to choose a home for them. He made a tour from Maine to South Carolina, and was received everywhere, except in Massachusetts, as one sent by God. He bought the western half of Southern New Jersey for $5000, and in 1675 sent over a settle- ment which landed at Salem. They fashioned their own govern- ment, making religious liberty the corner-stone ; and resolved to persecute no one, not even to act in their own defense. "There," says Bancroft, "met the first legislative body in the world, who said thee and thou to all men, and wore their hats in presence of beggar and king." This little colony remained at Salem in quiet peace and happiness until it was merged into the larger colony of Penn's. In point of numbers the Quakers have never been very success- ful. By a provision of the charter twenty members, by signing a petition, could institute the English Church in their locality, and in this way many joined the English Church. However, the sect have added many noble principles to our civilization, and have taught the world many valuable lessons. They were more tolerant, had fewer laws on moral (piestions, and observed them better than most others did. The Kevolutiou destroyed the English Church in America. The Church and State had stood together, therefore they fell to- gether. After the war, reorganization was necessary, for the Church had much property and wealth, besides the love of many people. The Northern, Middle, and Southern colonists differed over the disposition of the wealth. Virginia and Maryland tried to save the property in their boundaries by forming the Protestant Episcojjal Church in 1783 ; but in the final adjtistment of the relation of Church and State in America the Church lost much of its property. RELIGION. 239 In New England the people cared nothing for the property, but a great deal for the Church. The clergy met in secret conventions, and decided that they must form, not an independent Episcopal Church, as the South did, but an Episcopal Church in direct line from the regular Church. It was determined to send a man to Europe to be ordained by London bishops. As the people then saw it, the journey would have an uncertain effect. Would the people own allegiance to an English Church if not to an English king? Would the London bishop ordain a bishop for the rebellious coun- try? Both questions were hard to answer. Dr. Seabury was chosen to make the journey, and to return to Connecticut if the people would allow. If they would not, he was to go to some other state ; and if not allowed anywhere within the confines of the United States, he was to make Nova Scotia his home, and from there super- intend church matters in the New World. As expected, the London bishop absolutely refused to ordain a bishop for America. But there was hope yet. Over in Scotland the Episcopalian Church existed, despised by the Scotch Presbyterians and the Churchmen of England because of its allegiance to the old Stuart line of kings. There went Seabury, and was ordained by the Scotch Episcopalian bishop. He returned to Connecticut, in 1784, and organized the American Episcopal Church. The IVIlddle Colonies held to another plan of organization, the Federal, in which Pennsylvania was the leader. A call was issued for delegates to meet in New York. This was before Seabury had returned from England, therefore Connecticut took no active part. The convention met to form a Federal Constitutional Church. It had, however, only advisory power, so a new convention was called for September, 1785, to meet at Philadelphia. Seven states re- sponded. Connecticut again declined, and Massachusetts sent a letter. Here met the two great ideas of church control in America, — the Episcopal idea of New England, and the Federal of the Middle Colonies. New England claimed that there could be no church without first a bishop, and that there could be no bishop save one ordained by an English Church bishop. The Middle Colonies claimed, that any half-dozen of the clergy could ordain a bishop. The tAvo factions separated, and New England Avent on as described above, Avhile the Middle Colonies proceeded to organize the Federal System of Avorship. A National Representative body Avas provided 240 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. for to act as an upper house in government, and the clergy and members were to act as a lower house. The English Prayer-Book was changed to suit the politics and government of America, and then was used as the liturgy. Instead of praying for the king, the church prayed for the President and Congress, and instead of recog- nizing English holidays, it recognized the Fourth of July. Thus the third principle, or the Federal Episcopal Church, began its career in 178G. It was strengthened by John Adams, who induced the London archbishop to ordain two American bishops. There were two Episcopal Churches in America after 178G, — the Federal and English. They were too much alike, and yet too differ- ent, to exist in harmony. A long and hard struggle was carried on between them. Connecticut relented enough to allow the bishop's decision to be overruled by four-fifths of the members, if they so desired, and the Middle Colonies accepted the compromise. The two churches thus became one in 1789, the year in which the con- stitutional government began. They remained so until the Civil War, when the South formed a separate church. After the War they again united. The congregational idea of church government was strongest, in America, with the Puritans, with whom it had its origin. The Uni- tarians interfered with the system in New England, which fact caused the call of a general synod at Boston, in 18G5. Now every three years the Congregationalists hold a national council. The Baptist Church has steadily increased in spite of oi)i)osition. From it have been formed the Freewill Baptists, organized in 1780 in New Hampshire; the Dunkards, in Germany in 1708; the Seventh-Day Baptists, in 1719 ; and the Campbellites, in 1830. The last absorbed the Christians who were organized about 1800. The great Baptist Church is the mother of all these sects. The Eeforni Episcopal Church seceded from the Protestant Epis- copal in 1873, claiming greater freedom in form of worship. As the Protestant Episcopal Church is really the Catholic Church under Protestant principles, it has always fought giving too much power to laymen. The Presbyterians from France mostly united with other churches and formed no permanent church of their own. In 1705 the first Presbytery was formed in Philadelpliia, and the first synod was lield in 171G. The Presb^'terian ( -hurch of the colonies increased steadily until the Revolution, and its members were earnest helpers in that RELIGION. 241 movement. In 1789 the constitution of the Natural Presbyterian Church was formed, and its first general assembly was held. The church was made up of Scotch and Irish, who afterwards differed on questions of liberty and politics and divided into the " Old School " and the "New School," the Scots forming the "Old," and the Irish, the " New." They were united again in 1869. The Cumberland Presbyterian Church had its origin in 1797. It seceded from the Old Church because of its Calviuistic doctrines of predestination and limited atonement. The United Presbyterian Church is a union of the Associate Reformed and Associate Church. The former was made up of two branches, one from each the Irish and Scotch Presbyterians. The Irish branch was called Associate Church ; and the Scotch, the Eeformed. They joined under the name of Associate Reformed Church in 1858. The Associate Pres- byterians is that part of the Associate Church that refused to join the imion made with the Reformed Church in 1858. A branch of the Associate Reformed Church refuse to vote because the United States Constitution does not mention God. The Reformed Church of to-day is the outgrowth of the Dutch Reform Church of New York of which we have spoken. The Lutherans made their first organization in America in 1748, and have had a steady growth. They have also divided. The Ger- man Reformed Church was organized in Pennsylvania in 1747. The INIethodist Church was begun as given above. The United Brethren Church Avas organized in the middle of the eighteenth century, and is like the Methodist in its government. The Moravians began their existence in Pennsylvania in 1740. The Quakers divided, in 1828, into Hicksite and Orthodox churches, both of which are prosperous. The Hicksite or New Church is the most progressive. There were 143 Christian sects in the United States in 1890, numbering about 25,000,000 members. The Catholics led, with a membership of 6,257,871 persons ; the Methodists were second, with 4,589,284; the Baptists third, with 3,712,468; the Presbyterians fourth, with 1,278,332. The Lutherans numbered 1,231,072 persons ; Disciples of Christ or Christian Church, nearly 600,000; United Brethren, 225,281 ; Friends, 107,208 ; Dunkards, 73,795 ; Episcopa- lians, 545,509 ; Mormons, 50,000 ; Universalists, 40,000 ; Unitarians, 20,000; Jesuits, 15,000. The other denominations numbered from 1000 to 100,000 people each. There are more than 70,000,000 people in the United States and nearly one-third belong to some church. R 242 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. The Sunday-school, or First-day school, was begun early in the history of New England. Good men then were much opposed to such a school. To hold school on Sunday was desecrating the Sab- bath, it was thought. A Sunday-school was organized in Philadel- phia in 1791. Some benevolent men of that city formed the design of teaching the children of the poor ; but those children were forced to work on week days, so that the school was opened on Sundays. For this reason it was decided that the pupils should be taught to read and write from the Bible or other moral books. In 1790 the Methodist Conference resolved to open schools on Sunday for the poor. A few months later the Universalists, in a conference at Phila- delphia, recommended each of their churches to establish schools on Sunday where the poor could learn to read, write, cipher, and sing psalms. The Sunday-school Society of Philadelphia was organized by Dr. Rush in 1791. He was assisted by an Episcopalian minister and a Catholic priest. It was the intention to organize Sunday- schools independent of any church. The result of this was, that, in March of 1791, the first non-sectarian Sunday-school in the country began, and it prospered so much that a second one was started in May of the same year. Soon a third one was organized, Avhich re- ported three hundred and twenty pupils in attendance, and which in three years taught five hundred children to read. These schools took the place, among the poor, of day schools in many places ; but since the advantages of day schools are so near every door, the Sunday-school has taken on itself the special work of teaching the Bible. Samuel John Mills of Connecticut is the father of Missions in America. He entered Williams College in 180G, where he formed a band of students whose purpose it was to study the subject of missionary societies for work in America. Mills and a friend took a tour through the Mississippi valley in 1813, and found a sad con- dition of affairs. There were many places without preachers or wor- ship of any kind. The Methodist Church had circuit riders through these wilds, but not nearly all the people were reached. The Bap- tists also took much interest in missionary work, but the other churches paid little attention to it. INfills and his friend formed Bible societies at different places on their journey, but found the people so wicked that it seemed nothing could be done. This con- dition aroused Eastern churches to a new purpose, and missionaries RELIGION. 243 were sent into the West to preach and to found Bible societies. The National Bible Society was organized, and in five years placed 140,000 Bibles into homes. The same society turned its attention to the condition of the slave and free negro in the South, and the result was the Colonization Society, and the purchase and colonizing of Liberia. The work of church societies and missionary organizations would fill a volume. In this day of strong organization and intense inter- est, the good accomplished by churches is incomparably greater than back in times described ; but the present advantages and great work are all because of the work in the primitive period of our institutions. CHAPTER XIX. JOURNALISM. Beginning — Boston News Letter — Boston Gazette — Mercury — Frank- lins — New York — South Revolutionary Tapers — Restrict the Tress — West Cincinnati Tapers — Indiana — Chicago — Courier — Journal — St. Louis — Philadelphia — Baltimore — Washington — Boston — New York. THE beginning of journalism in America is as crude as that of any other institution. Our lirst newspaper was printed in 1G90. It was issued but once, and then ceased by authority of the legislature of the colony. It was entitled "Public Occurrences," and was to have been a monthly paper. This was the only attempt to publisli a paper until 1704, when the colonial press really began. It was much limited in thought both by political and religious authority, so it confined its pages mostly to statements of mere facts; consequently it did not influence the country much. On Monday, April 24, 1704, the Boston News Letter was issued for the first time by the postmaster of the city. It was a weekly paper containing advertisements and news of the day. The price was reasonable and had to be arranged with the publisher, as no subscription price was printed. This paper lived seventy-two years. The Boston Gazette was issued in 1719 and was the third news- paper in the country. It was published by the postmaster also. There was much rivalry between the Gazette and News Letter. The latter said of the former that " its sheets smelled stronger of beer than midnight oil." The American Weekly Mercury was the fourth newspaper, and was first published in Philadelphia the 22d of December, 1719. During a session of the Colonial Assembly the editor published the following remark, "Our General Assembly is now in session and we have great expectations from them, at this juncture, that they will find some effectual remedy to revive the dying credit of this Prov- ince." The editor was immediately summoned before the Assembly 244 JOURNALISM. 245 and made to apologize. What would the modern editor think of such restrictions I Now came the era of the Franklins, who made the time famous for journalism. James Franklin began publishing the iSTe'w Eng- land Courant in 1721. It was the fifth newspaper in the country. The Franklins were often at war with the assemblies. Their papers originated that bold, independent style which characterizes the news- paper of to-day. But they had to suffer the consequences of their boldness. James Franklin was frequently arrested and thrown into prison. The staff of the Courant were free thinkers, free writers, very free talkers, and were often in trouble with religious as well as political authorities. The Mathers called the Franklins the "Hell Fire Club," and James Franklin was forbidden to publish the paper in 1722. Benjamin Franklin then became the j)ublisher. He was even more bold than his brother had been, and fought the great battle for a free press in America. The year 1725 marks the birth of journalism in New York. The first paper was the New York Gazette, which was published weekly. The Maryland Gazette began its existence in 1727. From this on many newspapers were started, of which the Weekly Kehearsal, of Boston, and the New York Weekly, were the most noted. There were two German papers in Pennsylvania. In the South during this period journalism was much the same as in the North. In 1731 the South Carolina Gazette was first issued and continued about one year. The first paper in Virginia was the Virginia Gazette, published in Williamsburg in 1736. By the time of the Revolution, Boston, New York, PhiladeliDhia, Annapolis, Williamsburg, and Charleston had the only newspapers. These newspaper centers became the Revolutionar}- centers, and the newspaper offices became the home of independent clubs whose object was to maintain liberty. Men of great ability began to speak in unconfined terms of English tyranny. As early as 1748 the papers took a revolutionary policy. In that year Samuel Adams began the Independent Advertiser, and his helpers were young men of rebel sympathies and tendencies. The paper was free both in thought and word. Frequently its editors were put into jail for bold state- ments concerning public officers. But the paper that was really the Revolutionary organ from first to last was the Boston Gazette and Country Gentleman, first issued in 1755. Its decorations were two cuts: one, an Indian with a 246 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. drawn bow and arrow; the other, Great Britain liberating a bird confined by a cord to the arms of France. Samuel Adams, tlie head and brains of the paper, May hew, Otis, John Adams, Warren, etc., Avere contributors to this sheet; and since all these soon became ardent rebels, one can easily guess the nature of their contributions. They were, indeed, the "Real Bunker Hill Monument of history." In 17C0 the cut on the Gazette was changed. " Britain " was omitted and "Minerva," holding in her left hand a spear surmounted witli the cap of liberty, was inserted. She was seated near a pedestal, on which was a cage, and was represented as freeing an imprisoned bird which was in the act of tiying towards the Tree of Liberty. This device circulated over the country fifteen years before Lexing- ton and Concord became historic. The paper was always the fear- less organ of the Whig party, and opposed the Stamp Act and all following acts of wrong and oppression. The North Carolina Gazette, 1755; New Hampshire Gazette, 1756, which is still published and is the oldest paper in America; the Boston Weekly Advertiser, 1757; South Carolina and American General Gazette, 1758; the Newport Mercury, 1758, which is yet published ; the New London Summary, 1758 ; Wilmington Courant, 17()1; Providence Gazette, 1762; Georgia Gazette, 1763; and the Connecticut Courant, 1764, still in publication, — were all important papers during the Revolutionary period. Between 1718 and 1776 papers were started in all the colonies, and the tendency of all was towards independence. During the Revolution paper became very scarce. Paper-mills were started, and appeals were made to the people to save every old rag or any material that could be made into paper. Rags were col- lected by a bell cart. Because paper was so scarce, many papers were not published very regularly. Many times all positions on the paper were filled by one man, who was owner, publisher, printer, folder, typesetter, distributer, etc. After the Revolution a great field of politics opened to the press which, with the fruits of the victories it had won under the dark cloud of oppression and war, took charge of the political world. No more was the printer fined or dragged to prison; no more did legis- lative bodies dictate limitations and fields of labor; but the press, free as the voice of liberty, flung its unbound thoughts to the world. The prominent papers wliich came out of the hardships of the Revolution were the New Hampshire Gazette, New York Journal, JOURNALISM. 247 Boston Gazette, Newport Mercury, Connecticut Courant, Pennsyl- vania Gazette, and a few others. These took up the fight on the Constitution, pro and con, and their contests were often bitter. Tlie most vindictive Lmguage was usetl, which sometimes led to duels. Indeed, it is very doubtful whether the present newspapers are nearly as abusive as those of the beginning of the century. The daily paper started during this critical period of our history, when men were trying to change the government. The American Daily Advertiser was first published in 1784, in Philadelphia, and was the first of its kind. The New York Daily Advertiser began in 1785. The first attempt to limit the freedom of the press in the National Period was the Sedition law, passed in 1798. There were then nearly two hundred papers in the country, and about twenty-five were owned by aliens, who, with many others, were opposed to the administration and bitterly attacked it. The law was very unpopu- lar and was repealed. Never since has there been any attempt to limit the expression of the press in this country. The origin and development of journalism in the West was as remarkable as in the East. As early as 1793 the Sentinel of the Northwest Territory was founded at Cincinnati, Ohio, by William Maxwell, the second postmaster of that city. This was the first paper in the territory. It was afterwards removed to Chillicothe. The Sciota Gazette was started at Chillicothe in 1796, and is still published. In 1789 the National Eepublican and Ohio Political Register was first issued. The Cincinnati Gazette began life in 1806 as a weekly paper. It became a semi-weekly in 1819, and a daily in 1827. It was a Whig paper after 1825, and has always been Anti-Democratic. The Commercial was first printed in Cincinnati, in 1843, and was con- solidated with the Gazette in 1883. They were published then as one paper, under the name Commercial-Gazette. It is one of the large and influential papers of the country. Pive thousand men, women, and children make up its working corps. The printing is done on a large Hoe press, which prints, cuts, and folds 96,000 papers per hour. The Tribune has recently been united to the Commercial- Gazette, which is now called the Commercial-Tribune. The Cincinnati Whig had its origin in 1831; it changed its name to the Times, in 1841. The Chronicle, organized in 1868, bought the Times in 1871, and took the name of the latter. The Star was 248 INSTITUTIONAL IHSTOEY OF UNITED STATES. first printed in 1872, and consolidated with the Times in 1880. It then took the name Times-Star. The Western Spy was started in Cincinnati in 1803. Sometime afterwards it changed its name to the Observer, and in 1834 took the name Enquirer, Avhich name it still holds. In 1846 the Enquirer office was burned, destroying the early records, so that little is known of its history previous to that time. At present the Cincinnati Enquirer is probably the greatest paper in the Ohio valley, and is worth millions of dollars to its owners, chief of whom is John K. McClean. The first paper printed in Indiana was published at Vincennes in 1808. The leading papers of the state now are The News, Journal, and Sentinel published in Indianapolis. The News was first issued December 7, 18G9. It was a four-page, six-column paper, 15 by 20 inches in size. It was then published in the Sentinel office, and had a circulation of only 1200 copies daily. Now it has a large new building of its own, three presses, all the modern conveniences for printing, and a circulation of 31,000 copies daily. The Indianapolis Sentinel was first published in 1822 under the name Gazette. It was the pioneer paper of Indianapolis. lu 1841, under the name Sentinel, it became a daily. In 1865 the name was changed to Herald, but was changed back to Sentinel in 1868. It is now one of the great papers of the state, and has a daily, weekly, and Sunday edition. The Indianapolis Journal is a descendant of the Western Censor and Emigrant's Guide, which was established in 1823. It soon became a semi-weekly with a weekly edition. It was then printed on a hand-press. The name Journal was given the paper in 1825. From 1842 until 1850 it published daily issues during the session of the state legislature. Its first daily, printed by the steam-press, appeared on the day that the State Constitutional Convention met, October 7, 1850. In 1886 the Journal bought the Indianapolis Times. It now has two Hoe printing presses, which print 16,000 papers each per hour, and uses the typesetting machine, with other modern conveniences. Chicago has many great newspapers, of which two of the most prominent are the Tribune and Chronicle. The Tribune Avas first issued in 1847, and issued then only 400 copies. In July, 1850, the Democratic Press consolidated with the Tribune. The latter has been the leading paper in reducing the price of Chicago dailies to one cent per copy. JOURNALISM. 249 The Chicago Chronicle was organized in May, 1895, and was begun because there was no leading Democratic daily in the city. It already has a daily circulation of nearly 100,000 copies and a Sunday edition of 125,000. The Chicago Times and Chicago Herald were consolidated in 1895 under the name Times-Herald. The paper was soon sold to Mr. Kohlsaat and became an Independent Republican paper. This left Chicago without a Democratic paper, so the Chronicle was organized. A very popular paper throughout the entire country is the Courier- Journal, of Louisville, Kentucky. Its owner, Henry Wat- terson, is one of the leading journalists of the day, and is respected by all for his fearless stand on all public questions. In 1876 a New York paper in speaking of Louisville said, " Louisville is situated on the south bank of the Ohio River and is significant for nothing, except that it is the place where the Courier- Journal is printed." George D. Prentice went to Kentucky from Connecticut to write the life of Henry Clay. He founded the Louisville Journal in 1830. It was National Republican, or Whig, in politics. The Daily Dime was organized in 1843; it changed its name to Courier in 1844. Because of its rebellious sentiments, it was seized by the Federal authorities in 1861. Then the publishers moved to Bowling Green, Kentucky, and continued the paper. From there it was driven to Nashville. When Nashville fell, the paper ceased until after the War. Mr. Haldeman was the publisher then and desired to enter the Confederate army, but was persuaded by Generals A. S. Johns- ton and Simon Buckner to edit a Confederate paper. Henry Watterson, during a part of the War, was a reporter for the Nashville Banner *and the Chattanooga Rebel. He soon became known in editorial circles as a very brilliant man, though only twenty-one years old. After the War the Louisville Journal found little sympathy in the South, as it was Republican in politics, and slowly lost its prestige. In 1868 Watterson began editing it and quickly revived its former popularity. On November 8, 1868, the Journal and Courier consolidated under the name Courier-Journal, with Henry Watterson as chief. As late as 1881 it was but a four- page paper. It now is printed at the rate of 72,000 eight-page papers per hour. St. Louis has two great papers, — the St. Louis Republic and the Globe -Democrat. The former is a Democratic paper, and the latter is Republican. 250 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. The Republic had its origin in 1808, and no radical change has ever been made in its ownership. The heirs of its founders are still in charge. It was first issued under the name Missouri Gazette, then Louisiana Gazette, then Missouri Gazette again, then Missouri Republican, St. Louis Republican, and St. Louis Republic, its pres- ent name. From 1808 to 1833 it was a weekly paper; from 1833 to 1836, semi-weekly ; and since 1836, daily. The Sunday issue was added in 1848. The Globe-Democrat is a consolidation of the Missouri Demo- crat and the Globe. The Democrat was first issued in 1852 on Democratic principles and was a follower of Benton. When the Republican party was organized in 1854, in Philadelphia, the paper adopted Republican principles and has since been of that party. It absorbed the Union in 1853. In 1872 the Democrat was sold l)y order of the Court and brought $456,000. The Globe was started in 1872 by former partners of the Democrat, and in 1875 these two men bought the Democrat and consolidated the two papers under the name Globe-Democrat. It is Republican in politics. One of the great papers of the South is the Atlanta Constitution. It was first printed in 1868 under the name Constitution. Its daily circulation is 20,000; Sunday, 30,000; and weekly, 160,000. It is Democratic in politics. The Public Ledger of Philadelphia was established in 1836. It is a daily, and is sometimes called the Philadelphia Bible. George W. Childs became its editor and proprietor in 1864, and remained so nntil his death in 1894. When he bought the Ledger, it was losing f 480 each issue, about $150,000 per year. It immediately became a paying paper and Mr. Childs made millions out of it, most of which he gave away, though he died very wealthy. Tlie Phila- delphia Record was first issued in 1877. It now has a circulation of 150,000 copies daily. The North American of Philadelpliia claims to be the oldest daily paper in the United States. It Avas first published as a daily in 1784, one hundred and twelve years ago, and was then called the Pennsylvania Packet and American Daily Adver- tiser, but it was issued as a weekly in 1771. It was then called the Pennsylvania Packet and General Advertiser, and Avas a small folio sheet of three columns, 9 by 15 inches. When the British army had possession of Philadelphia, 1777-78, the paper was printed at Lan- caster. It is now a great and flourisliing paper. The Baltimore Sun was founded in 1837. Its plant has a print- JOUKNALISM. 251 ing capacity of 96,000 papers per hour. The Herald of the same city has a circulation of 30,000 daily. The Washington Evening Star was founded in 1853; its first issue was only 800 copies. It now has a circulation of 50,000 papers daily. The Washington Post began in 1877, and has become a prominent newspaper. The two great Boston papers are the Journal and Transcript. The former was founded in 1833 and now has a daily circulation of 60,000 copies. The latter was founded in 1830 and has a wide circulation. I can mention but a few of the great New York papers. The Sun was first published in 1833. It is the paper of the great editor, Dana. From 1860 to 1861 it was a religious daily paper. It has always been a daily, and was run also as a weekly from 1836 to 1895. A Sunday edition was begun in 1875. The New York World is a marvelous paper. It was organized in 1883 and now has a daily circulation of 500,000 papers. This is an unprecedented growth in the newspaper world. The work and expense of getting out one issue of such a paper is enormous. The reporters will number into the thousands, and are scattered all over the world. The paper is sent into the press-room in great rolls a yard wide and from three to five miles long. To put out a single edition of the World would require from 300 to 400 such rolls. In other words, it requires about 1000 miles of paper one yard wide to put out one edition. This paper would stretch across the state of Indiana nearly five times. From these figures the reader may get some idea of the immense labor and cost represented by any one of our great dailies. From 1000 to 5000 newsboys are engaged on a single paper. In spite of all this army of labor scattered through- out the world, the great daily lies on our breakfast tables every morning anywhere within a radius of 300 miles from its central office. The modern newspaper is the wonder of our wonderful age. The New York Tribune was founded by the greatest editor of the century, Horace Greeley, in 1841. In that year he was editing the Log Cabin, a weekly paper of the Whig faith. In one issue of the Log Cabin appeared this notice : " On Saturday, 10th day of April, 1841, the subscriber will publish the first number of a new Morning Journal of politics, literature, and general intelligence. "The Tribune, as its name imports, will labor to advance the interests of the people, and to promote their moral, social, and intellectual well-being. The immoral and degrading police reports, 252 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. advertisements, and other matter, which have been allowed to dis- grace the columns of our leading Penny Papers will be carefully excluded from this, and no exertion spared to render it worthy of the hearty approval of the virtuous and refined, and a welcome visi- tor at the family fireside. Earnestly believing that the political revolution which has called William Henry Harrison to the (Hiief IMagistracy of the nation was a triumph of Kight, Reason, and Pub- lic Good over Error and Sinister Ambition, the Tribune will give to the New Administration a frank and cordial, but manly and inde- pendent support, judging it always by its acts and commending those only so far as they shall seem calculated to subserve the great end of all government, — the welfare of the people. " The Tribune shall be published every morning on a fair, royal sheet (size of the Log Cabin and Evening Signal) and transmitted to its city subscribers at the low price of one cent per copy. Mail subscribers $4.00 per year. It will contain the news of the Morn- ing's Southern Mail, which is contained in no other Penny Paj^er. Subscriptions are respectfully solicited by "Horace Greeley, 30 Ann Street." The Tribune started out with only GOO subscribers and a debt of $1000, which Mr. Greeley borrowed to begin the new paper. Five thousand copies of the first number were printed, and Mr. Greeley said, "■ We found some difficulty in giving them away." The receipts Avere $92 and tlie expenses $525 on the first issue. It was a fight- ing paper and attracted attention. Subscribers soon came in at the rate of 300 per day. The fourth week the Tribune published (JOOO copies; and the seventh, 11,000. The second year there were 12,000 subscribers; the third, 20,000. Mr. Greeley secured phenomenal success until 1ill of 1833. The Twenty-third Congress was opposed to Jackson in the Senate, but supported him in the House. The National Eepublican party took the name of Whigs about this time, 1834. The Twenty- fourth Congress was slightly Democratic. A new question had appeared just above the horizon about 1834. Slavery began to agitate. the people, and increased in importance until it absorbed every other question. The Antislavery faction was known as Abolitionists. The Whigs gave the name Loco-focos to the Democrats, who used matches of that material to relight a hall after the lights had been bloAvn out by some Whigs. The name was first applied to the Equal Eights party in New York. Erom 1840 to 1850 many small parties originated. The Liberty party, opposed to slavery, nominated a presidential candidate in 1840 and 1844. A faction of the Democratic party was called the " Hard Money Democrats " ; another faction was called the " Soft Shells." POLITICAL PARTIES. 265 In New York the party was divided into " Hunkers " and " Barn- burners." The Democratic party, however, held itself together and elected Van Buren, Polk, Pierce, and Buchanan ; while the Whigs elected Harrison and Taylor. The Twenty -fifth Congress was Democratic. In the Twenty-sixth and Twenty-seventh the Whigs had the majority. The Twenty- eighth Congress was wholly Democratic in the House and Whig in the Senate. The Twenty-ninth was wholly Democratic, while the Thirtieth was Democratic in the Senate and Whig in the House. The Thirty-first Congress had a Democratic majority in the Senate and no party majority in the House, though the Free-soilers held the balance of power. The Thirty-second and Thirty-third were Democratic, and the Thirty-fourth was so in the Senate, but there was no party majority in the House. Many of the Anti-Nebraska men were Know-nothings and followed no particular leader. The Anti-Nebraska men took the name Republicans in 1856, said to have been given them by Governor Seward of New York. The Thirty- fifth and Thirty-sixth Congresses were both Democratic. The reader will notice frequent changes in this period, and some very radical ones. But now (1860) a great question had reached its climax and a new party was at the helm. The student of American history knows that the slavery question had always been of more or less importance, but after the making of the Constitution it did not create any great disturbance until 1820, when Missouri asked for admission. In 1833 the National Anti- slavery Society was organized, which became influential and entered politics in 1840 and 1844 under the name Libert}' party. In 1848 Van Buren led the same party under the name Free-soilers. Fol- lowing this came the Omnibus Bill in 1850. In 1852 the Whig party was defeated for the presidency, with General Scott the candidate. The party divided that year, and a faction, called the Silver Grays and opposed to the agitation of slavery, ruled the party policy. This caused many Whig votes to go to the Free-soil party, and allowed the Democrats to elect Pierce. The career of the Whig party was closed by this act, and the Democratic and Free-soil parties were left alone in the field. The slavery question stood between the two parties, and thus became the question that divided the people. Many Democrats did not like the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, and united with the Free-soilers ; most of the Whigs went to the same party, as did the American or Know-nothing party. This 266 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. combination formed the Republican party of to-day. The Demo- cratic party was placed on the Squatter Sovereignty principle. The Republican party opposed the extension of slavery. This was the condition of things in 1856. In 1860 the Democratic party divided into the Northern and Southern Democratic parties because of slavery. The former adhered to the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, and the latter to the Dred-Scott Decision. The Northern faction nomi- nated Douglas for President; the Southern. Breckenridge. The Republican party nominated Lincoln, and held to the non-extension of slavery. The Constitution Union party nominated Bell and held to the Constitution and enforcement of law. Mr. Lincoln was elected by the Republicans, and the Douglas Democrats supported his administration, while the Breckenridge Democrats of the South and most of the Bell supporters seceded from the Union. For four long bloody years the dark cloud of war hovered over the land divided into Union and Non-Union ; but as it cleared away the country fell back into the two political parties, — Republican and Democratic. From 1860 to 1875 Congress was Re- publican, and that party elected all the Presidents from 1860 to 1884, General Harrison in 1888, and William McKinley in 1896. The Demo- crats have elected Mr. Cleveland twice, once in 1884 and again in 1892. The Forty-fourth Congress, which met in 1875, had a Republican majority in the Senate and a Democratic majority in the House. The Forty-fifth Congress was divided in the same way. The Forty-sixth was Democratic. The Forty-seventh was a tie in the Senate, but the Vice-President in a tie vote gave the Senate a Republican majority; the House was Republican. The Democrats controlled the House in the Forty-eighth Congress, and the Republicans the Senate. It was the same in the Forty-ninth. The Fiftieth Congress was equally divided in the Senate, and in the House the Democrats had a majority. The Fifty-first was a clear Republican majority in both houses, and the Fifty-second was Democratic in the House and Republican in the Senate. The Fifty-third had a Democratic majority in both houses, while the Fifty-fourth was a Repulilican House and Democratic Senate, and the Fifty-fifth has a large Re- publican majority in the House and a small one in the Senate. After the Civil War, Reconstruction divided the two political parties. There were three known theories in regard to the recon- struction of the seceded states. Mr. Lincoln had held, in 1862, that a state should bo given its old rights as soon as one-tenth of the POLITICAL PARTIES. 267 persons who had voted in 1860 had established a state government and asked readmission. As far as known, he held to this view until death. President Johnson claimed that the states had lost their rights only temporarily, and that when the War ceased they then passed back into their old rights. Congress, which was Republican, held that the seceded states had forfeited their rights as states, and had become territories, and must be so governed until they should show a proper spirit towards the Union. The Republican party based its principles on this theory, and the Democrats took up Mr. Johnson's views. Congress carried out its theory in regard to Re- construction, and placed the South under military rule, sometimes called "Carpet Bag" rule. Tennessee was readmitted July 24, 1866 ; Arkansas, June 22, 1868 ; Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and South Carolina, June 25, 1868 ; Alabama, North Carolina, and Texas, July 11, 1868; Virginia, January 26, 1870; Mississippi, February 17, 1870. In 1872 parties suffered some division. Hostility towards Grant divided the Republican party into Liberal Republican and Repub- licans. The Democrats also divided, and one wing affiliated with the Liberal Republicans and nominated Greeley for President. The Republicans nominated Grant, and the Democrats O'Connor, who was also endorsed by the Labor Reform party. The Prohibition party nominated Mr. Black. Mr. Grant was elected by a large majority. The Greenback party was organized in 1874. It advocated the withdrawal of national bank money and the issuing of green- backs. In 1876 the American Nationalists organized, advocating the American Sabbath preservation, and opposing secret societies. In 1881 the Republican party divided, in New York, into the Stalwarts, opposers of the administration, and Half-breeds, sup- porters. The Democrats of the same state divided into Tammany Democrats and Democrats. The Tammany Democrats and Stal- wart Republicans joined on local issues effectually. The Inde- pendent National party was organized in 1878 as an outgrowth of labor troubles. The Woman Suffragist party put out Belva Lock- wood as candidate for President, in 1884. A faction of the Repub- lican party, which supported Cleveland, and Avhich called itself Independent Republican, was named Mugwump. The Union Labor party named Stretor as its candidate in 1888. The Farmers' Alliance was a strong factor in politics in 1892. 268 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. It, the Free Silverites, Labor Reform, and Greenback party coa- lesced and formed the Populist party in 1892, which favored reduced taxation, less excessive interest, free silver, free trade, and an income tax. The Republicans favored protection and reci- l)rocity. The Democrats favored a revenue tariff. Mr. Cleveland was elected by the Democratic party by a large majority. In 1896 the campaign presented several very peculiar features. It seemed until within a few months of the opening of the campaign that the Republican party would have comparatively no op})Osition, the Democratic party had made such a miserable failure in its tariff measure, which, with the financial crisis during Cleveland's admin- istration, almost annihilated the party. In fact, the leaders of the party were repudiated by the main body, and the party came out in 1896 to fight the campaign under new issues. It held its convention in Chicago, and adopted a platform in which the main issue was the free coinage of silver. AVilliam J. Bryan of Nebraska and Artlmr Sewell of Maine were nominated for President and Vice-President. The party was generally called the Popocratic party in the cam- paign because of the fusion of the Populist party -and the free silver wing of the Democratic party. The Republican party held its convention in St. Louis and nominated William McKinley of Ohio, and G. A. Hobart of New Jersey as its candidates for President and Vice-President. The leading principle of the platform was the single gold standard in opposition to the double standard of the Democratic party. The dissatisfied element of the Democratic party, the National Demo- crats, met in convention at Indianapolis and nominated John M. Palmer of Illinois and Simon B. Buckner of Kentucky as candi- dates of the party. They advocated the single gold standard. The People's party at St. Louis nominated William J. P>ryaii of Ne- braska and Thomas Watson of Georgia. This party advocated free silver and fused Avitli the Democrats generally, nominating the Democratic candidate fur President. The Prohibition party divided on the silver question, and the regulars nominated Joshua Levering of Maryland and Hale John- sou of Illinois for President and Vice-President. This party favored the gold standard. The Free Silver Prohibitionists nominated C E. lientley of Nebraska and J. H. Southgate of Illinois. The Social- istic Labor party nominated Cliarles 11. Mitclicl of New York and Matthew McGuire of New Jersey. The Free Silver party endorsed POLITICAL PARTIES. 269 the Democratic candidates. We had the very unusual feature of a presidential candidate, W. J. Bryan, receiving the nomination from three parties and a vice-presidential candidate, Arthur Sewell, re- ceiving the nomination from two parties. Free silver was the all- absorbing question, and, after a campaign of unusual excitement and interest, William J. McKinley was elected by an electoral ma- jority of 97, and by a popular majority of nearly 1,000,000, the largest of its kind in the history of the nation. CHAPTER XXII. CUSTOMS. Virginia — Plantation — Dwellings — Amusements — Clothing — Home Life — Study — Society — Carolinas — South — Quakers — Pursuits — Houses — Life — Farms — Customs — Occupations — Dutch — Albany — New York — Customs — Puritans — Classes — Country Life — Nature — Homes — Boston Fashion — Customs — Foreigners — Nature — Art and Literature. DURING the Colonial Period hospitality was second nature to the people of Virginia. They were even reckless in this respect. The statutes declared that people must be entertained through courtesy, Avhen no certain agreement was made. The planters stationed servants on the road to intercept travelers, or sent to the inns and invited strangers to come to their homes to stay as long as they desired. This was partly due to the monotony of life. A plantation presented the scene of a small village. In the cen- ter stood the house of the planter and around it were the offices, not connected with the main house. The tobacco houses and the huts of the negroes clustering about made an appearance of a town. The slaves sawed wood, cleared land, and cultivated tobacco. The houses of the planters varied: some were built of wood with the chimney on the outside; others wei'e of brick, and still others of cut stone. The typical Southern dwelling was, and is yet, a long building with a large room above and below on each end and a broad hall running between. A few houses were built low and others had several stories, even reaching above the tree-tops, and all were spacious, witli large rooms and great fireplaces. The })lanters made money out of tlie tobacco industry and cheap slave labor, and lived luxuriously. Coaches, carriages, and chaises were common as early as 1700. Horses were fine and valuable. The Virginian was a great lover of the horse and horse-racing. He kept 270 CUSTOMS. 271 coach-horses, race-horses, saddle-horses, and hunters. Wearing apparel was imported and costly, and the men and women dressed in the English fashion. Of course there was a great deal of new country roughness in their refinement. A house with a full table and fine plate might stand for ten years with glass out of the win- dows, fences down, and buildings unrepaired, but the stables were always in good condition. High living and gambling ruined many families and forced many young heirs to go farther into the interior to begin life. Legislation favored debtors : during a contraction of money, debtors had to pay but two-thirds of their debts. At one time debts were unrecoverable by law, and in 1657 a bankrupt law was passed allow- ing a debtor to clear his obligation by giving up his property. The debt habit increased, and no one could collect, land could not be seized for debts, and it was easy to evade giving up slaves and other personal property. Financial integrity was not highly considered, but the planter borrowed money when possible, paid a high rate of interest, and enjoyed life hugely. Home life was easy and monotonous. The planter rose about nine o'clock, took a walk to his stables to see his horses, breakfasted between nine and ten, which meal consisted of tea or coffee, bread and butter, slices of venison, ham, or beef. He then lay down on a pallet on the floor with a negro at his head and one at his feet to fan him and keep of£ the flies. Between twelve and one o'clock he drank some liquor or a mixture of rum, sugar, water, and nutmeg, and dined at two or three o'clock on ham, greens, cabbage, and wine with a few extras. He then lay down on the pallet again and rested until ten, when supper was eaten of fruit, milk, and wine, and then bedtime came. While this seems almost past belief, yet it is virtu- ally quoted from one of the best sources of knowledge on the period. Lodge declares it to be the usual life of a Virginian planter when he had no company and there was no unusual excitement in the neighborhood. The description probably exaggerates the inactivity of the usual daily life, but such examples no doubt existed. Over- seers managed the plantation. It was the duty of the wife to manage the house and train servants. She was a good, attentive housekeeper and mother, and was never mixed up in intrigues of any nature. There was little time devoted to study and literature in Virginia. In the Colonial Period she furnished but three books tliat would 272 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. excel matter-of-fact statistics. Beverly wrote a history of the province, inaccurate but interesting, and Reverend Stith wrote a history of the early days of the colony. Colonel Byrd's memoirs, written while running the Xorth Carolina boundary line, narrate the incidents and observations of that work. Those who read gave their time chiefly to Blair's "Sermons," "The Spectator," and Tillotson's "Sermons." Some history, Pope's works, Montaigne's "Essays," and " Gil Bias " were read. As we come near the Revolution, these things change gradually ; but there was never great interest taken in either reading or writing. While this was true, there was one grand subject that Virginia noticed, and well for America that she did, — politics. The right of suffrage reached down to the man wlio possessed fifty acres of land. Elections were exciting events, in which all classes mingled. The school of politics was well attended, as the history of Virginia's part in the Revolution shows. Society in Virginia was strictly classified, and social distinction was most rigidly observed. This was most noticed in the churches. The great families occupied the principal pews, generally in the galleries, while the poor congregated on the floor. Some pews were marked "Magistrates" and "Magistrates' Ladies." In some places the congregation waited outside until the aristocracy gathered, and then followed in. Labor was a disgrace, and trade was despised. The planter was indolent and vain; but also imperious, espe- cially in government, in which he fretted under restraint. He was not an inventive character, but was often eloquent, being a clear, fluent, and impressive speaker, with much shrewdness and sense. He liad great family pride, and knew his ancestors far back. He Avas a fine soldier, politician, lawyer, and statesman. Of these chai'acteristies were the leaders of American independence. After we have told the story of Virginia's shortcomings, her indolence, lack of schools, haughtiness, and careless hospitality, we must bow in humble submission before the state that could in one generation give the world a Washington, a Marshall, a Jefferson, a Henry, a Madison, the Lees, Randolphs, Pendletons, etc., all lights, not only in the woods of America, but in the brilliant palaces of the highest civilization. Life in the other Southern Colonies was of the same kind as that of Virginia, but not of so great refinement and influence. In the Carolinas the " Poor Whites " and small farmers were more numerous than in Virginia, and tlie planters less numerous. The mass of the CUSTOMS. 273 population was small landowners, and the unsettled condition of the colony invited turbulent characters. Law was not much re- spected, and every one did what was right in his own eyes. "There were no established laws and very little of the Gospel," says one writer. Men were lazy, and women did much of the Avork. Daily existence was solitary and monotonous. Once a month or less fre- quently mail came through the colony. There was little traveling, so the people saw little of the outside world. Thus lived an unset- tled, lawless population, jealous of their rights, and rash in vindi- cating them. North Carolina and Rhode Island were always slowest to accept any of the restraints of law or government, but they made good fighters for liberty. The reader should especially acquaint himself with the different natures that peopled the New World. We have noted the Cava- lier, the aristocratic Englishman, proud and haughty, fretting under restraint of any kind, and yet born to rule those below him. It seemed the purpose to join this proud, vain personage to the hum- ble, simple Quaker, that they should together fight out the battle for liberty. The Quaker lived differently, had a different aim, and thouglit different things from the Cavalier. He followed a variety of pursuits, — sold goods, traded with the Indians, farmed, set up manufactures, entered professions, — and did everything well. This variety developed the resources of the colony rapidly, and made Pennsylvania a noble state. Philadelphia grew rapidly. By the Revolution it was the largest city in population in America. Good buildings were the rule from the first, houses were made of brick and stone, and a few, of wood. The streets were paved, and there was a good police system and good lighting. Porches and balconies surrounded the houses; and posts marked off the sidewalks and kept foot passengers and vehicles apart. All this was due mostly to that wonderful character, the Prometheus of the modern world, Benjamin Franklin. Germantown had many thriving manufactures, and other towns developed rapidly. Reading, in 1749, had but two houses, in 1751 it had one hundred and thirty. Lancaster was the largest inland town in the colonies; it was settled by the Irish and Dutch. Slaves were not so plentiful in Pennsylvania, but there were many inden- tured servants. Slaves and servants were well treated, and ate at the lower end of the table with the master. The first lunatic asylum in America was in Philadelphia, and the Quaker originated the idea 274 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. of better prisons, medical schools, asylums for the poor, and such other charitable institutions as are now so popular. Human life in Pennsylvania presented many varieties. Between the frontier and Philadelphia there were all grades of life, — good, bad, and indifferent. A backwoodsman's life was one extreme; a wealthy Philadelphian's, the opposite. The pioneer cleared a little spot in the woods, farmed little, and hunted and traded with the Indians a great deal. A rude log house of two rooms was his home. He dressed in hunting-shirt and leggings; his wife, in Ijedgowns and linsey; and both went barefoot in summer. Utensils were of pewter, the furniture was of home manufacturing, and pork and hominy were the principal food, varied with venison. But nearer civilization was the great farming class, Avliich formed the bulk and strengtli of the population. On the borders of this life was the rougher element that caused so much trouble. Here was the scene of many disturbances between the Irish and Germans; but in the interior of this farming region was the good, substantial farmer, scientific and economical, who worked his farm well, and made it produce much. Patriarchal simplicity ruled; master and servant ate together and worked together. Pood was plentiful, and the dress of leather breeches and hemp jackets was coarse and substantial. China, glass, and linen were on the table. Every farm made honey, raised cattle, had large orchards, kept a full gar- den, and had a fish pond. Parms were scattered through the woods, but never at very great distances from one another. The nearer one came to Philadelphia, the finer the houses and the farms were. Marriages were made young, and the population increased rapidly. There was not much luxury, but a great deal of good, solid com- fort. Philadelphia, however, displayed a great degree of luxury. It was a social center, and fashions from England reached it easily. Men carried gold-headed canes and gold snuff-boxes. They wore velvet and silk clothing, wigs, and laced coats with large silver but- tons; and the young men wore swords. Red was a favorite color. Men wore more color in tlieir dress then than fasliionable women do to-day. The ladies' dress was more rich and brilliant than the gen- tlemen's. Brocades, satins, velvets, and silks were common; and the tall head-dress and mound of hair were fashionable. The Quakers, even, gave way to the styles, and a class, known as Wet Quakers, wore the brilliant and rich dresses of society. Business and trade were the occupations; women in the middle CUSTOMS. 275 classes tended the shop. The social line was closely drawn. A young lady who married beneath her station was ostracized by her set. In summer young men strolled about, and visited the young ladies of an evening. Calls were made in the afternoon ; marriages were occasions of great festivity, and funerals were even more so. Another people to be united in the new country with the Quaker and Cavalier, were the Dutch in Xew York. Trade was the business of the happy, good-natured Dutch. They led a sleepy, contented, comfortable life. The sons followed trading, and the daughters cared for the household. The men rode into Albany, New York, or some other town or city, and bartered their country produce for groceries or goods. Saddle-horses, farm-wagons, and two-wheeled chaises were the modes of locomotion. Albany was built up as a fur trading-post, for which trade it was the center of the Northern Colonies. Each dwelling was also a store with its rooms for furs in the second story. Albany remained strictly Dutch until after the Revolution. Life was quiet, and the people were shy, but hospitable, simple, and unaffected. The women worked hard and managed carefully. The Dutch were good traders ; it was a common saying that not even a Jew could excel them. New York, of course, was the principal city. The Dutch early lost hold of that city, and the Yankee spirit invaded it; consequently it developed rapidly. It was then, as now, a great center of trade. Tlie streets were paved, lighted, and watched by a police force. In society there was the same splendor in every respect as spoken of in Philadelphia. Marriages were formed very young and were very fruitful. Divorce was an unusual thing. The marriage was a sim- ple, plain event, but the funeral was an elaborate festal occasion. A man always put away wine for his funeral. At death invitations were sent out to all the friends, who came with scarfs and gloves, and sat around the bier solemnly drinking and smoking. A prayer was said and the body was carried to its grave; then the mourners returned to the house and feasted. In the country, only men attended the body to the grave; but in New York City, women attended also and were sometimes pall-bearers. A funeral was an expensive event, often costing $4000. Van Eensselaer paid out $20,000 on the funeral of his wife. The fourth and last distinct people who had peculiar customs were the Puritans in New England. There also was an aristocratic class having power and influence. The rank, however, was not 276 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. wealth alone, but also birth, ability, and education. Great estates were not numerous in New England. The people were more nearly equal there in jDoint of wealth than in any other part of the colonies. A man was removed from the office of peace commissioner because he was the son of a bricklayer, and not of a magistrate. Social dis- tinctions were clearly drawn and carefully observed in all matters relating to public office. It was there that aristocracy most aj^peared. The people held their offices in great respect. The educated filled all the chief places in New England, and her public officers were usually of the highest and most respected class. " Honorable " was applied to the governor; "Esquire," to men of office; and "master" and "mistress," to those of good birth, education, and position. The masses addressed one another as "goodman," or "goodwife," or "neighbor." In the church the same classification was prominent: first, authority; next, age; next, wealth; and last, house lots. In this order they chose pews. College life was the same. Harvard and Yale took up the list of students at the beginning of the year, and ranked them as above, and there they stood, making no differ- ence what the work done amounted to. The magistrate's son stood first in class, the wealthy next, and the poor last. Yale abolished the system in 1768; and Harvard, in 1773. Houses were large and displayed much comfort and wealth; some were built of stone, and furnished with costly pictures. It is on record that one man spent $100,000 on his house. The average country house was neat, solid, and simple. There was a similarity in houses as in manners and habits. There was a decided difference between the country life of New England and that of Virginia. Virginia's population was isolated, and scattered with no central point. New England always had this central place. The town has become our modern township. In each township there were the schoolhouse and church; and near these were the houses of the minister and teacher, tlie blockhouse, townhouse, and a variety store ; also various trades and professions had houses near this center. Running off from this center were the farmhouses ; thus the common center furnished social conditions and a unit of government. The community were in good circum- stances, but none was very rich; and none, very poor. The women were noted for their beauty, but they faded early. The men grew angular and sharp-featured, as did their minds, which were shrewd, quick; and inquisitive. They were a hard-working and thrifty CUSTOMS. 277 people, the very soul of honor. Their houses were neat and clean. The men wore homespun, moose hide, and sheepskin breeches; and the women dressed in coarse, strong linen. On Sunday they all dressed in their best clothes of cloth and silk, and powdered the hair. The houses were heated by the large open fireplaces ; furniture was strong and plain; sundials answered for clocks; and pewter and wood, for china, except on special occasions. Vegetables, corn meal, molasses, meat, fruits, tea, and beer were the usual food. The family, if in average circumstances, possessed silverware ; but it was seldom used. The farms presented a good appearance and were highly cultivated. Boston, of course, was the center of social life, as it was also the center of trade, learning, and government. It rose in an amphi- theater-like form from the water's edge. There were many large wharves. The "Long Wharf" was considered a great work, and was two thousand feet long, covered with large warehouses. The streets were wide, but very crooked and irregular. They were paved with cobblestones, and the gutters ran down the middle, with side- walks marked off by a line of posts and chains. They were clean and well kept. Life in Boston differed at first very little from that in the country towns ; but the English introduced the fashions and gayeties of English life, which were taken up by the people. The cold was very bitter. Cotton Mather wrote, " My ink-glass is frozen in my very stove." Furniture was costly and plentiful. People often owned estates out in the country, where they spent the summer. They had a great deal of silverware, china, glass, and tapestry. The markets were well stocked; food was plentiful and cheap; and good wine abounded in every cellar. Men wore broadcloth and velvet, lace rufiles, silk stockings, and diamond shoe-buckles. Powdered hair and swords were the fashion in society. Women dressed more splendidly than the men. High head-dresses and ostrich feathers were common. Ladies usually rode in a chaise attended by a negro; gentlemen went on horseback, attended also by a negro. Boston was a kind, hospitable city, but there existed the cold formality of the Puritan. Marriage was simple, and generally per- formed by a squire ; a minister was not thought to be a fit person to ofiiciate at the ceremony. It was but a civil contract, they said, and needed no official minister. Girls of sixteen and seventeen usually married, and women were called old maids at twenty-five. The young girl was free to almost any extent; but marriage changed 278 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. her j)Osition: freedom ceased; the home was her place, where she was expected to be. The virtue of the people verged into a prudish stiffness ; but the intrigues and gallantries of gay life were almost unknown in New England. Towards the end of the Colonial l^eriod inarriage changed from its simple, quiet cliaracter to one of great festivity. We have an account of one wedding where ninety-two couples danced ninety-two jigs, fifty-two contra-dances, forty -five minuets, and seventeen hornpipes. Funerals, at first very simple, grew into occasions of great pomp and dignity. The legislature was forced to regulate the cost, so much to the extreme did the people go. A death, if at night, was announced by tolling the bell at sunrise; if in daytime, at sunset. It was tolled once for a child; twice for a woman; and three times for a man. In learning, New England was first on the continent. She took pride in education, establishing the district plan of schools and founding two great colleges. The people disliked foreigners, and took great pride in their own race. The French Huguenot was the only foreigner ever welcomed to New England hospitality. The Papist, Irishman, and Frenchman were bitterly hated. The Scotcli Presbyterians were not liked; when England began her policy of absolute government, this dislike to foreigners extended to the English. The people, however, were very loyal to their own gov- ernment. They were so successful in evading the laws that England imposed, that they cared little for parliamentary acts as long as they could be evaded. Everybody in New England was a politician. One writer says, " They are all politicians even down to the house- maids, and read two newspapers a day." Speaking generally of all the people, it is true that art had very little place in colonial life. One would hardly expect a people in the wilds of America to give much attention to the tastes. Archi- tecture was hardly respectable. Public buildings were mostly deformities on the landscape. The country could boast neither of art nor artists before the present century. The prudish spirit stood in the way of art generally. Nude paintings or sculpture were thought indecent, and many times could not be exhibited save in private. In our own century, exhibitions of art in Philadelphia were open to men one day and women another, when ol)jectionable pieces were removed. The "Greek Slave," the most noted work of art in our country, wlien first shown at Cincinnati, was visited by a committee of clergymen to see if it were decent and suitable for CUSTOMS. 279 their people to visit. A young man was advised to mend shoes or dig potatoes rather than to make pictures in America. In 1820 the Edinburgh Eeview siiid: "Who, in the four quarters of the globe, reads an American book, goes to an American play, looks at an American painting or statue? What does the world owe to Ameri- can physicians or surgeons? What new substance have their chem- ists discovered? Wliat new constellations have their astronomers discovered? Who drinks of the American glasses? Who eats from American plates? Who wears an American coat or lies down to sleep in an American blanket? " The first quarter of the present century was gone before a single painting or piece of statuary was produced which will stand the criticisms of the future. One art, however, in some cities was popular, — the art of the actor. Baltimore gave the greatest freedom to this art; the other great cities frowned upon it or prohibited it. The theater did not present the fine surroundings now seen in it, but partook of the general roughness of the day. The portion of the house near the stage was called the pit, and was filled by Avhat are now called "gallery gods." The better class sat in boxes and seats above the pit; and the lower classes sat in the gallery. Seats were not re- served; but families would send their servants to occupy seats until they came, when the servants were dismissed. The play began at 6.15 o'clock. The bills announced that persons must bring exact change or they could buy no tickets ; that they must not call upon musicians for their favorite airs ; and that if any one had a play of interest, he would confer a favor by lending it to the manager. Sheridan's, Shakespeare's, and O'Keefe's plays were popular ones, but more simple ones called out greater applause. Admission to the boxes Avas one dollar; to the pit, five shillings; and to the gallery, ninepence; consequently the theaters were crowded every night in the week. Opposition to the stage was very bitter. Philadelphia began the war against theatrical performers, and many essays appeared in the papers for and against. It was not until after the Revolution that actors dared show themselves in New England. All over the country there was a bitter fight, which, in some degree, still exists. In this discussion of the characteristics of the people an effort has been made to picture them just as they lived. The four great classes — the Cavaliers, Quakers, Dutch, and Puritans — were very distinct and carried out ideas very differently. In government. 280 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. education, religion, and customs we constantly see a difference. The ])utch soon gave up their life for a more anglicized one, and the Quakers were lost in the great questions that came upon the people; but their princij)les are often the origin of great reform movements of to-day. New England and Virginia, the Puritan and Cavalier, furnished the distinct features of colonial life. The great question of independence forced them into a partnership, and the great civil strife of later days cemented it. It has been a long, hard fight to turn the Cavalier, l*uritan, Quaker, and Dutchman into Americans; but the severe school of experience and necessity has done it; the great fight of local authority and national supremacy has ended on American soil. Each has taken its real place in government. CHAPTER XXIII. AMUSEMENTS. Colonial Amusements — Virginia Gazette — Games — Nature op Amuse- ments — South — North — New York — Boston. PLANS for entertaining the people were numerous in the colo- nies, especially in the South, and in no colony there more than in Virginia. The fine old plantation gentleman is proverbial for his hospitality and means of entertainment. A dance or barbecue was of frequent occurrence. Williamsburg was the center of society, especially during the session of the Assembly. Carnival ran high, for then gathered the oratory, learning, chivalry, and beauty of the colony. The Crown's officers led the styles and gave balls full of brilliancy and life. The inauguration of the governor was the event of the year. Both sexes engaged in the mirth for a few weeks; then the women fell back to their routine duties of the house, but many times the men continued their pleasures all the year. There was considerable wealth, and betting was a favorite pastime. Horse- racing was popular. Fox-hunting, cock-fighting, card-playing, and drinking were daily amusements, and all served for betting. Drink- ing parties were fashionable, at which the one who could drink the most won the prize. In the Virginia Gazette of October, 1737, the following is adver- tised: "On St. Andrew's Day there will be hoyse-racing and other amusements for the entertainment of ladies and gentlemen. " It is proposed that twenty horses run around a course of three miles for a prize of five pounds. " A hat worth 20 shillings to be cudgeled for and none to play "with their left hand. A violin to be played for by twenty fiddlers. Twelve boys of 12 years of age will run 112 yards for a hat worth 12 shillings. A quire of ballads are to be sung for and each singer to have enough liquor to clear his windpipe. "A pair of silver buckles to be wrestled for by a number of 281 282 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. 5'oung men. A pair of hamlsome shoes to be danced for. A pair of handsome silk stockings to be given the handsomest yonng country maid that appears on the fiehi. There -will be many other whim- sical and comical diversions too numerous to mention. " As this mirth is designed to be purely innocent and void of offense, all persons resorting there are desired to behave themselves with decency and sobriety. The subscribers are resolved to dis- countenance all immorality with the utmost rigor." Sack-races, hogshead-races, and climbing greased poles prevailed everywhere. Bull-baiting and horse-penning, accompanied by a dance and barbecue, called out the whole surrounding districts. Oxen, pigs, and sturgeons were roasted whole at the barbecues, and the lower classes usually became intoxicated. In the South daily life on the plantation was isolated, so that men eagerly gathered at all meetings. Farmers gathered at the little villages to play a game of billiards or cards for the drinks. Court session was a groat period of drinking and lighting. Differences were usually settled with the fists. Neither the modern knife nor pistol was yet used in personal encounter. The French introduced dueling later. Drinking and gambling were the evils of these amusements. Gam- bling was alarmingly popular with all classes. Laws and penalties were imposed time and again, so prevailing was the practice, but the effort to stop it was generally unavailing. When some great event occurred, such as a victory in war by England, or the birthday of the king, there Avere alwaj's great rejoicings and feasting with illuminations, processions, and Punch and Judy sliow^s. Picnics, excursions, and Christmas festivities were enjoyed by all. The theater appeared as early as 1752 and became very popular. Marriages were always an excuse for feast- ing, dancing, and cards. We find this account of a supper served to a prominent person : Punch was served before dinner, wines of every make followed, and strawberries and ice-cream came in as varieties. The dinner came at an early hour in the afternoon and when finished the party sat about drinking wine \intil supper was served, and then came dancing, singing, and card-playing. Guests retired at ten o'clock, but dancers kept on until after midnight, when the gentle- men escorted their partners home. Sometimes for the fun of it, if the escort were a stranger to the place, the young lady ran away from him and let him lose himself in the swamps, where he would probably find himself when daylight came. AMUSEMENTS. 283 Farther south than Virginia things were much the same, except that society was not on as high a level. Charleston was a great social center, and there the polish of society was even greater tlian in Williamsburg, but in the country districts the same could not be said. Everywhere the great vices were drinking and gambling. Women in the Carolinas, who did not drink, often outlived two or three husbands wlio did. However, women faded quickly in that climate, looking old at thirty. Life was indolent, sensual, and indulgent. All the amusements of the South partook of the dan- gerous element. Fighting was common, as stated above, but with only the weapons nature furnished, and the parties usually arranged just how the fight should be carried out. It was arranged by agree- ment whether the combatants should bite off an ear, gouge out an eye, or maim each other in some way. Gouging was usually allowed, and every bully grew a long thumb-nail, and used it to gouge out the eyes of his opponent, unless the latter called out " King's Cruse " or "enough." There was a law against gouging which would hang a man if he had punched out tlie eyes of two men, but the practice was a favorite one in fighting. Such were the amusements of the South, and the evils attending them. Many of their customs have been abandoned and would not be credited now. Yet these people in all their questionable amusements and amidst their excessive drinking and gambling preserved their patriotic manhood and char- acter for the great day of need in American independence and union. But the student should not feel that these evils did no harm; indeed, they did great harm, and the entire country is not yet freed from the excesses of colonial life. In the North a different character was noticeable in the amuse- ments. In Pennsylvania thei-e was much drinking on all occasions, and dancing was a favorite pastime. Marriage was an event of great jollity. Neighbors gathered in to cut timber and build the one little room the young people should call home. Then came the house-warming with unlimited drinking and dancing. At public meetings there was a great deal of savage fighting, and sometimes there were conflicts between the Irish and Germans. Indeed, those conflicts form rather a dark period in Pennsylvania's history. Such was life in the backwoods of the colony, but in the more settled districts it was not so rude nor so vicious. The farmers were pros- perous, and living Avas simple. The nearer one came to Phila- delphia, the wealthier the homes became. Here the peo})lo were 284 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. temperate, and habits were comparatively pure and primitive. Drinking was still carried to an excess on occasions such as a mar- riage. Seed-time, harvest, husking, cider-pressing, house-raising, shooting-matches, sleighing, and Christmas sports were always occasions of large gatherings. Fairs and sales drew both sexes largely and were occasions of boisterous fun and hard fighting, always with the fists. Amusements were not so popular in New Jersey as in her sister states. There was too much of the stern Puritan character. Stage plays, games, masques, revels, bull-baiting, and cock-fighting were discouraged, and card-playing even in one's house was punishable. Liquor-selling was prohibited at places of amusement. There were some drinking and horse-racing, and fairs were held, which the farmers enjoyed very much. New York had an occasional picnic, corn-husking, or spinning-bee, while in winter, skating and coasting were popular. There were horse-racing, bull-baiting, feasts, and tavern parties in that colony. In the city of New York, society, of course, was more gay. In fact. New York was the gayest city in the New World. Great luxury was displayed. Balls, theaters, and concerts were popular. The club for gentlemen was organized, but gambling was not so prevalent. Generally speaking, tlie amuse- ments of all classes in the city were wholesome. A stroll in the park on Sunday, and barbecues, fireworks, and dancing were the chief diversions of the people. Holidays, originating with the Dutch, were taken up by the English and many were observed. Christmas, New Year's day, Passover, Whitsuntide, and St. Nicholas were fes- tival days. St. Valentine's day, Easter, May day, and celebrations of events furnished many days of pleasure. Pinkster was a day of fun for the negroes, who had a picnic and dance, sometimes very indecent, yet witnessed by all the people of the town. New England furnished, a soberer aspect of life than tlie other colonies. Life consisted of so much precision that its monotony was like a pall hanging over the people. Enjoyment was no great part of a Puritan's life. Neighbors would gather about one another's fireplace to shell nuts, make brooms, chat, tell stories, play simple games, and sometimes dance. The New England women did a great deal of visiting. The house-raising was an event of importance; this was followed by feasting, dancing, and drinking, tliougli rarely to an excess. Quiltings, huskings, spinning-bees, sleigh rides, pic- nics, tea parties, supper parties, and dancing parties were common AMUSEMENTS. 285 and increased as the country grew older. Holidays were few. Thanksgiving and Fast day were religious days, and the election and training days occurred four times yearly. Running, wrestling, boxing, pitching quoits, and shooting at marks were favorite pas- times on training-day. In Boston amusements were changed by the English from the Puritan aspect to suit the more jolly disposition of the English officers. Besides all the sports named above, theaters, though strongly resisted, were introduced, but secured no strong foothold till after the Revolution. The lecture was very popular. On an average six nights out of seven would find a lecture in Boston liber- ally patronized. Weddings were quiet affairs, seldom officiated at by a clergyman, but generally by a justice of the peace. This sim- plicity finally passed away in New England, and the marriage occa- sioned as much merry-making as in the other colonies. Great pomp and state were observed at funerals, and expenses became so extravagant that they were regulated by law. After the burial the people returned to the house and feasted and drank. Balloon-flying and parachute-jumping were engaged in after the Revolution in all the colonies. Nearly all the more modern sports and entertain- ments had their origin before 1800. The reader will notice that life in the colonies was interesting and eventful. It is well to think of history as life made up not only of great events and men, but also of daily pastimes and ordinary characters. CHAPTER XXIV. SICKNESS AND MEDICINE. Doctor's Standing — Medical Schools — Treatment — Virginia — Pennsyl- vania — French and Indian War — New England — Inoculation. IN many of the colonies, the cloctov was not a highly prized per- sonage, but in others he was ; and his popularity increased as the years went by, so that he became a very important accession to a town. Before 1776 there were but two medical schools in the country, and a doctor's education was not very good. Most physi- cians secured their education in the office of some practitioner in Boston and New York. Subjects for dissecting were hard to get, and medical knowledge was derived from experience more than from books. The doctor was his own apothecary. The rule was to dose heavily with medicines. It is said that well people, a half-century ago, took more medicine than sick ones do now. Every spring some- thing was taken to purify the blood, purge the bowels, excite the kidneys, and move the bile, whether anything was the matter or not. Water was wholly denied the fever patient. Compounds of medicine were taken till the lips turned blue and the gums fell away from the teeth. The fainting patient was profusely bled. Cupping and leeching were often prescribed. Powdered cinchona bark was the only cure known for malaria. Vaccination was not known till 1798. It was s\ipposed to be punished by divine power. Smallpox was as prevalent then as pneumonia is now. Yellow fever was as common in all its horrors in the Northern towns as it is now far South. There was nothing to kill pain, as chloroform and ether do now. As said above, early in colonial life the medical profession was not a very high one. In Virginia it was very Ioav indeed. Laws regulated fees in 1657. A little later bills of surgeons might be made against an estate of a deceased person. One shilling per mile was allowed as the charge of a physician's visit, and all medicines 28C SICKNESS AND MEDICINE. 287 must be carefully placed in the bill. Setting a fracture "was worth two pounds by law. If it were a compound fracture, four pounds might be charged. Physicians who held university degrees might charge double. The physician was given great prominence in Pennsylvania, but he had often to make his living by farming or some trade, so little pay was in the profession. In 1766 an examination was made nec- essary to the practice in New Jersey. This law freed the profession from quacks and rapidly advanced it. It was necessary for doctors to ride miles in their practice, sometimes consuming two weeks on a round of visits. The French and Indian War had a marked influence on the pro- fession. Indeed, the usefulness of the profession, in this country, dates from that time. In the War, army surgeons Av^ere called for, and all the quacks of the country presented themselves ; the alarm- ing and disgraceful condition of so noble a profession was for the first time noticed. Any one might be a physician regardless of preparation. There was no protection against malpractice. About 1760, states began to license physicians on an examination, and then an advance was perceptible. A few years later, Harvard and the University of Pennsylvania both established medical schools, and men of ability began to enter the profession. In New England, the clergy were often physicians, having studied medicine in connection with theology. The school teacher was sometimes a doctor and infrequently some trade was connected with the work. The first medical work was Thacher's " Brief Kule to guide the People in Smallpox," published in 1677. Inoculation was bitterly opposed, as stated above. Dr. Boylston introduced the system, and Cotton Mather was its great champion. It was ojiposed because it anticipated the plans of God, and was very expensive. As late as 1774, the hospital on Cat Island was burned because it was thought it would be used for inoculating patients. The reader will easily comprehend the great growth of medicine since colonial days. There are now many different schools and the profession is to-day filled with learned and able men. CHAPTER XXV. TERRITORIAL GROWTH. Boundary OF 1783 — Jay's Treaty — Treaty of Ghent — Webster-Ashbur- TON Treaty — Louisiana — Florida — Texas — New Mexico and Cali- fornia — Gadsden Purchase — Oregon — Alaska. THE treaty made with England in 1783 established the inde- pendence of the United States, and gave it the following boundary : North, the Highlands dividing the rivers that flow to the St. Lawrence from the rivers that flow to the Atlantic Ocean, tlie Connecticut River from its sonrce to parallel 45 degrees north, said parallel to its intersection with the St. Lawrence, the middle of the lake and St. Lawrence waterway to Long Lake, the middle of this lake and the water connections beyond it to the northwesternmost corner of the Lake of the Woods, and a. line drawn due west from this point to the Mississippi Eiver. West, the middle of the Mississippi River to parallel 31 degrees north latitude. South, parallel 31 degrees to Chattahoochee River, the middle of the stream to its junction with the Flint, a straight line drawn from this junction to the head of St. Mary's, and the middle of St. Mary's to the sea. East, the ocean, including all islands within twenty leagues of the coast, save such as belong to Nova S(?otia; the middle of St. Croix River from its mouth to its source, and a straight line drawn due north from snch source to the place of beginning. The treaty gave to the United States that territory the colonists had claimed, but there was snch a dispute as to what the claim was and so little certainty over boundaries that nothing definite could be established. America claimed the St. John's to be the boundary line between New England and Nova Scotia, and the English held that the Kennebec was. America understood that the St. Lawrence from its intersection with the 45th parallel was the northern boundary, but accepted the Connecticut from its intersec- tion with that parallel. She also advocated that the middle of the 288 TERRITORIAL GROWTH. 289 Mississippi was the western boundary, wliicli had been the dividing line between Spain and England in 1763 ; but England claimed that this boundary was a line between the Atlantic streams and the Mis- sissippi valley. England woidd yield to the Americans south of the Ohio, but held out strongly for the territory north as a part of Canada. Spain had ceded Florida to England in 1763, but in her war with England in 1779-83 she had regained most of it, and in the Treaty of 1783 wanted all of Florida and the eastern half of the Mississippi valley south of the Ohio. America held that the 31st degree should be the northern boundary of Florida, to which Eng- land agreed, providing a secret clause could be put in the treaty making a parallel passing through the mouth of the Yazoo the boundary if England succeeded in keeping Florida, which she did not; so the boundary became 31 degrees north latitude by Eng- land's agreement. In the Treaty of 1763 Florida extended to the Yazoo, and Spain claimed that parallel, but released her claims in 1795 in favor of the United States. On the north it was not settled as to which river was the St. Croix. This was settled in favor' of the United States by a joint commission, in 1798, arranged for in Jay's Treaty. The Treaty of Ghent in 1814 divided the disputed boundary question into four parts and referred them to three joint commissions. The first com- mission was to deal with the disputed islands in Passamaquoddy Bay and Bay of Fundy ; the second, to locate the line from the head of the St. Croix to the St. Lawrence ; and the third should de- termine and mark the lake and St. Lawrence boundary to the head of Lake Huron and the remaining section to the Lake of the Woods. The first commission completed its work in 1817. The third commission reported in 1822, but could not settle the boundary from Lake Huron to the Lake of the Woods. The second could not agree, and its work was completed by the Webster-Ashbur- ton Treaty of 1842. Before this time (1814) it had been found that a line due west from the northwest point of the Lake of the Woods would never reach the Mississippi. The northern boundary of the Louisiana territory was also a disputed point. These were both fixed in 1818. The ownership of the Mississippi River was the most necessary thing to western development, in 1800, that had until then been felt. In 1763 France, then claiming half the river, had given Eng- land free navigation of the same in the treaty that surrendered 290 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. her eastern claims to England ; and in 1783 England and the United States had agreed that the river should forever be open to the people of England and the United States. ]>ut the Pope declared that as far as the United States was concerned, these treaties were null. In 17C3 Spain owned the western side of the river and the island of New Orleans, and in 1783 she secured Florida again. Then north of the parallel of 31 degrees the line between the United States and Spain was in the middle of the river, but south of that line Spain owned all the river, and this left the western settlers wholly at the mercy of Spain for a convenient outlet. Spain was a jealous and uncertain neighbor. The first ten years of independence she disputed the claims of the United States to the lower East Mississippi valley, and kept troops in the territory. Sometimes she opened up the Mississippi, and sometimes closed it. A trader who started to New Orleans or the Gulf might not be allowed to get through. One conld not tell from one day to the next how it would be. It became so serious that the West threat- ened to secede, conquer New Orleans, and form a new government. This uncertainty continued until 1795, when Spain gave the United States the right to the river, and also acknowledged her claims to the territory ; but the local authorities often broke the treaty, and it became plain that the United States must own and control the Mississippi or give up the vast resources of the great West. In 1800 Napoleon compelled Spain to cede Louisiana to France. This was at first kept secret, but when it became known it caused the wildest excitement in the United States ; for France was stronger than Spain and could not be trusted any better. Delegates were sent to Paris to purchase the island of New Orleans for .f 2,000,000. Napoleon proposed the sale of all Louisiana, and the United States hastened to purchase it for f 15,000,000. There were now (1804) more than 1,000,000 people in the West, which made up 18 per cent, of the Avhole population. They needed only the great river to insure peace and prosperity ; now they had it, and the boundary of the United States became, roughly, the Pocky Afoun- tains on the west, Mexico on the southwest, and Florida and the Gulf on the south. France divided her territory in the New World in 1703, and gave all on the west of the Mississippi to Spain, and all east to England. Spain at the same time gave Florida to England. Eng- land gave it back to Spain in 1783. It now became a menace to the TERRITOKIAL GROWTH. 291 United States because it held the mouths of important rivers, thereby controlling the navigation of the same; and also held marauding bands of pirates who crossed the line and preyed on the Americans, then recrossed into their native territory. To pro- tect the Southern States, Florida must be secured in some way ; it was as important as Louisiana, then, or more so. Spain was heavily in debt to the United States for depredations on her seamen. The latter country pressed the Pope, who acted for Spain, for settlement of the several claims; and in 1819 he sold Florida to the United States for $5,000,000, which was to be paid to the United States merchantmen. Before 1819 it was thought that the Louisiana Purchase extended south to the Eio Grande, and so in the Florida purchase the United States relinquished all claims to Texas. In 1821 Mexico became independent. Texas then belonged to Mexico, and so remained until 1836, when she seceded and became the "Lone Star" state, remaining independent until 1845, when she was annexed to the United States with the condition that she might be divided into several states. When Texas came into the Union, she brought her old quarrel with Mexico over her boundary. Mexico claimed the Nueces ; and Texas, the Eio Grande. The disputed territory was held by the United States, and with it, by the treaty at the close of the Mexican War in 1848, were secured New Mexico and California, for which was given $15,000,000. New Mexico originally included Utah, Nevada, and much of Arizona, Colorado, and the present boundary of New Mexico. The Gila Kiver region soon brought out a dispute. The Mesilla valley was claimed by both the United States and Mexico. War seemed the inevitable result of the claim, but in 1853 the United States bought the territory for f 10,000,000. The northwest coast presented a variety of claims ; Spain, Eng- land, Holland, Germany, Eussia, Greece, and the United States each held claims, which finally resolved themselves into conflicting claims between the United States and England. Spain's claim ran back to 1543. Eussia claimed that Oregon was but an extension of Alaska. England based her claims on Drake's voyage in 1580; and the United States, on Lewis and Clarke's expedition. The name Oregon is Spanish and means " big ear," so named from a tribe of Indians in the territory. 292 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Ill 1792 Captain Gray entered the river which he named Colum- bia, taking the place of the name Oregon given it by the Spaniards. On this voyage and the expedition of Lewis and Clarke, the United States rested its claims. In 1811 Mr. Astor founded Astoria at the mouth of the Columbia. In 1819 Spain ceded her rights to the United States, and in 1824 Russia agreed to make no settlements south of 54 degrees 40 minutes, and the United States was to make none north of that line. In 1825 lUissia and England made similar agreements. These several treaties fixed the northern and southern boundaries and excluded Spain and Russia from the territory, leav- ing England and the United States in the field; and in 1818 they agreed to leave the territory open for settlement by both countries for ten years. In 1828 the time was extended indefinitely, with the provision that one should give the other a year's notice to terminate the treaty. By 1845 settlements were so numerous, Americans being in the majority, that the boundary line was drawn at 49 degrees, and through the middle of the strait and sound. A later dispute arose over this water line, which was settled in 1872 by the Emperor of Germany. The United States at last had secured its rights to the Oregon territory, which rights were based on Gray's discovery of the Columbia River in 1792 ; Lewis and Clarke's expedition, 1803- 1806 ; the founding of Astoria, 1811 ; the Spanish treaty, 1819 ; the Russian treaty of 1824; settlements from 1832 to 184G; and the treaties of 184(3 and 1872. Other claims were based on the fact that the territory was contiguous and a part of the Louisiana Purchase, but the United States had no right to Oregon from the Louisiana Purchase. Behring, a German seaman in the Russian employ, discovered Behring Strait in 1728 and the North American Continent in lati- tude 58 degrees 28 minutes in 1741. This was the basis of Russia's claim to Alaska. As early as 1848 there was some agitation over the purchase of Alaska, and again in 1858, which continued until 1867, when the United States purchased the territory for $7,200,000. The purposes of this purchase were several : fur trade, trade with China and Japan, and the growing belief in Garfield's words that the " Pacific would be the historic sea of the future." By owning Alaska, the United States gained more of this future history. The idea that the American Continent is for Republican government only has become a fixed principle, and this purchase removed another monarchy from the soil, The friendship existing between Russia TERRITORIAL GROWTH. 293 and the United States, and the belief that England was seeking the territory, had no little influence in bringing about the transaction. Now the great question is, Should the United States secure the gap between Alaska and the rest of her territory by another purchase, thus uniting the two ? Events point toward the necessity of such a move. Beginning with 819,815 square miles of territory in 1776, the United States is now (1897) 121 years from commencement, pos- sessed of the enormous territorial area of 3,501,509 square miles, an area which Mr. Gladstone says " is a natural basis for the greatest continuous empire ever established by man." CHAPTER XXVI. MANUFACTURES. Colonial Period — England's Policy — Revolutionary Period — From 1783 TO 1789 — Invention — Patent Office — Decrees and Orders — Union Manufacturing Company — Connecticut — New Hampshire — 1808 to 1812 — War of 1812 — Tariff. NOT much can be said of manufacturing during the Colonial Period. It was England's policy that America should not build up such for herself, but should receive all goods from Phigland in English vessels. The Navigation Act of 16G0 was enforced by Admiralty Courts, appointed by royalty. It was made more rigid by an act in 1699, which provided that after the first day of Decem- ber, 1699, no wool, or manufacture of wool, or goods mixed with wool in America, should be loaded on any ship or vessel on any pretense whatsoever, or loaded on any horse, cart, or carriage to be carried out of the colonies. This law was made because wool was a valuable product in England, and the American wool must be kept off the market. Under this law, one colony could not even carry wool into another. The people in Virginia had either to make their own clothing or go unclothed, and the governor advised Par- liament to forbid the people making their own clothing. Every- where the law was disobeyed, even quite openly, so unjust did they think it. An act passed Parliament in 1704, that not even a tree fit for a mast should be cut north of the Delaware River without the royal consent. For twenty years affairs moved along under this policy. In 171S Massachusetts dared place a duty on English goods sent into the colony. The Crown vetoed the measure, and warned the people that such acts were dangerous to their charter. Hats were made in the country in 1719, but the London Company of Hatters objected, and Parliament forbade the work. There were only six iron furnaces and nineteen forges at that time, and these were 294 MANUFACTURES. 295 limited in the work they did. Duties were laid on goods manu- factured in America. In spite of the lynx-like watchfulness of England, manufactures prospered to some extent. By 1750 the manufacture of iron had grown so important, that Parliament gave it extra attention, and an act was passed forbidding the manufacture of spikes and nails, and it also forbade the erection of any mill for slitting or rolling iron, and any forge for making steel and bar-iron. A law was enacted in 1760 that the colonists should not export sugar, tobacco, cotton, indigo, ginger, dyeing woods, molasses, rice, pelts of any kind, copper ore, pitch, tar, turpentine, masts, yards, bowsprits, coffee, pimento, cocoanuts, whale fins, raw silk, hides, skins, nor potashes, except to England or ports she should name. No foreign ship was allowed to enter a colonial port. Salt could come into the ports of New England, New York, Pennsylvania, and Quebec. Great Britain practically became the storehouse for all American supplies. The people were not allowed to ferry wool across a river. They did not dare print the Bible, and it is a remarkable fact that not an English Bible was printed in America until after 1776. Not a hat could be moved beyond its own town. Everything that the colonists could make was taxed out of existence, and everything they had to buy abroad was loaded down with duties. England, while tending towards freer trade, was literally trying to crush the life out of American manufacturing. Such was manufacturing in America before 1776. During the Revolution not much was done towards increasing the advantages. At the close England placed enormous duties on all goods shipped to America. The states could not now object, since they were inde- pendent; but they could retaliate, and did. Immediately a great cry arose for protection. Pennsylvania as early as 1785 proposed a bill to her Assembly that placed a protective duty on more than seventy articles, including iron and steel. It ended by petitioning Congress to take steps for the general good. It was this looseness in trade, and the limiting of trade between states, and their non- agreement on import duties, that forced them into a better union, and to adopt the Constitution. It was during this period, however, 1783 to 1789, that New England began that system of manufacturing which dotted all her streams with the busy homes of trade. Cotton and woolen goods formed this beginning. Rude patterns of the Arkwright machine 296 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. were set iip. The spinning- jenny was mucli opposed, and at first was used secretly. Mobs broke into shops and destroyed the machines, and the inventor was often in danger of his life. But a change came. England, once ready to mob Arkwright for his inven- tion, soon knighted him for the same reason, and took steps tliat no model should leave the country. The United States sent a man to England to steal a model, and one was made in brass, but was discovered and destroyed just on the eve of shipment. But help came from another source. Two Scotchmen in the country knew some- tliing of the spinning-jenny, and these men were given six tickets in a land lottery, from the money of which they made the first cotton-spinning machines in the country. A Mr. Somers about tlie same time went to England, and at great risk studied different machines there, and secured models of some. The Massachusetts legislature gave him money to advance his work, and he succeeded in i)utting up a model of Arkwright's machine, so that by 1790 this machine, so carefully guarded by England, was operating in the manufactories of the United States. Thus was New England work- ing under the guidance of a few clear heads, while the rest of the country was quarreling over duties, taxes, etc. When the Federal government was organized, it gave its first attention to manufacturing and trade. The policy, to restrain for- eign trade, except when it was reciprocal, and to increase home manufactures, was a popular one. Societies for the promotion of manufactures were organized over the country. " Importation must be checked " was the cry everywhere. The members of the society in Delaware pledged themselves to appear each New Year's day in American-made goods, to foster the growth of flax and wool, and to discourage the purchase of cloth abroad. This was the sentiment of the country, and the result was a return to old colonial simplicity. Jeans was worn. Young women wove and made their own cloth- ing. Men drank home beer, and Washington, when he took his oath of office, was dressed in garments that were the product of American soil and ingenuity. Young women would have spinning- bees; old spinning-wheels were brought out, and the petted daughter of the aristocracy proudly learned their use. Here we should stop long enough to notice that great storehouse and preserver of so much of the machinery and inventions of United States, — the Patent Office. The credit of the sj^stem belongs to Jefferson. He is the father of the American Patent Office. It Avas MANUFACTURES. 297 established iu 1790, with the Secretary of State, Secretary of War, and Attorney-General as a board of commissioners to examine and grant patents. The first year, 1790, but three patents were issued; the next, thirty-three ; the next, eleven ; the next, twenty ; and only two hundred and sixty-eight, all told, by 1800. Examinations were most rigid, and there was no appeal. This wholesale refusal of patents created a great clamor, and a change was demanded. The granting of patents was given to the Secretary of State, and he was required to grant patents for anything that might not prove harm- ful to the people. For forty-three years this law continued, and Congress was again called to meet the evils of the system. In 1836 the Post-office Building, in which was the Patent Office, was burned to the ground; there were then 7000 models in the building, and all were burned. In this list of models there were a grain culler, dock cleaner, threshing machine, candle machine, machine for turning iron into steel, and the cotton-gin; this last is the most remarkable invention of any age in its influence on history. The prosperity of cotton began from that time, and the development of slavery was giant-like. At present the Patent Office is in charge of the Interior Depart- ment, and presided over by a commissioner. A patent right now runs seventeen years without renewal except by Congress. More than 400,000 patents have been granted by the office. Manufactures were not greatly cherished the first fifteen years of national life. England was as much the storehouse of American supplies as in the days gone by, when she held control of the com- merce. When the Milan and Berlin Decrees, the Orders in Council, and Embargo Act checked this foreign trade in 1807, exports amounted to $168,000,000 annually, and imports to f 138,000,000. But the Decrees and Orders placed this carrying trade in a new light. It was seen that the United States should not only be politi- cally independent, but industrially so. The question was asked, " What shall become of a people who cannot cast a cannon, weave a blanket, nor make a flannel shirt, or pair of socks?" Manufactures had rather decreased in these years, and agricul- ture and commerce became the leading lines of work, but the Embargo broke up this system and began an era of manufacturing. At Baltimore, December, 1807, the citizens held a meeting in the interest of home manufactures, and a committee was appointed. This committee addressed the people in circular letters, which were 298 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. SO well received that in March, 180S, the Union Manufacturing Company of Maryland was organized, and stock began to sell. This was the real beginning of manufacturing, and its development be- came the rage all over the country. Premiums were offered on broadcloth, forest cloth, fancy cloth, thread, etc. The South Caro- lina Homespun Company was organized at Charleston, and sold a thousand shares in one day. The Petersburg Manufacturing Com- pany sold $25,000 worth of stock in a few hours. Virginia and her society for encouragement of domestic manufactures offered prizes on home-made linen, cotton cloth, and woolen cloth, and the militia agreed to appear on the 4th of July in Virginia cloth. Tennessee offered prizes for the best home-made cutlery, and declared itself opposed to foreign goods. Every large city formed societies to pro- mote home manufactures, and the people pledged themselves not to wear anything but liome-made goods. To be popular and have sales, salesmen had to advertise American goods. " The infant manufac- tories, like the infant Hercules, must strangle the serpent of British Influence." The craze spread to the state legislatures, and many passed resolutions that the members should appear in home-made goods. Connecticut turned her attention to the raising of sheep. The minister to Portugal sent home one hundred merino sheep, and the legislature appointed a committee to examine and report on the experiment. New Hampshire removed taxation from woolen and cotton manufactures. Pennsylvania laid a tax on dogs, and the commissioners used the money to buy merino sheep. New York offered a prize of f 50 to the first man to bring a merino ram into the state. Napoleon's invasion of Spain had caused the price of these flocks to decrease, and for a time the United States consul did nothing else but buy sheep and ship them to America. Rams brought f 500 in the American markets. Merino societies Avere formed, and the country seemed to go crazy over merinos. The reader should consider the condition of commerce at this time, for in that lies the source of all this agitation for home manu- factures. The Embargo Act, Non-importation Act, Erench Decrees, Orders in Council, l)ounties, exemption from taxes, pledges of the people to buy only homo goods, and the sympathy and help of legis- latures, all gave manufactures a great o])portuuity to start and develop. Mills, factories, workshoi)S, and foundries began to hum with MANUFACTURES. 299 their busy wheels from Maine to Louisiana. From 1808 to 1812 the industrial growth was wonderful. Woolen and cotton mills abounded in New England. Iron works, salt works, glass works, paper-mills, cotton-mills, thread-mills, and factories for making axes, scythes, and edged tools, were in New York. Chemical works, carpet-mills, type-foundries, and shot-towers existed in Pennsyl- vania. The wool-growing industry was prominent in Ohio, while the raising of hemp, and rope and hemp factories, with hat, boot, and shoe shops were plentiful in Kentucky. At the lifting of the Embargo Act there arose a great cry for protection. Labor societies were formed over the country for the purpose of regulating wages, and as many strikes were formed from 1809 to 1812 as at any time in the history of the country. Unions were as rigid then as now, and the fight between labor and capital in America began in those years of rapid development of home-made goods, and is not yet settled. During the War of 1812 home manu- factures naturally increased, and at the close of the War there was a great quantity of goods on the home market, ready to be shipped to foreign markets as soon as the ports were open. A remarkable growth in commerce followed; for while the coarser materials were made at home, silks, satins, muslins, brocades, hardware, edged tools, Madeira, molasses, coffee, and tea were imported. British goods of this kind flooded the market, and men were wild to buy. At auction such goods sold at 300 per cent, advance. Again the country seemed to become British and forget itself. This craze of the people ruined the home manufactures, and made the English rich. There arose a feeling that industries should not be planted to draw men and women into towns, while the western lands were so broad, rich, and empty. Let the United States farm, and Eng- land make her goods, was a pretty widely distributed sentiment in 1815 and 1816. But the tide turned, foreign buying subsided, and soon the people began asking the question why they should send $50,000,000 yearly to England, when it could be kept at home. Cotton and woolen mills especially had been suffering, and were almost ruined; this industrial condition brought up the famous Tariff Bill of 1816, really the beginning of the protective system in America. (See article on Tariff.) From now on the growth of manufactures and the tariff are so closely linked that they can best be described together, for which see "Tariff." CHAPTER XXVII. MAIL. Before 1776 — Compared to the Present — To 1800 — Number of Offices — Hates of 1792 — Newspapers — Classification — Hates till Present ! — Stamps — Registered Letters — Money Orders — Free Delivery — Franking — Appointments — Foreign Postage. IN 1G92 England authorized a general post-office system in British America, connecting the chief parts of the country. By 1695 mail went eight times a year from Baltimore to Philadelphia. The system defrayed its own expenses. William III. appointed a post- master for the northern provinces. The system reached south as far as Maryland. In 1710 a post-office for all of the American colo- nies was established, and the rate of postage was fixed by Parlia- ment. All ferries were free to the mail service, and New York was made the center of mail routes. Some people fought the system because Parliament levied the rate, claiming that it was a tax, and that only the assemblies should tax the people ; but the benefits were so great that the opposition soon ceased. Newspapers were excluded from the mails. The mail routes extended from Williams- burg, Virginia, to Maine, by 1718 ; but there were but eight mails per year from Philadelphia to the Potomac, and to reach or leave Williamsburg, the carrier had to wait until enough letters had been received to pay to make the trip ; so that mail Avent at very irregu- lar intervals from Williamsburg to Philadelphia. Benjamin Franklin became postmaster-general in 1753, and served until 1774, Avhen he was dismissed from the office. Under his control the system grew, and even became a source of revenue to the CroAvn. Goddard, a printer of Baltimore, succeeded Franklin, and he proposed a Constitutional American Tost-office. Before this plan could he carried out, Independence was declared, and Franklin was reinstated with orders from Congress to establish 300 MAIL. 301 a line of posts from Falmouth, in New England, to Savannah, Georgia, with as many cross-posts as he deemed necessary. Massa- chusetts established fourteen post-ofl&ces, and New Hampshire one, so that the posts, established by both the states and Congress, reached from Georgetown, Maine, to Savannah, Georgia. A distance of thirty miles was considered a fair day's travel for the post in summer, and in winter the distance was considerably less. Such was the beginning of the great mail service of the United States. Now it carries more than 600,000,000 letters annually over 100,000,000 miles. More mail is now distributed daily in New York City than in one year over the entire country in Franklin's time. Letters went then from New York to Boston three times a week in summer, and twice a week in winter. Six days were needed for the journey. A pair of saddle-bags held the mail then. Mail went from New York to Philadelphia, after the Revolution, five times a week, and was carried by a boy on horseback. This was poor enough for the cities, but in the districts and towns of the frontier mail came at irregular intervals from once a week, to once in six weeks or two months. Letters would lie in the office for months because of lack of money to pay transportation, as then postage was paid by the receiver instead of by the sender. There was no secur- ity to the mail ; carriers opened mail along the route and read it, and no punishment could be meted out. Business men, and others who desired secret correspondence, wrote in cipher. Long after the Revolution nothing was safe in the mails if it could be read. After the Constitution was ratified, Samuel Osgood was made postmaster-general. Osgood resigned in 1791, and Timothy Picker- ing was appointed to fill the place. The duties were so slight and unimportant that the department was not made a cabinet office. From then until now, what a growth ! In 1776 there were 28 post- offices in the United States ; in 1790, 75 ; in 1795, 453 ; now there are more than 70,000. The yearly revenue then was $25,000, now it is f 75,000,000. The postage was according to the distance, and was 36 cents from New York to Savannah. The first attention towards increasing the speed of the mail was given by Jefferson while Secre- tary of State. It was the desire to carry it 100 miles every 24 hours, letting riders take it by day, and stages by night ; but the country was too poor to furnish coaches. By a law passed in 1792, the rates of postage were as follows : Single letters (and by single letters was meant one written on a single sheet, two sheets made 302 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. a double letter, three a triple, etc., and charges -were made accord- ingly), to 30 miles, G cents ; 30 to GO miles, 8 cents ; GO to 100 miles, 10 cents ; 100 to 150 miles, 12 cents ; 150 to 200 miles, 15 cents ; 200 to 250 miles, 17 cents ; 250 to 350 miles, 20 cents ; 350 to 450 miles, 22 cents ; 450 miles and over, 25 cents. Newspapers were admitted as mail matter by the same law, and one cent was charged for each paper for any distance less than 100 miles. Beyond that distance the rate was a cent and a half. There was much grumbling over the newspaper rate, as the subscriber would have to pay the postage on taking his paper from the office. The subscription price alone of a paper was f 8 per year : it was not fair, they claimed, to place a tax on the newspaper, which would make it higher. It was feared that people would not take the papers. The law did not include books and magazines, and the Postmaster-General absolutely refused to admit them into offices at all, and many were forced to suspend. The law of 1792 expired in June, 1794, and then some changes were made ; carriers were employed in the large cities, and two cents per letter was allowed them for the work ; postage on newspapers was reduced to one cent for transportation inside the state where printed. If the size of the mail would permit, magazines and pamphlets were taken at one cent a sheet for 50 miles or less, half as much more for the next 50 miles, and ten cents when the distance was more than 100 miles. Now, mailable matter is divided into four classes : letters ; pub- lications ; books, circulars, and transient newspapers ; and merchan- dise. The postage on letters is two cents for each ounce or fraction of an ounce. Drop letters are two cents in a free delivery office, and one cent elsewhere. Postal cards are one cent each. Regular publications are admitted at one cent a pound, where they are issued at least four times a year. Periodicals are sent free to subscribers in the same county as the publication. Books, pamphlets, circulars, etc., go for one cent for two ounces or fractions thereof. The limit is four pounds unless it is a single book. Merchandise is entered at one cent an ounce with the limit at four pounds. The change to these rates from the rates of 1792 was slow. Letters continued at the old rate, until 1845, when postage was reduced to five cents for 300 miles and less, and to ten cents for a longer distance. In 1851 the rate was lowered to three cents for .'JOOO miles if prepaid and to five cents if not j)repaid. These rates were doubled if the distance MAIL. 303 was greater. Since 1855 prepayment of postage has been necessary. In 1863 a uniform rate of three cents was established, which was reduced to two cents in 1883, and one ounce was made the limit for that rate in 1885. Down to 1845, letters were single or double as described above. In that year a half-ounce was called a single letter. Postage stamps came into use in 1847, though some were known in the Colonial Period. Stamped envelopes were first used in 1852, and postal cards in 1872. The registered letter system was estab- lished in 1855. A fee of eight cents is charged besides the postage for such a letter. The government is in no way responsible for such letters if lost, except to try to find them. The postal money order is an outgrowth of the Civil War. A registered letter is not perfectly safe at any time, and during the War it was very unsafe if it had to pass through the army, since by special marks being put upon it, it advertised that it contained money. But a money order is only an order for money payable to the person whose name is given in the letter of advice. The letter of advice is sent by the postmaster with whom the money is deposited, to the postmaster where the money is to be paid. This is a convenient and cheap plan for sending money. One may send as much as $100 in one letter, and a charge is made according to the amount sent. Free delivery was authorized in certain places in 1863. This system has been extended to towns of 4000 inhabitants or more, and the immediate delivery of a letter is made in any town, and also at any country office within a mile limit, when it bears a special ten- cent stamp. The franking privilege, or the privilege of sending mail free, was allowed formerly to the President, Vice-President, cabinet officers, congressmen, and delegates from Territories. Washington, John Adams, Jefferson, and Madison held the privilege for life. At one time the same was given to all ex-Presidents and their widows. The privilege was abolished in 1873. In 1877 all mail concerning the business of the government and documents printed by Congress were given the privilege of a frank. Postmasters whose compensation is $1000 or more per year are appointed by the President ; when the compensation is less than that sum, they are appointed by the postmaster-general. The appoint- ments are for four years. The first class are paid salaries ; the second receive box-rents, a commission on canceled stamps, and office 804 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. receipts from other sources. At the present time (1897) the anni;al expenditures of the Post-office Department exceed the revenues l)y about $10,000,000; still the Department is a success, and a pro- gressive agency. Mail to foreign countries costs extra for postage. To all countries except Canada and Mexico the rates are as follows : letters, five cents extra; postal cards, two cents; and newspapers, one cent. Letters to Canada are two cents extra, and postal cards one cent extra. Letters and newspapers have no extra charge between United States and Mexico. CHAPTER XXVIII. THE FARMER. Colonial Period — Products — Virginia and Maryland — Georgia — Other States. IF one should attend market in Boston to-day, lie Avould find quite a different scene from the one a century ago and later. Pears and apples were plentiful, but not of the variety and quality of to- day. Raspberries and strawberries grew wild on the hills. Oranges and bananas were luxuries, which only the very rich could enjoy. Ice was not put to its many uses. Water came from the town pump, and butter hung in the well or in a damp corner of the cellar. Farms of that period were badly fenced, barns were small and poorly erected, and machinery was hardly known. The threshing-machine was invented in 1786, and the cast-iron wheeled plow, drill, reaper and binder, and hayrake are not a half-century old. The land was plowed with a wooden plow, grain was sowed broadcast, cut with a scythe, and threshed with a flail. Houses were without paint, and floors were without carpet ; often the ground served for a floor. Huge fireplaces, that took uj) a side of a room, were the common means of heating. Beef, pork, salt fish, dried apples, and vegetables were the usual daily fare. Wooden dishes, and a block for a table, would answer for serving a meal. Bread was usually made of rye or corn meal. White bread was served on occasions such as when the minister came, since he could not eat brown bread, as it gave him the heart-burn, which so affected him that he could not preach. Baked beans were a common dish. The clothing worn was of a rough kind ; for a special occasion, or for Sunday, a suit of broadcloth or corduroy was worn ; this usiially lasted a lifetime, and was sometimes bequeathed by father to son. The every-day suit was homespun or linsey-woolsey. Produce was not worth much, though after it left the farmer's X 305 30G INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. hands and passed on to the market for the laboring classes, prices were high. Fox-grapes were luxuries for the rich a hundred years ago, and the time had not yet come when peaches, fine varieties of pears, tomatoes, rhubarb, sweet corn, egg-plant, and lettuce were common food. Hollyhocks, sunflowers, roses, snowballs, lilacs, pinks, and tulips Avere the common flowers of the yard. Virginia and Maryland were given up mostly to tobacco; the other Southern States raised cotton, rice, and tobacco, while the Central States raised the cereals. Pitch, indigo, and tar were from Georgia. Mills were not known. Grain was ground in a mortar, or by placing it in the hollow of one stone, and pounding it with another. Such was farming a hundred years ago. The great progress in agri- culture has been made in the last fifty years, since machinery has lifted so much of the burden, and modern methods and good markets give ample and quick returns. Variety in crops is now sought. Before 1750 Maryland raised nothing for export but to- bacco. After the French and Indian War, it turned its attention to the cereals, and soon exported a great deal of wheat. Virginia passed through much the same experience, and Baltimore became the largest depot for flour and wheat in the country. Pennsylvania had the thriftiest farmers and the best farms. Bond-servants worked them mostly, but they were well paid or well taken care of, and good work was done. The owner worked in the field with the hands, and food was plentiful and wholesome. Honey was made, and cattle raised. There were large orchards and gardens, and in many places fisli i~)onds. Farmhouses and their contents were better in Pennsylvania than elsewhere ; there were even some brick houses late in the Colonial Period. There was no luxury, but much solid comfort. Tea and coffee were used, and straw carpets came into use. By the middle of the last century the people in Pennsyl- vania had reached a solid degree of comfort. New Jersey was mainly devoted to farm life, but it did not reach so high a state as Pennsylvania. Farms were cleared out of the heavy forests, and were seldom fenced. The apple, peach, and pear trees were the only fruit trees to speak of. Improvements were not made very rapidly, and, of course, a degree of carelessness attended farming. New York was largely a trading colony, though its farming lands and produce were on an average with other colonies. Wheat was the main article. Houses were generally made of wood, with the THE FARMER. 307 great fireplace at one side. No carpets were used before the Revo- lution. Furniture was plain, and solid and good living was tlie rule. Wood and pewter dishes were used until about 1750, when china came into more general use. Dress was mainly of homespun, and imported goods were little used. Agriculture and trade were evenly divided in New England. New Hampshire was mostly agricultural, Maine and Massachusetts were very equally divided between the two, Rhode Island was mainly a trading colony, and Connecticut was chiefly agricultural. Soil was generally very poor, and produced barely enough to keep the owner. Hay, grain, and cattle were exported. The life of a farmer in the Colonial Period was narrow and in an even track, but lie possessed the solid integrity and the native wis- dom that made him quite a factor in politics, religion, and govern- ment. He formed opinions, quite often correct ones, and then, as always, furnished the life and blood that kept up the city, where life wore itself away in overwork, worry, or debauchery. CHAPTER XXIX. THE LABORER. Past Condition — Sons and Daughters — Wages. THE laborer was once not nearly so fortunate as now. His house was poorer, food coarser and not so plentiful, clothing meaner, and wages not the half they are to-day. The unskilled laborer, he who sawed wood, ditched, carried brick, mixed mortar, or harvested, received on an average two shillings per day for pay, and sometimes $4 per week, when laborers were scarce. This was the condition of affairs about 1790, and then wages were nearly twice as great as they had been a few years before. On this sum the Avorkman had to clothe and feed his family, and keep himself out of jail for debts. In his home the walls were barren, sand served for carpets, the table was a block of wood, and there was no glassware nor china. Stoves were not known, coal was luidiscovered, and matches were never heard of; the laborer lit his lire with a flint or from coals brought from a neighboring house, and served his meal from wooden or pewter dishes. Fresh meat was a rare dish. Corn, wheat, and rye were dear. It took a day's work to pay for a bushel of corn, four days' to buy a bushel of wheat, and meat was worth ten pence per pound. There was no money to spare for watermelons, cantaloupes, or any other kind of fruit, though they were plentiful. The laborer's cloth- ing was coarser than his food. He wore a pair of yellow buckskin or leather breeches, checkered shirt, red flannel jacket, rusty felt hat, neat's-skin shoes, and a leathern apron. The leather was kept soft by frecpient greasing. The sous either followed the footsteps of the father or were apprenticed ; the daughter went out to service, where she mended, ran errands, milked, churned, carried water, often a great distance, spun, etc. For a year's work of this kind she received about $50. Yet from this she saved enough to start well when she married. 308 THE LABORER. 309 If perchance tlie laborer became sick or met with an accident, and fell into debt, the prison stared him in the face ; or if death came, the widow and mother was often cast into a den of demons, called a jail, where she saw such sights and heard such noises as would make death a veritable blessing. The private soldier in the Eevolution received $3 per month, which was counted good pay; so good that a proposition to raise the wages was laid on the table in Congress. Members declared that they could employ men for $4 per month, who would board and clothe themselves. The pay on public works was accordingly low even later than the Eevolution. The diggers on the canal received $6 per month from May to November, and $5 per month from November to May. Hod-carriers, mortar-mixers, and chop- pers received less than $6 per month, usually $60 to $75 per year, and the day began at sunrise and ended at sunset the year round. Forty cents a day was good pay for daily laborers, and on the farm in Pennsylvania $6 per month was the pay in summer, and $5 in winter. The average rate of wages for yearly laborers, the colonies and states over, in 1800, was $65. Typesetters received 25 cents a thousand ems. This caused the publishers great distress, they claimed, and six New York papers raised their subscription from $8 to $10 per year on account of the high wages. The study of wages would teach many an agitator the great improvement in the condition of laborers during this century, and while this improvement is no excuse for the tyranny of capital, yet often it might serve to check impulses, and the workingman would let well enough alone. Many a laborer makes as much per day now as in a month 55 to 100 years ago. What he makes now will buy more than it would then. Indeed, the great increase in wages and the increased advantages to laborers have largely been brought about in the last quarter-century. CHAPTER XXX. LOTTERIES. Founding of Jamestown — Universality — Following the Revolution — Harvard and Yale — Laws — Washington — Federal Lotteries — Louisiana Lottery Company — Lottery Bills. THE lottery, which the government has been fighting so bitterly lately, and which is now only just driven from its stronghold iu Louisiana, where it was implanted under carpet-bag rule, has its right to exist from an old and established precedent. The begin- ning of the United States, now so great and prosperous, rests on a lottery. One of the means for securing money for the founding of Jamestown was a lottery, the proceeds of Avhich went to the London Company. For two hundred years after that time every organiza- tion, good or bad, from a church to a racecourse, raised its money most easily by a system of lotteries. Churches were built, minis- ters were paid, schoolhouses were erected, teachers hired, manufac- tures started, armies raised, all out of the proceeds of a lottery established by some society or by the government of a town, county, or colony. Immediately following the Kevolution there arose such a craze for lotteries as had never been known in the country. Hamilton's financial scheme turned the bills of credit, certificates, and interest- bearing currency, from worthless paper into interest-bearing notes at their full value with interest paid regularly. Men thus secured their money easily, and invested it in speculations, of which the lottery was the most popular. Hundreds were organized over the country to secure money to build schoolhouses, erect bridges and docks, build and repair churches and roads, and to establish foun- dries and glass works. Many years before this Harvard and Yale had both begun and perpetuated their existences by lotteries. There is hardly a great 310 LOTTERIES. 311 institution — political, religious, educational, or industrial — that had its beginning back of the present century, but that was helped by a lottery. In the good times that followed the Kevolution the craze was intense, and men left the forge, the shop, the farm, and the professions to make fortunes rapidly at the wheel. The very few of course grew rich, but the many spent their all and suffered the misery of poverty. The system grew alarmingly. Connecticut and New Hampshire forbade the sale of tickets from other states. Manufacturing companies were allowed to raise only so many thou- sands of dollars each year by lotteries. The Massachusetts governor ordered all such means of raising public money to cease. The city of Washington was greatly improved from 1791 to 1800 by numerous lotteries established for that purpose. After the corner- stone for the Capitol had been laid, the people went to speculating in lots and refused to build. To overcome this, the commissioners established what were called Federal Lotteries. Federal Lottery No. 1 was for the purpose of building a tavern which, after the French fashion, they called a hotel, as about that time this name for taverns was introduced from France. Fifty thousand tickets were sold, and 16,749 drew prizes; the others were blank. The first prize was the hotel, which was built with the proceeds of the lottery. It stood where the post-office now stands, and cost $50,000. The other prizes were paid in cash, ranging from $10 to $25,000 each. The price of a ticket was $7. In 1794 Federal Lottery No. 4 started with the same number of tickets and blanks as No. 1. Six fine houses and money were to go as the first prize. After all prizes were paid and all other expenses met, if any money were left it was to go to a national university. This lottery did not make a draw until 1799, and caused a great deal of trouble. At the same time there were three other lotteries in the city : one for the city of Patterson, New Jersey ; one for building the piers for a bridge across the Delaware ; and another for the Harvard College Library. With the strong hold lotteries had on all people, it is no little wonder that the government has had so hard a fight to destroy the Louisiana Lottery. The lottery system gradually died out and became unpopular, until by the time of the Civil War scarcely any state would have granted it the right to carry on its business. Just after the War, while Louisiana was under carpet-bag rule, the offi- cers sold the franchise to the Louisiana Lottery Company for 812 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. twenty-five years. It was a stupendous affair, making millions of dollars every year, and paying out many premiums, some very large ones. As the time neared for the expiration of the charter, the company sought to renew it, and offered a million dollars per year for a twenty-year charter. They increased this offer, but the people voted against it, and Congress passed Lottery Bill No. 1, making it unlawful to pass money or letters through the mails to and from a lottery, or to advertise one in any paper. The Louisiana Lottery had, therefore, to look for other fields. It was about to complete a deal with the queen of Hawaiian Islands, but she was dethroned before arrangements were completed, and the people refused to give the charter. Then a charter was secured in Hon- duras, but the real office was in Florida, where business was done by express. Congress has recently passed Lottery Bill No. 2, mak- ing it unlawful to send money by express to lotteries. This will probably destroy the company. Thus this government has finally dealt a death-blow to a business it once fostered and used to start some of its greatest institutions. Indeed, it has killed the business that gave the money for the first settlement. So things once con- sidered right are seen to be wrong by future generations, and thus humanity slowly but surely frees itself from evils. CHAPTER XXXI. WITCHCRAFT. Universality — Meaning — Massachusetts — General Moulton — Salem — Result. TWO hundred years ago all the world believed in witches. A witch was one who made a bargain with the devil, receiving the privilege to torment whomever she wished. The devil was very much like a man to most people, except that he had a tail, cloven feet, horns, and wings like a bat. It was believed he could give great power to a human being, making him able to raise storms, sink ships, afflict people, kill cattle, make chairs and tables dance, etc. A witch could make herself invisible, creep through keyholes, and ride on broomsticks through the air. To doubt the existence of witches, then, was the same as doubting the Bible. Thousands of men and women in the world's history have been burned and punished for witchcraft. It was the custom to tie the hands of the accused and throw her (the witch was generally a woman) into a pond of water; if she floated, she was a witch and was punished accordingly ; if she drowned, it was proof that she was innocent. The government of England in the seventeenth century had well-paid witch-hunters traveling over the country, who arrested whomever they chose. The body of the accused was examined for warts, pimples, or wens, which were sure signs that the bearer was a witch. These were the devil's marks. The Lord Chief- Justice of England, Sir Matthew Hale, the greatest of judges, con- demned many witches to death. Once two women were accused before him by a woman who was the mother of a child subject to fits. The evidence was as follows : A bee flew into the face of the child, which in a short time vomited a twopenny nail. Again, the child caught an invisible mouse and threw it into the fire, when it flashed iip like powder. A learned physician, Sir Thomas Brown, 313 814 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. was called in to give his opinion on the matter. He declared that the fits were natural, but heightened by the devil cooperating with witches. The two women were found guilty and executed on this evidence by England's greatest judge, aided by her greatest physician. The cause of every strange thing was supposed to be witches. When the butter would not come, the cream was bewitched. A horseshoe, heated red-hot, was dropped into the churn, Avhich burned the witch so that she left it. A horseshoe nailed over the door would keep witches out. Witchcraft was by no means peculiar to America. The people in other countries had always believed in it from Biblical authority, they claimed, for the Jews were commanded not to allow a witch to live. There were believed to be three classes of witches : black witch, powerful to harm but unable to do good ; the white witch, who could help but not harm ; and the gray witch, who could either harm or help. Witches were punished in England until quite recently. In 1488 a storm destroyed a great part of the country around Constance, Switzerland. Two women were accused of raising it, who, when arrested, confessed that the devil put them up to it. They were burned. In 1490 Pope Innocent VIII. ordered that all witches be burned. Pope Alexander VI. had 600 old women burned in one small district in Germany. In 1515, 500 witches were burned on the shore of Lake Geneva, in three months. In 1549 Cranmer, the great archbishop, directed his bishops, '' You shall inquire whether any one makes vise of charms, sorcery, enchantments, witchcraft, soothsayings, or any like craft invented by the devil." So the world rolled on until in a few years in the sixteenth century, more than 100,000 persons were killed. Books were written about Avitches and ministers preached about them. No wonder that New England believed in witchcraft. In 1648 Margaret Jones was accused of being a witch, and was executed in Massachusetts. John Winthrop wrote in his diary that day that a great storm raged and did gi*eat havoc. It was thought that the devil was taking revenge for killing the witch. Hugh Parsons was a prosperous mechanic of Springfield, Massa- chusetts. He was accused of being a witch. A neighbor's wife said that she had a boiled pudding for dinner, and when she took it off the fire it was cut open as if by a knife. She threw a piece into the fire and Mr. Parsons happened to come to the door. He was WITCHCRAFT. 315 thus accused of witchcraft. His wife became insane, and she was said to have sokl herself to the devil. Both were put into prison, and their neighbors testified to many things against them. One saw snakes in Mr. Parsons' room, and another saw fire around Mrs. Parsons' feet. One man's cow would not give down her milk, and another man had a pain in his breast, and both believed Mr. Parsons was responsible for their ills. In spite of all these testimonies, however, the accused escaped death. General Moulton of New Hampshire made money so fast that his neighbors thought the devil helped him. His house having burned, the people said the devil set it on fire because Moulton had deceived him. The devil had bargained to fill the General's boot with gold once a day. The first time it took several cart-loads to fill it, though it was not a large boot. On investigation, it was found that General Moulton had cut a hole in the sole of the boot and one in the floor, so that the gold rolled into the cellar. This made the devil mad and he burned the house. But the awful story of witchcraft in this fair land is centered in Salem, Massachusetts. The terrible tragedy originated with a negress and some young girls ranging from ten to twenty years old. Tibuta, the slave, belonged to Rev. Samuel Parris, who purchased her in Barbadoes. She was an ignorant, superstitious negress, believing in witches, imps, and devils. It was her practice to gather girls about her, draw a circle in the ashes, burn a lock of hair, and gibber over something. She claimed to be calling up the devil and his imps. The girls became so crazed over it, that they barked like dogs, mewed like cats, grunted like hogs, and had spasms. The town went wild with excitement and the girls, pleased with it, continued their strange conduct. On a Sunday in church while Mr. Parris was about to begin his sermon, one of the girls cried to him, " Now stand up and name your text " ; after he had read it, the same girl said, " It is a long one." The minister began preaching and another girl said, "There, we have had enough of that." Another said, " There is a yellow bird on the minister's head." The whole populace gathered to consider the matter. The girls claimed that Tibuta had bewitched them. She confessed to hurting the girls by order of the devil. The girls accused two more women of using their charms on them, and they were also arrested. Every- body believed the girls. A little girl five years old was arrested. The lieutenant-governor and his councilors, 600 men altogether, 316 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. sat as judges over these accused. One girl, Abigail Williams, testified that she saw a company of forty witches at Mr. Parris' house, holding sacrament, at which they drank blood, and that two of the accused women were the deacons. The craze spread and soon the prisons were full. Bridget Bishop was accused, and the judges thrust her into prison on the testimony of a negro that he had seen her creep through a hole no larger than his hand. What was to be done ? The Bible's command Avas to kill witches. England had executed 30,000, Parliament appointed a witch- finder, and King James wrote a book against witches. The best and greatest of earth had condemned and executed them. Was it strange that the best and greatest of America should do the same ? Out on Witches' Hill the condemned were hung, their bodies thrown into a hole, and the earth trampled upon them. Nineteen thus died. Giles Corey was crushed to death with rocks, and 150 men and women were cast into prison before the people wakened from their dreadful night of horror. When the spell broke, men considered the plausibility of the proofs they had accepted. The girls were ques- tioned and some acknowledged that they were only in fun, and when people ceased believing them they ceased their actions. Judge Sewall, with scorching tears rolling down his cheeks, publicly acknowledged his sin in condemning the victims, and kept a day of fasting every year after, as atonement. Thus it was that in a little town in the Avilds of America, witchcraft played its awful act in the tragedy of human life. Some of the girls atoned nobly for their crime ; but grinning, devilish imps of hell haunted their lives in diabolical glee that the world's superstition had caused so much sorrow and death at the hands of a negress and a few silly girls. CHAPTER XXXII. CRIME AND PUNISHMENT. South — Punishment — Pennsylvania — New York — New England — Prison Life — William Penn. THE criminal class of the South consisted mainly of the poor whites and free negroes. Punishment was severe — murder, rape, arson, and robbery were made capital crimes; and smaller offenses — profanity, etc. — were punishable by fines, lashes, exposure in the pillory and stocks, imprisonment, and by the ducking-stool. The system in Virginia, which made the poor who were relieved by charity wear badges, forced many to commit crime rather than to advertise their misfortune. It was this class, the poor whites who were once indentured servants, and the free negroes, who figured largely in the disturbing crowd at racings, etc. They did the most of the gambling, drinking, and fighting, and were a lazy, noisy, rough element which yet possessed much generosity and good nature. Goug- ing the eyes in fighting became so great an offense, and was so fre- quently resorted to, that death was made its penalty in some colonies. Not attending church, working on the Sabbath, and keeping taverns open on Sunday were all punishable in most of the colonies. Passing to the north, Pennsylvania should receive special mention, since its institutions were of a peculiar nature. Bond service was the popular slavery there, and indentured servants and slaves received better treatment than in any other colony. The criminals of Penn- sylvania, as in the South, came largely from the servant and slave classes. Punishment was placed on a more humane basis, and was too liberal for the people it tried to control. The liberality of the laws drew immigrants from the criminal class too largely. Smug- gling and piracy found a good home among the Quakers. The famous Blackbeard traded in Philadelphia, and other noted pirates owned property there. The Quakers themselves were tempted by 317 318 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. the goods of the smuggler, and received willingly the profits that followed such trade. Finally the Assembly legislated piracy out of the colony. Vice continually increased under the laxity of law and the growth of an immigrant population. In the second generation there was much falling away from the simple graces of the first. The second William Penn himself left the Quaker church, and joined the Church of England. Murder was the only capital crime. Small fines and whippings were generally the penalties of others ; but after the fail- ure of these laws, those Avere made which were much more rigorous. Workhouses and jails were built, and all second offenses of a felonious nature, except larceny, were punished by death. House-breaking, horse-stealing, counterfeiting, and eleven others, were capital crimes. The death penalty was enforced so often that its very frequency made it unpopular. The young men of Philadelphia, of whom William Penn the second was a leader, often "took the town," and such outbreaks became, at times, riots. Drinking was the bane of society, dueling was practiced even by the clergy, and lotteries were popular. The sexual crimes were severely punished. The pillory, whipping-post, and stocks were common instruments of punishment. They were placed in the nuxrket, and the offender was punished on market-day, when the crowd had great fun pelting the victim with eggs, stones, and other missiles, from morn till night. Criminals who could not pay fines were sold as servants. Although St) much may be said of the Quakers' failure in the punishment of crime, they did one thing to the everlasting benefit of the world, — they instituted the hunume prison system. It was readily acknowledged that Pennsylvania had the best system in the world at that time, and to the Quakers belongs the credit. Criminals were not thrust into dark holes together, male and female, old and young, where they lived half-starved, naked, and covered with vermin ; but they received that treatment that the present day accords to offenders. New York drew her criminal class largely from the lowest walks of life. Crime, however, was comparatively rare. Kobbery, mur- der, and suicide were uncommon. The colony suffered from piracy more than from any other crime, and smuggling and illicit trade were common. Many capital crimes existed, and the pillory and whipping-post were the most common modes of punishment for CRIME AND PUNISHMENT. 319 lesser crimes. Offenders were often required to stand in the mar- ket-place with placards on them, bridles in their mouth, and rods under their arms. Sometimes burning was the punishment. Great crowds always gathered to see the criminals punished. New England, of course, executed the law rigidly. The Puritan Sabbath was strictly observed. It began at six o'clock Saturday evening and closed at sunset on Sunday. There was no traveling, and no life on the streets. It is on record that a maid who smiled in church was threatened with banishment. Many crimes were capital ones, and the pillory, stocks, ducking-stool, whipping-post, and even the stake, were means of punishment. Probably the crudest imprisonment at this time was that for debt. This crime brought more people to jail than all others together, and the hardship fell mostly on those who worked by the day for their living. The right to imprison debtors was pro- hibited in Jackson's administration. Prison life was fearful during ovir Colonial Period. A fair ex- ample is the famous Newgate prison in Connecticut. It was an old abandoned copper-mine, whose only means of entrance was by a ladder down a shaft to caverns below. Down underneath the earth, in little pens where sunshine never pierced, one would find a half-hundred or more of culprits, their feet fast to iron bars, and necks chained to beams in the roof. Filth, vermin, and ooze liter- ally lay everywhere. It was so damp that the clothing of the inmates soon molded and rotted, and the limbs stiffened with rheumatism. All over the country were holes such as this, where now men v/ould not keep hogs. Cells were frequently not more than four feet high, and had little or no light. Some did not even have a hole in the wall to let in the light. In Massachusetts cells were so small that men were placed in hammocks, one above another. Cells in Philadelphia were so crowded that a space only six feet long and two feet wide was allowed each prisoner. In these places all classes of offenders were put, and both sexes imprisoned indis- criminately. These holes became the schools for every vice, and the home of every loathsome disease known. The best of men and women, whose only crime was the misfortune of debt, were thrust into cells where the lowest prostitutes plied their calling openly. Witnesses were placed in jail to make sure they would appear at the trial, and made to suffer the same indignities. Cropped ears and burn- ing flesh, caused by the branding iron, filled the cells with stench. 320 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. The pen cannot describe the horrors of prison life in the colonies, and they Aveie no more cruel than the rest of the world. The sick unprovided for, the naked unclothed, no beds, no cleansing of body or cell, bodies covered with sores and lice, — all make a picture for the imagination only. Prisoners became such brutes under the treatment that the moment a new one was added to their number they rushed at him like wild men, stripped him, and let him stand naked until the " drink money " was furnished, which was done by selling his cloth- ing. In the mad revels of these drunken demons sat many a poor Avoman whose purity was as her life, and witnessed such scenes as are pictured only by Puritanic artists of inmates of hell ; and this same woman's only crime was probably the misfortune of debt. The picture is a direful one ; but, as said above, the American colonies even then had the best prison system in the world. Thus the system continued in some states even far down into the National Period. To the efforts of William Penn is due the reform in prison systems. As has been said, he made a mistake, probably, in the liberality of his laws ; but the present only begins to realize a little of his ambitious hopes. Though the king, in the charter, required Penn to enforce English law in Pennsylvania, he boldly discarded the command, and changed many things for the first time. Never, since the days of the lowly Nazarene, had any one dared to attempt to help the criminal until William Penn did in the wilds of an American forest. He abolished forfeitures for suicides, the deodands in murders, capital punishment for robbery, arson, rape, and forgery, and substituted imprisonment with hard labor instead. He sent a code to Parliament so humane that it vetoed it. As has been related, these Avere all changed, but by 1790 the system turned back again to its more humane origin, and treason and murder were the only capital crimes. The first state prison was built at Philadelphia, and the penitentiary system of the United States was begun there. Every few years afterwards differ- ent states copied after Pennsylvania, but for many years the horrors of prison life, as pictured above, still formed part of the system. In no one thing is there so much of interest and value to the student of American progress and institutions as in the development of the penitentiary system. It is not yet perfect, but it is now like the sunshine of heaven to the darkness of hell as compared to olden times. CHAPTER XXXIII. INVENTION. Franklin — Fulton — Torpedo-boat — Experiments in making Steamboats — Savannah — Present Steamboats — Electric Boats — Cotton-gin — Whitney — Difficulties met by Inventors — Howe — Morse — Sub- marine Cables — India-rubber — Ericsson — McCormack — Edison — Bell — Hotchkiss — Means of Warfare — Large Guns — Printing — Hoe — Scott — Typesetting — Illustrating — Electrotyping and Stereotyping — Electroplate Bending Machines — Flying Machine — Road Vehicles — Niagara Falls — Steel. "He snatched the thunderbolt from heaven, And the scepter from the hands of tyrants." SO it was said of Franklin, tlie first Amercian inventor. All are acquainted with the invention of the lightning-rod, but few know the wonderful range of the mind of the inventor. The world has held few equals and no superior. Great in literature, in states- manship, in invention, in science, only once in thousands of years does such a man live. The invention of the stove was one of the important works in the life of Franklin. The post-office system of the United States is his plan, and the Philadelphia library is the product of his OAvn thought, a thought which has been the means of scattering books and knowl- edge over the entire country. The American Philosophical Society, the first society organized for studying science, was founded by him. Franklin advocated the use of oil to quiet a stormy sea, and advised the building of water-tight compartments in ships, an idea received from the Chinese. In 1793 Kobert Fulton was seeking some means to improve in- land navigation. It is supposed that as early as that date he had thought that steam might be utilized to propel vessels on water. In 1794 he received a patent from England on an improved canal-boat, Y 321 322 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. and the same year tlie ]>ritisli Society for the Promotion of Art gave him a medal for an invention for sawing marble. About the same time England granted him patents on a machine for spinning flax and on one for making ropes. A scoop for the digging out of canals was also invented by him. He was a painter and writer of some prominence, and advocated the destruction of all war ships, that trade might be perfectly free on the seas. By the aid of Napoleon, who furnished the money, Fulton suc- cessfully planned and sailed a submarine vessel, in 1801, which remained under water four hours. He invented a torpedo-boat which sailed under a British ship and blew it to atoms, and after- wards blew up a Danish brig of two hundred tons. Because Eng- land and France were neglectful in appreciating him, he sailed for the United States in 1806, where he continued his submarine experi- ments and the making of torpedo-boats. Congress appropriated ii^oOOO, in 1810, for providing a defense, on which he tried one of his boats, but with no success. Despairing of getting government aid on his submarine experi- ments, Fulton turned his attention to sailing vessels. In 1798 the New York legislature gave him full and sole right for twenty years on all the streams in that state for his steam vessels, providing he would build a steamboat within twelve months that would sail at least four miles an hour. This did not result in any good to Fulton. He spent the next few years experimenting in England and France, and in 1803 built his first experimental boat, which worked very satisfactorily to liim. The boat was made to move by means of the paddle-wheel. The New York legislature then extended the time for him to complete this boat until 1807, when he successfully sailed the first steamboat up the Hudson Kiver. In 1814 he built and sailed a steam frigate, the first steam war vessel in the world. In 1815 he was perfecting his submarine boat with fair chances of suc- cess, when his death stopped all experiments along that line. The torpedo-boat is now our best example of the submarine ves- sel. It is the desire of navies that they may have boats in which they may steal upon the enemy and destroy him. In 1888 Lieuten- ant Feral constructed a cigar-shaped vessel, seventy-two feet long, which is moved by electricity and the screw-propeller. The vessel is lowered and raised by pumping water into compartments or out of them. Compressed-air compartments furnish air as it is wanted. A similar boat was constructed in England in the same year. It INVENTION. 323 requires two men to operate the boat, one to manage the machinery and one to fire the torpedoes. The experiments with these boats have been satisfactory. France perfected a like boat, in 1888, and now has severaL Russia, also, is building them for her navy. George C. Baker, of Chicago, completed the most perfect submarine boat, in 1892, yet built. It worked successfully on Lake Michigan, moving at the rate of nine miles per hour. Although the invention of the steamboat rightly belongs to Eobert Fulton, he was not the first man to experiment in that line. As early as 1785, James Rumsey, of Charleston, West Virginia, built an eighty-foot boat which was moved by pumps drawing in the water at the bows and forcing it out at the stern. It was not much of a success. John Fitch, in 1788, made a boat propelled by steam, which was moved by a set of oars at the rate of eight miles an hour. In 1805 Colonel A. E. Stevens constructed a launch with twin screw-propellers, and a few days after Fulton's invention, in 1807, Colonel John Stevens completed the steamboat Phoenix, which was the first of its kind to make an ocean voyage, sailing from New York to Philadelphia. By 1808 three steamboats were running between Albany and New York, and by 1815 steamboat lines included all the Great Lakes. The first ocean steamboat was the Savannah, which was built in America. It was both a sailing vessel and steam vessel, being fitted so that its paddle-wheels could be taken off in bad weather. It crossed from New York to Liverpool in twenty-five days, in June, 1819. In 1838 the Sirius and Great Western, built in Europe, crossed the ocean in fifteen days. The screw-propeller was introduced soon afterwards, since which time the speed of ships has constantly increased. In 1868 it required but ten days to cross the ocean, and by 1894 the record had been decreased to five and one- half days. In the last few months that record has been lowered a few minutes. The great ocean steamers, or greyhounds, of to-day are truly wonderful for size and magnificence. They are really sailing palaces, costing hundreds of thousands of dollars. The largest are 622 feet long, 65 feet wide, 59^^- feet deep, and carry 1500 passengers comfortably. They are almost perfectly safe, as they are built with water-tight compartments. The Electric Pleasure Boat, which is propelled by the storage battery, came into prominence in this country at the World's Fair in Chicago, where a New York company had fifty in use. More 324 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. than a million persons rode on them during the Fair, since Avhich time they have become a strong feature in social life. They are comparatively cheap, a twenty-foot size costing only $8G0. The first one made was put on exhibition at the Paris Exposition, in 1881. Eight bags of cotton from America were unloaded in Liverpool in 1784, and no one there would believe that they came from America. In 1793, 10,000 bales of cotton were shipped from the United States, and in 18C0, 4,000,000 bales were exported. This great increase was caused by Eli Whitney's cotton-gin. Hundreds of millions of dollars have been added to the wealth of the country by this simple invention, whose maker received only neglect and dishonest treat- ment from the millions who were benefited. Eli Whitney spent the early years of his life making nails and hat-pins. He entered Yale College in 1789, where he graduated in 1792 in his twenty- seventh year. From college he went South, where it was suggested to him that he make a machine for separating the seed from the cotton. He succeeded, in 1793, in perfecting the machine, which caused such interest throughout the South that people came for long distances to see it. Before Whitney could have it patented, persons broke into his room and stole it. Many machines were modeled after this stolen one and were working before Whitney could secure his patent. This resulted in so many lawsuits to establish his right, that he never received the amount really due him. In fact, he scarcely realized the expenses of the enterprise. To make his living, he turned his attenion to making firearms for the United States. He died, January 8, 1825, the most wronged man that ever lived under the Stars and Stripes. His genius added millions of dollars to the wealth of his countr}^, which in turn suf- fered him to be robbed of his life's work. With the cotton-gin at work within sight and sound of the court room in which his trial was going on, he was not able to prove that one had ever been used in the state of Georgia. The dinning noise of three machines piercing the ears of justice could not arouse her slumbering senses. She still claimed that there were no cotton-gins in the state. It is well said that inventions must force their way into use. Dr. Papin had his first imperfect steamboat destroyed in 1707 by his fellow-boatmen, who feared it would harm their trade. The inventor of the fly-shuttle, Mr. Kay, was mobbed in Lancashire, England. The first model of the spinning-jenny, Hargreaves' in- INVENTION. 325 vention, was destroyed. The spinning-mule had to be hidden that it might not meet the same fate. The inventor of the loom was almost drowned by a mob. The power loom and stocking loom both caused riots. Franklin was laughed at for trying to capture elec- tricity from the clouds, and Howe, the inventor of the sewing machine, was abused and ridiculed for his work. Very early in his life Howe began experimenting on a machine that would sew. He first tried a needle whose ends were both sharp and whose eye was in the middle. This did not work. Then he conceived the idea of a shuttle, two threads, and a curved needle with the eye near the point. This solved the problem, and in 1844 the first machine was made, but Howe was too poor to put it before the world. A friend finally offered to room and board him and his family, and advance f 500 for a half-interest in the machine. By accepting this offer, most generous under the circumstances, and by working almost day and night, Howe completed a machine for the market in 1845, that sewed well. The first machine has never been improved upon in its essential features. A patent was secured in 1845, but tailors would not use the machine, as it was thought that it would ruin their trade. Howe was forced into greatest pov- erty before his invention was accepted by the world which then tried to steal it from him. It was not decided that the patent "was rightfully his until 1854. Sewing-machine riots occurred in all the cities where the machine was first used. The workmen claimed that the machine robbed them of their work. But after 1845 suc- cess began to strew its rich gifts at his feet, and in 1863 his income was 14000 per day. " He may have the sagacity of a Jewish rabbi, or the profundity of a Calvin, or the sublimity of a Homer, for aught I know, but time will bring forth all things." So said Dr. Belknap, of Boston, in 1791, of a babe in its cradle. The babe was named Samuel Finley Breese Morse. Mr. Morse became a famous painter of his day, and passed his earlier years in England. He came to Boston when he was twenty-four years old, where he was very successful as a painter; his portraits, of which he could make four per week, selling readily for as much as $G0 apiece. Though he was gaining wealth and fame as a painter, he began, about 1830, to think of another subject, — the transmitting of messages by means of elec- tricity. As early as 1649 a Jesuit priest prophesied such an inven- tion. In 1774 Le Sage completed an electro-signaling instrument. 826 INSTITUTIONAL HISTOllY OF UNITED STATES. The electromagnet was invented in 1825. All these inventions led men to think of a transmitting machine. In 1832 Morse, while on the ocean, conceived the possibility of such an instrument, and before he reached New York he had developed an alphabet for it; by 1837 he exhibited the first machine for transmitting thought from a distance. It was looked upon as a harmless toy which no one accepted seriously. He placed his model before Congress in 1838, but received no encouragement there. He then went to England and France, both of which nations refused him a patent. Thus for twelve years Morse struggled, spending all his money, and bringing his family to the verge of starvation. His brother cared for him and his family a part of this time. On January 21, 1843, John P. Kennedy, of Maryland, moved in Congress that $30,000 should be appropriated for experimenting with the telegraph. The motion met with much ridicule. Johnson, of Tennessee, moved to amend by appropriating one-half the amount to a lecturer on mesmerism then in Washington. Mason, of Ohio, protested against such frivolous appropriations, and asked the Chair to rule all of these out of order. The Chair ruled that the appro- priations were in order, "Because," he said, "it would require a scientific analysis to determine how far the magnetism of mesmer- ism was like that of telegraphy." This brought out peals of laughter. One member offered a resolution to make an appropria- tion for making a telegraph line from the earth to the moon. By almost an accident the House passed Mr. Kennedy's bill. It then Avent to the Senate, where, with 119 other bills, it lay on the table for action on the 31st of March, 1843, and Congress was to adjourn that night at midnight. Morse sat in the gallery watching the prog- ress of the Senate. Growing discouraged, he left the chamber late in the day and prepared to leave Washington. The next morning at breakfast a young lady friend congratulated him on the passage of the bill, thus giving him his first knowledge of it. It had passed the Senate five minutes before adjournment. Mr. Morse wrote to a friend that with only a fraction of a dollar left as his total wealth, he never again would have brought liis invention before the world had the bill failed to pass. A line was strung from Washington to Baltimore, which was completed in May, 1844. Twenty-two miles had been laid on May 1, the day of the assembling of the Whig convention in Baltimore. It was the purpose to carry the news of the presidential nomination INVENTION. 327 by the convention to Washington over the wire. A train brought it to the point reached by the telegraph line, and from there it was sent by wire that Henry Clay had been unanimously nominated for the presidency. This was the first public message. On May 24 the line was completed, and Miss Ellsworth, the lady who brought Morse the news of the action of Congress, sent these words over the line: "What hath God wrought" (Numbers xxiii. 23). These were the first words sent over the completed line, and the first pub- lic message over the same was the notice sent to Silas Wright of his nomination for the vice-presidency by the Democratic party, assem- bled in convention at Baltimore. Mr. Wright declined the honor by telegram, but the convention, thinking that the telegraph wire or machinery was certainly wrong, adjourned till the next day so that a messenger could be sent to learn of the truthfulness of the telegram. When Mr. Wright personally announced that the mes- sage was correct, men were forced to believe what they had been ridiculing, and from that time the electro-telegraph was a success. It was Mr, Morse's idea that the government should own the telegraph, and he made an offer to Congress to sell it for $100,000; but the Postmaster-General reported that it never could pay for itself, and would be a poor investment. In a quarter-century from that time the telegraph lines of the United States were worth $50,000,000. Mr. Morse had many fights in court to establish his right to the patent, and was made to suffer the attacks of envy and jealousy for many years, before his work was made secure. It was the year 1848, after twelve years of hardships, before any govern- ment recognized his just claims. Then it was the Sultan of Turke}'' that first acknowledged him as one of the world's greatest bene- factors. In 1842 Mr. Morse laid a submarine cable, which failed to work because of some boatmen catching the wire on their anchor, and not knowing what it was, cut it. Though he never finished the experi- ment, he believed the time would come when the Atlantic Ocean would be crossed with a submarine telegraph line. It remained for Cyrus W. Field, in 1866, after years of the usual discouragements that follow an inventor's life, to fulfill this prophecy. At least as early as 1735, a party of French astronomers in Peru discovered a very peculiar gum, which became hard in the sun. This sap or gum was used by the natives in making drinking and eating vessels. While the gum was soft, they dipped clay into it, to which 328 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. it would cling, and when it hardened the clay was broken out and the guin preserved its form, thus making a cup, bucket, shoe, etc. The astronomers on returning to France called the attention of the scientific men to this material, since known by the different names of cahuchu, caoutchouc, gum-elastic, and now, india-rubber. For a long time it was looked iipon as a curiosity fit for nothing save rubbing out marks, or serving as ballast for ships. About 1820 it was used in France in the manufacturing of suspenders and garters. A few years later a Mr. Mackintosh used it for making waterproof coats, by spreading a layer of gum between two layers of cloth. This was the origin of the much-used mackintosh coats of to-day. In 1823 a Boston shoe house imported rubber shoes that were made by the natives of South America. They were very unsatis- factory, since they froze in winter and melted into a shapeless mass in summer. The lloxbury India-rubber Company was organized in 1833, and began manufacturing rubber coats, shoes, hats, caps, piano covers, wagon covers, etc. All went well until the hot sun of the next summer, when they melted. This proved so disastrous that $2,000,000 was lost by different companies. After the experiments of one hundred years, all that had been gained for india-rubber was the dislike of the world. But just at this time help was nearer than it was thought to be. Charles Goodyear, through curiosity, bought an india-rubber life-preserver in 1834. This little incident brought to the world great comfort and wealth, but to Mr. Goodyear it meant only twenty-five years of poverty, misery, and disappointments. Goodyear invented an improved valve for his life-preserver and took it to the Eoxbury India-rubber Company to sell it; but the president of the company explained the threatened disaster to all such work, and advised Goodyear to invent some way to preserve india-rubber in all kinds of Aveather. He returned home thoroughly imbued with the idea that he must accomplish that very end. He was then thirty -five years old, in poor liealth, bankrupt, and with a family depending upon him. On returning to Philadelphia, his home, he was thrown into prison for debt, but he began his work immediately. His first experiment was an absolute failure, as was his second, which was the mixing of magnesia with india-rubber. These failures brought him to absolute need, and he pawned his own valuables and those of his wife to secure enough money to experi- ment the third time. He then mixed the gum with magnesia, quick- lime, and water, and thus secured the proper hardness as far as heat INVENTION. 329 was concerned. But to his dismay he soon discovered that the weakest acid would destroy the cloth — that even the juice of an apple was harmful. Again his failure but stimulated him to further efforts, though his next discovery was the result of an accident. He was one day bronzing a piece of rubber cloth and put too much bronze on the piece, which he sought to remove by applying aqxia fortis. This removed the bronze, but also, he thought, ate up the cloth, which he threw aside. Happening to pick up the piece a few days later, he discovered that the rubber had hardened so that much more heat was necessary to melt it than before. At last, he thought, he was on the road to success. He obtained a patent readily and began his work, but the panic of 1837 came just then, and reduced him and many of his friends to absolute poverty. He resorted to the pawn- shop again and managed to live through the year, but no one of means would experiment with his patent. It was said that no man in the world believed in india-rubber except Mr. Goodyear. When a stranger inquired for him and asked for a description that he might recognize him, a friend answered : " If yoii see a man with an india- rubber coat, india-rubber shoes, and india-rubber cap, and in his pocket an india-rubber purse with not a cent in it, that is Goodyear." In 1837 Goodyear succeeded in putting on the market various kinds of rubber goods, manufactured under his patent, and sold nearly $5000 worth of territory to agents. He secured a contract from the government to make one hundred and fifty india-rubber mail-bags. These bags had not been used a month until they softened and began to ferment. Again the inventor's hopes were destroyed and his money gone. Now his wife and friends demanded that he give up the work and turn his attention to something that would support his family. But he felt that he had a mission and kept on with his work. His next experiment was with sulphur, which hardened the gum ; but heat made it smell so badly that no one could use the rubber. This added another to his many failures. Chance was to do for Mr. Goodyear what several years of hard woi'k had failed to do, — discover the proper compound to harden gum. In the spring of 1839, while standing before a stove in a store in Woburn, Massachusetts, explaining the properties of india-rubber, he accidentally dropped a piece on the red-hot stove. To his sur- prise, it did not change. He repeated the act and discovered that india-rubber, mixed with sulphur and exposed to a certain degree of 330 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OP UNITED STATES. heat for a certain time, would not soften or melt afterwards at any degree of heat, and would not stiffen at any degree of cold. In his darkest hour he had discovered the secret he had so long sought. It would tire the reader to relate the experience of this magnifi- cent man before he fully succeeded. Starvation, bad health, loss of friends, all added to his misery. He was put into prison for debt, but even there kept trying to interest caj)ital in his enterprise. By 1844 he had succeeded in producing perfect india-rubber, but the remainder of his life was spent in protecting his patents against thieves. In 1858 the Commissioner of Patents said : " No inventor, probably, has ever been so harassed, so trampled upon, so i)huidered by that sordid and licentious class of infringers known in the par- lance of the world as pirates. The spoliation of their incessant guerrilla warfare upon his defenseless rights has unquestionably amounted to millions." Goodyear died in 1860, a worn-out, disappointed man. Since that time efforts have been made to extend his patents for the bene- fit of his family, but the influence of men grown wealthy on the patents they stole has prevented Congress from dealing out justice to them. Goodyear died insolvent, though his inventions and dis- coveries had already made many men very wealthy. John Ericsson was a Swede, but so much of his great work Avas done in America that he justly ranks as an American inventor. His competition with Stephenson in 1829 in the locomotive contest brought him into public notice. Though defeated in the contest, he worked many years afterwards to form steam and run an engine by the direct rays of the sun. He accomplished notliing important, though he did i)roduce the steam. Sometime after this he com- pleted a fire engine which was very useful. Ceasing liis experi- ments with engines, he turned his attention to propelling boats by a screw. He accomplished the work, but England would give him no credit for it. He then came to America, in 1837, and immedi- ately won the favor of Captain Stockton, who helped him fit out a ship called the Princeton, which was a revolution in war ships. It was the bursting of the great gun on this ship that killed the Sec- retary of State, Secretary of Navy, etc. In applying steam power to war ships, Ericsson placed the navy of the United States first in the world; but his bill of $15,000 before Congress, for the ship and his work, has not been allowed to this day. Ericsson's claim to the screw-propeller is disputed, but the won- INVENTION. 331 derful ship, the Monitor, that revolutionized warfare on the sea, is without doubt his invention. He began working on the Monitor in 1854, and every American knows the result. After seeing his inven- tion permanently adopted in warfare, he spent the rest of his life in inventing a torpedo-boat that would destroy any war ship. He fin- ished the boat, which he named Destroyer, and though it was swift and destructive, the United States would neither purchase the ves- sel nor encourage the building of others. Ericsson's remains lie in Sweden, where they were interred with great honors. It is said that the reaper saves the world about $100,000,000 yearly in labor. Cyrus McCormack, its inventor, possessed an inventive mind. He invented a threshing machine and hemp- breaker in the early part of this century, and patented a " right- hand " or " left-hand " ploAV in 1831. Ten years later he made a self-sharpening plow. In 1816 his father made a reaper which worked very well. A Mr. Ogle made one in 1822, which did not work, and a Mr. Bell made one in 1828, that was but little better. Cyrus then took up the work on the reaper, much against his father's wishes. As he had suffered so much and made so little in the work, he considered that his family had done enough in the inventive field. It was the purpose of the son to make a machine that would cut grain standing or falling. The old machine of 1816 would cut grain standing, but would not cut it when lying down. To this work Cyrus set his whole mind and succeeded, in 1831, in completing such a machine. It had the vibrating cutting-blade, a reel that brought the grain to the blade, and a platform that received the falling grain. It was tested in a six-acre field of oats and worked well. It was not perfect enough to put on the market, however, for two reasons : (1) all the cog-wheels were of wood ; (2) there was no place on the machine for the driver or raker. The driver had to ride one of the horses and the raker had to walk. In 1834 McCor- mack completed his machine and secured a patent ; but he would sell none until 1840, that he might find out every defect before it was put upon the market. He lost all his property in the panic of 1837, so he was forced to begin life again at the bottom ; but it proved a blessing, since he then worked on his machine with energy and made it succeed. He first went to Cincinnati and from there to Chicago to manufacture the reaper, since the West would furnish him the best market. The McCormack Eeaper Works now cover over forty acres of ground, employ 2000 men, and turn out about 332 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. 150,000 machines yearly. In Egypt, Eiissia, India, and Australia thousands are used, and Cyrus McCormack, the inventor, has lived to enjoy the wealth and fame he has so well earned, though many have tried to steal his patents and defraud him of his rights. Edison and magic are almost synonymous terms. Electrioit}^ in the hands of Edison has done and is doing wonders. With much of his work he has but carried out the dreams of some one else, but in that he has shown a superior genius. The electric light was the theory of others, but the work of Edison. His Avork on the tele- graph, telephone, railway, dynamo, electric and ore-extracting ma- chine has been much of the same nature. He started life as a newsboy and was successful ; he then became a telegraph operator in Indianapolis. He worked out his first invention while there. An operator at the Cincinnati end of the line was too fast for him, and he devised a machine for taking messages. He took two old Morse registers and arranged them so that a strip of paper running through them recorded the dots and dashes of the sender as fast as they were sent, and then transmitted them to the receiver as fast as he desired to take them. The sender at Cincinnati sent his words at the rate of forty a minute, and Edison's machine received them, and then gave them to him at about twenty-five per minute. This helped him to hold his position against one of the fastest operators in the country, and allowed him to send in clean and perfect reports. All went well until Edison had a big night's work, when he fell two hours behind in taking the message from his dotted paper. The newspapers complained, since it was a presidential convention he was reporting, and this led to the discovery of his machine, which he was not allowed to use longer. It was this machine that caused Edison to think of the possi- bility of a machine that would record and return speech. He Avas experimenting with the telephone at the same time, and the thought struck him that the vibrations of sound would make impressions that could be transmitted. He arranged a machine into which he spoke and which then returned his speech to him. In 18GS he invented a machine that would record votes more rapidly than the viva voce plan. The machine was first placed at the disposal of Congress, Edison thinking that that body would gladly accept anything that would save time. He, however, quickly realized his mistake ; for he fouiul that the saving of time was just the thing which that body did not want to do. INVENTION. 333 The kinetoscope is the latest wonder of Edison's, It records the motions of animals and then reproduces them. That, combined with the phonograph, makes it possible to see objects and hear sounds many miles away. This combination is called the kineto- Yjhonograph. Mr. Edison is still working vigorously in his labora- tory, and should he live a few years longer the world will certainly receive more wonderful things than ever before from him. It must be true that the usefulness of electricity is only just beginning, and that the next century will open up wonders scarcely dreamed of now. In 1840 an English electrician discovered that the tick of a clock could be heard for miles over a wire. He had learned before this that electrical wires carried sou.nds in a peculiar manner. This was the very beginning of the telephone. In 1844 another Englishman invented the telephone, but not an electrical one. It was an arrange- ment for conveying sounds at sea by forcing air through trumpets. Sounds were conveyed for six miles by this apparatus. A German, in 1860, made the first real telephone. His plan was developed by Edison and Bell, the latter of whom is the recognized inventor of the long-distance telephone. Mr. Bell first became known as a teacher of the deaf and dumb. In 1873 he began studying the transmission of musical tones by tele- graph. It was his hope to make sound vibrations visible. He caused tracings of such vibrations to appear on smoked glass and blackened paper, and then experimented with a piece of material shaped like the human ear. In 1876 he transmitted the song of a class from the cellar of a house to the fourth floor. In 1877 he completed a practical telephone. Mr. Bell, like other inventors, has had to fight for his rights, but he is now making $1,000,000 yearly out of his invention, which money he is using on other experiments, espe- cially those that will help the deaf and dumb. B. B. Hotchkiss placed one of his guns in the Brooklyn Navy Yard, in 1869, but he failed to interest the United States govern- ment in it. At the breaking out of the Franco-German War, he went to Europe with a breech-loading gun that threw shells. There he was successful. The Hotchkiss gun can be fired 75 times a minute, and can hit a target six inches in diameter, 1000 yards away. In this connection more should be said of the modes of warfare, both of offense and defense. The United States troops of to-day use the Krag-Jorgensen magazine rifle, which carries four cartridges 334 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. ut let all burdens be lifted from that noble animal, that he may become a companion for man in his lighter and more pleasant walks of life. In 1889 a road vehicle was propelled by steam in France. The storage battery has again shown its usefulness in that it has taken the horseless carriage beyond the experimental stage and made it an important fact. The objection to this vehicle is made on its cost and weight; but it will not be long before it will be light and strong, and also of a price within the reach of the people. TJie horseless or automatic carriage and the bicycle are the road vehicles of the future, and will be of INVENTION. 337 general use when tlie " good roads " movement is made of the great influence it deserves. The capturing of the Niagara and the making it do man's bid- ding are great achievements. As early as 1847 the possibility of doing such a thing was commented upon, but it was not until 1886 that the matter assumed practical form. In that year the New York legislature chartered the Niagara Falls Power Company, whose purpose it was to chain the Niagara and make it subservient to man. In 1889 the Cataract Construction Company contracted with the former company to equip a plant of 100,000 horse-power. The plan is as follows : A canal leads the water from above the Falls to a power-house, where it drops 136 feet through large pipes into turbines or water-wheels which move dynamos that in turn bring the power to the surface through shafts, where it is passed to wires and distributed to any machinery desired. Thus the power generated at Niagara can drive street-cars, mills, etc., in hundreds of towns within 100 miles of the Falls. There is enough power going to waste at the Falls, to produce 4,000,000 horse-power. It is expected that some day the great city of New York will receive all the power it uses in its every-day life from the Niagara Falls. At the foundation of invention is the manufacturing of steel, which is now so cheap that it can even compete with iron. The man to whom we owe so much for this great advantage is Sir Henry Bessemer. The United States, however, has made greater strides in the work than any other country. That the reader may have some idea of this work, I will take a statement from a book on steel manu- facturing. The Johnson Company left Johnstown, Pennsylvania, in 1894, and went to Loraine, Ohio. They purchased 4000 acres of land as a preparatory step for securing four miles of water- front on Lake Erie. They then built an electric railway ten miles long, on which they run trains from thirty to forty miles an hour. The buildings used by the company are a power-house, bottom house, cupola building, converter house, stripper house, furnace building, boiler house, roll shop, roll-grinding building, shape mill, hot-beds building, straightening buildings, cold-finishing buildings, and splice-bar shop. Many of these buildings are from 300 to 500 feet long. Six thousand two hundred feet of trenches were dug for sewers and water supply, and more than two miles of railway track were laid to connect the buildings. The boilers give 9000 horse-power, and a dam, holding 60,000,000 gallons of water, is z 338 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATI<:S. connected with the plant. Here, at a daily expense of tliousands of dollars, steel is furnished to the world as cheap as iron. I have now gone into the outer court only of the inventive life of our country ; but the reader, it is hoped, may see from this glimpse the magnitude and the glory of man. The line that marks the finite from the infinite moves farther into the distance each jenv. May not man slowly conquer even the infinite sometime in the great future? CHAPTER XXXIV. TRANSPORTATION. Colonial Travel — Revolution — Steam Vessels — Highwats — South — Improvements — Disadvantages — Cumberland Road — 1840 — Erie Canal — Canals — Electricity — Railroads — Origin — First Locomo- tives — Railways in United States — Grants — Civil War — Consoli- dation — Laws — Earnings — Railroads of the Future — Speed — Electricity — Street Railways — New Schemes — Bridges — Tunnels. ONE liuudred years ago a journey of a hundred miles Avas like a journey now from ocean to ocean, except it was more unpleasant. The time consumed was about the same. For a hundred years after the settlement of the colonies there were not even stage-coaches. Journeys were performed on foot or horseback, and through pathless woods that were mainly swamps. The first coach-and-four in New England was in 174-4. The first stage between New York and Phila- delphia was in 1756, and it made the journey between those points in three days. In 1765 a second stage was started over the same route, and was advertised as a luxurious conveyance, being a " Cov- ered Jersey -wagon," making the trip in three days, and charging two- pence per mile. The next year a third started, called the ''Flying Machine." It was a wagon with seats on springs, and decreased the journey to two days ; but the charge was increased to twenty shillings for the trip, and threepence per mile for way passengers. The Revolution largely destroyed the stage-coach; traveling went back to the horseback mode ; and a journey became as dis- agreeable as ever. Journeys were dangerous, and when a man set out for a lengthy trip his friends gathered at the inn to bid him a solemn good-bye, as they might never see him again. At the return of peace the stage resumed operation, but it was many years before very much traveling Avas done. In 1793 there were but two stages and twenty stage-horses between Boston and New York. The con- veyances were old, the harness was made mostly of rope, and the 339 340 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. horses were like skeletons. Forty miles a day was the rate of travel ill summer ; and about twenty -five miles, the rate in winter. At every eighteen miles there was a change of horses, and a day's ride was about eighteen hours. There were not many bridges ; and the broad rough rivers, the only means of crossing which being a dangerous ferry-boat, became objects of terror to travelers. It was a nine days' journey from Boston to Philadelphia, and a day and a half from Washington to Baltimore. Along the coast and on rivers, packet- boats were common conveyances in the summer season. They did not run in winter. One could never tell when they would start or stop, and they Avent very slowly. Sometimes they Avould be two weeks in sailing 150 miles. Such was travel during almost twenty-five years of the present century. Steam was not wholly unknown. In fact, as early as 1787 vessels had been moved by steam. A steamboat company was organ- ized at Philadelphia in 1790, and a little craft was made to steam up and down the Delaware. Before 1800 a steamer plied up and down the Connecticut, and a boat driven by paddles was launched in Ehode Island about the same time. Soon afterwards a ^Vatt engine moved a boat on the Hudson, and in 1807 Fulton made his famous trip to Albany in the Clermont, which was used as a passenger boat for about a year afterwards. Before 1820 a steamboat had passed down the river to New Orleans, one had been placed on the Lakes, and the Savannah had crossed the ocean. But these vessels met with opposition. Men still traveled by stage. One seldom made an ocean voyage. Seven weeks was about the time required for a trip across the ocean, but sometimes three months were necessary. To have been in Europe was a distinguishing incident ; it made one the hero of his town. A steamer noAV carries more people in one trip than came and went across then in a year. On the highways ruts were deep, and descents precipitous ; the passengers were often compelled to alight to help lift the coach from a mudhole. This was true even in the cities. Great quagmires and quicksand beds, where horses were sometimes lost, existed near Philadelphia and New York. In the South conditions were not even as good. In Georgia tobacco was rolled to market in hogsheads which were provided with axles. As one went farther north, advantages increased ; but what has been said of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania is true of all the other colonies. TRANSPORTATION. 341 The condition of travel soon called for improvements in roads, conveyances, etc. Soon after the National Period began, schemes were talked of for building bridges, digging canals, and making turnpikes. The canal was the favorite scheme then, and every state proposed one or more for itself. A company was organized in Penn- sylvania in 1791, to cut three canals in that state. Stock sold rap- idly, and in a few hours all the shares were taken up. Turnpike companies were numerous at the same time. Improvement was slow, but by 1810 the rage to improve roads and means of trans- portation was intense. New England chartered 180 turnpike com- panies ; New York, 137. These represented more than $7,000,000 capital, and 4500 miles of pike, of which 1500 miles were completed. There were eight pikes out from Albany, and other towns had im- proved as much. But the great question of cheap transportation was not solved by these. It cost so much to bring produce from the inland towns to the coast that the transportation was entirely prohibited. The average cost of freight was about f 10 per ton per hundred miles. All articles not worth that were of course not shipped, and wheat and flour were of that number. Roads were so bad, and tolls on improved roads were so heavy, about 12^ cents per mile, that the inland producer seldom reached the market with the result of his labor. So for some distance along the western boundary the people traded with England and Spain ; and it seemed that industrial conditions would destroy the Union. The people had united partly for commercial reasons. Now commercial reasons tended to disunite them. Local interest Avas taking the place of nationalism. There was a tendency to de- stroy all that had been done, and this must be counteracted, or the future would prove the latest experiment in free government to be a failure. The way to remedy the evil was to plan interstate com- mercial advantages. The Cumberland Road was begun in 1806. It was to reach from Cumberland, Maryland, to Wheeling, Virginia, and was afterwards intended to extend to St. Louis, This was to meet the demands of people going west to Ohio, which was just then opening for settle- ment. In 1806 a law was passed providing for the making of the road. Thirty thousand dollars were appropriated to begin the work. INIoney again was appropriated in 1810 and 1811. The agitation for national improvements was only a demand for commercial indepen- dence. Several canals were, begun at the same time, and more were 342 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. proposed. If the interior were to be of any value whatever, it must have an outlet. It was slow work to get the improvements, but they came surely. It cost !^1 per bushel to send wheat to New York from Ohio ; consequently it was worth 50 cents only on the Lakes. In spite of the knowledge of this fact, constitutional quibbles kept Congress from appropriating money to help the people. By 1840 there was a wonderful change in internal conditions. It was as if a magical wand had waved over the country. Steam- boats were on every considerable stream and body of water; turn- pikes were numerous; and the first railroad had been successfully operated. Bridges spanned streams, and stage-coaches were safer and more pleasant. But not so much could be said of the advantages of freight. It still lumbered over the roads in old wagons, or moved slowly on streams in the packet-sloop. Stage-coaches and steam- boats carried only passengers and small baggage. This difficulty was solved at last by the construction of the Erie Canal. The law to construct this waterway passed the New York legislature in 1816. It was expected that the government would help with the enterprise, but a bill for that purpose was vetoed, and New York fell back upon its own resources. Lands and farms were taxed for twenty -five miles back along the proposed work ; and the commissioners were empowered by the state to borrow money on the credit of the state, not to exceed $400,000 annually. A duty of 12i cents per bushel was laid on salt, and a tax of $1 was laid on persons who traveled one hundred miles by steamboat on the Hud- son River, and one of 50 cents on those who traveled but thirty miles in the same way.. These proceeds, Avith those from all the lotteries in the state, from the canals when built, and from the sale of western land, were all turned into the Erie Canal fund. On July 4, 1817, the greatest piece of engineering work ever attempted in this country up to that time was started. The energj' of New York encouraged other states. New Jersey began Avork, and Pennsylvania appropriated nearly f 1,000,000 for bridges and roads. The Erie Canal completed, as it was in 1825, was the great beginning of a system of roads and canals, that now extend from one end of the country to the other. It was 3(53 miles long, connecting Lake Erie and the Hudson River, and it cost $51,600,000. About 5000 miles of canals have been built in the United States, one-half of Avhicli are not now in use. It will no doubt be of interest to know something of canals in TRANSPORTATION. 343 general. The earliest record we have of a canal is one across the Isthmus of Suez sixteen hundred years before Christ. The Imperial canal of China was built hundreds of years ago. The Dutch cut canals about the twelfth century, and in 1560 they completed a canal from Brussels to the Scheldt. France dug a canal in 1681 that was 140 miles long and cost $7,200,000. England's first canal was made in 1572. The science of engineering in canal-building began about 1775 and was most active until about 1830, when railroads made them less useful. When the locomotive was invented, there were about 6000 miles of canals in the world. More than one-half of these have been abandoned on account of the better facilities for freight travel by railroads. The most famous canal in the world to-day is the Suez Canal, engineered and managed in its construction by De Lesseps of France. It was begun in 1859, and finished in 1809, at a cost of $83,000,000. It is 95 miles long, and was at first 26 feet deep, but since its com- pletion it has been deepened at a cost of $40,000,000. Its annual carrying trade is now about 10,000,000 tons, and the stock is worth five times its par value. The Panama Canal, which was also to have been constructed by De Lesseps, was to have been 47 miles long. It was begun in 1881, and after spending $250,000,000 in completing one-third of it, it was abandoned amid much scandal. The canal across the Isthmus of Corinth was completed in 1893. It is only four miles long, but has a heavy tonnage, as it saves an ocean trip of 200 miles. The king of Greece, in 1882, began the canal with a silver spade, and the queen touched off a train of dynamite. It was completed at a cost of $12,000,000. There were as many as 3000 men working on it at one time. The largest cut in it is 228 feet deep. It has no locks. Nero of Rome began a canal at the same place eighteen centuries ago, but gave it up because his scientific men told him that the sea was higher on one side of the Isthmus than on the other. The St. Mary's canal, which connects Lake Superior and Lake Huron, has the largest lock in the world, being 800 feet long, 100 feet wide, and having a lift of 18 feet. The canal is only one mile long, and was built in 1855. It has a carrying trade of 20,000,000 tons annually. Chicago is now (1897) digging a canal from the Chicago River to 344 INSTITUTIONAL HISTOIIY OF UNITED STATES. a tributavy of the Mississippi, to serve as a sewer for carrying the refuse of the city so that it will not be emptied into the lake. It is intended to finally extend the canal to the Mississippi River at a depth of 14 feet. The cost will be about $60,000,000. A new use has been found for canals. Originally they were used for inland traffic. After the time of railroads they were used for connecting great bodies of water to save distance in ocean or large- water travel. Now they are used to connect inland cities with the sea. The Manchester Ship Canal was the first of these. It was completed in 1894, is 35 miles long, and cost $75,000,000. The city of IVIanchester is 65 feet higher than the sea, so that five locks are necessary to carry the ships up to it. The canal is 120 feet wide at the bottom. It required skillful engineering to complete it, as it crosses a single river six times and another canal once. This is done by swinging water bridges. No doubt the future will see juany ocean steamers bringing their cargoes up to cities now far in the interior of the country. The Baltic and North Sea Canal, completed in 1895 at a cost of $40,000,000. will save much dangerous travel, and will give Prussia an excellent naval outlet. It is 61 miles long, 29^ feet deep, and will carry the largest German war vessel, for which purpose it is designed. The reader Avill notice that canal-building is not on the decline, since most of our great canals are of recent build. There are also many great ones in project in Europe and America. One connecting the North Sea and the Mediterranean is being thought of ; and one connecting the Mediterranean and the Dead seas, obliterating the Christian's sacred land by making the territory of the Dead Sea a great lake, which would be connected on the south to the Gulf of Akabah by another canal, thus shortening the route to India, is also thought of. One connecting the Chesapeake and Delaware bays, one around the Niagara Falls on the American side, the Florida canal. Lake Erie and Ohio River canal, and many others on this continent are being considered. One of the strong probabilities of the near future is the trolley canal-boat. Very satisfactory results have already been obtained. It is thought that electricity will drive a boat twenty miles per hour. Let this be done, and canals would come into strong compe- tition with railroads again, since they would furnish much cheaper travel. TEANSPOETATION. 345 The steam car is ever a wonder. It never has lost interest for man. Flying across the country at one mile a minute, with no visi- ble force about it, all so subservient to the will of man, yet drawing tons upon tons of freight and passengers, it is certainly the mightiest force under control. But what of the origin of the modern wonder ? The Komans constructed smooth roadways by making two tracks of cut stones. In many Italian cities to-day Ave find remains of such roads. Miners in the Hartz Mountains laid wooden rails for their trucks as early as 1700. The rail track was introduced into English mines a little later, and not long afterwards the miners laid iron strips on the rails to make them last longer. In 1768 cast-iron rails were used instead of the wooden ones. By 1800 wheels were constructed with flanges to prevent them from slipping off the rails. Wrought- iron rails were patented in 1820. The constructing of locomotives was being considered by many people one hundred and fifty years ago. The great difficulty, as peo- ple saw it then, was that the wheels would slip on the rails without moving the engine. It Avas not until 1813 that it Avas discovered that friction alone Avould move the locomotive, and Avould even pull a heavy load. George Stephenson began his experiments in 1814, and in fifteen years had so completed a locomotive that from that time travel was completely revolutionized. His first invention Avas used on the Liverpool and Manchester Raihvay in a competitive exhibition in 1829. There Avere four competing engines, one of which was made by Ericsson; but Stephenson's "Rocket" obtained the prize. Erics- son's locomotive, hoAvever, had the principles that have since been used in the modern engine ; but in the trial it broke doAvn and Avas thus defeated. Many private raihvays or tramAvays Avere constructed in England before this. It is thought that the year 1825 is the earliest date for such a road. While this is true, yet it Avas the Liverpool and Manchester Railway that first shoAved the possi- bilities of steam in locomotion. I have noted that railroads, and the use of steam on them, began first in England ; but the Uiaited States has shoAvn to the world the greatest development of this system of transportation. The rail- road Avas a necessity to this new country, and the idea Avas realized just as the country began to seriously consider modes of travel ; con- sequently it readily took up Avith the raihvay and locomotive, for it 846 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. had no traditions to overcome and not many canals and tnrnpikes to become useless thereby, as Europe had. For these reasons the latter was much more tardy in taking up with the new invention. The tramway preceded the railway in America. The first tram- road was in the granite mines of Kew England, in 1826, and was operated by horses. The second tramway was in the coal mines of Pennsylvania in the same year. Engines moved the latter. An English locomotive was imported in 1828 by the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company to be used on a tramway, but it was not successful. In 1828 was begun the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, which was completed for 14 miles, and opened for traffic in 1830. In 1831 the road was extended to 61 miles and was operated by horse- power; but in the latter part of that year an American locomotive was put on the road, which was extended to 67 miles in 1832. The first railroad to iise an American locomotive was the South Carolina Railroad in 1830. By 1833 the road Avas 136 miles long. The Mohawk and Hudson road was begun in 1830, and was opened for travel the next year. It imported its first locomotive from England, but found it too heavy and put it aside for an American make. The Saratoga Railroad and the New York and Harlem were begun in 1831. The Camden and Amsbury was begun in New Jersey in 1831; the Philadelphia and Trenton, in 1833; the Baltimore and Ohio was extended to Washington in 1835 ; the New York Central was opened in 1836; and seven other lines Avere completed by 1842. The reader will see that railroad-building became of great im- portance in the United States from the very first. This interest continued until the crisis of 1837, which stopped all such enter- prise, and very little more was done in that line until after the gold-fields of California were discovered in 1848. This is some- times called the formative period of railroad-building in this country. There had been 5205 miles of railway completed by 1848. By 1861 there were several through routes completed. Cincinnati and Lake Erie Avere joined. The Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincinnati road was completed in 1851. Chicago became connected Avith Ncav York in the same year, and with the Mississippi River in 1854. The Ohio and Mississippi, connecting St. Louis and Cincinnati, Avas com- pleted in 1856. The government and states began making land grants to rail- roads about 1850, though one was made to the Illinois Central in TRANSPORTATION. 347 1836, it being the first road to receive such help. During Fillmore's administration 8,000,000 acres were granted to roads; and during Pierce's 19,000,000 were so appropriated. The crisis of 1857 and the Civil War stopped railroad enterprise for a few years, but the War also developed new energy in that line. It became a necessity, politically, to unite the two oceans by a rail- road. Such a project had been thought of as early as 1846, but it was not until 1862 that Congress chartered the Union Pacific Rail- way Company, and adopted the Central route to the Pacific. The government gave a subsidy to the road of $30,000,000, and a land grant of 23,000,000 acres, a territory almost as large as Indiana. The Northern Pacific received, soon afterwards, 47,000,000 acres. There have been 300,000 square miles of territory given to rail- roads. This is a territory nearly ten times larger than Indiana. Besides this vast area and millions of money from the general government, cities, states, counties, and individuals have appro- priated other millions of dollars. The consolidation of railroads has been the policy since the War. The New York Central is made up of about twenty different roads, and has 4000 miles of railroad under one system. It was the first road to unite the East and West by a through route. The Pennsyl- vania line includes more than 7000 miles of road. In the West there are several roads that control from 1000 to 10,000 miles of travel. This consolidation of roads has developed into combines and mo- nopolies, Avhich deal out very great injustice to the people in some places. To prevent this combination, which is the present tendency of railroads, laws have been made, but with no great effect. The first law was for the regulating of rates, and was hotly contested by the roads until 1877, when the Supreme Court upheld the constitu- tionality of the law. That decision settled the fight along that line, though shrewd manipulations have since partially annulled the law. The Interstate-Commerce Act of 1887 was the next law to force the railroads to deal fairly with the people. This forbids pooling and demands uniform rates for all travel either of freight or passenger. It is ineffectual in some parts of the country by reason of trickery and dishonest enforcement of law. The rail- roads have been vast civilizers, but the avariciousness of men has sometimes made them instruments of tyranny. The gross earnings of all the railroads of the country now amount to nearly one and one-quarter billions of dollars annually. 348 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. In 1892 there were 175,000 miles of railroad in the United States, 120,000 miles of which having been built since 1870. There are more than 4,000,000 miles of railways in the world. Among the ideals of railroad men now is the Pan-American Rail- road from Chili to Canada. It is also proposed to span Behring Strait by a road, and thns connect North America with Asia and Europe. If these plans should be completed, and who would dare say they will not, one could take a train at Valparaiso, Chili, ride to Behring Strait, then cross into Siberia, on through Asia into Europe, and leave his train in London at least 20,000 miles from the starting-point. Or one could take a palace car at New York City and go in it to London, England. The speed possible with steam locomotives has been a question of great interest. From going 10 miles an hour in 1830, the loco- motive can now pull a heavy train 60 miles per hour or even 80 and 90. This should indeed satisfy man, it seems ; but now he talks of moving 150 and 200 miles per hour, and even 300 miles, as carelessly as he would have talked of going 25 miles per hour fifty years ago. Indeed, we believe that a train scheduled at 150 miles per hour is one of the near probabilities. The National Kapid Transit Com- pany is now asking for a charter from Congress, to erect a road between New York and Washington on which the scheduled time shall be two miles per minute. The General Electric Company of New York offers to guarantee motors that will furnish speed of 150 miles per hour. This is thought to be possible by means of the Brott Eajiid Tran- sit System. This is a bicycle railway, so called because the wheels are on one track only instead of two, as in our present system. The road is elevated, so there can be no danger from crossings. There are to be side wheels that will touch side tracks if the car oscillates any ; but the car is to run smoothly on one track on the principle of the bicycle, that it will stand upright when moving rapidly. The side wheels will have pneumatic tires to prevent jarring should they touch the rails in stopping and starting. The current of electricity will be taken from a conductor on the trolley principle. An experi- mental track of this nature is to be built from Washington, District of Columbia, to the Chesapeake Bay. It seems certain to succeed, and the day is not far distant when it will not require a ton of ear weight to carry a passenger, as this new plan will require only 400 pounds. Thus, without dust, smoke, crossings, and locomotives, we TEANSPOKTATION. 349 shall soon be able to speed across the country at a rate of two miles or more per minute. The electric locomotive is also sought after, since it would save expense, and, it is thought, would add to the rapidity of traveling, minus the smoke and dust ; but the experiments along that line have not been very successful so far, as steam must generate the power to run the motor from which comes the electricity. What is called the Light-traffic Eailway System is to-day of as great importance as the railroad. This system includes trolley roads, elevated roads, underground roads, rapid transit, etc. At this time, there are about 12,000 miles of street railways in the United States, run by horse-power, electricity, steam, motors, and cables. New York favors the elevated roads on which are used small steam loco- motives. It is thought that these roads carry a million people daily in that city alone. There are three elevated roads in Chicago. In all the chief cities the trolley and cable are used, the former being much more popular. The underground railroads of London carry 300,000,000 people annually. These roads cost the most money for construction. The elevated is next in order in cost. The former costs about $5,000,000 per mile ; and the latter, about $750,000 per mile. The cable costs about $350,000 per mile, the horse railway about $75,000 per mile, and the electric about $45,000 per mile. The most noted mountain railway in the United States is that ascending Pike's Peak, completed in 1891. It has a double-cogged rail and two cog-wheels. The road is 8 miles long, and rises 14,000 feet. The hydraulic sliding railway system is one of the novel experi- ments at the present, and may become useful. The cars have runners instead of wheels and operate like a sleigh, on an iron rail. Water is forced through small holes in the runners of the car, and this decreases the friction. No locomotive is used. The propelling power is furnished by placing water jets between the rails. These jets force water against pallets under the cars, much the same as water striking a water-Avheel. It is estimated that a speed of 125 miles an hour could be made with this system, but it certainly has many uncertainties and difficulties. In many cities the authorities have ordered all Avires put under- ground, aud the time is probably near when electricity must travel in the earth instead of above it. With this purpose in view, many experiments are being made and many patents have been issued. 350 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. The Couduit System of electric railways is no doubt the solution of the problem of underground Aviring. Not the least factors in easy and quick transportation are the bridges and tunnels. Before the days of iron and steel, great bridges were impossible. Then the stone arch was the best bridge known, and that could not span a long space. In 1755 the first iron bridge was begun at Lyons, France, but was abandoned on account of the cost. Four years later such a bridge was completed over the Severn in England, which is still standing. It spans 100 feet space, and is built with an arch 45 feet high. Soon afterwards another bridge, 236 feet long, was built in England. In 1803 an iron bridge spanned the Seine at Paris. It was in nine arches, and was 516 feet long. The first suspension bridge was built in 1820-26, in North Wales, and cost f 100,000. The suspension was held by great chains, and hung over a space 579 feet long. The total length of the bridge was about 1800 feet. The second bridge of this kind was built at Vienna, where linked steel was used instead of chains. The sus- pended part of this bridge was 334 feet. Soon after this one, a like bridge, 870 feet long, suspended by wire chains, was built in Swit- zerland. The king of bridges is the cantilever bridge across the Firth of Forth, in Scotland. It is 2 miles long and cost $3,000,000. This is considered the greatest piece of engineering in the world. In our own country we have many great bridges, the most noted of which is the Brooklyn bridge, a little more than a mile long, built after the suspension plan with wire cables, and costing $6,000,000. The bridge at Poughkeepsie is 3100 feet long, is built on the cantilever plan with steel trestles, and cost $3,000,000. The great St. Louis bridge is built with steel arches, is 1700 feet long, and cost $6,000,000. A bridge is now being planned to cross the Hudson liiver, connecting New York and New Jersey. If com- pleted, it will be the greatest bridge in the world, and will cost $25,000,000. It will be a suspension bridge spanning a clear space of 3110 feet. This span will be the longest in the world, nearly twice as long as the span at the Firth of Forth. The longest bridge in the United States is at Cairo, Illinois. It is 10,560 feet long. At Cincinnati is a bridge 6000 feet long. Man's great works have developed in many lines, but no line has shown greater genius and more persistent effort than tunnel- making. There are said to be nearly 1200 tunnels in the world, 1000 of which, making a total length of 350 miles, being for railroad TRANSPORTATION. 351 purposes. Twelve are to give passage under rivers, and make a total length of 9 miles. Ninety are used for canals, and are 70 miles long. Forty have been made for commerci'al x^urposes, and are 85 miles long. History speaks of a tunnel under the Eviphrates made by Babylon. Rome built a great many, the most famous of which was the Great Sewer, still in use. In Europe there are four mountain tunnels, ranging from 5 to 10 miles long, having cost from $7,000,000 to $16,000,000 each. It required from 3 to 20 years each to build the tunnels. The greatest railway tunnel in United States is the Cascade tunnel on the Northern Pacific Railway. It is 9850 feet long, and was completed in 28 months, a remarkably short time for such a work. It was begun in 1887 and completed in 1889, at a cost of $1,160,000. The Croton aqueduct of New York is almost wholly imderground, and is properly a tunnel 30 miles long. It is the longest and most costly tunnel of modern times, the expense of making it being nearly $24,000,000. The first subaqueous tunnel of modern times was one under the Thames at London, Avhich was 40 years in building. It is now pro- posed to join England and France by such a tunnel. The work was begun in 1882, but has not been finished, though the day will come when one can go by rail from Paris to London. Thus I have tried to show the development in transportation during the last hundred years. Wonderful as the development has been, it has not yet reached its climax, nor shall it do so until all the forces of nature shall add their might to make man skim the air like a bird, a time when San Francisco and New York shall be but one day apart, and a trip to Europe only an incident in time and purpose. CHAPTER XXXV. STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. Indiana's Constitution — Voting — Office-holding — Elections — Legis- lative Department — Senators and Representatives — Time of Meeting — Bills — Prohibitions — Executive Department — Governor — Lieutenant-Governor — Duties — Salary — Term — Judicial Depart- ment — Nature — Duties — Supreme Court — Appellate Court — Cir- cuit Court — Salary — Term — Superior Courts — Courts of Claims — Corporations — Militia — School System — Administrative Officers — State Institutions — County Government — Township — Town — Cities — Ohio — Procedure of a Trial — Illinois — Kentucky. I SHALL endeavor to illustrate local government by describing the government of a few states, making Indiana the most com- plete. The constitution of Indiana provides that all elections shall be free and equal ; that voters must be male citizens of the United States, at least twenty-one years of age, and have resided in the state six months, in the county sixty days, and in the ward or ' precinct thirty days immediately preceding the election. Foreigners who have declared it their intention to become citizens may vote after a residence of one year in the United States. Soldiers and sailors stationed in the state and not citizens of it do not have tlie right to vote, and a citizen away from the state on business for it or the United States does not lose his right to vote. Voters may be disfranchised for a crime, and are free from arrest while going to or from the polls, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace. No one may hold office who is proven guilty of bribery, threat, or promise of reward to procure an election ; who fights a duel or challenges another; or who is convicted of an infamous crime. One who holds a lucrative office under the United States or the state cannot hold a seat in the General Assembly, and no one can hold more than one lucrative office, except in the inilitia, where officers 852 STATE AfID LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 353 not on an annual salary may fill two places. Deputy postmasters not drawing more than $90 salary per year have also the same privilege. The offices of county clerk, recorder, and auditor, in counties of fewer than 1000 voters, may all be in charge of one man, or any two of them may exist with one man. All elections by the people must be by ballot ; and all by the General Assembly, by voice. General elections are held on the Tuesday after the first Monday in November ; and local elections, at such times as the law may determine. The General Assembly has the privilege of providing for the election of judges of the general and appellate courts at a time when no other election is held. The Australian system of voting was adopted by the Assembly in 1889. The powers of the government are divided into three depart- ments, — Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. The Legislative De- partment consists of a General Assembly, which includes a Senate and House of Representatives. The number of senators shall not exceed fifty, and they are chosen by the voters of senatorial districts, into which the state is divided. A county cannot be divided for senatorial purposes. The senators serve four years, the term of half of them expiring every even year. A senator must be an in- habitant of the state two years just preceding his election, a citizen of the United States, and an inhabitant for one year of the district by which he is chosen. He must be at least twenty-five years old. The lieutenant-governor is president of the Senate. Besides being a legislative body, the Senate tries all impeachments of state officers. There are now (1897) fifty senators. The number of representatives must not exceed 100, and they are chosen by the voters in the repre- sentative districts. A district may consist of one or more counties, but they must be contiguous. The representatives hold office for two years and have the same qualifications as the senators, except that a representative must be at least twenty-one years old. Tliey are elected each even year, in the general election of the state. The House chooses its own speaker, and has the sole power of im- peaching state officers. Every six years an enumeration is made of all the voters of the state, and the General Assembly meeting just after this enumeration apportions the senators and representa- tives according to the number of voters. There are now 100 representatives. The Assembly meets regularly on the Tuesday next after the first Monday in January of each odd year, and meets in special 2 a 354 INSTITUTIONAL HISTOIIY OF UNITED STATES. session at the call of the governor. A regular session cannot con- tinue longer than sixty-one days, and a special longer than forty days. A quorum in each house consists of two-thirds of the members. Each house chooses its own officers (president of the Senate excepted), judges of the election and qualifications of its members, makes its own rules, and determines its own adjournment. Each must punish its own members for disorderly conduct, must keep a journal of its proceedings, and may sit with closed doors when the business requires secrecy. Law determines the pay of members, and no increase can be made to take effect during the session mak- ing the increase. If either house fail to organize within five days after a quorum is present, the members cannot draw pay until an organization is made. Any bill, except one for revenue, may originate in either house. A bill for reveniie must originate in the lower house. Bills may be amended in either house or rejected by either. They are read on three different days in each house, unless the reading be dispensed with by a two-thirds vote. On the final passage, every bill must be read by sections. A majority vote of both houses shall pass a bill, which is then signed by the presiding officer and sent to the gov- ernor, who signs or rejects it ; if the latter, lie sends it, with his objections, back to the house originating it. It may then become a law by a majority vote of the Assembly. If the governor fail to return a bill within three days after receiving it, Sunday excepted, it becomes a law without his signature, unless the adjournment of the Assembly should prevent a return. It then becomes a law unless the governor within four days shall file the bill and his objections with the Secretary of the State, who shall bring it before the next General Assembly. No bill can be presented to the gov- ernor within two days of adjournment of the Assembly. No law is of effect until it is published and circulated in the counties of the state, except in cases of emergency, which emergency shall be declared in the bill. There are several prohibitions placed on the Assembly. It can- not pass local or special laws on the duties and jurisdiction of jus- tices of the peace or constables ; on the practice in courts ; on change of venue ; on divorces ; on changing names of persons ; on laying out or vacating roads, town plots, streets, alleys, and public squares; on the regulation of county and township business; on election of county and township officers ; on assessment and collection of taxes, STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 355 and the support of the common schools ; on fees, salaries, and inter- est; on elections and voting places ; and on the sale of real estate by executors, administrators, guardians, or trustees. In all the above, laws shall be general and uniform. No member of either house can be appointed by the Assembly to any office. Members cannot be arrested during the session of the Assembly, nor in going to or from the same, except for treason, felony, and breach of peace. They cannot be subjected by law to any civil action during the session, nor for the fifteen days preceding it. The Executive Department is vested in a governor, who, with the lieutenant-governor, holds office for four years. They are chosen by the voters of the state. The returns of the election are sealed up and sent to the Speaker of the House, who opens and reads the result in the presence of both houses. If there is no election, the General Assembly shall jointly elect one of the two candidates receiving the highest vote for governor, and the other for lieutenant- governor. The qualifications of these offices are the same. They must be citizens of the United States at least five years, a resident of the state for the same time just preceding election, and thirty years of age or more. No member of Congress nor any officer of the United States is eligible to either office, nor can either officer fill any other office during his term. If a vacancy occur in the governor's office, the lieutenant-gov- ernor shall take the place ; and if then he be removed, the General Assembly shall provide for the vacancy. If the lieutenant-governor become governor, the Senate elects one of its own members as presi- dent of its body. The governor is commander-in-chief of the mili- tary and naval forces of the state. He is a general executive officer, may pardon any criminal except one guilty of treason or one im- peached, and may remit fines and forfeitures. The General Assembly may constitute a council without whose consent the governor shall not issue a pardon, except in cases where he has full power. While the Assembly is not in session, the governor must fill all vacancies which belong to that body to fill. He must also fill vacancies in state offices and in the office of a judge of any court until the office is filled by election. When there are vacancies in the General Assembly, he must issue writs of election to fill them. The lieutenant-governor presides over the Senate, and may join in debate and vote Avhen the Senate is in committee of the whole. When in ordinary session, he has a vote only in the case of 356 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. a tie. The eompeusatiou of tlie governor is lixed by law, and can neither be increased nor decreased during the term for which he is elected. It is now $4000 per year. The lieutenant-governor, or president of the Senate, receives the same pay as the Speaker of the House, which is now $8 per day. The Judicial Department is vested in a Supreme (Jourt, Circuit Courts, and such other courts as the General Assembly shall estal)- lish. It has established Superior and Criminal courts in some counties, and a Court of Claims and an Appellate Court for the whole state. There are five judges of the Supreme ('ourt. The state is divided into five districts, and one judge is elected from each district, the voters of the state voting for all. The judges serve six years, and elect one of their number each term of court to act as chief-justice. It is their duty to interpret the constitu- tion and laws of the state, to direct the actions of inferior courts, and to decide on appeals from the lower courts. If their decision involve a question of United States law, an appeal can be made to the United States Supreme Court. The Supreme Court holds two sessions each year at the Capital, beginning in May and November, and continuing thirty days or longer, as the business requires. Three members of the bench constitute a quorum. The officers of the Supreme Court are a clerk, sheriff, and reporter. The first and third are elected by the people for four years, and the second is appointed by the court for two years. In 1891 an Appellate Court of five judges was organized. These judges have the same districts as the supreme judges. They are elected by the people. They have jurisdiction of appeals from the Circuit, Superior, and Criminal courts, in cases of misdemeanor, in cases from the Justices' Court when the amount involved is more than $50, and in cases of recovery of money when the amount does not exceed $3500. In these cases the decision is final. The first judges were appointed by the governor to serve until Januaiy, 1893, when their successors were elected for four years ; after which time the coui-t will cease to exist, unless further provided for. The Circuit Courts are presided over by one judge each, and have their jurisdiction prescribed by law. The number of circuits is fixed by the General Assembly, which may increase or decrease it. A circuit judge is elected for six years. There are now fifty- six circuits, and the judge must hold court in each county of his circuit. STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 357 Superior Courts have been estcablishecl in Allen, Marion, Tippe- canoe, Vanderburg, and Vigo counties. There is one judge for each court, except for the Marion county court, which has three. The judges are elected by the voters of their respective counties ; they serve four years, and hold court each month except July and August. Marion County has one Criminal Court, presided over by one judge, who is elected by the people of the county for four years. The Marion County Superior Court is also constituted a Court of Claims, which hears all cases against the state for recovery of money or property. The voters elect a justice of the peace, or they may elect two in each township, and one for each incorporated town and city in the township. Their term of office is four years. He has jurisdiction in cases where the amount does not exceed $100, in cases concurrent with the Circuit Court in amounts not exceed- ing f 200, and in minor criminal cases. He can assess no fine over $25. There are as many constables in a township as justices, and they are elected for four years. Each circuit has a prosecuting attorney, who is elected by the people for two years. As to limitations placed upon certain privileges, one of the most important is that which regulates corporations. The state legislature is forbidden to create any bank or institution of any nature for the purpose of issuing bills of credit to circulate as money, except under a general banking law, or a bank with branches. If a bank issue money under a general banking law, all such money must be regis- tered and countersigned by a state officer, and good collateral security must be given for the redemption of the same in specie. The security shall be under the control of the proper state officer. The Assembly may charter a bank with branches, all of which are mutually responsible for the issues, and collateral security shall not be required. Stockholders are made responsible for an amount equal to their shares over and above the stock held by each. All bills must be redeemed in specie, and no law can be made sanctioning the sus- pension of specie payment. If a bank become insolvent, the holders of its notes are preferred creditors. A bank cannot receive a greater rate of interest than the law allows individuals loaning money, and no bank can continue in business longer than twenty years without reorganization. The student should understand that these banking laws were made when state banks issued money, but in 1863 Con- gress levied a tax of 10 per cent, on such issues and thus forced all such banks to stop their circulation. A bank can borrow money at 358 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. 4 per cent, aud of course would not issue money and pay 10 per cent, on it. Another interesting feature of Indiana's state government is her militia. Able-bodied males from eighteen years to fort3'-five years of age are enlisted. The governor appoints the adjutant-general, quartermaster-general, and commissary-general. The Assembly pro- vides for the regulation of the militia by law. The militia is divided into two classes, — the active and sedentary. The former consists of all who are enrolled and duly organized ; the latter, of all citi- zens subject to bear arms, and not belonging to the active militia. Persons conscientiously opposed to bearing arms are exempted from service by paying a sum of money. The governor as commander- in-chief may call out the militia when it is necessary to put down riots, insurrections, or invasions. Indiana has a school system that ranks well with that of any other state in the Union. The school fund consists of the congres- sional township fund and the lands belonging to it, surplus revenue fund, saline fund, and lands belonging to it, bank-tax fund, the fund derived from the sale of county seminaries, fines for breaches in the penal law, forfeitures, escheats, lands granted to the state where no especial purpose is expressed, taxes on corporations that may be assessed by the Assembly for school purposes, and license fees from retail liquor stores. The school fund is Jf? 10, OCX), 000, and the school property is valued at f 15,000,000. The interest alone on much of this fund can be used, and the amount has been found insufficient. Taxes are levied on all taxable property for tuition purposes. The whole income from all these sources is annually apportioned among the counties of the state in proportion to the number of children of school age. Trustees of townships, towns, and cities are authorized to levy an additional tax not exceeding 25 cents on each f 100 of taxable prop- erty, and 25 cents on each taxable poll. This goes to the schools of the locality making the assessment. The officers elected to carry out this system of education are the state sui)erintendent of public instruction, State Board of Education, a superintendent for each county, a trustee for each township, and a board of three trustees for each town or city, except Indianapolis, which has a much larger school board. Each school district has a director. The County Board of Education is composed of the trustees of the county, the president of school boards of incorporated towns and cities in the STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 359 county, and the county superintendent, who is president of the board. The chief administrative officer is the state secretary, who holds his office for two years, and is elected by the people. He cannot hold office longer than two successive terms, and keeps, publishes, and distributes the laws of the state. The auditor of the state is elected by the people and serves two years. He settles and keeps the accounts of the state Avith the counties, other states. United States, and with persons and individuals having business Avith the state. He caimot hold office more than two terms in succession. The treasurer of the state is elected by the people, and serves for two years. The state superintendent of public instruction is elected by the peox^le for two years, and, as his name indicates, has charge of the educational affairs of the state. The state geologist is elected for four years, and has charge of the geological and scientifical researches. He appoints an inspector of mines, inspector of mineral oils, and an inspector of natural gas. The state statistician is elected for two years. His duty is to collect and report statistics on agriculture, manufacturing, mining, commerce, education, labor, marriage, divorce, birth, death, sanitary condition, etc. The attorney-general is elected for two years. He is the legal adviser of the administration, and defends and prosecutes all claims to which the state is a party. The state librarian is elected by the General Assembly for two years. He cares for the state library. Notaries public are appointed by the governor for four years. The different boards of trustees for the state schools, Women's Reformatory, Reform School for Boys, Soldiers' and Sailors' Home, Orphans' Home, and the School for Feeble Minded are appointed by the governor. This was true previous to the Assembly of 1895, which placed the penal and charitable institutions in the hands of a board, which shall appoint the superintendents for those institutions. The State Board of Education consists of the governor, state superintendent, the presidents of the state schools, and the city superintendents of the three largest cities of the state. They exam- ine teachers for state license, prepare questions for teachers' exami- nations, and constitute a board to provide suitable text-books for the common schools. The county clerk is elected for four years and is eligible for eight years of any twelve. He is the clerk of the Board of County Commissioners, makes out the tax duplicates, has charge of the 8(30 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. public school fund of the county, records and transfers all real estate, furnishes poll books and blanks to election boards, reports to the state auditor the number of male inhabitants over twenty-one years old, and makes a statistical report to the State Bureau of Statistics. The county recorder is elected for four years and can serve but eight out of any twelve. He keeps the records, mortgages, inden- tures, articles of incorporation, town plots, maps, etc. The county treasurer is elected for two years and is eligible for four out of any six. He receives and cares for the county funds and pays them out by order of the auditor. He collects the taxes and pays to the state treasurer the money due the state from the county. The sheriff serves two years and is eligible but four of any six. He is an executive officer, has charge of the county jail, and is peace officer for the county. If the sheriff is removed or under arrest, the coro- ner acts in his place. The coroner serves two years. It is his duty to hold inquests. The surveyor serves two years. These officers are all elected by the voters of the county. Each county has three commissioners elected by the people for three years. Their duties are complex. They care for the poor, fix the rates of taxation, and make appropriations. They see to the roads, bridges, and county buildings. They may appoint a justice of the peace and may for cause dismiss the county superintendent. The assessor is elected for four years and is not eligible for reelection. He is the supervisor of township assessors and may assess any omitted property. He, Avith the auditor and treasurer, constitutes a County Board of Review for equalizing taxes. The county superintendent is elected by the township trustees. It is his duty to see to the common schools of the county. He examines teachers for license, and may revoke the same for cause. He holds and conducts county institutes and is president of the County Board of Education. All county officers must be voters in their counties and must have resided in the county at least one year just preceding election. The salary of the county officers is frequently changed by the Assembly. There is one trustee to each township, elected by the people for four years in any eight. He has charge of the poor in the township, is inspector of general and township elections, and must furnish ballot-boxes and meals to the election board. He must care for the schoolhouses and property, furnish school supplies, and employ the teachers. He levies taxes for school purposes, enumerates the chil- STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 361 dren of school age, has general charge of roads and bridges, and appoints road supervisors. School directors are elected by the peo- ple, one for each district. They have the care of school property and execute the orders of the trustees. A town must have a Board of Trustees, which is its legislative body. The members are elected by the voters of the town for two years. Other officers are the town clerk, treasurer, and marshal, who hold office one year. The Board of Trustees elect the School Board of three members for three years. When a town has a popu- lation of 2000 or more, it may organize a city government with a mayor, City Court, and a police force. A city has the three departments of government, — Executive, Judicial, and Legislative. It is a little state within itself. It is divided into Avards, in each of which the people elect two members as councilmen for four years. Our large cities have a much more complex government than the small ones. The cities of Indiana are classed into three divisions. All above 35,000 inhabitants are divided as follows: those having a population of more than 100,000; those of more than 50,000 and fewer than 100,000; and those of more than 35,000 and fewer than 50,000. In such cities the people elect four officers and the council or mayor appoints others. There are the departments of Finance, LaAv, Public Works, Public Safety, Collection, Public Health, Charities, and Waterworks. The mayor appoints the superintendent of all these. All bills passed by the council must be signed or vetoed by the mayor. In cities of more than 10,000 people and fewer than 35,000, the governor appoints a Board of Police consisting of three members, who serve for three years; they must be of different political parties, though two may be of one party. In a city of 100,000 people or more, the election is held on the second Tuesday in October of the odd years; in cities of from 50,000 to 100,000, on the first Monday in April of the odd years; in all other cities, on the first Tuesday in May of the even years. Thus within the United States government is the complete machinery of state, county, township, town, and city govern- ments. One in a city or town may have part in five different governments, each of Avhich affords protection in its peculiar manner and department. It would seem that the United States has solved the great problem of local and national government in one. 362 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. A few other states shall receive a brief notice. Ohio's legislature is proportioned according to the population of the state. Every ten years the whole number of people is divided by 100, and the quotient is called the ratio of representation. The number of representatives for each coiint}^ is ascertained by dividing the popu- lation of the county by the ratio of representation. A county wliose population equals one-half the ratio has one representative; and a county whose population equals one and three- fourths the ratio has two representatives. A county has an extra representative when its population is greater than the one-half or one and three-fourths times the ratio, and the number of years it has this representative is such a part of ten years as the excessive population is of the ratio. The senatorial ratio is found by dividing the population of the states by .35. The state is divided into 35 districts, and the senators are ai)portioned among these as the representatives are among the counties. The legislature meets biennially on the first Monday in January. Each member of the legislature must have resided in his county or district one year just preceding elec- tion. Ohio elects a governor every two years and has no constitu- tional qualifications for him. It will not be necessary to discuss at length the executive depart- ment of any state, after having described Indiana's. All states have a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary, treasurer, auditor, except Wisconsin, attorney-general, and a superintendent of pub- lic instruction. All these are elected by the people except in Min- nesota, where the governor appoints the superintendent of public instruction. The officers of most states hold office for two years. Illinois elects all her state officers except the treasurer for four years, and he is chosen for two years. In Ohio the auditor is chosen for four years ; the school commissioners, for three years ; and tlie secretary, for two years. The auditor of Minnesota is chosen for three years. Kentucky elects all her executive and administrative officers for four years. Each state has one Supreme Court. In Ohio there are five judges of this court, elected for five years. The one whose term first expires is chief-justice. The Supreme Court of Illinois has seven judges, elected for nine years. The court chooses its own chief- justice. There are four judges in Michigan, elected for eight years; the one whose term first expires is chief-justice. Kentucky has from five to seven judges, elected for eight years. STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. 363 Each state has its Circuit or District courts, which are lower courts and do the greater part of the judicial work of the state. Many states have Probate Courts. They probate wills, and attend to the administration of estates. There are Municipal Courts, or town and city courts, and justices of the peace in every state. All the courts, except the Justices', have a clerk and reporter, and there is a prosecuting attorney for the county courts. To give the reader some idea of judicial procedure, I shall discuss the different phases of a case in court. The person bringing the charge is the plaintiff, and the person accused is the defendant. A suit in court is either criminal or civil ; the former, if the defendant has violated a law, for which he must be punished; the latter, if the suit is a recovery of property or damage. A criminal action always has the state for plaintiff. The state in a criminal action makes a complaint or affidavit before the court, and the justice issues a warrant for the defendant. This is given to the sheriff, his deputy, or the constable, and he makes the arrest and brings the accused before the court, which appoints a time for trial. Unless the case is a very serious one, the defendant is released on bail or the recognizance of some friend or friends, who agree to pay a certain sum of money if the accused does not comply with the law in the case and present himself for trial. If he can give no bail, he must remain in the custody of the law. Subpoenas are issued to all the witnesses in the case, and the day of trial appears. The prisoner is arraigned for trial and pleads guilty or not guilty to the charge. If he plead not guilty, the trial proceeds. The jury are chosen carefully and the testimony is presented to them. They, after hearing this, the pleading of the attorneys, and the charge of the justice, retire for making the decision. This kind of a jury is called a petit jury. We have also a grand jury, whose duty it is to inquire into charges, public morals, etc., and bring charges wherever it thinks advisable. These charges are called indictments, upon which the accused is tried in open court, as shown above. If he desire, the accused may have a jury trial in all cases involving certain amounts. Coming back to the Legislative Department of the state, I shall speak briefly of Illinois and Kentucky. Once in ten years the population of Illinois is divided by 51 for the ratio of repre- 364 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. seutation. The state is divided by the legislature into 51 dis- tricts as nearly equal in population as possible. In each district the voters elect one senator and three representatives. In electing the representatives, the voter has three votes and he may cast them for one man, or one for each of the three, or divide them among the candidates as he chooses. Each member of the legislature must be a citizen of the United States, must have resided in the state at least five years, and in his district at least two years next preceding his election. Senators must be at least twenty-five years old. The terms of one-half the senators expire every two years. Representa- tives must be at least twenty-one years old and they serve two years. The legislature meets biennially on the Wednesday next after the first Monday in January. Kentucky has 38 senators and 100 representatives. Every ten years the General Assembly districts the state, making 38 senatorial districts and 100 representative districts. The senators serve four years, the terms of one-half of them expiring every two years. The representatives serve for two years and must be at least twenty-four years old, citizens of the state, and must have been residents of the state for two years at least just preceding election, and residents of the district one year. Senators must l)e at least thirty years old, citizens of the state, and must have been residents of the state for at least six years, and of the district one year just preceding election. The Assembly meets biennially on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in January, for not more than sixty days. It is not necessary to discuss county government and officers for Ohio, Kentucky, and Illinois, since theirs is much like that of Indiana, which has already been described. CHAPTER XXXVI. GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. Early Governments — Theories — Devolution — Africa — Asia — Oceanica — Europe — Western Continent. MAN never gets so low in civilization but that he is under law, and never reaches so high but that government attends him. It is a strange fact that the government of man in the two extremes of his advancement differs very little. This is especially true with the Aryan race. When the Teuton roamed the forests of Ancient Europe, democracy was his government, and republicanism developed soon. His political rights were taken from him in succeeding cen- turies, and the great qiiestion of government in modern history has been to give back those rights. When a representative was chosen by the German barbarian, he was delegated special powers and dared not go beyond them. The chief was followed in war by choice. There was no other allegiance. The rough, bold barbarian, the ancestor of the English people of to-day, governed himself. He delegated no permanent rights to any one, and was monarch of his conscience, person, family, and property. But why should man have some form of government ? Why is a government needed ? If needed, what force Avithin man or out- side of him drives him to it ? Many theories exist in answer to these questions, all of which have more or less truth in them, though perhaps no one theory possesses all the truth. The Com- pact Theory is that theory which claims that men agree among themselves to live in a state of control. The adherents of this theory believe that nature's laws would bind man in society if he were not, as an animal, too strongly non-social. Man's desires to do wrong are too strong for him to obey those laws. Therefore government is a necessity. Seeing this fact, men came together and formed a compact, or rules of conduct, and thus originated government. 366 366 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Statehood, by the Compact Theory, is a vohmtary surrender of all privileges which are claimed by one man and yet are harmful to some other. Contract thus becomes the first fact in human progress. This theory assumes that the individual originally possessed no reverence for authority or society ; but to save himself he agreed to laws which became rules of action. Thus government was instituted. Ancient society nearly always looked back to an original law- giver, as Israel to Moses, Crete to Minos, Athens to Solon, Sparta to Lycurgus, Rome to Numa, England to Alfred, and the Oriental States to a being named Menu. Government, by this theory, the Traditional Theory, is made and is not a development. The Divine Origin Theory looks upon government as a direct institution of God. God's mandates order and direct man. The "Divine Right" of kings is a theory based on the belief that God governs humanity through a divinely appointed monarch. Humanity suffered under this theory during five centuries of our own era. There is truth in all these theories, and yet all are false. Society was not formed by compact or agreement. It is a natural state. Individualism is not tlie main source of human development ; but society is. Laws and government have been much changed by agreement ; but agreement does not form a basis for either society or government. The ancient idea of government, that man gave it, or rather made it, gives too much credit to the human side of law. Govern- ment, successful and just, is never made outright, but is developed. The Divine Origin Theory is weak just where the Ancient Theory is strong. It forgets the human side of law and gives the divine too much credit. Man is not an instrument in government. He gives laws and develops them ; but there is also the divine element in government. God has laws for man's actions. He made man and placed him in society with faculties for governing, just as he has faculties for reasoning. It is man's nature to look to some authority ; in this sense government is God-given. Law, or government, is coexistent with man. Man needs laws because he is honest and virtuous as well as because he is dishonest and corrupt. The divinity within calls for government. For these reasons society has a divine right to be governed ; but no man has a divine right to govern it. That right is always human. GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 367 The family was the first state, and govermnent expressed itself first in that divinely organized society. It was there that men learned to respect authority, and to see the need of it. By distant or feigned kinship the family relations extended to the village, to villages, to the state, and to several states. Kinship taught the world to respect authority. This respect for authority holds society under government. Man's subordination of self before au- thorized government makes states stable and governments powerful. Let us notice briefly the devolution of government since the fifth century of our era. The German barbarian knew only a traveling state. Their kings were kings of a people and not of a country, of the French and not of France, of the English and not of England, etc. Kingship of a country is of later origin. The other officers of the barbarians possessed less power than the voters ; for in the election the people named the privileges of the elected, and without the consent of the people the officer dared not add to those privileges. Individualism was the strongest factor among these people. Necessity drove the barbarian into local government under the Feudal System. The warlike disposition of the Teutonic barbarian made him dangerous in a society where power was delegated to no authority save in specified cases. There being no government to protect him, man did the next best thing, — gave himself and prop- erty to some lord, who in return agreed to give him protection. Thus arose the government of the lords, in which the common people and kings Avere of little influence. Unless the common man annexed himself in this way to some lord, he was constantly ex- posed to robbery and murder by the upper class. The common man lost his political rights when he was forced to surrender him- self to the Feudal System, but society gained because migration ceased. People became settled in a territory and called it home, their country. Without this condition there could be but little progress. Though the Feudal System helped to make society permanent, yet it was a very unnatural condition. Government was local rather than national. The Feudal estate was the center of political power. It was a government which lost sight of the lower class and the king, so it was very unpopular with them. But it was liked by the lords, who received the sole benefit. The next step in the Anglo-Saxon's governmental progress was the transition from the Feudal System to monarchy. The people 3G8 INSTITUTIONAL HlSTOKY OF UNITED STATES. gained nothing in this change. From having many masters they now had but one, who claimed to be ordained by God. In the progress towards nationalism the Crusades were the most important factor, since they decreased the power of the nobles. The change to monarchy was real progress, though society under that govern- ment was still in an unnatural condition. Nations were realities, but the common people had no political power. The old Teuton, however, had not forgotten his rights, though he had suffered their loss. The centuries have brought justice to him again. Now all pure Teuton governments are constitutional, and the people have some voice in their control. Absolute inonarchy and God-ordained kingship have given way to limited monarchy or republicanism under a constitution, and to a kingship with human rights only. So far in this chapter it has been the purpose to discuss govern- ment in its theory and progress. Now we shall notice the govern- ments of the present, Africa has undergone such change since 1880, that it is diflficult to give its political divisions and powers. Some of the boundary lines are not yet fixed definitely, and changes may be made at any time. By 1891, the countries of Europe, by treaty, had taken pos- session actually or nominally of most of the African Continent. At the present time (1897) its provinces and islands are governed as follows : Liberia, Orange River Free State, and the South African liepublic are independent and have a republican form of government. Liberia is the home of the negro, and Avas founded by the Coloniza- tion Society of the United States in 1810-21. Only negroes can be citizens, and only citizens can own real estate. The people have a Senate and House, whose members are elected by popular ballot, and a president, who is elected for two years in the same Avay. Suffrage belongs to the males who own real estate, and only citizens can hold office. There are a Supreme Court and subordinate courts. Liberia has four ministers : the Secretary of State, Secretary of Treasury, Attorney-General, and Postmaster-General. Orange Iliver Free State secured its independence from England in 1854. It elects a presi- dent for five years and has the two legislative houses. South African liepublic, formerly Transvaal llepublic, has a government similar to that of Orange River Free State. It can make no treaty without England's consent. Abyssinia has a despotic government by a native ruler under the protectorate of Italy ; Madagascar has a like government under GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 369 France ; Asliaiitee and Daliomey are indepeudent despotisms ; Mo- rocco is controlled by a sultan subject to Turkey ; North Zanzibar is ruled by a sultan subject to England ; South Zanzibar is subject to Germany ; Mozambique is under the rule of Portugal ; and the Congo Free State, under that of Belgium. The Sahara is controlled by England, France, and Spain ; the Soudan, by England and France ; and both are inhabited by tribes under tribal chiefs. Tunis, Algiers, Loango, and Senegambia belong to France ; Egypt, Tripoli, and Barca are subject to Turkey, though England controls the government of Egypt; Cape Colony, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Natal, St. Helena, Ascension, Mauritius, Sackatoo, the territory from Congo Free State to Cape Colony, West Griqualand, Zululand, and Caffraria, are all English territory. Ceuta, Fernando, and the Canary Islands belong to Spain. Cape Verde Islands, Madeira Islands, Azores, Mossamedes, and the territory north from it to the Congo River, belong to Portu- gal. Damara and Adaraawa are Germany's, and Somali is Italy's. The oldest of these colonies have representative colonial government. Laws must be accepted by the home government and also by the government of the colony. The more savage colonies are controlled absolutely by the home government. There are no republics in Asia. It has several kingdoms more or less despotic, such as Corea, the Malacca states, Bootan, Nepaul, Siam, and Anam. All these, except Corea, Bootan, and Nepaul, are a part of Indo-China, and all are despotic governments. China is an absolute empire. Japan is a constitutional empire, though the monarch's poAver is not greatly limited. It has two legislative houses, — a House of Peers and House of Representatives. Together they are called the Imperial Diet. The former is composed of the imperial family, nobility, and such others as the Emperor may ap- point ; the members of the latter are elected by the people. A law is not in force until the Diet accepts it, and the constitution cannot be changed except by the consent of that body. Japan has a Judi- cial Department. The present constitution was given by the Em- peror in 1889. Persia is a despotic government. Turkestan is controlled by native chiefs under Russia. Turkey in Asia is controlled by pachas or rulers in its provinces, — Asia Minor, Syria, Armenia, and Meso- potamia. They include the great ancient monarchies, — Chaldea, Assyria, and Babylonia and also the Holy Land. Arabia consists of independent states governed absolutely by sultans. Southern Arabia 2b 370 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. lias tribal government, as lias Afghanistan and Beloocliistan, though Cabul is occupied by the English. Bokhara, Khiva, Siberia, Soon- garia, and Trans-Caucasia are subject to Russia. India belongs to England and is ruled by a governor-general. England controls Hin- dustan, Burmah, Ceylon, Hong Kong, Aden, Singapore, and Malacca, Lower Cochin China belongs to France. The Hawaiian Islands have a republican form of. government. Java, South Borneo, Sumatra, Celebes, Moluccas, Spice Islands, and iSTew Guinea belong to Holland. North Borneo, Australia, Tasmania, the Fiji Islands, and New Zealand belong to England. Philippine, Ladrone, and the Caroline Islands are colonies of Spain. New Cale- donia and the Society Islands belong to France. New Guinea belongs to England, France, and Holland. Australia has five divi- sions, over each of which is a governor ajipointed by the Crown of England ; each division has a legislative body elected by the people. Holland controls her territory in Oceanica by a governor-general and native chiefs ; England, hers by an appointed governor and rep- resentatives elected by the people ; France and Spain govern their colonies in Australia absolutely. There are four republics in Europe, — San Marino, Andorra, Switzerland, and France. San Marino, in Italy, is the oldest repub- lic in the world. It has had the favor of popes and kings to such a degree, that through the constant strife and change of fourteen cen- turies it has preserved its rights. It is governed by a council of sixty men, from whom are chosen twelve executive officers. The council is elected by the people. Andorra, situated between France and Spain, is under the control of France, but governs itself. Switzerland contains 22 cantons united in the Swiss Confed- eration. There are two councils, — the National and Council of State. The former consists of one representative for every 20,000 people, though each canton must have at least one reiu-esentative even if it does not have the required population. This house is elected by the people of the cantons for three years. The Council of State consists of two members from each canton. The canton legislatures elect the members of this council and also pay them. If 30,000 voters or eight cantons demand, all laws must be placed before the people to be acted upon. The Executive Department con- sists of seven members, who are chosen by the councils for three years. From these seven men the councils choose one each year to be presi- dent of the Confederation. Switzerland hasacomplete judicial system. GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 371 The government of France consists of a Senate of 300 mem- bers and a Chamber of Deputies, having one member for every 100,000 persons. Two hundred twenty-five members of tlie Senate are chosen for nine years by the departments and colonies, and 75 are chosen by the National Assembly for life. The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by popular vote for four years. The Chamber and Senate in joint session elect a presi- dent of France, to serve seven years. France is divided into 87 departments corresponding to our states. They are subdivided into 362 arrondissements ; they, into 2865 cantons; and they, into about 36,000 communes. The departments elect their legislative bodies, and the president appoints the executive officers for each department. Belgium, Denmark, England including Ireland and Scotland, Italy, Holland, Portugal, Spain, Korway and Sweden, Greece, Ser- via, and Roumania form the kingdoms of Europe. Montenegro is a principality ; and Luxemburg, an independent grand duchy. The executive officer of Belgium is a king, who inherits his posi- tion in a direct male descent ; if there is no heir, the king, with the consent of the chambers, may appoint one. The Legislative branch consists of a Senate and Chamber of Representatives. The Senate consists of 76 members elected by the people and 26 elected by the Provincial Councils. The senators serve eight years, and the terms of one-half expire every four years. Those chosen by the Councils are exempted from property qualifications, but the others must have an income of not less than 12,000 francs or must pay taxes equal to a sum not less than 1200 francs. Voting for sena- tors may be restricted to male citizens thirty years old or more ; suffrage, however, is conferred on all males not less than twenty- five years old. The Chamber of Representatives has one rep- resentative for every 40,000 population. The members are elected for four years by a popular vote, and the terms of one-half expire every two years. Belgium has a very remarkable suffrage plan. It is called the Plural Suffrage System, and was adopted in 1893. Every married man or widower, thirty-five years of age or more, having legitimate issue and paying at least five francs' house tax per year, has one vote besides the one by virtue of his citizenship and age. Any citizen twenty-five years old or more and owning real estate worth at least 2000 francs, or having an income not less than 100 francs, has two 372 INSTITUTIONAL HISTOKY OF UNITED STATES. votes. Any citizen more than twenty-five years old and holding a diploma showing a superior education, has three votes. No one can have more than three votes. Denmark's executive officer is a king, who has an absolute veto on legislation. The kingdom has seven ministers of state, and its Legislative branch, which meets each year, is called the lligsdag. It consists of two branches, — the Landsting and Folketing. The former consists of 66 members. Twelve are chosen by the Crown for life ; Copenhagen chooses seven, and Faro chooses one. The remaining 46 are elected by ten electoral districts, to serve eight years. The members of the lower house are elected for three years by ])opular suffrage. There are now 102 members in this house. The right of suffrage belongs to male citizens thirty years old or more. England has a constitutional government whose monarch is a king or queen. The Legislative branch consists of a House of Commons and House of Lords. The members of the former are elected by the people. The right of suffrage belongs to those male citizens, not less than twenty-one years old, who pay ten pounds rent annually or have an income of that auiount. A position in the House of Lords is inherited by the English members. The term of office in that house is for life, except for the members from Ireland and Scotland. Those two countries are governed by Parliament, though Ireland has a Privy Council. The Scottish members in the House of Lords are elected by the Scotch peers, and the Irish mem- bers are elected by the Irish peers. The monarch of England has no veto power and must choose a prime minister from the party having the majority in Parliament. The prime minister nominates the other cabinet officers, of whom there are from 11 to 16. The Crown chooses the cabinet from the nominations of the prime minister. The cabinet is the Execu- tive Department. Members of the House of Commons hold office for seven years unless forced to resign. They must resign when the prominent party is defeated in Parliament. The question at issue then goes to the people. They hold an election in which members of the lower house are elected either to pass the proposed measure or reject it. No member of the lower house of Parliament has served continuously for seven years without a reelectiou, since the last century. Questions of politics in England come before the people for solution, and })recedent and public opinion govern. GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 373 There is no written constitution. Tlie House of Commons is the strong force in government. Italy is a constitutional monarchy. She has a king, Avho is aided by the chiefs of nine departments of state. There are a Senate and Chamber of Kepresentatives ; the members of the latter are elected by popular suffrage ; those of the former are appointed for life by the Crown and the provinces. The provinces and com- munes elect their local officers, but the king appoints the governor. Holland has a constitutional government. The king is heredi- tary in the House of Orange. He is assisted by eight Councils of State. The States-General consists of two chambers. The right of suffrage belongs to those male citizens who pay at least ten guilders tax. Private soldiers and non-commissioned officers are excluded from voting. The upper chamber consists of 50 members, who are elected by the provinces. The lower house is made up of 100 members, who are elected by the voters. Portugal is a limited monarchy. The king is the executive, aided by his cabinet. The Legislative branch is made up of two houses, — the House of Peers and House of Commons. The mem- bers of the former are appointed by the Crown for life, and those of the latter are elected by the popular vote. Suffrage in Portugal is based on an income of $100 per year. Spain has a government similar to that of Portugal. The Legis- lative body is called the Cortes. The Senate is composed of sons of the king, nobles having an income of 60,000 pesetos or about $12,000 yearly, captains-general of the army, admirals of the navy, patri- archs of the Indies, and archbishops. These hold their position in the Senate by virtue of their rank. There are also 100 senators, named by the Crown for life, and 150 are elected by the heavy tax- payers and corporations. The lower hovise consists of members elected by the voters for five years. There is one representative for every 50,000 people. The cabiuet of Spain is really the Execu- tive Department. The CroAvn has no veto powers. The cabinet ministers are members of the Cortes. Norway and Sweden were united in 1814. The union does not interfere with the separate government of the two states. It is of the Crown only, and not of the legislatures. Each country has a legislature composed of two houses, which have complete legisla- tive control over their individual country. The king is a hereditary officer ; but if there is no successor in the direct male line, the legis- 374 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. latures of the two countries in joint session may choose one. The king must reside alternately in each country, and when in one must appoint a governor for the other. Each country has a Council of State, with Avhich the king must advise. The Legislative branch of Norway is called a Storthing, of which there are two houses, — the Lagthing and Odelsthing. Office holders, property holders not less than twenty-five years old, and male citi- zens may vote. Every 50 eligible inhabitants choose an elector. These several electors meet and choose from any eligible class one- fourth as many members for the Storthing as there are electors. This is the manner of electing the legislature in cities. In the country districts each district of 100 eligible inhabitants chooses one elector ; of 200 to 300, three electors, etc. These electors must choose one-tenth as many members for the Storthing as there are electors. All the members serve for three years. Sweden's legislature is called a Diet, which is composed of two chambers having equal authority. The members of the upper house are elected for nine years by the provincial assemblies and municipal councilmen. These members must be thirty-five years old or more, and must own property. The lower chamber consists of members elected by the towns and rural districts, one for every 10,000 popu- lation in towns, and one for every 40,000 population in the country. All male citizens, and persons twenty-one years old or more and owning property, may vote. The members of the Diet serve for three years. The election of the lower house is direct or indirect as the majority of the people may decide, Greece has a hereditary king and one legislative house, whose members serve four years and are elected by the male citizens over twenty-one years of age. The king in Greece has more authority than kings in limited monarchies usually have now. He is not responsible to any authority, can appoint and dismiss officers, and can prorogue or dissolve the legislature. Servia, Koumania, and Montenegro secured their independence from Turkey in 1878. They are limited monarchies, governed as other kingdoms of Europe. Germany is a constitutional empire, consisting of twenty-six states. The King of Prussia is Emperor of Germany by hereditary right. There are two legislative houses. The Bundesrath consists of about sixty members elected by the state legislatures for each legislative session. The Reichstag is the lower house, and its GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 375 members are elected by popular suffrage. Every man who is a German and is not less than twenty-one years old may vote. Each state has its own government, Avhich is very similar to the state governments of United States. Russia is an absolute monarchy. The Czar embraces in himself the Legislative, Judicial, and Executive departments of government. The throne is inherited through either the male or female line. The Czar appoints four Councils of State, — Council of the Empire, Di- recting Senate, Holy Synod, and Council of Ministers. The last includes eleven Departments, — Imperial House, Foreign Affairs, War, ISTavy, Interior, Public Instruction, Finance, Justice, Imperial Domains, Public Work and Railway, and General Comptrol. All these secure their power from the Czar, and are answerable to him alone. Austria-Hungary is a political union of two equal powers, over which is the Austrian Emperor, who is also king of Hungary. Each nation has its own constitution and government, but in foreign questions and questions concerning the army, the nations have common interests. To look after these common interests equal committees, called the Supreme Imperial Assembly, are appointed annually from and by each the Austrian and Hungarian parliaments. Each committee is responsible to its own parliament, and is com- posed of sixty delegates, twenty being taken from the upper house and forty from the lower house. The two parts of the Assembly meet separately, but count their votes collectively. The meetings are annual, and alternate between the countries. Austria's govern- ment is a limited monarchy, with two legislative houses, the members of one being appointed by the Emperor, and those of the other, the lower, being elected by the people under a small property qualifica- tion. Hungary's government is similar to Austria's. They form a dual monarchy, with independent governments save in the Supreme Imperial Assembly and the Emperor. Turkey was formed into a constitutional monarchy in 1876, with two houses of Parliament, — the Senate and Chamber of Deputies. The members of the former were to be appointed by the Sultan for life, and those of the latter to be elected by popular vote, one deputy for every 150,000 people. The Sultan soon destroyed the constitu- tion, however, and the government is now an absolute monarchy. Turkey has suffered much from bad government. The ruler usually inherits the throne, but sometimes he has been appointed by the army. 376 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Gibraltar and Malta are English colonies; Corsica is French; and the Balearic Isles, Spanish. Republicanism is the favorite form of government on the Western Continent, and its best representation is the government of United States. Since this book deals almost wholly with that country, nothing more need be said about it in this iilace. Mexico is a republic. It belonged to Spain until 1821, when it became independent. Its chief executive is a president, elected as the president of the United States is. He must be at least thirty- five years old, not a member of any ecclesiastical order, a citizen by birth, and a resident when elected. He is elected for four years, and has a cabinet, whose members must be natural-born citizens, at least twenty-five years old. The Judicial Department is vested in a Supreme, District, and Circuit courts. There are eleven supreme judges, who are elected indirectly by the people for six years. A Mexican eighteen years old is a citizen if married; if not married, he must be at least twenty-one years old to be a citizen. Only Mexicans can be citizens of Mexico. The Legislative Department is vested in a Congress composed of two houses, — the House of Deputies and the Senate. The members of the former house are elected for two years, and an alternate is elected for each deputy. Xne election is indirect, the method being regulated by Congress. The election of senators is also indirect, the state legislatures electing them in a manner prescribed by law for four years. A senator must be at least thirty years old. Mexico has 27 states. Lower California, a territory, and the Capital District. There are two senators for each state, and a representative for every 40,000 population. Argentine Republic has an Executive Department, two Legis- lative branches, and a Supreme Court. The representatives and senators are elected in the same way as those of the United States ; the former hold office for four years, and the latter for nine years. The president is elected for six years by an electoral college. The republic adopted a constitution in 1853 very nearly like that of the United States. Upper Peru was separated from Peru in 1825, and called Bolivia in honor of the great liberator of South America, Boliver. He gave Bolivia a constitution in 1826, which was largely military, and did not provide for a successful form of government. It has been modi- fied from time to time, mitil now l^olivia elects her president for GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 377 four years by direct vote, and he appoints the vice-president and ministers. The two houses of Congress are elected by the direct vote of the people. Chili elects her president for five years by electors chosen by the people. The senators and representatives are elected by the people directly, the former for six years and the latter for three years. Voters must be taxpayers, and must be able to read and write. The president appoints the governors for the different districts. The present constitution of Colombia was adopted in 1886. The president is elected for six years by the indirect vote of the people. The senators, three for each state, are elected by the state legisla- tures. The representatives are elected by popular suffrage. There is a condition of unrest in this republic, as there is in all the South American states. Though the constitution declares a man can be elected but once to the presidency, Dr. ISTunez has been elected four times. He does not fill the office himself, but leaves the burdens of state to the vice-president. Paraguay has a president elected to serve six years. The Leg- islative Department consists of two houses. The constitution is modeled after that of Argentine Confederation. Peru's constitution also takes the Argentine constitution as a model. The states elect the senators, and the representatives are elected by an electoral college. The president is elected for five years by the people. Uruguay is a republic, and has a president who is elected for four years. The senators are elected for four years ; and the representa- tives, for three years. Frequent political revolutions disturb the government. Venezuela's government is modeled in every respect after that of the United States. Ecuador is much the same except her presi- dent serves for six years ; her senators, for nine years ; and repre- sentatives, for six years. Guatemala elects her president for four years. The people elect the lower house, and it elects the upper house. The members of both hold office for four years. Costa Eica elects her president for four years and has but one legislative house, elected for four years. San Salvador elects her president for four years, and has two legislative houses, elected for two years. Hon- duras, Nicaragua, Hayti, and Santo Domingo are republics fashioned after the United States. Brazil has organized the most recent government on the Western 378 INSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF UNITED STATES. Continent. Previous to 1890 it Avas an empire. The constitution was adopted February 24, 1891. The Legislative Department con- sists of two liouses, — the Chamber of Dejjuties and the Senate. The members of the former are elected by the people for three years. The Senate is composed of three senators from each state, who are elected for nine years by the people. The president is elected for four years by a direct vote of the people. The Judicial Department is like that of the United States. Denmark owns Greenland and Iceland. Greenland is controlled absolutely by Danish directors. Iceland was given the privilege of controlling itself in 1874 under Denmark's protection. The Dominion of Canada is governed by a governor-general and Senate appointed by the English Crown, and by a House of Repre- sentatives whose members are elected by the people. Newfoundland includes Labrador, and has the same kind of government as Canada. The provinces of Canada are managed by a lieutenant-governor appointed by the governor-general, and by a legislative branch elected by the people. Ontario has one legislative house. Quebec has two houses ; the Senate is appointed by the governor-general, and the House is elected by the people. Nova Scotia and New Brunswick have one legislative house each, elected by the people, as have British Columbia, Manitoba, and Prince Edward Island. The Northwest Territory is ruled by a lieutenant-governor ap- pointed by the governor-general. British, French, and Dutch Guiana are respectively under the control of England, France, and Holland. Each has a council elected by the people and a governor appointed by the home government. British Honduras is under English rule. The Crown appoints a governor, and the people elect a representative house. Cuba is under the absolute rule of Spain, which appoints a governor and an administrative council. Porto Pico belongs to Spain, and is gov- erned like Cuba. Jamaica belongs to England. Her governor is appointed by the Crown, and a Legislative Council is elected by the people. Santa Cruz and St. Thomas belong to Denmark. Guade- loupe and Martinique belong to France. Both have a voice in their local affairs. The other islands of the Lesser Antilles, the Bahamas, and the Bermudas belong to England. The two latter have a repre- sentative house elected by the people, and a governor appointed by the Crown. INDEX. Al)yssinia, 368. Abolition, conveution, 124; slavery, 201 ; party, 2()4. Accounts, committee of, 124. Academy, Militarj', 127, 128 ; Naval, 129 ; King William's, 214; Willianistown, 224; Frcedman's Aid Society, 228. Act, Treasury, 159; Sherman, 171. Actor, 279. Adolplms, Gustavus, 69. Adams, John, resolution for indepen- dence, 86; appointed Federal judges, 109, 2()3; veto, 120; nominated for President, 123; in the Cabinet, 131; wrote for the Boston Gazette, 24() ; leader of Federal party, 259; elected Vice-President, 2(i2 : elected President, and character of administration, 263; had franking privilege, 303. Adams, Samuel, labor tor independence, 83 ; influence, 99. Adams, Abigail, 86. Adams, J. Q., use of veto, 120; elected President, 122 ; nominated for Presi- dent, 124; for protection, 141; Smith- sonian Institute, 226; leader of Whigs, 264. Adjutant, 128. Adjutant-General of the War Depart- ment, 127 ; of Ohio, 134 ; of Indiana, 358. Ad valorem, 140, 147. Advertisements, to sell slaves, 195; amusement, 281. Adamawa, 369. Aden, 370. Ada Normal College, 229. Aeroplane, 336. Esthetics, 218. .^s, 153. Africa, slaves and company, 189, 210; government, 368 seq. Afghanistan, 370. Agriculture, committee, 120; Secretary of, 126; Department of, 129; in the colonies, 140, 306; Smithsonian Insti- tute, 226; Bureau of, 227. Agents, 256. Alfred the Great, 366. Alderman, 136. Ale, 150. Alloy, silver dollar, 167, 168 ; gold dollar, 167, 168. Alabama, seceded, 14, 207; laws against teaching the negro, 208 ; school fund, 223, 224 ; readmitted, 267. Algonquins, tribes of, 33; great spirit of, 36 : habits, 40 ; decline, 53 ; hate towards Iroquois, 54. Albany, Congress called at, 79 ; Dutch habits, 275 ; roads, 341. Allen County, lud., 357. Algiers, 369. Alexander II., 211 ; VI., 314. Algebra, 213, 222, 229. Almanac, 215. Alaska, 225, 291. Alien Law, 263. America, Gibraltar of, 10 ; discovery of, 22, 23; claims, 23; Auti-slave Society of, 204 ; University of, 226 ; Missionary Association, 227; emigration to, 230; Weekly Mercnrtj of, 244; Daily Ad- vertiser, 2\1 ; party, 265; Nationalists, 267; remarks of Edinhurgh Review, 279; Philosophical Society of, .321. Amendment, Eleventh, 108; Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth, 208. Ambassadors, 125, 254 seq. Amusements, 281. Annapolis, convention, 89, 91; King's Academy, 214 ; newspapers, 245. Anti-Masons, 124, 264. Anti-Nebraska, 265. Anti-Federalists, formation, 97 ; repealed Federal judge law, 105 ; opposed na- tional bank, 178; principles, 259; change name, 200. Anderson, Major, 15. Antietam, 19. Andartes, 55. Andros, 61, 65. Ancients, 187. Anglo-Saxons, 367. Anam, 369. 379 380 INDEX. Andorra, 370. Antilles, 378. Appointments of foreign ministers, 255 ; consuls, 256; vice-consuls, 257 ; deputy- consuls, 257 ; agents, 257. Apparel, 271. Apothecary, 28G. Apportionment, of senators and repre- sentatives in Indiana, 353; of senators and representatives in Ohio, 302; of Illinois, 363 spq. Appellate jurisdiction, 107, 108; courts, 35(). Appropriation, 120. Appomattox, 20, 18'J. Aryans, 365. Armenia, 33, 369. Arahia, 36!i. Argentine Repuhlic, 376. Arkansas, seceded, 15, 207 ; woman suf- frage in, 134 seq. ; teaching of negroes, 208; school fund, 224; readmitted, 267. Army, Union, 14 seq. ; Coufederate, 14 seq. ArchfBology, 28. Architecture. 32, 220, 278. Articles of Confederation, how made? 11; insutificient, 13; formed, 8(} seq.; power, 87; ratified, 87 seq.; govern- ment under, 88; states, 88; taxation, 88; Congress, 88; weakness, 89, 91, 113. Articles of Association, 76, 81. Arizona, 134, 291. Art, 213, 215, 278. Arkwright, 295 seq. Armstrong, 334. Arithmetic, 218, 222. Asylum, 273 seq. Astronomers, 279, 327. Assembly, Colonial, 10, 79, 80, 82, 85, 244 ; of Maryland, ()7; of Connecticut, ()7, 68;. of Delaware, ()9; of Pennsylvania, 72; of Virginia, 281 ; of Indiana, 352. Astoria, 292. Astor, 292. A. si a, 248, 369 seq. Assizes, 231. Associate Church, 241. Associate Reformed Church, 241. Associate Presbyterian Church, 241. Assistant secretary, 126. Assistant postmaster-general, 130. Assossane, 43. Association of Montreal, 50. Associate Justice, 106. .\ssessors, 360 seq. Ashantee, 369. Ascension, ;i69. Asia Minor, 369. Assyria, 309. Athens, 187, 366. Attucks, 199. Ataentsic, 37. Attorneys, of Virginia, 59 seq. ; of New England, 63. Attorney-(ieneral, duty of, 107, 130; be- come President, 122; Cabinet, 125; de- partment and salary, 130 ; refused to enforce William and Mary's College charter, 213; examine patents, 297; of Indiana, 359 ; states, .362 ; of Liberia, 368. Atonement, 230, 241. Atlanta Constitution, 250. Australia, 137, 332, 370. Automatic carriage, 336. Auditor, 12(), 353, 359. Austria-Hungary, 375 seq. Austria, 375 seq. Azores, 369. Aztecs, 27, 28. Baltimore, academy for colored girls, 209 ; high schools, 227 ; Sun, 250 ; actor, 279; mail, 300; telegraph line, 326; and Ohio Railroad, 340. Baltimore, Lord, strife with Clayborne, 67 ; founded a colony, 236. Baltic and North Sea Canal, 344. Babylon, 351. Bank, committee, 120; tax on circulation, 150; Rhode Island, 157; Mas.sachusetts, 176; Coleman's scheme, 176; land bank, 176; New Hampshire, 176; specie bank, 170; of North America, 147, 177 seq. ; National Bank, 178, ISO, 261 ; charter defeated, 179; state banks, 180 seq. ; specie redemption, 181 ; Jack- son's policy, 182; safety fund system, 182 seq.; Suffolk system, 183; Ohio, 183; free banking, 183; Indiana, 183 seq. ; Illinois, 183 seq. ; present bank- ing system, 185 seq. ; clearing house, 180. Barca, 369. Balearic Isles, 376. Bahama, 378. Barnburners, 265. Bankrupt law, 271. Barbecue, 281 seq. Baker, George C, 323. Battery, 33(5. Baptists, 204, 228, 2.32 seq. Barham, John, 215. Bancroft, George, 2(i, 129, 2;5(;, 238. INDEX. 381 Banner, 249. Ballot, 132. Bar iron, 142. Barbary states, 149. Balls, musket, 153. Barley, 153. Barter, 168. Bankers, 178, 180. Baptizing, 193 seq. Bar, 63. Bell, inventor, 266, 333 seq. Beverly, 213, 272. Belting, 281. Behring, 292, 348. Berlin Decree, 140, 297 seq. Belknap, W. W., 114; Dr., 325. Bentley, 268. Bessemer, 337. Berkeley, 71, 212. Bennett, 253. Belgium, 369 seg. Beloochistan, 370. Bermuda, 378. Beer, 150. Beans, 34, 153. Beaver, skin of, 153. Bed, 200. Beauregard, General, 16, 18. Bills, revenue, 114 seq. ; Presidential succession, 122; tariff of 1789, 140; tariff of 1816, 140 seq., 263; tariff of 1820, 1821, 1822, 1824, 141 ; tariff of 1827, 141 ; of abominations, 141 seq. ; tariff of 1830, 1832, and 1833, 142, 264 ; tariff of 1842, 142 ; tariff, 1846, 143 ; tariff of 1857, 143; tariffs of the war, 143 seq. ; tariff of 1867, of 1872, 144; tariff of 1883, 1884, 1886, 1887, 1888, 145 ; McKin- ley Bill, 145 seq.; Wilson Bill, 146; internal tax bills, 146 seq.; of credit, 154 seq. ; coinage, 171 ; bank, 176 seq. ; slavery, 205 seq. ; Omnibus Bill, 265; lottery bills, 312; origination, 354. Bible, qualification for voting in Dela- ware, 132; society, 203; studied in Harvard, 218 ; England sent, 231 ; pun- ishment for disbelieving, 2.34 ; in Sun- day-schools, 242; National Society, 243; Public Ledger of Philadelphia, 250; could not print it in the colonies, 295; teaching witchcraft, 313 seq. Bit, 166. Bimetalism, 172. Bishop, 213, 2.32 seq. ; Bridget, 316. Bicycle, 336, .347. Blockade Decree, 16. Blount, William, 114. Blaine, James G., 125, 131. Black slaves, 191, 267. Blair, Rev., 213, "Sermons," 214, 272. Blackstoue, 215. Blackbeard, 317. Boston, Massacre of, 10; Tea Party, 10; Evacuation of, 11 ; lead in opposing Stamp Act, 78 ; Suffolk banking, 159, 182 ; value of money in, 167 ; slave port, 200 ; first newspaper in America, 220 ; schools, 223, 227 ; newspapers, 244 seq. ; social life, 227 ; amusements, 285 ; market day, 305 ; stages, 339 ; travel, 340. Boundary lines, 14, 288 seq. Bowling Green, 16, 249. Board, of trade and plantation, 78-80; of customs, 80; of education, 225, 358 seq.; of review, 360; of trustees, 361 seq. ; of police, 361. Bonds, 149, 152, 160 seq., 172, 180 seq.; servants, 306, 317. Boots, 150. Bolivia, 170, 376. Botany, 215, 218. Boys, 222, 226, 227 ; reform school, 359. Bolingbroke, 233. Boylston, Dr., 287. Books, 302 seg., 314, 335. Boat, 321 seq. Bootan, 369. Bokhara, 370. Boliver, 376. Borneo, 370. Brandywine, 12. Bragg, General, 18, 19. Brigadier-general, 128. Bra'zil, 169, 190, 210, 377 seq. Brown, John, 206. Brown, Sir Thomas, 313 seq. Brown College, 220, 221, 224. Brooklyn, 216, 333, 350. Britain, 246. Breckeni-idge, 266. Bryan, William J., 268 seq. Brief Rule in Smallpox, 287. Bridges, 340 seq. Brussels, .343. Brott Rapid Transit System, 348. British Columbia, 378. British Guiana, 378. British Honduras, 378. Bunker Hill, 11, 85. Burgoyne, 11, 12, 87. Buchanan, 14, 206, 265. Bull Run, 16, 19. Buell, General, 17. 382 INDEX. Bunisides, General, 19. Burke, 84. Butler, General, 92. Burr, Aaron, 124. Bureau, of Statistics, 120; of Mint, 126; of Engraving and Printing, 12(5 ; of Military Justice, 127; of Yards and Docks, 128; of Equipment and Recruit- ing, 128; of Navigation, 128; of Ord- nance, 128 ; of Medicine and Surgery, 128; of Provisions and Clotliing, 128; of Construction and Repair, 128; of Education, 225; of Agriculture, 227. Building, 1!)1, 297. Burton, Mary, Ht4. Burials, 231, 277. Bull-baiting, 284. Buckner, Simon, 249, 268. Burmah, .';')70. Bundesrath, ."74. Byrd, Rev., 213, 272. Catholics, 9, 73, 215, 231 seq. Camden, 13; and Asbury Railroad, 346. Cathay, 22. Calendar, stone in Mexico, 28. Cayugas, .35. Carteret, 71. Candles, 150. Case in court, 111. Cabinet, succeed to presidency, 122; ad- visory branch of Executive Depart- ment, 125 ; board of trustees for Smithsonian Institute, 226; ^Vashing- ton's, 259 ; Post-office Department, 301. Candidates, 123. Cadets, West Point, 127 seq. ; naval, 129. Calhoun, 142, 2G4. Cattle, 1.".3. Canada, soldiers from, 1.54 ; terminus of Underground Railroad, 204 ; postage to, from United States, 304; Chili to Canada by rail, 304; government, 378. Carolina, 167, 198, 272. California, gold fields of, 169; bank note, 185 ; admission as a state, 205 ; school fund, 224; secured by United States, 291. Capital, 176 seq., 191, 261, 311. Cat-o'-nine-tails, 200. Camwood, 204. Calvin, John, 2.30 seq., 325. Calvinism, 230, 241. Cards, playing, 232, 281. Calvert, 23(5. Campbellites, 240. Carpet-bag rule, 2(57, 305, 310, 311. Carriages, 270. Cavalier, 273, 275, 279. Cat Island, 287. Canals, 321 seq., 341, 342 seq. Cachuchu, .328. Caoutchouc, 328. Cartridges, 333 seq. Car, 336 seq. Cataract Construction Company, 337. Cape Colony, 369. Catfraria, mi Canary Island, 369. Cape Verde Island, 369. Cabul, 370. Caroline Islands, 370. Canton, 370. Cable, 349. Cantilever bridges, 350. Cairo, .350. Cascade tunnel, 351. Captain, 128, l.J8. Certificates, for loans, 147, 148 ; tobacco, 153; gold and silver, 163; currency, 1()3 ; gold coin exchanged for, 172 ; sil- ver exchanged for, 172. Census, 129. Cent, 167, 173 seq. Central .\merica, 170. 206. Central Tennessee College, 227. Central Normal College, 229. Central states, 306. Ceuta, 369. Ceylon, 370. Celebes, 370. Central Pacific Railroad, 347. Charleston, resisted tea tax, 10 ; value of a shilling, 16' newspapers, 245 ; social center, 283; .;ames Rumsey of, 323. Chad's Ford, 12. Chattanooga, 18, 19, 249. Chichimecs, 27. Cholula, Pyramid of, 28. Christmas, 34. Champlain,40, .'■)2. Charter, colonies, 57; Virginia, 57 .sp(7. ; Plymouth, 60; New York, 65; Mary- land, ()(>; Connecticut, 68: of confed- eration revoked, 77; National Bank's, 159, 178 seq. ; Bank of North Amer- ica's, 177. Chilli.'othc, 247. Christians, 79, 193. Church members, citizenship in New England, 7(i; voters in Massachusetts, 132 ; Church of England, 231. Charles II., 77: V., 189,215. Clialhani. 84. INDEX. 383 Checks, 150. Chief-Justice, position, 106; salary, 106; number aud names, 112 ; trustee of Smithsonian Institute, 226 ; John Jay, 259 ; of state courts, 356 seq. Chief of engineers, 127. Chase, Sahnon P., 112, 159 seq. Chase, Samuel, 114. Chaplain, 128. Chequin, 167. Chili, 170, 348, 376. Christianity, 188. Children, 191, 202, 225. Chains, 200. Chronicle, 247, 248, 249. Church, missionary work in Liberia, 203 ; college, 203; in America, 231 seq. ; dif- ferent churches in United States, 240 seq. Channing, 206. Chancellor, 213. Childs, George W., 2.50. Chaldea, 218. Chicago, high school, 227 ; newspapers of, 248; Democratic convention of 1896, 268; George C. Baker of, 323; canal, 343; railroad, 346; elevated roads of, 349. Churching, 231. Charges d'affaires, 254. China, 255, 276, 343, 369. Chaises, 270. Chemists, 279. Chivalry, 281. Chloroform, 286. Chesapeake, 344, 348. Charities, 361. Chamber of Deputies, 371. Civil War, great fact, 14; story, 15, 16; paper money, 160 seq. ; Confederate currency, 162 ; slavery, 204, 207 ; laws and slavery since, 210 ; political par- ties, 2()6 ; newspaper, 334 ; effect on railroad, 347. Cipangu, 22. Citizens, in Virginia, 57 seq. ; Massa- chusetts, 60 seq.; Rhode Island, 68; colonies, 76; bring suit, 109; in the states, 135 ; Fourteenth Amendment, 208 ; in the Puritan colony, 234 ; in Indiana, 352 ; in Mexico, 376. Circuit Court, organization, 104; in charge of, 103, 106 ; midnight circuits, 105 ; of District of Columbia, 105 seq. ; of Appeals, 106 ; time of meeting in Seventh Circuit, 107 seq. ; cases in, tries, 108 seq. ; of states, 356 seq. Circuit, Seventh, 106 .seq. Circulation, 178 seq. Cicero, 215. City, 225, 361 seq. Circulars, 302 seq. Cincinnati, negro school, 209; high schools, 227 ; newspapers, 247, 248 ; "Greek Slave," 278; railroad, 346; bridge, 350. Clergy, 230, 287. Cleritiont, 340. Clinton, 11, 12, 13; Governor, 101. Cliff-Dwellers, 27. Clans, 35. Clock, 40. Clayborne, 67. Cleveland, Grover, use of the veto, 120; nominated, 125; on the tariff, 145; election, 266 ; supported by Mugwumps, 267 ; financial crisis, 268. Cleveland, Columbus, and Cincinnati Railroad, 346. Claims, 120. Clay, Henry, nominated for President, 125, 327 ; in the Cabinet, 131 ; life of, 249 ; protective tariff, 263 ; presidential candidate, 264. Clerks, government, 130; salaries, 130; consular, 256, 257; county, 353, 359 seq. Cloth, 153. Club, Hunt, 156. Clipping, 167. Clearing house, 186. Clothes, 201. Classics, 218. Clark University, 227. Cloftin University, 227. Colonization, period of, 8; society, 203, 243, 368. Colonies, the study, 8, 9; classes, 57; royal, 57; proprietary, 57 ; charter, 57; government, 57 seq. ; United Colonies of New England, 61 ; Andros, governor of, 61 ; fight with Parliament, 77 ; pur- suits, 140; Assembly, 244. Congress, Stamp Act, 10, 79; First Con- tinental, 10, 84; Second Continental, 10,85, 102, 113, l.'iO, 148; Albany. 79; named, 96 ; First Session of National, 102, 260; form Federal courts, 104, 105; provided for judges, 104, 105; composition, 113 ; fixes number of rep- resentatives, 116; meeting, 117; ses- sions, 118, 260 seq.; bills, 119; pass over the veto, 119, 120; committees, 120; state's electors depend on its 384 INDEX. numbers in, 121; passed Succession Bill, llili; Hamilton's scheme in, 148; making money, 155; suspended sub- treasury, 159; provided for bank, 177-179; ordinance of 1787, 201; pro- vided for schools, 224 ; provided for Smithsonian Institute, 226; church prayed for, 240; foreign affairs, 254; tried to eliminate party feeling, 259; established mail routes and jwstage, 300 seq. ; lottery bills, 312; appropri- ated money to Fulton, 322 ; to Morse, 326 ; refused to pay Ericsson, 330 ; Edison's voting machine before, 332 ; photographs, 335 ; refused to assist transportation, 342 ; Charter Union Pacitic Railroad, 347 ; members of, ex- cluded from executive of state, 355 ; of Mexico, 376. Cornwallis, 13. Constitution, ratification, 13, 96 seq. ; given Virginia, 58 ; of North Caro- lina, 70 ; epilogue, 79 ; Federal Con- vention, 89, 91 ; manner of ratifying, 95 ; taken up in detail, 95 seq. ; signed, 97; before the people, 97 ; objection to, in Pennsylvania, 97 seq. ; strength, 103 ; provides for a judicial depart- ment, 104; Eleventh Amendment to, 108: provides for a Congress, 113; qualification for voting, 133 ; forbids bills of credit, 158; Bank of North America, 178 seq. ; provided for slaves, 200: of Liberia, 204; of Kansas, 206; of church, 241 ; newspaper war over, 244 ; opposing it in Federal Court, 258; parties, 259; construction of, 260 ; rati- fied by North Carolina, 261 ; need of, 295 ; mail, 301 ; of Indiana, 352 ; of Japan, 369. Constitution Union party, 266. Cowpeus, 13. Conventions, Montgomery, 14, 15; An- napolis, 89; Federal, 89, 91 seq., 258, 259; party conventions, 121, 123-125; in South Carolina, 207 ; Montgomery, 207 ; Constitutional Convention of In- diana, 248. Confederate states, 15, 162, 207; Army, l(i, 20, 205. Cold Harbor, 20. Corinth, 17, 18. Columbus, 22, 23, 33. Corn, 34, 141 seq., 153. College, Jesuit, 49; Princeton, 92, 217, 221; Yale, 92, 213, 219, 221: Harvard, 92, 213, 218 seq.; Columbia, 92, 183, 216, 221 ; Pennsylvania, 92, 221 ; Wil- liam and Mary's, 92, 213, 221 ; Oxford, 92; of electors, 121; Oberlin, 209; Dartmouth, 220, 221 ; Brown, 220, 221 ; King's, 221 ; Rutgers,221 ; "',Villiams,242. Company, Plymouth, 57 ; London, 57 seq.; Plymouth Council, 60; London Plan- tation, 60; West India, 64, 192; East India, 81; Royal African, 189, 192; London, of Hatters, 294; South Caro- lina, Homespun, 298 ; Petersburg Man- ufacturing, 298; Roxbury India-rub- ber, 328; Niagara Falls Power, 337; Cataract Constructions, 337; Johnson, 337; steamboat, 340; turnpike, 341; railroad, 346, 347. Connecticut, Charter Colony, 57 ; govern- ment, 67 seq., 78; formed a union, 76; compromise, 92, 94 seq. ; ratified con- stitution, 98 ; upper house, 118; qnali- fications, for voting, 132 ; due it from Congress, 149; slavery, 201; colored school, 209; school law', 219 ; Yale Col- lege, 220 ; toleration, 235 ; church, 239, 240 ; newspapers, 246, 247 ; George D. Pi'entice, 249; plan of government, 259; sheep, 298; agriculture, 307; prison life, 319 ; boat, 340. Council, Superior, 57 ; Inferior, 58. Courts, Virginia, 58 seq.; Massachusetts, 60 seq. ; Merchant's, 62 ; Supreme, 104 seq. ; Circuit, 104 seq. ; District, 104 seq.; of Claims, 105 seq., 356; of Dis- trict of Columbia, 105; of Appeals, 106; Private Land Claims, 106; State, 110; United States, 112; English, 112; Dred-Scott, 206; of Indiana, 356 seq.; of Liberia, 3()8. Compact, 61, 75; Theory, 365 seq. Concessions, 71. County, 75, 225, 353 seq. Confederacy, 75, 91. Commercial taxation, 80. Corresponding committees, 83. Continental Congress, First, 84 ; Second, 85 seq., 102, 113, 126. Concord, 85, 246. Columbia College,92,170, 183,216,221, 224. Committee of Thirteen, 102, 115, 120. Common law. 111; schools, 224, 359; branches, 212 seq. Conservatism, 118. Consuls, 125, 2.".fi, 257; general, 256, 257. Comptroller, 126, 185, 186. Commissioner, of Customs, 126 seq.; of Internal Revenue, 126 seq. ; of Patents, 226, :&.) seq. INDEX. 385 Commissary-general, 127. Colonel, 128. Construction and repair, 128. Colorado, 135, 150, 224, 291. Coroner, 13(3, 3fi0 seq. Corruption, 137. Cotton, 1-10 seq. ; John, 220, 295 seq. Cottou-gin, 202, 324 seq. Compromise, Connecticut, 92 ; Missouri, 141. Coffee, 143, 206, 306. Coal, 146. Copper, 153, 107, 172. Constable, 153. Coin, 153 seq., 165 seq. Counterfeiting, 167. Coinage, free and unlimited, 172 seq. Columbian half-dollars and quarters, 173 seq. Coleman's scheme, 176 seq. Collateral, 179. Corporations, 182. Coloni cultivators, 188. Colonial press, 244. Courier, 249; -Journal, 249. Conductor, 205, 348. Cougregationalists, 214, 230 seq. Convicts, 214. Commerce, 226. Coast Survey, 226. Communion plate, 231. Commandments, 233. Courant, 245 seq. Coynmerclal, The,2i7; Gazette, 2A7 ; Tri- bune, 2i7; agents, 256. Coaches, 270; iu-four, 339. Cock-fighting, 281. Constance, 314. Corey, Giles, 316. Covered Jersey wagon, 339. Contract, 366. Congo Free State, 369. Corea, 369. Copenhagen, 372. Cortez, 373. Corsica, 376. Continent, 376. Colombia, 377. Costa Rica, 377. Consolidation, 347. Conduit system, 350. Commander-in-chief, 355, Collections, 361. Crown Point, 10. Creation, Indians', 36, 37. Crown, 166, 258, 281, 300 seq. Crime of 1873, 170, 317 seq. 2c Crisis of 1837, 184, 347. Crimps, 202. Critical period, 13. Creoles, 208. Crimean War, 211. Criminal Court, 356 seq. Crawford, 263. Croton aqueduct, 351. Cranmer, 314. Crete, 366. Cuba, 206, 378. Cumberland, Road, 341; Presbyterian Church, 241 seq. ; Gap, 16. Customs, 270 seq.; Comptroller of, 126 seq. Cupping, 286. Currency, 14, 120, 126, 145, 158 seq., 182 .se^., 201. Cylinder press, 333 seq. Czar, 375. Davis, Jefferson, President, 15, 207. Dakotas, 185. Dames' schools, 217. Davenport, 220. Dartmouth College, 220, 221. Danville, 229. Daily, 246, 247. Dana, 251. Dancing, 281. Dahomey, 369. Daniara, 369. Declaratory Act, 10. Declaration, of Independence, 11, 86, 87; of Rights, 79. Delaware, River, 12; proprietary colony, 57; settlement, 69; government, 69 seq., 78, 87, 147 ; in the Federal Conven- tion, 94; ratifies the Constitution, 98; qualifications for voting, 132; owed Congress, 149; direct tax, 150; teach- ing the negro, 209; education, 214 seq.; school fund, 223; school supervision, 225; school legislation, 228; batteries, 311; boat, 340; canal, 344; Hudson Canal Company, 346. Declaration of War, 15, 213. Democracy, 74. Delegates, 124. Department, of Justice, 125; of State. 126, 254 ; of Finance, 126, 161 ; of War, 127, 152 ; of Navy, 128, 152; of Interior, 129; of Agriculture, 129; Post-office, 129, 153, 353 seq., 371. Debt, 148, 154, 260 seq., 305, 308, 309. Deeds, 150. Deficit, 152. 386 INDEX. Depreciation, 154 seq., 179. Decimal systeiu, 1(58. Denomiiiatious, 169, 172 seq. Demonetizatiou, 171. Depositors, 180 seq. Delos, 187. Demarcation, line of, 189. Denmark, 190, o71 seq. Detroit, 227. Democratic Press, 248, 250. Democratic party, 117, 124, 141, 145, 2C0 seq. Deputy-consul, 250, 257 ; deputy, 353. Devil, 313. Destroyer, 331. De Lesseps, 343 seq. Dead Sea, 344. Defendant, 3()3 seq. Discovery of America, 22 seq. Dickinson, 93 seq. District of Colaml)ia, 99, 221, 348 ; Courts, 104, 105, 107, 3()3 seq. ; Equity Court, 105; Court of Appeals, 105; Criminal Conrt, 105, 125. Dillon, Judge, 111. Direct tax, 44, 139, 150. Directors, 176 seq., 358. Dilworth's Spelling-Book, 222. Dixon Normal, 229. Dissenters, 232. Diplomacy, 254 seq. Dispatches, 255. Diplomatic day, 256. Divorce, 275. Divine Origin Theory, 366 seq. Diet, 374. Dimes, 169, 174. Dock, Christoi)her, 216. Domestic debt, 148 seq. Doiighiss, 266. Dog. 298. Double-cylinder press, 334 seq. Dollar, 166 s"q. Doctrine, 286 seq. Double pistole, 167; tenth, 168; eagle, 17;4. I) irchester Seminary, 214. Dreams, Indians, 37. Drafts, 150. Dred-Scott Decision, 206, 266. Drama, 214, 215. Dress, 272 .trc/., 296 seq., 305, 308, 309. Drinking, 281 seq. Dutcii, 64, (i9, 71, 192, 215; Reformed Church, 231 .neq., 235 seq., 273 seq., 279, 343; (iniana, 378. Duke of York, 71 ; laws, 65. Duties, 1.39 seq., 191, 255-257, 350 seq. Dunkards, 240, 241. Dueling, 270, 282. Ducking stool, 318 seq. Dynamo, 332. Dynamite, 334, 343. Earth, 22, 23. Early man in America, 26. East Jersey, 71, 78; India Company, 81; India school, 213, 227, 247. Eagle, 88, 173 seq. Easter, 284. Ecuador, 337. Education, 203, 208, 212 seq. Edison, 323 seq. Edinburgh Review, 279. Egypt, 332, 369. Eighth, 1()6, lt)7 ; Congress, 264. Eigliteenth Congress, 264. Ellsworth. 92 .seg., 112; Miss, 327- Electors, College of, 102, 121 seq. Eleventh Amendment, 108; Congress, 118, 264. Elections, committee of, 120; of Presi- dent and Vice-President, 121-125 ; qual- ifications for voters in the colonies, 132; for holding office, 133; constitu- tional provision, 133; expanding of rights, 133 ; i)resent qnalitications in the states, 134, 135; time of holding, 135; officers of, 1.35, 136: system of voting in the colonies, 136, 1.37; pres- ent sj'stem, 137, 138; election of 189(5, 175; in Virginia, 272; in Indiana, 353 seq. ; in Liberia, 3(58. Eleven-penny-bit, 116. Elizabeth, 217. Electricity, 322 seq., .325 seq. Electric pleasure boat, 323 seq.; light, .332; car, 336; locomotive, 349. Electro signaling instrument, 325 ; mag- net, 32(5. Electrotyping, 3.36. Electroplate bending machine, 336. Elevated roads, 349. Emblem, 88. Embargo Act, 140, 297 seq. Empire, 188, .335. Emancipation, 204,207, 208. Emerson, 206. Emigration, 2.30. Emigrant's guide, 248. Ems. 335. England, territory in America, 10; war with Holland, 65; population, 69; courts of, 112; money in America, 166, INDEX. 387 169; slavery, 190, 197, 200, 203; news papers, 215; sent to Harvard, 218 church, 2oO seq. ; ministers to, 254 war with France, 2t)2; claims, 291 policy of in manufactures, 294; witches, 314 ; electricity, 332 ; canals, 343 ; rail- roads, 345, 348; hridges, 350; tunnel, 351 ; government, 36(3, 369 seq. Endicott, 60, 218. Engraving, Bureau of, 126, 335. Engineer, chief of, 127, 226. Envoy extraordinary, 254 seq. Enquirer, 248. Engines, 334, 340 seq. Episcopal Church, 239 seq. Equal Rights party, 264. Equipment and recruiting, 128. Eric the Red, 24. Ericsson, John, 330 seq., 345. Erie Canal, 343. Eskimos, 24. Essays, 214, 215, 272. Eternal Constitution, 70. Eutaw Springs, 13. Europe, 348, 351, 368. Euphrates, 351. Evening Star, 251. Executive Department, of United States, 13; composition, 92, 93; how chosen, 92, 93, 121 seq.; length of term, 92; power, 92-94; council, 92; removal, 92, 93; name, 96; President, 96, 121; sal- ary, 123; candidates, 123; convention, 123; nominations, 124, 125; Cabinet, 125 seq. ; clerks, 130; of state, 353 seq. Expenditures, 152. Extra session, 172, 260. Exchangeable, 171 seq. Exports, 295. Ex-Presidents, 303. Exposition, 324. Farmers, 140; alliance, 267, 305 seq. Factories, 299. Falmouth, 301. Family, 367. Faro, 372. Fair Oaks, 18. Federal, Convention, 13, 89, 91 seq., 123, 258, 259; party, 97, 105, 117, 2.59 seq.; papers, 101, 115; judges, 105, 106; judi- cial, 106 ; courts, 109, 206 ; officers, 117 ; clerks, 130 ; lotteries, 311. Festivals, Incas, 30, 34. Fees, Virginia, 59, 60; New England, 03, 355 seq. Feudalism, 70, 75, 188, 367. Fessenden, Senator, 160. Ferdinand of Spain, 189. Ferguson's "Essays," 215. Festivities, 282. Feeble minded, 359. Five, Intolerable Acts, 10; Nations, 33, 35 ; penny bit. Kid ; copper piece, 168 ; piece, 168 ; cent piece, 173, 174. First, Continental Congress, 10; Con- gress, 118, 260, 261; comptroller, 126; auditor, 126; lieutenant, 128; assist- ant postmaster, loO; day school, 242. Final jurisdiction, 107, 108. Fifth Congress, 118, 263; auditor, 126. Fifty-third Congress, 118. Finance, Department of, 126 ; Superin- tendent of, 126, 177 seq., 361. Fish, 147, 153. Fip, 166. Fiftieth Congress, 266. Fifty-first Congress, 266. Fifty-second Congress, 266. Fifty-third Congress, 2t)6. Fifty-fourth Congress, 266. Fifty-fifth Congress, 266. Fighting, 282 seq. Fitch, John, 323. Field, Cyrus W., 327. Fifteenth Amendment, 208; Congress, 264. Filibustering, 206. Fillmore, 341. Firth of Forth. 350. Fiji Islands, 370. Florida, secedes, 14, 207; Spaniards in, 198; school legislation, 209; school fund, 223, 224; readmitted, 267; boun- dary and ownership, 2S9. Flag, colonial, 86; national, 88. Flax, 141 spq., 154. Flowers, .'!0(j. Flour, 306. Fly shuttle, 324. Flying machine, 336, ,339. Fort Duquesne, 10; Sumter, 15; Henry, 16, 17 ; Donelson, l(i, 17 ; Monroe, 18. Foote, Commodore. 17. Food, 42, 272 seq., 305 seq., 308 seq. Folkmoot, 74, 75. Fortieth Congress, 266. Forty-first Congress, 26(). Forty-second Congress, 266. Forty-tliird Congress, 266. Forty-fourth Congress, 266. Forty-fifth Congress, 118. 266. Forty-sixth Congress, 118, 266. Forty-seventh Congress, 266. 388 INDEX. Forty-eighth Congress, 266. Forty-uiiith Congress, 266. Foreign Affairs, Department of, 126, 254 seq.; trade, 140, 202; debt, 148; coun- tries, 304. Fourth auditor, 126; assistant jjoslmas- ter, 130 ; Congress, 263. Fourpeuce, 166. Four and sixpence, 166. Fox hunting, 281. Fourteenth Amendment, 208; Congress, 264. Fox, George, 237 seq. Foreigners, 352. Folketing, 372. Free trade, 139, 268. Free and unlimited coinage, 172, 268 seq. Free banking, 183 seq. Free soil, 204, 206, 265. Free school, 214, 220, 221. Free silver, 268 seq. Free delivery, 303 seq. French and Indian War, 9, 10, 140, 287. France, territory in America, 10 ; ac- knowledge independence of, and made alliance with United States, 12, 87 : war on colonies, 65 ; loaned money to United States, 147 ; trouble with, 149 ; money of, in United States, 166, 169; .slavery, 190; Huguenots, 230,236; Methodism, 233 ; would not allow Calvert to settle in Newfoundland, 236; arms of, 246; ministers to, 254, 255; war with Eng- land, 262; favored by Democrats, 262; government, 269 seq.; in New Eng- land, 278 ; Louisiana, 290 seq. ; tor- pedo-boat, 323; vehicle, 336; canals, 343; bridges, 350; tunnels, 351. Fredericksburg, 19. Frislanda, 25. Franklin, plan of union, 85; answered North, 85; in Federal Convention, 92; Postmaster-General, 130, 300 ; univer- sity, 215; a scientist, 215; editor, 245; character, 273; inventor, 321, 325. Fruit, 153. Freeing slaves, 187 seq. Freedmen, 188 seq.; aid society, 227; Bureau, 227. Friends, Society of, 201 ; Church, 241. Freedom, 235 seq. Freewill Baptists, 240. Franking, 303 seq. Franco-German War, 333. Freight, 341 seq. French Guiana, 378. Fuller, Melville W., 112. Fund, 148 seq.. 223 seq., 342, 358. Furniture, 150, 308, 309. Furs, 153. Funerals, 272 seq. Furnaces, 295. Fulton, Robert, .■521 seq., 340. Fugitive Slave Law, 201, 202, 204, 205. Gates, General, 12. Garner, 44. Gaspee, 82, 83. Gazette, Independent, 101 ; Virginia, 214 ; Georgia, 214; Marijland, 214; Neio Jersey, 217 ; /^os. Glasgow, 92. Glass, 140, 274. Globe, 250; Democrat, 249 seq. Glad.stone, 293. Gold, certificates, 14; money, 153, 165; circulation, 159 seq., 169; standard INDEX. 389 weight, 167, 172, 268; denominations, 168, 172-174; ratio, 167-169, 175, 268; exported, 169, 172; foreign, 169, 170; fields, 316. Government, colonies, Virginia, 57-60; Massachusetts, 60-63 ; New Hampshire, 64; New York, 64-66; Maryland, 66, 67 ; Connecticut, 67, 68 ; Rhode Island, 68 ; Delaware, 69, 70 ; North Carolina, 70, 71 ; New Jersey, 71, 72 ; South Car- olina, 72 ; Pennsylvania, 72 ; Georgia, 72, 73 ; growth of, in the Aryan race, 74, 75 ; growth of, in America, 75-90 ; of Indiana, 352-362 ; of counties, 359, 360; of townships, 360; of towns and cities, 360, 361; of Ohio, 369; of Illi- nois, 363 seq.; of Kentucky, 363 seq.; of the nations and their colonies, 365- 378. Governor, 57, 58 seq., 134, 354 seq. Godfrey, Thomas, 215. Gouging, 283. Goddard, 300. Goodyear, Charles, 328 seq. Greenhacks, 14, 159 seq. ; party, 267, 268. Grant, General, at Cairo, 17 ; command in the West, 19 ; charge of army, 20 ; captures Richmond, 20 ; nominated for President, 125 ; President, 131 ; vetoed Greenback Bill, 162 ; hostility and elec- tion to presidency, 267. Greenland, 24, 378. Green Mountain Boys, 64. Greek, money, 143; slaves, 187; taught, 213, 218, 219, 223, 229 ; slave, 278 ; claims on America, 291 ; Canal, 343 ; govern- ment, 371, 374. Gray, 199 ; captain, 292. Grammar, 213; school, 217, 222 seq. Grading, 227. Grace, 230. Greeley, Horace, 251, 252, 267. Great Lakes, 323; Western, 323; sewer, 351. Greyhound, 323. Guinea, 160, 167. Gum, 327. Gun, 333 seq. Guatemala, 379. Guiana, 378. Guadeloupe, 378. Halifax, 11. Halleck, General, 17, 19. Hancock, John, 85. Hamilton, Federal Convention, 92 seq.; Senate, 115 ; Cabinet, 131 ; financial plans, 147 seq., 260, 310 ; money system, 168 ; National Bank, 178, 261 ; Federal party, 259, 260 ; censured, 262. Harvard College, 92, 213, 218 seq., 224, 287, 310, 311. Harrison, Benjamin, 101; President, 265, 266. Half-dollar, 168 seq. Half-joe, 167. Half-penny, 168. Half-dime, 169, 174. Half-eagle, 173. Half-cent, 175. Hawkins, John, 189. Hard Money Democrats, 264. Haldeman, Mr., 249. Half-breeds, 267. Harvest, 284. Hatters, 294. Hale, Matthew, 313. Hargreaves, 324 seq. Hartz Mountains, 345. Hawaii, 370. Hayti, 377. Herjulfson, 24. Hemp, 34, 141 seq., 154. Henry, 81, 101, 214, 259, 272; VHI., 230. Helots, 187. Hebrew, 218. Hell Fire Club, 245. Herald, 248, 249, 251, 253. Hispaniola, 189. High schools, 214, 223, 227. Hicksites, 241. Hindustan, 370. Holland, churchmen, 91, 230; territory in America, 10; ally of France, 12 claims, Delaware, 69 ; loaned money to United States, 147 ; slaves, 190 claims New York, 216 ; Pilgrims in 234; toleration, 236; claimed Oregon 291 ; government, 371, 373. Howe, General, 11, 12; Elias, 325. Hooker, General, 19. Hood, General, 20. House, upper, appointment in colonies, 57 seq.; named, 96, 113; elected Vice- President, 122; of Indiana, 353; of Liberia, 368. House, lower, appointment in colonies, 57 seq.; named, 96, 113; elected Presi- dent, 122 ; action of state debt, 261 ; of Indiana, 353, of Liberia, 368. House of Burgesses, organization, 58; power, 58, 59 ; England sought to influ- ence, 81. Houses of colonial period, 305 seq. 390 INDEX. House of Lords, 372. House of Commons, 372. Hot Water Rebelliou, 150. Holders, currency, 180. Hoe, 201, 247, 2'18, 'SU seq. Hodder's Arithmetic, 222. Holbrook, Alfred, 229. Hobart, G. A., 2(;8. Hospitality, 270, 278, 281. Horses, 270, 281, 336. Home, 271, 274. Hogshead Races, 282. Homer, 325. Hotchkiss, B. B., 333 seq. Holy Land, 369. Hong Kong, .370. Huguenots, 9, 230 seq., 278. Hurons, territory, 33; number, 33 ; towns and houses, 33, 34 ; living, 34 ; creation, 37; religion, 37; missionaries among, 40,41, 46; grand council, 47, 48,- bap- tizing, 53; decreasing, 53; war with Iroquois, 53, 54; present conditiou, .55. Hundred Associates, 49, 51. Hunt, Robert, 231; Club, 156. Humphries, West, 114. Hunting, 232. Hume, 233. Hunkers, 285. Huskiugs, 284. Hudson River, 322, 342, 350, Hydraulics, railroads, 349. Iceland, 23, 24, 378. Idaho, 135. Illinois, Federal courts, 106 seq. ; suffrage in, 134; banking, 183, 184; territory, 203; slaves, 203, 200 ; school laws, 209; school fund, 224; Dixon Normal, 229; John M. Palmer, 268 ; bridge, 350 ; gov- ernment, 363 seq. Importation, 149. Impeachment, 114, 117. Impotency, 230. Imperial Canal, .343; Diet, 369. India, 22, 171; rubber, 328, 332, 343, 370. Ingolf, 24. Incas, 29, .30, 32. Indians, territory, 33; tribes, 33; life, 34; character, 34, 38; marriages, 34; women, 34; work, 34; laws and cus- toms, 34, 35; inheritance, .35; tradi- tions, 35; clans, 35; councils, 35; crime, 35; punishment, 35; witches, 36; ma- terial world, ,36; Manitou, 36; great spirit, 36, 37 ; Manabozhe, 36 ; creation, 36, 37; dreams, 36, 37; missionaries among, 58 seq. ; threatened the colo- nies in 1643, 76; department, 129; present cost, 152; money, 153; slaves, 191, 194; massacre of 1622, 213; cuts, 245,246; trade, 273; "big ears," Ore- gon s, 291. Inheritance, 35. Inferior council, 57 seq. Independence, 86, 87, 155. Indiana, Federal Courts in, 106, 107 ; suf- frage in, 134; wild cat money in, 158; banking, 183, 184; organized into a territory, 203; law for slaves, 209; Vincennes University, 224 ; school fund, 224, 225 ; private normals of, 229 ; news- papers, 248 ; railroad subsidies, 347 ; government of, local and state, 352- 364. Inhabitant, 113. Interior, Secretary of, 122, 126, 129. Internal revenue, 126, 139 seq. Industries, 140, 142 .seq. Income tax, 151, 268. Interest, 1.52 seq. Indentured servants, 201, 214, 317. Institutes, 223, 225, 226. Infant School Society, 227. Independent Advertiser, 245. Independent, National party, 267 ; Re- publican party, 267. Indianapolis, 248, 268, 332. Instructions, 255. Inoculation, 255. Innocent VIII., 314. Intemperance, 3. Invention, 321 seq. Interstate Commerce Act, 347. Inspector, 3.59. ludo-China, 369. Iowa, 224. Irish, work in the colonies, 9; in Iceland, 23; in Delaware, ()9; church, 241 ; Lan- caster, 273; in Pennsylvania, 274, 283; in New England, 278. Irrigation, Incas, 32. Iroquois, territory, 33; tribes, 35; crea- tion, 37; character, 53, 54; wars, 55; allegiance to English, 65. Iron, 140 .s'ei/. ; 153. Ireland, 233; 311 seq. Island, 16, 18. Issue, 155. Israel, 3(36. Isthmus of Corinth, 343. Isthmus of Suez, 343. Italy, 188, 368 seq. INDEX. 391 Jackson, "Stonewall," threatens Wash- ington, 18; Andrew, nominated for President, 124 ; opposed protection, 141; 263 seq.; bank, 182; money in state banks, 225; debtor not impris- oned, 319. Japan, 23, 369. Jaques, 53. James II., 65, 77. Jay, Federal papers, 101 ; Chief-Justice, 112; Secretary of Foreign Affairs, 254; on the Constitution, 259; treaty, 262. Jay Cooke & Co., 160. Jamaica, 190, 200, 378. Jamestown, 191, 310. Java, 370. Jesuits, in America, 9; purpose in Amer- ica, 38 ; character, 38, 39 ; obstacles, 39, 41, 42, 44, 45; first location, 39; devices, 40, 43, 47 seq, ; mission house, 41 ; among the Hurons, 41, 42, 46 ; life, 42, 43; Assossane, 43; Neutral Nation, 45 ; Quebec, 48, 50, 51 ; college and seminary, 49 ; convents, 49, 50 ; Mon- treal, 50; Iroquois, 50; Hundred Asso- ciates, 51 ; New France, 52 ; Three Rivers, 52 ; Indian war, 52 ; persecution, 52, 53 ; result, 55, 56. Jefferson, state, 101, 214, 272; manual, 115 ; veto power, 120 ; elected to presi- dency, 122, 263; candidate for Presi- dent, 123 ; President, 131 ; chairman of committee to organize a money system, 168; school section, 224; coast survey, 226; in the Cabinet, 259; named the Republican party, 260 ; Vice-President, 263; bought Louisiana, 263; patent office, 296, 297; mail, 301, 303. Jew, 193, 2.35. Johnston, A. S., 17, 249. Johnston, J. E., 17-20. Johnson, Andrew, 17, 114, 120. Johnson, Richard M., 122, 267. Johnson, Hale, 268. Jogues, 44, 54. Joint session, 122. Joe, 167 ; half, 167. Johannes, 167. Journal, Byrd's, 213. Journals, educational, 223. Journal, Neiv York, 246. Journal, Indianapolis, 248. Journal, Courier-, 249. Journal, Boston, 251. Journalism, 247. Jones, Margaret, 314. Johnson Company, 337. Johnstown, 337. Journey, 339. Judicial department, study of, 13; of Virginia, 59 ; of Massachusetts, 61 seq. ; of New England, 63 ; of New York, 66 ; of Maryland, 67 ; of Connecticut, 68 ; of Delaware, 70; of North Carolina, 71; of New Jersey, 71; of South Carolina, 72 ; of Pennsylvania, 72 ; of Georgia, 73 ; in the Federal Convention, 94 ; Con- stitution provides for, 104 ; first organ- ized, 104 ; judges, 104-106, 112; midnight judges, 105 ; Court of Claims, 105 ; Dis- trict of Columbia, 105 ; Circuit Court of Appeals, 106 ; Seventh Circuit, 107 ; ju- risdiction, 101, 107-109; state, 110, 111, 353 seq.; law. 111, 112; of Indiana, 353, seq.; Japan, 369. Judges, supreme, 104, 125 ; district, 104 ; circuit, 105 ; midnight, 105 ; of Court of Claims, 105 ; salary, 105 ; District of Columbia, 105 ; appointments, 106 ; as- sociate, 106, 263. Jurisdiction, 107, 108, 357. Justice of peace, 110, 357 ; department of, 125, 130. Judiciary, 263, Kansas, 134, 206, 224 ; Nebraska Bill, 206, 265, 266. Kay, 324. Kentucky, neutral position in the war, 16; Bragg invaded, 18; suffrage, 133, 134 ; agriculture, 141 ; underground railroad, 204; negroes, 207, 209 ; school fund, 223; newspaper, 249; admitted as a state, 261 ; Simon Buckner, 268 ; election of officers, 269; judges, 362; legislative department, 363, 364. Kennedy, John P., 326. Khiva, 370. Kidnappers, 201. King William's Academy, 214; college, 221 ; creed, 283. Kiuetoscope, 333. Kineto-phonograph, 333. Kinship, 367. Kings, 367. Knox, 259. Know-nothing, 265. Kohlsaat, Mr., 249. Krag-Jorgensen, 333 seq. Law, of the Indians, 34, 35 ; in Virginia, 59, 231; in Maryland, 67; in North Carolina, 71; common, 111; how laws are made, 119, 120; tariff, 141, 264; 392 INDEX. against slavery, 201 ; marriages of ne- groes and •whites, 202; slaves, 20S- 210 ; school law in New Jersey, 217 ; school law in New England, 219; law in New England, 235, 319 ; in New York, 235, 318, 319 ; sedition law, 2-17, 2()3 ; in- ternational law, 255 ; consuls, 256 ; Alien Law, 203 ; bankrupt law, 271 ; in the Carolinas, 273; of physicians, 287; on manufacturing in colonial days, 294 seq.; in Pennsylvania, 318; internal improvement, 311, 342; railroad, 347; in state Assembly, 354; in Indiana, 354 seq. La Jeune, 39, 40. Lawyers, 59, «0, 71, 158, 272. Lawless, 70. Land, property, 71, 224, 225; office, 129; bank, 17G seq.; holding, 188; grants, 34H. Laud, Archbishop, 76. Lawful money, 173. Latin, 213, 218, 219, 223, 229. Language, 213. Lancaster, 250, 273. Labor, 272, 308, 309 ; reform party, 267, 268. Langley, 336. Lake, Erie, 337, 340, 342, .346 ; Superior, 343; Huron, 343; Erie and Ohio River Canal, 344. Landstiug, 372. Lagthiug, 374. Labrador, 378. Lexington, 11, 85, 246. Legislative department, 13, 96, 113 seq., 353 seq. Lee, Robert E., 18, 19; Richard Henry, 81, 86, 97; Light Horse Harry, 101,214, 272, 334. Leif , 24. Lead, 141 seq. Legal tender, 153 seq., 168. Legislators, 156. Levy, 166. Lectures, 215. Lebanon Normal College, 229. Levering, Joshua, 268. Learning, 278. Leeching, 286. Lewis & Clark, 291. Letters, 300 seq. Lesser Antilles, 378. Legacies, 150. Lincoln, election to presidency, 14, 207; study of administration, 15 ; Blockade Decree, 16 ; President, 131 ; proclama- tion, 208; nomination, 266. Lincoln, Benjamin, 127. Livingston, Robert R., 126, 254. Lieutenant, 128; colonel, 128; general, 353 seq. Liquors, 1.52. Line of Demarcation, 189. Liberia, 203 .seq., 243, 368. Liberator, 204. Libraries, 213, 215, 218, 226, 311. Literature, 213-215, 271 seq. Liberty party, 264, 265. Liberal Republican, 267. Life, 271, 274 seq., 280 seq. Lightning-rod, 321. Light, 332 ; Traffic Railway, 349. Linotype, 335. Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 345. Louisburg, 10. Louisiana, secedes, 14, 207; picayune, 166 ; teaching the negro, 209; school fund, 223,224; bought, 263, 290 ; readmitted, 267 ; boundary, 2i)0, 291 ; manufactures, 299; Lottery Company, 310. Loyola, 38, 39, 56. London Company, grant of land, 57 ; or- ganized House of Burgesses, 75 ; of Hatters, 294. Local government, in the South, 60; in North, 60; Courts, 62; New England, 63; ancient, 74, 75; action of roj'alty, 77; recognized, 88; of state and coun- try, 352 seq. Locke, 70. Lords Commissioners of Foreign Planta- tion, 76. Log-rolling, 141, 261 ; college, 217, 251. Love joy, 206. Logan, James, 215. Logic, 218, 219. Lotteries, 224, 296 seq., 310 seq.; church, 239 seq. Louisville, 249. Loose constructionists, 260, 263. Loco-focos, 264. Lockwood, Belva, 267. Loom, 325. Long-distance telephone, 333. Loraine, 337. Locomotives, 343 seq. Loango, 369. Lower Cochin China, 370. Lundy, Benjamin, 204, 206. Lutherans, 235, 241. Luxemburg, 371 seq. Lyons, 350. Lycurgus, 366. INDEX. 393 Manufacturing, in the South, 141 ; growth, 142, 298 ; trade iu Liberia, 204 ; Smithso- nian Institute, 226 ; Germautown, 273 ; in Pennsylvania, 274 ; England's policy, 294 seq. ; in the colonies, 294 seq., 307 ; in New England, 295, 296; spinning- jenny, 296 ; in the first of the National Period, 296-298 ; protection, 299. Massacre, Boston, 10, 199. Maryland, neutral position in the war, 16 ; proprietary colony, 57, 66 ; religion, 66, 67, 236, 237 ; government, 66, 67, 78, 87; judicial system, 67; Constitution, 87 ; ratified the Constitution, 100 ; qual- ifications for voting, 132; land, 146; owed Congress, 149 ; money, 153, 156 ; mint, 166; slaves, 201, 207, 209; ten- ants, 202; tax for college, 213; news- papers, 214, 245; colleges, 221; settle- ment, 236 ; Joshua Levering, 268 ; mail, 300; tobacco, 306; Cumberland Road, 341. March to the sea, 20. Malay, 23. Massachusetts, Indians, 32 ; charter col- ony, 57; settlement, 60, 234; govern- ment, 60, 61, 78; judicial, 62; local government, 63; opposed the Stamp Act, 79 ; opposed England's policy, 80; act, 83, 84; in the Federal Con- vention, 94; Constitution, 99, 100; gerrymandered, 117 ; upi^er house, 118 ; qualifications for voting, 132, 133, 134; Congress owed, 149; taxes, 153; money, 153, 154 ; coinage, 166 ; bank, 176, 179; slavery, 194 seq., 201, 205, 209; gave Maine, 205; seminary in South Carolina, 214; education, 219, 221; Puritans, 234; religion, 234 seq.; spinning-jenny, 296. Manitou, 36, 37. Manabozhe, 36. Marriage, Indians, 34, 43; slaves, 192 ; of bond-servants, 202 ; charge for marry- ing, 231 ; ministers, 232 ; in Pennsylva- nia, 274 ; festivities, 282 seq. Maine, excluded from United Colonies' Union, 61 ; bank note, 185 ; given to the Union, 205; slavery, 209; education, 218; part of Massachusetts, 220; col- leges, 221; school fund, 223,224; Ar- thur Sewell, 268 ; manufacturing, 299 ; agriculture and trade, 307. Mance, 50. Muytiower, 61. Madison, James, in the Federal Conven- tion, 92 seq.; Constitution, 101; Fed- eralist papers, 120 ; President, 131, 263; education, 214; Constitution, 259; op- posed Hamilton's scheme, 260; ability, 272 ; franking privilege, 303. Mason, 92, 214, 264. Marshall, John, Constitution, 101; as Chief-Justice, 112; of William and Mary's College, 213; education, 214; ability, 272. Manual, Jefferson's, 115 ; training school, 223. Major-general, 128, 226. Markets, 187. Maverick, 199. Madagascar, 211, 368 seq. Mathematics, 213, 223, 229. Magazines, 214 seq., 302 seq. Mather, Increase, 218; Cotton, 220, 236, 245, 287. Mayor, 226, 361. Mayhew, 246. Maxwell, William, 247. Magistrates, 272. May day, 284. Mail, 300 seq. Machines, 221 seq. Magnetism, 326. Mackintosh, 328. Maxim, 334, 336. Manchester Shii) Canal, 344. Marion County, 357. Mauritius, 369. Madeira, 369. Malta, 376. Manitoba, 378. Martinique, 378. Malacca, 369, 370. McClellan, 16, 18. McDowell, 18. McKinley, William, 145, 266, 268, 269. McLean, John R., 248. McGuire, Matthew, 268. McCormack, Cyrus, 331 seq. Methodists, the study of, 9 ; slaves, 201 ; in Liberia, 203 ; missionary work, 203, 227 ; origin and early development, 232 seq.; number, 241. Mexico, early Mexicans, 27, 28 ; archaeol- ogy, 28; money of, in United States, 169, 170; slavery, 190; government, 205, 291, 376; ministers to, 254, 255; mail, 304. Medicine, 32; and surgery, 128, 215, 228, 274, 286 seq. Mecklenburg resolutions, 85. Merchants, 141, 156 seq. Metals, 153. 394 INDEX. Mercury, 215, 244, 246, 247. Merino, 298. Mesmerism, 326. Merchandise, 302 seq. Meeting-house, 217. Metaphysics, 219. Mechanics' Institutes, 223. Mergeuthaler, 335. Mediterranean, 344. Menu, 366. Mesopotamia, 3(i9. Mississippi, French and Indian War, 10; seceded, 14, 207; Island No. 10, 16; open the river, 17 ; gerrymandering, 117 ; slavery, 205, 207, 209; school fund, 224, 225; Rust University, 227; read- mitted, 267 ; River, 289 seq., 344, 346. Missouri, seceded, 16; gerrymandering, 117; suffrage, 135; Compromise, 141, 205, 20(); admitted, 205, 265; Dred- Scott, 206; slavery, 207, 209; school fund, 224; newspaper, 250. Mill Springs, 16. Middle Ages, 23, 188; states, 141, 154, 158,180; colonies, 214 se^., 238, 239 seg. Midnight judges, 105, 263. Military affairs, 120, 127 seq. Michigan, 121, 134, 224, 323, 362 seq. Mint, r26, 170. Mines, 129, 226, 359. Minnesota, 134, 224, 362. Milan Decree, 140, 297 seq. Miscellaneous, 152. .Minor coins, 173. Missionaries, societies, 227, 231. Ministers, 212 seq., 230 seq., 254 seq., 262. Mills, John, 242. Minerva, 246. Mitchel, Charles H., 268. Militia, 352, 353 seq. Minors, 366. Monmouth, 12. Montgomery, convention, 14, 15, 207. Money, paper of the present, 14 ; Indiana, 34; secured to pay debts, 149; defini- tion, 153 ; things used, 153 ; in Virginia and Maryland, 153; in Colonial Pe- riod, 153 seq,, 166 seq.; bills of credit, 153-155 ; kinds of money, 154, 155 ; need of, 155; in the Revolution, 155; provision of Constitution, 158; in the beginning of national period, 158, 159; national period, 159, 160; greenbacks, 161; Confederacy, 162 .seq.; qualities, 165; origin, 166; banks, 176 seq., 267, 357 ; orders, 303. Mound Builders, 27. Montezuma, 27, 28. Mohicans, 33. Mohawks, 35, 52 ; and Hudson Railroad, 346. Montreal, 50, 51. Monarchy, 74, 75, 367. ' Moot, 74. Monroe, 120, 213 seq., 263. Morris, Robert, 126, 147, 177 ; Gouverueur, 167. Montana, 134. Molasses, 141 seq., 200. Morrill, 143 seq. Morrison, John, 145. Mortgages, 154. Moidore, 167. Monometalism, 172. Mother, of Presidents, 190; of slavery, 190. Moravians, 232 seq. Mormons, 241. Montaigne, 214, 272. Monrovia, 203 seq. Mobile, 208. More's Geography, 222. Moulton, General, 315. Morse, S. F. B., 325, 332. Monitor, 331. Motocycle, 336. Mountains, 345. Motor, 349. Moses, 366. Morocco, 369. Mozambique, 369. Mossamedes, 369. Moluccas, 370. Montenegro, 371 seq. Muskets, balls, 153. Murray's Grammar, 222. Museums, 226. Music, 235. Mugwumps, 267. Municipal Courts, 363 seq. National Bank, 178 seq., 263 seq. National Anti-slave Society, 265. National Democrats, 268 seq. National Bureau of Education, 225. National Bible Society, 243. National liepublican and Ohio Political Register, 247. National Republican, 249, 263 seq. Nahuas, 26. Narragansetts, 33, 76. Nationalism, 74. Navigation Act, 77, 128, 213, 294. Navy, aifairs, 120; Secretary of, 122, INDEX. 395 125; Department of, 128 seq., 152; expenditures, 227 ; yard, 333, 334. Naval, Academy, 129; Observatory, 227. Napoleon, 190, 290, 322. Napier, 334. Natal, 369. Natural philosophy, 219. National Presbyterian Church, 241. Nashville, 249. New England, French and Indian War, 10; judicial system, 62, 63; local gov- ernment, 63, 75; confederation, 76; sheriff, 135 ; system of voting, 136, 137 ; taxation, 147 ; paper money, 154; bank- ing, 158, 159, 179 ; fourpence, KiG ; cur- rency, 182; education, 217 seq.; church, 239; Sunday-school, 242; newspapers, 245; life, 276, 277, 284; clergy, 287; physicians, 287 ; limits on trade and manufactures, 295; mail, 301; agri- culture and trade, 307; witches, 314; law, 319 ; travel, 339, 340. New York, resistance towards England, 10 ; Royal Colony, 57 ; settlement, 64 ; patroons, 64; government, 64-66, 78; broke non-importation agreement, 82 ; in the Federal Convention, 94; rati- fication, 101, 102 ; qualification for voting, 132, 133; tariff, 141; owed Congress, 149; money, 153, 156, 157, 166, 167 ; bank, 179 ; slavery, 192-194, 201, 209; tenants, 202; suffrage, 209; education, 216, 217, 219, 223; colleges, 221, 224; lotteries, 224; high schools, 227; religion, 235 seq.; newspapers, 245, 246, 251 ; meeting in Congress, 260 ; Governor Seward, 265 ; Stalwarts, 267; half-breeds, 267 ; life in, 275 seq., 284; mail, 300; agriculture and trade, 306; animals, 318; gave money to Fulton, 322; Niagara Falls Power Company, 337 ; Cataract Construction Company, 337; traveling, 339-341; canal, 342; bridge, 350; tunnel, 351. New York & Harlem, 346. New York Central, 346, 347. New Orleans, 18, 202, 227. Neutral nations, 45. New Jersey, Royal Colony, 57; settle- ment, 71; government, 71; constitu- tion, 87 ; plan of government, 95, 259 ; ratified, 98; qualifications for voting and office-holding, 132-134 ; tariff, 141 ; taxes, 147 ; Congress owed, 149 ; money, 157,166; slavery, 201; education, 217; school fund, 223, 224; Fox, 238; reli- gion, 238 ; life, 284, 306 ; medicine, 287 ; lottery, 311; travel, 342, 346; bridge, 350. New Hampshire, Royal Province, 57 government, 64, 78; ratified the con stitution, 101; office, voting qualifica tions, 132-134; Congress owed, 149 slaves, 201; education, 217-220; school fund, 223; religion, 235, 240; newspa pers, 246; agriculture, 307; witchcraft 315. Nebraska, 134, 224, 225, 268. Negro, 186 seg., 317, 368. New Amsterdam, 193. Newport, 200. Neivport Mercury, 246, 247. New Years, 284, 296. New Mexico, 225, 291. Nevada, 224, 291. New Gate, 319. Nero, 343. Nepaul, 369. New Guinea, 370. New Zealand, 370. New Caledonia, 370. Newfoundland, 378. New Brunswick, 378. Newsimper, 213 seq., 244 seq., 300 seq. New Haven, 220. New Lights, 232. News Letter, 244. Neio London Summary, 246. ISfeios, 248. Niagara, 10, 337, 344 ; Falls Power Com- pany, 337. Nickel, 153, 172. Ninth Congress, 264. Nineteenth Congress, 264. Nicaragua, 377. North Carolina, seceded, 15; Royal Colo- nies, 57 ; settlement, 70 ; government, 70, 71 ; Stamp Act Congress, 79 ; Regu- lators, 82 ; in the Federal Convention, 94 ; voting qualifications, 132 ; revenues, 147 ; owed Congress, 149 ; money, 156, 166 ; slavery, 201, 203, 207, 209; bound- ary, 213; colleges, 221; school fund, 223; education, 225; newspaper, 246; ratified constitution, 261 ; readmitted, 267 ; life, 272, 273. Northmen, 24. North, 60, 84, 85, 200, 201, 203, 205, 206, 227, 238. Nova Scotia, 61, 239, 378. Northwest Territory, 133, 224, 378. North Dakota, 134. Nomination, 136. Non-Intercourse Act, 140. 396 INDEX. Notes, bank, 156 seq.; treasury, 159 seq., 171 seq.; present, 163, 176 seq. Normal schools, 225 seq. Northern Indiana Normal College, 229. Northern Democrats, 266; Pacific, 347, 351. Nonconformists, 2.32. North America, 250, 348. Non-importation Act, 298 seq. North Sea, 344. North Wales, 350. Notary public, 359. North Borneo, 370. North Zanzibar, 366. Norway, 371 seq. Numa, 366. Nunez, Dr., 377. Oberlin College, 209. Observatory, .227. Observer, 248. O'Connor, 267. Ocean, 347. Oceanica, 370. Odelsthing, .374. Officers, 117, 125, 127, 158. Offices, 129, 133, 296, 352 seq., 359, 374. Oglethorpe, 198. Ohio, French and Indian War, 10; con- stitution, 134; tariff, 141; bank, 183; negroes, 209; school fund, 224; col- leges, 229 ; newspapers, 247, 248 ; John- son Company, 3.37; immigration, 341; freight, 342 ; government, 362 seq. Ohio & Mississippi Railroad, 346. Oil, 153, 204, 321. O'Keefe, 279. Oklahoma, 134. Olmecs, 26. Oleomargarine, 150, 152. Omnibus Bill, 205, 265. Oneidas, 35. Onondagas, 35. Ontario, 378. Opposition, 177 seq. Oration, 47. Orphan, court, 72, 225; home, 369. Orthodox, 241. Original jurisdiction, 107, 108. Ordnance office, 125, 128. Oregon, 134, 205, 224, 291. Orders, in council, 140, 150, 297 seq. Ordinance of 1787, 200. Oriental languages, 213. Orrery, 215. Order, money, 303 seq. Orient, 366. Orange River Free State, 368. Osteud Manifesto, 206. Osgood, 30. Otis, 246. Ovando, 189. Oxford College, 232. Paper money, study of, 14 ; bills of credit, 153; South Carolina, 150, 154; Massa- chusetts, 154 ; Virginia, 154, 156 ; Rhode Island, 154, 157; New England, 154; Middle States, 154; kinds of, 154, 155; in the Revolution, 155; iu Maryland, 156; Pennsylvania, 156; North Caro- lina, 156; Georgia, 156; New York, 156; Tom Paine, 156; New Jersey, 157 ; bank, 157, 159, 178 seq. ; constitution, 158; national period, 158, 159; treasury notes, 159 seq.; greenback, 160 seq.; Confederate, 162; present notes, 163, 164. Paymaster-general, 127. Patroon, 64 ; schools, 212 seq., 216, 217. Patterson, 92, 259, 311. Patent Office, 129, 152, 226, 296 seq. Parliament, 116, 154, 176, 233, 372. Paine, Tom, 153, 164. Paid well, 199. Palm oil, 204. Parchment, 150. Paul, 210. Parochial schools, 212 seq. Palmer, John M., 24, 208. Papist, 278. Passover, 284. Painting, 278. Parsons, Hugh, 314. Parris, Rev., 315, 316. Paddle-wheel, 322. Paris, 324, 350. Papin, Dr., 324. Pachas, 369. Paraguay, 377. Packet sloop, 342, Panama Canal, .343. Pan-American Railroad, 348. Perryville, 18. Pequods, 33, 194. Pennacooks, 33. Penn.sylvaiiia, proprietary colony, 57 ; government, 73, 78, 147 ; University, 92, 221, 287; in Federal Convention, 94; ratification, 97, 98; qualification for voting, 132; for office-holding, 1.33; tariff, 141 ; taxes, 147 ; money, 156, 166 ; bank, 177 ; slavery, 197, 198, 200, 201, 209; education, 214, 215, 219; school INDEX. 397 fund, 223; religion, 241; newspapers, 247, 250, 251; life, 273 seq., 282; medi- cine, 287 ; manufacturing, 298 ; agricul- ture, 306; crime and punishment, 317 seq. ; Johnson Company, 337 ; travel- ing, 339 seq. Penn, 78, 215, 318 seq. Peck, James H., 114. Pensions, office, 129, 152. Pence, 153, 166 seq. Peas, 153. Peru, 170, 376. Pendleton, 214, 272. Pedagogue, 216, 229. Peabody Fund, 228. People's party, 268. Petersburg Manufacturing Company, 298. Periodicals, 302 seq. Peral, Lieutenant, 322. Persia, 369. Philadelphia, resistance to England, 10; the Revolution, 12; Bank of North America, 179 ; learning, 214, 225, 227 ; religion, 239; Sunday-school, 242; newspapers, 244 seq., 250; first Con- gress, 260; life, 273 seq.; mail, 300; prisons, 319. Philadelphia and Trenton Railroad, 346. Phillips, Wendell, 206. Philosophy, 213; society, 215, 218, 219, 229. Philander Smith College, 227. Physicians, 286 seq. Phoenix, 323. Phonograph, 333. Photomechanical, 335. Photograph Congress, 335 ; image, 335. Photocosmography, 335. Photocollography, 335. Photoglyphtography, 335. Photo-engraved, 335. Photoplastography, 335. Photoprint, 335. Phototypography, 335. Philippine Islands, 370. Pilgrims, 60, 61, 75, 230 seq. Pitt, 80. Pinckney, 92 seq. Pickering, John, 114; Timothy, 301. Pierce, President, 120, 206, 265, 347. Pig-iron, 142. Picayune, 116. Pistole, 167 ; double, 167. Pistol, 200. Pike's Arithmetic, 222 ; Peak, 349. Piracy, 318. Pillory, 316 se(2. Plymouth Company, 57, 61, 75, 79, 135, 149. Playing-cards, 150. Plate, 150, 231, 271, 335 seq. Platinum, 153. Plot, negro, 193 seq. Plan, Virginia, 258; New Jersey, 259; Connecticut, 259. Plantation, 270. Planter, 270-272. Plays, 279. Plaintiff, 362 seq. Polynesia, 23. Port Bill, 81, 83, 84. Postmaster-General, 122, 126, 130, 244, 353, 368 seq. Post-office, Department of, 129 seq., 152; building, 297, 300 se?. Polls, 137. Pottery, 140. Portugal, 169, 190, 369 seq. Pope's " Essays," 214, 272, 289 seq., 314. Poor, Richard, 215 ; whites, 272, 317. Politics, 218, 278 ; parties, 258 seq., 272. Polk, James K., 265. Populists, 268 seq, Poughkeepsie, 350. Porto Rico, 378. Potomac, 300. Postage, 'SOOseq. ; stamps, 303 seq. Postal cards, 302 seq. Police, 361. Presbyterians, 9, 217, 228, 231, 232 seq. Princeton, captured, 12; College, 92, 217, 221, 330. Products, 32, 305 seq. Proprietary colonies, 57, 66. Protestants, 71, 132,215,236 seq.; Epis- copal Church, 238. President, provision by the Federal Con- vention, 92-94, 96 ; first election of a, 102, 260; appointment of judges, 106; of Senate, 114; removal, 114; calling special sessions, 117, 172 ; veto power, 119, 120; position, 121; qualifications of, 121; how elected, 121, 123, 124; electors, 121, 122; election by the house, 122; succession, 122; salary, 123; nominations, 123, 124; conven- tions, 123, 125 ; power and duty, 125 ; Cabinet, 125 seq. ; appointment of cadets, 128; bank, 180, 185; eman- cipation, 207; board of trustees for Smithsonian Institute, 226 ; prayed for, 240; candidacy of Horace Greeley, 252; appointment of consuls, 257; franking privilege, 303. 398 INDEX. Preamble, 96, 261. Private, Land Claims, Court, 106, 128; schools, 212. Previous question, 118. Presidential Succession Bill, 122. Printing, 126, 214, 334 seq. Provisions and clothing, 128. Primaries, 136. Proxy, 136. Protection, 139 seq., 252, 263, 299. Precious metals, 153. Providence, 200, 235, 246. Primary education, 223, 227. Prayer-Book, 231, 240. Press, 244 seq., 334 seq. Prentice, George D., 249. Prohibition party, 267, 268, 354 seq. Prisons, 317 seq. Prussia, 374. Prince Edward Island, 378. Probate Courts, 363 seq. Prosecuting attorney, 363. Psalm-Book, 222. Psychology, 229. Pumpkins, 34. Punishment, among the Indians, 35, 47 ; in Virginia, 231 ; among the Puritans, 234; of the Quakers, 237, 238; in the South, 317; in Pennsylvania, 317, 318; in New York, 318; in New England, 319 ; prison life, 319, .320. Puritans, settled at Plymouth, 60; in New Jersey, 71 ; New England unions, 76; education, 217-220; who were they? 230, 231, 234; laws, 231; life, 275 seq. Publius, 101. Public lands, 120, 152. Public buildings, 129. Public schools, 212 seq. Public School Society, 223. Public Occurrences, 244. Public Ledr/er, 250. Public works, 361. Public safety, 361. Public health, 361. Quakers, study of, 9 : in New Jersey, 71, 238; in Pennsylvania, 72, 198, 215, 280; slaves, 200, 201, 203, 209; schools, 215, 216, 221, 223, 224; origin, 237; charac- teristics, 237, 273 ; persecution, 237, 2.38 ; Fox, 238; government, 238; number, 238, 241; charity, 273, 274; life, 273- 275 ; crime and punishment, .'517, 318, 320. Qualifications, citizenship, in the colo- nies, 58, 61, 66, 67, 6^73, 132, 133; for officers and voters as talked in the Federal Convention, 96 ; citizenship in Virginia, 1.32; in South Carolina, 132; in Massachusetts, 132; in Georgia, 132; in Pennsylvania, 132 ; in New Hamp- shire, 132; in North Carolina, 132; iti Maryland, 132; in Rhode Island, 132; in New York, 132 ; in Delaware, 132 ; in Connecticut, 132 ; in New Jersey, 133 ; for office-holding in the colonies, 133; in the national period, 133; pro- vided by the Constitution, 133; in the states at present, 134, 135 ; for voting in Indiana, 352; in other nations, 370 seq. Quartermaster-general, 127, 128, 358. Quarter, 167 seq. ; eagle, 173. Quadroons, 202 seq. Quadrant, 215. Quebec, 10, 39, 48, 50, 83, 295, 378. Quiches, 26. Quit-rents, 146 seq. Quincy, 209. Quilting, 284. Quorum, 354 seq. Eawdon, Lord, 13. Rangers, 64. Randolph, member of House of Burgesses, 81 ; president of First Continental Congress, 84 ; in the Federal Conven- tion, 92, 258; education, 213; ability, 214, 272 ; proposed the Virginia plan of government, 258; Cabinet, 259. Ratification of Constitution by the states, 95-102. Ratio, representative, for Congress, 116; between silver and gold, 168, 169; of Ohio, 362; of Illinois, 363 seq.; of Ken- tucky, 363. Railroad, 204, 332, 344 seq. Raleigh, 231, 271. Racing, 232, 280 seq. Rapid transit, 349. Revolution, study of, 9; causes of, 10; story of, 11 .